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Hercules and the Wagoner

2025-01-01T08:16:45Z

Macedonian: /* The Greek proverb */ add original Greek phrase

{{Short description|Aesop's fable}}
[[File:Hercules & Waggoner2.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|An illustration of the fable by [[Walter Crane]] in ''[[Baby's Own Aesop]]'' (1887)]]
'''Hercules and the Wagoner''' or '''Hercules and the Carter''' is a fable credited to [[Aesop's Fables|Aesop]]. It is associated with the proverb "[[God helps those who help themselves]]", variations on which are found in other ancient Greek authors.

==The Greek proverb==
[[File:Spranger, Bartholomäus - Hermes and Athena - c. 1585.png|thumb|upright=1.25|"Try first thyself, and after call the gods", Hermes and Athena in a Prague Castle fresco]]
A number of the fables credited to Aesop seem to have been created to illustrate already existing proverbs.<ref>[[Francisco Rodríguez Adrados]], ''History of the Graeco-Latin Fable'', Leiden NL 1999, [https://books.google.com/books?id=093Gl8KEktMC&dq=%22the+relationship+between+the+fable+and+the+animal+proverb%22&pg=PA205 vol. 1, pp. 205–209]</ref> The tale of [[Herakles]] and the Cowherd, first recorded by [[Babrius]] towards the end of the 1st century CE, is one of these. The rustic's cart falls into a ravine and he calls on the deified strongman for help, only to be advised by a voice from Heaven to put his own shoulder to the wheel first. In a variant recorded by the near contemporary [[Zenobius]] an ass founders in the mud, while in the later Latin of [[Avianus]] it is a cart drawn by oxen that gets stuck there. The fable appears as number 291 in the [[Perry Index]].<ref>[http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/perry/291.htm Aesopica site]</ref> Another fable of the same tendency is numbered 30 in that index. It tells of a man who is shipwrecked and calls on the goddess [[Athena]] for help; he is advised by another to try swimming ('moving his arms') as well (Greek: "σὺν Ἀθηνᾷ καὶ σὺ χεῖρας κίνει").<ref>Francisco Rodríguez Adrados, ''History of the Graeco-Latin Fable'', Leiden NL 2003, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BHScT2Dd3ykC&dq=%22a+ship+was+wrecked+in+a+storm%2C+the+crew+escaped%22&pg=PA43 vol. 3, p. 43]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/oxford/480.htm|title="The Shipwrecked Man and Athena", Gibbs translation|access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref>

Evidence that the advice on which they close is old and probably of proverbial origin is provided by its appearance in [[Theatre of ancient Greece|ancient Greek tragedies]], of which only fragments now remain. In the ''[[Philoctetes (Sophocles)|Philoctetes]]'' (c. 409 BCE) of [[Sophocles]] appear the lines, "No good e'er comes of leisure purposeless; And heaven ne'er helps the men who will not act."<ref>As translated by [[Edward Hayes Plumptre|E. H. Plumptre]] in ''Sophocles: Tragedies and Fragments'' vol. 2, p. 165, fragment 288. Also fragment 302 states, "Chance never helps the men who do not work."</ref> And in the ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]'' (428 BCE) of [[Euripides]] there is the more direct, "Try first thyself, and after call in God; For to the worker God himself lends aid."<ref>John Bartlett, ''Familiar Quotations'', 10th ed. 1919. [http://www.bartleby.com/100/696.17.html #8500, ''Hippolytus'', fragment 435]</ref>

==Later applications==
When the theme was taken up in the [[Renaissance]], it was the variant of the laden ass that slips in the mire that appeared earlier on in Guillaume La Perrière's [[emblem book]], ''Le theatre des bons engins'' (1544) . Though prayer to God is piously recommended in the accompanying poem,
::Yet while to Him you carry your trust,
::Let your own hands tarry not at first.<ref>Emblem 95, [http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FLPa095 French Emblems in Glasgow]</ref>
Not long after, [[Gabriele Faerno]] included the story of Hercules and the Wagoner in his influential collection of Latin poems based on Aesop's fables that was published in 1563.<ref>''Centum Fabulae'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=wlATAAAAQAAJ&q=bubulcus 91]</ref> Then in England [[Francis Barlow (artist)|Francis Barlow]] provided versions in English verse and Latin prose to accompany the illustration in his 1666 collection of the fables under the title "The Clown and the Cart".<ref>[http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/barlow/53.htm Aesopica site]</ref> Two years later, a French version appeared in [[La Fontaine's Fables]] titled "The Mired Carter" (''Le chartier embourbé'', VI.18). The variation in this telling is that the god suggests various things that the carter should do until, to his surprise, he finds that the cart is freed. The first translation of this version was made by Charles Denis in 1754, and there he follows La Fontaine in incorporating the Classical proverb as the moral on which it ends: "First help thyself, and Heaven will do the rest."<ref>''Select Fables'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=JW5bAAAAQAAJ&q=Hercules fable 92]</ref>

The English idiomatic expression 'to set (or put) one's shoulder to the wheel' derived at an earlier date from the condition given the carter before he could expect divine help.<ref>M. Ellwood Smith, "Æsop, a Decayed Celebrity: Changing Conception as to Æsop's Personality in English Writers before Gay", PMLA 46.1 (Mar., 1931), p. 226</ref> Denis' translation apart, however, the link with the proverb "God helps those who help themselves" was slow to be taken up in English sources, even though that wording had emerged by the end of the 17th century. It was not there in [[Samuel Croxall]]'s long 'application' at the end of his version, in which he stated that to neglect the necessity of self-help is 'blasphemy', that it is 'a great sin for a man to fail in his trade or occupation by running often to prayers', and that 'the man who is virtuously and honestly engaged is actually serving God all the while'.<ref>''Fables of Aesop'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=vjYXAAAAYAAJ&dq=croxall++Hercules+and+the+Carter&pg=PA100 Fable 56]</ref> A century after the first appearance of his collection, the fables were reused with new commentaries in ''Aesop's fables: accompanied by many hundred proverbs & moral maxims suited to the subject of each fable'' (Dublin 1821). There it is titled "The Farmer and the Carter" and headed with the maxim 'If you will obtain, you must attempt'. At the end, a Biblical parallel is suggested with 'The soul of the sluggard desireth and hath nothing' from the [[Book of Proverbs]] (13.4).<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/aesopsfablesacco00dubl#page/70/mode/2up/search/Carter pp. 71–72]</ref> Later in that century, [[George Fyler Townsend]] preferred to end his new translation with the pithy 'Self-help is the best help'.<ref>[http://mythfolklore.net/aesopica/townsend/12.htm Fable 12]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.flickr.com/search/?w=38299630@N05&q=rusticus%20et%20hercules Book illustrations] of Aesop's fable from the 18th–19th centuries
* [http://www.culture.gouv.fr/public/mistral/joconde_fr?ACTION=CHERCHER&FIELD_98=SREP&VALUE_98=%20Le%20charretier%20embourb%E9%20&DOM=All&REL_SPECIFIC=3 Illustrations of La Fontaine's fable] from the 18th–19th centuries

{{Hercules media}}

[[Category:Aesop's Fables|Hercules and the Wagoner]]
[[Category:La Fontaine's Fables]]
[[Category:Heracles in fiction]]
[[Category:Proverbs]]

Plectranthus

2022-07-20T15:35:23Z

Macedonian: Etymology section

{{Short description|Family of shrubs}}
{{automatic taxobox
|image=Plectranthus_fruticans0.jpg
|image_caption=''[[Plectranthus fruticosus]]''
|display_parents=2
|taxon=Plectranthus
|authority=[[Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle|L'Hér.]]<ref name="GRIN">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?9545 |title=Genus: ''Plectranthus'' L'Hér. |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=2007-10-05 |access-date=2011-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629214730/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?9545 |archive-date=2011-06-29 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|subdivision_ranks=Species
|subdivision=Many, see text
|synonyms=''Ascocarydion'' G.Taylor 
''Burnatastrum'' Briq. 
''Capitanya'' Gürke 
''Dielsia'' Kudô 
''Englerastrum'' Briq. 
''Germanea'' Lam. 
''Holostylon'' Robyns & Lebrun 
''Isodictyophorus'' Briq. 
''Leocus'' A.Chev. 
''Neomuellera'' Briq. 
''Perrierastrum'' Guillaumin 
''Symphostemon'' Hiern
|synonyms_ref=<ref name="GRIN"/>|
}}

'''''Plectranthus''''', with some 85 species, is a [[genus]] of [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]]s, rarely [[annual plant|annuals]] or soft-wooded shrubs, sometimes [[succulent plant|succulent]]; sometimes with a tuberous base. Common names include '''spur-flower'''. ''Plectranthus'' species are found in Southern and Tropical Africa and Madagascar, and one in Sri Lanka.<ref name=PatoMwanGovaSmit19/>

Several species are grown as [[ornamental plant]]s. The [[cultivar]] {{tdes|Mona Lavender}} = 'Plepalila' <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/201488/Plectranthus-Mona-Lavender-Plepalila-(PBR)/Details |title=''Plectranthus'' {{tdes|Mona Lavender}} = 'Plepalila' |publisher=RHS |access-date=18 January 2021}}</ref> has received the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]].

They are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[the engrailed]] (''Ectropis crepuscularia'').{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

Recent phylogenetic analysis found ''Plectranthus'' to be paraphyletic with respect to ''[[Coleus]]'', ''Solenostemon'', ''Pycnostachys'' and ''Anisochilus''. The most recent treatment of the genus resurrected the genus ''Coleus'', and 212 names were changed from combinations in ''Plectranthus'', ''Pycnostachys'' and ''Anisochilus''. ''Equilabium'' was segregated from ''Plectranthus'', after phylogenetic studies supported its recognition as a phylogenetically distinct genus.<ref name=PatoMwanGovaSmit19/>

==Etymology==
The word ''plectranthus'' derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] πλῆκτρον (''plēktron''), "anything to strike with, an instrument for striking the lyre, a spear point"<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2383798 πλῆκτρον], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> + ἄνθος (''anthos''), "blossom, flower".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da)%2Fnqos1 ἄνθος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref>
==Species==
[[File:Plectranthus verticillatus 3.JPG|thumb|''[[Plectranthus verticillatus]]'' in cultivation]]
Paton et al. (2019) list 72 species:<ref name=PatoMwanGovaSmit19/>
{{Div col|colwidth=24em}}
*''[[Plectranthus alboviolaceus]]'' Gürke – South Africa: E. Cape Prov. to N. KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus ambiguus]]'' (Bolus) Codd – South Africa: E. Cape Prov. to N. KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus amplexicaulis]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus antongilicus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus asymmetricus]]'' A.J.Paton – Zambia
*''[[Plectranthus atroviolaceus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus betamponus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus bracteolatus]]'' A.J.Paton – Tanzania
*''[[Plectranthus brevicaulis]]'' (Baker) Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus brevimentus]]'' T.J.Edwards – South Africa: Eastern Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus canescens]]'' Benth. – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus capuronii]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus chimanimanensis]]'' S.Moore – E. Zimbabwe to W. Mozambique
*''[[Plectranthus ciliatus]]'' E.Mey. – South Africa and Swaziland
*''[[Plectranthus clementiae]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus cordatus]]'' A.J.Paton & Phillipson – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus decaryi]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus delicatissimus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus ecklonii]]'' Benth. – South Africa
*''[[Plectranthus elegans]]'' Britten – S. Malawi
*''[[Plectranthus elegantulus]]'' Briq. – South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus ellipticus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus emirnensis]]'' (Baker) Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus ernstii]]'' Codd – South Africa: E. Cape Prov. to S. KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus forsythii]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus fruticosus]]'' L’Hér. – S. Mozambique to South Africa
*''[[Plectranthus gardneri]]'' waites – Sri Lanka
*''[[Plectranthus gibbosus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus grallatus]]'' Briq. – South Africa, Lesotho
*''[[Plectranthus grandibracteatus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus guruensis]]'' A.J.Paton – Mozambique
*''[[Plectranthus hadiensis]]'' (Forssk.) Schweinfurth & Sprenger - South Africa: E. Cape Prov. to KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus hexaphyllus]]'' Baker – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus hilliardiae]]'' Codd – South Africa: Transkei to KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus hirsutus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus hoslundioides]]'' Scott-Elliot – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus humbertii]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus incrassatus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus laurifolius]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus linearis]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus longiflorus]]'' Benth. – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus longipetiolatus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus lucidus]]'' (Benth.) van Jaarsv. & T.J.Edwards – South Africa: S. Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus macilentus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus malvinus]]'' van Jaarsv. & T.J.Edwards – South Africa: E. Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus mandalensis]]'' Baker – Malawi (Mt. Mulanje), Mozambique (Mt. Namuli)
*''[[Plectranthus membranaceus]]'' (Scott-Elliot) Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus mocquerysii]]'' Briq. – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus mzimvubuensis]]'' van Jaarsv. – South Africa: SE. Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus oblanceolatus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus oertendahlii]]'' T.C.E.Fr. – South Africa: S. KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus ombrophilus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus oribiensis]]'' Codd – South Africa: KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus papilionaceus]]'' Ranir. & Phillipson – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus pichompae]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus praetermissus]]'' Codd – South Africa: SE. Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus purpuratus]]'' Harv. – South Africa
*''[[Plectranthus reflexus]]'' van Jaarsv. & T.J.Edwards – South Africa: SE. Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus rosulatus]]'' Hedge – NW. Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus rubropunctatus]]'' Codd – South Africa: Limpopo to Swaziland
*''[[Plectranthus rubroviolaceus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus saccatus]]'' Benth. – South Africa: SE. Cape Prov. to KwaZulu-Natal
*''[[Plectranthus scaposus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus secundiflorus]]'' (Baker) Hedge – Tanzania (Uluguru Mts.)
*''[[Plectranthus strangulatus]]'' A.J.Paton – Tanzania (Uluguru Mts.)
*''[[Plectranthus strigosus]]'' Benth. ex E.Mey. – South Africa: S. Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus stylesii]]'' T.J.Edwards – South Africa: Eastern Cape Prov
*''[[Plectranthus swynnertonii]]'' S.Moore – S. Trop. Africa to South Africa, Mpumalanga
*''[[Plectranthus trilobus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus verticillatus]]'' (L.f.) Druce – S. Mozambique to South Africa
*''[[Plectranthus vestitus]]'' Benth. – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus vinaceus]]'' Hedge – Madagascar
*''[[Plectranthus zuluensis]]'' T.Cooke – South Africa: SE. Cape Prov. to Swaziland
{{Div col end}}

===Transferred to ''Coleus''===
Species transferred to ''[[Coleus]]'' in 2019 include:<ref name=PatoMwanGovaSmit19/>
*''Plectranthus amboinicus'' (Lour.) Spreng. → ''[[Coleus amboinicus]]''
*''Plectranthus argentatus'' S.T.Blake → ''[[Coleus argentatus]]''
*''Plectranthus barbatus'' Andrews → ''[[Coleus barbatus]]''
*''Plectranthus caninus'' Roth → ''[[Coleus caninus]]''
*''Plectranthus cataractarum'' B.J.Pollard → ''[[Coleus cataractarum]]''
*''Plectranthus cremnus'' [[B.J.Conn]] → ''[[Coleus cremnus]]''
*''Plectranthus dissitiflorus'' (Guerke) J.K.Morton → ''[[Coleus dissitiflorus]]''
*''Plectranthus edulis'' (Vatke) Agnew → [[Coleus maculosus subsp. edulis|''Coleus maculosus'' subsp. ''edulis'']]
*''Plectranthus esculentus'' N.E.Br. → ''[[Coleus esculentus]]''
*''Plectranthus graveolens'' R.Br. → ''[[Coleus graveolens]]''
*''Plectranthus neochilus'' Schltr. → ''[[Coleus neochilus]]''
*''Plectranthus ornatus'' Codd → ''[[Coleus comosus]]''
*''Plectranthus parviflorus'' Willd. → ''[[Coleus australis]]''
*''Plectranthus rotundifolius'' (Poir.) Spreng. → ''[[Coleus rotundifolius]]''
*''Plectranthus scutellarioides'' (L.) R.Br. → ''[[Coleus scutellarioides]]''
*''Plectranthus socotranus'' Radcl.-Sm. → ''[[Coleus socotranus]]''
*''Plectranthus unguentarius'' Codd → ''[[Coleus unguentarius]]''
*''Plectranthus welwitschii'' (Briq.) Codd → ''[[Coleus fredericii]]''

===Other species formerly placed in ''Plectranthus''===
*''[[Anisochilus carnosus]]'' (L. f.) Wall. ex Benth. (as ''P. strobilifer'' Roxb.)
*''[[Capitanopsis oreophila]]'' (Hedge) Mwany., A.J.Paton & Culham (as ''P. bipinnatus'' A.J.Paton)
*''[[Isodon coetsa]]'' (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Kudô (as ''P. coetsa'' Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don)
*''[[Isodon inflexus]]'' (Thunb.) Kudô (as ''P. inflexus'' (Thunb.) Vahl ex Benth.)
*''[[Isodon lophanthoides]]'' (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) H.Hara (as ''P. striatus'' Benth.)
*''[[Isodon rugosus]]'' (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd (as ''P. rugosus'' Wall. ex Benth.)
*''[[Isodon sculponeatus]]'' (Vaniot) Kudô (as ''P. sculponeatus'' Vaniot)<ref name="GRINSpecies">{{cite web |url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?9545 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121211223901/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?9545 |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 11, 2012 |title=GRIN Species Records of ''Plectranthus'' |work=Germplasm Resources Information Network |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=2011-02-17 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=PatoMwanGovaSmit19>{{Citation |mode=cs1 |last1=Paton |first1=Alan J. |last2=Mwanyambo |first2=Montfort |last3=Govaerts |first3=Rafaël H.A. |last4=Smitha |first4=Kokkaraniyil |last5=Suddee |first5=Somran |last6=Phillipson |first6=Peter B. |last7=Wilson |first7=Trevor C. |last8=Forster |first8=Paul I. |last9=Culham |first9=Alastair |date=2019 |title=Nomenclatural changes in ''Coleus'' and ''Plectranthus'' (Lamiaceae): a tale of more than two genera |journal=PhytoKeys |issue=129 |pages=1–158 |doi=10.3897/phytokeys.129.34988 |pmc=6717120 |pmid=31523157| name-list-style=amp}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikispecies}}
{{unimelb|Plectranthus.html}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q1862564}}

[[Category:Plectranthus|Plectranthus]]
[[Category:Lamiaceae genera]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]

Talk:Greeks

2021-12-02T18:49:19Z

Macedonian: /* RfC regarding map */ Keep

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__TOC__

== Ethnographic Map ==

[[File:Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25]]
I have changed the ethnographic map in the article because it erroneously depicts non-Greek-inhabited regions as ethnically Greek. The map I placed, although not being the best ethnographic map, has a better understanding of the situation. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 01:52, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:{{ping|Dr.K.}} in [[WP:BRD]] there is the D, which you didn't follow. I'm not sure why you just blindly reverted. By the way, I don't think the GA status is still valid considering it was appointed in 2009 and that since then many POV-edits were made to the article. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 02:58, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

::Doesn't work like that. That map is sourced to National Geographic, there's nothing "controversial" about it. Who says it's "controversial"? Do you have a source? No. So you can't just label any maps you don't like as "controversial" and your maps as "more accurate", just like that. Plus, it has been in the article for ages, so it can't be removed without consensus. And your map doesn't even have an author (it says "unknown author"). Lastly, this is a high visibility article and a [[WP:GA]]. Nothing happens without consensus. I advise against edit-warring tactics in the strongest possible terms. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:19, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

::Oh and by the way, you don't get to decide whether "the GA status is still valid". Also doesn't work that way. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:20, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::Well the map can't stay because of what I wrote above. It is misleading to the readers to depict ares which have historically been non-Greek as Greek.[[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::I didn't say that I decide whatever the GA is still valid, that is done through the reassessment process. I said that I think it isn't valid anymore. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::The map is sourced to a reliable source, Ahmet, it doesn't matter whether you ''think'' it is misleading. We go by what reliable sources say. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:31, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::I don't think the source qualifies as a reliable source anymore considering it was made more than 100 years ago ([[WP:AGEMATTERS]]), plus the quality is really low. Obviously no ethnographic map is perfect, except that this one is in clear contradiction with modern bibliography. There are multiple other 19-20th century maps that are closer to what modern sources say that could be used instead . [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 03:38, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::I would like to have the input of {{ping|Dr.K.}} as well to achieve consensus considering they reverted me. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 03:43, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::[[National Geographic]] definitely qualifies as a reliable source, whether then or now. I don't see any "contradictions with modern bibliography". I'd say it reflects the situation in 1918 pretty accurately. Your map on the other hand, doesn't even have an author. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:47, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::I'm pretty sure this is the first time I ever come across someone calling National Geographic unreliable. Oh well, there's always a first time I guess. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:48, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::By the way, did you look at the Kosovo area in your map? I've mentioned it before, but you never responded. Thought you should know. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:50, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::This is not some undiscovered tribes in the Amazon rainforest. This is Europe. I'm sure Nat Geo transcribed these populations correctly even in the 1900s. Btw, don't ping me, unless you want to annoy me. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]]
:::::::Well Khirugh I obviously didn't say that modern publications of the magazine are not reliable. But 100 year old maps of a magazine should not be considered equally reliable as modern publications. Wouldn't you agree with this? [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 04:04, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::Euh...excuse me Dr.K? [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 04:04, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::Do you need a translation of what I wrote? Try Google. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 04:12, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::National Geographic has always been a prestigious publication, even more so in the past. Perhaps the most prestigious publication of its day, even. There are no "modern" maps of 100 years ago, so it's probably our best bet. But I note your map is not a "modern" publication either, so it's kind of a weird argument for you to make. Btw, did you see the area around Kosovo in your map? What do you make of that? [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 04:32, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::: Well I have to disagree and mention [[WP:AGEMATTERS]] again. Since we clearly disagree on the maps, maybe we can chose another one or open a RfC. What do you suggest? [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 04:47, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::: Dr.K. I'm not sure to understand, please explain yourself. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 04:35, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
{{od}} I have already responded. If you don't understand what I wrote, it is your problem, not mine. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 04:49, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:Well your comment sounds kinda like a threat so I think you owe me some kind of explanation? [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 04:52, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::Which part did you take as a threat? [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 04:55, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::This comment [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AGreeks&type=revision&diff=1056003634&oldid=1056003103]. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 05:01, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::If you think my comment contains a threat, use Google translate and explain to me which sentence is threatening. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 05:06, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::I'm afraid that if you can't see yourself how your comments are inappropriate you will have to re-evaluate your way you speak to fellow users. Also, why should I use Google translate? [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 05:17, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::If you think my perfectly appropriate comments are offensive, you don't understand English. Ergo, you need Google to translate my comments to you. I don't give English tutorials. Sorry. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 05:22, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
* The two maps are one worse than the other. Either have a proper map or not at all. The map I removed not only shows half of southern Albania as Greek majority - including Konispol, Lukova, Borsh, large parts of Kurvelesh, Vranisht, Delvina, Albanian-populated parts of Chameria etc- but also in other places such as western Macedonia it shows as Slavic Albanian settlements. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 13:21, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::What about [[Aleppo]] and all of northern Syria? Why is it depicted as only a mixture of Turks and Armenians? Did not it have a single place with Arab population? Southern and eastern Turkey are shown as not having a single place with Kurds. This map is worse than I previously thought. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 15:14, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::The map is approximate, like all maps. No map is perfect. It doesn't show "half of southern Albania as Greek majority", only a tiny part. The villages you mention are not significant, this is just nitpicking. It's been there for ages, and it's useful to our readers, so you can't just remove it by edit-warring. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 15:57, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::They are entire areas, not just "villages" that "are not significant". It does not matter if it has been there "for ages", if it is highly incorrect. And the incorrect parts are not only in southern Albania, but also in western Macedonia, Turkey, Syria and maybe other parts too. An approximiate map does not have any reason why to show X-populated areas as populated by Y group. A POV tag should probably be added to the section. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 16:32, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Comment''' If a map which showed all of Epirus Albanian was used at [[Albanians]], it would be removed. A map which erases all Albanian communities in Greek Epirus is used in this case. There are hundreds of other maps which can be used instead of this one.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 17:17, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::Northern Syria is shown as being Turkish and Armenian without a single Arab and Kurdish part. According to the map, Kurds in eastern and southern Turkey do not exist. Northern Syria. eastern and southern Turkey, Kurvelesh, Konispol, Delvina etc are not just unimportant villages. It is unbelievable that we even need to have this discussion. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 17:23, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::The map is about Greeks, it doesn't have to depict 100% correctly regions which don't concern the presence of Greeks and other communities. But it shouldn't be a maximalist map which erases other communities. Side comment: Don't ping me for later replies in this discussion, I don't have time. I just wanted to highlight how this issue can be diffused quickly.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 17:33, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

== RfC regarding map ==

{{User:ClueBot III/DoNotArchiveUntil|1640372471}}
{{rfc|hist|rfcid=B3D071C}}
[[File:Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25]]
Should the 1918 ethnographic map from National Geographic shown on the right be '''removed''' from the article? [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 18:25, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
* '''Comment''' Is there a link/source which shows where the map was taken from? Commons only says "1918" and "National Geographic". - [[User:LouisAragon|LouisAragon]] ([[User talk:LouisAragon|talk]]) 18:44, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
: Here's the link: [https://www.natgeomaps.com/hm-1918-races-of-europe Nat Geo 1918]. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 19:34, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
* '''Do not add''' The map is outdated as per [[WP:AGEMATTERS]], and counters with what modern reliable sources say. The map is highly incorrect, and this has been noted by the editor who wants it in the article too. [[Delvina]], [[Kurvelesh]], [[Konispol]], other parts of [[Chameria]], [[Lukova]], [[Borsh]] and other places had Albanian population according to respective articles. The map shows them as Greek-majority. [[Aleppo]] and northern Syria are shown on the map as Turkish and Armenian only, as if Arabs and Kurds did not exist at the time. Southern and eastern Turkey are shown as Turkish and Armenian only, as if Kurds did not exist. Parts of western Macedonia on the shores of [[Lake Ohrid]] and [[Lake Prespa]] that were a mixture of Slavs and Albanians, are shown as Slavic only. Parts of Montenegro, Serbia and Macedonia which were entirely Slavic are shown as mixture of Albanian and Slavic. (see respective articles for the settlements). [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 18:52, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::We're not talking about adding, the map has been in the article for a long time. We're asking whether the map should be ''removed''. Read the RfC question properly before rushing to comment. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 20:29, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Oppose removal''' as nom. A map showing the distribution of Greeks in the early 20th century is useful to readers. This map is sourced to National Geographic, a top notch source. It is highly accurate with regards to the distribution of Greeks, especially those of Asia Minor, and has been in the article for a very long time. The small villages objected to by Durazz0 above are extremely minor (Delvina, Konispol, Lukova, Borsh, etc), and are not even labeled on the map. Such objections are nitpicking - with such arguments, there would be no map anywhere on wikipedia. I also note there is a similar map at [[Albanians]], which also contains numerous flaws, and could easily be removed using these arguments. With regards, to Aleppo/northern Syria, this area does not contain significant Greek populations, and is not an issue in this article. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 20:29, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
*:These non Greek villages together form a pretty large area which on this map is marked as majority Greek with not even a presence of Albanian. This is a cropped version of a map created to show all ethnicities within Europe, not just the distribution of Greeks in Asia minor and this map is inaccurate and not [[wikipedia:Rs|WP:RS]]. If there are any maps which are extremely inaccurate and not WP:RS on the [[Albanians]] article you should remove them. [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 21:28, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::The villages you mention are not significant (because they're just a handful of villages - literally). And the map is so zoomed out that it's not even clear the villages are in the Greek area. It would be different if the villages were labeled on the map, but obviously they aren't [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 23:09, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Remove''' as per valid arguments on the 'Ethnographic Map' section above. Proposed map is totally outdated and contains a wide range of discrepancies, which will always remain a reason for upcoming disputes and problems if the map stays. Though there are also hundreds of other maps which could be used instead.--[[User:Iaof2017|Iaof2017]] ([[User talk:Iaof2017|talk]]) 21:32, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Do not keep''' The map is of low quality and outdated - mora than 100 years old as per [[WP:AGEMATTERS]]. Kurvelesh, Konispol, Devina, Lukova etc that were Albanian-populated at the time and now as per their own articles based on modern academic books make around half of the area shown as "Greek". The [[Karaburun Peninsula, Albania]] that is shown as Greek-majority on the map, actually did not and does not have a population. Almost all the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria is shown as "Greek" - find me a single reliable modern source for that. Cyprus is shown in every single part of it Greek-majority. The truth is that some parts were Turkish-majority, and other parts were mixed. The central Sandzak/Raska, most of southern Serbia and parts of North Macedonia did not have a mixed Slavic and Albanian population. See their articles, they were entirely Slavic. Parts of the shores of [[Lake Ohrid]] and [[Lake Prespa]] were a mixture of Slavs and Albanians, not only Slavic. In Turkey the map "forgot" the Kurds at the time when they were [[Deportations of Kurds|being massacred and deported]]. The Arabs and Kurds in northern Syria too strangely do not exist at all. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 21:38, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::The map is about Greeks, and they are shown accurately. Karaburun is extremely small and barely visible on the map, and the Albanian villages are so small as to be insignificant. Delvino btw had a mixed population. And the Bulgarian coast is not shown as entirely Greek, only a small strip and even then it's not continuous. The port of Varna is shown as Slavic. No map is perfect, but for the pruposes of the article, the map is useful. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 23:13, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::Karaburun is not extremely small, you know that very well. Then why Delvine is shown as Greek only? Most of Bulgaria's coast is shown as Greek, I did not say all of it. In any case, I am busy and can't respond anymore. I notified some WikiProjects so, whatever the conclusion of this RfC, hopefully there are no concerns about a Balkan-focused discussion and partisan !votes. As long as the map this RfC is about stays on the article, I am adding [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Historical_Atlas,_1911_%E2%80%93_Distribution_of_Races_in_the_Balkan_Peninsula_and_Asia_Minor.jpg that map] next to it as another view on the issue. They can stay together or go together if the RfC decides the NationalGeographic map should go. I can live with whatever version: both maps or none. It is not a big issue IMO to spend too much time on. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 23:29, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::Not a big issue, huh? Is that why you are going around [[WP:BADGERING|badgering]] users that didn't vote the way you wanted on their own talkpages [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:BilledMammal&diff=prev&oldid=1056138525]? Karaburun is not just small, it is miniscule. And it's not at all clear that Delvino is shown as Greek only. It is not even labeled on the map. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 00:22, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Oppose removal:''' National Geographic is an excellent source on the subject. @Durazzo: your arguments are wp:OR, since all those municipalities you name were also populated by Greek communities (in Delvine & Himara regions there was a clear Greek majority for example). I'm really astonished you avoid to present a decent citation to support your point.[[User:Alexikoua|Alexikoua]] ([[User talk:Alexikoua|talk]]) 21:42, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
*:my arguments are not "wp:OR", I never denied there being Greek minorities there and I am not sure how that corresponds with original research. I never mentioned Himara but according the [[Delvinë]] article it is majority Albanian. How have I avoided presenting "decent citations" when no one has asked me for one. Can you please stop straw manning my arguments? [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 22:08, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::Alexikoua, I never knew that Delvina and its surrounding municipality had a mjority Greek population. In fact, most of the adjacent villages (Bamatat, Blerimas, Vergo and so on) are significantly inhabited by Muslim and Orthodox Albanians. Nice try.--[[User:Iaof2017|Iaof2017]] ([[User talk:Iaof2017|talk]]) 22:20, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::Those villages hardly have any inhabitants, then and now. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 23:14, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Keep'''. The article timeline runs from the Bronze Age to the present so including a map showing the distribution of Greeks in 1918 is entirely valid as long as its age is made clear in the caption; which it is. [[User:Bermicourt|Bermicourt]] ([[User talk:Bermicourt|talk]]) 22:17, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::{{re|Bermicourt}} since you are a non-Balkan editor - a good thing we are having non-Balkan editors with a non-Balkan perspective. Why should an article have a map that counters with the entire modern academic works on the demographics of a large number of places? Can you find me, for an example, a single academic work that claims that almost all of Bulgaria's Black Sea coast was Greek-majority? [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 22:24, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::Thank you. A non-Balkan perspective is, of course, less likely to be biased. But if you don't mind I'll politely turn down your invitation that I do masses of research to prove your point; that's for you to do. :) [[User:Bermicourt|Bermicourt]] ([[User talk:Bermicourt|talk]]) 09:58, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::Indeed, Balkan discussions need as many non-Balkan editors as possible. I asked you because you can't find a single modern academic source that says such a large part of Bulgaria's coast had a Greek-majority in 1918. Thanks for your opinion on the map, regardless of the fact that we disagree. Cheers, [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 12:44, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Keep'''. I fail to see why a map from National Geographic that contains historical data is dubbed with the aforementioned cosmetics. The map could be beneficial for the reader because it presents a holistic view or better a "snapshot" of the regions that the Greek language was spoken at that time (not about demographics). The are shed loads of maps with historical data in many articles. Additionally, I agree with Bermicourt that the age should be stricly mentioned in the caption. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 22:35, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::You are actually right that the map shows primarily linguistic groups [https://books.google.com/books?id=pp5eLj2mnrAC&pg=PA122]. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 22:54, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::It's sort of the same. I don't thing that Ethnographic maps at that time were based on genetic data but rather on the predominant language and generally linguistics in the respective region. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 23:11, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
::::Well, then its name "Races of Europe" is misleading. "Race" is not ethnicity, let alone language. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 23:30, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Keep'''. This map is a reliable source, and while [[WP:AGEMATTERS]] tells us that if modern and non-modern sources disagree we should prefer the modern sources, no evidence has been provided in this discussion that modern sources disagree with this map and as such, for the moment, we need to keep it. It might be worth clarifying that this is based on linguistic groups, per the above discussion. [[User:BilledMammal|BilledMammal]] ([[User talk:BilledMammal|talk]]) 23:43, 19 November 2021 (UTC) {{sbb}}
::{{re|BilledMammal}} I do not have the time to list here the modern academic sources, though for some like Cyprus, eastern and southern Turkey and northern Syria IMO everyone knows that the picture is not that without Turkish-majority parts here or there in Cyprus and Kurds in Turkey and Syria. Maybe {{ping|Maleschreiber}} or {{ping|Durraz0}} can list sources for more settlements and regions. I myself do not have time. In any case, IMO if the National Geographic should stay, then an alternate 1911 map by [[William Robert Shepherd]] should stay next to it per NPOV, and I added it [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greeks&diff=prev&oldid=1056136505]. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 23:59, 19 November 2021 (UTC)
:::So now that it looks like the RfC is not going your way, switching tactics, huh? There is only room for one map. After this RfC concludes, maybe you can start another one. But for now, don't disrupt the article. And needless to say any retaliatory POV-tagging is out of the question. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 00:05, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::Hahaha you are so bad at reading minds. Anyways, keep trying if you have so much time to spend on a website behind a computer trying to analyze and predict my actions and thoughts. It is actually a pleasure you pay so much attention to me. Thanks and cheers, [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 00:12, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::Oh I think I am quite right on this. Isn't that why you went frantically advertising this rfc at [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk%3AWikiProject_Albania&type=revision&diff=1056124392&oldid=1054990685 Wikiproject:ALBANIA], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Kurdistan Wikiproject:KURDISTAN], and a whole bunch of other, unrelated wikiprojects [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?target=Ktrimi991&namespace=5&tagfilter=&start=&end=&limit=50&title=Special%3AContributions], even though this article is not within their scope? But don't worry, it's all to no avail. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 00:17, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::The map's issues concern Kurds and Albanians among other things. "it is all to no avail" do not take Wikipedia, or any online site for that matter, too seriously. We are not doing anything so important that I should prepare conspiracies for 30 millimeters on a single map in the middle of one among more than 1 million Wikipedia articles. Do not worry about me, I am not worried. Thanks again for giving me some of your attention and advice, much appreciated. Cheers, [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 00:26, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::Mmhhhh, yeah, contribs log shows otherwise though. [https://sigma.toolforge.org/usersearch.py?name=Ktrimi991&page=Talk%3AGreeks&server=enwiki&max=] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?target=Ktrimi991&namespace=5&tagfilter=&start=&end=&limit=50&title=Special%3AContributions]. But like I said, to no avail. It is rapidly becoming clear that a consensus is developing to keep the map. Suit yourself. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 00:35, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::Well, I try to improve articles, and give some effort. If it does not work in some cases, or the consensus of the community is sth else, it is not a problem for me. On the contrary, if the community can do sth better than I can, it is a pleasure for me to see. You and I have much potential when we work together. Your attention, your very calm responses to my questions and our exchange of opinions on different issues of the Balkans is sth that makes Wikipedia a warmer place for me. :) [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 00:48, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::For Cyprus, I would assume that the appearance on the map was due to how the Turkish Cypriot population was dispersed, with the map being insufficiently granular to display the very localized areas in which they were a majority. The rest, I don't know enough to comment. I've also removed the other map you added; I think the decision to add that or not should be an option in this RfC - for the moment, I would oppose it, as it is older than the current map, and less visually clear. [[User:BilledMammal|BilledMammal]] ([[User talk:BilledMammal|talk]]) 00:06, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Keep'''. Considering that all the necessary clarifications are provided and the caption makes clear that the map is from 1918, then I don't see a problem with keeping it. Asking for the removal of historical maps from Wikipedia "just because they aren't as accurate" is a red herring argument I am hearing here, considering that no historical ethnographic or linguistic map of that era was ever perfectly accurate. Far from that. For obvious reasons everyone can understand, the ethnographic and linguistic science of that era has not been as accurate or inclusive (as some editors here may had wished).
:After reading the !removevoter's arguments that the map should be removed from the article on the grounds that the map doesn't include different groups of people such as Kurds, the Arabs or the Chams, I feel compelled to note that this is not how Wikipedia works. There is no policy or guideline in Wikipedia suggesting that we shouldn't be using maps because other groups, irrelevant to the article topic, are missing from it. Contrary, Wikipedia is telling us that we can use the map. Per [[WP:RELEVANT]] policy: "{{tq|Relevance is a measurement of the degree to which material (fact, detail or opinion) relates to the topic of an article.}}" The map is showing the Greeks, so it is relevant to the article about the Greeks. Simple as that.
:I can't help but wonder why this rush to remove the map from a Good Article without seeking WP:CONSENSUS first, like how Ktrimi991 has done here: [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greeks&diff=1056052318&oldid=1055997352] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greeks&diff=1056079649&oldid=1056075245&diffmode=source]. And even as I am writing this and the RfC is ongoing, the editor didn't stop their attempts of challenging the map, prompting now an uninvolved editor to revert them: [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greeks&type=revision&diff=1056137768&oldid=1056136505&diffmode=source]. I advice Ktrimi991 to respect the RfC's progress instead of making such passionate edits that may raise eyebrows among the rest of the editors regarding the true motives behind the map's removal from the article. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 00:27, 20 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Remove''' The map depicts the maximalist Greek nationalist claims over territories in 1918 just before the end of WWI and the beginning of the Greco-Turkish War. Western sources depicted Greek nationalist claims as facts because Greece was in the Entente. The National Geographic map is politically informed by the geopolitical context of its era and western support to Greek nationalist claims. As such, it has rendered invisible all non-Greek populations in areas claimed by Greece and depicts a homogeneous territory inhabited only by ethnic Greeks. [[Cham Albanians]] who numbered 25k to 45k in [[Epirus]] until WWII are not depicted at all in the map - sources at [[Cham Albanians#Demographics]]. [[Arvanites]] who were 10%+ of the population of Greece in the early 20th century are not depicted in the map - sources at [[Arvanites#Demographics]]. The territory where [[Aromanians]] lived is greatly reduced. And where Greeks didn't even form a substantially large community there is a depiction of homogeneous Greek territory - the Black Sea coast in Bulgaria and an enlargement of mixed territory in Macedonia in regions where no Greeks ever lived.
<gallery>
Pelopones_ethnic.JPG|thumb|200px|1890
Southwestern_Balkans_1890.JPG|thumb|200px|1890
The_Historical_Atlas%2C_1911_–_Distribution_of_Races_in_the_Balkan_Peninsula_and_Asia_Minor.jpg|thumb|200px|1911
Ethnic_map_of_Asia_Minor_and_Caucasus_in_1914.jpg|thumb|200px|1914
Ethnic_map_(1914).jpg|thumb|200px|1914
Ethnic_map_europe_1923.jpg|thumb|200px|1923
Mitteleuropa_%28ethnische_Karte%29_1932.jpg|thumb|200px|1932
</gallery>
All available maps of the early 20th century - before and after 1918 - have one thing in common: they all depict a smaller and less homogeneous ethnic Greek territory. It is [[WP:POV]], [[WP:UNDUE]] and against historical reality to pick the one map which depicts the largest and most homogeneous Greek territory. As a community we shouldn't cherry-pick the one map which is closest to nationalist narratives for any article about ethnic communities. We shouldn't allow such a thing to become the norm for this article and set a precedent to be followed for all similar narratives.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 00:45, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::: '''Comment''' Is there a link/source which backs your editorial accusations against National Geographic? --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 00:54, 20 November 2021 (UTC)

:(ec) [[National Geographic]] is a reliable neutral source. The claim that a National Geogpaphic map would display a "maximalist Greek nationalist Greek claim" is ludicrous on its face and cannot be taken seriously. The claim that {{tq|Western sources depicted Greek nationalist claims as facts because Greece was in the Entente. The National Geographic map is politically informed by the geopolitical context of its era and western support to Greek nationalist claims}} is entirely unsubstantiated, and frankly sounds more than a little [[conspiracy theory|conspiratorial]]. The claim that {{tq|it has rendered invisible all non-Greek populations in areas claimed by Greece and depicts a homogeneous territory inhabited only by ethnic Greeks}} is simply false. Greek Macedonia is shown as Greek-Slavic, and the Aromanians of Pindus and even Thessaly are shown. The Arvanites were less than 10% of the Peloponnese, and much less than 10% for Greece as a whole. Also, by then many had assimilated as Greeks. The Chams are not numerically sufficient. Comparing the NG map to the 19th century maps is meaningless, because there were huge population upheavals between 1890 and 1918 in the Balkans. As for the 1922 and 1932 maps, they are actually remarkably similar to this map. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 00:56, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::{{tq|The 1922 and 1932 maps are actually remarkably similar to this map.}} Yes this is true. The maps are similar, so it comes down to editorial preferences. Its weird that the editor would want to remove a complete map for the sake of several smaller individual maps not showing all the regions the Greeks have inhabited. By reading Maleschreiber's reasoning, I understand that their arguments are based on personal editorial preferences, not really on proven facts about National Geographic being [[WP:RS]] or not. Sorry Maleschreiber, but [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] aren't a reason to remove a map just because you may not like it. We need actual proof that National Geographic isn't reliable source and their work is disputed. That will require really strong and substantial sources explicitely challenging NG. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 01:02, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::The maps are not remarkably similar. [[File:Mitteleuropa_%28ethnische_Karte%29_1932.jpg|thumb|300px|Cham Albanians and Arvanites are visible in many areas of Greece where they formed compact/majority populations, 1932]] In the NG map, other communities don't even exist.
:::All other maps - except for the NG one - depict [[Cham Albanians]], [[Arvanites]], Slavs, Aromanians in their territories. The only one which doesn't and renders them invisible is the NG map. Why should the one map which doesn't depict any of these communities should be used?--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 01:26, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::The 25k Chams are not numerically significant, the 1932 map greatly exaggerates their presence (they absolutely did not extend that far south along the Epirote coast). And the Arvanites identify (and identified, 100 years after independence) as Greeks, nationally speaking. So NG is well within its rights to show them as Greeks. It's all a matter of perspective. Slavs and Aromanians are shown in the NG map, don't make false claims. This is nitpicking and straw-clutching. Btw, did you see what the 1932 map shows about Kosovo? [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 01:32, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::The 1932 map is anyway complete nonsense, as it shows Greeks still present in Anatolia, even 10 years after the 1923 population exchange. Complete nonsense. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 01:34, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::(edit conflict) Maps which depict other communities "greatly exaggerate their presence", but maps which render them invisible are ok. The discussion highlights what the map is used for and why the only map which depicts maximalist claims is used in the article. It should be removed.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 01:41, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::Maleschreiber, I disagree with your approach. Wikipedia's [[WP:RELEVANT]] policy is clear that the relevance measurement is constituted as follows: {{tq|Relevance is a measurement of the degree to which material (fact, detail or opinion) relates to the topic of an article.}} The map showing the Greeks, so it is relevant to this article even if certain groups of your preference (that aren't this article's concern anyways) aren't on the map either. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 01:38, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
* '''Information on the source of the map''' That [https://books.google.com/books?id=KwlmBMcW9bcC&pg=PA105 Harvard University book] says the following about the article where the map was published {{tq|The National Geographic in 1918 devoted an entire issue to “The Races of Europe,” which included a characterization of different ethnic groups according to their supposedly hereditarily based “racial” behavioral traits. This flood of propaganda helped strengthen eugenic attitudes among the public.}} [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 01:37, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::And [https://books.google.com/books?id=UAw7A_IkUI8C&pg=PA124 that Virginia University book] elaborates on the National Geographic's nationalism in the WWI period (when the map was made). It even accuses Grosvenor (the author of the map and one of the most important figures in the magazine's staff) of "bigotry". So how can we be sure that the map, which counters with what other sources/maps say, is not with political bias? [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 02:10, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::Hmm, I think everybody here is fully aware that the last couple of centuries saw the rise of Nationalist movements around the globe and that Europe isn't en exception from this. Per [[WP:BIASED]]: {{tq|Reliable sources are not required to be neutral, unbiased, or objective.}}. If a source from that era is deemed biased, that doesn't justify removal. Like the !voters said above: as long as all the necessary clarifications are provided in the caption and is made clear that the map is from 1918, then I believe there will be no problem citing it. At the end it comes down to editorial perspective, not about National Geographic being non-reliable. Don't forget: National Geographic's map may appear biased to you but is similar with 2 other maps that were published after it and are posted by Maleschreiber in their comment (above). --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 02:31, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::Similar, but not the same. And why should the article have only one map, and that one by someone accused of "bigotry" and published in an article that fueled racist feelings as described by the two sources I posted above? A map of an article that "included a characterization of different ethnic groups according to their supposedly hereditarily based “racial” behavioral traits". [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 02:37, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::{{ec}} "''{{tq|Similar, but not the same.}}''" Differences do exist between all maps. That's the definition of POV. Like I said, the politics of that era aren't our concern. 3 maps show similar statistics. Now whether one to use, it is up to the editors themselves. Personally I prefer the one map that includes the whole area where the Greek populations were known to have lived at that time. And that's fine. As it is fine that you may prefer another map. It comes down to editorial perspective and I can't help you on this. Perhaps I am wrong and you are right. So better let others speak too. I think my time here is over because, personally, I haven't seen any policy-compliant arguments in this RfC that would justify removal of historic maps from the article. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 02:47, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::Not only that, but there is simply nothing to suggest that National Geographic is (or was) biased in favor of Greeks, at the expense of Albanians, at the time. Nothing at all. The attempts to discredit National Geographic are transparent, and selective, in their intention. Moreover, such general criticisms can be applied to any source of that era. The map is useful to our readers, and nothing will change that. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 02:54, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::Well, the Virginia University book above says that at the time the magazine made works with a nationalist character in support of the UK's interests in WWI. Greece was one of the closest allies of the UK, and was claiming lands from its neighbours (it failed to take them). Bulgaria and Turkey were opponents of the UK, while Albania was "neutral". [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 03:17, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::Actually Greece didn't join the war until very late, in 1917. But this is all speculation and mind reading at this point. National Geographic is a top notch source, we're not going to second guess it with stuff like this. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 05:01, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Keep map.''' Per statements by Khirurg, Silent R., Alexikoua, BilledMammal, et al.. Nat Geo conspiracy theories and [[Great Wall of China|Walls of text]] full of political statements and argumenta ad wikiam, are not to be taken seriously. Nat Geo is a reliable source and all this talk against Nat Geo is just the usual opposition POV. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 05:12, 20 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Comment''' At [[Cham Albanians#Demographics]] and [[Arvanites#Demographics]] many sources are listed which dispute this map. Many other maps which all depict a different situation were posted in my original comment. This is the only map which depicts such a large and homogeneous ethnic Greek territory because all other communities have been rendered invisible. The Balkans are multiethnic and multicultural - this map has erased the historical reality of the region. {{u|Ktrimi991}} highlighted one of the aspects which informs such depictions: {{tq|The National Geographic in 1918 devoted an entire issue to “The Races of Europe,” which included a characterization of different ethnic groups according to their supposedly hereditarily based “racial” behavioral traits. This flood of propaganda helped strengthen eugenic attitudes among the public.}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=KwlmBMcW9bcC&pg=PA105 source]. --[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 13:34, 20 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Remove''' The map ignores all other ethnic groups in Greece and offers a nationalist vision of the Balkans. Its racialist context was mentioned by Ktrimi. Sources about Chams, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5_N5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 Old and New Islam in Greece: From Historical Minorities to Immigrant Newcomers p85]: '''According to official reports there were 22,000 Muslim Albanian Chams in Epirus in 1930, while the population census of 1928 registered 17,000 Muslim Albanian-speakers.''' The other maps all show them because they were an important population but in the one used they don't exist at all. In 1918, there were many more Albanians throughout Greece: '''Between 1913 and 1944, approximately 85,000 Albanians migrated to Turkey from Greece. Most of them are Cham Albanians.''' [https://books.google.com/books?id=W_v_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 Conflict Areas in the Balkans p115]. Slavic Macedonians, Bulgarians, Aromanians/Vlachs are not shown in many areas they lived. I'm not presenting the sources about all of them in the RfC to avoid making it even longer but they can be read in articles about [[Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia]]. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 13:54, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:The fact that 17k Cham Albanians are not shown is not a reason to deprive readers of useful map. The map is actually very favorable to the Aromanian presence, and southern Macedonia is shown as half-Slavic half-Greek, while northern Macedonia is shown as overwhelmingly Slavic. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 20:24, 20 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Keep''' as per the arguments of Khirurg and SilentResident. [[User:Demetrios1993|Demetrios1993]] ([[User talk:Demetrios1993|talk]]) 15:53, 20 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Remove''' This is an outdated and flawed map from ''National Geographic'' in 1918. Several people above have pointed out that it is objectively incorrect in many ways. You could say that omitting Arabs and Kurds in eastern Anatolia is irrelevant to showing Greeks, but interestingly it does include Armenians in eastern Anatolia as a minority (in dashed lines), probably because they're Christian. As for Greeks in particular, it shows the Aegean coast of Anatolia as solidly Greek, when in fact most of it was mixed. It shows Thessaloniki (Saloniki on the map) as solidly Greek, when Greeks, Turks, and Jews were roughly equally present. The Adalia (Antalya) area is also shown as solidly Greek, when in fact even the city itself was only about 1/3 Greek. On the other hand, it doesn't show the Greeks of Cappadocia at all. And so on. We can speculate about the extent to which the errors are driven by pro-Christian ideology and to the extent that they're simple errors, but the fact remains that the map is wrong and misleading.
:I find it bizarre to claim that the ''National Geographic'' of 1918 is a solid source. The British and American press of the time -- including, for example, the ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' of 1911 -- was very pro-Christian and anti-Turkish. And NG is hardly a scholarly source.
:It's not as though there aren't much better, modern, scholarly sources available, for example Evangelos Voulgarakis, Angeliki Tsorlini, Chrysoula Boutoura, "Depicting the Greek communities in 'Smyrna Zone', Asia Minor at the beginning of 20th century (1919 – 1922), combining historical maps with textual data", ''e-Perimetron'' '''15''':1"26-43 (2020) [http://www.e-perimetron.org/Vol_15_1/Voulgarakis_et_al.pdf PDF]. That paper combines many different sources, including multiple historical maps -- though not the NG one -- to come up with an accurate portrayal of the Greek presence in the Smyrna area. --[[User:Macrakis|Macrakis]] ([[User talk:Macrakis|talk]]) 19:31, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::That's a good source, but making a map from such a source is a tremendous amount of work and unlikely to ever happen. Until such time, the article should have a map, and this one is as good as any other. All maps have flaws, but speculating that the map-makers' motives are driven by a "pro-Christian agenda" is second-guessing and mind-reading. For instance, this map actually underestimates the Greeks of western Thrace (the area around Didymoteicho), so how can we ascribe this flaw to a "pro-Christian agenda"? Your argument about cities (Thessaloniki, Antalya) is also flawed. The resolution of the map does not allow it to show the composition of individual cities. Only insets in the map would be able to show that, and as far as I know no maps do that. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 20:24, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:::I agree that the best is the enemy of the good. But in this case we have a very poor map that doesn't belong in WP. My point with the Voulgarakis publication is that there is modern work that shows that the old map is incorrect in many ways.
:::We don't need to read minds to realize that the map shows an Armenian Christian minority in eastern Anatolia but not the Kurdish and Arab minorities. Why is that? Whether it's related to the fact that there was heavy American Protestant missionary activity among the Armenians, or simply that the mapmaker called all Muslims "Turks" shows that the map is biased.
:::As for the cities, I'm not sure what you're saying. Antalya, as far as I can tell, had at most 1/3 Greeks -- so why is the whole area around Antalya shown as Greek? I agree that small areas are hard to map at this scale, but this map already shows a Greek territory just north of Brusa/Bursa. Surely Thessaloniki was much more populous than that small territory, and deserves to be represented correctly?
:::The very title of the map shows that it is not useful. It is supposed to map the "races" of Europe. I suppose that explains why Crete shows no Turkish minority -- because they were almost all converts --, but it doesn't explain why the assimilated Albanians of Greece (called Arvanites these days, but not then) are not shown.
:::It is just an embarrassingly bad map, reflecting the politics and prejudices of 1918, and does not belong in WP. --[[User:Macrakis|Macrakis]] ([[User talk:Macrakis|talk]]) 22:23, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::::IMO, I have been following the discussion without actively participating but one thing appears clear to me: despite all this wall of text of [[conspiracy theories]] about National Geographic resorting to "pro-Christian agendas", there is still no other complete map readily available to replace the current one. Considering that the source Macrakis has pointed to, doesn't have a map ready for use, and all the other maps that are readily available in this talk page do not only have inaccuracies but also do not cover all the regions where Greeks have lived. The editors who !voted for the map's removal, have been unable to provide better and more adequate modern replacements. Considering this, I haven't been convinced why I should change my vote from "keep" to "remove". The !removevoters ask for the map's removal on the ground that it contains inaccuracies, but thus far, the readily available maps they proposed are old and inaccurate too. So this argument of "accuracy" hardly stands when trying to ''replace'' one old map with another old map. IMO, just sticking with the map that had everyone's consensus before the usual POV warriors come here, is far better than the nothingness of modern day maps we have. Once someone manages to offer adequate solutions (i.e. provide finally an actually better and modern map), I will gladly change my vote and switch to it. Until then, I trust National Geographic, and sorry to say it, if I am to be persuaded into picking a different map, I recommend that the next time the proposer of new maps avoids going down the path of political conspiracy theories again. That will strengthen their cause and become more convincing in that the intentions behind the removal/replacement are a genuine desire to improve the article in a neutral way, not deal with WP:RS' [[WP:BIASED|WP:BIAS]] by promoting editorial bias in its place. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 03:25, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::Macrakis highlighted many problems of the map and Ktrimi991 brought a source about its contextualization: [https://books.google.com/books?id=KwlmBMcW9bcC&pg=PA105] {{tq|The National Geographic in 1918 devoted an entire issue to “The Races of Europe,” which included a characterization of different ethnic groups according to their supposedly hereditarily based “racial” behavioral traits. This flood of propaganda helped strengthen eugenic attitudes among the public.}} Academic publications call this map "flood of propaganda".
*'''Remove''' as per non accuracy! The fact that we have a bunch of other maps more accurate and much more reliable makes it unnecessary to be used'''[[User:Bes-ART|'''Bes-ART''']][[User talk:Bes-ART|Talk]]''' 23:47, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::Actually, we ''don't'' have "a bunch of other maps more accurate and much more reliable". They all have their own issues. This one is as good as any of the others, and a good deal better than most. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:47, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Weak replace''' with [[:File:The Historical Atlas, 1911 – Distribution of Races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor.jpg|Shepherd's map]]. The National Geographic map is also fine and could be used if we hadn't had a better one. The Shepherd's map quality is marginally better. Also it shows the ethnicities of Eastern Anatolia more accurately (while it's not the topic of the article it's better not to mislead the reader). When it comes to the distribution of Greeks, the maps are quite similar. The differences are minor and go both ways (Shepherd's map shows mixed population of Adrianople and the NG colours it exclusively Turkish, vice versa for some areas on the Aegean coast). I would change my vote if someone demonstrated that the NG map is closer to the current consensus (e.g., that there were no Greeks in Adrianople, or no Albanians in Attica). [[User:Alaexis|Alaexis]][[User_talk:Alaexis|¿question?]] 18:45, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:Shephard's map also depicts the complex situation in Macedonia where many communities lived side-by-side. --[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 18:53, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::{{reply|Alaexis}} there are 2 big problems with the central part of Greece that show the whole capital of Greece as being Albanian-majority. I am surprised Maleschreiber didn't mention them, considering how they know alot about Albanians.
::So let me explain. The 20th century map showing Albanian majority in [[Attica]] region is not supported by any reliable sources at all. Only by nationalist cycles in Albania who love fringe theories. The international scholars do not confirm such a thing at all. I suppose, the closest valid thing in reality, this map claims, would be, I suppose, the [[Arvanites]] but there are 2 problems even if that map had shown the Arvanites in the place of Albanians:
::* The area around [[Attica]] was [[Arvanite]]-majority area, only until the 19th century (Your map is of the 20th century).
::* The Arvanites in the 20th century identified as Greeks, not as Albanians. See [[Arvanites]] for more info. I urge that we don't go with such a map that has jagging errors like that for Greece's capital Athens and its area, Attica. Seeing at how certain editors here were complaining about small Albanian villages being colored as Greek on the current map, can you really believe that this map which shows not just some small villages, but the capital of a whole country, with the colors of another group, not supported by any WP:RS? The accuracy mistakes with villages, are understandable, but to move from that into even bigger inaccuracies affecting capitals of whole countries, is absolutely not an improvement in any possible way. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 21:00, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::*The map depicts Albanian presence in southern Greece accurately and it depicts Cham Albanians too. The villages of Attica were Arvanite in that era and Arvanite identity didn't change in the early 20th century. Hence, the 1932 map depicts the same areas about Albanians/Arvanites in southern Greece [[File:Mitteleuropa_%28ethnische_Karte%29_1932.jpg|thumb|400px|Arvanites in southern Greece]]. --[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 21:15, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::* To be precise, Shepherd's map shows Athens as Greek, not Albanian. By the way the 1932 map also shows mixed population in Attica. I'm not an expert, but it seems from the maps and the discussion that these people had a mixed identity that changed over time. Making a map always involves some compromises and the compromises made in this case seem reasonable. As I said earlier, I don't have a strong preference and happy to reconsider my vote if the NG map aligns better with the current scholar consensus. [[User:Alaexis|Alaexis]][[User_talk:Alaexis|¿question?]] 21:17, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::{{Ping|Alaexis}} Yes, it doesn't show Athens non-Greek, just the villages. It corresponds to the discussion in bibliography.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 21:20, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::I supported the current map under the condition that the necessary clarifications are provided. I can support the map by Alaexis under the same condition as well: that the necessary clarifications will be provided. I.e. the map caption clarify that the "Albanians" in Attica constituted Arvanites, not Albanians. I ''STRONGLY'' oppose that an outdated map isn't clarified and thus, [[WP:POVFORKS]] to overwrite the modern day academic consensus over the self-identification of Arvanites. Also, per my concerns above: clarify that the representation of Greeks at Asia Minor is far from accurate. If we can agree that the necessary clarifications will be added, I can gladly support Alaexis's map. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 21:25, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::: It's not ''my'' map, I wasn't even the first to bring it up here :) Adding clarifications sounds sensible. We should keep in mind that the purpose of this map in this article is to give the reader a general idea of where the Greeks lived at that time. No one expects or needs village-level accuracy here. [[User:Alaexis|Alaexis]][[User_talk:Alaexis|¿question?]] 21:46, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::Actually, when I say "Alaexis's map", is the sort for "Alaexis's proposed map". Pardon me. But it is not village-level accuracy but 1/5 of the whole Asia Minor-level of accuracy and presence erased. Please see the 2021 source by a Genocide expert: https://tlcp.law.uiowa.edu/sites/tlcp.law.uiowa.edu/files/2._kelly.pdf (see page 43). If compared to the map you proposed, the difference becomes even more jarring than it is with the current map which the Albania topic area editors want to remove.--- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 21:55, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::You understand now why the current map is better? Because the map you proposed, is risking having a margin of error by 0.9 million Greeks (max), while the current map is risking having a margin of error by about at least 18.000 Arvanites around Greece (Greek government's 1928 census) and <s>25.000 Muslim Chams</s> edit: 47.000 Chams (edit includes Orthodox Chams as well - Albanian government's estimates) , while according to the Genocide Experts, about 300.000 to 900.000 Greeks were counted in Asia Minor perior to their Genocide, so you understand why I preferred that we stick with the current map instead of increasing the margin of error in raw population terms. Since this article is about Greeks, I prefer to be on the safe side and avoid such staggering errors about erasing such large figures of Anatolian Greeks who are [[WP:RELEVANT]] to the topic's subject, than worry about the smaller figures of Albanians in Greece who aren't this topic's subject.--- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 22:06, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*{{ping|SilentResident}} Your figures are not correct. There were 200k Arvanites in 20th early century Greece per independent sources [[Arvanites#Demographics]]. And {{u|Ahmet Q.}} highlighted that '''Between 1913 and 1944, approximately 85,000 Albanians migrated to Turkey from Greece. Most of them are Cham Albanians.''' [https://books.google.com/books?id=W_v_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115] The NG map also renders invisible many Slavic-speaking regions in Macedonia. Macrakis put forward an excellent comment [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Greeks&diff=1056266513&oldid=1056242723][https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Greeks&diff=1056288933&oldid=1056287939]. Side comment: RfCs should aim at having as many participants as possible. In order to do so, personal discussions should be reduced. --[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 22:26, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:Please no pings, I am here. By the way, the pop figures are noted, but I admit I don't know much about Orthodox Chams. Above post clarified to include Orthodox figures as well. However still, like how I said to Alaexis, the academic consensus is that the Arvanites considered themselves Greek by the 20th century. There is no way you are going to WP:POVFORK your views into Wikipedia at the expense of the Academic consensus. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 22:48, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::: {{u|SilentResident}}, that's fair enough. Assuming that Kelly's map represents the current scholarly consensus, it's not hard to find differences between it and the NG map (mixed areas in Cyprus, Attica and near Adrianople which are respectively uniformly Greek, Greek and Turkish on the NG map). So if we have to choose between the maps on this page, '''any''' one of them would require some clarifications. I would choose a better-looking map and add a note that "Some Greek-populated areas of Greek presence in the Western Anatolia are not marked on the map. Attica had a significant [[Arvanite]] population." [[User:Alaexis|Alaexis]][[User_talk:Alaexis|¿question?]] 22:26, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::::Since this RfC is about what map to used for the article Greeks and not the article Cham Albanians, if a map has to be chosen, that should ''not'' be based on criteria concerning ethnicities other than the ethnicity this article is about. This means, accuracy should be focused with Greeks in mind per wp:relevancy, not Chams or other groups. After all I haven't seeing anyone arguing about using this map on Cham Albanians or something so lets just leave them out of this discussion. Alaexis I recommend comparing Kelly's map to any of the maps presented in the current discussion so far and pick the one that appears proportionally the ''closest'' to it regarding Greek populations. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 22:35, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::If a large part of the members would not accept the replacement of the map, an acceptable solution for me would be to place the two maps next to each other as removing one or the other would create dissatisfaction considering that this topic is for Greeks and not for other groups. In the caption text it can be written that the 1932 map shows other ethnic groups in Greece during the same period '''[[User:Bes-ART|'''Bes-ART''']][[User talk:Bes-ART|Talk]]''' 23:09, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

=== Discussion ===
[[File:The_Historical_Atlas,_1911_–_Distribution_of_Races_in_the_Balkan_Peninsula_and_Asia_Minor.jpg|thumb|right]]
*{{u|Khirurg}}, wouldn't it be better to use this map: [[:File:The_Historical_Atlas,_1911_–_Distribution_of_Races_in_the_Balkan_Peninsula_and_Asia_Minor.jpg]]? It's not a cropped version of a larger map and shows more detail. [[User:Alaexis|Alaexis]][[User_talk:Alaexis|¿question?]] 08:46, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::{{ping|Alaexis}} There are many alternatives all of which show a more complex multicultural situation of the Balkans which corresponds of historical reality. The NG is the only map which renders historical reality invisible.
<gallery>
Southwestern_Balkans_1890.JPG|thumb|200px|1890
The_Historical_Atlas%2C_1911_–_Distribution_of_Races_in_the_Balkan_Peninsula_and_Asia_Minor.jpg|thumb|200px|1911
Ethnic_map_of_Asia_Minor_and_Caucasus_in_1914.jpg|thumb|200px|1914
Ethnic_map_(1914).jpg|thumb|200px|1914
Ethnic_map_europe_1923.jpg|thumb|200px|1923
Mitteleuropa_%28ethnische_Karte%29_1932.jpg|thumb|200px|1932
</gallery>
--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 12:07, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

::{{reply|Alaexis}} this map is very inaccurate, for example whole parts where the Greeks lived in Asia Minor and Pontus, are shown as not having a Greek presence which few years later would be the target of the first genocide of the 20th century: [[Greek Genocide]]. Personally speaking, this map is having alot more inaccuracies and cant be the answer to our current map if inaccuracies are our concern here. IMO, addressing inaccuracies with even more inaccuracies isn't an actual improvement for this Good Article. - [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 11:45, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::The map brought by Alaexis is much more detailed and complex than the NG map which renders insivisible all other communities.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 12:09, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

:::::Maleschreiber, a map that vanishes whole communities in their final years in these lands right before a genocide, is a red line. You will get the same answer had you tried to insert an inaccurate map at Jews showing the Jews in Europe having far more reduced presence before the Holocaust, or at Armenians before the Armenian Genocide. You want the current map to be replaced? Fine, but dont recommend more controversial maps that go against the established facts about persecuted people. Wikipedia is careful to not contribute to any Genocide Denialism, either directly or indirectly, through such inaccurate maps. And since it is you the !voters who want to remove the map but are unable to provide a better solution i.e. a better map that can readily be used, I'd suggest we stick with what we have now. Its not perfect, but it is readily available and is from a reliable source, the National Geographic and showing the Greeks (but not Kurds, Chams or Arabs) is fine as long as this map isn't used in their respective articles (Kurdish people, etc). Dont make myself repeat please, I think it is made clear what the !removevoters have to do. - [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 12:18, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::: Thanks for your responses. To be honest I don't see much difference when it comes to the distribution of Greeks between these two maps. All the places they lived before being expelled are there: Aegean coast, Black Sea coast, Thrace, etc. There are differences, but they go both ways. Notice how Adrianople has no Greek population according to the 1918 map but does have it on the 1911 map. [[User:Alaexis|Alaexis]][[User_talk:Alaexis|¿question?]] 12:38, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::And it's never a Boolean question. We don't have to render Greek communities invisible in order to depict all others. They're not even located in the same regions. Thus, we're not obligated to pick a map which renders Albanians, Aromanians, Slavs invisible in Greece in order to depict Greek communities in other areas. Inclusive solutions exist. The NG map doesn't offer such a solution, but the 1911 map is an inclusive solution for all communities in the early 20th century.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 12:48, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::I also suggested the map you posted above, Alaexis. It is better than the map this RfC is about. Another option is to have two or more maps with different views next to each other somewhere in the article. Or to not have a map at all - maybe better nothing than low quality stuff. If only the map this RfC is about stays, then redundant walls of text will need to be added to the article to give the version of academics about populations in places such as Antalya, Thessaloniki, southern Albania, parts of Chameria etc. More discussions and disputes will emerge on the talk page. If the POV issues are not solved, then editors as usually in such Balkan topics will add a POV tag. It becomes a mess just because an outdated map that has been described by the Harvard University book I posted above as a "flood of propaganda". All of this on a GA. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 12:52, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::{{tq|If the POV issues are not solved [...] It becomes a mess just because an outdated map that has been described by the Harvard University book I posted above as a "flood of propaganda"}} Yes, Ktrimi, you are repeating again your arguments that you wont tolerate bias in sources and you wont consent to a map not suitable to your POV. Your points have been noted, so no need repeat yourself again and again please. However like we told you, we can't approach the issue the way you wanted, since in Wikipedia, [[WP:BIASED|bias in sources is allowed]]. Contrary, it is the [[WP:NEUTRAL|Bias by editors that is not allowed]]. Your arguments suggesting that we go against of both of these rules, isn't contributing positively to the discussion. The presence of Kurds the Arabs or Chams isn't the concern of this article and I feel compelled to inform you that once a modern day map is restructured, the Kurds, the Arabs and the Chams again won't be in it. The map will be a single-colored background with various shades of the same color (Greeks) denoting the levels of their presence in the historical areas. (Majority, minority, etc). Simple as that. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 13:15, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::When there is bias, all points of view should be present in the article, as per [[WP:NPOV]]. The map this RfC is about can't stay alone. The Albanians, Turks, Jews etc are not the topic of this article, but the map shows as Greek-majority areas that were not Greek-majority. Yes, a map with Greeks only is needed, but one that makes a difference between areas where they were a majority and a minority. The article with the NG map only, with no other map and no written explanation based on modern academic works about Antalya, Thessaloniki, southern Albania etc will cause more disputes, RfCs, POV tags. If you want that, keep on pushing such a map. Up to you, after all. The sure thing is that no Wikipedia article will serve POVs that belong to an outdated fringe mentality. We do not live at the time of [[Megali Idea|Greater Greece]], [[Greater Albania]], [[Greater Turkey]] etc. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 13:36, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::::{{tq|will cause more disputes, RfCs, POV tags}} yes you showed to us, Ktrimi. Wasn't you who got involved in the edit warring for the map's removal? Acting as a POV warrior yourself before raising neutrality concerns isn't very convincing, you know? Its understandable that you care about neutrality but this was the worst way to express it, especially on a Good Article like this. You should have given more room to the discussion and seek consensus before repeatedly removing stuff from the article. Had this been done without the mess that you caused, I am positive that the progress of moving to a newer more modern map based on sources like the one Macrakis has recommended may very well have started without a need for a RfC. Now that the RfC is on, we don't ''even'' have a map we can agree as replacement. It is also unhelpful that I hear from someone involved in edit warring, that there will be "future disputes, RfCs and POV tags" if we don't go on with their demands to use a map which downplayed Greek presence in Asia Minor and was used by the media in Turkey to maintain that there was no Genocide because Greeks "were too few". To use a map used in Genocide denial attempts is really low and unhelpful of your part, Ktrimi :( Sorry but I refuse to be part of such a discussion. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 14:13, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::Making two reverts does not make me a "POV warrior". I did not remove that map to add another one. There is no Genocide denial on the other maps, and indeed the map you support claims that Kurds who were being deported and massacred were actually "Turks". Not to mention that Albanan-majority and Turkish-majority areas that the Greek government claimed as part of its ultrantionalist project are shown as "Greek-majority". The "Albanians" in central Raska and certain parts of southern Serbia exist only on that map and nationalist Albanian narratives. Northern Syria without Kurds and Arabs is not anything better. Gjirokastra and parts of southeastern Albania were mixed Albanian-Greek or Albanian-Vlach, not only Albanian-majority as the map claims. I am actually surprised that [[User:Alexikoua]] supports this map - really surprised. And do not put words on my mouth. What I am saying that: '''Either have some maps with different views, or do not have low quality maps at all'''. Unlike you, I do not want to have only one POV map on the article. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 14:45, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::::{{tq|If only the map this RfC is about stays, then redundant walls of text will need to be added to the article to give the version of academics about populations in places such as Antalya, Thessaloniki, southern Albania, parts of Chameria etc. More discussions and disputes will emerge on the talk page. If the POV issues are not solved, then editors as usually in such Balkan topics will add a POV tag.}} This sounds an awful lot like "If I don't get my way I will ruin the article, so you had better give me what I want". No, you will ''not'' add "redundant walls of text", and no, you will ''not'' add a POV tag. You will respect the will of the community, and you will not impose your way by brute-force, as in other articles. This is a high visibility article and a GA, and if you cause massive disruption, there ''will'' be consequences. I hope I'm clear. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 15:43, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::::::::@[[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] the rfc does not mean that the map does not cause POV issues. The map has many issues, no matter if we decide to keep it in the article. the RfC does not give as option to have more than one map, or too make written explanations with academic sources. And other parts of the article have POV issues too, all created after the Good Article status was given. Please be careful with the tone of your comments towards other editors. Please do not forget that you were warned with a block by an admin for personal attacks/inappropriate comments towards other editors just two days ago. [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 16:18, 21 November 2021 (UTC) [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 16:29, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::::::Don't taunt me. I'm not the one threatening to ruin the article with "redundant walls of text". That kind of behavior is what's blockable (and grounds for a topic ban from anything related to Greeks, if you ask me). The article does not have POV issues, these are just excuses after the fact because of the map. None of you noticed any "POV issues" until the map issue came up. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 16:40, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::::::::::I am not taunting you and no one is threatening to ruin any article. the article does have POV issues which need to be addressed and fixed. [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 16:50, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::::::::You are absolutely taunting me, and if you do it again I will take steps to see that you receive a warning as well. Threatening to add "redundant walls of text" (not my words) is the very definition of threatening to disrupt the article ([[WP:POINT]]). [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 16:55, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::::::::::::He is not "taunting" you, and I am not "threatening". This is not a matter of "threats". And indeed, in such Balkan disputes there is a long of history of disputes becoming larger and larger starting from single issues such as a sentence or a map. POV maps or single sentences staying alone have caused conflicts and discussion after discussion and tags and such things in the past in Balkan topics - it is not my "threat". Please do not use words such as "taunt" and "threat" again. Describing other editor's comments as "taunts" and "threats" is not sth that helps solving content disputes. I suggest that we all stay away from this discussion today, and see what others have to say. Thank you, [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 16:56, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::::::::::Mmmh, whatever. I sincerely hope that's the last I ever see of "redundant walls of text will have to be added". [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 17:10, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::::::::::::::Well, the RfC question does not help. The issue that several editors have raised is not just about this map, but also if other maps should be on the article, what colors they should use and whether written explanations are needed. Not to mention that some have apparently suggested other POV issues throughout the article exist. I am afraid this RfC currently can't help avoid more discussions, disputes, tags and indeed usual walls of text that are a common things in Balkan topics. The list of issues emerging is bigger than just "should this map be on the article or not?". The presence of a map might depend on the context such as other maps etc. Hopefully some non-Balkan fresh eyes will come to give better ideas on this mess that is apparently becoming larger and larger. Anyways, I will for now stay away from contributing to more walls of text to this discussions that has become so large, and sometimes rather off-topic, just a day after it started. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 17:26, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::::::::::::The main sticking point is about the map, that's how it all started, so first we need to decide is if the map should be removed from the article. But comments such as {{tq|If only the map this RfC is about stays, then redundant walls of text will need to be added}} and {{tq| then editors as usually in such Balkan topics will add a POV tag}} very much sound like threats. By the way why do you keep saying you will stay away, only to try and have the last word? [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 18:51, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
{{outdent}}
{{reply|Alaexis}} The issue I have with the Sheppard map is that is uses a very weak color for Greeks, which makes it very hard to see where Greeks are located, especially at thumbnail resolution. The NG map has much better color contrast is much more viewable at thumbnail resolution. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 15:38, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

:/media/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Balkan%2BMikrasia_1914.jpg Colors fixed, now khirurg should have no problem with it being replaced. [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 15:55, 21 November 2021 (UTC)::[[File:Balkan+Mikrasia 1914.jpg|thumb|300px|better version]]

::Unfortunately no, the light blue color is still very weak. Anyway, you shouldn't tamper with published maps. Also on second look, the presence of Greeks on the south and north coasts of Anatolia is quite exaggerated. For instance, I don't think there was a significant presence between Antalya and Adana, or between Sinop and the Bosporus. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 16:03, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::I don't think that Durraz0 tampered with the map. It's another print of the same map. The light blue color is as good as it can get and the same can be said about the colors of the much worse NG map which renders invisible all other communities. Between two maps of equal visual value, the one which should be used is the one which is closer to historical reality.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 16:13, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::The [[User:Ktrimi991]], above, has stated: "{{tq|''Albanan-majority and Turkish-majority areas that the Greek government claimed as part of its ultrantionalist project''}}", however I am not sure I can follow editor Ktrimi991 anymore. Sorry but I find the arguments to be unreasonable at best. 1) As far as I know, the Greek Government didn't claim in the 21th century any territories of neighboring countries, and 2) the Turkish Government not only is ''still'' claiming territories of neighboring countries, but also 3) is denying that it committed any Genocide against Greeks in the territories and used sources like the ones Ktrimi991 is promoting. If I were Ktrimi991 I wouldn't try mixing 20th century politics of the past with ongoing politics of Genocide denial just to make a point here about NPOV. The admins who banned Turkish editors this year, made it clear to everyone that any attempts of whitewashing Genocides, by changing article titles, or by adding sources negating presence of native groups in their homelands prior to the Genocide, will be dealt with, firmly. El C and the other admins made clear that whitewashing or redaction of Genocides will not be tolerated, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genocides_in_history_(before_World_War_I)&diff=1009246028&oldid=1009227561&diffmode=source] and I think this is a good advise that everyone has to follow if they want to actually improve things instead of causing more disruption around. Its up to Ktrimi991 to find a better map. Until then, I will refrain from further participation in discussions to give room for others to speak. Good day everyone. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 16:16, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::If the "light blue color is as good as it can get", then it's not good enough. It makes it very hard to see where Greeks are located, particularly in areas that are cross-hatched. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 16:19, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::Since the topic of the article is the Greeks, any map should show them in prominent color. The 1923 map is acceptable in this regard, but it is relatively low resolution. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 16:24, 21 November 2021 (UTC) [[File:Ethnic_map_europe_1923.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]
::::::The last version of the map that Durrazo posted is great and makes it easier for readers to see where the Greek-populated areas were situated. The current NG map, apart from the racialist problems and other inaccuracies which were already mentioned, uses very confusing colors for the demarcation of the populations. It almost looks like Crete was inhabited by Albanians rather than Greeks. A very low quality map. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 17:53, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::The "racialist issues" plague all maps of that era. And the comment regarding Crete is just plain funny. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 18:47, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

===Proposal===
{{multiple image|align = left|total_width =500|image1 = Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|width1=250|image2 =Distribution of Races on the Balkans in 1922 Hammond cropped.png|width2=250|footer =Approximate distribution of Greeks in 1918 (left) and 1923 (right).}}
 
Dual map, as some have suggested. Map on the right shows the Arvanites. What I like about this is that is shows the distribution before and after the exchange of populations (although that wasn't fully completed until 1927). Thoughts? [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 00:56, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
:If you can alter the cropping of the map so that they cover roughly the same area (the second goes too far east, as well as having an overly thick border at the bottom) it sounds reasonable to me, made acceptable because we are using the two maps to show a change over time, rather than for another purpose. I would prefer these two over the alternative below, because in the second map here is easier to read, and closer in style to the first. [[User:BilledMammal|BilledMammal]] ([[User talk:BilledMammal|talk]]) 05:19, 24 November 2021 (UTC)
::{{done}} Let me know what you think. Excellent suggestion btw. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 15:23, 24 November 2021 (UTC)
:::It looks good, thank you. [[User:BilledMammal|BilledMammal]] ([[User talk:BilledMammal|talk]]) 20:52, 24 November 2021 (UTC)
::::{{ping|Alaexis}} What do you think of my above proposal? I would be very interested in your input. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 04:03, 27 November 2021 (UTC)
{{multiple image|align = right|total_width =500|image1 = Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|width1=250|image2 =Mitteleuropa_%28ethnische_Karte%29_1932.jpg|width2=250|footer =Approximate distribution of Greeks in 1918 (left) and 1932 (right)}} Counter-proposal which includes one map from each of the two main opinions voiced. We can crop the part which depicts Greece.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 23:44, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
::The issue I have with the 1932 map is that it incorrectly shows Greeks still present in Anatolia in 1932, even though there were none left by then. That is a pretty glaring error. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 05:14, 24 November 2021 (UTC)
:::We can use the 1911 and 1918 maps as an alternative. --[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 00:25, 25 November 2021 (UTC)
::::They show mostly the same thing. There were no major population movements between 1911 and 1918. The 1923 map shows the distribution after the 1923 population exchange. Plus the 1911 map incorrectly shows too many Greeks on the north and south Anatolian coasts. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 01:43, 25 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::There is no reason to keep the NG map next to another low quality map. The 1923 map you proposed is of lower quality and accuracy than the map that Durazz0 posted above. However it is already better than the NG map, but then the question arrises, why do you even want to keep the NG map when it is obviously the least accurate map of all the ones mentioned here. If we were to keep the NG map which depicts a maximalist extent of the Greek ethnicity, to make the section neutral a similar map which depicts the opposite should be put next to it. But this would really not be the ideal solution. In my opinion the map that Durraz0 proposed is still the most accurate map that has been mentioned. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 14:13, 25 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Remove''' The one million dollar question, is whether the map is regarded by modern scholars accurate. If the answer is yes, then we should keep it. If the answer is no, then we should remove it. WP should provide accurate info to the readers. Since, it seems that is not regarded as an accurate map, I suggest removing it. [[User:Cinadon36|Cinadon]][[User Talk:Cinadon36|36]] 19:49, 25 November 2021 (UTC)

*'''Remove''' We owe our readers better than this oversimplified map. I apologize for not having the time to read the discussion above so I am sorry for any redundant points but here are the issues I see with it. (1) The areas of the northern coast of Anatolia are portrayed as homogenously Greek but this was wildly false, most were about 25% Greek, 40-50% "at Greekest". The complete erasure of Laz I guess I could live with but this is pretty bad inasmuch as it distorts the specific multiethnic reality of the region that determined its fate in the context of Russian/Ottoman rivalry in that zone. (2) Total erasure of Turks in Cyprus. How problematic this is should be obvious considering later 20th century events. (3) Total erasure of Cham Albanians; Arvanites also but Chams is the thing that really makes the map untenable. (4) Likewise in Albania regions that are mixed, uninhabited or even homogenously Albanian are portrayed as homogenously Greek -- namely Orikum, part Kurvelesh, Leskovik, Lukova, Northern Chameria (Markat, Konispol-- overwhelmingly Albanian then and now)... I guess I could forgive it if it was only Himara but this went way too far. (5) Perhaps most ridiculous of all is the total erasure of Turks from West Thrace and Greek Macedonia. (6) Western Coast has same issue as northern coast tho I suppose it's slightly less demographically "wrong" in certain areas as at least there were once patches of homogenous Greeks in parts of that. (7) Albanians go too far east but I suppose this one is relatively forgiveable inasmuch as this page is about Greeks. (8) this shows teh second-most populous, and at the time most populous city in Syria -- Aleppo/Halab -- as being homogenously Turkish which is absolutely hilarious as it was and is quite Arab. (9) Kurds don't even exist on this map unless that hatching is them rather than Armenians. (10) The map shows Saloniki is Greek, homogenously. This is hilariously wrong, Greeks were the fourth possibly even fifth largest group after Jews, Turks, and Bulgarians. There are even other issues but this is just egregious honestly and we owe our readers way better. --[[User:Calthinus|Calthinus]] ([[User talk:Calthinus|talk]]) 00:31, 1 December 2021 (UTC)
[[File:Cyprus 1973 ethnic neutral.svg|thumb|right|250px]]
::Not trying to change your mind here, but some of your points are way off and need to be rebutted for the record. 1) Regarding the Northern Anatolia coast, most maps of that period show the same, e.g. the Sheperd 1911 map shows the northern coast even more "Greek" than this one, 2) Regarding Cyprus, while of course there were Turks living there, Greeks did live all over Cyprus, as shown in the map on the right, and at this resolution it is simply not possible to show the small scattered areas in which Turks were dominant, 3) the Arvanites strongly identify as Greeks and not Albanian, so it is understandable the map would not show them as separate, while the Chams only numbered no more 25,000 thousand and the Orthodox Chams assimilated as Greeks, 4) The small villages you mention are in a very small area (we're literally talking about villages with a few hundred inhabitants at the time that aren't even labeled on the map), and it is not at all obvious where they fall in the map (in the Greek or Albanian areas), 6) the west Anatolian coast was solidly Greek in the coastal areas shown, 7) Albanians extending too far east is a minor point for an article on Greeks, 8) Aleppo is not within the scope of this article, and it can be cropped, 9) regarding the Kurds/Armenians, that is also beyond the scope of this article, but as this map is from 1918, the Armenians of Anatolia had already been massacred by then, so the cross hatching probably shows Kurds, 10) the Greek element of Thessaloniki increased dramatically following its incorporation in Greece in 1912. Thessaloniki is very small point on the map, thus it is not possible to show its multi-ethnic nature. This is true of all ethnographic maps of this scale in general. It is simply not possible to show every ethnic group within a city at this scale. I give you point 6 regarding western Thrace, but then again I could point out to well over a dozen such flaws in every map of the period (or today for that matter). The map is useful to readers and gives a general sense (if not perfect) of the distribution of Greeks prior to the population movements of the 1920s and after. In any case, as a compromise, I made the above proposal with the dual map (1918 NG map and 1923 Hammond map) that shows the distribution of Greeks before and after the 1923 population exchange. The 1923 map address some issues of the 1918 map, such as the Chams and Arvanites. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 03:41, 1 December 2021 (UTC)

*'''Oppose removal''' I'm seeing [[WP:AGEMATTERS]] cited for why this map should be removed, but this rule applies to sources, not images. [[User:Amanuensis Balkanicus|Amanuensis Balkanicus]] ([[User talk:Amanuensis Balkanicus|talk]]) 18:33, 1 December 2021 (UTC)
*'''Oppose removal'''. The map is accurate and NatGeo is reliable. [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 18:48, 2 December 2021 (UTC)

== Kalash Pseudoscientific Theory ==
The Kalash pseudoscientific theory should be removed from the article. They really have nothing to do with the ancient Greeks - see [[Kalash people#Genetic studies]] [[User:Botushali|Botushali]] ([[User talk:Botushali|talk]]) 02:07, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
:You shouldn't start a discussion about pseudoscientific nationalist narratives. And if conspiracy theories are restored, the article will get tagged and go through GA review.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 12:15, 20 November 2021 (UTC)
::There are no "conspiracies". The article does not state the Kalash are descended from ancient Macedonians, it says they claim descent. I personally don't think these claims are valid, but it's a fact that these people claim this. Threats to tag the article are disruptive and should be avoided. No one is going to tag anything. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 15:59, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
{{hat|off-topic}}
:::{{ping|Botushali|Maleschreiber|Khirurg}} due to seeing this unusual activity with huge numbers of Albania Topic Area editors coming here into the article of [[Greeks]], with some of them not even having contributed to this article before, I have contacted the admins. I suggest that everyone shows constraint instead of bringing any [[WP:BALKANS]] mentality there. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 17:19, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Comment''': I notified Admins and I am in the progress of notifying the AE staff. The unusually high flock of Albania topic area editors into this article is worrisome. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 17:22, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*:Do what feels best for you, but don't characterize as "worrisome" the right of editors who are involved in Balkan topics and have written many articles related to Greece to take part in whatever discussion they want to. Most people who [[Talk:Vjosa#Requested_move_25_October_2021|opposed the move to Vjosa]] (mostly the same people who oppose the removal of the NG map) had every right to do so despite having no contributions to Vjosa. The NG racialist map has been disputed by many including senior editors of the Greek topic area.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 17:41, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::{{tq|You and most people who opposed the move to Vjosa}} Sorry, but I didn't oppose the move. I didn't ''even'' participate, let alone oppose it... You must have mistaken me for someone else. [[Vjosa]] belongs to both Greece and Albania Topic Areas. The article [[Greeks]] does not. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 18:04, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::I didn't mean to refer specifically to you, let me change that - some issues have to do with how you phrase things: {{tquote|Most people who [[Talk:Vjosa#Requested_move_25_October_2021|opposed the move to Vjosa]]}}. In the Balkans all communities are interconnected. A map which renders invisible other communities who lived in the same regions as Greeks is a problem. Reverse the issue: if at [[Albanians]], a map which rendered Greeks and other communities invisible was used, it would be a problem which would involve many editors.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 18:12, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::Let me clarify what my notification sent to the admins is: that they keep an eye on the article. If your conduct here is ok and your edits aren't characterized by [[WP:NATIONALIST]] patterns, you will be fine and you have nothing to worry about. However right as we are talking, several of the editors from the Albania Topic Area already made edits emphasizing on diluting Greek presence in various areas [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greeks&type=revision&diff=1056415168&oldid=1056353548&diffmode=source] and at same time at the RfC they seek to promote maps that dilute Greek presence in Asia Minor. Coincidence? Normally, an edit by itself does not constitute a nationalist edit. But when it is several editors with their contribution logs being timely synchronized into one place and in within few days only and are directing their edits against certain a ethnicity, indicates a nationalist pattern, then I can't help but be worried about this coordinated POV pushing and ask for admin supervision of the area. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 18:23, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::Nationalist patterns are related to edits which deny the fundamental truth of the Mediterranean: people and communities mixed and created new communities. Ahmet Q. wrote about Greeks who migrated to Egypt and Near Easterners who migrated to Greece. This is the historical reality of the Mediterranean and it's not nationalist to say that ethnic groups are culturally, socially and politically ''but'' not biologically constructed. An article about [[Greeks]] or any people which creates a narrative about uninterrupted continuity and disputes all sources which challenge it is a problem. Thank you.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 18:44, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::Thank you {{ping|SilentResident}} for your efforts. There is indeed an issue with editors that think in terms {{tq|fundamental truth}} and {{tq|historical reality}}. Regarding {{tq|biologically contructed}} and {{tq|uninterrupted continuity}}, I could easily level such accusations against your edits at [[Albanians]], [[Illyrians]] and [[Origin of the Albanians]], where they seem to present a picture of uninterrupted continuity, and dismiss all scholarship to the contrary as "outdated". But the sudden spillover into ''this'' article marks a huge escalation. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 18:56, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::Khirurg, I don't know for [[Origin of Albanians]], [[Illyrians]] and [[Albanians]] since these topics are out of my scope. However I would gladly have accept Maleschreiber's statement had not been for the contrib logs which show the ''whole'' picture, like a look at these November edits: [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georgios_Kountouriotis&diff=prev&oldid=1055888623&diffmode=source][https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arvanites&diff=prev&oldid=1055115512&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greeks&diff=1056091929&oldid=1056079649&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arvanites&diff=prev&oldid=1055109272&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kitsos_Tzavelas&diff=prev&oldid=1055834474&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kostas_Botsaris&diff=prev&oldid=1055834113&diffmode=source]. I consider these to be rather problematic edits directed against a particular ethnicity (Greek) or promoting a particular another ethnicity (Albanian). A classic case of [[WP:NATIONALIST|nationalist editing]]. It is up to the Admins to see if there is anything worthy tackling. In meantime I suggest the editors show restraint from edits such as these ones directed against ''very'' specific nationalities from now and on. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 19:05, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
**If you think that writing that other communities ''exist'' is directed ''against'' one community, then your narrative constitutes a very problematic one. The world is multicultural. I've written about Greeks of Albanian origin, Turks of Slavic origin, Albanians of Italian origin and even Albanian Yugoslavs of African origin. None was directed ''against'' any ethnicity.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 19:15, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::{{ping|SilentResident}} My work has focused on the [[Arvanites]], a community which has been overlooked and often hidden under the nationalism-s of the 20th century. In our century, people like the Arvanites under the effects of decolonialization in historical research are becoming more and more known and have a voice. I assure you that to say that Arvanites ''are'' is not a denial of the fact that Greeks also ''are''. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 19:33, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*:You did well to notice them but for what purpose? There is a reason why "an Albanian flock" appears in this article. I can not talk about others but I myself saw this open discussion looking at the page of contributions of one of the editors and of course I saw fit to give my opinion on the issue. Now, here the problem appears with a map that cancels the Albanians and some others in a certain time range where in fact in certain areas there were even a majority. What is argued, at least from me, is the use of a more acceptable map and one was proposed, and I see absolutely no objection to its accuracy except for light colors. Choosing between one map that has deep inaccuracies, not to say dubious intentions by the author, and another that has unacceptable colors seems to me a big difference. '''[[User:Bes-ART|'''Bes-ART''']][[User talk:Bes-ART|Talk]]''' 17:56, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' I do not see how any of this is relevant too the original topic of this thread. [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 19:39, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' What does any of this have to do with what I put forward? This is very unproductive... [[User:Botushali|Botushali]] ([[User talk:Botushali|talk]]) 00:18, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
{{hab}}

I notice that there is RS that the specific people claim Greek descent. As such there is no reason for removal. Sourced facts need to stay, regardless of the genetic studies.[[User:Alexikoua|Alexikoua]] ([[User talk:Alexikoua|talk]]) 06:16, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
: Well, just because there are sources for that factoid doesn't mean it's a notable fact ''about the Greeks'' and as such a pertinent issue for this article. A note about it in the [[Kalash]] article is fine, but placing it here implies that there actually ''is'' a link between the two groups. Especially the way the sentence is placed in the paragraph ("Two thousand years later, there are still …"), which is clearly designed to suggest that it's providing additional support and validity to the preceding statement, which is about the expansion of Greek settlement. That suggested link is clearly invalid – especially since that preceding sentence is really just about expansion to places like Antioch and Alexandria; there's no sourced coverage supporting any notable amount of population movement to places that much further east. [[User:Future Perfect at Sunrise|Fut.Perf.]] [[User talk:Future Perfect at Sunrise|☼]] 06:58, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

::If we really want to re-affirm the present article's GA, is better that the claims by Kalash be moved elsewhere. Having seen myself some GA progresses, I know there will be scrutiny and that sentence can fail the GA assessment. The article needs more quality about Greeks and since the Kalash made the claims in the context of Macedonian ancestry primarily, I think a note at Greek Macedonians article or at Kalash article themselves, suffices. - [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 07:11, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

:::As per the comments above, what the Kalash people claim (which is also in the context of ancient culturally-Hellenic societies) is not necessarily relevant to this article that focuses on Modern Greeks. It's fine to include the claim in relevant articles (e.g. Kalash) - with a note that explains that this claim is indeed false according to genetic studies and the like. However, it really has no place here especially in the way it is written. If there is no further contention, I will make the appropriate edit and remove it from the article. [[User:Botushali|Botushali]] ([[User talk:Botushali|talk]]) 11:55, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
::::Just to correct your misunderstanding, the article focuses on Greeks not only on modern Greeks. Understanding the scope of the article is fundamental for one to edit the topic otherwise can lead to flawed edit, misconceptions and other related stuff. But the Kalash people indeed is something that can probably can go off. They claim that it does not mean that it is the reality. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 12:00, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::The statistics, culture, identity, migration etc etc refer to the evolution and contemporary existence of Modern Greeks. There is a page on [[Ancient Greece]] which focuses on Ancient Greeks, and one on [[Ottoman Greeks]] which specifically refers to the population of Greece during those periods - this is simply a comprehensive outline of what came before Modern Greeks and contributed to their development as the Greeks of today. There is no misunderstanding here. Then again, this is not relevant either and I don't know why people keep commenting irrelevant things on this thread, which was purely intended to discuss the line about the [[Kalash]] people. [[User:Botushali|Botushali]] ([[User talk:Botushali|talk]]) 13:25, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

::::::You still fail to understand the scope of the article but I am not going to discuss this now, you as an editor should have the capability to understand the articles you are contributing to. However, my comment was about Kalash and I said that it can go.. Not sure why you did not notice. Best [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 13:42, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

:::::: Actually, [[Greeks]] encompass and summarizes anything about Greeks, from origins and ancient times to modern times, not just contemporarily. In fact, the existence of the other articles are for the more-in-depth coverage of the equivalent periods of their history. You will see Mycenaean, Classical, etc but there separate articles as well for those who want to be informed more in depth. - [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 13:40, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

'''Comment:''' It seems a general consensus has been reached. I will remove the line. [[User:Botushali|Botushali]] ([[User talk:Botushali|talk]]) 23:12, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

== Population movements during the Hellenistic age ==

I added some information about the effects of population movements in late Hellenistic era, from the [[Cambridge University Press]]. I didn't think that my edit was controversial, but I'm ok with having a discussion:

{{tquote|Many Greeks migrated in the Hellenistic territories, while Greece because of these migrations saw a general demographic decrease and depopulation towards the late Hellenistic era. As Greeks moved to the Hellenistic centres of the ancients world, so did people like Jews, Syrians and Egyptians move from the periphery to Greece. The Roman-Greek wars in the late Hellenistic period caused the movement of 150,000 Epirotes in Italy as slaves and the introduction of Italian slaves in Greece. Overall, in many regions of the ancient world including Greece, the Hellenistic era produced a much more ethnically mixed population.}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bugh |first1=Glenn |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521828796 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=phf5EcQQ0PkC&pg=PA83 }}</ref> [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 19:46, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
{{reflist talk}}
:Your edit if looked upon it individually, may seem as non-controversial but your edit history shows a definitive editorial bias against a specific group of people where you have a tendency of picking controversial content to add, which emphasizes on weakening the presence of Greek culture or Greek people around. When these individual edits are looked collectively upon: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Ahmet_Q.], they stack and do not instill any good-faith in the long term, causing mistrust between you and other the editors. Like how the admins often advise the Balkan topic area editors: its better if you just leave such edits aside and try make neutral edits that aren't about the same groups of people where you saw your edits being reverted. After all, its not like as if you don't have other kinds of edits to make around, right? Try some edits the others won't perceive as controversial for once. Why not follow my example, where, I am working on Infobox images for cities these days. Likewise, I am sure you can do something better than adding content to the article that dilutes Greek presence in Greece in ~30BD, and then jumping into that article's talk RfC to support maps diluting Greek presence in 1900AD in Asia Minor and then come here wondering why you have been reverted. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 20:31, 21 November 2021 (UTC)

::Unfortunately what you are doing at this moment, seems to me just [[WP:WITCHHUNT]]ing and I hope someone can explain that the argument of someone or some, based on reliable sources and in accordance to Wikipedia guidelines can not be considered "nationalist edits" and/or "against a community ", perhaps those who are currently as page content have problems and untruths and can be further improved by academics and scholars who today, unlike before are much more freer to write history as it was. '''[[User:Bes-ART|'''Bes-ART''']][[User talk:Bes-ART|Talk]]''' 20:50, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::My advise stands, and is a friendly one and about how to improve the deteriorating situation in this article which this month has seen more reverts than in the previous months. Some competency is required at how to avoid stirring up even more disruption. Now if you want to see it as Witch Hunting, then your problem, not mine. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 21:37, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::The articles hasn't deteriorated. It has improved because narratives which aren't supported in bibliography have been removed.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 22:32, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::Excuse me. "Improved?" Some competence here please? Reverts and content disputes can endanger a GA status. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_article_criteria#The_six_good_article_criteria]. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 23:20, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::Yes, the article has been improved. The same edits were removed by admins too. If the article was placed in GA review now, it wouldn't pass it because many sources don't discuss the narratives of the sections. It passed a GA review in 2009 - we're entering 2022 in a month.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 23:38, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::I was about to correct you now that it was 2019 that it passed review. Only when you mentioned it I checked it now a second time, I realized is indeed 2009, not 2019. However you really need to take in consideration that you have been involved in way too many disputes in the past with several of the editors around here, and bringing there the [[WP:BALKANS|edit wars]] from other Balkan articles, won't be helpful. Knowing the editors around here, it will be best of you keep in mind that [[WP:BRD]] still stands: if they revert you once, don't revert them back. In this case, bring it here to the talk page and if none else here objects within a reasonable time, even the editor who reverted you, then you may add it back to the article. For me, the edit that adds Bugh, Glenn (2006), seems fine, and if you are really neutral and care about maintaining GA, then we can start with this edit by Ahmet Q..
::::::::The source states:
:::::::::"{{tq|However, the evidence of counter-flows precludes us from imagining old Greece as being entirely like late nineteenth-century Ireland after the emigrations of the 1840s and after. Some flows were voluntary, such as those of Syrians to Delos, Demetrias, and Corinth, of Jews to Asia Minor, Greece, and Cyrene, or of Egyptians towards the major Aegean ports. Others were forcible, the products of the slave trade. They formed a continuous low-level Brownian motion throughout the Hellenistic world and beyond, punctuated by occasional peaks, such as the influx of Italian slaves into Greece during the Second Punic War, the deportation of 150,000 Epirotes into slavery in Italy in 167 (Polyb. 30.15), the massive recruitment needed to restart the silvermine production at Laureion after 164, or the glut after 146.41 Though, as usual, we cannot quantify them, such shifts (and no doubt others we cannot yet even detect) not only gave the late Hellenistic world, especially its cities, a much more ethnically mixed population, but also enlarged those cities dramatically, creating at least three new mega-cities (Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and perhaps Seleukeia), each large enough to equal if not surpass Babylon. Public order, the demands of the construction industry, and above all the logistics and control of food supply combined to generate wholly new patterns of supply and demand.}}"
::::::::and as you can see, the edit can be improved alot further before it is re-added back to the article. But considering the editor's problematic contributions log which show a bias against certain ethnic groups, leaves me no option but scrutinize the edits they make and this is an example of scrutiny. If their next edits on this article are perceived to be [[WP:CHERRYPICK]]ing on sources to POV-push the article in ways remiscent in nationalist Albanian propagandas, then that won't be helpful. And no, what I am saying here is not "witchhunting" as fellow editor Bes-ART may be thinking, but something everyone is supposed to know. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 23:57, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' We discuss subjects based on bibliography. If reliable bibliography discusses such movements and their role in the formation of new communities, they should be mentioned. Motives and personal beliefs aren't part of the discussion in terms of WP:RS.--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 22:01, 21 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::Excellent job SR, the initial proposal has a certain POV as well as serious CHERRY issues. I believe a more generic statement is warranted in this case. By the way the example of the 150,000 Epirotes as a representative one in the Hellenistic world falls into wp:UNDO if mentioned.[[User:Alexikoua|Alexikoua]] ([[User talk:Alexikoua|talk]]) 00:33, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
*{{ping|SilentResident}} Ahmet wrote that {{tquote|Many Greeks migrated in the Hellenistic territories, while Greece because of these migrations saw a general demographic decrease and depopulation towards the late Hellenistic era. As Greeks moved to the Hellenistic centres of the ancients world, so did people like Jews, Syrians and Egyptians move from the periphery to Greece. The Roman-Greek wars in the late Hellenistic period caused the movement of 150,000 Epirotes in Italy as slaves and the introduction of Italian slaves in Greece. Overall, in many regions of the ancient world including Greece, the Hellenistic era produced a much more ethnically mixed population}} What would you change now that you read the full quote?--[[User:Maleschreiber|Maleschreiber]] ([[User talk:Maleschreiber|talk]]) 00:50, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
::The key words: "{{tq|'''Many''' Greeks migrated}}" and "{{tq|Greece because of these migrations saw a '''general demographic decrease and depopulation'''}}" are not in the source, are editor Ahmet Q's choice of words. One would assume [[WP:GOODFAITH]], that these are the obvious interpretation of what a source says. But comparing what Bugh, Glenn (2006) says with Ahmet Q's quote, its evident that the editor is far from offering an accurate interpretation of what Bugh, Glenn (2006) does actually say. Am I correct or not, Maleschreiber?
::Btw, thank you, Alexikoua.
::Maleschreiber, I think I am not the ''only'' one here noticing the problems. Alexikoua also noted them. Now I hope with this example of source falsification, I am making clear what ''kind'' of controversial edits should be avoided at [[Greeks]] in the first place, trigger reverts, and cause the article's destabilization, if the editors truly aspire of being neutral and help improve the article.
::Before we proceed with the correction of the POV-pushing edits by Ahmet Q, I would appreciate if Maleschreiber and Alexikoua also check the source so that they verify whether I am correct that these key words are indeed missing from the author's text. I want to make sure that I avoid any mistakes here on my effort to correct Ahmet Q's ones. If the key words are somehow in the source but I missed them, then I will apologize to Ahmet Q. :-) Thank you.--- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 01:17, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
::I just got informed by an Admin from the AE that they added the article [[Greeks]] to their watchlist. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 06:03, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
{{tquote|the scale of depopulation of rural areas of old Greece by the late Hellenistic period is becoming ever clearer from the consistent message of surface surveys}} is the previous section from the one you quoted. The book does describe depopulation and migrations from and into Greece. It should be added back to the article. [[User:Durraz0|Durraz0]] ([[User talk:Durraz0|talk]]) 08:59, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
:Exactly Durraz0, it is weird that SilentResident did not include that part in her quote, but since the source is available on google anyone can make up their own opinion about it. {{ping|SilentResident}} your accusations of me having {{tquote|definitive editorial bias against a specific group of people}} is extremely inappropriate. I don't know if you realize but this constitutes a personal attack. I would advice you to refrain from doing this again and to focus on the actual subject of the discussion. [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 10:05, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
::In your edit we can find this {{tq|Overall, in many regions of the ancient world including Greece, the Hellenistic era produced a much more ethnically mixed population}} the sources says this {{tq|Such shifts (and no doubt others we cannot yet even detect) not only gave the late Hellenistic world, especially its cities, a much more ethnically mixed population, but also enlarged those cities dramatically, creating at least three new mega-cities (Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and perhaps Seleukeia)}}. The source mentions the Hellenistic world as broad and does not specify Greece as you did. The cities mentioned are the colonies of the Greeks outside of "old Greece". This needs to be reflected accurately which currently isn't. Additionally, there was no general demographic decrease, the author does not refer to that, there was depopulation of the rural areas (due to the population movements to the cities). The author even specifies that {{tq|However, the evidence of counter-flows precludes us from imagining old Greece as being entirely like late nineteenth-century Ireland after the emigrations of the 1840s and after}} I am working on your edit to fix it because it seems slightly flawed, you missed probably some details. No harm done this happens. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 11:09, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

:::Ahmet Q, I asked for verification from Maleschreiber and Alexikoua about the full verification, but your answer doesnt address source falsification:

:::"{{tq|the scale of depopulation of rural areas of old Greece}}" is ≠ "{{tq|Greece because of these migrations saw a general demographic decrease and depopulation}}"

:::I believe that Ahmet Q should at least provide ''here'' the full quote, copy-pasted, so we can know exactly what parts of the source were used so we can make sure we did not miss something. That will clear things outright about whether there is indeed misrepresentation of what the source says. - [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 13:08, 22 November 2021 (UTC)

{{undent}} Based on the source I suggest that Ahmet's edit to become the following: {{tq|During the Hellenistic period, population movements occurred from Greece to the centres of the Hellenistic world and other Greek colonies. These movements contributed to the creation of at least three new ethnically mixed cities in particular [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Rome]] however, at the expense of the depopulation of rural areas in Greece. As Greeks moved to the Hellenistic centres of the ancient world, so did people like Jews, Syrians and Egyptians move to the periphery of Greece. Additionally, during the [[Second Punic War]] the Romans deported 150,000 Epirotes to Italy as slaves and Italian slaves were introduced in Greece. It should also be noted that these movements also resulted to the generation of a completely new pattern for food and construction supply and demand. New sea routes have been established and knowledge transfer and sharing occurred from one city to another.}} Thanks. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 16:48, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
::That's good re-wording, Othon I! Well done. It reflects alot more accurately what Bugh, Glenn (2006) does state and is addressing the problematic combination of "{{tq|Many Greeks migrated}}" and "{{tq|Greece because of these migrations saw a general demographic decrease and depopulation}}". You have my support, however I think I can come with a proposal that can reflect on source even better to eliminate any likehood that it will be challenged.--- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 18:35, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
:::Thanks SR. Certainly, please feel free to make a suggestion if you believe that it can be improved. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 19:22, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
::::I would prefer a more general description. The source among other things, describes this a "low-grade Brownian motion" and emphasizes that "its scale should not be exaggerated". I would thus propose something like {{tq|During the Hellenistic period, population movements occurred from Greece to the centres of the Hellenistic world as well as movements from the periphery to Greece, although the scale of these movements should not be exaggerated. These movements have been described as "low grade Brownian motion" and contributed to the growth of new cities such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]].}}. I don't think Rome should be included, it never had a large Greek population, certainly not compared to Alexandria and Antioch. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 21:41, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::I would recommend a simple key word change to Othon's and Khirurg's proposals, i.e. "rural" to be added: "{{tq|During the Hellenistic period, population movements occurred from '''rural''' Greece to the centres of the Hellenistic world and other Greek colonies.}}" (additions in ''bold'') because the source is referring to rural areas. Also per [[WP:RELEVANT]] (this article topic are Greeks), the usual practice is to not go into much details about migrations concerning non-Greeks or what destinations these populations had. For this reason, information such as "{{tq|so did people like Jews, Syrians and Egyptians move to the periphery of Greece}}" and "{{tq| three new ethnically mixed cities in particular [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Rome]]}}" may be added to more relevant articles such as: [[Hellenistic Greece]], [[Egyptians]], [[Jews]], [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Rome]], among others. With these concise proposals, the reader can be updated on the subject without deviating from the topic. When I am editing articles, I always make sure to mention 2 things with WP:RELEVANT in mind: only the subject of the article, and the event involving it/relating to it. That's all. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 23:43, 22 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::Indeed, that is an important point. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 00:39, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::Indeed SR and Khirurg, that's a very good point that I did not consider. SR, could you prepare you final suggestion and place it here? Thanks [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 09:00, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::"{{tq|During the Hellenistic period, population movements occurred from rural Greece to the centres of the Hellenistic world and Italy, although the scale of these movements should not be exaggerated. These movements have been described as "low grade Brownian motion" and contributed to the growth of new cities such as [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]], and perhaps [[Seleukeia]]}}". Please note how I added Italy, since the Epirote movements were considerable nevertheless, and there are WP:RS suggesting that Seleukeia was known for having a presence of these people as well, besides Alexandria and Antioch. I suggest we leave this out: "{{tq|Public order, the demands of the construction industry, and above all the logistics and control of food supply combined to generate wholly new patterns of supply and demand.}}" since this happens with migrations nevertheless and regardless of people, and thus better have this kind of information added to the history of cities and economy in the region rather than attributing it solely to specific groups of people, i.e. Greeks. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 13:47, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::The source talks about regions in Greece. {{tquote|Some flows were voluntary, such as those of Syrians to Delos, Demetrias, and Corinth, of Jews to Asia Minor, Greece, and Cyrene, or of Egyptians towards the major Aegean ports. Others were forcible, the products of the slave trade. They formed a continuous low-level Brownian motion throughout the Hellenistic world and beyond, punctuated by occasional peaks, such as the influx of Italian slaves into Greece during the Second Punic War, the deportation of 150,000 Epirotes into slavery in Italy in 167 (Polyb. 30.15), the massive recruitment needed to restart the silvermine production at Laureion after 164}} "Low grade Brownian motion" can be described in different terms because Brownian fluctuations are difficult to understand for many and the change in population levels '''from and to''' has to be noted in a way. {{tq|During the Hellenistic period, population movements occurred from Greece to the centres of the Hellenistic world as well as from Mediterranean regions to Greece, although the scale of these movements should not be exaggerated. These movements contributed to the growth of new cities such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]]. Apart from voluntary migrations they included the forced movement of 150,000 Epirotes in Italy and Italian slaves in Greece. }} [[User:Ahmet Q.|Ahmet Q.]] ([[User talk:Ahmet Q.|talk]]) 22:24, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::Ahmet Q., the forceful movements such as of 150.000 Epirotes may be added and mentioned expicitely in the article [[Epirotes]] if they must, not here. Here, they may only be mentioned summarily. i.e. "{{tq|Hundreds of thousands of Epirotes were deported to Italy in slavery"}} (but even that may have to be reworked and shrinked since the Hellenistic section is too small and this may give it undue weight still). What I am telling to you is no different than what the article Greeks has already done for other similar cases, i.e. the Pontic genocide. The article Greeks avoids explicitely giving pop figures or details about Pontic Greek movements as well. This is because the present article's scope isn't to go into details about individual subgroups of Greeks but to mention their most notable events summarily.
:::::::::About Brownian motions, you are right. I agree that "{{tq|Low grade Brownian motion" can be described in different terms because Brownian fluctuations are difficult to understand for many and the change in population levels '''from and to''' has to be noted in a way.}}" Considering this, I would like to change my proposal above and remove ''any'' mention of Brownian motions from it, and rather move them to articles about the Hellenistic era if they have to be mentioned at all. The present article's focus is about the Greek people and only. And unless the author explicitly mentions that the migrations of Greeks caused/contributed to the migrations of foreigners, these foreign migrations are not [[WP:RELEVANT]] here. If the case here was different, i.e. the author linked these migrations explicitly, then the editors ought to have them mentioned only summarily and briefly, if they agree to ever add them. The same is true not only about Hellenistic period's movements but also movements of other periods: the article carefully avoids any mention of Armenian movements during their Genocide which concurred with the Greek movements during the Greek Genocide, for obvious reasons even though the Genocide scholars agree that they relate due to being part of the same genocide policy by the Ottoman authorities. Hope I am clear. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 23:47, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
::::::::::We don't have to mention Brownian motion, but I also don't think we need to mention the Epirote thing either. Best to keep it general, otherwise I'm worried this will lead to mention all kinds of specific movements, which will result in article clutter. I would strongly prefer to keep things succinct in this article, per [[WP:SS]]. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 05:19, 24 November 2021 (UTC)
:::::::::::Agree with Khirurg. I have reworded the initial however, our topic is Greeks and my text and Ahmet's had some slightly [[WP:COATRACK]] material. The movement of 150k slaves to Italy and the introduction of Italian slaves in Greece or the impact of these moves do not really fit to a summary article as such. However, are important to add to the related articles to provide more depth. SR's text is what will suffice. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 08:12, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

== Brand new book summarising the history of the Greeks ==

[https://books.google.gr/books/about/The_Greeks.html?id=Qh8bEAAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description&redir_esc=y "The Greeks: A Global History"] Roderick Beaton, Basic Books, Nov 2, 2021 - History - 608 pages, ISBN: 1541618289. {{tq| In ''The Greeks'', Beaton traces this history from the Bronze Age Mycenaeans who built powerful fortresses at home and strong trade routes abroad, to the dramatic Eurasian conquests of Alexander the Great, to the pious Byzantines who sought to export Christianity worldwide, to today’s Greek diaspora, which flourishes on five continents. The product of decades of research, this is the story of the Greeks and their global impact told as never before.}} I thoroughly believe that it will provide great contribution to the article especially for the Middle Ages and the Ottoman times. [[User:Othon I|Othon I]] ([[User talk:Othon I|talk]]) 12:32, 24 November 2021 (UTC)

Argead dynasty

2021-10-09T14:24:36Z

Macedonian: /* Origin */ cn tag

{{short description|First dynasty of the Macedonian Kingdom}}
{{Infobox royal house|surname=House of Argos|estate=[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]]|coat of arms=Vergina_Sun_-_Golden_Larnax.png|parent house=[[Temenids]] ([[Heracleidae]])|country=[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] ([[Ancient Greece]])|caption=[[Vergina Sun]]|titles=[[Macedon#The King|Basileus of Macedonia]]

[[King of Persia]]

[[King of Asia]]

[[Pharaoh of Egypt]]

[[League of Corinth|Hegemon of the Hellenic League]]

[[League of Corinth|Strategos Autokrator of Greece]]|final ruler=[[Alexander IV of Macedon]]|founding year=808 BC|dissolution=310 BC|cadet branches=[[Ptolemaic dynasty]] (?)}}
The '''Argead dynasty''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ἀργεάδαι}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Argeádai}}) was an [[Ancient Macedonians|ancient Macedonian]] royal house of [[Dorians|Dorian Greek]] provenance.<ref name=Howatson-Harvey/><ref>{{harvnb|Cosmopoulos|1992|p=30}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Grant|1988|p=259: "It was the descendants of these Dorians [...] who formed the upper class among the Macedonians of subsequent epochs."}}</ref> They were the founders and the ruling [[dynasty]] of the kingdom of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]] from about 700 to 310 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Cosmopoulos|1992|loc="TABLE 2: The Argeiad Kings" (p. 30)}}.</ref>

Their tradition, as described in [[Greek historiography|ancient Greek historiography]], traced their origins to [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], of [[Peloponnese (region)|Peloponnese]] in Southern Greece, hence the name ''Argeads'' or ''Argives''.<ref>[http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Argive?q=argive Argive], ''Oxford Dictionaries''.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|1986|p=516}}: "In the early 5th century the royal house of Macedonia, the Temenidae was recognised as Macedonian by the Presidents of the Olympic Games. Their verdict considered themselves to be of Macedonian descent."</ref><ref name=Howatson-Harvey>{{harvnb|Howatson|Harvey|1989|p=339}}: "In historical times the royal house traced its descent from the mythical Temenus, king of Argos, who was one of the Heracleidae, and more immediately from Perdiccas I, who left Argos for Illyria, probably in the mid-seventh century BC, and from there captured the Macedonian plain and occupied the fortress of Aegae (Vergina), setting himself up as king of the Macedonians. Thus the kings were of largely Dorian Greek stock (see PHILIP (1)); they presumably spoke a form of Dorian Greek and their cultural tradition had Greek features."</ref> Initially the rulers of the tribe of the same name,<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|2004|p=316}}: "According to Strabo, 7.11 ff., the Argeadae were the tribe who were able to make themselves supreme in early Emathia, later Macedonia."</ref> by the time of Philip II they had expanded their reign further, to include under the rule of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] all [[Upper Macedonia]]n states. The family's most celebrated members were [[Philip II of Macedon]] and his son [[Alexander the Great]], under whose leadership the kingdom of Macedonia gradually gained predominance throughout Greece, defeated the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and expanded as far as [[Egypt]] and [[India]]. The mythical founder of the Argead dynasty is King [[Caranus of Macedon|Caranus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2013|p=103}}.</ref><ref>According to [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (''Description of Greece'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+9.40&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 9.40.8–9]), Caranus set up a trophy after the Argive fashion for a victory against Cisseus: "The Macedonians say that Caranus, king of Macedonia, overcame in battle Cisseus, a chieftain in a bordering country. For his victory Caranus set up a trophy after the Argive fashion, but it is said to have been upset by a lion from Olympus, which then vanished. Caranus, they assert, realized that it was a mistaken policy to incur the undying hatred of the non-Greeks dwelling around, and so, they say, the rule was adopted that no king of Macedonia, neither Caranus himself nor any of his successors, should set up trophies, if they were ever to gain the good-will of their neighbors. This story is confirmed by the fact that Alexander set up no trophies, neither for his victory over Dareius nor for those he won in India."</ref>

==Origin==
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| width =
| header =
| header_align = left/right/center
| footer = Triobol of Argos (top), and a bronze coin of King [[Amyntas II of Macedon]] (bottom). The early Argead kings often copied the wolf of Argos' coins on their own coinage to highlight their supposed ancestry from this city.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoover|2011|p=161}}; {{harvnb|Hoover|2016|p=295}}.</ref>
| footer_align = left
| image1 = Argos, Triobol, c.270-250 BC, HGC 5-670.jpg
| width1 = 250
| caption1 =
| image2 = Amyntas II, Bronze, c.395-393 BC, HGC 3-I-820.jpg
| width2 = 250
| caption2 =
}}

The words ''Argead'' and ''Argive'' derive (via [[Latin]] ''Argīvus''<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Short|1879|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3DArgivus Argīvus]}}.</ref>) from the [[Greek language|Greek]] Ἀργεῖος (''Argeios'' meaning "of or from [[Ancient Argos|Argos]]"<ref>{{harvnb|Liddell|Scott|1940|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D*%29argei%3Dos Ἀργεῖος]}}.</ref>), which is first attested in [[Homer]] where it was also used as a collective designation for the Greeks ("Ἀργείων Δαναῶν", ''Argive [[Danaans]]'').<ref>{{harvnb|Cartledge|2011|loc=Chapter 4: Argos, p. 23: "The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does in fact apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'."}}</ref><ref>Homer. ''Iliad'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.+Il.+2.155&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134 2.155–175], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.%20Il.%204.8&lang=original 4.8]; ''Odyssey'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.%20Od.%208.578&lang=original 8.578], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.+Od.+4.6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0218 4.6].</ref> The Argead dynasty claimed descent from the [[Temenids]] of Argos, in the [[Peloponnese]], whose legendary ancestor was [[Temenus]], the great-great-grandson of [[Heracles]].<ref name=Howatson-Harvey/>

In the excavations of the royal palace at [[Vergina|Aegae]], [[Manolis Andronikos]] discovered in the "tholos" room (according to some scholars "tholos" was the throne room) a [[Greek inscriptions|Greek inscription]] relating to that belief.<ref>The Greek inscription found in the tholos room of the royal palace at Aegae reads "ΗΡΑΚΛΗΙ ΠΑΤΡΩΙΩΙ" ({{harvnb|Andronikos|1994|loc=p. 38: "Η επιγραφή αυτή είναι: «ΗΡΑΚΛΗΙ ΠΑΤΡΩΙΩΙ», που σημαίνει στον «Πατρώο Ηρακλή», στον Ηρακλή δηλαδή που ήταν γενάρχης της βασιλικής οικογένειας των Μακεδόνων." [Translation: "This inscription is: «ΗΡΑΚΛΗΙ ΠΑΤΡΩΙΩΙ», which means "Father (Ancestor) Hercules", dedicated to Hercules who was the ancestor of the royal family of the Macedonians."])}}</ref> This is testified by [[Herodotus]], in ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'', where he mentions that three brothers of the lineage of Temenus, [[Gauanes]], [[Aeropus (brother of Perdiccas I)|Aeropus]] and [[Perdiccas I of Macedon|Perdiccas]], fled from Argos to the [[Illyrians]] and then to [[Upper Macedonia]], to a town called [[Lebaea]], where they served the king. The latter asked them to leave his territory, believing in an omen that something great would happen to Perdiccas. The boys went to another part of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], near the garden of [[Midas]], above which mount Bermio stands. There they made their abode and slowly formed their own kingdom.<ref>Herodotus. ''Histories'', [[s:History of Herodotus/Book 8|8.137]].</ref>

Herodotus also relates the incident of the participation of [[Alexander I of Macedon]] in the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] in 504 or 500 BC where the participation of the Macedonian king was contested by participants on the grounds that he was not Greek. The [[Hellanodikai]], however, after examining his Argead claim confirmed that the Macedonian kings were Greeks and allowed him to participate.<ref>Herodotus. ''Histories'', 5.22.</ref>

[[File:Route of Karanos to establish his own kingdom.png|thumb|350px|The route of the Argeads from [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]], [[Peloponnese]], to [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] according to [[Herodotus]].]]

Another theory supported by modern scholars,{{cn}} following the ancient author [[Appian]], is that the Argead dynasty actually descended from [[Orestis (region)|Argos Orestikon]] in Macedonia, and that the Macedonian kings claimed a descent from Argos in Peloponnese to enforce their Greekness.<ref>[[Appian]]. ''Syrian Wars'', 11.10.63.</ref>{{Egyptian Dynasty list}}[[File:House of Argos.svg|thumb|House of Argos]]According to [[Thucydides]], in the ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'', the Argeads were originally Temenids from Argos, who descended from the highlands to Lower Macedonia, expelled the Pierians from [[Pieria (regional unit)|Pieria]] and acquired in [[Paionia]] a narrow strip along the river [[Vardar|Axios]] extending to [[Pella]] and the sea. They also added [[Mygdonia]] in their territory through the expulsion of the [[Edoni]], [[Eordaea|Eordians]], and [[Almopians]].<ref>Thucydides. ''History of the Peloponnesian War'', [[s:History of the Peloponnesian War/Book 2|2.99]].</ref>

==Dynasty==
=== Succession disputes ===
The death of the king almost invariably triggered dynastic disputes and often a [[war of succession]] between members of the Argead family, leading to political and economic instability.<ref name="Roisman">{{Cite book |last=Roisman |first=Joseph |date=2002 |title=Brill's Companion to Alexander the Great |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qn8tDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |location=Leiden/Boston |publisher=Brill |page=71–75 |isbn=9789004217553 |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref> These included:
* Six-year Macedonian interregnum (399–393 BCE), after the death of king [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus I]], between [[Crateuas of Macedon|Crateuas]], [[Orestes of Macedon|Orestes]], [[Aeropus II of Macedon|Aeropus II]], [[Amyntas II of Macedon|Amyntas II "the Little"]], [[Derdas II]], [[Archelaus II of Macedon|Archelaus II]], and [[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Errington |first=Robert Malcolm |date=1990 |title=A History of Macedonia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYgkqP_s1PQC&pg=PA28 |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |page=28–29 |isbn=9780520063198 |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="Kings and Generals Ancient Macedonia">{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXX1FVYysjQ |title=Ancient Macedonia before Alexander the Great and Philip II |author=Leo Stone, Ilkin Gambar, Officially Devin, Nolan Karimov, András Szente-Dzsida |work=Kings and Generals |publisher=YouTube |date=8 March 2020 |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref>{{rp|at=18:56}}
* Macedonian war of succession (393–392 BCE), after the death of king [[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]], between [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]] and [[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus II]]<ref name="Argaeus II">{{DGRBM|author=CPM|title=Argaeus|volume=1|page=279|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/acl3129.0001.001/294?page=root;size=100;view=image}}</ref>
* Macedonian war of succession (369–368 BCE), after the death of king [[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]], between [[Ptolemy of Aloros]] and [[Alexander II of Macedon]]<ref name="Kings and Generals Philip II"/>{{rp|at=2:25}}
* Macedonian war of succession (360–359 BCE), after the death of king [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]], between [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] (who deposed [[Amyntas IV of Macedon|Amyntas IV]]), [[Argeus (pretender)|Argeus]] (supported by [[Classical Athens|Athens]]), [[Pausanias (pretender)|Pausanias]] (supported by [[Odrysian kingdom|Thrace]]) and Archelaus (supported by the [[Chalcidian League]])<ref name="Roisman"/><ref name="Kings and Generals Philip II">{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yVTrkESkuTw |title=Diplomatic Genius of Philip of Macedon |author=Matt Hollis, Ilkin Gambar, Officially Devin, Nolan Karimov, András Szente-Dzsida |work=Kings and Generals |publisher=YouTube |date=23 April 2020 |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref>{{rp|at=6:01}}
* [[Wars of the Diadochi]] (323–277 BCE), after the death of king [[Alexander the Great]], between his [[Diadochi]] ("Successors")

Additionally, long-established monarchs could still face a rebellion by a relative when the former's kingship was perceived to be weak. An example was Philip's rebellion against his older brother, king [[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdiccas II]], in the prelude to the [[Peloponnesian War]] (433–431 BCE).

=== List of rulers ===
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;" |
|+'''Argead Rulers'''
! width="160px" |King !! align="center" width="123px" |Reign (BC) !! width="500px" |Comments
|-
|[[Caranus of Macedon|Caranus]]||808–778 BC || Founder of the Argead dynasty and the first king of Macedon.
|-
|[[Coenus (king)|Coenus]]|| 778–750 BC ||
|-
|[[Tyrimmas of Macedon|Tyrimmas]]|| 750–700 BC ||
|-
|[[Perdiccas I of Macedon|Perdiccas I]]|| 700–678 BC ||
|-
|[[Argaeus I of Macedon|Argaeus I]]|| 678–640 BC ||
|-
|[[Philip I of Macedon|Philip I]]|| 640–602 BC ||
|-
|[[Aeropus I of Macedon|Aeropus I]]|| 602–576 BC ||
|-
|[[Alcetas I of Macedon|Alcetas I]]|| 576–547 BC ||
|-
|[[Amyntas I of Macedon|Amyntas I]]|| 547–498 BC || Vassal of the Achaemenid Empire in 511/512 BC. Historians recognize Amyntas' vassalhood as the official beginning of Macedonian history.
|-
|[[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]]|| 498–454 BC || fully subordinate part of the Achaemenid Empire in 492 BC until their Independence in 479 BC following the withdrawal of the Achaemenid army. Positive(?) Relations between the two states remained. The age of [[Achaemenid Macedonia|Achaemenid-Macedonia]] will remain paramount until the end of the Argead dynasty.
|-
|[[Alcetas II of Macedon|Alcetas II]]|| 454–448 BC ||
|-
|[[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdiccas II]]|| 448–413 BC ||
|-
|[[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus]]|| 413–399 BC ||
|-
|[[Orestes of Macedon|Orestes]] and [[Aeropus II of Macedon|Aeropus II]]|| 399–396 BC ||
|-
|[[Archelaus II of Macedon|Archelaus II]]|| 396–393 BC ||
|-
|[[Amyntas II of Macedon|Amyntas II]]|| 393 BC ||
|-
|[[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]]|| 393 BC ||
|-
|[[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]]|| 393 BC ||
|-
|[[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus II]]|| 393–392 BC ||
|-
|[[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]]|| 392–370 BC || Restored to the throne after one year.
|-
|[[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]]|| 370–368 BC ||
|-
|[[Ptolemy I of Macedon|Ptolemy I]]|| 368–365 BC ||
|-
|[[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]]|| 365–359 BC ||
|-
|[[Amyntas IV of Macedon|Amyntas IV]]|| 359 BC ||
|-
|[[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]|| 359–336 BC || [[Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II|Expanded]] Macedonian territory and influence to achieve a dominant position in the Balkans, unified most of the Greek city-states in the [[League of Corinth]] under his hegemony.
|-
|[[Alexander the Great|Alexander III]]|| 336–323 BC ||'''Alexander the Great''', the most notable Macedonian king and one of the most celebrated strategists and rulers of all time. Alexander at the top of his reign was simultaneously [[King of Macedonia]], [[Pharaoh of Egypt]] and [[King of Persia]].
|-
|[[Antipater]]|| 334–323 BC || Regent of Macedonia during the reign of Alexander III.
|-
|[[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III Arrhidaeus]]|| 323–317 BC || Only titular king after the death of Alexander III.
|-
|[[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]]|| 323–310 BC || Son of Alexander the Great and [[Roxana]]. Served only as a titular king and was murdered at a young age before having the chance to rise to the throne of Macedon.
|}

==Family tree==
{{tree chart/start}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Coe |Coe=[[Coenus of Macedon|Coenus]] king of Macedon}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tyr |Tyr=[[Tyrimmas of Macedon|Tyrimmas]] king of Macedon}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Pe1 |Pe1=[[Perdiccas I of Macedon|Perdiccas I]] king of Macedon}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ar1 |Ar1=[[Argaeus I of Macedon|Argaeus I]] king of Macedon}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ph1 |Ph1=[[Philip I of Macedon|Philip I]] king of Macedon}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ae1 |Ae1=[[Aeropus I of Macedon|Aeropus I]] king of Macedon}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Al1 |Al1=[[Alcetas I of Macedon|Alcetas I]] king of Macedon 576–547 BC}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Am1 |Am1=[[Amyntas I of Macedon|Amyntas I]] king of Macedon 547–498 BC ∞ Eurydice}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Al1 | | | | | | Gyg |Al1=[[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]] king of Macedon 498–454 BC|Gyg=[[Gygaea of Macedon|Gygaea]] ∞ [[Bubares]] Achemenid}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | Al2 | | | | | | Pe2 | | Phi | | Men | | Amy | | Str | | And |Al2=[[Alcetas II of Macedon|Alcetas II]] king of Macedon 454–448 BC|Pe2=[[Perdiccas II of Macedon|Perdiccas II]] king of Macedon 448–413 BC ∞ Symache Cleopatra|Phi=Phillipus|Amy=Amyntas|And=[[Amyntas II (son of Bubares)|Amyntas]] satrap of Alabanda|Men=Menelaus|Str=Stratonice ∞ [[Seuthes II]] of Thrace}}
{{tree chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | |}}
{{tree chart| | | | | Ar1 | | | | | | Ae2 | | Am2 | | | | | | Arr |Ar1=[[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus I]] king of Macedon 413–399 BC| Ae2=[[Aeropus I of Macedon|Aeropus II]] king of Macedon 399–395 BC|Am2=[[Amyntas II of Macedon|Amyntas II]] king of Macedon 393 BC|Arr=Arrhidaeus}}
{{tree chart| |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| son | | Ore | | Ar2 | | Pau | | | | | | | | | | Am3 |~| wfe |son=(son)|Ore=[[Orestes of Macedon|Orestes]] king of Macedon 399–396 BC|Ar2=[[Archelaus II of Macedon|Archelaus II]] king of Macedon 395–394 BC|Pau=[[Pausanias of Macedon|Pausanias]] king of Macedon 394 BC|Am3=[[Amyntas III of Macedon|Amyntas III]] king of Macedon 393, 392–370 BC|wfe=1.[[Eurydice I of Macedon|Eurydice I]] daughter of [[Sirras]] 2.Gygaea}}
{{tree chart| |!| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|}}
{{tree chart| Ar2 | | Al2 | | Pe3 | | Eyr | | | | | | wf1 |~| Ph2 |~| wf2 | | Men |Ar2=[[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus II]] king of Macedon 393–392 BC|Al2=(1) [[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] king of Macedon 371–369 BC|Pe3=(1) [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]] king of Macedon 365–360 BC|Ph2=(1) [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] king of Macedon 359–336 BC|wf1=1.[[Audata]] of Illyria 2.[[Phila of Elimeia]] daughter of [[Derdas III]] 3.[[Nicesipolis]] of Thessalia niece of [[Jason of Pherae]] 4.[[Philinna]] of Larissa|wf2=5.[[Olympias]] daughter of [[Neoptolemus I of Epirus]] 6.[[Meda of Odessos]] daughter of [[Cothelas]] of Getae 7.[[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]] niece of [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]]|Eyr=(1) Eurynoe ∞ [[Ptolemy of Aloros]] regent|Men=(2) [[Menelaus (son of Amyntas III)|Menelaus]] prince}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | Am4 |~| Cyn | | The | | Ph3 | | Al3 |~| wif | | Car | | Eur |Am4=[[Amyntas IV of Macedon|Amyntas IV]] king of Macedonia 359 BC|Cyn=(1) [[Cynane]]|The=(3) [[Thessalonike of Macedon|Thessalonike]] ∞ [[Cassander]] of Macedonia|Ph3=(4) [[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III]] Arrhidaeus king of Macedon 323–317 BC||Al3=(5) [[Alexander the Great|Alexander III]] the Great king of Macedon 336–323 BC emperor of Macedonian Empire 330–323 BC|wif=1.[[Roxana]] of Bactria daughter of [[Oxyartes]] 2.[[Stateira II]]/Barsine daughter of [[Darius III of Persia]] 3.[[Parysatis II]] daughter of [[Artaxerxes III of Persia]]|Car=(7) [[Caranus (son of Philip II)|Caranus]] prince|Eur=(7) [[Europa of Macedon|Europa]]}}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| | | |!| }}
{{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | Eu2 |~|~|~|~|~|~|J| | | Al4 |Eu2=[[Eurydice II of Macedon|Eurydice II]]|Al4=(1) [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]] emperor of Macedonian Empire 323–309 BC}}
{{tree chart/end}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist|2}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite book|last=Andronikos|first=Manolēs|title=Vergina: The Royal Tombs|location=Athens|publisher=Ekdotikē Athēnōn|year=1994|isbn=960-213-128-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qGjoAEACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Cartledge|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Cartledge|title=Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction|year=2011|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViqDNE-igH4C|isbn=978-0-19-960134-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Cosmopoulos|first=Michael B.|year=1992|title=Macedonia: An Introduction to its Political History|location=Winnipeg|publisher=Manitoba Studies in Classical Civilization}}
*{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|year=1988|title=The Rise of the Greeks|location=New York|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|isbn=9780684185361|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofgreeks00gran_0}}
*{{cite book|last=Green|first=Peter|title=Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography|year=2013|orig-year=1991|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-52-095469-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYo6c1iEL_4C}}
*{{cite book|last=Hammond|first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|title=A History of Greece to 322 BC|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1986|isbn=0-19-873095-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tc68QgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Hoover|first=Oliver D.|year=2011|title=Handbook of Coins of the Peloponnesos: Achaia, Phleiasia, Sikyonia, Elis, Triphylia, Messenia, Lakonia, Argolis, and Arkadia, Sixth to First Centuries BC (The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series, Volume 5)|location=Lancaster/London|publisher=Classical Numismatic Group}}
*{{cite book|last=Hoover|first=Oliver D.|year=2016|title=Handbook of Coins of Macedon and Its Neighbors. Part I: Macedon, Illyria, and Epeiros, Sixth to First Centuries BC (The Handbook of Greek Coinage Series, Volume 3)|location=Lancaster/London|publisher=Classical Numismatic Group}}
*{{cite book|last1=Howatson|first1=M. C.|last2=Harvey|first2=Sir Paul|title=The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1989|isbn=0-19-866121-5|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00howa|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=Charlton T.|last2=Short|first2=Charles|year=1879|title=A Latin Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.147309|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press}}
*{{cite book|last1=Liddell|first1=Henry George|last2=Scott|first2=Robert|year=1940|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|url=https://archive.org/details/b31364949_0002|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Rogers|first=Guy MacLean|title=Alexander: The Ambiguity of Greatness|location=New York|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|year=2004|isbn=1-4000-6261-6|url=https://archive.org/details/alexander00guym|url-access=registration}}
{{refend|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Anson|first=Edward M.|year=2014|title=Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell}}
*{{cite book|last=Carney|first=Elizabeth Donnelly|year=2009|chapter=The Role of the BASILIKOI PAIDES at the Argead Court|title=Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza|editor-given1=Timothy|editor-surname1=Howe|editor-given2=Jeanne|editor-surname2=Reames|pages=145–164|location=Claremont, CA|publisher=Regina}}
*{{cite book|last=Carney|first=Elizabeth Donnelly|year=2010|chapter=Putting Women in their Place: Women in Public under Philip II and Alexander III and the Last Argeads|title=Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives|editor-given1=Elizabeth D.|editor-surname1=Carney|editor-given2=Daniel|editor-surname2=Ogden|pages=43–53|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
*{{cite journal|last=Errington|first=Robert Malcolm|year=1978|title=The Nature of the Macedonian State under the Monarchy|journal=Chiron|volume=8|pages=77–134|url=https://publications.dainst.org/journals/chiron/1395}}
*{{cite book|last=Griffith|first=Guy Thompson|year=1979|chapter=The Reign of Philip the Second: The Government of the Kingdom|title=A History of Macedonia|volume=2|editor-given1=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|editor-surname1=Hammond|editor-given2=Guy Thompson|editor-surname2=Griffith|pages=383–404|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon}}
*{{cite book|last=Hatzopoulos|first=Miltiades B.|year=1996|title=Macedonian Institutions under the Kings (2 Volumes)|location=Paris|publisher=De Boccard}}
*{{cite book|last=King|first=Carol J.|year=2010|chapter=Macedonian Kingship and Other Political Institutions|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|editor-given1=Joseph|editor-surname1=Roisman|editor-given2=Ian|editor-surname2=Worthington|pages=373–391|location=Oxford, Chichester and Malden|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/}}
*{{cite book|last=Ogden|first=Daniel|year=2011|chapter=The Royal Families of Argead Macedon and the Hellenistic World|title=A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds|editor-given1=Beryl|editor-surname1=Rawson|pages=92–107|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Blackwell-Wiley}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Argead dynasty |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}
*{{cite encyclopedia|title=Argead Dynasty|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009361/Argead-Dynasty|access-date=13 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080426011637/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9009361/Argead-Dynasty|archive-date=26 April 2008|url-status=live}}

{{Pharaohs}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Argead Dynasty}}
[[Category:Argead dynasty| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 9th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC]]
[[Category:Ancient Macedonian dynasties]]
[[Category:Royalty of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
[[Category:Mythology of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
[[Category:9th-century BC establishments in Greece]]
[[Category:4th-century BC disestablishments in Greece]]

User talk:Noircaviar

2021-06-10T06:11:08Z

Macedonian: Caution: Unconstructive editing on :Corina.

== April 2021 ==

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I'm [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]]. I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Noircaviar|your recent contributions]] to [[:Corina]] have been undone because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use your [[User:Noircaviar/sandbox|sandbox]]. If you have any questions, you can ask for assistance at the [[Wikipedia:Teahouse|Teahouse]]. Thanks.{{Z186}} [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 19:36, 29 April 2021 (UTC)

2 minutes of your time were thoroughly wasted by commenting here.
[[User:Noircaviar|Noircaviar]] ([[User talk:Noircaviar#top|talk]]) 15:20, 5 June 2021 (UTC)

== June 2021 ==

[[File:Information orange.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at [[:Corina]]. Your edits appear to constitute [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]] and have been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. If you would like to experiment, please use your [[User:Noircaviar/sandbox|sandbox]]. Repeated vandalism may result in the [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|loss of editing privileges]]. Thank you.{{Z187}} [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 06:11, 10 June 2021 (UTC)

Corina

2021-06-10T06:10:47Z

Macedonian: Reverted 3 edits by Noircaviar (talk): Rvv

{{Infobox given name
| name = Corina
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| pronunciation =
| gender = Female
| meaning =
| region =
| language = Romanian/German
| origin =
| alternative spelling =
| nickname =
| variant forms = Korinna, Corinna, Kora, Corri, Corinne, Corine and Coreen
| related names =
| name day =
| derived =
| popularity =
| footnotes =
}}

{{other uses}}
'''Corina''' is a female given name of [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] origin,<ref>[https://www.behindthename.com/name/corinna Corinna], ''Behind the name''</ref> derived from κόρη (''korē'') meaning "girl, maiden".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dko%2Frh κόρη],
''Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon''</ref>. Variants include [[Corinna (given name)|Corinna]], Corri, [[Corinne (name)|Corinne]], and Corine. Notable people with the name include:

*[[Corina (American singer)]] or Corina Katt Ayala, American singer
**[[Corina (album)]], her self-titled debut album
*[[Corina (Belgian singer)]] (born as Corina Braemt), Belgian female pop singer
*[[Corina (Romanian singer)]] or Corina Monica Ciorbă (born 1980), Romanian singer
*[[Corina Belcea]] (born 1975), Romanian violinist
*[[Corina Casanova]] (born 1956), Swiss politician
*[[Corina Chiriac]] (born 1949), Romanian singer
*[[Corina Crețu]] (born 1967), Romanian politician
*[[Corina Dumbrăvean]] (born 1984), Romanian runner
*[[Corina Fusu]] (born 1959), Moldovan politician
*[[Corina Knoll]], American journalist
*[[Corina Morariu]] (born 1978), American tennis player
*[[Corina Peptan]] (born 1978), Romanian chess player
*[[Coreen Simpson]] (born 1942), American photographer
*[[Corina Ungureanu]] (born 1980), Romanian gymnast
*[[Corine Christensen]] (1955–1986), American murder victim
*[[Corine Dorland]] (born 1973), Dutch cyclist
*[[Corine Rottschäfer]] (born 1938), Dutch model
*[[Corri English]] (born 1978), American actress
*[[Korina Sanchez]] (born 1964), Filipino journalist
*Corinna, Ovid's (probably fictitious) lover in the ''[[Amores (Ovid)|Amores]]''
*Corinna, pen name of English poet [[Elizabeth Thomas (poet)|Elizabeth Thomas]] (1675–1731)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Corinna (given name)]]
* [[Corinne (name)]]
* [[Tee Corinne]] (1943–2006), American artist and writer
* [[Harmony Korine]] (born 1973), American film director and producer

{{given name}}
[[Category:Given names]]
[[Category:Romanian feminine given names]]
[[Category:English feminine given names]]
[[Category:German feminine given names]]
[[Category:French feminine given names]]
[[Category:Moldovan feminine given names]]

Greeks

2021-05-13T19:33:37Z

Macedonian: /* Genetics */ 2021 study

{{short description|Ethnic group native to Greece}}
{{Hatnote|For a specific analysis of the population of Greece, see [[Demographics of Greece]]}}
{{other uses|Greeks (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Grecian}}
{{pp-protect|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Greeks {{lang|el|Έλληνες}}
| native_name = Hellenes
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| population = '''{{Circa|14}}–17 million'''<ref>{{harvnb|Maratou-Alipranti|2013|p=196: "The Greek diaspora remains large, consisting of up to 4 million people globally."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Clogg|2013|p=228: "Greeks of the diaspora, settled in some 141 countries, were held to number 7 million although it is not clear how this figure was arrived at or what criteria were used to define Greek ethnicity, while the population of the homeland, according to the 1991 census, amounted to some 10.25 million."}}</ref>
[[File:Greek people around the world.svg|center|frameless|260x260px]]
| popplace = {{flagcountry|Greece}}  9,903,268<ref name=HSA>{{cite web|title=2011 Population and Housing Census|work=Hellenic Statistical Authority|date=12 September 2014|quote=The Resident Population of Greece is 10.816.286, of which 5.303.223 male (49,0%) and 5.513.063 female (51,0%) ... The total number of permanent residents of Greece with foreign citizenship during the Census was 912.000. [See Graph 6: Resident Population by Citizenship]|url=http://www.statistics.gr/documents/20181/1215267/A1602_SAM01_DT_DC_00_2011_03_F_EN.pdf/cb10bb9f-6413-4129-b847-f1def334e05e|access-date=18 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716160416/http://www.statistics.gr/documents/20181/1215267/A1602_SAM01_DT_DC_00_2011_03_F_EN.pdf/cb10bb9f-6413-4129-b847-f1def334e05e|archive-date=16 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Data on Immigrants in Greece: An Analytic Study of Available Data and Recommendations for Conformity with European Union Standards|work=Archive of European Integration (AEI)|publisher=University of Pittsburgh|date=15 November 2004|access-date=18 May 2016|url=http://aei.pitt.edu/2870/1/IMEPO_Final_Report_English.pdf|quote=[p. 5] The Census recorded 762.191 persons normally resident in Greece and without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of these, 48.560 are EU or EFTA nationals; there are also 17.426 Cypriots with privileged status.}}</ref> (2011 census) {{flagcountry|Cyprus}}  721,000<ref>{{cite web|author=Statistical Service|title=Preliminary Results of the Census of Population, 2011|year=2003–2016|publisher=Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Finance, Statistical Service|url=http://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/732265957BAC953AC225798300406903?OpenDocument&sub=2&sel=1&e=}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cole|2011|loc=Yiannis Papadakis, "Cypriots, Greek", pp. 92–95}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Where are the Greek communities of the world?|work=themanews.com|year=2013|publisher=Protothemanews.com|url=http://en.protothema.gr/where-are-the-greek-communities-of-the-globe/|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054043/http://en.protothema.gr/where-are-the-greek-communities-of-the-globe/|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> (2011 estimate)
| region2 = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| pop2 = 1,279,000–3,000,000{{smallsup|b}} (2016 estimate)
| ref2 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Total ancestry categories tallied for people with one or more ancestry categories reported 2011–2013 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates|work=American FactFinder|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce: United States Census Bureau|year=2013|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_3YR_B04003&prodType=table|access-date=23 May 2016|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200214060723/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_3YR_B04003&prodType=table|archive-date=14 February 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Relations with Greece|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|date=10 March 2016|access-date=18 May 2016|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3395.htm|quote=Today, an estimated three million Americans resident in the United States claim Greek descent. This large, well-organized community cultivates close political and cultural ties with Greece.}}</ref>
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop4 = 443,000{{smallsup|g}} (2016 estimate)
| ref4 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Statistical Yearbook Germany Extract Chapter 2: Population, Families and Living Arrangements in Germany|work=[[Federal Statistical Office of Germany|Statistisches Bundesamt]]|page=21|date=14 March 2013|url=https://www.destatis.de/EN/Publications/Specialized/Population/StatYearbook_Chapter2_5011001129004.html}}</ref>
| region5 = {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop5 = 422,234 (2011 census)
| ref5 = <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013 |title=2071.0 – Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013 |work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |access-date=13 February 2014 | date=21 June 2012}}</ref>
| region6 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| pop6 = 345,000–400,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref6 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=United Kingdom: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=9 July 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/united-kingdom/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=There are between 40 and 45 thousand Greeks residing permanently in the UK, and the Greek Orthodox Church has a strong presence in the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain ... There is a significant Greek presence of Greek students in tertiary education in the UK. A large Cypriot community – numbering 250–300 thousand – rallies round the National Federation of Cypriots in Great Britain and the Association of Greek Orthodox Communities of Great Britain.}}</ref>
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop8 = 271,405{{smallsup|c}} (2016 census)
| ref8 = <ref>"Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables". statcan.gc.ca.
</ref>
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Albania}}
| pop9 = 215,000-300,000
| ref9 = <ref name=Jeffries>{{harvnb|Jeffries|2002|p=69: "It is difficult to know how many ethnic Greeks there are in Albania. The Greek government, it is typically claimed, says there are around 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania, but most Western estimates are around the 200,000 mark ..."}}</ref>
| region10 = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| pop10 = est. 2,478 to 10,000, possibly up to 50,000 <ref>{{cite web |title=Greeks Around the Globe |url=http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm |website=AusGreekNet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619165420/http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm |archive-date=19 June 2006 }}</ref>
| region11 = {{flagcountry|South Africa}}
| pop11 = 138,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=South Africa: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=4 February 2011|url=http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619165420/http://www.ausgreeknet.com/greeksaroundtheglobe.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 June 2006 }}</ref>
| region12 = {{flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop12 = 110,000–200,000{{smallsup|d}} (2013 estimate)
| ref12 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Italy: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=9 July 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/italy/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=The Greek Italian community numbers some 30,000 and is concentrated mainly in central Italy. The age-old presence in Italy of Italians of Greek descent – dating back to Byzantine and Classical times – is attested to by the Griko dialect, which is still spoken in the Magna Graecia region. This historically Greek-speaking villages are Condofuri, Galliciano, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Bova and Bova Marina, which are in the Calabria region (the capital of which is Reggio). The Grecanic region, including Reggio, has a population of some 200,000, while speakers of the Griko dialect number fewer that 1,000 persons.}}</ref><ref name="Grecia-Salentina">{{cite web|title=Grecia Salentina|language=it|publisher=Unione dei Comuni della Grecìa Salentina|year=2016|url=http://www.greciasalentina.gov.it/|quote="La popolazione complessiva dell'Unione è di 54278 residenti così distribuiti (Dati Istat al 31° dicembre 2005. Comune Popolazione Calimera 7351 Carpignano Salentino 3868 Castrignano dei Greci 4164 Corigliano d'Otranto 5762 Cutrofiano 9250 Martano 9588 Martignano 1784 Melpignano 2234 Soleto 5551 Sternatia 2583 Zollino 2143 Totale 54278)."}}</ref><ref name=Bellinello>{{harvnb|Bellinello|1998|p=53: "Le attuali colonie Greche calabresi; La Grecìa calabrese si inscrive nel massiccio aspromontano e si concentra nell'ampia e frastagliata valle dell'Amendolea e nelle balze più a oriente, dove sorgono le fiumare dette di S. Pasquale, di Palizzi e Sidèroni e che costituiscono la Bovesia vera e propria. Compresa nei territori di cinque comuni (Bova Superiore, Bova Marina, Roccaforte del Greco, Roghudi, Condofuri), la Grecia si estende per circa {{cvt|233|km}}q. La popolazione anagrafica complessiva è di circa 14.000 unità."}}</ref>
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Egypt}}
| pop13 = 110,000
| ref13 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/en/egypt-en/bilateral-relations/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|title=English version of Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports ''a few thousand'' and Greek version 3.800|publisher=MFA.gr}}</ref><ref>Rippin, Andrew (2008). World Islam: Critical Concepts in Islamic Studies. Routledge. p. 77. {{ISBN|978-0415456531}}.</ref>
| region14 = {{flagcountry|Chile}}
| pop14 = 100,000
| ref14 = <ref name="Parvex, 2014">Parvex R. (2014). ''[https://journals.openedition.org/hommesmigrations/2720 Le Chili et les mouvements migratoires]'', Hommes & migrations, Nº 1305, 2014. doi: [https://doi.org/10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720 10.4000/hommesmigrations.2720].</ref>
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
| pop15 = 91,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref15 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Ukraine: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=4 February 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/ukraine/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=There is a significant Greek presence in southern and eastern Ukraine, which can be traced back to ancient Greek and Byzantine settlers. Ukrainian citizens of Greek descent amount to 91,000 people, although their number is estimated to be much higher by the Federation of Greek communities of Mariupol.}}</ref>
| region16 = {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| pop16 = 85,640 (2010 census)
| ref16 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/results2.html|title=Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года в отношении демографических и социально-экономических характеристик отдельных национальностей}}</ref>
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| pop17 = 50,000{{smallsup|e}}
| ref17 = <ref>{{cite web|title=The Greek Community |url-status=dead |url=http://www.memorialdoimigrante.sp.gov.br/historico/e4.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004819/http://www.memorialdoimigrante.sp.gov.br/historico/e4.htm |archive-date=13 June 2007 }}</ref>
| region18 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| pop18 = 35,000 (2013 estimate)
| ref18 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=France: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=9 July 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/france/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=Some 15,000 Greeks reside in the wider region of Paris, Lille and Lyon. In the region of Southern France, the Greek community numbers some 20,000.}}</ref>
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
| pop19 = 35,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref19 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Belgium: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=28 January 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/belgium/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=Some 35,000 Greeks reside in Belgium. Official Belgian data numbers Greeks in the country at 17,000, but does not take into account Greeks who have taken Belgian citizenship or work for international organizations and enterprises.}}</ref>
| region20 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}}
| pop20 = 30,000–50,000 (2013 estimate)
| ref20 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Argentina: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=9 July 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/argentina/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=It is estimated that some 20,000 to 30,000 persons of Greek origin currently reside in Argentina, and there are Greek communities in the wider region of Buenos Aires.}}</ref>
| region21 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| pop21 = 1,356 (2011 census)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://censusresults.nsi.bg/Census/Reports/2/2/R7.aspx|access-date=2020-10-15|title=Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група |website=censusresults.nsi.bg}}</ref> up to 28,500 (estimate)
| ref21 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Bulgaria: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=28 January 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/bulgaria/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote="There are some 28,500 persons of Greek origin and citizenship residing in Bulgaria. This number includes approximately 15,000 Sarakatsani, 2,500 former political refugees, 8,000 "old Greeks", 2,000 university students and 1,000 professionals and their families."}}</ref>
| region22 = {{flagcountry|Netherlands}}
| pop22 = 25,709
| ref22 = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opendata.cbs.nl/statline/#/CBS/en/dataset/37325eng/table?ts=1570590894624|title = CBS Statline}}</ref>
| region23 = {{flagcountry|Uruguay}}
| pop23 = 25,000–28,000 (2011 census)
| ref23 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.gub.uy/biblioteca/Inmigrantes%20Internacionales%20y%20Retornados%20en%20Uruguay.pdf |title=Immigration to Uruguay |publisher=INE |access-date=6 March 2013 |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816123632/http://www.ine.gub.uy/biblioteca/Inmigrantes%20Internacionales%20y%20Retornados%20en%20Uruguay.pdf |archive-date=16 August 2013 }}</ref>
| region24 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| pop24 = 24,736 (2012 census)
| ref24 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Sweden: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=4 February 2011|url=https://www.scb.se/Statistik/BE/BE0101/2011A01B/be0101_Fodelseland_och_ursprungsland.xls|quote=The Greek community in Sweden consists of approximately 24,000 Greeks who are permanent inhabitants, included in Swedish society and active in various sectors: science, arts, literature, culture, media, education, business, and politics.}}</ref>
| region25 = {{flagcountry|Georgia}}
| pop25 = 15,000 (2011 estimate)
| ref25 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Georgia: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=31 January 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/georgia/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=The Greek community of Georgia is currently estimated at 15,000 people, mostly elderly people living in the Tsalkas area.}}</ref>
| region26 = {{flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
| pop26 = 12,000
| ref26 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|date=9 March 2011|url=http://cizinci.cz/repository/2240/file/Rekove2.pdf |title=Migranti z Řecka v Česku |trans-title=Migrants from Greece in the Czech Republic |language=cs |access-date=25 April 2019}}</ref>
| region27 = {{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}}
| pop27 = 8, 846 (2011 estimate)
| ref27 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Kazakhstan: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=3 February 2011|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/georgia/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=There are between 10,000 and 12,000 ethnic Greeks living in Kazakhstan, organized in several communities.}}</ref>
| region28 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop28 = 11,000 (2015 estimate)
| ref28 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Switzerland: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=10 December 2015|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/switzerland/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=The Greek community in Switzerland is estimated to number some 11,000 persons (of a total of 1.5 million foreigners residing in the country.}}</ref>
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| pop29 = 10,000 (2013 estimate)
| ref29 = <ref>{{cite web|work=Hellenic Republic: Ministry of Foreign Affairs|title=Romania: Cultural Relations and Greek Community|date=6 December 2013|url=http://www.mfa.gr/en/greece-bilateral-relations/romania/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html|quote=The Greek Romanian community numbers some 10,000, and there are many Greeks working in established Greek enterprises in Romania.}}</ref>
| region30 = {{flagcountry|Uzbekistan}}
| pop30 = 9,500 (2000 estimate)
| ref30 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Greeks in Uzbekistan|work=Central Asia-Caucasus Analyst|publisher=The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute|date=21 June 2000|url=http://www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/515|quote=Currently there are about 9,500 Greeks living in Uzbekistan, with 6,500 living in Tashkent.}}</ref>
| region31 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop31 = 5,261
| ref31 = <ref>[http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/menschen_und_gesellschaft/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/index.html Bevölkerung nach Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland]</ref>
| region32 = {{flagcountry|Hungary}}
| pop32 = 4,454 (2016 census)
| ref32 = <ref name="KSH">{{cite book|last=Vukovich|first=Gabriella|url=http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xftp/idoszaki/mikrocenzus2016/mikrocenzus_2016_12.pdf|title=Mikrocenzus 2016 – 12. Nemzetiségi adatok|trans-title=2016 microcensus – 12. Ethnic data|language=hu|work=Hungarian Central Statistical Office|location=Budapest|year=2018|access-date=9 January 2019|isbn=978-963-235-542-9}}</ref>
| region33 = {{flagcountry|Turkey}}
| pop33 = 4,000–49,143{{smallsup|f}}
| ref33 = <ref>{{cite web|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Rum Orthodox Christians|publisher=Minority Rights Group (MRG)|year=2005|access-date=1 March 2014|url-status=dead|url=http://www.minorityrights.org/4412/turkey/rum-orthodox-christians.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329054431/http://www.minorityrights.org/4412/turkey/rum-orthodox-christians.html|archive-date=29 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pontic|work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|publisher=SIL International|year=2016|access-date=13 May 2016|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pnt}}</ref>
| languages = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| religions = Primarily [[Greek Orthodox Church]]
| related_groups =
| footnotes = {{smallsup|a}} Citizens of Greece and the Republic of Cyprus. The Greek government does not collect information about ethnic self-determination at the national censuses. {{smallsup|b}} Includes those of ancestral descent. {{smallsup|c}} Those whose stated ethnic origins included "Greek" among others. The number of those whose stated ethnic origin is ''solely'' "Greek" is 145,250. An additional 3,395 Cypriots of undeclared ethnicity live in Canada. {{smallsup|d}}Approx. 60,000 [[Griko people]] and 30,000 post WW2 migrants. {{smallsup|e}} "Including descendants". {{smallsup|f}} Including [[Greek Muslims]]. {{smallsup|g}} Includes people with "cultural roots".
}}
The '''Greeks''' or '''Hellenes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|l|iː|n|z}}; {{lang-el|Έλληνες}}, ''Éllines'' {{IPA-el|ˈelines|}}) are an [[ethnic group]] native to [[Greece]], [[Greek Cypriots|Cyprus]], [[Greeks in Albania|Albania]], [[Greeks in Italy|Italy]], [[Greeks in Turkey#History|Turkey]], [[Greeks in Egypt|Egypt]] and, to a lesser extent, other countries surrounding the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. They also form a significant [[Greek diaspora|diaspora]], with Greek communities established around the world.<ref name=Roberts1>{{harvnb|Roberts|2007|pp=171–172, 222}}.</ref>

Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Black Sea]], but the Greek people have always been centered on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and [[Ionian Sea|Ionian]] seas, where the [[Greek language]] has been spoken since the [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{harvnb|Latacz|2004|pp=159, 165–166}}.</ref><ref name=Sutton>{{harvnb|Sutton|1996}}.</ref> Until the early 20th century, Greeks were distributed between the [[Greek peninsula]], the western coast of [[Asia Minor]], the Black Sea coast, [[Cappadocia]] in central Anatolia, [[Egypt]], the [[Balkans]], Cyprus, and [[Constantinople]].<ref name=Sutton/> Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the [[Byzantine Empire]] of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient [[Greek colonies|Greek colonization]].<ref>{{harvnb|Beaton|1996|pp=1–25}}.</ref> The cultural centers of the Greeks have included [[Athens]], [[Thessalonica]], [[Alexandria]], [[Smyrna]], and [[Constantinople]] at various periods.

In recent times, most ethnic Greeks live within the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus. The [[Greek genocide]] and [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]] nearly ended the three millennia-old Greek presence in Asia Minor. Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern [[Greeks in Russia|Russia]] and [[Greeks in Ukraine|Ukraine]] and in the [[Greek diaspora]] communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name="CIA">[[CIA World Factbook]] on Greece: Greek Orthodox 98%, [[Greek Muslims|Greek Muslim]] 1.3%, other 0.7%.</ref>

Throughout history, Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to [[culture]], visual arts, exploration, theatre, [[literature]], [[philosophy]], [[politics]], [[architecture]], [[music]], [[mathematics]],<ref name="Heath1981">{{cite book|author=Thomas Heath|title=A History of Greek Mathematics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=drnY3Vjix3kC&q=ancient%20Greek%20mathematicians|access-date=19 August 2013|year=1981|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-24073-2|page=1}}</ref> medicine, [[science]], technology, commerce, cuisine and sports.

==History==
{{further|History of Greece}}
[[File:Proto Greek Area reconstruction.png|thumb|right|A reconstruction of the 3rd millennium BC "Proto-Greek area", by [[Vladimir I. Georgiev]].<ref>{{harvnb|Georgiev|1981|loc=p. 156: "The Proto-Greek region included Epirus, approximately up to ''Αυλών'' in the north including Paravaia, Tymphaia, Athamania, Dolopia, Amphilochia, and Acarnania), west and north Thessaly (Hestiaiotis, Perrhaibia, Tripolis, and Pieria), i.e. more or less the territory of contemporary northwestern Greece)."}}</ref>]]
[[File:Gold death-mask, known as the 'mask of Agamemnon', from Mycenae, grave Circle A, 16th century BC, Athens Archaeological Museum, Greece (22669073522).jpg|thumb|[[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] [[Death mask|funeral mask]] known as "[[Mask of Agamemnon]]", 16th c. BC]]

The Greeks speak the [[Greek language]], which forms its own unique branch within the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages, the [[Hellenic languages|Hellenic]].<ref name=Sutton/> They are part of a group of classical ethnicities, described by [[Anthony D. Smith]] as an "archetypal diaspora people".<ref>{{harvnb|Guibernau|Hutchinson|2004|p=23: "Indeed, Smith emphasizes that the myth of divine election sustains the continuity of cultural identity, and, in that regard, has enabled certain pre-modern communities such as the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks to survive and persist over centuries and millennia (Smith 1993: 15–20)."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1999|p=21: "It emphasizes the role of myths, memories and symbols of ethnic chosenness, trauma, and the 'golden age' of saints, sages, and heroes in the rise of modern nationalism among the Jews, Armenians, and Greeks—the archetypal diaspora peoples."}}</ref>

===Origins===
{{further|Proto-Greek language|List of Ancient Greek tribes|Ancient Greek religion}}
The Proto-Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the [[Balkans|Balkan peninsula]], at the end of the 3rd millennium BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bryce|2006|p=91}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cadogan|1986|p=125}}</ref>{{efn|There is a range of interpretations: [[Carl Blegen]] dates the arrival of the Greeks around 1900 BC, John Caskey believes that there were two waves of immigrants and [[Robert Drews]] places the event as late as 1600 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Bryce|2006|p=92}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Drews|1994|p=21}}</ref> Numerous other theories have also been supported,<ref>{{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=243}}</ref> but there is a general consensus that the Greek tribes arrived around 2100 BC.}} The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the [[2nd millennium BC]] has to be reconstructed on the basis of the [[ancient Greek dialects]], as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being the [[Ionians]] and [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaeans]], which resulted in [[Mycenaean Greece]] by the 16th century BC,<ref name=Brit1>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title = The Greeks |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=US |id=Online Edition }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chadwick|1976|p=2}}</ref> and the second, the [[Dorian invasion]], around the 11th century BC, displacing the [[Arcadocypriot Greek|Arcadocypriot dialects]], which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to the [[Bronze Age|Late Bronze Age]] and the Doric at the [[Bronze Age collapse]].

An alternative hypothesis has been put forth by linguist [[Vladimir I. Georgiev|Vladimir Georgiev]], who places Proto-Greek speakers in northwestern Greece by the [[Early Helladic]] period (3rd millennium BC), i.e. towards the end of the [[European Neolithic]].<ref>[[Vladimir I. Georgiev]], for example, placed Proto-Greek in northwestern Greece during the Late Neolithic period. ({{harvnb|Georgiev|1981|loc=p. 192: "''Late Neolithic Period'': in northwestern Greece the Proto-Greek language had already been formed: this is the original home of the Greeks."}})</ref> Linguists [[Russell Gray]] and Quentin Atkinson in a 2003 paper using computational methods on [[Swadesh list]]s have arrived at a somewhat earlier estimate, around 5000 BC for [[Graeco-Armenian|Greco-Armenian]] split and the emergence of Greek as a separate linguistic lineage around 4000 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Gray|Atkinson|2003|pp=437–438}}; {{harvnb|Atkinson|Gray|2006|p=102}}.</ref>

===Mycenaean===
{{Main|Mycenaean Greece}}
In {{circa}} 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the [[Minoan civilization]] its syllabic writing system ([[Linear A]]) and developed their own [[syllabic script]] known as [[Linear B]],<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Linear A and Linear B|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|access-date=3 March 2016|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Linear-A}}</ref> providing the first and oldest written evidence of [[Greek language|Greek]].<ref name=Britannica/><ref>{{harvnb|Castleden|2005|p=228}}.</ref> The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the [[Aegean Sea]] and, by the 15th century BC, had reached [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Cyprus]] and the shores of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]].<ref name=Sutton/><ref>{{harvnb|Tartaron|2013|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Schofield|2006|pp=71–72}}; {{harvnb|Panayotou|2007|pp=417–426}}.</ref>

Around 1200 BC, the [[Dorians]], another Greek-speaking people, followed from [[Epirus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hall|2014|p=43}}.</ref> Traditionally, historians have believed that the [[Dorian invasion]] caused the collapse of the [[Mycenaean civilization]], but it is likely the main attack was made by seafaring raiders ([[Sea Peoples]]) who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Chadwick|1976|p=176}}.</ref> The [[Dorian invasion]] was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations, appropriately called the [[Greek Dark Ages]], but by 800 BC the landscape of [[Archaic Greece|Archaic]] and [[Classical Greece]] was discernible.<ref name=Castleden2>{{harvnb|Castleden|2005|p=2}}.</ref>

The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth.<ref>{{harvnb|Hansen|2004|p=7}}; {{harvnb|Podzuweit|1982|pp=65–88}}.</ref> The [[Homer|Homeric Epics]] (i.e. ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'') were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the time of [[Euhemerism]] that scholars began to question Homer's historicity.<ref name=Castleden2/> As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece (e.g. [[Zeus]], [[Poseidon]] and [[Hades]]) became major figures of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian Pantheon]] of later antiquity.<ref>{{harvnb|Castleden|2005|p=235}}; {{harvnb|Dietrich|1974|p=156}}.</ref>

===Classical===
{{Main|Classical Greece}}
{{multiple image
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| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = Σωκράτης, Ακαδημία Αθηνών 6616.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Plato Pio-Clemetino Inv305.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| image3 = Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| alt3 =
| caption3 =
| footer = The three great philosophers of the classical era: [[Socrates]], [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]
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The [[ethnogenesis]] of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan-Hellenism in the 8th century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Burckhardt|1999|loc=p. 168: "The establishment of these Panhellenic sites, which yet remained exclusively Hellenic, was a very important element in the growth and self-consciousness of Hellenic nationalism; it was uniquely decisive in breaking down enmity between tribes, and remained the most powerful obstacle to fragmentation into mutually hostile ''poleis''."}}</ref> According to some scholars, the foundational event was the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] in 776 BC, when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture.<ref name=Roberts1/> The works of [[Homer]] (i.e. ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'') and [[Hesiod]] (i.e. ''[[Theogony]]'') were written in the 8th century BC, becoming the basis of the national religion, ethos, history and mythology.<ref>{{harvnb|Zuwiyya|2011|pp=142–143}}; {{harvnb|Budin|2009|pp=66–67}}.</ref> The [[Pythia|Oracle of Apollo at Delphi]] was established in this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|1990|pp=1–25, 148–190}}.</ref>

The [[Classical antiquity|classical period]] of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the [[death of Alexander the Great]], in 323 BC (some authors prefer to split this period into "Classical", from the end of the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] to the end of the Peloponnesian War, and "Fourth Century", up to the death of Alexander). It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ancient Greek Civilization|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=18 February 2016|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Greece}}</ref> The Classical period is also described as the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization, and its art, philosophy, architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture.

While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic [[genos]],<ref>{{harvnb|Konstan|2001|pp=29–50}}.</ref> their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring, often brutally, with other Greek [[Polis|city-states]].<ref>{{harvnb|Steinberger|2000|p=17}}; {{harvnb|Burger|2008|pp=57–58}}.</ref> The [[Peloponnesian War]], the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city-states [[Classical Athens|Athens]] and [[Sparta]] and [[Delian League|their]] [[Peloponnesian League|allies]], left both greatly weakened.<ref>{{harvnb|Burger|2008|pp=57–58: "''Poleis'' continued to go to war with each other. The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) made this painfully clear. The war (really two wars punctuated by a peace) was a duel between Greece's two leading cities, Athens and Sparta. Most other ''poleis'', however, got sucked into the conflict as allies of one side or the other ... The fact that Greeks were willing to fight for their cities against other Greeks in conflicts like the Peloponnesian War showed the limits of the pull of Hellas compared with that of the polis."}}</ref>
[[File:Alexander the Great mosaic.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander the Great]], whose conquests led to the [[Hellenistic Age]].|alt=]]

Most of the feuding Greek city-states were, in some scholars' opinions, united by force under the banner of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip]]'s and [[Alexander the Great]]'s Pan-Hellenic ideals, though others might generally opt, rather, for an explanation of "[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] conquest for the sake of conquest" or at least conquest for the sake of riches, glory and power and view the "ideal" as useful propaganda directed towards the city-states.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fox|first=Robin Lane|title=Riding with Alexander|year=2004|work=Archaeology|publisher=The Archaeological Institute of America|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/interviews/fox.html|quote=Alexander inherited the idea of an invasion of the Persian Empire from his father Philip whose advance-force was already out in Asia in 336 BC. Philips campaign had the slogan of "freeing the Greeks" in Asia and "punishing the Persians" for their past sacrileges during their own invasion (a century and a half earlier) of Greece. No doubt, Philip wanted glory and plunder.}}</ref>

In any case, Alexander's toppling of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], after his victories at the battles of the [[Battle of the Granicus|Granicus]], [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] and [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]], and his advance as far as modern-day [[Pakistan]] and [[Tajikistan]],<ref>{{harvnb|Brice|2012|pp=281–286}}.</ref> provided an important outlet for Greek culture, via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title = Alexander the Great |encyclopedia= Columbia Encyclopedia|publisher= Columbia University Press |location=United States |id=Online Edition }}</ref> While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator's death intact, the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]] were to prove long lived as Greek became the ''[[lingua franca]]'', a position it retained even in [[Roman era|Roman times]].<ref>{{harvnb|Green|2008|p=xiii}}.</ref> Many Greeks settled in [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] cities like [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]] and [[Seleucia]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Morris|first=Ian|title=Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millennium BC|date=December 2005|work=Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics|publisher=Princeton/Stanford University|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/morris/120509.pdf}}</ref> Two thousand years later, there are still communities in [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]], like the [[Kalash people|Kalash]], who claim to be descended from Greek settlers.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|2001|p=8}}.</ref>

===Hellenistic===
{{Main|Hellenistic period|Hellenistic Greece}}
[[File:Diadochen1.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The Hellenistic realms c. 300 BC as divided by the [[Diadochi]]; the Μacedonian Kingdom of [[Cassander]] (green), the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] (dark blue), the [[Seleucid Empire]] (yellow), the areas controlled by [[Lysimachus]] (orange) and [[Epirus]] (red)]]
[[File:Bust of Cleopatra VII - Altes Museum - Berlin - Germany 2017 (3).jpg|alt=|thumb|upright=0.8|Bust of [[Cleopatra VII]] ([[Altes Museum]], [[Berlin]]), the last ruler of a Hellenistic Kingdom (apart the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]])]]
The [[Hellenistic civilization]] was the next period of Greek civilization, the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander's death.<ref name=Boardman364>{{harvnb|Boardman|Griffin|Murray|1991|p=364}}</ref> This [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic age]], so called because it saw the partial [[Hellenization]] of many non-Greek cultures, extending all the way into India and Bactria, both of which maintained Greek cultures and governments for centuries.<ref>{{cite news|last=Arun|first=Neil|title=Alexander's Gulf outpost uncovered|work=BBC News|date=7 August 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6930285.stm}}</ref> The end is often placed around conquest of [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egypt]] by Rome in 30 BC,<ref name=Boardman364/> although the Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted for a few more decades.

This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city-state. These larger cities were parts of the still larger [[Diadochi|Kingdoms of the Diadochi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Grant|1990|loc=Introduction}}.</ref><ref name=BritHel>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hellenistic age|date=27 May 2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/event/Hellenistic-Age}}</ref> Greeks, however, remained aware of their past, chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors.<ref name=Harris>{{harvnb|Harris|1991|pp=137–138}}.</ref> An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with ''[[barbarian]]'' (non-Greek) peoples, which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi-ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms.<ref name=Harris/> This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic ''[[paideia]]'' to the next generation.<ref name=Harris/> Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period.<ref>{{harvnb|Lucore|2009|p=51: "The Hellenistic period is commonly portrayed as the great age of Greek scientific discovery, above all in mathematics and astronomy."}}</ref>

In the [[Indo-Greeks|Indo-Greek]] and [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]] kingdoms, [[Greco-Buddhism]] was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to [[China]].<ref>{{harvnb|Foltz|2010|pp=43–46}}.</ref> Further east, the Greeks of [[Alexandria Eschate]] became known to the [[Chinese people]] as the [[Dayuan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burton|1993|pp=244–245}}.</ref>

===Roman Empire===
{{further|Roman Greece|Greco-Roman world}}
Between 168 BC and 30 BC, the entire Greek world was conquered by Rome, and almost all of the world's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire. Despite their military superiority, the Romans admired and became [[Greco-Roman world|heavily influenced]] by the achievements of Greek culture, hence [[Horace]]'s famous statement: ''Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit'' ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive").<ref>{{harvnb|Zoch|2000|p=136}}.</ref> In the centuries following the Roman conquest of the Greek world, the Greek and Roman cultures merged into a single [[Greco-Roman]] culture.

In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East.<ref name=Roberts1/> The cults of deities like [[Isis]] and [[Mithra]] were introduced into the Greek world.<ref name=BritHel/><ref name=BritHelRel>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hellenistic religion|date=13 May 2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Hellenistic-religion}}</ref> Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,<ref>{{harvnb|Ferguson|2003|pp=617–618}}.</ref> and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably [[Saint Paul]]) were generally Greek-speaking,<ref>{{harvnb|Dunstan|2011|p=500}}.</ref> though none were from Greece proper. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,<ref>{{harvnb|Milburn|1988|p=158}}.</ref> with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the mid-Byzantine 10th century AD.<ref>{{harvnb|Makrides|2009|p=206}}.</ref> The region of [[Tsakonia]] remained pagan until the ninth century and as such its inhabitants were referred to as ''Hellenes'', in the sense of being pagan, by their Christianized Greek brethren in mainstream Byzantine society.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Nicholas, Nick.|title=A critical lexicostatistical examination of Ancient and Modern Greek and Tsakonian.|journal=Journal of Applied Linguistics and Lexicography|volume=1|issue=1|year=2019|page=19|doi=10.33910/2687-0215-2019-1-1-18-68|doi-access=free}}</ref>

While ethnic distinctions still existed in the [[Roman Empire]], they became secondary to religious considerations and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promoted a robust Roman national identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaldellis|2007|pp=35–40}}.</ref> From the early centuries of the [[Common Era]], the Greeks self-identified as Romans ([[Medieval Greek|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ῥωμαῖοι}} ''Rhōmaîoi'').<ref>{{harvnb|Howatson|1989|p=264: "From the fourth century AD onwards the Greeks of the eastern Roman empire called themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans') ..."}}</ref> By that time, the name ''Hellenes'' denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century.<ref name=Cameron>{{harvnb|Cameron|2009|p=7}}.</ref>

===Middle Ages===
{{See also|Byzantine empire|Byzantine Greece|Byzantine Greeks|Fourth Crusade|Frankokratia}}
[[File:Family marriage.jpg|thumb|right|Scenes of marriage and family life in [[Constantinople]]]]
[[File:Basilios II.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Emperor [[Basil II]] (11th century) is credited with reviving the [[Byzantine Empire]].]]
[[File:Benozzo Gozzoli, Pletone, Cappella dei Magi.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Gemistus Pletho]], one of the most renowned philosophers of the late Byzantine era, a chief pioneer of the revival of Greek scholarship in Western Europe]]

During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as ''Rhōmaîoi'' ({{lang|grc|Ῥωμαῖοι}}, "Romans", meaning [[Roman citizenship|citizens]] of the [[Roman Empire]]), a term which in the [[Greek language]] had become synonymous with Christian Greeks.<ref name="Harrison268">{{harvnb|Harrison|2002|p=268}}: "Roman, Greek (if not used in its sense of 'pagan') and Christian became synonymous terms, counterposed to 'foreigner', 'barbarian', 'infidel'. The citizens of the Empire, now predominantly of Greek ethnicity and language, were often called simply ό χριστώνυμος λαός ['the people who bear Christ's name']."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Earl|1968|p=148}}.</ref> The Latinizing term ''Graikoí'' (Γραικοί, "Greeks") was also used,<ref>[[Paul the Silentiary]]. ''Descriptio S. Sophiae et Ambonis'', 425, Line 12 ("χῶρος ὅδε Γραικοῖσι"); [[Theodore the Studite]]. ''Epistulae'', 419, Line 30 ("ἐν Γραικοῖς").</ref> though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov|2007|p=96 (including footnote #67)}}; {{harvnb|Makrides|2009|loc=Chapter 2: "Christian Monotheism, Orthodox Christianity, Greek Orthodoxy", p. 74}}; {{harvnb|Magdalino|1991|loc=Chapter XIV: "Hellenism and Nationalism in Byzantium", p. 10}}.</ref> The [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] (today conventionally named the ''Byzantine Empire'', a name not used during its own time<ref name=BritByz>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Byzantine Empire|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=23 December 2015|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/place/Byzantine-Empire}}</ref>) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor [[Heraclius]] ({{reign}} 610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language.<ref name=Haldon50>{{harvnb|Haldon|1997|p=50}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Shahid|1972|pp=295–296, 305}}.</ref> Although the [[Catholic Church]] recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after [[Pope Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]], king of the [[Franks]], as the "[[Holy Roman Emperor|Roman Emperor]]" on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the ''Empire of the Greeks'' (''Imperium Graecorum'').<ref>{{harvnb|Klein|2004|p=290 (Note #39)}}; ''[[Annales Fuldenses]]'', 389: "Mense lanuario c. epiphaniam Basilii, Graecorum imperatoris, legati cum muneribus et epistolis ad Hludowicum regem Radasbonam venerunt ...".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fouracre|Gerberding|1996|p=345}}: "The Frankish court no longer regarded the Byzantine Empire as holding valid claims of universality; instead it was now termed the 'Empire of the Greeks'."</ref> While this Latin term for the ancient ''[[ancient Greeks|Hellenes]]'' could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to [[ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] heritage rendered it a derogatory [[exonym]] for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the [[Council of Florence]], to present the Western viewpoint.<ref>{{harvnb|Page|2008|pp=66, 87, 256}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kaplanis|2014|pp=86–7}}</ref>

There are three schools of thought regarding this Byzantine Roman identity in contemporary [[Byzantine studies|Byzantine scholarship]]: The first considers "Romanity" the mode of self-identification of the subjects of a multi-ethnic empire at least up to the 12th century, where the average subject identified as Roman; a perennialist approach, which views Romanity as the medieval expression of a continuously existing Greek nation; while a third view considers the eastern Roman identity as a pre-modern national identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Stouraitis|2014|pp=176, 177}}.</ref> The Byzantine Greeks' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of ancient Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Finkelberg|2012|p=20}}.</ref><ref name=Burstein>{{harvnb|Burstein|1988|pp=47–49}}.</ref>

A distinct Greek identity re-emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204.<ref name=BritIdent/> In the [[Empire of Nicaea]], a small circle of the elite used the term "Hellene" as a term of self-identification.<ref>{{harvnb|Angold|1975|p=65}}, {{harvnb|Page|2008|p=127}}.</ref> After the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, however, in 1261, ''Rhomaioi'' became again dominant as a term for self-description and there are few traces of ''Hellene'' (Έλληνας), such as in the writings of [[George Gemistos Plethon]],<ref>{{harvnb|Kaplanis|2014|p=92}}.</ref> who abandoned Christianity and in whose writings culminated the secular tendency in the interest in the classical past.<ref name=BritIdent/> However, it was the combination of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks' notion of themselves in the empire's twilight years.<ref name=BritIdent>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title =Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453), Population and languages, Emerging Greek identity |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=United States |id=Online Edition}}</ref> In the twilight years of the Byzantine Empire, prominent Byzantine personalities proposed referring to the Byzantine Emperor as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".<ref name=Vasiliev>{{cite book |last1=Vasiliev |first1=Alexander A. |title=History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453 |date=1964 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=9780299809256 |page=582 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtM0qClcIX4C |language=en}}</ref><ref name="CareyCarey1968">{{cite book|author1=Jane Perry Clark Carey|author2=Andrew Galbraith Carey|title=The Web of Modern Greek Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltw7AAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Columbia University Press|page =33|isbn=9780231031707|quote = By the end of the fourteenth century the Byzantine emperor was often called "Emperor of the Hellenes"}}</ref> These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined within intellectual circles, but were continued by [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Byzantine intellectuals who participated]] in the [[Italian Renaissance]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mango|1965|p=33}}.</ref>

The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on [[Greek Orthodox]] identity, which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the [[Russian Empire]]. These were further strengthened following the fall of the [[Empire of Trebizond]] in 1461, after which and until the second [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–29)|Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29]] hundreds of thousands of [[Pontic Greeks]] fled or migrated from the [[Pontic Alps]] and [[Armenian Highlands]] to southern Russia and the Russian [[South Caucasus]] (see also [[Greeks in Russia]], [[Greeks in Armenia]], [[Greeks in Georgia]], and [[Caucasian Greeks]]).<ref>See for example Anthony Bryer, 'The Empire of Trebizond and the Pontus' (Variourum, 1980), and his 'Migration and Settlement in the Caucasus and Anatolia' (Variourum, 1988), and other works listed in [[Caucasian Greeks]] and [[Pontic Greeks]].</ref>

These [[Byzantine Greeks]] were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era.<ref name=Burstein/><ref name=Norwich>{{harvnb|Norwich|1998|p=xxi}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Harris|1999|loc=Part II Medieval Libraries: Chapter 6 Byzantine and Moslem Libraries, pp. 71–88}}</ref> [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Byzantine grammarians]] were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century, giving the [[Italian Renaissance]] a major boost.<ref name=BritRen>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Renaissance|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=30 March 2016|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Robins|1993|p=8}}.</ref> The [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years, until the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Aristotelianism|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2016|location=United States|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Aristotelianism}}</ref>

To the [[Slavic people|Slavic]] world, the Byzantine Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity. The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers, the monks [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] from the port city of [[Thessalonica]], capital of the [[theme of Thessalonica]], who are credited today with formalizing the [[Glagolitic alphabet|first Slavic alphabet]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cyril and Methodius, Saints|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|year=2016|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius.aspx#2}}</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Ottoman Greeks|Phanariotes}}
[[File:Basilius Bessarion - Imagines philologorum.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Byzantine scholar and cardinal [[Basilios Bessarion]] (1395/1403–1472) played a key role in transmitting classical knowledge to the Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance]]
Following the [[Fall of Constantinople]] on 29 May 1453, many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the [[Western world|West]], particularly [[Italy]], [[Central Europe]], [[Germany]] and [[Russia]].<ref name=BritRen/> Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution, later called, the Renaissance. In Greek-inhabited territory itself, Greeks came to play a leading role in the [[Ottoman Empire]], due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire, politically, culturally, and socially, was based on [[Western Thrace]] and [[Greek Macedonia]], both in [[Northern Greece]], and of course was centred on the mainly Greek-populated, former Byzantine capital, [[Constantinople]]. As a direct consequence of this situation, Greek-speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment, as well as in the church. Added to this, in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army, navy, and state bureaucracy, having been levied as adolescents (along with especially [[Albanians]] and [[Serbs]]) into Ottoman service through the [[devshirme]]. Many Ottomans of Greek (or Albanian or Serb) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces, from Ottoman Egypt, to Ottomans occupied [[Yemen]] and [[Algeria]], frequently as provincial governors.

For those that remained under the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet system]], religion was the defining characteristic of national groups (''milletler''), so the [[exonym]] "Greeks" (''Rumlar'' from the name Rhomaioi) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]], regardless of their language or ethnic origin.<ref name=Mazower/> The [[Greek language|Greek]] speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves ''Romioi'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title = History of Europe, The Romans |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=United States |id=Online Edition }}</ref> (as opposed to being so named by others) and, at least those educated, considered their ethnicity (''genos'') to be Hellenic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mavrocordatos|first=Nicholaos|year=1800|title=Philotheou Parerga|publisher=Grēgorios Kōnstantas (Original from Harvard University Library)|quote=Γένος μεν ημίν των άγαν Ελλήνων}}</ref> There were, however, many Greeks who escaped the second-class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman [[millet]] system, according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment. These Greeks either emigrated, particularly to their fellow Orthodox Christian protector, the [[Russian Empire]], or simply converted to Islam, often only very superficially and whilst remaining [[crypto-Christian]]. The most notable examples of large-scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as [[Greek Muslims]]—excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the [[devshirme]]—were to be found in [[Crete]] ([[Cretan Turks]]), [[Greek Macedonia]] (for example among the [[Vallahades]] of western [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]]), and among [[Pontic Greeks]] in the [[Pontic Alps]] and [[Armenian Highlands]]. Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin, with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families, one famous example being sultan [[Selim I|Selim the Grim]] ({{reign}} 1517–1520), whose mother [[Gülbahar Hatun]] was a [[Pontic Greek]].

[[File:Adamantios Korais.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Adamantios Korais]], leading figure of the [[Modern Greek Enlightenment]]]]
The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the [[Phanariotes]].<ref name=BritB>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Phanariote|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2016|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Phanariote}}</ref> It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the [[Greek War of Independence]] in 1821.<ref name=BritMerchant/> Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in [[Chios]], [[Smyrna]] and [[Ayvalik|Aivali]], all three major centres of Greek commerce.<ref name=BritMerchant/> Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] church.

===Modern===
{{See also|Modern Greek Enlightenment|Greek War of Independence}}
The movement of the Greek enlightenment, the Greek expression of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], contributed not only in the promotion of education, culture and printing among the Greeks, but also in the case of independence from the [[Ottoman empire|Ottomans]], and the restoration of the term "Hellene". [[Adamantios Korais]], probably the most important intellectual of the movement, advocated the use of the term "Hellene" (Έλληνας) or "Graikos" (Γραικός) in the place of ''Romiós'', that was seen negatively by him.

The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation-state in 1830. According to the second article of the first [[Constitution of Greece|Greek constitution]] of 1822, a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the [[Kingdom of Greece (Wittelsbach)|Kingdom of Greece]], a clause removed by 1840.<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek Constitution of 1822 (Epidaurus)|year=1822|language=el|url=http://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/syn06.pdf}}</ref> A century later, when the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed between [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange, although most of the Greeks displaced (over a million of the total 1.5 million) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed.{{efn|While Greek authorities signed the agreement legalizing the population exchange this was done on the insistence of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] and after a million Greeks had already been expelled from [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] ({{harvnb|Gilbar|1997|p=8}}).}}<ref>{{harvnb|Barutciski|2003|p=28}}; {{harvnb|Clark|2006|pp=xi–xv}}; {{harvnb|Hershlag|1980|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Özkırımlı|Sofos|2008|pp=116–117}}.</ref> The [[Greek genocide]], in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea, contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Asia Minor Campaign]], was part of this process of [[Turkification]] of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade, then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control.<ref>{{harvnb|Üngör|2008|pp=15–39}}.</ref>

==Identity==
[[File:Hermes the scholar.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|The cover of ''[[Hermes o Logios]]'', a Greek literary publication of the late 18th and early 19th century in [[Vienna]] with major contribution to the [[Modern Greek Enlightenment]].]]
The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state.<ref name=Broome>{{harvnb|Broome|1996|loc="Greek Identity", pp. 22–27}}</ref> [[Herodotus]] gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day, enumerating
#shared [[kinship and descent|descent]] (ὅμαιμον – ''homaimon'', "of the same blood"),<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28%2Fmaimos ὅμαιμος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref>
#shared [[language]] (ὁμόγλωσσον – ''homoglōsson'', "speaking the same language")<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28mo%2Fglwssos ὁμόγλωσσος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref>
#shared [[sanctuaries]] and [[sacrifices]] (Greek: θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι – ''theōn hidrumata te koina kai thusiai'')<ref>I. Polinskaya, "Shared sanctuaries and the gods of others: On the meaning Of 'common' in Herodotus 8.144", in: R. Rosen & I. Sluiter (eds.), ''Valuing others in Classical Antiquity'' (LEiden: Brill, 2010), 43–70.</ref>
#shared [[Mores|customs]] (Greek: ἤθεα ὁμότροπα – ''ēthea homotropa'', "customs of like fashion").<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Do%28mo%2Ftropos ὁμότροπος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus)</ref><ref>Herodotus, 8.144.2: ''"The kinship of all Greeks in blood and speech, and the shrines of gods and the sacrifices that we have in common, and the likeness of our way of life."''</ref><ref>Athena S. Leoussi, Steven Grosby, ''Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations'', Edinburgh University Press, 2006, p. 115</ref>

By Western standards, the term ''Greeks'' has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the [[Greek language]], whether [[Mycenaean Greek language|Mycenaean]], [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine]] or [[modern Greek]].<ref name=Mazower>{{harvnb|Mazower|2000|pp=105–107}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Adrados|2005|p=xii}}.</ref> [[Byzantine Greeks]] self-identified as ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), ''Graikoi'' ("Greeks") and ''Christianoi'' ("Christians") since they were the political heirs of [[Roman Empire|imperial Rome]], the descendants of their [[Ancient Greeks|classical Greek forebears]] and followers of the [[Apostles]];<ref>{{harvnb|Finkelberg|2012|p=20}}; {{harvnb|Harrison|2002|p=268}}; {{harvnb|Kazhdan|Constable|1982|p=12}}; {{harvnb|Runciman|1970|p=14}}.</ref> during the mid-to-late Byzantine period (11th–13th century), a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves ''Hellenes'' although for most Greek-speakers, "Hellene" still meant pagan.<ref name=Cameron/><ref>{{harvnb|Ševčenko|2002|p=284}}.</ref> On the eve of the [[Fall of Constantinople]] the [[Constantine XI|Last Emperor]] urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sphrantzes |first=George|author-link=George Sphrantzes|title=The Chronicle of the Fall|year=1477}}</ref>

Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation-state, the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios. In his "Political Constitution", he addresses to the nation as "the people descendant of the Greeks".<ref>Feraios, Rigas. ''New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli, Asia Minor, the Islands of the Aegean, and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia''.</ref> The [[History of Modern Greece|modern Greek state]] was created in 1829, when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands, [[Peloponnese]], from the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Koliopoulos|Veremis|2002|p=277}}.</ref> The large [[Greek diaspora]] and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western [[romantic nationalism]] and [[philhellenism]],<ref name=BritMerchant>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title =History of Greece, Ottoman Empire, The merchant middle class |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |location=United States |id=Online Edition }}</ref> which together with the conception of Hellenism, formulated during the last centuries of the [[Byzantine Empire]], formed the basis of the [[Diafotismos]] and the current conception of Hellenism.<ref name=BritIdent/><ref name=Mazower/><ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2003|p=98: "After the Ottoman conquest in 1453, recognition by the Turks of the Greek ''millet'' under its Patriarch and Church helped to ensure the persistence of a separate ethnic identity, which, even if it did not ''produce'' a "precocious nationalism" among the Greeks, provided the later Greek enlighteners and nationalists with a cultural constituency fed by political dreams and apocalyptic prophecies of the recapture of Constantinople and the restoration of Greek Byzantium and its Orthodox emperor in all his glory."}}</ref>

The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ''[[ethnic group|ethnos]]'', defined by possessing [[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]] and having a Greek [[First language|mother tongue]], not by citizenship, race, and religion or by being subjects of any particular state.<ref>{{harvnb|Tonkin|Chapman|McDonald|1989}}.</ref> In ancient and medieval times and to a lesser extent today the Greek term was ''[[genos]]'', which also indicates a common ancestry.<ref>{{harvnb|Patterson|1998|pp=18–19}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Psellos|first=Michael|title=Michaelis Pselli Orationes Panegyricae|year=1994|location=Stuttgart/Leipzig|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|page=33|isbn=978-0-297-82057-4}}</ref>

===Names===
{{main|Achaeans (Homer)|Names of the Greeks}}
[[File:Ancient Regions Mainland Greece.png|thumb|right|Map showing the major regions of mainland ancient Greece, and adjacent "barbarian" lands.]]

Greeks and Greek-speakers have used different names to refer to themselves collectively. The term {{em|Achaeans}} (Ἀχαιοί) is one of the [[Names of the Greeks|collective names]] for the Greeks in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'' (the Homeric "long-haired Achaeans" would have been a part of the [[Mycenaean civilization]] that dominated Greece from {{circa}} 1600 BC until 1100 BC). The other common names are {{em|Danaans}} (Δαναοί) and {{em|Argives}} (Ἀργεῖοι) while {{em|Panhellenes}} (Πανέλληνες) and {{em|Hellenes}} (Ἕλληνες) both [[hapax legomenon|appear only once]] in the ''Iliad'';<ref>See ''Iliad'', II.2.530 for "Panhellenes" and ''Iliad'' II.2.653 for "Hellenes".</ref> all of these terms were used, synonymously, to denote a common Greek identity.<ref>{{harvnb|Cartledge|2011|loc=Chapter 4: Argos, p. 23: "The Late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nagy|2014|loc=Texts and Commentaries – Introduction #2: "Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization ... The impulse of Panhellenism is already at work in Homeric and Hesiodic poetry. In the Iliad, the names "Achaeans" and "Danaans" and "Argives" are used synonymously in the sense of Panhellenes = "all Hellenes" = "all Greeks.""}}</ref> In the historical period, Herodotus identified the [[Achaea (ancient region)|Achaeans]] of the northern [[Peloponnese]] as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans.<ref>[[Herodotus]]. ''Histories'', 7.94 and 8.73.</ref>

[[Homer]] refers to the "Hellenes" ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|l|iː|n|z}}) as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic [[Phthia]], with its warriors under the command of [[Achilleus]].<ref>Homer. ''[[Iliad]]'', 2.681–685</ref> The [[Parian Chronicle]] says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks ({{lang|grc|Γραικοί}}).<ref name="Parian-Chronicle">[http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/faqs/q004/q004008.html The Parian Marble, Entry #6]: "From when Hellen [son of] Deuc[alion] became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously called Graekoi were named Hellenes."</ref> In [[Greek mythology]], [[Hellen]], the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia, was the son of [[Pyrrha]] and [[Deucalion]], the only survivors after the [[flood myth|Great Deluge]].<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus. ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]''.</ref> The Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] names ancient [[Ancient Greece|Hellas]] as an area in [[Epirus]] between [[Dodona]] and the [[Achelous]] river, the location of the Great Deluge of [[Deucalion]], a land occupied by the [[Selloi]] and the "Greeks" who later came to be known as "Hellenes".<ref name=Aristotle>Aristotle. ''Meteorologica'', [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html 1.14]: "The deluge in the time of Deucalion, for instance took place chiefly in the Greek world and in it especially about ancient Hellas, the country about Dodona and the Achelous."</ref> In the Homeric tradition, the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus.<ref>[[Homer]]. ''Iliad'', 16.233–16.235: "King Zeus, lord of Dodona ... you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway, where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you."</ref>

In the [[Hesiod]]ic ''[[Catalogue of Women]]'', [[Graecus]] is presented as the son of Zeus and [[Pandora II]], sister of [[Hellen]] the patriarch of the Hellenes.<ref>Hesiod. ''Catalogue of Women'', Fragment 5.</ref> According to the [[Parian Chronicle]], when [[Deucalion]] became king of Phthia, the {{em|Graikoi}} (Γραικοί) were named Hellenes.<ref name="Parian-Chronicle"/> [[Aristotle]] notes in his ''Meteorologica'' that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi.<ref name=Aristotle/>

===Continuity===
[[File:Byzantine Greek Alexander Manuscript Bracca (cropped).JPG|thumb|Alexander the Great in [[Byzantine Emperor]]'s clothes, by a manuscript depicting scenes from his life (between 1204 and 1453)]]

The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language, which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, albeit with a break during the [[Greek Dark Ages]] (11th- 8th cent. BC, though the [[Cypriot syllabary]] was in use during this period).<ref name=Adrados>{{harvnb|Adrados|2005|pp=xii, 3–5}}.</ref> Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to [[Chinese language|Chinese]] alone.<ref name=Adrados/><ref name="Browning">{{harvnb|Browning|1983|p=vii: "The Homeric poems were first written down in more or less their present form in the seventh century B.C. Since then Greek has enjoyed a continuous tradition down to the present day. Change there has certainly been. But there has been no break like that between Latin and Romance languages. Ancient Greek is not a foreign language to the Greek of today as Anglo-Saxon is to the modern Englishman. The only other language which enjoys comparable continuity of tradition is Chinese."}}</ref> Since its inception, Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic.<ref name=Roberts1/><ref name=ADS>{{harvnb|Smith|1991|pp=29–32}}.</ref> Yet, Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony.<ref>{{harvnb|Isaac|2004|p=504: "Autochthony, being an Athenian idea and represented in many Athenian texts, is likely to have influenced a broad public of readers, wherever Greek literature was read."}}</ref> During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire, areas such as [[Ionia]] and [[Constantinople]] experienced a Hellenic revival in language, philosophy, and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship.<ref name=ADS/> This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage.<ref name=ADS/> Throughout their history, the Greeks have retained their language and [[Greek alphabet|alphabet]], certain values and cultural traditions, customs, a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion (the word ''[[barbarian]]'' was used by 12th-century historian [[Anna Komnene]] to describe non-Greek speakers),<ref>Anna Comnena. ''[[Alexiad]]'', Books 1–15.</ref> a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio-political changes of the past two millennia.<ref name=ADS/> In recent anthropological studies, both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio-genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups.<ref>{{harvnb|Papagrigorakis|Kousoulis|Synodinos|2014|p=237: "Interpreted with caution, the craniofacial morphology in modern and ancient Greeks indicates elements of ethnic group continuation within the unavoidable multicultural mixtures."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Argyropoulos|Sassouni|Xeniotou|1989|p=200: "An overall view of the finding obtained from these cephalometric analyses indicates that the Greek ethnic group has remained genetically stable in its cephalic and facial morphology for the last 4,000 years."}}</ref> There is also a direct genetic link between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=The Greeks really do have near-mythical origins, ancient DNA reveals |journal=Science |date=2 August 2017 |doi=10.1126/science.aan7200 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lazaridis |first1=Iosif |last2=Mittnik |first2=Alissa |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Mallick |first4=Swapan |last5=Rohland |first5=Nadin |last6=Pfrengle |first6=Saskia |last7=Furtwängler |first7=Anja |last8=Peltzer |first8=Alexander |last9=Posth |first9=Cosimo |last10=Vasilakis |first10=Andonis |last11=McGeorge |first11=P. J. P. |last12=Konsolaki-Yannopoulou |first12=Eleni |last13=Korres |first13=George |last14=Martlew |first14=Holley |last15=Michalodimitrakis |first15=Manolis |last16=Özsait |first16=Mehmet |last17=Özsait |first17=Nesrin |last18=Papathanasiou |first18=Anastasia |last19=Richards |first19=Michael |last20=Roodenberg |first20=Songül Alpaslan |last21=Tzedakis |first21=Yannis |last22=Arnott |first22=Robert |last23=Fernandes |first23=Daniel M. |last24=Hughey |first24=Jeffery R. |last25=Lotakis |first25=Dimitra M. |last26=Navas |first26=Patrick A. |last27=Maniatis |first27=Yannis |last28=Stamatoyannopoulos |first28=John A. |last29=Stewardson |first29=Kristin |last30=Stockhammer |first30=Philipp |last31=Pinhasi |first31=Ron |last32=Reich |first32=David |last33=Krause |first33=Johannes |last34=Stamatoyannopoulos |first34=George|author-link28=John Stamatoyannopoulos|author-link34=George Stamatoyannopoulos|title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans |journal=Nature |date=August 2017 |volume=548 |issue=7666 |pages=214–218 |doi=10.1038/nature23310 |pmid=28783727 |pmc=5565772 |bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L }}</ref>

===Demographics===
{{Main|Demographics of Greece|Demographics of Cyprus}}
Today, Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the [[Hellenic Republic]],<ref name=Greece>{{cite web |script-title=el:Πίνακας 9. Πληθυσμός κατά υπηκοότητα και φύλο|language=el|publisher=Hellenic Statistical Authority|year=2001|url-status=dead|url=http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1101_SAP_09_TB_DC_01_10_Y.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206090424/http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1101_SAP_09_TB_DC_01_10_Y.pdf |archive-date=6 February 2009|access-date=7 January 2009}}</ref> where they constitute 93% of the country's population,<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Factbook|access-date=19 December 2008|work=Central Intelligence Agency|publisher=United States Government|year=2007|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greece/}}</ref> and the [[Republic of Cyprus]] where they make up 78% of the island's population (excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country).<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|title=Census of Population 2001|access-date=11 June 2016|publisher=Γραφείο Τύπου και Πληροφοριών, Υπουργείο Εσωτερικών, Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία|url=http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/805CB6E0CF012914C2257122003F3A84/$file/MAIN%20RESULTS-EN.xls?OpenElement|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203065940/http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/All/805CB6E0CF012914C2257122003F3A84/$file/MAIN%20RESULTS-EN.xls?OpenElement|archive-date=3 February 2017}}</ref> Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories, as well as the influx of 1.5 million Greek refugees after the [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|1923 population exchange]] between Greece and Turkey.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Greece: Demographic trends|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|year=2016|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/place/Greece/Climate}}</ref> About 80% of the population of Greece is urban, with 28% concentrated in the city of Athens.<ref name=EconWorld>{{cite book|title=Pocket World in Figures (Economist)|publisher=Economist Books|location=London|year=2006|page=150|chapter=Merchant Marine, Tertiary enrollment by age group|isbn=978-1-86197-825-7}}</ref>

Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration, usually to the English-speaking world because of the island's colonization by the [[British Empire]]. Waves of [[emigration]] followed the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]] in 1974, while the population decreased between mid-1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration, war losses, and a temporary decline in fertility.<ref name="Britannica-Cyprus">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Cyprus: Demographic trends|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|id=Online Edition|year=2016|url=http://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus}}</ref> After the [[ethnic cleansing]] of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974,<ref>{{harvnb|Papadakis|Peristianis|Welz|2006|pp=2–3}}; {{harvnb|Borowiec|2000|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Rezun|2001|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Brown|2004|p=48}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos|2001|p=24: "In occupied Cyprus on the other hand, where heavy ethnic cleansing took place, only 300 Greek Cypriots remain from the original 200,000!"}}</ref> there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving, especially for the Middle East, which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s.<ref name="Britannica-Cyprus"/> Today more than two-thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban.<ref name="Britannica-Cyprus"/>

There is a sizeable Greek minority of approximately 200,000 people in [[Greek minority in Albania|Albania]].<ref name=Jeffries/> The Greek minority of [[Greeks in Turkey|Turkey]], which numbered upwards of 200,000 people after the 1923 exchange, has now dwindled to a few thousand, after the 1955 [[Istanbul Pogrom|Constantinople Pogrom]] and other state sponsored violence and discrimination.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gilson|first=George|title=Destroying a minority: Turkey's attack on the Greeks|work=Athens News|date=24 June 2005|access-date=19 December 2008|url=http://www.athensnews.gr/athweb/nathens.print_unique?e=C&f=13136&m=A10&aa=1&eidos=S|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617131719/http://www.athensnews.gr/athweb/nathens.print_unique?e=C&f=13136&m=A10&aa=1&eidos=S |archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref> This effectively ended, though not entirely, the three-thousand-year-old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor.<ref>{{harvnb|Vryonis|2005|pp=1–10}}.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Birand|first=Mehm |display-authors=etal |title=The shame of Sept. 6–7 is always with us|work=Hürriyet Daily News|date=7 September 2005|access-date=19 December 2008|url=http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-559132|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121209034629/http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-559132|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries, the [[Greeks in Lebanon|Levant]] and the [[Greeks in Georgia|Black Sea]] states, remnants of the Old [[Greek Diaspora]] (pre-19th century).<ref name=Prevelakis>{{cite web|last=Prevelakis|first=George|year=2003|location=Oxford|publisher=Transnational Communities Programme (Working Paper Series)|access-date=16 May 2016|title=''Finis Greciae'' or the Return of the Greeks? State and Diaspora in the Context of Globalisation|url=http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/working%20papers/prevelakis.PDF}}</ref>

===Diaspora===
{{Main|Greek diaspora}}
[[File:50 largest Greek diaspora.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Greek diaspora (20th century).]]
The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue. Where Census figures are available, they show around 3 million Greeks outside [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]]. Estimates provided by the [[SAE - World Council of Hellenes Abroad]] put the figure at around 7 million worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|title=Speech by Vasilis Magdalinos|access-date=19 December 2008|publisher=SAE|date=29 December 2006|url=http://www.sae.gr/?id=12566&tag=%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%AE%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%20%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B7%20%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8D|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721090732/http://www.sae.gr/?id=12566&tag=%CE%95%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%AE%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%20%CE%92%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B7%20%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B4%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%8D|archive-date=21 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to George Prevelakis of [[Sorbonne University]], the number is closer to just below 5 million.<ref name=Prevelakis/> Integration, intermarriage, and loss of the Greek language influence the self-identification of the [[Greek diaspora|Omogeneia]]. Important centres of the New Greek Diaspora today are [[British Greeks|London]], [[Greek Americans|New York]], [[Greek Australians|Melbourne]] and [[Greek Canadians|Toronto]].<ref name=Prevelakis/> In 2010, the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that enables Diaspora Greeks in Greece to vote in the elections of the Greek state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/Articles/en-US/15072008_SB1306.htm|title=Meeting on the exercise of voting rights by foreigners of Greek origin|work=Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs|date=15 July 2008|access-date=19 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216034948/http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/Articles/en-US/15072008_SB1306.htm|archive-date=16 February 2012}}</ref> This law was later repealed in early 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Non-Greeks and diaspora lose out on voting rights|publisher=Ekathimerini.com|date=8 February 2014|access-date=13 January 2015|url= http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_08/02/2014_537214}}</ref>

====Ancient====
{{See also|Colonies in antiquity}}
[[File:Griechischen und phönizischen Kolonien.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|right|Greek colonization in antiquity.]]
In ancient times, the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins, especially in [[Magna Graecia|Sicily and southern Italy]] (also known as [[Magna Grecia]]), Spain, the [[History of Marseille|south of France]] and the [[Pontian Greeks|Black sea coasts]].<ref name=Apoikiai>{{harvnb|Boardman|1984|pp=199–289}}.</ref> Under Alexander the Great's empire and successor states, Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the [[Seleucid Kingdom|Middle East]], [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|India]] and in [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Egypt]].<ref name=Apoikiai/> The [[Hellenistic period]] is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in [[Dayuan|Asia]] and [[Cyrene, Libya|Africa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Horden|Purcell|2000|pp=111, 128}}.</ref> Under the Roman Empire, easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories, Greek became the [[lingua franca]] rather than [[Latin]].<ref name=Haldon50/> The modern-day [[Griko people|Griko community]] of southern Italy, numbering about 60,000,<ref name="Grecia-Salentina"/><ref name=Bellinello/> may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy.

====Modern====
[[File:Distribution Of Races 1918 National Geographic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Distribution of ethnic groups in 1918, National Geographic]]
[[File:Constantine Cavafy with cane and hat in hand Photograph dated 1896 Alexandria Egypt.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Poet [[Constantine P. Cavafy]], a native of [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]]]

During and after the [[Greek War of Independence]], Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state, raising funds and awareness abroad.<ref>{{harvnb|Calotychos|2003|p=16}}.</ref> Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean (notably Marseilles in [[Greeks in France|France]], Livorno in [[Greeks in Italy|Italy]], Alexandria in [[Greeks in Egypt|Egypt]]), [[Greeks in Russia|Russia]] ([[Odessa]] and [[Saint Petersburg]]), and [[British Greeks|Britain]] (London and Liverpool) from where they traded, typically in textiles and grain.<ref name=Diaspora>{{harvnb|McCabe|Harlaftis|2005|pp=147–149}}.</ref> Businesses frequently comprised the extended family, and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name=Diaspora/>

As markets changed and they became more established, some families grew their operations to become [[Greek shipping|shippers]], financed through the local Greek community, notably with the aid of the [[Ralli Brothers|Ralli]] or [[Panayis Athanase Vagliano|Vagliano Brothers]].<ref name=Kardasis>{{harvnb|Kardasis|2001|pp=xvii–xxi}}.</ref> With economic success, the Diaspora expanded further across the [[Greeks in Syria|Levant]], North Africa, India and the USA.<ref name=Kardasis/><ref name=Clogg>{{harvnb|Clogg|2000|loc="The Greeks in America"}}</ref>

In the 20th century, many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the [[Greek American|United States]], Great Britain, Australia, Canada, [[Greeks in Germany|Germany]], and [[Greeks in South Africa|South Africa]], especially after the [[Second World War]] (1939–1945), the [[Greek Civil War]] (1946–1949), and the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus]] in 1974.<ref>{{harvnb|Laliotou|2004|pp=85–92}}.</ref>

While official figures remain scarce, polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the [[Greek financial crisis]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Seiradaki|first=Emmanouela|title=As Crisis Deepens, Astoria Finds Its Greek Essence Again|work=Greek Reporter|publisher=GreekReporter.com|date=11 April 2012|access-date=21 May 2016|url=http://usa.greekreporter.com/2012/04/11/as-crisis-deepens-astoria-finds-its-greek-essence-again/}}</ref> According to data published by the [[Federal Statistical Office of Germany]] in 2011, 23,800 Greeks emigrated to Germany, a significant increase over the previous year. By comparison, about 9,000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12,000 in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Papachristou|first1=Harry|last2=Elgood|first2=Giles|title=Greece Already Close to Breaking Point|agency=Reuters|work=The Fiscal Times|date=20 May 2012|access-date=22 May 2012|url=http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Articles/2012/05/20/Greece-Already-Close-to-Breaking-Point.aspx#page1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hannon|first=Paul|title=OECD Says Euro-Zone Crisis Has Led to Some Emigration|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=27 June 2012|access-date=21 May 2016|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303649504577492411116780178}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Greece}}
[[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]] has evolved over thousands of years, with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization, continuing through the classical era, the Hellenistic period, the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity, which it in turn influenced and shaped.<ref name="Christianity-Hellenism">{{harvnb|van der Horst|1998|pp=9–11}}; {{harvnb|Voegelin|Moulakis|1997|pp=175–179}}</ref> [[Ottoman Greeks]] had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in [[Greek genocide|genocide]] in the 20th century.<ref name=IAGS>{{cite press release|title=Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides|publisher=[[International Association of Genocide Scholars]]|date=16 December 2007|url-status=dead|url=http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227043831/http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf|archive-date=27 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bjørnlund|2008|pp=41–58}}; {{harvnb|Schaller|Zimmerer|2008|pp=7–14}}; {{harvnb|Levene|1998|p=393}}; {{harvnb|Tatz|2003|pp=xiii, 178}}.</ref> The [[Diafotismos]] is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today.<ref name=BritIdent/><ref name=Mazower/>

===Language===
{{Main|Greek language|Greek language question}}
[[File:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|right|Early Greek alphabet, c. 8th century BC]]
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Kostas speaking Greek.webm|thumb|A Greek speaker]]
Most Greeks speak the [[Greek language]], an [[Hellenic languages|independent branch]] of the [[Indo-European languages]], with its closest relations possibly being [[Armenian language|Armenian]] (see [[Graeco-Armenian]]) or the [[Indo-Iranian languages]] (see [[Graeco-Aryan]]).<ref name=Adrados/> It has the longest documented history of any living language and [[Greek literature]] has a continuous history of over 2,500 years.<ref name=BritLit>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Greek literature|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=27 August 2014|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|location=United States|id=Online Edition|url=http://www.britannica.com/art/Greek-literature}}</ref> The oldest inscriptions in Greek are in the [[Linear B]] script, dated as far back as 1450 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aegeanscripts.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98:new-linear-b-tablet-found-at-iklaina&catid=80&Itemid=473|title=New Linear B tablet found at Iklaina|publisher=Comité International Permanent des Études Mycéniennes, UNESCO|access-date=29 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015044633/http://www.aegeanscripts.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=98:new-linear-b-tablet-found-at-iklaina&catid=80&Itemid=473|archive-date=15 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Following the [[Greek Dark Ages]], from which written records are absent, the [[Greek alphabet]] appears in the 9th–8th century BC. The Greek alphabet derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet]], and in turn became the parent alphabet of the [[Latin]], [[Cyrillic]], and several other alphabets. The earliest Greek literary works are the [[Homer|Homeric epics]], variously dated from the 8th to the 6th century BC. Notable scientific and mathematical works include [[Euclid's Elements]], Ptolemy's [[Almagest]], and others. The [[New Testament]] was originally written in [[Koine Greek]].

Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other [[Languages of the Balkans|Balkan languages]], such as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Eastern Romance languages]] (see [[Balkan sprachbund]]), and has absorbed many foreign words, primarily of Western European and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] origin.<ref>{{harvnb|Winford|2003|p=71}}.</ref> Because of the movements of [[Philhellenism]] and the [[Diafotismos]] in the 19th century, which emphasized the modern Greeks' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of [[Katharevousa]], a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the [[Hellenic Parliament]] voted to make the spoken [[Dimotiki]] the official language, making Katharevousa obsolete.<ref>{{harvnb|Mackridge|1990|p=25}}.</ref>

[[Modern Greek]] has, in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki, a wide [[Varieties of Modern Greek|variety of dialects]] of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, including [[Cypriot Greek|Cypriot]], [[Pontic language|Pontic]], [[Cappadocian Greek|Cappadocian]], [[Griko language|Griko]] and [[Tsakonian language|Tsakonian]] (the only surviving representative of ancient [[Doric Greek]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Tomić|2006|p=703}}.</ref> [[Yevanic language|Yevanic]] is the language of the [[Romaniotes]], and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel. In addition to Greek, many Greek citizens in Greece and the diaspora are bilingual in other languages such as English, [[Arvanitika]]/[[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]], [[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]], [[Slavic dialects of Greece|Macedonian Slavic]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and Turkish.<ref name=Adrados/><ref>{{harvnb|Fasold|1984|p=160}}.</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in ancient Greece|Greek Orthodox Church}}
[[File:Christ_Pantocrator_mosaic_from_Hagia_Sophia_2744_x_2900_pixels_3.1_MB.jpg|thumb|[[Christ Pantocrator]] [[mosaic]] in [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Istanbul]]]]
Most Greeks are [[Christians]], belonging to the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name="abs">{{cite web|url = http://www.pewforum.org/2014/04/04/religious-diversity-index-scores-by-country/ |title = Greece |date = 4 April 2014| publisher = PewForum| access-date = 4 April 2014}}</ref> During the first centuries after [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]], the [[New Testament]] was originally written in [[Koine Greek]], which remains the [[Sacred language|liturgical language]] of the Greek Orthodox Church, and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek-speaking.<ref name="Christianity-Hellenism"/> There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other [[Christianity|Christian]] denominations like [[Roman Catholicism in Greece|Greek Catholics]], [[Greek Evangelical Church|Greek Evangelicals]], [[Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost|Pentecostals]], and groups adhering to other religions including [[Romaniotes|Romaniot]] and [[Sephardic Jews]] and [[Greek Muslims]]. About 2,000 Greeks are members of [[Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism]] congregations.<ref>{{cite news|last= Head|first=James|title=The ancient gods of Greece are not extinct|work=New Statesman|page=The Faith Column|date=20 March 2007|access-date=12 May 2016|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-faith-column/2007/03/ancient-greek-gods-greece}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=de Quetteville|first=Harry|title=Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods|work=The Telegraph|date=8 May 2004|access-date=12 May 2016|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/1461311/Modern-Athenians-fight-for-the-right-to-worship-the-ancient-Greek-gods.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom of Religion in Greece|work=International Religious Freedom Report|year=2006|publisher=United States Department of State|access-date=12 May 2016|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71383.htm}}</ref>

Greek-speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era. There are both Christian and Muslim Greek-speaking communities in [[Greeks in Lebanon|Lebanon]] and [[Greeks in Syria|Syria]], while in the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] region of [[Turkey]] there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey|population exchange]] because of their religious affiliation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tsokalidou|first=Roula|title=Greek-Speaking Enclaves of Lebanon and Syria|work=Actas/Proceedings II Simposio Internacional Bilingüismo|year=2002|publisher=Roula Tsokalidou (Primary School Education Department, University of Thessaly, Greece)|pages=1245–1255|url=http://webs.uvigo.es/ssl/actas2002/05/08.%20Roula%20Tsokalidou.pdf}}</ref>

===Arts===
{{Further|Greek art|Music of Greece|Ancient Greek architecture|Ancient Greek theatre|Modern Greek theatre|Cinema of Greece|Modern Greek architecture|Modern Greek literature}}
{{See also|Greco-Buddhist art}}

[[File:Maria Callas 1958.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Renowned Greek soprano [[Maria Callas]]]]
Greek art has a long and varied history. Greeks have contributed to the visual, literary and performing arts.<ref name=Osborne>{{harvnb|Osborne|1998|pp=1–3}}.</ref> In the West, [[Art in ancient Greece|classical Greek art]] was influential in shaping the [[Roman art|Roman]] and later the modern [[Western art history|Western artistic heritage]]. Following the [[Renaissance]] in [[Europe]], the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists.<ref name=Osborne/> Well into the 19th century, the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world.<ref>{{harvnb|Pollitt|1972|pp=xii–xv}}.</ref> In the East, [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, [[Central Asia]]n and [[Culture of India|Indian]] cultures, resulting in [[Indo-Greek art|Indo-Greek]] and [[Greco-Buddhist art]], whose influence reached as far as [[Japan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Puri|1987|pp=28–29}}.</ref>

[[Byzantine art|Byzantine Greek art]], which grew from the Hellenistic [[Fayum portrait|classical art]] and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity, provided a stimulus to the art of many nations.<ref name="Mango-Art">{{harvnb|Mango|1986|pp=ix–xiv, 183}}.</ref> Its influences can be traced from [[Venice]] in the West to [[Kazakhstan]] in the East.<ref name="Mango-Art"/><ref>{{cite news|title=The Byzantine empire, The lasting glory of its art|work=The Economist|date=4 October 2007|access-date=10 May 2016|url=http://www.economist.com/books/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9900058}}</ref> In turn, Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations (i.e. [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Persian art|Persia]], etc.) during various periods of its history.<ref>{{harvnb|Stansbury-O'Donnell|2015}}; {{harvnb|Tarbell|1907}}.</ref>

Notable modern Greek artists include the major [[Renaissance]] painter [[Dominikos Theotokopoulos]] (El Greco), [[Nikolaos Gyzis]], [[Nikiphoros Lytras]], [[Konstantinos Volanakis]], [[Theodoros Vryzakis]], [[Georgios Jakobides]], [[Thalia Flora-Karavia]], [[Yannis Tsarouchis]], [[Nikos Engonopoulos]], [[Périclès Pantazis]], [[Theofilos Hatzimichail|Theophilos]], [[Constantine Andreou|Kostas Andreou]], [[Jannis Kounellis]], sculptors such as [[Leonidas Drosis]], [[Georgios Bonanos]], [[Yannoulis Chalepas]], [[Athanase Apartis|Athanasios Apartis]], [[Konstantinos Dimitriadis]] and [[Joannis Avramidis]], conductor [[Dimitri Mitropoulos]], soprano [[Maria Callas]], composers such as [[Mikis Theodorakis]], [[Nikos Skalkottas]], [[Nikolaos Mantzaros]], [[Spyridon Samaras]], [[Manolis Kalomiris]], [[Iannis Xenakis]], [[Manos Hatzidakis]], [[Manos Loïzos]], [[Yanni]] and [[Vangelis]], the masters of [[rebetiko]] [[Markos Vamvakaris]] and [[Vassilis Tsitsanis]], and singers such as [[Giorgos Dalaras]], [[Haris Alexiou]], [[Sotiria Bellou]], [[Nana Mouskouri]], [[Vicky Leandros]] and [[Demis Roussos]]. Poets such as [[Andreas Kalvos]], [[Athanasios Christopoulos]], [[Kostis Palamas]], the writer of [[Hymn to Liberty]] [[Dionysios Solomos]], [[Angelos Sikelianos]], [[Kostas Karyotakis]], [[Maria Polydouri]], [[Yannis Ritsos]], [[Kostas Varnalis]], [[Nikos Kavvadias]], [[Andreas Embirikos]] and [[Kiki Dimoula]]. [[Constantine P. Cavafy]] and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel laureate]]s [[Giorgos Seferis]] and [[Odysseas Elytis]] are among the most important poets of the 20th century. Novel is also represented by [[Alexandros Papadiamantis]], [[Emmanuel Rhoides]], [[Ion Dragoumis]], [[Nikos Kazantzakis]], [[Penelope Delta]], [[Stratis Myrivilis]], [[Vassilis Vassilikos]] and [[Petros Markaris]], while notable playwrights include the [[Cretan Renaissance]] poets [[Georgios Chortatzis]] and [[Vitsentzos Kornaros|Vincenzos Cornaros]], such as [[Gregorios Xenopoulos]] and [[Iakovos Kambanellis]].

Notable cinema or theatre actors include [[Marika Kotopouli]], [[Melina Mercouri]], [[Ellie Lambeti]], [[Academy Award]] winner [[Katina Paxinou]], [[Alexis Minotis]], [[Dimitris Horn]], [[Thanasis Veggos]], [[Manos Katrakis]] and [[Irene Papas]]. [[Alekos Sakellarios]], [[Karolos Koun]], [[Vasilis Georgiadis]], [[Costa-Gavras|Kostas Gavras]], [[Michael Cacoyannis]], [[Giannis Dalianidis]], [[Nikos Koundouros]] and [[Theo Angelopoulos]] are among the most important directors.

Among the most significant modern-era architects are [[Stamatios Kleanthis]], [[Lysandros Kaftanzoglou]], [[Anastasios Metaxas]], [[Panagis Kalkos]], [[Anastasios Orlandos]], the naturalized Greek [[Ernst Ziller]], [[Dimitris Pikionis]] and urban planners [[Stamatis Voulgaris]] and [[George Candilis]].

===Science===
{{see also|Ancient Greek philosophy|Greek mathematics|Ancient Greek medicine|Byzantine science|Greek scholars in the Renaissance|List of Greek inventions and discoveries}}
[[File:Aristarchus working.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aristarchus of Samos]] was the first known individual to propose a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric system]], in the 3rd century BC]]
The Greeks of the Classical and Hellenistic eras made seminal contributions to science and philosophy, laying the foundations of several western scientific traditions, such as [[Greek astronomy|astronomy]], [[geography]], [[historiography]], [[Greek mathematics|mathematics]], [[Greek medicine|medicine]], [[Greek philosophy|philosophy]] and [[political science]]. The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in [[Constantinople]], [[Antioch]], [[Alexandria]] and other centers of Greek learning, while Byzantine science was essentially a continuation of classical science.<ref>{{cite web|title=Byzantine Medicine — Vienna Dioscurides|work=Antiqua Medicina|year=2007|publisher=University of Virginia|access-date=10 May 2016|url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/byzantine/}}</ref> Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in ''paideia'' (education).<ref name=Harris/> ''Paideia'' was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the [[Fall of Constantinople|city's fall]] to the Ottomans in 1453.<ref name=Bump>{{cite web|last=Bump|first=Jerome|title=The Origin of Universities (University of Magnaura in Constantinople)|access-date=19 December 2008|work=The Origin of Universities|publisher=University of Texas at Austin|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 February 2009|url=http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220164836/http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~bump/OriginUniversities.html}}</ref> The [[University of Constantinople]] was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught,<ref>{{harvnb|Tatakes|Moutafakis|2003|p=189}}.</ref> and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students, the world's first university as well.<ref name=Bump/>

As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education.<ref name=EconWorld/> Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names.<ref>{{cite news|title=University reforms in Greece face student protests|work=The Economist|date=6 July 2006|access-date=19 December 2008|url=http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_STQTVNJ}}</ref> Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Indologist [[Dimitrios Galanos]], Dr [[Georgios Papanikolaou|Georgios Papanicolaou]] (inventor of the [[Pap test]]), mathematician [[Constantin Carathéodory]], archaeologists [[Manolis Andronikos]], [[Valerios Stais]], [[Spyridon Marinatos]] and [[Ioannis Svoronos]], computer scientists [[Michael Dertouzos]], [[John Argyris]], [[Nicholas Negroponte]], [[Joseph Sifakis]] (2007 [[Turing Award]], the "Nobel Prize" of Computer Science), [[Christos Papadimitriou]] (2002 [[Knuth Prize]], 2012 [[Gödel Prize]]) and [[Mihalis Yannakakis]] (2005 [[Knuth Prize]]), physicists [[Achilles Papapetrou]], [[Dimitri Nanopoulos]] and [[John Iliopoulos]] (2007 [[Dirac Prize]] for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark, a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern theory of Elementary Particles), astronomer [[E. M. Antoniadi|Eugenios Antoniadis]], biologist [[Fotis Kafatos]], botanist [[Theodoros G. Orphanides|Theodoros Orphanides]], economist [[Xenophon Zolotas]], linguist [[Ioannis Psycharis|Yiannis Psycharis]], historians [[Constantine Paparrigopoulos]] and [[Helene Ahrweiler|Helene Glykatzi Ahrweiler]] and political scientists [[Nicos Poulantzas]] and [[Cornelius Castoriadis]].

Significant engineers and automobile designers include [[Nikolas Tombazis]], [[Alec Issigonis]] and [[Andreas Zapatinas]].

===Symbols===
{{See also|Flag of Greece}}
[[File:Flag of Greece.svg|thumb|upright|The national flag of Greece is commonly used as a symbol for Greeks worldwide]]
[[File:Flag of the Greek Orthodox Church.svg|thumb|upright|The flag of the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] is based on the coat of arms of the [[Palaiologoi]], the last dynasty of the [[Byzantine Empire]].]]

The most widely used symbol is the [[flag of Greece]], which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto ''[[Eleftheria i Thanatos]]'' (Freedom or Death), which was the motto of the [[Greek War of Independence]].<ref>{{harvnb|Papadakis|1995|p=55}}.</ref> The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodoxy]]. The Greek flag is widely used by the [[Greek Cypriots]], although [[Cyprus]] has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the [[Turkish Cypriots|Turkish Cypriot]] minority (see [[flag of Cyprus]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.gr/en/shmaia.htm |title=The Flag |access-date=19 December 2008 |work=Law 851, Gov. Gazette 233, issue A, dated 21/22.12.1978 |publisher=Presidency of the Hellenic Republic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015001727/http://www.presidency.gr/en/shmaia.htm |archive-date=15 October 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a [[Cross|Greek cross]] (''crux immissa quadrata'') on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The [[national emblem of Greece]] features a blue [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.<ref>{{cite web|title=Older Flags: 19 December 2008|work=Flags of the Greeks|publisher=Skafidas Zacharias|url=http://users.att.sch.gr/zskafid/simea5a.htm}} [Note: Website contains image of the 1665 original for the current Greek flag.]</ref>

Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the [[Flag of Greece#Double-headed eagle|double-headed eagle]], the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Eastern Roman Empire and a common symbol in [[Asia Minor]] and, later, [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Grierson|Bellinger|1999|loc="Eagles", pp. 85–86}}</ref> It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat-of-arms, although it is officially the insignia of the [[Greek Army]] and the flag of the [[Church of Greece]]. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.<ref>{{cite web|title=Byzantine Flags|work=Byzantine Heraldry|publisher=François Velde|year=1997|access-date=13 May 2016|url=http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/byzantin.htm}}</ref>

===Politics===
{{See also|Politics in Greece}}

[[Classical Athens]] is considered the birthplace of [[Democracy]]. The term appeared in the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in [[Greek city-state]]s, notably Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to [[aristocracy]] ({{lang|grc|ἀριστοκρατία}}, ''{{lang|la|aristokratía}}''), meaning "rule by an excellent elite", and to [[oligarchy]]. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically.<ref>Wilson, N.G. (2006). ''Encyclopedia of ancient Greece''. New York: Routledge. p. 511. {{ISBN|0-415-97334-1}}.</ref> Led by [[Cleisthenes]], Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC,<ref>R. Po-chia Hsia, Lynn Hunt, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, and Bonnie G. Smith, ''The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, A Concise History, Volume I: To 1740'' (Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007), 44.</ref> which took gradually the form of a [[direct democracy]]. The democratic form of government declined during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, only to be revived as an interest in Western Europe during the [[early modern period]].

The European enlightenment and the democratic, liberal and nationalistic ideas of the [[French Revolution]] was a crucial factor to the outbreak of the [[Greek War of Independence]] and the establishment of the modern Greek state.<ref name="Cl48">Clogg, ''A Concise History of Greece '', pp. 25–26</ref><ref name="Paroulakis32">Goldstein, ''Wars and Peace Treaties'', p. 20</ref>

Notable modern Greek politicians include [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]], founder of the [[First Hellenic Republic]], reformist [[Charilaos Trikoupis]], [[Eleftherios Venizelos]], who marked the shape of modern Greece, social democrats [[Georgios Papandreou]] and [[Alexandros Papanastasiou]], [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]], founder of the [[Third Hellenic Republic]], and socialist [[Andreas Papandreou]].

===Surnames and personal names===
{{see also|Greek name|Ancient Greek personal names}}

Greek surnames began to appear in the 9th and 10th century, at first among ruling families, eventually supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father's name as disambiguator.<ref name=Wickham>{{harvnb|Wickham|2005|p=237}}.</ref><ref name="lexicon"/> Nevertheless, Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics,<ref name=Wickham/> such those ending in the suffix ''-opoulos'' or ''-ides'', while others derive from trade professions, physical characteristics, or a location such as a town, village, or monastery.<ref name="lexicon"/> Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine [[proper nouns]] in the [[nominative case]]. Occasionally (especially in Cyprus), some surnames end in ''-ou'', indicating the [[genitive case]] of a patronymic name.<ref>{{harvnb|Fong|2004|p=39}}.</ref> Many surnames end in suffixes that are associated with a particular region, such as ''-akis'' (Crete), ''-eas'' or ''-akos'' ([[Mani Peninsula]]), ''-atos'' (island of [[Cephalonia]]), ''-ellis'' (island of [[Lesbos]]) and so forth.<ref name="lexicon"/> In addition to a Greek origin, some surnames have Turkish or Latin/Italian origin, especially among Greeks from [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Ionian Islands]], respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Koliopoulos|1987|p=xii}}.</ref> Female surnames end in a vowel and are usually the genitive form of the corresponding males surname, although this usage is not followed in the diaspora, where the male version of the surname is generally used.

With respect to personal names, the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards.<ref name="lexicon">{{cite web|title=The Transition of Modern Greek Names|work=Lexicon of Greek Personal Names|publisher=Oxford University|url=http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/names/modern.html|access-date=10 May 2016}}</ref> As in antiquity, children are customarily named after their grandparents, with the first born male child named after the paternal grandfather, the second male child after the maternal grandfather, and similarly for female children.<ref>{{cite web|title=Naming practices|work=Lexicon of Greek Personal Names|publisher=Oxford University|url=http://www.lgpn.ox.ac.uk/names/practices.html|access-date=16 October 2016}}</ref> Personal names are often familiarized by a diminutive suffix, such as ''-akis'' for male names and ''-itsa'' or ''-oula'' for female names.<ref name="lexicon"/> Greeks generally do not use middle names, instead using the genitive of the father's first name as a middle name. This usage has been passed on to the [[Russian names|Russians]] and other [[East Slavs]] ([[otchestvo]]).

===Sea: exploring and commerce===
{{Main|Greek shipping}}
[[File:Aristotle Onassis 1967cr.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Aristotle Onassis]], the best known Greek shipping magnate worldwide.]]

The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea, [[Southern Italy]] ([[Magna Graecia]]), the [[Black Sea]], the [[Ionia|Ionian coasts]] of [[Asia Minor]] and the islands of [[Cyprus]] and [[Sicily]]. In Plato's ''[[Phaedo|Phaidon]]'', Socrates remarks, "we (Greeks) live around a sea like frogs around a pond" when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean.<ref>Plato. ''Phaidon'', 109c: "ὥσπερ περὶ τέλμα μύρμηκας ἢ βατράχους περὶ τὴν θάλατταν οἰκοῦντας."</ref><ref name=Harl>{{harvnb|Harl|1996|p=260: "Cities employed the coins of an empire that formed a community of cities encircling the Mediterranean Sea, which Romans audaciously called "Our Sea" (''mare nostrum''). "We live around a sea like frogs around a pond" was how Socrates, so Plato tells us, described to his friends the Hellenic cities of the Aegean in the late fifth century B.C."}}</ref> This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora, which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the [[Greece|Greek state]] in 1832. The [[sea]] and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is mostly rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture.<ref name=Roberts1/>

Notable Greek seafarers include people such as [[Pytheas|Pytheas of Massalia]] who sailed to Great Britain, [[Euthymenes]] who sailed to Africa, [[Scylax of Caryanda]] who sailed to India, the [[navarch]] of Alexander the Great [[Nearchus]], [[Megasthenes]], explorer of India, later the 6th century merchant and monk [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (''Cosmas who sailed to India''), and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage Ioannis Fokas also known as [[Juan de Fuca]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pletcher|2013}}; {{harvnb|Casson|1991|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Winstedt|1909|pp=1–3}}; {{harvnb|Withey|1989|p=42}}.</ref> In later times, the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea-lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the [[Byzantine emperor]] on trade with the [[Caliphate]] opened the door for the later Italian pre-eminence in trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2001|pp=30–32}}; {{harvnb|Postan|Miller|Postan|1987|pp=132–166}}</ref> [[Panayotis Potagos]] was another explorer of modern times who was the first to reach Mbomu and [[Uele River]] from the north.

The Greek shipping tradition recovered during the late Ottoman rule (especially after the [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] and during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]), when a substantial merchant middle class developed, which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence.<ref name=BritIdent/> Today, Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, while many more ships under Greek ownership fly [[flags of convenience]].<ref name=EconWorld/> The most notable shipping [[magnate]] of the 20th century was [[Aristotle Onassis]], others being [[Yiannis Latsis]], [[Stavros G. Livanos]], and [[Stavros Niarchos]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Blyth |first=Myrna |title=Greek Tragedy: The life of Aristotle Onassis |work=National Review |date=12 August 2004 |access-date=19 December 2008 |url=http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=NDRjYzJhMWI5ZjE3ZmNmOWQ0YWEyNjBkYmI1MjhiODI= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207011737/http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=NDRjYzJhMWI5ZjE3ZmNmOWQ0YWEyNjBkYmI1MjhiODI%3D |archive-date=7 December 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Helena|title=Callas takes centre stage again as exhibition recalls Onassis's life|work=The Guardian|date=6 October 2006|access-date=13 May 2016|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/oct/06/arts.artsnews}}</ref>

==Genetics==
{{See also|Genetic history of Europe}}

[[File:Plos.Balkans.2.png|thumb|right|Admixture analysis of [[autosomal]] [[Single-nucleotide polymorphism|SNP]]s of the Balkan region in a global context on the resolution level of 7 assumed ancestral populations: African (brown), South/West European (light blue), Asian (yellow), Middle Eastern (green), North/East European (dark blue) and Caucasian/Anatolian component (beige).]]
[[File:European population substructure.png|thumb|right|Factor Correspondence Analysis Comparing Different Individuals from European Ancestry Groups.]]

Genetic studies using [[Genetic marker|multiple autosomal gene markers]], [[Y DNA|Y chromosomal DNA]] [[haplogroup]] analysis and [[Mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial gene markers]] (mtDNA) show that Greeks share similar backgrounds as the rest of the Europeans and especially Southern Europeans ([[Italians]] and southern [[Balkans|Balkan]] populations such as [[Albanians]], [[Slavic Macedonians]] and [[Romanians]]). According to the studies using multiple autosomal gene markers, Greeks are some of the earliest contributors of genetic material to the rest of the Europeans as they are one of the oldest populations in Europe.<ref name="Cavalli-Sforza 1996">{{cite book|last1=Cavalli-Sforza|first1=Luigi Luca|last2=Menozzi|first2=Paolo|last3=Piazza|first3=Alberto|title=The History and Geography of Human Genes|date=1996|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691029054|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historygeography00luig/page/255 255–301]|url=https://archive.org/details/historygeography00luig/page/255}}</ref> A study in 2008 showed that Greeks are genetically closest to [[Italians]] and [[Romanians]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lao|first1=Oscar|display-authors=etal|title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe|journal=Current Biology|year=2008|volume=18|issue=16|pages=1241–1248|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049|pmid=18691889|s2cid=16945780}}</ref> and another 2008 study showed that they are close to Italians, [[Albanians]], Romanians and [[South Slavs|southern Balkan Slavs]].<ref name="Novembre et al 2008">{{cite journal|last1=Novembre|first1=John|display-authors=etal|title=Genes mirror geography within Europe|journal=Nature|year=2008|volume=456|issue=7218|pages=98–101|doi=10.1038/nature07331|pmid=18758442|pmc=2735096|bibcode=2008Natur.456...98N}}</ref> A 2003 study showed that Greeks cluster with other South European (mainly Italians) and North-European populations and are close to the [[Basques]],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ayub|first1=Q|s2cid=467540|title=Reconstruction of human evolutionary tree using polymorphic autosomal microsatellites|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|year=2003|volume=122|issue=3|pages=259–268|doi=10.1002/ajpa.10234|pmid=14533184}}</ref> and [[Fixation index|FST distances]] showed that they group with other European and Mediterranean populations,<ref name="Cavalli-Sforza 1996"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bauchet|first1=M|display-authors=etal|title=Measuring European population stratification with microarray genotype data|journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics|Am. J. Hum. Genet.]]|year=2007|volume=80|issue=5|pages=948–956|doi=10.1086/513477|pmid=17436249|pmc=1852743}}</ref> especially with Italians (−0.0001) and Tuscans (0.0005).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tian|first1=Chao|display-authors=etal|title=European Population Genetic Substructure: Further Definition of Ancestry Informative Markers for Distinguishing Among Diverse European Ethnic Groups|journal=Molecular Medicine|year=2009|volume=15|issue=11–12|pages=371–383|doi=10.2119/molmed.2009.00094|pmid=19707526|pmc=2730349}}</ref>

Y DNA studies show that Greeks cluster with other Europeans{{efn|See:<ref name="jogg.info">{{cite web|last1=Wiik|first1=Kalevi|title=Where did European men come from?|url=http://www.jogg.info/pages/41/Wiik.pdf|publisher=Journal of Genetic Genealogy|access-date=6 March 2018|year=2008}}</ref><ref name="King et al 2008">{{cite journal|last1=King|first1=Roy J.|s2cid=22406638|display-authors=etal|title=Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic|journal=Annals of Human Genetics|year=2008|volume=72|issue=Pt 2|pages=205–214|doi=10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00414.x|pmid=18269686}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rosser|first1=Zoe H.|display-authors=etal|title=Y-chromosomal diversity in Europe is clinal and influenced primarily by geography, rather than by language|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2000|volume=67|issue=6|pages=1526–1543|doi=10.1086/316890|pmid=11078479|pmc=1287948}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Semino|first1=Ornella|display-authors=etal|title=The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective|journal=Science|year=2000|volume=290|issue=5494|pages=1155–1159|doi=10.1126/science.290.5494.1155|pmid=11073453|bibcode=2000Sci...290.1155S}}</ref><ref name="Semino et al 2004">{{cite journal|last1=Semino|first1=Ornella|display-authors=etal|title=Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2004|volume=74|issue=5|pages=1023–1034|doi=10.1086/386295|pmid=15069642|pmc=1181965}}</ref>}} and that they carry some of the oldest [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y haplogroups]] in Europe, in particular the [[Haplogroup J-M172|J2 haplogroup]] (and other J subhaplogroups) and [[Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic group|E haplogroups]], which are genetic markers denoting early farmers.<ref name="jogg.info"/><ref name="Semino et al 2004"/><ref name="Di Gaetano et al 2009">{{cite journal|last1=Di Gaetano|first1=Cornelia|display-authors=etal|title=Differential Greek and northern African migrations to Sicily are supported by genetic evidence from the Y chromosome|journal=[[European Journal of Human Genetics]]|year=2009|volume=17|issue=1|pages=91–99|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2008.120|pmid=18685561|pmc=2985948}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barać|first1=Lovorca|display-authors=etal|title=Y chromosomal heritage of Croatian population and its island isolates|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|year=2003|volume=11|issue=7|pages=535–542|doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200992|pmid=12825075|s2cid=15822710|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Y-chromosome lineage [[E-V13]] appears to have originated in Greece or the southern Balkans and is high in Greeks as well as in Albanians, southern Italians and southern Slavs. E-V13 is also found in [[Corsica]]ns and [[Provence|Provencals]], where an admixture analysis estimated that 17% of the Y-chromosomes of Provence may be attributed to [[Colonies in antiquity#Greek colonies|Greek colonization]], and is also found at low frequencies on the [[Anatolia]]n mainland. These results suggest that E-V13 may trace the demographic and socio-cultural impact of Greek colonization in Mediterranean Europe, a contribution that appears to be considerably larger than that of a Neolithic pioneer colonization.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sarno|first1=Stefania|display-authors=etal|title=An Ancient Mediterranean Melting Pot: Investigating the Uniparental Genetic Structure and Population History of Sicily and Southern Italy|journal=[[PLOS One]]|volume=9|issue=4|pages=e96074|year=2014|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0096074|pmid=24788788|pmc=4005757|bibcode=2014PLoSO...996074S}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Primorac|first1=Dragan|display-authors=etal|title=Croatian genetic heritage: Y-chromosome story|journal=Croat Med J|year=2011|volume=52|issue=3|doi=10.3325/cmj.2011.52.225|pmid=21674820|pages=225–234|pmc=3118711}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=King|first1=Roy J.|display-authors=etal|title=The coming of the Greeks to Provence and Corsica: Y-chromosome models of archaic Greek colonization of the western Mediterranean|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=11|pages=69|year=2011|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-69|pmid=21401952|pmc=3068964}}</ref> A study in 2008 showed that Greek regional samples from the mainland cluster with those from the Balkans, principally Albanians while [[Crete|Cretan]] Greeks cluster with the central Mediterranean and Eastern Mediterranean samples.<ref name="King et al 2008"/> Greek signature DNA influence can be seen in Southern Italy and [[Sicily]], where the genetic contribution of Greek chromosomes to the Sicilian gene pool is estimated to be about 37%, and the Southern Balkans, primarily Albania.<ref name="Semino et al 2004"/><ref name="Di Gaetano et al 2009"/> Di Gaetano et al. also note that the genetic links analysed in their findings "shows that Sicily and southeastern Europe, especially Greece and Albania, share a common background."<ref>Di Gaetano, Cornelia et al. “Differential Greek and northern African migrations to Sicily are supported by genetic evidence from the Y chromosome.” European journal of human genetics : EJHG vol. 17,1 (2009): 91-9. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2008.120</ref>

Studies using mitochondrial DNA gene markers (mtDNA) showed that Greeks group with other Mediterranean European populations<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Martin|display-authors=etal|title=In search of geographical patterns in European mitochondrial DNA|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2002|volume=71|issue=5|pages=1168–1174|doi=10.1086/342930|pmid=12355353|pmc=385092}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Martin|display-authors=etal|title=Tracing European founder Lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2000|volume=67|issue=5|pages=1251–1276|doi=10.1016/S0002-9297(07)62954-1|pmid=11032788|pmc=1288566}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Achilli|first1=Alessandro|display-authors=etal|title=Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the Near Eastern origin of Etruscans|journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet.|year=2007|volume=80|issue=4|pages=759–768|doi=10.1086/512822|pmid=17357081|pmc=1852723}}</ref> and [[principal component analysis]] (PCA) confirmed the low genetic distance between Greeks and Italians<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tian|first1=Chao|display-authors=etal|title=Analysis and Application of European Genetic Substructure Using 300 K SNP Information|journal=[[PLOS Genetics]]|volume=4|issue=1|pages=e4|year=2008|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0040004|pmid=18208329|pmc=2211544}}</ref> and also revealed a cline of genes with highest frequencies in the Balkans and Southern Italy, spreading to lowest levels in Britain and the Basque country, which [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza|Cavalli-Sforza]] associates it with "the Greek expansion, which reached its peak in historical times around 1000 and 500 BC but which certainly began earlier".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cavalli-Sforza|first1=Luigi Luca|last2=Piazza|first2=Alberto|title=Human genomic diversity in Europe: a summary of recent research and prospects for the future|journal=Eur J Hum Genet|volume=1|issue=1|pages=3–18|year=1993|pmid=7520820|doi=10.1159/000472383|s2cid=25475102}}</ref>

A 2017 study on the genetic origins of the [[Minoans]] and [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaeans]] showed that modern Greeks resemble the Mycenaeans, but with some additional dilution of the [[Neolithic|early neolithic]] ancestry. The results of the study support the idea of genetic continuity between these civilizations and modern Greeks but not isolation in the history of populations of the Aegean, before and after the time of its earliest civilizations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lazaridis|first1=Iosif|display-authors=etal|title=Genetic origins of the Minoans and Mycenaeans|journal=Nature|year=2017|volume=548|issue=7666|pages=214–218|doi=10.1038/nature23310|pmid=28783727|pmc=5565772|bibcode=2017Natur.548..214L}}</ref><ref>Science Magazine, 2 August 2017, [http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/08/greeks-really-do-have-near-mythical-origins-ancient-dna-reveals "The Greeks really do have near-mythical origins, ancient DNA reveals".]</ref><ref>Live Science, 3 August 2017, [https://www.livescience.com/60027-origins-of-1st-advanced-greek-civilizations.html More than Myth: Ancient DNA Reveals Roots of 1st Greek Civilizations]</ref> In an interview, the study's author, [[Harvard University]] geneticist Iosif Lazaridis, precised "that all three [[Bronze Age]] groups (Minoans, Mycenaeans, and Bronze Age southwestern [[Anatolians]]) trace most of their ancestry from the earlier Neolithic populations that were very similar in Greece and western Anatolia. But, they also had some ancestry from the 'east', related to populations of the [[peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasus]] and [[Iranic peoples|Iran]]" as well as "some ancestry from the "north", related to hunter-gatherers of [[eastern Europe]] and [[Siberia]] and also to the Bronze Age [[Eurasian nomads|people of the steppe]]. We could also compare the Mycenaeans—again, the first speakers of the Greek language—to modern people from Greece who are very similar to them, but with lower early Neolithic ancestry", and argues that "some had theorized that the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were influenced both culturally and genetically by the old civilizations of the [[Levant]] and [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]], but there is no quantifiable genetic influence".<ref>Katherine Lindemann, [https://www.researchgate.net/blog/post/dna-analysis-traces-origins-of-minoans-and-mycenaeans DNA analysis traces origins of Minoans and Mycenaeans], [[ResearchGate]], 2 August 2017</ref>

A 2021 study on the genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations showed that modern Greeks are genetically similar to 2,000 BCE Aegeans from northern Greece.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clemente |first1=Florian |display-authors=etal|title=The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations |journal=Cell |date=2021 |volume=184 |issue=10 |doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.039}}</ref>

==Physical appearance==
A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self-reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows: 119 individuals – hair colour, 11 [[blond]], 45 dark blond/light brown, 49 dark brown, 3 brown red/auburn and 11 had black hair; eye colour, 13 with [[blue]], 15 with intermediate (green, heterochromia) and 91 had brown eye colour.<ref>{{harvnb|Walsh|2013|pp=98–115}}.</ref>

Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the [[University of Athens]], and the results of the study showed that light hair colour (blonde/light ash brown) was predominant in 10.7% of the students. 36% had medium hair colour (light brown/medium darkest brown), 32% had darkest brown and 21% black (15.3 off black, 6% midnight black). In conclusion, the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown, ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair. The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14.6% blue/green, 28% medium (light brown) and 57.4% dark brown.<ref>{{harvnb|Lagouvardos|Tsamali|Papadopoulou|Polyzois|2012}}</ref>

==Timeline==
The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Cyprus, Constantinople, Asia Minor and the Black Sea. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey), while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora.

{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! style="width:80px" |Time
! Events
|-
| '''c. 3rd millennium BC'''|| [[Proto-Greek language|Proto-Greek]] tribes from around the Southern Balkans/Aegean are generally thought to have arrived in the Greek mainland.
|-
| '''16th century BC'''|| Decline of the [[Minoan civilization]], possibly because of the [[Minoan eruption|eruption of Thera]]. Emergence of the [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaeans]] and formation of the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilization]], the first Greek-speaking civilization.
|-
| '''13th century BC''' ||First [[Colonies in antiquity|colonies]] established in [[Asia Minor]].
|-
| '''11th century BC''' || The Mycenaean civilization ends in the presumed [[Dorian invasion]]. The [[Greek Dark Ages]] begin. [[Dorians]] move into peninsular [[Greece]]. Achaeans flee to [[Aegean Islands]], Asia Minor and [[Cyprus]].
|-
| '''9th century BC''' ||Major colonization of Asia Minor and Cyprus by the Greek tribes.
|-
| '''8th century BC''' ||First major colonies established in [[Sicily]] and [[Southern Italy]]. The first Pan-Hellenic festival, the Olympic games, is held in 776 BC. The emergence of Pan-Hellenism marks the [[ethnogenesis]] of the Greek nation.
|-
| '''6th century BC''' ||Colonies established across the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Black Sea]].
|-
| '''5th century BC''' ||Defeat of the Persians and emergence of the Delian League in [[Ionia]], the [[Black Sea]] and Aegean perimeter culminates in [[Athenian Empire]] and the [[Classical Greece|Classical Age of Greece]]; ends with Athens defeat by Sparta at the close of the [[Peloponnesian War]]
|-
| '''4th century BC'''|| Rise of [[Thebes (Greece)|Theban]] power and defeat of the Spartans; [[Rise of Macedon]]; Campaign of [[Alexander the Great]]; Greek colonies established in newly founded cities of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and Asia.
|-
| '''2nd century BC''' || Conquest of Greece by the [[Roman Empire]]. Migrations of Greeks to [[Rome]].
|-
| '''4th century AD''' || [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. Migrations of Greeks throughout the Empire, mainly towards [[Constantinople]].
|-
| '''7th century'''|| [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] conquest of several parts of [[Greece]], Greek migrations to [[Southern Italy]], Roman emperors capture main Slavic bodies and transfer them to [[Cappadocia]]. The [[Bosphorus]] is re-populated by Macedonian and Cypriot Greeks.
|-
| '''8th century''' || Roman dissolution of surviving Slavic settlements in Greece and full recovery of the Greek peninsula.
|-
| '''9th century''' || Retro-migrations of Greeks from all parts of the Empire (mainly from Southern Italy and Sicily) into parts of Greece that were depopulated by the [[Slavs|Slavic Invasions]] (mainly western Peloponnesus and Thessaly).
|-
| '''13th century'''|| Roman Empire dissolves, Constantinople taken by the [[Fourth Crusade]]; becoming the capital of the [[Latin Empire]]. Liberated after a long struggle by the Empire of Nicaea, but fragments remain separated. Migrations between Asia Minor, Constantinople and mainland Greece take place.
|-
| '''15th century – 19th century''' || Conquest of Constantinople by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. [[Greek diaspora]] into Europe begins. Ottoman settlements in Greece. [[Phanariot]] Greeks occupy high posts in Eastern European millets.
|}
{{Col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
! style="width:60px" |Time
! Events
|-
| '''1830s'''|| Creation of the [[History of Modern Greece|Modern Greek State]]. Immigration to the [[New World]] begins. Large-scale migrations from Constantinople and Asia Minor to Greece take place.
|-
| '''1913'''||European Ottoman lands partitioned; unorganized migrations of Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks towards their respective states.
|-
| '''1914–1923''' || [[Greek genocide]]; hundreds of thousands of [[Ottoman Greeks]] are estimated to have died during this period.<ref name="Rummel">{{cite web| url= http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM |title= Statistics of Democide | work=Chapter 5, Statistics of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources |author=R. J. Rummel | access-date =4 October 2006 |author-link= R. J. Rummel}}</ref>
|-
| '''1919'''|| [[Treaty of Neuilly]]; Greece and Bulgaria exchange populations, with some exceptions.
|-
| '''1922'''|| [[Great Fire of Smyrna|The Destruction of Smyrna]] (modern-day Izmir) more than 40 thousand Greeks killed; end of significant Greek presence in Asia Minor.
|-
| '''1923'''|| [[Treaty of Lausanne]]; Greece and Turkey agree to exchange populations with limited exceptions of the Greeks in [[Constantinople]], [[Imbros]], [[Tenedos]] and the Muslim minority of [[Western Thrace]]. 1.5 million of Asia Minor and Pontic Greeks settle in Greece, and some 450 thousands of Muslims settle in Turkey.
|-
| '''1940s'''|| Hundred of thousands Greeks died from starvation during the [[Axis Occupation of Greece]]
|-
| '''1947'''|| [[Communist]] regime in Romania begins evictions of the Greek community, approx. 75,000 migrate.
|-
| '''1948'''|| [[Greek Civil War]]. Tens of thousands of Greek [[communist]]s and their families flee into [[Eastern Bloc]] nations. Thousands settle in [[Tashkent]].
|-
| '''1950s'''|| Massive emigration of Greeks to [[West Germany]], the United States, Australia, Canada, and other countries.
|-
| '''1955'''|| [[Istanbul Pogrom]] against Greeks. Exodus of Greeks from the city accelerates; less than 2,000 remain today.
|-
| '''1958'''|| Large Greek community in Alexandria flees [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser's]] regime in [[History of Modern Egypt#Nasser and Arab socialism|Egypt]].
|-
|'''1960s''' || [[Republic of Cyprus]] created as an independent state under Greek, Turkish and British protection. Economic emigration continues.
|-
| '''1974'''||[[Turkish invasion of Cyprus]]. Almost all Greeks living in Northern Cyprus flee to the south and the United Kingdom.
|-
| '''1980s'''||Many civil war refugees were allowed to re-emigrate to Greece. Retro-migration of Greeks from Germany begins.
|-
| '''1990s'''||Collapse of [[Soviet Union]]. Approximately 340,000 ethnic Greeks migrate from Georgia, Armenia, southern Russia, and Albania to Greece.
|-
| '''early 2000s'''|| Some statistics show the beginning of a trend of reverse migration of Greeks from the United States and Australia.
|-
| '''2010s'''|| Over 200,000 people,<ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Helena|title=Young, gifted and Greek: Generation G – the world's biggest brain drain|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/19/young-talented-greek-generation-g-worlds-biggest-brain-drain|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=19 January 2015}}</ref> particularly young [[brain drain|skilled individuals]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Lowen|first=Mark|title=Greece's young: Dreams on hold as fight for jobs looms|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-22702003|access-date=25 July 2013|date=29 May 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|quote=The brain drain is quickening. A recent study by the University of Thessaloniki found that more than 120,000 professionals, including doctors, engineers and scientists, have left Greece since the start of the crisis in 2010.}}</ref> emigrate to other EU states due to high unemployment (see also [[Greek government-debt crisis]]).<ref>{{cite news|last=Melander|first=Ingrid|title=Greeks seek to escape debt crisis abroad|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/10/28/us-greece-emigration-idUSTRE79R18O20111028|access-date=25 July 2013|date=28 October 2011|work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>
|}
{{col-end}}

==See also==
{{portal|Ancient Greece|Greece}}
{{div col|colwidth=18em}}
*[[Antiochian Greeks]]
*[[Arvanites]]
*[[Cappadocian Greeks]]
*[[Caucasian Greeks]]
*[[Greek Cypriots]]
*[[Greek Diaspora]]
*[[Griko people]]
*[[Karamanlides]]
*[[Macedonians (Greeks)]]
*[[Maniots]]
*[[Greek Muslims]]
*[[Northern Epirotes]]
*[[Pelasgians]]
*[[Pontic Greeks]]
*[[Romaniotes]]
*[[Sarakatsani]]
*[[Tsakones]]
*Lists
**[[List of ancient Greeks]]
**[[List of Greeks]]
**[[List of Greek Americans]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
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*{{cite book|last=Latacz|first=Joachim|title=Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery|year=2004|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926308-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ccQIyA9CW-wC}}
*{{cite journal|last=Levene|first=Mark|title=Creating a Modern 'Zone of Genocide': The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923|journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies|volume=12|issue=3|year=1998|pages=393–433|doi=10.1093/hgs/12.3.393}}
*{{cite book|last=Lucore|first=Sandra K.|chapter=Archimedes, the North Baths at Morgantina, and Early Developments in Vaulted Construction|pages=43–60|editor1-last=Kosso|editor1-first=Cynthia|editor2-last=Scott|editor2-first=Anne|title=The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing and Hygiene from Antiquity through the Renaissance|year=2009|location=Leiden and Boston|publisher=BRILL|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTkXFLfmLTkC|isbn=978-90-04-17357-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Mackridge|first=Peter|chapter=Katharevousa (c. 1800–1974): An Obituary for an Official Language|pages=25–52|editor1-last=Sarafis|editor1-first=Marion|editor2-last=Eve|editor2-first=Marion|title=Background to Contemporary Greece (Volume 1)|year=1990|location=London|publisher=The Merlin Press|isbn=978-0-85036-393-7|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCSzc6em25gC}}
*{{cite book|last=Magdalino|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Magdalino|title=Tradition and Transformation in Medieval Byzantium|year=1991|location=Aldershot|publisher=Variorum|isbn=978-0-86078-295-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fEloAAAAMAAJ}}
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*{{cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=James|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|year=1997|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Mango|first=Cyril A.|title=The Art of the Byzantine Empire, 312-1453: Sources and Documents|year=1986|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-6627-5|url=https://archive.org/details/artofbyzantine00mang|url-access=registration}}
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*{{cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=The Last Byzantine Renaissance|location=London and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1970|url=https://archive.org/details/lastbyzantineren0000runc|url-access=registration}}
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*{{cite book|last1=Schofield|first1=Louise|title=The Mycenaeans|year=2006|location=Los Angeles, CA|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum|isbn=978-0-89236-867-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXwzT1048Z4C}}
*{{cite book|last=Ševčenko|first=Ihor|chapter=11 Palaiologan Learning|pages=284–293|editor1-last=Mango|editor1-first=Cyril|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|year=2002|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-814098-6|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ82psJ2pLEC}}
*{{cite journal|last=Shahid|first=Irfan|title=The Iranian Factor in Byzantium during the Reign of Heraclius|journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|volume=26|year=1972|pages=293–320|doi=10.2307/1291324|jstor=1291324}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|title=National Identity|year=1991|location=Reno|publisher=University of Nevada Press|isbn=978-0-87417-204-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bEAJbHBlXR8C}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|title=Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity|year=2003|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-210017-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tf1hXDmXzWsC}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Myths and Memories of the Nation|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-829534-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQC2QgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Sutton|first=Susan|title=Greeks|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Cultures|year=1996|publisher=The Gale Group|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Greeks.aspx#2}}
*{{cite book|last=Stansbury-O'Donnell|first=Mark D.|title=A History of Greek Art|year=2015|location=Malden and Oxford|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5014-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DacXBgAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Steinberger|first=Peter J.|title=Readings in Classical Political Thought|year=2000|location=Indianapolis and Cambridge|publisher=Hackett Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-87220-512-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHGPv2xhSwYC}}
*{{cite journal|last=Stouraitis|first=Ioannis|title=Roman Identity in Byzantium: A Critical Approach|journal=Byzantinische Zeitschrift|year=2014|volume=107|issue=1|pages=175–220|doi=10.1515/bz-2014-0009|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book|last=Tarbell|first=Frank Bigelow|title=A History of Greek Art|year=1907|orig-year=1896|location=London|publisher=MacMillan and Company|isbn=9781404789791|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_4MKAQAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Tatakes|first1=Vasileios N.|last2=Moutafakis|first2=Nicholas J.|title=Byzantine Philosophy|year=2003|location=Indianapolis, IN|publisher=Hackett|isbn=978-0-87220-563-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPzcOwnCgVIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Tatz|first=Colin|title=With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide|year=2003|location=London and New York|publisher=Verso|isbn=978-1-85984-550-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=khCffgX1NPIC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Tartaron|first1=Thomas F.|title=Maritime Networks in the Mycenaean World|year=2013|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-06713-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZbqAAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|last=Tomić|first=Olga Mišeska|title=Balkan Sprachbund Morpho-Syntactic Features|year=2006|location=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-4487-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MFWOYUHULgsC}}
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*{{cite book|last=van der Horst|first=Pieter Willem|author-link=Pieter Willem van der Horst|title=Hellenism-Judaism-Christianity: Essays on Their Interaction|year=1998|location=Leuven|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=978-90-429-0578-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tv0t4pqrbZsC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Voegelin|first1=Eric|last2=Moulakis|first2=Athanasios|title=History of Political Ideas: Hellenism, Rome, and Early Christianity|year=1997|location=Columbia and London|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-1126-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zvA2eQKWwLIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Vryonis|first=Speros|title=The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul|year=2005|location=New York|publisher=Greekworks.com|isbn=978-0-9747660-3-4|url=https://archive.org/details/mechanismofcatas0000vryo|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite journal|last=Walsh|first=Susan |display-authors=etal |title=The HIrisPlex System for Simultaneous Prediction of Hair and Eye Colour from DNA|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=7|issue=1|pages=98–115|date=January 2013|url=http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973%2812%2900181-0/fulltext|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2012.07.005|pmid=22917817|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book|last=Wickham|first=Chris|title=Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400-800|year=2005|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926449-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q04qPNZasbIC}}
*{{cite book|last=Withey|first=Lynne|title=Voyages of Discovery: Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific|year=1989|orig-year=1987|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-06564-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GiynU6HrSJUC}}
*{{cite book|last=Winford|first=Donald|title=An Introduction to Contact Linguistics|year=2003|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-0-631-21251-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lc1DFju-FlYC}}
*{{cite book|last=Winstedt|first=Eric Otto|title=The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes|year=1909|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/christiantopogra00cosmuoft}}
*{{cite book|last=Wood|first=Michael|title=In the Footsteps of Alexander The Great: A Journey from Greece to Asia|year=2001|orig-year=1997|location=Berkeley, CA|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23192-4|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9790520231923|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=Yotopoulos-Marangopoulos|first=Alice|chapter=Non-governmental Organizations and Human Rights in Today's World|pages=21–38|editor1-last=Sicilianos|editor1-first=Linos-Alexandre|title=The Marangopoulos Foundation for Human Rights: Twenty Years of Activity|location=Athens and Komotini|publisher=Ant. N. Sakkoulas Publishers|year=2001|isbn=978-90-411-1672-7|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0WGFKi7PJloC}}
*{{cite book|last=Zoch|first=Paul|title=Ancient Rome: An Introductory History|year=2000|location=Norman|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3287-7|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=95bu0O3LLlsC}}
*{{cite book|last=Zuwiyya|first=David|title=A Companion to Alexander Literature in the Middle Ages|year=2011|location=Leiden and Boston|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-18345-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=me0L6-MneZgC}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Asatryan|first1=G.S.|last2=Arakelova|first2=Viktoriia|title=The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia|year=2002|location=Yerevan|publisher=Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies|isbn=978-99930-69-21-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aoRpAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Clackson|first=James|title=The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek|year=1995|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-19197-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nnStQgAACAAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Kenyon|first=Sherrilyn|title=The Writer's Digest Character Naming Sourcebook|year=2005|location=Cincinnati, OH|publisher=Writer's Digest Books|isbn=978-1-58297-295-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKzn9g38Y3IC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Malatras|first=Christos|chapter=The Making of an Ethnic Group: The Romaioi in 12th–13th Century|title=Ταυτότητες στον ελληνικό κόσμο (από το 1204 έως σήμερα. Δ΄ Ευρωπαϊκό Συνέδριο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών, Γρανάδα, 9–12 Σεπτεμβρίου 2010. Πρακτικά|volume=3|location=Athens|publisher=European Association of Modern Greek Studies|editor=K. A. Dimadis|pages=419–430|year=2011|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1999944}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Mango|first=Cyril A.|author-link=Cyril Mango|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|year=2002|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-814098-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ82psJ2pLEC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Renfrew|first=Colin|chapter=Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area|pages=17–48|editor-last1=Bammesberger|editor-first1=Alfred|editor-last2=Vennemann|editor-first2=Theo|title=Languages in Prehistoric Europe|year=2003|location=Heidelberg|publisher=Universitätsverlag Winter GmBH|isbn=978-3-8253-1449-1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VxiAAAAMAAJ}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}

;'''Mycenaean Greeks'''
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Dickinson|first=Oliver|title=The Origins of Mycenaean Civilization|year=1977|location=Götenberg|publisher=Paul Aströms Förlag}}
*{{cite journal|last=Dickinson|first=Oliver|title=Invasion, Migration and the Shaft Graves|journal=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies|volume=43|issue=1|date=December 1999|pages=97–107|doi=10.1111/j.2041-5370.1999.tb00480.x}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Dickinson|first=Oliver|title=The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: Continuity and Change between the Twelfth and Eighth Centuries BC|year=2006|location=New York, NY|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-96836-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l56BHO9_r5UC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Forsén|first=Jeannette|title=The Twilight of the Early Helladics|location=Partille, Sweden|year=1992|publisher=Paul Aströms Förlag|isbn=978-91-7081-031-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlMtAAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Mylonas|first=George Emmanuel|title=Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age|year=1966|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/mycenaemycenaean0000mylo|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Tandy|first=David W.|year=2001|title=Prehistory and History: Ethnicity, Class and Political Economy|location=Montréal, Québec, Canada|publisher=Black Rose Books|isbn=978-1-55164-188-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiqTCaFkvdYC}}

;'''Classical Greeks'''
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Burkert|first=Walter|title=Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical|year=1987|orig-year=1985|location=Oxford and Malden|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-1-118-72499-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSaRAAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Cartledge|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Cartledge|title=Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction|year=2011|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-960134-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViqDNE-igH4C}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Cartledge|first=Paul|title=The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others|year=2002|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280388-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r-I4gcBlTqcC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Freeman|first1=Charles|title=Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean|year=2014|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-965192-4|edition=3rd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtMVAwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Finkelberg|first=Margalit|title=Greeks and Pre-Greeks: Aegean Prehistory and Greek Heroic Tradition|year=2006|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44836-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-q2UQZ5XzAC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Hall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture |year=2002|location=Chicago and London|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-31329-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJBh7BjUlAMC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Hall|first=Jonathan M.|title=Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-521-78999-8|url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicidentityin00jona|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=MacKendrick|first=Paul Lachlan|title=The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands|location=New York and London|publisher=W.W. Norton and Company|year=1981|isbn=978-0-393-30111-3|url=https://archive.org/details/greekstonesspeak00paul|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Malkin|first=Irad|title=The Returns of Odysseus: Colonization and Ethnicity|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA|publisher=University of California Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-520-21185-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8eORbgLB6a4C}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Walbank|first=Frank W.|title=Selected Papers: Studies in Greek and Roman History and Historiography|year=1985|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30752-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5z_vUPABapoC}}

;'''Hellenistic Greeks'''
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Chamoux|first=François|year=2002|title=Hellenistic Civilization|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]]|isbn=978-0-631-22241-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1kr4YGTA2AC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|editor1-last=Bilde|editor1-first=P.|editor2-last=Engberg-Pedersen|editor2-first=T.|editor3-last=Hannestad|editor3-first=L.|editor4-last=Zahle|editor4-first=J.|title=Conventional Values of the Hellenistic Greeks (Studies in Hellenistic Civilization 8)|year=1997|location=Aarhus|publisher=Aarhus University Press|isbn=978-87-7288-555-1}}

{{col-break|width=50%}}

;'''Byzantine Greeks'''
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Ahrweiler|first1=Hélène|last2=Laiou|first2=Angeliki E.|author2-link=Angeliki Laiou|title=Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire|year=1998|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection|isbn=978-0-88402-247-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohFJD_QT3E8C}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Ahrweiler|first=Hélène|title=L'idéologie politique de l'Empire byzantin|location=Paris|publisher=Presses Universitaires de France|year=1975|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z1SGAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Harris|first=Jonathan|title=Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium (Hambledon Continuum)|location=London|publisher=Hambledon & London|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZI1pAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-1-84725-179-4}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|editor-last=Kazhdan|editor-first=Alexander Petrovich|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|location=New York and Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3u5RAAACAAJ|isbn=978-0-19-504652-6}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Runciman|first=Steven|author-link=Steven Runciman|title=Byzantine Civilisation|year=1966|location=London|publisher=[[Edward Arnold (publisher)|Edward Arnold]]|isbn=978-1-56619-574-4}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold J.|title=Constantine Porphyrogenitus and His World|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1973|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T05oAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-19-215253-4}}

;'''Ottoman Greeks'''
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Davis|first1=Jack E.|last2=Zarinebaf|first2=Fariba|last3=Bennet|first3=John|title=A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece: The Southwestern Morea in the 18th Century|year=2005|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens|isbn=978-0-87661-534-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju9sKUox3OcC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Davis|first1=Jack E.|last2=Davies|first2=Siriol|title=Between Venice and Istanbul: Colonial Landscapes in Early Modern Greece|year=2007|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=American School of Classical Studies at Athens|isbn=978-0-87661-540-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoZlbnrH2SEC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Gondicas|first1=Dimitri|last2=Issawi|first2=Charles Philip|title=Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Nineteenth Century|year=1999|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Darwin Press|isbn=978-0-87850-096-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJcPAQAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Lampe|first1=John R.|last2=Jackson|first2=Marvin R.|title=Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations|year=1982|location=Bloomington, IN|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-30368-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtW2axOSn10C}}

;'''Modern Greeks'''
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Frary |first1=Lucien J. |title=Russia and the Making of Modern Greek Identity, 1821-1844 |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-873377-5 |pages=296 }}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Herzfeld|first=Michael|title=Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Greece|year=1982|location=Austin, TX|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-76018-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n620AAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Holden|first=David|title=Greece without Columns: The Making of the Modern Greeks|year=1972|location=London|publisher=Faber and Faber|isbn=978-0-397-00779-0|url=https://archive.org/details/greecewithoutcol00hold|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Karakasidou|first=Anastasia N.|title=Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990|location=Chicago, Illinois|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-226-42494-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGQ2enTZWO4C}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Mackridge|first1=Peter|last2=Yannakakis|first2=Eleni|title=Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912|location=Oxford, United Kingdom|publisher=Berg Publishers|year=1997|isbn=978-1-85973-138-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiJvm924ankC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|editor-last=Mazower|editor-first=Mark|title=After The War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943–1960|year=2000|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-05842-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAszKv6JfQUC}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold Joseph|title=The Greeks and Their Heritages|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981|url=https://archive.org/details/greekstheirheri00toyn|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Trudgill|first=Peter|title=Sociolinguistic Variation and Change|location=Edinburgh, UK|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7486-1515-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3l1iAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Zacharia|first=Katerina|title=Hellenisms: Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity to Modernity|year=2008|location=Surrey, United Kingdom|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=978-0-7546-6525-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1fGJRxUG6wC}}
{{col-end}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
;Omogenia
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140710011641/http://en.sae.gr/?id=12377 World Council of Hellenes Abroad (SAE)], Umbrella Diaspora Organization

;Religious
*[http://www.ec-patr.org/ Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]
*[http://www.patriarchateofalexandria.com/index.php?lang=en Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria]
*[http://antiochpatriarchate.org/ Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140111061737/http://jerusalem-patriarchate.info/ Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem]
*[http://www.churchofcyprus.org.cy/ Church of Cyprus]
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/ Church of Greece]

;Academic
*[http://www.transcomm.ox.ac.uk/ Transnational Communities Programme at the University of Oxford], includes papers on the [[Greek Diaspora]]
*[https://archive.today/20060211141151/http://www.chs.harvard.edu/activities_events.sec/conferences.ssp/conf_greeks_on_greekness.pg Greeks on Greekness]: The Construction and Uses of the Greek Past among Greeks under the Roman Empire.
*The [[Modern Greek Studies Association]] is a scholarly organization for modern Greek studies in [[North America]], which publishes the [[Journal of Modern Greek Studies]].
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074434/https://gotgreek.hellenext.org/ Got Greek? Next Generation National Research Study]
*[http://wihs.uwaterloo.ca/ Waterloo Institute for Hellenistic Studies]

;Trade organizations
*[http://www.hcbt.com/ Hellenic Canadian Board of Trade]
*[http://www.hcla.ca/ Hellenic Canadian Lawyers Association]
*[https://archive.today/20130115104316/http://www.helleniccongressbc.ca/The_Hellenic_Canadian_Congress_of_BC/Index.html Hellenic Canadian Congress of British Columbia]
*[http://www.hellenicamerican.cc/ Hellenic-American Chamber of Commerce]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110725125734/http://www.camarahelenoargentina.org/ingles/instituciones-relacionadas.php Hellenic-Argentine Chamber of Industry and Commerce (C.I.C.H.A.)]

;Charitable organizations
*[http://ahepacanada.org/ AHEPA] – [[American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association]]
*[http://www.HHF.ca/ Hellenic Heritage Foundation]
*[http://www.hellenichome.org/ Hellenic Home for the Aged]
*[http://www.hellenichope.org/about-us Hellenic Hope Center]
*[http://www.hellenicscholarships.org/en/index_en.html Hellenic Scholarships]

{{Ethnic groups in Greece}}
{{Greek diaspora}}
{{Greece topics}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}

{{good article}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Greece]]
[[Category:Greek people| ]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Europe]]
[[Category:Indo-European peoples]]
[[Category:Modern Indo-European peoples]]

Macedonians (Greeks)

2021-05-11T18:45:50Z

Macedonian: Undid revision 1022612141 by Local hero (talk) Is that so? tTen why were you so eager to have the Vergina Sun symbol in Macedonians (ethnic group)? You do love double standards, aren't you? Rvv.

{{Hatnote|This article is about ethnic Greek people from [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]. For the ancient Macedonians, see [[Ancient Macedonians]]. For other uses, see [[Macedonian (disambiguation)]].}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Macedonians Μακεδόνες
| image =
| flag = Flag of Greek Macedonia.svg
| flag_caption = Flag of Macedonia
| population = [[Circa|c.]] '''3 to 3.5 million'''{{dubious|date=April 2020}}<ref name="greekamericannewsagency.com">{{cite web|url=http://greekamericannewsagency.com/2010-01-19-17-50-12/2010-02-21-15-39-14/2010-02-23-19-23-58/12755-------q-----|title=Greek American News Agency - Παμμακεδονική Ένωση Αμερικής: Όχι στην δημιουργία "Μακεδονικού Σώματος Στήριξης στην Αμερικανική Βουλή|website=Greekamericannewsagency.com|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history-of-macedonia.com/2014/09/09/letter-from-world-pan-macedonian-associations-to-the-german-chancellor-angela-merkel/|title=Letter from World Pan-Macedonian Associations to the German Chancellor Angela Merkel|website=History-of-macedonia.com|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref>
| genealogy =
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Greece}}
| pop1 = [[Circa|c.]] 2.5+ million<ref name=mfa.gr>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gr/en/fyrom-name-issue/ |title=FYROM Name Issue |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Greece)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] |location=Athens |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714153923/https://www.mfa.gr/en/fyrom-name-issue/ |archive-date=2018-07-14 |url-status=dead |access-date=2019-02-22}}</ref>
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop2 = [[Circa|c.]] 0.15 million<ref name="greekreporter.com">{{cite web|url=http://au.greekreporter.com/2015/03/23/former-victorian-premier-jeff-kennett-to-present-book-on-greeks/|title=Former Victorian Premier Jeff Kennett to Present Book on Greeks - Greek Reporter Australia|website=Au.greekreporter.com|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref>
| ref2 =
| region3 = {{flagcountry|United States of America}}
| pop3 = ?<ref name="greekamericannewsagency.com"/><ref name="macedoniansincanada.com">{{Cite web |url=http://www.macedoniansincanada.com/Pan+Mac+Canada.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115184520/http://www.macedoniansincanada.com/Pan%20Mac%20Canada.htm |archive-date=2018-01-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| ref3 =
| region4 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| pop4 = ?<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.macedonia.org.uk/about_us.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115184727/http://www.macedonia.org.uk/about_us.htm |archive-date=2018-01-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| ref4 =
| region5 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop5 = ?<ref name="macedoniansincanada.com"/>
| ref5 =
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop6 = ?<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/Griechisch-Makedonischer-Verein-Augsburg-163986803782229/|title=Griechisch Makedonischer Verein Augsburg|website=Facebook.com|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref>
| ref6 =
| region7 = {{flagcountry|Albania}}
| pop7 = ?
| ref7 =
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| pop8 = ?
| ref8 =
| region9 = {{flagcountry|European Union}}
| pop9 = ?<ref name="history-of-macedonia.com">{{cite web|url=http://history-of-macedonia.com/2014/09/19/letter-from-world-pan-macedonian-associations-to-l-coffey/|title=Letter from World Pan-Macedonian Associations to L. Coffey|website=History-of-macedonia.com|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref>
| ref9 =
| region10 = {{flagcountry|African Union}}
| pop10 = ?<ref name="history-of-macedonia.com"/>
| ref10 =
| rels = Predominantly [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]]
| langs = [[Greek language|Greek]], also [[English language|English]] among the diaspora
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| related_groups =
}}

'''Macedonians''' ({{lang-el|Μακεδόνες}}, ''Makedónes'') are a regional and historical population group of ethnic [[Greeks]], inhabiting or originating from the [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek region of Macedonia]], in [[Geography of Greece|Northern Greece]]. Today, most Macedonians live in or around the regional capital city of [[Thessaloniki]] and other cities and towns in [[Macedonia (Greece)]], while many have spread across [[Greece]] and in the [[Greek diaspora|diaspora]].

==Name==
{{see also|Makedon (mythology)}}

The name Macedonia ({{lang-el|Μακεδονία}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|Makedonía}}'') comes from the ancient Greek word {{lang|grc|μακεδνός}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|[[Makednos#Etymology|Makednos]]}}''). It is commonly explained as having originally meant "a tall one" or "highlander", possibly descriptive of the [[Ancient Macedonians|people]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0073:entry=makedno/s |title=Georg Autenrieth, A Homeric Dictionary, μακεδνός |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2009-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title = Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen
|author = Johann Baptist Hofmann |publisher = R. Oldenbourg | year = 1950}}</ref> The shorter English name variant ''Macedon'' developed in Middle English, based on a borrowing from the French form of the name, ''Macédoine''.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. 'Macedon'</ref>

==History==

===Preface: Ancient Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman periods===
{{see also|Ancient Macedonians|Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Byzantine Greeks}}

[[Greeks|Greek]] populations have inhabited the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] since ancient times. The [[rise of Macedon]], from a small kingdom at the periphery of [[Ancient Greece|Classical Greek]] affairs, to one which came to dominate the entire Hellenic world, occurred under the reign of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]. Philip's son, [[Alexander the Great]] (356–323 BC), managed to briefly extend Macedonian power not only over the central Greek city-states, but also over the entire [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian empire]] which he toppled, including [[Egypt]], and later went on towards lands as far east as the fringes of India today Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of India|url=http://history.howstuffworks.com/asian-history/history-of-india.htm|access-date=2012-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513103451/http://history.howstuffworks.com/asian-history/history-of-india.htm|archive-date=2012-05-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> Alexander's adoption of the styles of government of the conquered territories was accompanied by the spread of Greek culture and learning through his vast empire. Although the empire fractured into multiple Hellenic regimes shortly after his death, his conquests left a lasting legacy, not least in the new Greek-speaking cities founded across Persia's western territories, heralding the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] period. In the partition of Alexander's empire among the [[Diadochi]], Macedonia fell to the [[Antipatrid dynasty]], which was overthrown by the [[Antigonid dynasty]] after only a few years, in 294 BC. [[Ancient Macedonian dialect|Ancient Macedonian]], whether it was a [[Ancient Greek dialects|Greek dialect]]<ref name= Dosuna2012>{{cite book | last = Dosuna | first = J. Méndez | chapter = Ancient Macedonian as a Greek dialect: A critical survey on recent work (Greek, English, French, German text) | title = Ancient Macedonia: Language, History, Culture | editor-last = Giannakis | editor-first = Georgios K. | date = 2012 | publisher = Centre for Greek Language | page = 145 | isbn = 978-960-7779-52-6 }}</ref><ref name= Hatzopoulos2017>{{cite book | last = Hatzopoulos | first = Miltiades B. | chapter = Recent Research in the Ancient Macedonian Dialect: Consolidation and New Perspectives | title = Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea | editor1-last = Giannakis | editor1-first = Georgios K. | editor2-last = Crespo | editor2-first = Emilio | editor3-last = Filos | editor3-first = Panagiotis | date = 2017 | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XXFLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT301&dq=ancient%20macedonian%20speech#q=ancient%20macedonian%20speech | page=299 | isbn = 978-3-11-053081-0 }}</ref> probably of the [[Northwestern Greek|Northwestern Doric]] group in particular,<ref name=Hammond1>{{cite book| last= Hammond| first= Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière |author-link= Nicholas Hammond (historian)|title= The Macedonian State. Origins, Institutions and History| orig-year = 1989| edition = reprint |publisher= Oxford University Press|location=Oxford |year= 1993|isbn=0-19-814927-1}}</ref><ref>Michael Meier-Brügger: ''Indo-European linguistics.'' Walter de Gruyter, Berlin and New York 2003, p. 28 ([https://books.google.de/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC&lpg=PP1&hl=de&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q&f=false online] on Google books): "The Macedonian of the ancient kingdom of northern Greece is probably nothing other than a northern Greek dialect of Doric".</ref><ref name= Crespo2017>{{cite book | last = Crespo | first = Emilio | chapter = The Softening of Obstruent Consonants in the Macedonian Dialect | title = Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea | editor1-last = Giannakis | editor1-first = Georgios K. | editor2-last = Crespo | editor2-first = Emilio | editor3-last = Filos | editor3-first = Panagiotis | date = 2017 | publisher = Walter de Gruyter | page = 329 | isbn = 978-3-11-053081-0 }}</ref> as findings such as [[Pella curse tablet]] indicate,<ref name= Hornblower2002>{{cite book | last = Hornblower | first = Simon | chapter = Macedon, Thessaly and Boiotia | title = The Greek World, 479-323 BC | publisher = Routledge | date = 2002 | edition = Third | page = 90 | isbn = 0-415-16326-9 }}</ref> or a separate [[Hellenic languages|Hellenic language]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Joseph|first=Brian D.|url=http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gancient.htm|title=Ancient Greek|publisher=[[Ohio State University]]|access-date=2009-11-02}}</ref> was gradually replaced by [[Attic Greek]]; the latter came in use from the times of [[Philip II of Macedon]] and later evolved into [[Koine Greek]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bugh|first=Glenn Richard|title=The Cambridge companion to the Hellenistic world|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=phf5EcQQ0PkC&pg=PA186&dq#v=onepage|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|pages=186–187|isbn=0-521-82879-1}}</ref>

[[File:Theodoros Gaza André Thevet.jpg|thumb|160px|Engraved portrait of scholar [[Theodorus Gaza]] (''Thessalonicensis'')]]

After the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest of the Balkans, the Macedonians were an integral component of the people of the [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Roman province of Macedonia]]. Under Roman control and later in the [[Byzantine Empire]] the region saw also the influx of many ethnicities ([[Armenians]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], [[Aromanians]] etc.) that settled in the area where the ancient Macedonians lived.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}} The region had also since ancient times a significant [[Romaniotes|Romaniote Jew]] population. In the late Byzantine period much of central Macedonia was ruled by a [[Kingdom of Thessalonica|Latin Crusader state]] based in [[Thessalonica]], before being [[Empire of Thessalonica|ruled for a while]] by the rival emperor [[Theodore Komnenos Doukas]] and his descendants and subsequently re-incorporated into the [[Byzantine Empire]] centred in [[Constantinople]]. The territory of western Macedonia was subsequently contested between the main powers in the region, the Byzantine Empire, the [[Despotate of Epirus]], the rulers of [[Thessaly]], the [[Serbian Empire]], and the [[Bulgarian Empire]].<ref>Donald M. Nicol, ''The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453'', Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 12.</ref>

After the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] conquest and towards the end of the Ottoman era, the term ''Macedonia'' came to signify a region in the north of the Greek peninsula different from the [[Macedonia (theme)|previous Byzantine theme]]. In Ottoman Macedonia, [[Greeks]], [[Aromanians]], [[Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia|Slavs]], [[Jews]], [[Albanians]] and [[Turkish people|Turks]] lived side-by-side but in self-contained communities, while in western [[Macedonia (Greece)]] there were sizable populations of [[Greek Muslims]] such as the [[Vallahades]].<ref name=Hupchick>{{cite book|last=Hupchick|first=Dennis P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ycNApODqgRUC&lpg=PA127&pg=PA125#v=onepage|title=Conflict and chaos in Eastern Europe|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=1995|page=125|isbn=0-312-12116-4}}</ref> The matter of the multicultural composition of the people of Macedonia came to be known as the [[Demographic history of Macedonia#Macedonian Question|Macedonian Question]]. [[Thessaloniki]] remained the largest city where the most Macedonians resided.<ref name=Hupchick/><ref>{{cite book|last=Vakalopoulos|first=Apostolos|title=History of Macedonia 1354-1833|publisher=Vanias Press|year=1984}}</ref>

===Contribution to the Greek War of Independence===
{{Main|Greek War of Independence}}
The [[Greek War of Independence]] refers to the efforts of the [[Greeks]] to establish an independent Greek state, at the time that Greece was [[Ottoman Greece|part of the Ottoman Empire]]. The revolution was initially planned and organized through secret organizations, most notable of which the [[Filiki Eteria]], that operated in Greece and other [[Europe]]an regions outside the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Macedonian Greeks were actively involved in those early revolutionary movements; among the first was [[Grigorios Zalykis]], a writer, who founded the [[Hellenoglosso Xenodocheio]], a precursor of the Filiki Eteria. Even after the end of the Greek national revolution, there were several revolts in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] with all of them having as their stated aim the union of the region with the [[Kingdom of Greece]].<ref name=Mackridge7>{{cite book|last1=Mackridge|first1=Peter A.|last2=Yannakakis|first2=Eleni|title=Ourselves and others|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiJvm924ankC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA7#v=onepage|publisher=Berg Publishers|page=7|year=1997|isbn=1-85973-138-4}}</ref>

[[File:To agalma tis naousas.JPG|thumb|left|180px|Monument for the "Heroines of 1822" in [[Naousa, Imathia|Naousa]]]]
[[File:EmmanouilPapas.JPG|alt=|thumb|201x201px|A bust of [[Emmanouel Pappas]] in [[Athens]]]]
The Greek revolution in Macedonia started in [[Chalkidiki]], where the population was almost entirely Greek.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finlay|first=George|author-link=George Finlay|title=History of the Greek revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ|publisher=W. Blackwood and sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ/page/n262 248]|year=1861}}</ref> On 28 May 1821, Yussuf Bey of Thessaloniki, alarmed by the danger of a general insurrection, demanded hostages from the region. At the time that his troops arrived at [[Polygyros]], the local insurgents and monks from [[Mount Athos]] rose up and killed the Turkish voivod and his guards, compelling the Ottomans to retire to Thessaloniki. Yussuf Bey took the revenge by beheading a bishop, impaling three dignitaries while in durance and imprisoning a lot of Christians in Thessaloniki.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finlay|first=George|author-link=George Finlay|title=History of the Greek revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ|publisher=W. Blackwood and sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ/page/n265 251]|year=1861}}</ref> The Ottomans also turned Muslims and Jews against the Greeks, stating that the latters intended to exterminate non-Christian populations. That was the first accomplishment of the Greek side under [[Emmanouel Pappas]], who had assumed at the time the title of "General of Macedonia"; he managed to capture Chalkidiki and threaten Thessaloniki but, in June, the Greek forces retreated from [[Vasilika, Thessaloniki|Vasilika]] and were finally superseded.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finlay|first=George|author-link=George Finlay|title=History of the Greek revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ|publisher=W. Blackwood and sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ/page/n266 252]|year=1861}}</ref> Letters from the period show Pappas either being addressed or signing himself as "Leader and Defender of Macedonia" and is today considered a Greek hero along with the unnamed Macedonians that fought with him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vakalopoulos|first=Apostolos|title=Emmanouil Papas: Leader and Defender of Macedonia, The History and the Archive of His Family|year=1981}}</ref> The revolution in Chalkidiki ended on 27 December, with the submission of Mount Athos to the Ottomans.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finlay|first=George|author-link=George Finlay|title=History of the Greek revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ|publisher=W. Blackwood and sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ/page/n268 254]|year=1861}}</ref>

While conflicts endured for some time in Macedonia, such as the one in [[Naousa, Imathia|Naousa]] with notable figures being [[Anastasios Karatasos]], [[Aggelis Gatsos]] and [[Zafeirakis Theodosiou]], it was the defeat of Pappas that was the turning point in the oppression of the Macedonian revolt in the Greek War of Independence at the time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finlay|first=George|author-link=George Finlay|title=History of the Greek revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ|publisher=W. Blackwood and sons|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_KEUOAAAAYAAJ/page/n269 255]|year=1861}}</ref> While the revolution led to the establishment of the independent modern Greek state in the south, which earned international recognition in 1832, Greek resistance movements continued to operate in the territories that remained under Ottoman control, including Macedonia as well as [[Thessaly]], [[Epirus]] and [[Crete]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Todorov|first=Vărban N.|title=Greek federalism during the nineteenth century: ideas and projects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-pJAAAAMAAJ&q=crimean+war+in+macedonia&dq=crimean+war+in+macedonia|publisher=East European Quarterly|pages=29–32|year=1995|isbn=0-88033-305-7}}</ref> Events of the Russo-Turkish [[Crimean War]] in 1854 ignited a new Macedonian revolt that was spawned in Chalkidiki. One of the prime instigators of the revolt was [[Dimitrios Karatasos]], son of Anastasios Karatasos, better known as Tsamis Karatasos or Yero Tsamis.<ref>{{cite book|author=Institute of Balkan Studies|title=Balkan studies: biannual publication of the Institute for Balkan Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WHppAAAAMAAJ&dq=tsiamis+chalkidiki&q=tsiamis+chalkidiki#search_anchor|publisher=Balkan studies: biannual publication of the Institute for Balkan Studies|pages=49|year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Institute of Balkan Studies|title=Balkan studies: biannual publication of the Institute for Balkan Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WHppAAAAMAAJ&q=Macedonian+rebellion+of+1854&dq=Macedonian+rebellion+of+1854|publisher=Balkan studies: biannual publication of the Institute for Balkan Studies|pages=49|year=1976}}</ref> The insurrections of the Macedonian Greeks had the support of King [[Otto of Greece]], who thought that liberation of Macedonia and other parts of Greece was possible, hoping on Russian support. The revolt however failed in its part having deteriorated the Greco-Turkish relations for the years to come.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bergstrom Haldi|first=Stacy|title=Why wars widen: a theory of predation and balancing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fbKJLCcX2Z8C&pg=PA117&dq#v=onepage|publisher=Routledge|pages=117–118|year=2003|isbn=0-7146-5307-1}}</ref>

The 1878 revolt was prepared from both the Greek government and the leading Macedonian revolutionaries and took place in southern Macedonia, with large numbers of people from Greek and [[Vlachs|Vlach]] communities taking part.<ref name=Mackridge7/> In the same year the [[Principality of Bulgaria]] was established, which along with the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] started to wield on the [[Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia|Slavic-speaking populations of Macedonia]], with the foundation of Bulgarian schools and the affiliation of local churches to the Exarchate; Greek, Serbian and Romanian schools were also founded in several parts. After Greece's defeat in the [[Greco-Turkish War (1897)|1897 Greco-Turkish War]], further Bulgarian involvement was encouraged in Macedonian affairs and their bands invaded the region, terrorizing populations of Greek consciousness.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackridge|first1=Peter A.|last2=Yannakakis|first2=Eleni|title=Ourselves and others|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiJvm924ankC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA8#v=onepage|publisher=Berg Publishers|page=8|year=1997|isbn=1-85973-138-4}}</ref>

===Early 20th century===
{{Further|Macedonian Struggle|Balkan Wars|Macedonian front|Movement of National Defence}}
[[File:Greek Macedonian rebel 1908.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Postcard with a Greek Macedonian revolutionary (''Macedonomachos'') during the [[Macedonian Struggle]].]]
[[File:Ion Dragoumis Albert Baubin.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Ion Dragoumis]], whose family descented from [[Vogatsiko]], [[Kastoria]]]]

On the eve of the 20th century, Greek Macedonians were a minority population in a number of areas inside the multiethnic region of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]], more so away from the coast. They lived alongside [[Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia|Slavic-speaking populations]], most of whom had come to be identified as [[Bulgarians]],<ref>"''Until the late 19th century both outside observers and those Bulgaro-Macedonians who had an ethnic consciousness believed that their group, which is now two separate nationalities, comprised a single people, the Bulgarians. Thus the reader should ignore references to ethnic Macedonians in the Middle Ages which appear in some modern works. In the Middle Ages and into the 19th century, the term ‘Macedonian’ was used entirely in reference to a geographical region. Anyone who lived within its confines, regardless of nationality could be called a Macedonian. Nevertheless, the absence of a national consciousness in the past is no grounds to reject the Macedonians as a nationality today."'' "The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century," John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1991, {{ISBN|0472081497}}, pp. 36–37.</ref><ref>"''At the end of the World War I there were very few historians or ethnographers, who claimed that a separate Macedonian nation existed... Of those Macedonian Slavs who had developed then some sense of national identity, the majority probably considered themselves to be Bulgarians, although they were aware of differences between themselves and the inhabitants of Bulgaria... The question as of whether a Macedonian nation actually existed in the 1940s when a Communist Yugoslavia decided to recognize one is difficult to answer. Some observers argue that even at this time it was doubtful whether the Slavs from Macedonia considered themselves to be a nationality separate from the Bulgarians''." [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC&pg=PA66&dq=Bulgaria's+Macedonia:+Nation-building+and+state-building&hl=bg&ei=r-47TrjECsn_-gbr-PShAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false ''The Macedonian conflict: ethnic nationalism in a transnational world''], Loring M. Danforth, Princeton University Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}, pp. 65-66.</ref><ref>"''The key fact about Macedonian nationalism is that it is new: In the early twentieth century there was no separate Slavic Macedonian identity: Macedonian villagers defined their identity as either 'Bulgarian', 'Serbian' or even 'Greek' depending on the affiliation of the village's priest. While 'Bulgarian' was most common affiliation then, mistreatment by occupying Bulgarian troops during WWII cured most Macedonians from their pro-Bulgarian sympathies, leaving them embracing the new Macedonian identity promoted by the Tito regime after the (Second World) war.''" James Sperling, Sean Kay, S. Victor Papacosma as ed. Limiting Institutions?: The Challenge of Eurasian Security Governance, Manchester University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0719066050}}, p. 57</ref> and other ethnicities such as [[Jews]], [[Turkish people|Turks]] and [[Albanians]]. However, the Greek speakers were the predominant population in the southern zone of the region which comprised two-thirds of modern [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]]. Bulgarian actions to exploit the Bulgarian population of Macedonia with the foundation of the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] and the influence of the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] on the region, led to the [[Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising|Ilinden Uprising]] which was shut down by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces; these events provoked Greece to help the Macedonians to resist both Ottoman and Bulgarian forces, by sending military officers who formed bands made up of Macedonians and other Greek volunteers, something that resulted in the [[Struggle for Macedonia|Macedonian Struggle]] from 1904–1908, which ended with the [[Young Turk Revolution]].<ref name=Gillespie88>{{cite book|last=Gillespie|first=Richard|title=Mediterranean politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpC4QJP66HUC&lpg=PP1&dq=el&pg=PA88#v=onepage|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press|page=88|year=1994|isbn=0-8386-3609-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackridge|first1=Peter A.|last2=Yannakakis|first2=Eleni|title=Ourselves and others|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiJvm924ankC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA9#v=onepage|publisher=Berg Publishers|page=9|year=1997|isbn=1-85973-138-4}}</ref> According to the 1904 census, conducted by [[Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha]] for the Ottoman authorities, the Greeks were the predominant population in the vilayets of [[Salonika Province, Ottoman Empire|Thessaloniki]] and [[Monastir Province, Ottoman Empire|Monastir]], outnumbered in the [[Kosovo Province, Ottoman Empire|vilayet of Kosovo]] by the Bulgarians who formed the majority.<ref name=Gillespie89>{{cite book|last=Gillespie|first=Richard|title=Mediterranean politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpC4QJP66HUC&lpg=PP1&dq=el&pg=PA89#v=onepage|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press|page=89|year=1994|isbn=0-8386-3609-8}}</ref>

During the [[Balkan Wars]], [[Thessaloniki]] became the prize city for the struggling parties, [[Greece]], [[Bulgaria]] and [[Serbia]]. Greece claimed the southern region which corresponded to that of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|ancient Macedonia]], attributed as part of [[History of Greece|Greek history]], and had a strong Greek presence.<ref name=Gillespie88/> Following the Balkan Wars, Greece
obtained most of the vilayets of Thessaloniki and Monastir, what is now Greek Macedonia, from the dissolving Ottoman Empire. After [[World War I]] and the agreement between Greece and Bulgaria on a mutual population exchange in 1919, the Greek element was reinforced in the region of Greek Macedonia, which acquired a high degree of ethnic homogeneity. During the 1923 [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]], there was a mass departure of [[Muslim]]s and some pro-Bulgarian element from Macedonia, with the simultaneous arrival of [[Greek refugees]] from [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and [[east Thrace]], mainly [[Pontic Greeks]]. According to the statistics of the [[League of Nations]] in 1926, the Greeks comprised 88.8% of the total population, the [[Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia|Slavic-speakers]] 5.1%, while the remainder was mostly made up of Muslims and Jews.<ref name=Gillespie89/>

The Macedonians (Greeks) fought alongside the regular Greek army during the struggle for Macedonia, with many victims from the local population, to resist to the Bulgarian expansionism and [[Pan-Slavism|pan-Slavic]] danger.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kepekozani.gr/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=30&Itemid=54|script-title=el:Ιστορία και Πολιτισμός του Νομού Κοζάνης|publisher=ΚΕΠΕ Κοζάνης|language=el|access-date=2009-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mathra.gr/default_2146.aspx|script-title=el:Ημερίδα για τον Βουρινό στο πλαίσιο της εκατονταετούς επετείου από το Μακεδονικό Αγώνα|publisher=General Secretariat of Macedonia–Thrace|language=el|date=2004-09-20|access-date=2009-10-17|quote=[[Minister for Macedonia–Thrace (Greece)|Minister for Macedonia–Thrace]] addresses the public on occasion of 100 year anniversary of Macedonian struggle: ''"The revolt in Bourinos was the verst organized resistance act of the Macedonian Hellenism against the Bulgarian imperialism and the once pan-slavic danger."''}}</ref> There are monuments in Macedonia commemorating the ''Makedonomachi'', the local Macedonian and other Greek fighters, who took part in the wars and died
to liberate Macedonia from the Ottoman rule, officially memorialized as heroes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mouseio-kozanis.gr/content/view/21/67/lang,en/|title=Museum of Macedonian Struggle|publisher=Historical–Folklore and Natural History Museum of Kozani|access-date=2009-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/index.php/archives/philippos-dragoumis-series-ii|title=Philippos Dragoumis-Series II|publisher=[[American School of Classical Studies at Athens]]|access-date=2009-05-26}}</ref> Several of the Macedonian revolutionaries that were instrumental in the war later became politicians of the modern Greek state. The most notable of them were writer and diplomat [[Ion Dragoumis]] and his father [[Stephanos Dragoumis]], a judge who became [[Prime Minister of Greece]] in 1910. The Dragoumis family, originating from Vogatsiko, in the [[Kastoria Prefecture|Kastoria]] region, had a long history of participation in the Greek revolutions with Markos Dragoumis being a member of [[Filiki Eteria]]. Heroic stories from the Macedonian struggle were transcribed in many of the novels of Greek writer [[Penelope Delta]], from narratives collected in 1932–1935 by her secretary Antigone Bellou-Threpsiadi, who was herself a daughter of a Macedonian fighter.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nikolaeva Todorova|first=Marii︠a︡|title=Balkan identities: nation and memory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM2Q_l4CfNAC&pg=PA215&dq#v=onepage|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|page=215|year=2004|isbn=1-85065-715-7}}</ref> Ion Dragoumis also wrote about his personal recollections of the Macedonian struggle in his books. During the [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey]] the Greek refugees settled mainly in Macedonia. The Greek refugees from Turkey constituted 45% of the population of [[Macedonia (Greece)]] in 1928.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kentron Koinonikon Epistemon Athinon|title=Publications|year=1962|publisher=University of Michigan|page=188|edition=Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6LrAAAAMAAJ&dq=macedonia+proportion+refugee+population&q=macedonia+refugee|access-date=30 May 2016}}</ref>

===World War II===
{{Further|Military history of Greece during World War II|Axis occupation of Greece|Greek Resistance|Greek civil war}}
During the [[Axis occupation of Greece during World War II|Axis occupation of Greece at World War II]], Macedonia suffered thousands of victims due to anti-partisan activity of the [[Nazi Germany|German]] occupying forces and the ethnic cleansing policies of the Bulgarian authorities. The Bulgarian Army entered Greece on 20 April 1941 at the heels of the [[Wehrmacht]] and eventually occupied the whole of northeastern Greece east of the [[Struma River|Strymon River]] ([[Eastern Macedonia and Thrace|Eastern Macedonia]] and [[Western Thrace]]), except for the [[Evros Prefecture]], at the border with [[Turkey]], which was occupied by the Germans. Unlike Germany and [[Italy]], Bulgaria officially annexed the occupied territories, which had long been a target of [[Greater Bulgaria|Bulgarian irredentism]], on 14 May 1941.<ref name=Mazower276>{{cite book|last=Mazower|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Mazower|title=After the war was over|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAszKv6JfQUC&lpg=PP1&dq=el&pg=PA276#v=onepage|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=276|year=2000|isbn=0-691-05842-3}}</ref>

In Greek Macedonia, Bulgarian policy was that of extermination or expulsion,<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Marshall Lee|title=Bulgaria during the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjSsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA130&dq#v=onepage|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=130|year=1975|isbn=0-691-05842-3}}</ref> aiming to forcibly [[Bulgarisation|Bulgarize]] as many Greeks as possible and expel or kill the rest.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Marshall Lee|title=Bulgaria during the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjSsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA126&dq#v=onepage|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=126|year=1975|isbn=0-691-05842-3}}</ref> A massive campaign was launched right from the start, which saw all Greek officials (mayors, judges, lawyers and gendarmes) deported. The Bulgarians closed the Greek schools and expelled the teachers, replaced Greek clergymen with priests from Bulgaria, and sharply repressed the use of the [[Greek language]]: the names of towns and places changed to the forms traditional in Bulgarian,<ref name=Mazower276/> and even gravestones bearing Greek inscriptions were defaced.<ref name=Miller127>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Marshall Lee|title=Bulgaria during the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjSsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA127&dq#v=onepage|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=127|year=1975|isbn=0-691-05842-3}}</ref>

[[File:Bakirtzis-May-1944.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|[[Evripidis Bakirtzis]], leading member of the [[Greek Resistance]] and [[Political Committee of National Liberation|Chairman of the PEEA]], addresses the National Council in [[Evrytania]], May 1944.]]

Large numbers of Greeks were expelled and others were deprived of the right to work by a license system that banned the practice of a trade or profession without permission. Forced labour was introduced, and the authorities confiscated the Greek business property and gave it to Bulgarian colonists.<ref name=Miller127/> By late 1941, more than 100,000 Greeks had been expelled from the Bulgarian occupation zone.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mazower|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Mazower|title=After the war was over|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAszKv6JfQUC&lpg=PP1&dq=el&pg=PA20#v=onepage|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=20|year=2000|isbn=0-691-05842-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Shrader|first=Charles R.|title=The withered vine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu2i13Yq60QC&lpg=el&pg=PA19#v=onepage|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=19|year=1999|isbn=0-275-96544-9}}</ref> Bulgarian colonists were encouraged to settle in Macedonia by government credits and incentives, including houses and land confiscated from the natives.

In this situation, a revolt broke out on 28 September 1941, known as the Drama revolt. It started from the city of [[Drama, Greece|Drama]] and quickly spread throughout Macedonia. In [[Drama, Greece|Drama]], [[Doxato]], [[Khoristi]] and many other towns and villages clashes broke out with the occupying forces. On 29 September Bulgarian troops moved into Drama and the other rebellious cities to suppress the uprising. They seized all men between 18 and 45, and executed over three thousand people in Drama alone. An estimated fifteen thousand Greeks were killed from the Bulgarian occupational army during the next few weeks and in the countryside entire villages were machine gunned and looted.<ref name=Miller127/>

The massacres precipitated a mass exodus of Greeks from the Bulgarian into the German occupation zone. Bulgarian reprisals continued after the September revolt, adding to the torrent of refugees. Villages were destroyed for sheltering "partisans" who were in fact only the survivors of villages previously destroyed. The terror and famine became so severe that the Athens government considered plans for evacuating the entire population to German-occupied Greece.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Marshall Lee|title=Bulgaria during the Second World War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjSsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA128&dq#v=onepage|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=128|year=1975|isbn=0-691-05842-3}}</ref> The [[Great Famine (Greece)|Great Famine]] that broke up in 1941, that killed hundreds of thousands in the occupied country canceled these plans, leaving the population to endure those conditions for another three years. In May 1943 deportation of Jews from the Bulgarian occupation zone began as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.balkanalysis.com/2005/11/29/the-holocaust-in-greece-1941-1944-part-1/|title=The Holocaust in Greece, 1941-1944 (Part 1)|publisher=Balkanalysis.com|date=2005-11-29|access-date=2009-10-22}}</ref> In the same year the Bulgarian army expanded its zone of control into [[Central Macedonia]] under German supervision, although this area was not formally annexed nor administered by Bulgaria.

Two of the leading members of the Greek resistance were Macedonians. [[Evripidis Bakirtzis]], a veteran of the [[Balkan Wars]], was commander of Macedonian forces of the [[Greek People's Liberation Army]] (ELAS) during the [[Axis occupation of Greece during World War II|Axis Occupation of Greece in the period 1941–1944]]. He became the first president of the [[Political Committee of National Liberation]] — also referred to as the "Mountain Government" — an opposition government separate to the [[Kingdom of Greece|royal]] government-in-exile of Greece. Bakirtzis was succeeded by the second president, jurist [[Alexandros Svolos]] (an [[Aromanian people|Aromanian]]). It was Svolos who attended the Lebanon conference in 1944 when the organization was dissolved in the wake of the formation of the [[national unity government]] of [[Georgios Papandreou]], with Svolos later becoming a minister.

Later, during the [[Greek civil war]], the region of Macedonia suffered a lot due to the battles between the [[Hellenic Army]] and the [[Democratic Army of Greece|Democratic Army]].

==Identity==

===Origins===
There had been a documented continuous [[Ancient Macedonians|Greek presence in Macedonia since antiquity]], which marked the region, alongside the presence of many other groups that passed from its soil through the centuries, such as the [[Thracians]], [[Illyrians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[South Slavs|Slavs]], [[Fourth Crusade|Latins]], [[Jews]] and [[Ottomans|Ottoman Turks]]. Today, due to the long and rich history of the region, some small linguistic communities of [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] and [[Slavophone Greeks|Slavic]] speaking Macedonians still remain. These communities are using their various dialects in some social situations, while they are being identified as ethnic Greeks. After the 1923 [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]], half of the refugees from [[Asia Minor]], [[Pontians|Pontus]], and [[Eastern Thrace]] settled in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/corpora/pi/content.html?c=9&t=3,3997|title=Διδακτικά Βιβλία του Παιδαγωγικού Ινστιτούτου|website=Greek-language.gr|access-date=10 July 2018}}</ref>

===Culture===
{{see also|Music of Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonian cuisine (Greek)}}
[[File:Flag of Greek Macedonia.svg|thumb|180px|The [[Flag of Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonian flag]].]]

The Greek Macedonians have their own particular cultural heritage, which is classified as a subgroup of the national [[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]]. They admire, along with the [[ancient Macedonians]] (especially [[Alexander the Great]]), the fighters of the [[Struggle for Macedonia|Macedonian struggle]] as their own primary heroes, in contrast to southern Greeks who mainly praise the southern heroes of the [[Greek War of Independence]]. According to late-19th century folklorist Frederick G. Abbott:<ref>{{cite book|last=Frederick|first=Abbott G.|title=Macedonian Folklore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a_EUWA4cnIAC&pg=PA279&dq=onepage&q=#|publisher=BiblioBazaar|page=279|year=2009|isbn=978-1-110-36458-9}}</ref> {{cquote| Everything that savours of antiquity is by the Macedonian peasant attributed to the two great kings of his country. His songs and traditions, of which he is vastly and justly proud, are often described as having come down " from the times of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip]] and [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] - and [[Heracles]]", a comprehensive period to which all remnants of the past are allotted with undiscriminating impartiality.}}
The use of the [[Flag of Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonian flag]] is very common in the Macedonian population, depicting the [[Vergina Sun]] as their regional symbol, while "[[Famous Macedonia]]" is an unofficial [[anthem]] and military march.<ref>{{cite book|last=Danforth|first=Loring M.|author-link=Loring Danforth|title=The Macedonian Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC&pg=PA83&dq=el#v=onepage|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=83|year=1997|isbn=0-691-04356-6}}</ref> They have even some folk dances that bear the name of the region, [[Makedonia (dance)|Makedonia]] and [[Makedonikos antikristos]].

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Macedonia Greek Costume Verroia.JPG
| width1 = 100
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| caption1 =
| image2 = Macedonia Greek Costume Boufi.JPG
| width2 = 100
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| footer = Gravours of traditional Greek Macedonian costumes.
}}

The overwhelming majority of the Greek Macedonians speak a variant of [[Greek language|Greek]], called Macedonian (Μακεδονίτικα, ''Makedonitika''). It belongs to the [[Varieties of Modern Greek|northern dialect group]], with phonological and few syntactical differences distinguishing it from [[Dimotiki|standard Greek]] which is spoken in southern Greece. One of these differences is that the Macedonian dialect uses the [[accusative case]] instead of [[genitive case|genitive]] to refer to an indirect object.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Alexiadou|first1=Artemis|last2=Horrocks|first2=Geoffrey C.|last3=Stavrou|first3=Melita|title=Studies in Greek syntax|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpUBTDDGr_QC&pg=PA99&dq=onepage&q=#v=onepage|publisher=Springer|page=99|year=1999|isbn=0-7923-5290-4}}</ref> The Macedonians also have a characteristically heavier accent, which readily identifies a speaker as coming from Macedonia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Roudometof|first=Victor|title=Collective memory, national identity, and ethnic conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xoww453NVQMC&lpg=PA75&dq=3&pg=PA76#v=onepage|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=76|year=2002|isbn=0-275-97648-3}}</ref> There is also a minority of [[Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia|Slavic-speakers]] that predominantly self-identifies as Greek Macedonians, primarily found in [[West Macedonia]].

===Expressions===
[[File:Apogevmatini Macedonians.gif|thumb|160px|''"I myself am a Macedonian, just as another 2.5 million Greeks"''. This quotation of Prime Minister [[Kostas Karamanlis]] at a meeting of the Council of Europe made headlines in Greek newspapers, the above sample from ''[[Apogevmatini]]''.]]

The strong sense of Macedonian identity among the Greek Macedonians had significant effect in the context of the "[[Macedonia naming dispute]]".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mackridge|first1=Peter A.|last2=Yannakakis|first2=Eleni|title=Ourselves and others|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AiJvm924ankC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA1#v=onepage|publisher=Berg Publishers|page=1|year=1997|isbn=1-85973-138-4}}</ref> It has led to reactions to the notion of ''[[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]]'' and ''[[Macedonian language]]'' with a non-Greek qualification, as used by the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]], during the times of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|socialist Yugoslavia]], and the contemporary [[Republic of Macedonia]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237751372|title=The New Balkans|last=Floudas|first=Demetrius Andreas|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2002|editor=Kourvetaris|series=East European Monographs|page=85|chapter="FYROM's Dispute with Greece Revisited"|display-editors=etal}}</ref> The dispute over the moral right to the use of the name ''[[Macedonia (terminology)|Macedonia]]'' and its derivatives traces its origin to the [[Demographic history of Macedonia#Macedonian Question|Macedonian question]] in the 19th and early-20th century between [[Greece]], [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Bulgaria]].<ref name=":0" /> The Greek Macedonians have been objecting to these notions originally fearing territorial claims as they were noted by United States Secretary of State [[Edward Stettinius, Jr.|Edward Stettinius]] in 1944, under president [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].<ref>Quote: ''...This Government considers talk of "Macedonian Nation", "Macedonian Fatherland", or "Macedonian National Consciousness" to be unjustified demagoguery representing no ethnic or political reality, and sees in its present revival a possible cloak for aggressive intentions against Greece.'' See the whole quote [[q:Edward R. Stettinius|here]].</ref> The dispute continued to be a reason of controversy between the three nations during the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osaarchivum.org/files/holdings/300/8/3/text/100-7-79.shtml |title=The Yugoslavs Criticize Greece and Bulgaria over Macedonia |publisher=Open Society Archives |date=1983-08-01 |access-date=2009-09-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805041430/http://www.osaarchivum.org/files/holdings/300/8/3/text/100-7-79.shtml |archive-date=2009-08-05 }}</ref>

[[File:LocationMacedonia-HEL-1-z.png|thumb|200px|left|The region of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] in northern Greece.]]

The dispute achieved international status after the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]], when the concerns of the Macedonian Greeks rose to extreme manifestations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Floudas|first=Demetrius Andreas|journal=Journal of Political and Military Sociology|volume=24|page=285|url=http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/11160801/name-conflict-conflict-name-analysis-greeces-dispute-fyrom|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031090521/http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/11160801/name-conflict-conflict-name-analysis-greeces-dispute-fyrom|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 October 2014|title=A Name for a Conflict or a Conflict for a Name? An Analysis of Greece's Dispute with FYROM|access-date=24 January 2019 | year=1996}}</ref> On 14 February 1992, about one million Greek Macedonians turned out in the streets of [[Thessaloniki]] to demonstrate their objection to the name ''Macedonia'' being a part of the name of the then newly established Republic of Macedonia using the slogan "Macedonia is Greece".<ref>{{cite book|last=Roudometof|first=Victor|title=Collective memory, national identity, and ethnic conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xoww453NVQMC&lpg=PR3&pg=PA32#v=onepage|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=32|year=2002|isbn=0-275-97648-3}}</ref> Following the recognition of the Republic of Macedonia by the [[United States]], another rally was held in Thessaloniki on 31 March 1994, while two major rallies, organized by the Macedonian Greek community in Australia, were held in [[Melbourne]] in 1992 and 1994, with around 100,000 people taking part in each of these.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neurope.eu/articles/90089.php |title=Macedonia enlarged |publisher=neurope.eu |date=2008-10-06 |access-date=2009-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008232738/http://www.neurope.eu/articles/90089.php |archive-date=2008-10-08 }}</ref>

Explicit self-identification as Macedonian is a typical attitude and a matter of national pride for the Greeks originating from [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330524708|title="'Macedonia Nostra': An Analysis of Greece's Dispute with FYROM" (PDF).|last=Floudas|first=Demetrius Andreas|website=ResearchGate.|publisher=LSE Conference Paper; Greece: Prospects for Modernisation, London, 1994.|access-date=2018-10-03}}</ref> Responding to issues about the Macedonia naming dispute as [[Prime Minister of Greece]], [[Kostas Karamanlis]] – in a characteristic expression of this attitude – quoted saying in emphasis ''"I myself am a Macedonian, just as another 2.5 million Greeks are Macedonians"'' at a meeting of the [[Council of Europe]] in [[Strasbourg]] in January 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/Articles/en-US/20022007_KL1706.htm|title=Interview of Foreign Ministry spokesman Mr. G. Koumoutsakos with Bulgarian news agency FOCUS|publisher=[[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Greece)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Greece]]|date=2007-02-16|access-date=2009-10-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greekembassy.org/embassy/Content/en/Article.aspx?office=1&folder=19&article=19574|title=Karamanlis outlines Greek positions on issues affecting SE Europe during Council of Europe address|publisher=Embassy of Greece in Washington DC|date=2007-01-24|access-date=2009-10-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605040219/http://www.greekembassy.org/embassy/Content/en/Article.aspx?office=1&folder=19&article=19574|archive-date=2011-06-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> Both Kostas Karamanlis and his uncle [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]], are Macedonian ethnic Greeks with origin from [[Serres]]. As [[President of Greece]], Konstantinos Karamanlis senior had also expressed his strong sentiments regarding the Macedonian regional identity, most notably in one emotionally charged statement made in 1992.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.makthes.gr/index.php?name=News&file=article&sid=17958|script-title=el:Σέρρες: Εκδηλώσεις για τα 10 χρόνια από το θάνατο του Κωνσταντίνου Καραμανλή|publisher=[[Makedonia (newspaper)|Makedonia newspaper]]|language=el|date=2008-05-25|access-date=2009-10-03|quote=There is no other but one Macedonia, and this is Greek}}</ref>

===Diaspora===
{{Greeks}}
[[Australia]] had been a popular destination for the waves of Macedonian Greek immigrants throughout the 20th century. Their immigration was similar to that of the rest of the [[Greek diaspora]], affected by their socio-economic and political background in their homeland, and has been recorded mainly between 1924–1974. Settlers from [[West Macedonia]] were the first to arrive in Australia and dominated the immigration waves until 1954. Macedonian families from the regions of [[Florina Prefecture|Florina]] and [[Kastoria Prefecture|Kastoria]] established settlements in rural areas, while people from [[Kozani Prefecture|Kozani]] settled mainly in [[Melbourne]]. Only after 1954, people from [[Central Macedonia|Central]] and [[Eastern Macedonia and Thrace|Eastern Macedonia]] began to arrive in Australia. Vasilios Kyriazis Blades from Vythos, a village in the prefecture of Kozani, is believed to be the first Macedonian settler to arrive in Australia and was landed in Melbourne in 1915; his arrival exhorted other people from his village and adjacent [[Pentalofos, Kozani|Pentalofos]] to settle in Melbourne, while several families from other districts also settled in Australia, bringing with them hundreds of people in the following decades.<ref name=Jupp417>{{cite book|last=Jupp|first=James|author-link=James Jupp|title=The Australian people|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTKFBXfCI1QC&lpg=PA417&dq=%22Greek%20Macedonians%22&pg=PA417#v=onepage|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=417|year=2001|isbn=0-521-80789-1}}</ref>

[[File:Macedonian Greek-Australians rally in Melbourne, people with flags and signs.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Vergina Sun]], that also appears in the [[Flag of Macedonia (Greece)|regional flag]], is used alongside the Greek flag by Greeks to declare their Macedonian origin in various rallies; here in Melbourne, Australia.]]

The geographic distribution of Macedonians before [[World War II]] differed from the distribution of other [[Greek Australian|Greek settlers]]. While the Greeks from the islands settled mainly in the eastern states of the country attracting more Greek immigrants there, large portions of Macedonians were concentrated in western Australia. During the first years of their settlement, the Macedonians were dispersed in the Australian countryside close to the metropolitan centers, working as market gardeners, farmhands and woodcutters; there was a significant change of their occupational patterns after 1946, when they began to bring with them their families from Greece.<ref name=Jupp417/> The urbanization process for the Macedonians started after the [[Great Depression in Australia|Great Depression]], when the availability of work in urban areas increased, something that led to extended move of Macedonians towards the large cities, especially Melbourne, [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] and [[Sydney]], where they set up their own communities and regional institutions. While the majority of the settlers were indigenous Macedonians, there were also small numbers of [[Pontic Greeks]] coming from the region of Macedonia, who did not share the same regional identity and founded distinct institutions.<ref name=Jupp418>{{cite book|last=Jupp|first=James|author-link=James Jupp|title=The Australian people|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTKFBXfCI1QC&lpg=PA417&dq=%22Greek%20Macedonians%22&pg=PA418#v=onepage|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=418|year=2001|isbn=0-521-80789-1}}</ref>

After World War II greater numbers from all parts of Macedonia entered Australia, many of them as refugees due to the [[Greek Civil War]]. These new waves of immigrants resulted in crowded communes and over sixty Macedonian organizations were established in the country, the most prominent of which is the Pan-Macedonian Federation of Australia, the peak umbrella organization. Apart from its regional character, the federation also serves as the voice of the Greek Macedonian communities in Australia and has taken active role in the [[Macedonia naming dispute]].<ref name=Jupp418/> Its headquarters is in Melbourne, where the non-profit organization of Pan-Macedonian Association of Melbourne and Victoria was established in 1961,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panmacedonian.com.au/|title=Home page|publisher=Pan-Macedonian Association of Melbourne and Victoria|access-date=2009-10-11}}</ref> while the federation is also active in [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ausgreeknet.com/panmacedonianfed.htm|title=Pan-Macedonian Federation of Australia|publisher=AusGreekNet.com|access-date=2009-10-11}}</ref> According to an estimate in 1988, there were around 55,000 Macedonians in Australia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Danforth|first=Loring M.|author-link=Loring Danforth|title=The Macedonian Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC&lpg=el&pg=PA86#v=onepage|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=86|year=1997|isbn=0-691-04356-6}}</ref> More recent accounts cite 145,000 Macedonians.<ref name="greekreporter.com"/>

Other large Greek Macedonian communities can also be found particularly in the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Great Britain]]. The main institutions which were established by some of these communities or are closely affiliated with them are:

'''Pan-Macedonian Association USA''', founded in 1947 in [[New York City]] by [[Greek American]]s whose origin were from Macedonia to unite all the Macedonian communities of the United States, works to collect and distribute information on the land and people of Macedonia, organize lectures, scientific discussions, art exhibitions, educational and philanthropic activities, while they have funded work in the Library of [[New York University]] with books about the Macedonian history and culture. Additionally, they promote the social welfare and educational advancement of the inhabitants of Macedonia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panmacedonian.info/about.htm|title=About us|publisher=Pan-Macedonian Association USA|access-date=2009-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721220137/http://www.panmacedonian.info/about.htm|archive-date=2009-07-21|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.helleniccomserve.com/panmacednimitz.html|title=Pan-Macedonian Association Meets with UN Mediator Matthew Nimitz in New York|publisher=Hellenic Communication Service|access-date=2009-10-14}}</ref>

'''The Pan-Macedonian Association of Canada''' is the association's branch for the [[Greek Canadians]] of Macedonian origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macedoniansincanada.com/Pan%20Mac%20Canada.htm|title=Our association|publisher=Pan-Macedonian Association of Canada|access-date=2009-10-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090607221330/http://www.macedoniansincanada.com/Pan%20Mac%20Canada.htm|archive-date=2009-06-07|url-status=dead}}</ref>

'''The Macedonian Society of Great Britain''', founded in 1989 in [[London]] by Macedonian immigrants, promotes the Macedonian history, culture and heritage, organizes lectures and presentations, as well as social events and gatherings for the [[Greek Britons|British Greeks]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macedonia.org.uk/|title=Home page|publisher=The Macedonian Society of Great Britain|access-date=2009-10-14}}</ref>

'''[[Panhellenic Macedonian Front]]''', a Greek [[political party]] founded in 2009 by politician [[Stelios Papathemelis]] and professor [[Kostas Zouraris]] to run for the [[2009 European Parliament election in Greece|2009 European Parliament elections]], which is affiliated with several Macedonian diaspora organizations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.in.gr/news/article.asp?lngEntityID=1011264&lngDtrID=244|script-title=el:Το "Πανελλήνιο Μακεδονικό Μέτωπο" ανακοίνωσαν Παπαθεμελής και Ζουράρις|language=el|publisher=[[in.gr]]|date=2009-05-06|access-date=2009-10-14}}</ref>

==Notable Greek Macedonians==
[[File:Ioannis Papafis.JPG|thumb|160px|[[Ioannis Papafis]], benefactor from Thessaloniki]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S47421, Herbert von Karajan.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Herbert von Karajan]] (1908–1989) who is considered to have been one of the greatest conductors of all time was descended paternally from Greek-Macedonian ancestors.<ref name=" Kater, Michael H. 1997 56 "/><ref name=" Cramer, Alfred W. 2009 758 "/>]]
{{See also|List of Macedonians (Greek)}}
*[[Athanasios Christopoulos]], writer, poet.
*[[Grigorios Zalykis]], writer, founder of the [[Hellenoglosso Xenodocheio]].
*[[Emmanouel Pappas]], leader of the Greek War of Independence in Macedonia. Other prominent personalities of the war included [[Georgios Lassanis]], [[Nikolaos Kasomoulis]], [[Christoforos Perraivos]], [[Ioannis Skandalidis]], [[Anastasios Polyzoidis]], [[Anastasios Karatasos]], [[Aggelis Gatsos]] and [[Zafeirakis Theodosiou]].
*[[Stephanos Dragoumis]], formed the [[Macedonian Committee]] in 1904 in Athens, originated from [[Vogatsiko]] in western [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and his son [[Ion Dragoumis]], politicians with contribution in the [[Macedonian Struggle]].
*[[Georgios Modis]] jurist, politician, writer and participant in the [[Macedonian Struggle]].
*[[Gonos Yotas]], a Slavophone Greek Macedonian fighter in the [[Macedonian Struggle]] from Plugar, a village near [[Giannitsa]].
*[[Kottas]], a Slavophone Greek [[Makedonomachoi|Makedonomachos]].
*[[Ioannis Papafis]], [[Konstantinos Bellios]], benefactors.
*[[Stamatios Kleanthis]], [[Xenophon Paionidis]], [[Lysandros Kaftanzoglou]], [[:el:Αριστοτέλης Ζάχος|Aristotelis Zachos]], architects.
*[[Emilios Riadis]], composer.
*[[Evripidis Bakirtzis]], Hellenic Army officer and leading member of the [[Greek Resistance|National Resistance]], nicknamed "the Red Colonel" from his pen name in the communist ''[[Rizospastis]]''.
*[[George Zorbas]], the character upon which [[Nikos Kazantzakis]] based the fictional protagonist of his novel ''[[Zorba the Greek]]''.
*[[Panagiotis Fasoulas]] and [[Dimitris Diamantidis]], prominent basketball players and European champions with [[Greece national basketball team|Greece]] in [[EuroBasket 1987|1987]] and [[EuroBasket 2005|2005]] respectively. Fasoulas was also mayor of [[Piraeus]], while Diamantidis was announced [[Mr. Europa|European Player of the Year]] in 2007. Other basketball players include [[Giannis Ioannidis]], [[Nikos Hatzivrettas]], [[Kostas Tsartsaris]], [[Nikolaos Zisis]] and [[Fedon Matheou]], widely considered to be the ''Patriarch'' of Greek basketball.
*[[Theodoros Zagorakis]], captain of the [[Greece national football team|Greek national football team]] that won the [[UEFA Euro 2004]], and other players of the 2004 Euro team such as [[Vassilios Tsiartas]], [[Traianos Dellas]], [[Vassilis Lakis]], [[Pantelis Kafes]], [[Nikos Dabizas]], [[Zisis Vryzas]], [[Georgios Samaras]] (from his father's side) and [[Angelos Charisteas]]. Other notable figures of the Greek football include [[Kleanthis Vikelidis]], [[Giorgos Koudas]] and [[Alketas Panagoulias]].
*Several Olympic medalists: [[Georgios Roubanis]] ([[1956 Summer Olympics|Melbourne 1956]], bronze medal), [[Voula Patoulidou]] ([[1992 Summer Olympics|Barcelona 1992]], gold), [[Ioannis Melissanidis]] ([[1996 Summer Olympics|Atlanta 1996]], gold), [[Dimosthenis Tampakos]] ([[2004 Summer Olympics|Athens 2004]], gold), [[Alexandros Nikolaidis]] (Athens 2004, silver medal), [[Elisavet Mystakidou]] (Athens 2004, silver), [[Anna Korakaki]] (Rio 2016, gold)
*[[Konstantinos Karamanlis]], former [[President of Greece|President]] and [[Prime Minister of Greece]], as well as his nephew [[Kostas Karamanlis]] who also served as Prime Minister.
*[[Christos Sartzetakis]], former [[President of Greece]].
*[[Herbert von Karajan]] ''(originally Karajanis)'' (1908–1989), an Austrian born orchestra and opera conductor who was descended paternally from Greek-Macedonian ancestors who migrated centuries earlier from [[Kozani]] to [[Chemnitz]],<ref name=" Paul Robinson, Bruce Surtees 1976 6 ">{{cite book |author=Paul Robinson, Bruce Surtees |title=Karajan |publisher= Macdonald and Janes|year=1976 |page=6 |quote=Herbert von Karajan was born in Salzburg April 5, 1908. Though an Austrian by birth, the Karajan family was actually Greek, the original surname being Karajanis or "Black John". The family had migrated from Greece to Chemnitz, Germany, and from there to Austria about four generations before Herbert. }}</ref> Germany and then to [[Saxony]] and subsequently to [[Vienna]] where they held key academic, medical, and administrative posts.<ref name=" Kater, Michael H. 1997 56 ">{{cite book |author= Kater, Michael H. |title=The twisted muse: musicians and their music in the Third Reich |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |page=56 |isbn= 9780195096200 |quote= Karajan was born in 1908 in Austrian Salzburg, the son of a well-to-do physician of partially Greek-Macedonian ancestry whose forebears had been ennobled while in the service of the Saxon kings. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XzQp-tZm9oMC&pg=PA56#v=onepage }}</ref><ref name=" Cramer, Alfred W. 2009 758 ">{{cite book |author= Cramer, Alfred W. |title= Musicians and Composers of the 20th Century-Volume 3 |publisher= Salem Press |year= 2009 |page=758 |isbn= 9781587655159 |quote= The Life Herbert Ritter von Karajan (fahn KAHR-eh- yahn) was born to Ernst and Martha von Karajan, an upper-class family of Greek-Macedonian origin. }}</ref>
*[[Thalia Flora-Karavia]], artist and painter
*[[Achilles Papapetrou]], physicist
*[[Vassilis Vassilikos]], writer. Other writers include [[Georgios Vafopoulos]], [[:el:Ανθούλα Βαφοπούλου-Σταθοπούλου|Anthoula Vafopoulou]]
*[[Giannis Dalianidis]], [[Takis Kanellopoulos]], [[Titos Vandis]], [[Costas Hajihristos]], [[Zoe Laskari]], [[Kostas Voutsas]]: notable figures of the [[Greek cinema]].
*[[Patrick Tatopoulos]], movie [[production designer]] and is a French-Greek with Macedonian descent on his father's side.
*Figures of the musical scene: [[Manolis Chiotis]], [[Giorgos Hatzinasios]], [[Marinella]], [[Dionysis Savvopoulos]], [[Antonis Remos]], [[Despina Vandi]]
*Of partial Macedonian descent, from their father, were also educator [[Manolis Triantafyllidis]], writer [[Demetrios Vikelas]] and composer [[Spyridon Samaras]].

==See also==
*[[List of Macedonians (Greek)]]
*[[Demographic history of Macedonia]]
*[[Greeks in North Macedonia]]
*[[Macedonia (Greece)]]
*[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
*[[Ancient Macedonians]]
*[[Macedonia (terminology)]]
*[[Macedonia (region)]]
*[[Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia]]
*[[Macedonians (ethnic group)]]
*[[Byzantine Greeks]]
*[[Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia]]
*[[Ottoman Greeks]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Macedonians (Greeks)}}
*[http://www.panmacedonian.com.au/ Pan-Macedonian Association of Melbourne and Victoria]

{{Greek Macedonia}}
{{Ethnic groups in Greece}}

[[Category:Greek Macedonians| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Macedonia (region)]]

Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-11T05:28:26Z

Macedonian: Reverted good faith edits by Jingiby (talk): Rv, not what the source has

{{short description|South Slavic ethnic group associated with the geographical region of Macedonia}}
{{about||the population of North Macedonia|Demographics of North Macedonia|the ancient people|Ancient Macedonians|other uses|Macedonian (disambiguation)|and|Macedonian Slavs (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| image =Macedonian people in the world.svg
| caption =Map of the Macedonian diaspora in the world
| group = Macedonians Македонци ''Makedonci''
| population = [[Circa|c.]] '''2.5 million'''<ref name="Nasevski">{{cite book
|title= Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2= Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher=Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52–53 }}</ref>
| popplace = {{flagicon|North Macedonia}} [[North Macedonia]] 1,297,981{{lower|<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100703105852/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 |date=21 June 2004 }}.</ref>}}
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop1 = 98,570 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref1 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/PopularAreas?ReadForm&prenavtabname=Popular%20Locations&type=popular&&navmapdisplayed=true&javascript=true&textversion=false&collection=Census&period=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&productlabel=Ancestry%20by%20Country%20of%20Birth%20of%20Parents&breadcrumb=POTL&topic=Ancestry& 2006 Census].</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Republic of Macedonia MFA estimate] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop2 = 115,210(2020)
| ref2 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls 2006 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519210527/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls |date=19 May 2011 }}.</ref>}}
| region3 = {{flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop3 = 65,347 (2017)
| ref3 = {{lower|<ref>[http://demo.istat.it/str2017/index.html Foreign Citizens in Italy, 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806142909/http://www.demo.istat.it/bil2016/index.html |date=6 August 2017 }}.</ref>}}
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop4 = 61,304–63,000
| ref4 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf 2005 Figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193114/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region5 = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| pop5 = 57,200–200,000
| ref5 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[https://www.census.gov|547;&-ds_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_&-TABLE_NAMEX=&-ci_type=A&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G2000_B04003&-tree_id=4001&-all_geo_types=N&-redoLog=false&-geo_id=01000US&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en 2009 Community Survey] .</ref>}}
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| pop6 = 45,000
| ref6 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski"/> }}
| region7 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop7 = 43,110 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref7 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118090345/http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2012|title=My Info Agent|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=92333&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=801&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= 2006 census].</ref>}}
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Turkey}}
| pop8 = 31,518 (2001 census)
| ref8 = {{lower|<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& 2001 census] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215085128/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& |date=15 February 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}}
| pop9 = 30,000
| ref9 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski" />}}
| region11 = {{flagcountry|Serbia}}
| pop11 = 22,755 (2011 census)
| ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://popis2011.stat.rs/?lang=en|title=Попис у Србији 2011.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
| region12 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop12 = 20,135
| ref12 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/022498.html Tabelle 13]: Ausländer nach Staatsangehörigkeit (ausgewählte Staaten), Altersgruppen und Geschlecht — p. 74.</ref>}}
| region13 = {{flagcountry|The Netherlands}}
| pop13 = 10,000–15,000
| ref13 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region14 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| pop14 = 9,000 (est.)
| ref14 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Finland}}
| pop15 = 8,963
| ref15 = <ref name="un">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates17.shtml|title=United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs|website=un.org|access-date=2018-06-29}}</ref>
| region16 = {{flagcountry|Hungary}}
| pop16 = 7,253
| ref16 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html 1996 estimate] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705022945/http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html |date=5 July 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Albania}}
| pop17 = 5,512 (2011 census)
| ref17 = {{lower|<ref>[http://minorityrights.org/minorities/macedonians/ minorityrights.org]</ref>}}
| region18 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
| pop18 = 5,392 (2018)
| ref18 = <ref>[https://www.statbank.dk/FOLK2 Population by country of origin]</ref>
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Greece}}
| pop10 = 10,000–30,000
| ref10 = <ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref>
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Slovakia}}
| pop19 = 4,600
| ref19 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/42/39332415.xls OECD Statistics].</ref>}}
| region20 = {{flagcountry|Croatia}}
| pop20 = 4,138 (2011 census)
| ref20 = {{lower|<ref>{{Croatian Census 2011|E}}</ref>}}
| region21 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| pop21 = 4,491 (2009)
| ref21 = <ref>[http://www.scb.se/statistik/_publikationer/BE0101_2009A01_BR_03_BE0110TAB.pdf Population by country of birth 2009].</ref>
| region22 = {{flagcountry|Slovenia}}
| pop22 = 3,972 (2002 census)
| ref22 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.stat.si/popis2002/si/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7 2002 census (stat.si)].</ref>}}
| region23 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
| pop23 = 3,419 (2002)
| ref23 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dofi.fgov.be/fr/statistieken/statistiques_etrangers/Stat_ETRANGERS.htm|title=Belgium population statistics|publisher=dofi.fgov.be|access-date=9 June 2008}}</ref>}}
| region24 = {{flagcountry|Norway}}
| pop24 = 3,045
| ref24 = {{lower|<ref>
[http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html 2008 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112145417/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html |date=12 January 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region25 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| pop25 = 2,300–15,000
| ref25 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html 2003 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102733/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html |date=6 October 2014 }},[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region26 = {{flagcountry|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
| pop26 = 2,278 (2005)
| ref26 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf 2005 census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183909/http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region27 = {{flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
| pop27 = 2,011
| ref27 = {{lower|<ref>[https://www.czso.cz/documents/11292/27914491/1612_c01t14.pdf/4bbedd77-c239-48cd-bf5a-7a43f6dbf71b?version=1.0 czso.cz]</ref>}}
| region28 = {{flagcountry|Poland}}
| pop28 = 2,000–4,500
| ref28 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Makedonci vo Svetot] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/260  Polands Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947], p. 260.</ref>}}
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| pop29 = 1,654 (2011 census)
| ref29 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/NPDOCS/Census2011final.pdf Bulgaria 2011 census]</ref>}}
| region30 = {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| pop30 = 1,264 ([[2011 Romanian census|2011 census]])
| ref30 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/sR_Tab_8.xls |title= Rezultatele finale ale Recensământului din 2011 – Tab8. Populaţia stabilă după etnie – judeţe, municipii, oraşe, comune |date= 5 July 2013 |access-date= 18 December 2013 |publisher= [[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)]] |language= ro}}</ref>}}
| region31 = {{flagcountry|Montenegro}}
| pop31 = 900 (2011 census)
| ref31 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf Montenegro 2011 census].</ref>}}
| region32 = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| pop32 = 807–1,500
| ref32 = {{lower|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |title=2006 census |access-date=2 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127012451/http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |archive-date=27 November 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930042306/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=30 September 2011 }}</ref>}}
| region33 = {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| pop33 = 325 (2010) – 1,000 (est.)
| ref33 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>[http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.pdf Russia 2010 census]</ref>}}
| languages = '''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]'''
| rels = Predominantly [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] ([[Macedonian Orthodox Church]]) minority [[Islam]] ([[Macedonian Muslims]]) and [[Catholicism]] ([[Catholic Church in North Macedonia|Roman Catholic]] and [[Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Macedonian Greek Catholic]])
| related = Other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]]<ref>"Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States", p. 517 The Macedonians are a Southern Slav people, closely related to Bulgarians.</ref><ref>"Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook", p. 54 Macedonians are a Slavic people closely related to the neighboring Bulgarians.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dt2TXexiKTgC&q=political+and+economic+dictionary+of+Eastern+Europe+bulgarians&pg=PA96 |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe|first1=Alan John|last1=Day|first2=Roger|last2=East|first3=Richard|last3=Thomas|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|page=96|isbn=9780203403747}}</ref>
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}

'''Macedonians''' ({{lang-mk|Македонци|Makedonci}}) are a [[nation]] and a [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] ethnic group native to the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] in Southeast Europe. They speak the [[Macedonian language]], a [[South Slavic language]]. About two thirds of all ethnic Macedonians live in [[North Macedonia]] and there are also [[Macedonian diaspora|communities in a number of other countries]].

==History==
{{Main|History of the Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
{{See also|Macedonian historiography}}
The formation of the ethnic Macedonians as a separate community has been shaped by [[Refugees of the Greek Civil War|population displacement]]<ref>James Horncastle, The Macedonian Slavs in the Greek Civil War, 1944–1949; Rowman & Littlefield, 2019, {{ISBN|1498585051}}, p. 130.</ref> as well as by [[Slavic dialects of Greece#Ban for use, language shift and language death|language shift]],<ref>Stern, Dieter and Christian Voss (eds). 2006. "Towards the peculiarities of language shift in Northern Greece". In: “Marginal Linguistic Identities: Studies in Slavic Contact and Borderland Varieties.” Eurolinguistische Arbeiten. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag; {{ISBN|9783447053549}}, pp. 87–101.</ref>{{dubious|date=April 2020}} both the result of the political developments in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] during the 20th century. Following the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], the decisive point in the [[ethnogenesis]] of the South Slavic ethnic group was the creation of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after World War II, a state in the framework of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. This was followed by the development of a separate Macedonian language and national literature, and the foundation of a distinct [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] and national historiography.

===Ancient and Roman period===
In antiquity, much of central-northern Macedonia (the [[Vardar river|Vardar basin]]) was inhabited by [[Paionians]] who expanded from the lower Strymon basin. The Pelagonian plain was inhabited by the [[Pelagones]], an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] tribe of [[Upper Macedonia]]; whilst the western region (Ohrid-Prespa) was said to have been inhabited by [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[tribe]]s.<ref>A J Toynbee. ''Some Problems of Greek History'', Pp 80; 99–103</ref> During the late Classical Period, having already developed several sophisticated ''[[polis]]''-type settlements and a thriving economy based on mining,<ref>The Problem of the Discontinuity in Classical and Hellenistic Eastern Macedonia, Marjan Jovanonv. УДК 904:711.424(497.73)</ref> Paeonia became a constituent province of the [[Argead]] – [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian kingdom]].<ref>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011. Map 2</ref> In 310 BC, the [[Celts]] attacked deep into the south, subduing the Dardanians, Paeonians and [[Triballi]]. [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest brought with it a significant [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] of the region. During the Dominate period, 'barbarian' federates were settled on Macedonian soil at times; such as the Sarmatians settled by Constantine (330s AD)<ref>Peter Heather, Goths and Romans 332–489. p. 129</ref> or the (10 year) settlement of Alaric's Goths.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Macedonia in Late Antiquity'' p. 551. In A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011</ref> In contrast to 'frontier provinces', Macedonia (north and south) continued to be a flourishing Christian, Roman province in Late Antiquity and into the early Middle Ages.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | last1 = Curta | first1 = Florin | year = 2012 | title = Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia? | journal = Journal of History | volume = 47 | page = 73 }}</ref>

===Medieval period===
Linguistically, the South Slavic languages from which Macedonian developed are thought to have expanded in the region during the post-Roman period, although the exact mechanisms of this linguistic expansion remains a matter of scholarly discussion.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2004|p=148}}</ref> Traditional historiography has equated these changes with the commencement of raids and 'invasions' of [[Sclaveni]] and [[Antes (people)|Antes]] from [[Wallachia]] and western [[Ukraine]] during the 6th and 7th centuries.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|p=29}}</ref> However, recent anthropological and archaeological perspectives have viewed the appearance of [[Early Slavs|Slavs]] in Macedonia, and throughout the [[Balkans]] in general, as part of a broad and complex process of transformation of the cultural, political and ethno-linguistic Balkan landscape before the collapse of Roman authority. The exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined.<ref>T E Gregory, ''A History of Byzantium''. Wiley- Blackwell, 2010. p. 169</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation text|Curta|2001|pp=335–345}}</ref> What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to "barbarian" [[Bulgaria]], northern Macedonia remained [[Byzantine Greeks|Roman]] in its cultural outlook into the 7th century.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Yet at the same time, sources attest numerous [[Slavic tribes]] in the environs of [[Thessaloniki]] and further afield, including the [[Berziti]] in Pelagonia.<ref>Florin Curta. ''Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia?'' 2013</ref> Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, [[Kuver]]'s "Bulgars"<ref>The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Denis Sinor, Cambridge University Press, 1990,
{{ISBN|0521243041}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA215&dq=bulgars++kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=R2a5UtaVJ8LTywPEpoDYBg&ved=0CF0Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 215–216.]</ref> – a mix of [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Bulgars]] and [[Pannonian Avars]] – settled the "Keramissian plain" ([[Pelagonia]]) around [[Bitola]] in the late 7th century.{{efn|See:<ref>The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1991, {{ISBN|0472081497}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C&pg=PA72&dq=bulgars+macedonia+kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=zka5Uo2BMYX8ywOOjYGYDQ&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 72.]</ref><ref>''Во некрополата "Млака" пред тврдината во Дебреште, Прилеп, откопани се гробови со наоди од доцниот 7. и 8. век. Тие се делумно или целосно кремирани и не се ниту ромеjски, ниту словенски. Станува збор наjвероjатно, за Кутригурите. Ова протобугарско племе, под водство на Кубер, а како потчинето на аварскиот каган во Панониjа, околу 680 г. се одметнало од Аварите и тргнало кон Солун. Кубер ги повел со себе и Сермесиjаните, (околу 70.000 на број), во нивната стара татковина. Сермесиjаните биле Ромеи, жители на балканските провинции што Аварите ги заробиле еден век порано и ги населиле во Западна Панониjа, да работат за нив. На Кубер му била доверена управата врз нив.'' In English: In the necropolis 'Malaka' in the fortress of Debreshte, near Prilep, graves were dug with findings from the late 7th and early 8th century. They are partially or completely cremated and neither Roman nor Slavic. The graves are probably remains from the [[Kutrigurs]]. This Bulgar tribe was led by Kuber... Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) [http://www.kroraina.com/macedon/mik_3_2.html стр. 32–33.]</ref><ref>"The" Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans, East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450 – 1450, Florin Curta, Roman Kovalev, BRILL, 2008, {{ISBN|9004163891}}, p. 460.</ref><ref>W Pohl. ''The Avars (History)'' in Regna and Gentes. The Relationship Between Late Antique and Early Medieval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World. pp. 581, 587</ref>}} Later pockets of settlers included "Danubian" [[Bulgars]]<ref>''They spread from the original heartland in north-east Bulgaria to the Drina in the west, and to Macedonia in the south-west.; На целиот тој простор, во маса метални производи (делови од воената опрема, облека и накит), меѓу стандардните форми користени од словенското население, одвреме-навреме се појавуваат специфични предмети врзани за бугарско болјарство како носители на новата државна управа''. See: Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) стр. 35; 364–365.</ref><ref>Dejan Bulić, The Fortifications of the Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine Period on the Later Territory of the South-Slavic Principalities, and Their Re-occupation in [[Tibor Živković]] et al., The World of the Slavs: Studies of the East, West and South Slavs: Civitas, Oppidas, Villas and Archeological Evidence (7th to 11th Centuries AD) with Srđan Rudić as ed. Istorijski institut, 2013, Belgrade; {{ISBN|8677431047}}, pp. 186–187.</ref> in the 9th century; [[Vardariotai|Magyars (Vardariotai)]]<ref>Florin Curta. 'The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, C. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages. pp. 259, 281</ref> and [[Armenians]] in the 10th–12th centuries,<ref>Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire edited by Hélène Ahrweiler, Angeliki E. Laiou. p. 58. Many were apparently based in Bitola, Stumnitsa and Moglena</ref> [[Cumans]] and [[Pechenegs]] in the 11th–13th centuries,<ref>Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Istvan Varsary. p. 67</ref> and [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxon miners]] in the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxKBMhz3e7AC&q=saxon+miners+macedonia&pg=PA89|title=Balkan Worlds|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780765638519|last1=Stoianovich|first1=Traian|date=September 1994}}</ref>

Having previously been Byzantine clients, the ''Sklaviniae'' of Macedonia probably switched their allegiance to [[Bulgaria]] during the reign of [[Irene of Athens|Empress Irene]],<ref>J V A Fine. The Early Medieval Balkans. Pp 110–11</ref>{{why|date=June 2019}} and was gradually incorporated into the [[Bulgarian Empire]] before the mid-9th century. Subsequently, the literary and ecclesiastical centres in [[Ohrid]], not only became a second cultural capital of medieval Bulgaria, but soon eclipsed those in [[Preslav]].<ref>Alexander Schenker. ''The Dawn of Slavic''. pp. 188–190. Schenker argues that Ohrid was 'innovative' and 'native Slavic' whilst Preslav very much relied on Greek modelling</ref>{{dubious|date=December 2013}} On the other hand cultural, ecclesiastical and political developments of Slavic Orthodox Culture occurred in Byzantine Macedonia.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|pp=113, 196}} ''Two brothers ... Constantine and Methodius ..were fluent in the dialect of Slavic in the environs of Thessaloniki. They devised an alphabet to convey Slavic phonetics | He [Samuel] restored the Bulgarian Orthodox patriarchate.. in Ohrid''</ref><ref>Francis Dvornik. ''The Slavs'' p. 167</ref><ref>Ostrogorsky, ''History of the Byzantine State'' p. 310</ref>

=== Ottoman period ===
[[File:Georgi Pulevski.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Georgi Pulevski]] is the first known person, who in the middle of 1870s insisted on the existence of a separate (Slavic) Macedonian language and ethnicity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Alexander Vezenkov as ed., Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Three: Shared Pasts, Disputed Legacies; Balkan Studies Library, BRILL, 2015; {{ISBN|9004290362}}, p. 454.</ref>]]
After the final Ottoman conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans in the 14/15th century, all Eastern Orthodox Christians were included in a specific ethno-religious community under ''Graeco-Byzantine'' jurisdiction called [[Rum Millet]]. The belonging to this religious commonwealth was so important that most of the common people began to identify themselves as ''Christians''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&q=millet++bulgarian+identity+detrez&pg=PA47|title=Europe and the Historical Legacies in the Balkans|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9789052013749|last1=Detrez|first1=Raymond|last2=Segaert|first2=Barbara|year=2008}}</ref> However ethnonyms never disappeared and some form of primary ethnic identity was available.<ref>Balkan cultural commonality and ethnic diversity. Raymond Detrez (Ghent University, Belgium).</ref> This is confirmed from a Sultan's [[Firman]] from 1680 which describes the ethnic groups in the Balkan territories of the Empire as follows: Greeks, Albanians, Serbs, Vlachs and Bulgarians.<ref>История на българите. Късно средновековие и Възраждане, том 2, Георги Бакалов, TRUD Publishers, 2004, {{ISBN|9545284676}}, стр. 23. (Bg.)</ref> The [[rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]] in the early 19th century brought opposition to this continued situation. At that time the classical Rum Millet began to degrade. The coordinated actions, carried out by Bulgarian national leaders supported by the majority of the Slavic-speaking population in today Republic of North Macedonia in order to be recognized as a separate ethnic entity, constituted the so-called "[[Bulgarian Millet]]", recognized in 1870.<ref>The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire, Selcuk Aksin Somel, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|1461731763}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC&pg=PA168&dq=bulgarian+millet+macedonia&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=uv6dUpOrG6rMygOXlYGYCA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 168.]</ref> At the time of its creation, people living in Vardar Macedonia, were not in the Exarchate. However, as a result of plebiscites held between 1872 and 1875, the Slavic districts in the area voted overwhelmingly (over 2/3) to go over to the new national Church.<ref>The Politics of Terror: The MacEdonian Liberation Movements, 1893–1903, Duncan M. Perry, Duke University Press, 1988, {{ISBN|0822308134}}, p. 15.</ref> Referring to the results of the plebiscites, and on the basis of statistical and ethnological indications, the [[1876 Conference of Constantinople]] included most of Macedonia into the Bulgarian ethnic territory.<ref>The A to Z of Bulgaria, Raymond Detrez, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|0810872021}}, p. 271.</ref> The borders of new Bulgarian state, drawn by the 1878 [[Treaty of San Stefano]], also included Macedonia, but the treaty was never put into effect and the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)]] "returned" Macedonia to the Ottoman Empire.

== Genetics ==
Anthropologically, Macedonians possess genetic lineages postulated to represent Balkan prehistoric and historic [[South Slavs#Genetics|demographic processes]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Peričić | first1 = Marijana | display-authors = etal | title = High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 22 | issue = 10| pages = 1964–1975 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msi185 | pmid = 15944443 | date = October 2005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Such lineages are also typically found in other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]], [[Serbs]], [[Bosniaks]] and [[Montenegrins]], but also in [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Romanians]].{{efn|See:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973(11)00079-2/fulltext|title=Genetic data for 17 Y-chromosomal STR loci in Macedonians in the Republic of Macedonia|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=5|issue=4|pages=e108–e111|access-date=18 March 2015|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2011.04.005|pmid=21549657|year=2011|last1=Jakovski|first1=Zlatko|last2=Nikolova|first2=Ksenija|last3=Jankova-Ajanovska|first3=Renata|last4=Marjanovic|first4=Damir|last5=Pojskic|first5=Naris|last6=Janeska|first6=Biljana}}</ref><ref name="pmid15361127">{{cite journal |vauthors=Petlichkovski A, Efinska-Mladenovska O, Trajkov D, Arsov T, Strezova A, Spiroski M |title=High-resolution typing of HLA-DRB1 locus in the Macedonian population |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=486–91 |year=2004 |pmid=15361127 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2004.00273.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=''European Journal of Human Genetics'' – Y chromosomal heritage of Croatian population and its island isolates. | volume=11 |issue=7 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200992 |pmid=12825075 |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |pages=535–542|year=2003 |last1=Barać |first1=Lovorka |last2=Peričić |first2=Marijana |last3=Klarić |first3=Irena Martinović |last4=Rootsi |first4=Siiri |last5=Janićijević |first5=Branka |last6=Kivisild |first6=Toomas |last7=Parik |first7=Jüri |last8=Rudan |first8=Igor |last9=Villems |first9=Richard |last10=Rudan |first10=Pavao |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Semino |first1=Ornella |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |title=The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic ''Homo sapiens sapiens'' in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective |journal=Science |volume=290 |pages=1155–59 |year=2000 |pmid=11073453 |doi=10.1126/science.290.5494.1155 |last2=Passarino |first2=G |last3=Oefner |first3=PJ |last4=Lin |first4=AA |last5=Arbuzova |first5=S |last6=Beckman |first6=LE |last7=De Benedictis |first7=G |last8=Francalacci |first8=P |last9=Kouvatsi |first9=A |display-authors=8 |issue=5494 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031125151213/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2003 |df=dmy |bibcode=2000Sci...290.1155S }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mksg/tan/2000/00000055/00000001/art00009;jsessionid=t6k1ukjgmoic.alexandra|title=HLA-DRB and -DQB1 polymorphism in the Macedonian population|access-date=18 March 2015|date=January 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rebala | first1 = K | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 52 | issue = 5| pages = 406–14 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6 | pmid = 17364156 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name ="balto-slavic">{{cite journal | last1 = Kushniarevich | first1 = Alena | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = Genetic heritage of the Balto-Slavic speaking populations: a synthesis of autosomal, mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal data | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 9| page = e0135820 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 | pmid = 26332464 | pmc = 4558026 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name = "GenesGeo">{{cite journal|last1=Novembre|first1=John|display-authors=etal|title=Genes mirror geography within Europe|journal=Nature|date=2008|volume=456|issue=7218|pages=98–101|doi=10.1038/nature07331|pmid=18758442|pmc=2735096|bibcode=2008Natur.456...98N}}</ref>}}

Y-DNA studies suggest that Macedonians along with neighboring South Slavs are distinct from other [[Slavs|Slavic-speaking]] populations in Europe and a majority of their [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups]] are likely to be inherited from inhabitants of the Balkans that predated sixth-century Slavic migrations.<ref name="Rębała 406–414">{{Cite journal|last1=Rębała|first1=Krzysztof|last2=Mikulich|first2=Alexei I.|last3=Tsybovsky|first3=Iosif S.|last4=Siváková|first4=Daniela|last5=Džupinková|first5=Zuzana|last6=Szczerkowska-Dobosz|first6=Aneta|last7=Szczerkowska|first7=Zofia|date=2007-03-16|title=Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|volume=52|issue=5|pages=406–414|doi=10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6|pmid=17364156|issn=1434-5161|doi-access=free}}</ref> A diverse set of Y-DNA haplogroups are found in Macedonians at significant levels, including I2a1b, E-V13, J2a, R1a1, R1b, G2a, encoding a complex pattern of demographic processes.<ref>Renata Jankova et al., Y-chromosome diversity of the three major ethno-linguistic groups in the Republic of North Macedonia; Forensic Science International: Genetics; Volume 42, September 2019, Pages 165–170.</ref> Similar distributions of the same haplogroups are found in neighboring populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna">Trombetta B. "Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent" http://gbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/7/1940.long</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Spiroski | first1 = Mirko | last2 = Arsov | first2 = Todor | last3 = Krüger | first3 = Carmen | last4 = Willuweit | first4 = Sascha | last5 = Roewer | first5 = Lutz | year = 2005 | title = Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes in Macedonian population samples | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 148 | issue = 1| pages = 69–74 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.04.067 | pmid = 15607593 }}</ref> R1a1 and I2a1b are typically found in Slavic-speaking populations across Europe<ref>[[Anatole Klyosov]], DNA Genealogy; [[Scientific Research Publishing]], Inc. USA, 2018; {{ISBN|1618966197}}, p. 211.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underhill | first1 = Peter A. | last2 = Poznik | first2 = G. David | last3 = Rootsi | first3 = Siiri | last4 = Järve | first4 = Mari | last5 = Lin | first5 = Alice A. | last6 = Wang | first6 = Jianbin | last7 = Passarelli | first7 = Ben | display-authors = etal | year = 2015| title = The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 124–31 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid = 24667786 | pmc = 4266736 }} (Supplementary Table 4)</ref> while haplogroups such as E-V13 and J2 occur at high frequencies in neighboring non-Slavic populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna"/> On the other hand R1b is the most frequently occurring haplogroup in [[Western Europe]] and G2a is most frequently found in [[Caucasus]] and the adjacent areas. Genetic similarity, irrespective of language and ethnicity, has a strong correspondence to geographic proximity in European populations.<ref name = "balto-slavic"/><ref name = "GenesGeo"/><ref>{{Citation |vauthors=Lao O, Lu TT, Nothnagel M, etal |title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=18 |issue=16 |pages=1241–8 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18691889 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049 |s2cid=16945780 }}</ref>

In regard to population genetics, not all regions of Southeastern Europe had the same ratio of native Byzantine and invading Slavic population, with the territory of the [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern Balkans]] ([[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Thrace]] and [[Moesia]]) having a higher percentages of locals compared to Slavs. Considering the majority of the Balkan Slavs came via the Eastern Carpathian route, lower percentage on east does not imply that the number of the Slavs there was lesser than among the [[Western South Slavic|Western South Slavs]]. Most probably on the territory of Western South Slavs was a state of desolation which produced there a [[founder effect]].<ref>Florin Curta's An ironic smile: the Carpathian Mountains and the migration of the Slavs, Studia mediaevalia Europaea et orientalia. Miscellanea in honorem professoris emeriti Victor Spinei oblata, edited by George Bilavschi and Dan Aparaschivei, 47–72. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Române, 2018.</ref><ref>A. Zupan et al. The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations; Annals of Human Biology 40 (6) July 2013.</ref> The region of Macedonia suffered less disruption than frontier provinces closer to the Danube, with towns and forts close to [[Ohrid]], [[Bitola]] and along the [[Via Egnatia]]. Re-settlements and the cultural links of the Byzantine Era further shaped the demographic processes which the Macedonian ancestry is linked to.<ref>Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages: 500-1250. Florin Curta, 2006 https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Southeastern_Europe_in_the_Middle_Ages_5/YIAYMNOOe0YC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=southeastern+europe,+curta&printsec=frontcover</ref>

==Identities==
{{See also|Macedonian Question|Macedonian nationalism|Macedonians (Bulgarians)|Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia}}

The large majority of Macedonians identify as [[Eastern Orthodox Christians]], who speak a [[South Slavic language]], and share a cultural and historical "Orthodox Byzantine–Slavic heritage" with their neighbours. The concept of a "Macedonian" ethnicity, distinct from their Orthodox Balkan neighbours, is seen to be a comparatively newly emergent one.{{efn|See:<ref>[[Krste Misirkov]], ''On the Macedonian Matters'' (''Za Makedonckite Raboti''), Sofia, 1903: "And, anyway, what sort of new Macedonian nation can this be when we and our fathers and grandfathers and great-grandfathers have always been called Bulgarians?"</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Sperling | first1 = James | last2 = Kay | first2 = Sean | last3 = Papacosma | first3 = S. Victor | title = Limiting institutions?: the challenge of Eurasian security governance | year = 2003 | publisher=Manchester University Press | location = Manchester, UK | isbn = 978-0-7190-6605-4 | pages = 57 |quote=Macedonian nationalism Is a new phenomenon. In the early twentieth century, there was no separate Slavic Macedonian identity }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Titchener | first1 = Frances B. | last2 = Moorton | first2 = Richard F. | title = The eye expanded: life and the arts in Greco-Roman antiquity | year = 1999 | publisher=University of California Press | location = Berkeley | isbn = 978-0-520-21029-5 | pages = 259|quote=On the other hand, the Macedonians are a newly emergent people in search of a past to help legitimize their precarious present as they attempt to establish their singular identity in a Slavic world dominated historically by Serbs and Bulgarians. ... The twentieth-century development of a Macedonian ethnicity, and its recent evolution into independent statehood following the collapse of the Yugoslav state in 1991, has followed a rocky road. In order to survive the vicissitudes of Balkan history and politics, the Macedonians, who have had no history, need one.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Kaufman | first1 = Stuart J. | title = Modern hatreds: the symbolic politics of ethnic war | year = 2001 | publisher=Cornell University Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-8014-8736-6 | pages = 193|quote=The key fact about Macedonian nationalism is that it is new: in the early twentieth century, Macedonian villagers defined their identity religiously—they were either "Bulgarian," "Serbian," or "Greek" depending on the affiliation of the village priest. ... According to the new Macedonian mythology, modern Macedonians are the direct descendants of Alexander the Great's subjects. They trace their cultural identity to the ninth-century Saints Cyril and Methodius, who converted the Slavs to Christianity and invented the first Slavic alphabet, and whose disciples maintained a centre of Christian learning in western Macedonia. A more modern national hero is Gotse Delchev, leader of the turn-of-the-century Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), which was actually a largely pro-Bulgarian organization but is claimed as the founding Macedonian national movement.}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Press_quote">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278|quote= Despite the recent development of Macedonian identity, as Loring Danforth notes, it is no more or less artificial than any other identity. It merely has a more recent ethnogenesis – one that can therefore more easily be traced through the recent historical record.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Zielonka | first1 = Jan | last2 = Pravda | first2 = Alex | title = Democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe | year = 2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-924409-6 | pages = 422|quote=Unlike the Slovene and Croatian identities, which existed independently for a long period before the emergence of SFRY Macedonian identity and language were themselves a product federal Yugoslavia, and took shape only after 1944. Again unlike Slovenia and Croatia, the very existence of a separate Macedonian identity was questioned—albeit to a different degree—by both the governments and the public of all the neighboring nations (Greece being the most intransigent)}}</ref>}} The earliest manifestations of incipient Macedonian identity emerged during the second half of the 19th century<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129231959/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 January 2019|quote=Macedonian nationalism did not arise until the end of the last century.|date=14 May 1995|work=The New York Times|last=Bonner|title=The World; The Land That Can't Be Named|first=Raymond|access-date=29 January 2019|location=New York|author-link=Raymond Bonner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=They were also insisting that the Macedonians sacrifice their national name, under which, as we have seen throughout this work, their national identity and their nation formed in the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=269|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=Under very trying circumstances, most ethnic Macedonians chose a Macedonian identity. That identity began to form with the Slav awakening in Macedonia in the first half of the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=284|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|date=2008|author-link=Andrew Rossos|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> among limited circles of Slavic-speaking intellectuals, predominantly outside the region of Macedonia. They arose after the [[First World War]] and especially during 1930s, and thus were consolidated by Communist Yugoslavia's governmental policy after the [[Second World War]].{{efn|See:<ref>Loring M. Danforth, ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', 1995, Princeton University Press, p.65, {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}</ref><ref>Stephen Palmer, Robert King, ''Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian question'', Hamden, Connecticut Archon Books, 1971, p.p.199-200</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOPUnWM8RAYC&q=The+Macedonian+Question,+Britain+and+the+Southern+Balkans+1939-1949&pg=PP13|title=The Macedonian Question : Britain and the Southern Balkans 1939–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780191528729|last1=Livanios|first1=Dimitris|date=17 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="Woodhouse">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYAwZFwyYdwC&q=Chris+Woodhouse+Struggle+for+Greece+1941-1949&pg=PR25|title=The Struggle for Greece, 1941–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850654926|last1=Woodhouse|first1=Christopher M.|year=2002}}</ref><ref name="macedonians">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_NbmSoRsRcC&q=who+are+the+macedonians&pg=PP1|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850652380|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=1995}}</ref>}}

===Historical overview===
Throughout the Middle Ages and Ottoman rule up until the early 20th century<ref name="Woodhouse"/><ref name="macedonians"/><ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF Center for Documentation and Information on Minorities in Europe, Southeast Europe (CEDIME-SE) – "Macedonians of Bulgaria", p. 14.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF |date=23 July 2006 }}</ref> the Slavic-speaking population majority in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] were more commonly referred to (both by themselves and outsiders) as [[Bulgarians]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbuavUZKEwC&q=Who+are+the+Macedonians|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850655343|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/im3/im_6_1.htm|title=Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија, Иван Микулчиќ, Македонска академија на науките и уметностите – Скопје, 1996, стр. 72.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/da/da_summary.htm|title=Formation of the Bulgarian nation (summary) |author=Academician Dimitŭr Simeonov Angelov |publisher=Sofia-Press |year=1978 |pages=413–415 |access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> However, in pre-nationalist times, terms such as "Bulgarian" did not possess a strict ethno-nationalistic meaning, rather, they were loose, often interchangeable terms which could simultaneously denote regional habitation, allegiance to a particular empire, religious orientation, membership in certain social groups.{{efn|See:<ref>When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans. J V A Fine. pp. 3–5.</ref><ref>Relexification Hypothesis in Rumanian. Paul Wexler. p. 170</ref><ref>Cumans and Tartars: Oriental military in the pre-Ottoman Balkans. Istvan Vasary. p. 18</ref><ref>Byzantium's Balkan Frontier. Paul Stephenson. p. 78–79</ref>}} Similarly, a "Byzantine" was a ''Roman'' subject of Constantinople, and the term bore no strict ethnic connotations, Greek or otherwise.<ref>The Edinburgh History of the Greeks; 500–1250: The Middle Ages. Florin Curta. 2013. p. 294 (echoing Anthony D Smith and Anthony Kaldellis) "no clear notion exists that the Greek nation survived into Byzantine times...the ethnic identity of those who lived in Greece during the Middle Ages is best described as Roman."</ref> Overall, in the Middle Ages, "a person's origin was distinctly regional",<ref>Mats Roslund. ''Guests in the House: Cultural Transmission Between Slavs and Scandinavians''; 2008. p. 79</ref> and in [[Ottoman era]], before the 19th-century [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]], it was based on the corresponding [[Millet system|confessional community]]. After the rise of nationalism, most of the Slavic-speaking population in the area, joined the [[Bulgarian Millet|Bulgarian community]], through voting in its favor on a plebiscites held during the 1870s, by a qualified majority (over two-thirds).

===19th-century emergence===
With the creation of the [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgarian Principality]] in 1878, the Macedonian upper stratum had to decide whether Macedonia was to emerge as an independent state or as part of a "[[Greater Bulgaria]]".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzci446GLakC&q=Chary,+macedonia+jews+novoosvobodeni&pg=PA45|title=The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution, 1940–1944|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780822976011|last1=Chary|first1=Frederick B.|date=15 November 1972}}</ref> During this period, the first expressions of [[Macedonian nationalism#Macedonism|Macedonism]] by certain Macedonian intellectuals occurred in [[Belgrade]], [[Sofia]], [[Istanbul]], [[Thessaloniki]] and [[St. Petersburg]]. In the 1860s, according to [[Petko Slaveykov]], some young intellectuals from Macedonia were claiming that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians.<ref>[[s:en:Translation:The Macedonian question|The Macedonian Question]] an article from 1871 by [[Petko Slaveykov]] published in the newspaper Macedonia in Carigrad (now [[Istanbul]]). In this article Petko Slaveykov writes: "We have many times heard from the Macedonists that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians."</ref> In a letter written to the Bulgarian Exarch in February 1874 [[Petko Slaveykov]] reports that discontent with the current situation “has given birth among local patriots to the disastrous idea of working independently on the advancement of their [[Macedonian dialects|own local dialect]] and what’s more, of their own, separate Macedonian church leadership.”<ref>[[s:en:Translation:A letter from P.R. Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch|A letter from Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch]] written in [[Thessaloniki|Solun]] in February 1874</ref> The activities of these people were also registered by [[Stojan Novaković]].<ref>Балканска питања и мање историјско-политичке белешке о Балканском полуострву 1886–1905. Стојан Новаковић, Београд, 1906.</ref> The nascent Macedonian nationalism, illegal at home in the theocratic Ottoman Empire, and illegitimate internationally, waged a precarious struggle for survival against overwhelming odds: in appearance against the Ottoman Empire, but in fact against the three expansionist Balkan states and their respective patrons among the great powers.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref>

The first known author that propagated the concept of a Macedonian ethnicity was [[Georgi Pulevski]], who in 1875 published ''Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish'', in which he wrote:
{{cquote|What do we call a nation? – People who are of the same origin and who speak the same words and who live and make friends of each other, who have the same customs and songs and entertainment are what we call a nation, and the place where that people lives is called the people's country. Thus the Macedonians also are a nation and the place which is theirs is called Macedonia.<ref>Rečnik od tri jezika: s. makedonski, arbanski i turski [Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish], U državnoj štampariji, 1875, p. 48f.</ref>}}

On the other hand, [[Theodosius of Skopje]], a priest who have hold a high-ranking positions within the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] was chosen as a bishop of the [[episcopacy]] of [[Skopje]] in 1885. As a bishop of Skopje, Theodosius renounced de facto the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] and attempted to restore the [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] as a separate Macedonian Orthodox Church in all eparchies of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]],<ref>Theodosius of Skopje Centralen D'rzhaven istoricheski archiv (Sofia) 176, op. 1. arh.ed. 595, l.5–42 – Razgledi, X/8 (1968), pp. 996–1000.</ref> responsible for the spiritual, cultural and educational life of all Macedonian Orthodox Christians.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> During this time period Metropolitan Bishop [[Theodosius of Skopje]] made several pleas to the Bulgarian church to allow a separate Macedonian church, and ultimately on 4 December 1891 he sent a [[s:Translation:Theodosius, the metropolitan of Skopje, to Pope Leo XIII|letter]] to the Pope Leo XIII to ask for a [[s:Translation:The conditions of transfer of Macedonian eparchies to Union with the Roman Catholic Church|recognition]] and a [[s:Translation:Bishop Augusto Bonetti on the talks with Theodosius, the Metropolitan of Skopje|protection]] from the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1892 the local [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] parish school council in the city of [[Kastoria]] (then Kostur) adopted the proposal of a group of teachers "to eliminate both [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] and introduce [[Kostur dialect|local dialect]]<ref>Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistic Variation and Change; University Press, 2002; {{ISBN|0748615156}}, p. 132.</ref> as the language of instruction in the town school," but the idea failed the same year.<ref name="books.google.com">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC&pg=PA575 ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''], Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, p. 545</ref><ref>Friedman, Victor A. “The First Philological Conference for the Macedonian" in The Earliest Stage of Language Planning: "The First Congress" Phenomenon with Joshua A. Fishman as ed. Walter de Gruyter, 2011, {{ISBN|3110848988}}, p. 162.</ref>

In 1903 [[Krste Misirkov|Krste Petkov Misirkov]] published his book ''[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters|On Macedonian Matters]]'' in which he laid down the principles of the modern Macedonian nationhood and language.<ref name=misirkov>{{cite web|url=http://www.misirkov.org/ |title=上位表示されないので休止しました |access-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220160042/http://www.misirkov.org/ |archive-date=20 December 2014 }}</ref> This [[s:mk:За македонцките работи|book]] written in the standardized [[Dialects of Macedonian|central dialect of Macedonia]] is considered by ethnic Macedonians as a milestone of the ethnic Macedonian identity and the apogee of the process of Macedonian awakening.<ref name="books.google.com"/> In his article "[[s:mk:Крсте Петков Мисирков/ Македонски национализам|Macedonian Nationalism]]" he wrote:

{{cquote|I hope it will not be held against me that I, as a Macedonian, place the interests of my country before all... I am a Macedonian, I have a Macedonian's consciousness, and so I have my own Macedonian view of the past, present, and future of my country and of all the South Slavs; and so I should like them to consult us, the Macedonians, about all the questions concerning us and our neighbours, and not have everything end merely with agreements between Bulgaria and Serbia about us – but without us.}}

Misirkov argued that the dialect of central Macedonia (Veles-Prilep-Bitola-Ohrid)<ref>[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters#A few words on the Macedonian literary language|On Macedonian Matters – A few works on the Macedonian literary language]]</ref> should be taken as a standard Macedonian literary language, in which Macedonians should write, study, and worship; the autocephalous [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] should be restored; and the Slavic people of Macedonia should be identified in their Ottoman identity cards (''[[nofuz]]'') as "Macedonians".<ref name=misirkov/>

The next great figure of the Macedonian awakening was [[Dimitrija Čupovski]], one of the founders of the [[Macedonian Literary Society]], established in [[Saint Petersburg]] in 1902. In the period 1913–1918, Čupovski published the newspaper ''Македонскi Голосъ (Macedonian Voice)'' in which he and fellow members of the Petersburg Macedonian Colony propagated the existence of a Macedonian people separate from the Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs, and sought to popularize the idea for an independent Macedonian state.

===20th-century development===
After the [[Balkan Wars]], following division of the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] amongst the [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Kingdom of Greece]], the [[Kingdom of Bulgaria]] and the [[Kingdom of Serbia]], and after World War I, the idea of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation was further spread among the Slavic-speaking population. The suffering during the wars, the endless struggle of the Balkan monarchies for dominance over the population increased the Macedonians' sentiment that the institutionalization of an independent Macedonian nation would put an end to their suffering. On the question of whether they were Serbs or Bulgarians, the people more often started answering: "Neither Bulgar, nor Serb... I am Macedonian only, and I'm sick of war."<ref>Историја на македонската нација. Блаже Ристовски, 1999, Скопје.</ref><ref>"On the Monastir Road". Herbert Corey, ''National Geographic'', May 1917 ([http://www.promacedonia.org/gall/ng1917/217E0388.JPG p. 388.])</ref>

[[Stratis Myrivilis]], an important Greek writer, in his ''Life in the Tomb'', from his experiences as a soldier in the [[Macedonian front]] (1916–18), described also the self-identitification of the local population: "...They don't want to be called Bulgar, neither Srrp, neither Grrts. Only Macedon Orthodox...."<ref>Life in the Tomb, Η ζωή εν τάφω, first edition, 1924</ref>

The consolidation of an international Communist organization (the [[Comintern]]) in the 1920s led to some failed attempts by the Communists to use the [[Macedonian Question]] as a political weapon. In the 1920 Yugoslav parliamentary elections, 25% of the total Communist vote came from Macedonia, but participation was low (only 55%), mainly because the pro-Bulgarian IMRO organised a boycott against the elections. In the following years, the communists attempted to enlist the pro-IMRO sympathies of the population in their cause. In the context of this attempt, in 1924 the Comintern organized the filed signing of the so-called [[May Manifesto]], in which independence of partitioned Macedonia was required.<ref>Victor Roudometof, ''Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans (Contributions to the Study of World History)'', Praeger, 2001, p.187</ref> In 1925 with the help of the Comintern, the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (United)]] was created, composed of former left-wing [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (IMRO) members. This organization promoted in the early 1930s the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian nation.<ref>The Situation in Macedonia and the Tasks of IMRO (United) – published in the official newspaper of IMRO (United), "Македонско дело", N.185, April 1934.</ref> This idea was internationalized and backed by the Comintern which issued in 1934 a [[Resolution of the Comintern on the Macedonian Question|resolution supporting the development of the entity]].<ref>Резолюция о македонской нации (принятой Балканском секретариате Коминтерна — Февраль 1934 г, Москва.</ref> This action was attacked by the IMRO, but was supported by the [[Balkan]] communists. The Balkan communist parties supported the national consolidation of the ethnic Macedonian people and created Macedonian sections within the parties, headed by prominent IMRO (United) members. The sense of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation gained credence during World War II when ethnic Macedonian communist partisan detachments were formed. In 1943 the Communist Party of Macedonia was established and the resistance movement grew up. After the World War II ethnic Macedonian institutions were created in the three parts of the region of Macedonia, then under communist control,<ref name="Barbara Jelavich">History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century. Barbara Jelavich, 1983.</ref> including the establishment of the [[People's Republic of Macedonia]] within the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (SFRJ).

The available data indicates that despite the policy of assimilation, pro-Bulgarian sentiments among the Macedonian Slavs in Yugoslavia were still sizable during the interwar period. However if the Yugoslavs would recognize the Slavic inhabitants of Vardar Macedonia as Bulgarians, it would mean that the area should be part of Bulgaria. Practically in [[post-World War II]] Macedonia, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's state policy of forced [[Serbianisation]] was changed with a new one — of [[Macedonization]]. The codification of the Macedonian language and the recognition of the Macedonian nation had the main goal: finally to ban any [[Bulgarophilia]] among the Macedonians and to build a new consciousness, based on identification with Yugoslavia. As result Yugoslavia introduced again an abrupt ''de-Bulgarization'' of the people in the [[PR Macedonia]], such as it already had conducted in the [[Vardar Banovina]] during the [[Interwar period]]. Around 100,000 pro-Bulgarian elements were imprisoned for violations of the special ''[[Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honour]]'', and over 1,200 were allegedly killed. In this way generations of students grew up educated in strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment which during the times of [[Communist Yugoslavia]], increased to the level of [[state policy]]. Its main agenda was a result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarians and the new Macedonian nation, because Macedonians could confirm themselves as a separate community with its own history, only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. This policy has continued in the new Republic of Macedonia after 1990, although with less intensity. Thus, the Bulgarian part of the identity of the Slavic-speaking population in Vardar Macedonia has died out.{{efn|See:<ref>"Within Greece, and also within the new kingdom of Yugoslavia, which Serbia had joined in 1918, the ejection of the Bulgarian church, the closure of Bulgarian schools, and the banning of publication in Bulgarian, together with the expulsion or flight to Bulgaria of a large proportion of the Macedonian Slav intelligentsia, served as the prelude to campaigns of forcible cultural and linguistic assimilation...In both countries, these policies of de-bulgarization and assimilation were pursued, with fluctuating degrees of vigor, right through to 1941, when the Second World War engulfed the Balkan peninsula. The degree of these policies' success, however, remains open to question. The available evidence suggests that Bulgarian national sentiment among the Macedonian Slavs of Yugoslavia and Greece remained strong throughout the interwar period, though they lacked the means to offer more than passive resistance to official policies." For more see: F. A. K. Yasamee, Nationality in the Balkans: The case of the Macedonians. Balkans: A Mirror of the New World Order, Istanbul: Eren Publishing, 1995; pp. 121–132.</ref><ref>"As in Kosovo, the restoration of Serbian rule in 1918, to which the Strumica district and several other Bulgarian frontier salients accrued in 1919 (Bulgaria also having lost all its Aegean coastline to Greece), marked the replay of the first Serbian occupation (1913–1915). Once again, the Exarchist clergy and Bulgarian teachers were expelled, all Bulgarian-language signs and books removed, and all Bulgarian clubs, societies, and organizations dissolved, The Serbianization of family surnames proceeded as before the war, with Stankov becoming Stankovic and Atanasov entered in the books by Atanackovic... Thousands of Macedonians left for Bulgaria. Though there were fewer killings of "Bulgarians" (a pro-Bulgarian source claimed 342 such instances and 47 additional disappearances in 1918 – 1924), the conventional forms of repression (jailings, internments etc.) were applied more systematically and with greater effect than before (the same source lists 2,900 political arrests in the same period)... Like Kosovo, Macedonia was slated for Serb settlements and internal colonization. The authorities projected the settlement of 50,000 families in Macedonia, though only 4,200 families had been placed in 280 colonies by 1940." For more see: Ivo Banac, "The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics" The Macedoine, Cornell University Press, 1984; {{ISBN|0801416752}}, pp. 307–328.</ref><ref>Yugoslav Communists recognized the existence of a Macedonian nationality during WWII to quiet fears of the Macedonian population that a communist Yugoslavia would continue to follow the former Yugoslav policy of forced Serbianization. Hence, for them to recognize the inhabitants of Macedonia as Bulgarians would be tantamount to admitting that they should be part of the Bulgarian state. For that the Yugoslav Communists were most anxious to mold Macedonian history to fit their conception of Macedonian consciousness. The treatment of Macedonian history in Communist Yugoslavia had the same primary goal as the creation of the Macedonian language: to de-Bulgarize the Macedonian Slavs, and to create an national consciousness that would inspire identification with Yugoslavia. For more see: Stephen E. Palmer, Robert R. King, Yugoslav communism and the Macedonian question, Archon Books, 1971, {{ISBN|0208008217}}, Chapter 9: The encouragement of Macedonian culture.</ref><ref>The Serbianization of the Vardar region ended and Yugoslavization was not introduced either; rather, a policy of cultural, linguistic, and “historical” Macedonization by de-Bulgarianization was implemented, with immediate success. For more see: Irina Livezeanu and Arpad von KlimoThe Routledge as ed. History of East Central Europe since 1700, Routledge, 2017, {{ISBN|1351863428}}, p. 490.</ref><ref>In Macedonia, post-WWII generations grew up "overdosed" with strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment, leading to the creation of mainly negative stereotypes for Bulgaria and its nation. The anti-Bulgariansim (or Bulgarophobia) increased almost to the level of state ideology during the ideological monopoly of the League of Communists of Macedonia, and still continues to do so today, although with less ferocity... However, it is more important to say openly that a great deal of these anti-Bulgarian sentiments result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarian and the Macedonian nations. Macedonia could confirm itself as a state with its own past, present and future only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. For more see: Mirjana Maleska. With the eyes of the "other" (about Macedonian-Bulgarian relations and the Macedonian national identity). In New Balkan Politics, Issue 6, pp. 9–11. Peace and Democracy Center: "Ian Collins", Skopje, Macedonia, 2003. ISSN 1409-9454.</ref><ref>After WWII in Macedonia the past was systematically falsified to conceal the fact that many prominent ‘Macedonians’ had supposed themselves to be Bulgarians, and generations of students were taught the pseudo-history of the Macedonian nation. The mass media and education were the key to this process of national acculturation, speaking to people in a language that they came to regard as their Macedonian mother tongue, even if it was perfectly understood in Sofia. For more see: Michael L. Benson, Yugoslavia: A Concise History, Edition 2, Springer, 2003, {{ISBN|1403997209}}, p. 89.</ref><ref>Once specifically Macedonian interests came to the fore under the Yugoslav communist umbrella and in direct confrontation with the Bulgarian occupation authorities (during WWII), the Bulgarian part of the identity of Vardar Macedonians was destined to die out – in a process similar to the triumph of Austrian over German-Austrian identity in post-war years. Drezov K. (1999) Macedonian identity: an overview of the major claims. In: Pettifer J. (eds) The New Macedonian Question. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London; {{ISBN|978-0-333-92066-4}}, p. 51.</ref><ref>Additionally, some 100,000 people were imprisoned in the post-1944 period for violations of the law for the "protection of Macedonian national honor," and some 1,260 Bulgarian sympathizers were allegedly killed. (Troebst, 1997: 248–50, 255–57; 1994: 116–22; Poulton, 2000: 118–19). For more see: Roudometof, Victor, Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question, Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}, p. 104.</ref>}}

===21st-century uncertainty===
Following the collapse of Yugoslavia, the issue of Macedonian identity emerged again. Nationalists and governments alike from neighbouring countries (especially Greece and Bulgaria) espouse the view that the Macedonian ethnicity is a modern, artificial creation. Such views have been seen by Macedonian historians to represent irredentist motives on Macedonian territory.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Moreover, some historians point out that ''all'' modern nations are recent, politically motivated constructs based on creation "myths".<ref>Smith A.D. ''The Antiquity of Nations''. 2004, p. 47</ref> The creation of Macedonian identity is "no more or less artificial than any other identity".<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278}}</ref> Contrary to the claims of Romantic nationalists, modern, territorially bound and mutually exclusive nation states have little in common with their preceding large territorial or dynastic medieval empires; and any connection between them is tenuous at best.<ref>Danforth, L. ''The Macedonian Conflict. Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. p. 25</ref> In any event, irrespective of shifting political affiliations, the Macedonian Slavs shared in the fortunes of the [[Byzantine commonwealth]] and the [[Rum millet]] and they can claim them as their heritage.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Loring Danforth states similarly, the ancient heritage of modern Balkan countries is not "the mutually exclusive property of one specific nation" but "the shared inheritance of all Balkan peoples".<ref>''Ancient Macedonia: National Symbols.'' L Danforth in ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''. Wiley –Blackwell 2010. p. 597-8</ref>

A more radical and uncompromising strand of Macedonian nationalism has recently emerged called "ancient Macedonism", or "[[Antiquisation]]". Proponents of this view see modern Macedonians as direct descendants of the ancient Macedonians. This view faces criticism by academics as it is not supported by archaeology or other historical disciplines, and also could marginalize the Macedonian identity.<ref>The Handbook of Political Change in Eastern Europe, Sten Berglund, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013, {{ISBN|1782545883}},[https://books.google.com/books?id=hmtuqFnuDZwC&pg=PA622&dq=antiquisation+macedonia=#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 622.]</ref><ref>Transforming National Holidays: Identity Discourse in the West and South Slavic Countries, 1985–2010, Ljiljana Šarić, Karen Gammelgaard, Kjetil Rå Hauge, John Benjamins Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|9027206384}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=F0aecYH2yQMC&pg=PA207&dq=antiquization+macedonia#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 207–208.]</ref> Surveys on the effects of the controversial [[nation-building]] project [[Skopje 2014]] and on the perceptions of the population of Skopje revealed a high degree of uncertainty regarding the latter's national identity. A supplementary national poll showed that there was a great discrepancy between the population's sentiment and the narrative the state sought to promote.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Muhić | first1 = Maja | last2 = Takovski | first2 = Aleksandar | year = 2014 | title = Redefining National Identity in Macedonia. Analyzing Competing Origins Myths and Interpretations through Hegemonic Representations. | journal = Etnološka Tribina | volume = 44 | issue = 37| page = 144 | doi = 10.15378/1848-9540.2014 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Additionally, during the last two decades, tens of thousands of citizens of North Macedonia have applied for Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Sinisa Jakov Marusic, More Macedonians Apply for Bulgarian Citizenship. [https://balkaninsight.com/2014/08/05/more-macedonians-apply-for-bulgarian-citizenship/ Aug 5, 2014, Balkans Inside.]</ref> In the period 2002–2021 some 90,000 acquired it while ca. 53,000 applied and are still waiting.<ref>Предоставяне на българско гражданство, Справка за преиода 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 г. (Bulgarian citizenship Information for the period 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 year); Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за 2012-2013 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for 2012-2013 year), p. 7] Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 23.01.2013 – 22.01.2014 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 23.01.2013–22.01.2014 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 year), p. 5; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 year), p. 6; Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 14 януари – 31 декември 2017 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 14 January - 31 December 2017); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2018 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2018); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2019 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2019). Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2020 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2020).</ref> Bulgaria has a special ethnic dual-citizenship regime which makes a constitutional distinction between ''ethnic Bulgarians'' and ''Bulgarian citizens''. In the case of the Macedonians, merely declaring their national identity as Bulgarian is enough to gain a citizenship.<ref>Bulgaria which has an ethnic citizenship regime and has a liberal dual citizenship regime makes a constitutional distinction between Bulgarians and Bulgarian citizens, whereas the former category reflects an ethnic (blood) belonging and the later the civic (territorial) belonging. In line with this definition, naturalization in Bulgaria is facilitated for those individuals who can prove that they belong to the Bulgarian nation...The birth certificates of parents and grandparents, their mother tongue, membership in Bulgarian institutions as the Bulgarian Church, former Bulgarian citizenship of the parents and so on are relevant criteria for the establishment of the ethnic origin of the applicant. In the case of Macedonian citizens, declaring their national identity as Bulgarian suffices to obtain Bulgarian citizenship, without the requirement for permanent residence in Bulgaria, or the language examination etc. For more see: Jelena Džankić, Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges, Southeast European Studies, Ashgate Publishing, 2015, {{ISBN|1472446410}}, p. 126.</ref> By making the procedure simpler, Bulgaria stimulates more Macedonian citizens (of Slavic origin) to apply for a Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria, Historical Dictionaries of Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, {{ISBN|1442241802}}, p. 318.</ref> However, many Macedonians who apply for Bulgarian citizenship as ''Bulgarians by origin'',<ref>Jo Shaw and Igor Štiks as ed., Citizenship after Yugoslavia, Routledge, 2013, {{ISBN|1317967070}}, p. 106.</ref> have few ties with Bulgaria.<ref>Rainer Bauböck, Debating Transformations of National Citizenship, IMISCOE Research Series, Springer, 2018, {{ISBN|3319927191}}, pp. 47–48.</ref> Further, those applying for [[Bulgarian citizenship]] usually say they do so to gain access to [[Member state of the European Union|member states of the European Union]] rather to assert Bulgarian identity.<ref>Michael Palairet, Macedonia: A Voyage through History (Vol. 2, From the Fifteenth Century to the Present), Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016, {{ISBN|1443888494}}, p. 347.</ref> This phenomenon is called ''[[placebo effect|placebo]] identity''.<ref>Mina Hristova, In-between Spaces: Dual Citizenship and Placebo Identity at the Triple Border between Serbia, Macedonia and Bulgaria in New Diversities; Volume 21, No. 1, 2019, pp. 37-55.</ref> Some Macedonians view the Bulgarian policy as part of a strategy to destabilize the Macedonian national identity.<ref>Risteski, L. (2016). “Bulgarian passports” – Possibilities for greater mobility of Macedonians and/or strategies for identity manipulation? EthnoAnthropoZoom/ЕтноАнтропоЗум, (10), 80-107. https://doi.org/10.37620/EAZ14100081r</ref> As a nation engaged in a dispute over its distinctiveness from Bulgarians, Macedonians have always perceived themselves as being threatened from its neighbor.<ref>Ljubica Spaskovska, Country report on Macedonia, November 2012. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, p.20.</ref> Bulgaria insists its neighbor to admit the common historical roots of their languages and nations, a view Skopje continues to reject.<ref>Bulgaria asks EU to stop 'fake' Macedonian identity. [https://www.dw.com/en/bulgaria-asks-eu-to-stop-fake-macedonian-identity/a-55020781 Deutsche Welle, 23.09.2020.]</ref> As result, Bulgaria blocked the official start of EU accession talks with North Macedonia.<ref>Bulgaria blocks EU accession talks with North Macedonia. [https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/bulgaria-blocks-eu-accession-talks-with-north-macedonia Nov 17, 2020, National post].</ref>

==Ethnonym==
The national name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] term ''Makedonía'', related to the name of the [[Macedonia (region)|region]], named after the [[ancient Macedonians]] and their [[Macedon|kingdom]]. It originates from the [[ancient Greek]] adjective [[makednos]], meaning "tall",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2364596 μακεδνός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> which shares its roots with the adjective ''makrós'', meaning the same.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmakro%2Fs1 μακρός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> The name is originally believed to have meant either "highlanders" or "the tall ones", possibly descriptive of these [[Ancient Macedonians|ancient people]].<ref name="Macedonia">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Macedonia Macedonia], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref><ref>[[Eugene N. Borza]], ''Makedonika'', Regina Books, {{ISBN|0-941690-65-2}}, p.114: The "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin both to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".</ref><ref>Nigel Guy Wilson, ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece'', Routledge, 2009, p.439: The latest archaeological findings have confirmed that Macedonia took its name from a tribe of tall, Greek-speaking people, the Makednoi.</ref> With the conquest of the Balkans by the [[Ottomans]] in the late 14th century, the name of Macedonia disappeared as a geographical designation for several centuries. The name was revived just during the early 19th century, after the foundation of the modern [[Greece|Greek]] state with its Western Europe-derived [[Philhellenism|obsession with Ancient Greece]].<ref>Jelavich Barbara, History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century, 1983, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0521274591}}, page 91.</ref><ref>John S. Koliopoulos, Thanos M. Veremis, Modern Greece: A History since 1821. A New History of Modern Europe, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, {{ISBN|1444314831}}, p. 48.</ref> As result of the [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire]], massive Greek [[Megali Idea|religious and school propaganda]] occurred, and a process of ''[[Hellenization]]'' was implemented among Slavic-speaking population of the area.<ref>Richard Clogg, Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002, {{ISBN|1850657068}}, p. 160.</ref><ref>Dimitar Bechev, Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Scarecrow Press, 2009, {{ISBN|0810862956}}, Introduction, pp. VII-VIII.</ref> In this way, the name ''Macedonians'' was applied to the local Slavs, aiming to stimulate the development of [[Grecoman|close ties]] between them and the [[Greeks]], linking both sides to the [[ancient Macedonians]], as a counteract against the growing [[National awakening of Bulgaria|Bulgarian cultural influence]] into the region.<ref>J. Pettifer, The New Macedonian Question, St Antony's group, Springer, 1999, {{ISBN|0230535798}}, pp. 49–51.</ref><ref>Anastas Vangeli, Nation-building ancient Macedonian style: the origins and the effects of the so-called antiquization in Macedonia. Nationalities Papers, the Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity, Volume 39, 2011 pp. 13–32.</ref> As a consequence since 1850s some Slavic intellectuals from the area, adopted the designation ''Macedonian'' as a regional identity, and it began to gain a popularity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Tchavdar Marinov, Entangled Histories of the Balkans, Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies, BRILL, 2013, {{ISBN|900425076X}}, pp. 283–285.</ref> Serbian politics then, also encouraged this kind of [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalism]] to neutralize the Bulgarian influx, thereby promoting Serbian interests there.<ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, 1900–1996, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 65.</ref> In the early 20th century the local ''Bulgarians'' already called themselves Macedonians, and were called in this way by their neighbors.<ref>E. Damianopoulos, The Macedonians: Their Past and Present, Springer, 2012, {{ISBN|1137011904}}, p. 185.</ref> During the [[interbellum]] Bulgaria also supported to some extent the Macedonian ''regional identity'', especially in Yugoslavia. Its aim was to prevent the [[Serbianization]] of the local Slavic-speakers, because the very name ''Macedonia'' was prohibited in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.<ref>Donald Bloxham, The Final Solution: A Genocide, OUP Oxford, 2009, {{ISBN|0199550336}}, p. 65.</ref><ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 76.</ref> Ultimately the designation Macedonian, changed its status in 1944, and went from being predominantly a regional, ethnographic denomination, to a national one.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Pieter Plas, Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Volume 34 of Multiple Europesq Peter Lang, 2005, {{ISBN|9052012970}}, p. 173.</ref>

==Population==
{{Ethnic Macedonians}}
The vast majority of Macedonians live along the valley of the river [[Vardar]], the central region of the Republic of North Macedonia. They form about 64.18% of the population of North Macedonia (1,297,981 people according to the [https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census]). Smaller numbers live in eastern [[Albania]], northern [[Greece]], and southern [[Serbia]], mostly abutting the border areas of the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]]. A large number of Macedonians have immigrated overseas to [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and to many European countries: [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Austria]] among others.

===Balkans===

====Greece====
{{See also|Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia}}

The existence of an ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece is rejected by the Greek government. The number of people speaking Slavic dialects has been estimated at somewhere between 10,000 and 250,000.{{efn|See:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnxZfdDXC7gC&q=number+of+slavophone+greece&pg=PA234|title=Bulgaria and Europe|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781843318286|last1=Katsikas|first1=Stefanos|date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=GR|title=Ethnologue report for Greece|work=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=13 February 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209045725/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004|date=9 February 2011}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605045853/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004|date=5 June 2011}}.</ref><ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Jacques Bacid, PhD Macedonia Through the Ages. Columbia University, 1983.</ref><ref>Hill, P. (1999) "Macedonians in Greece and Albania: A Comparative study of recent developments". Nationalities Papers Volume 27, 1 March 1999, p. 44(14).</ref><ref>Poulton, H.(2000), "Who are the Macedonians?", C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.</ref>}} Most of these people however do not have an ethnic Macedonian national consciousness, with most choosing to identify as ethnic [[Greeks]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC&q=number+of+slav+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA74|title=The Macedonian Conflict|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=0691043566|last1=Danforth|first1=Loring M.|date=6 April 1997}}</ref> or rejecting both ethnic designations and preferring terms such as ''"natives"'' instead.<ref name="Greece">{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61651.htm|title=Greece|publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|access-date=27 October 2016}}</ref> In 1999 the [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights|Greek Helsinki Monitor]] estimated that the number of people identifying as ethnic Macedonians numbered somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000,<ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD3TZJy5HagC&q=number+of+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA152|title=Culture and Rights|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780521797351|last1=Cowan|first1=Jane K.|last2=Dembour|first2=Marie-Bénédicte|last3=Wilson|first3=Richard A.|date=29 November 2001}}</ref> Macedonian sources generally claim the number of ethnic Macedonians living in Greece at somewhere between 200,000–350,000.<ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press, p. 45</ref> The ethnic Macedonians in Greece have faced difficulties from the Greek government in their ability to self-declare as members of a ''"Macedonian minority"'' and to refer to their native language as ''"Macedonian"''.<ref name="Greece"/>

Since the late 1980s there has been an ethnic Macedonian revival in Northern Greece, mostly centering on the region of [[Florina]].<ref>Detrez, Raymond; Plas, Pieter (2005), Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Peter Lang, pp. 50</ref> Since then ethnic Macedonian organisations including the [[Rainbow (Greece)|Rainbow political party]] have been established.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110928045606/http://www.novamakedonija.com.mk/NewsDetal.asp?vest=6110956302&id=9&setIzdanie=21996 Second Macedonian newspaper in Greece] – ''"Втор весник на Македонците во Грција...Весникот се вика "Задруга"...За нецел месец во Грција излезе уште еден весник на Македонците/A Second Macedonian Newspaper in greece...The Newspaper is Called "Zadruga/Koinothta"...Barely a month ago in Greece another newspaper for the Macedonians was released."''</ref> ''Rainbow'' first opened its offices in Florina on 6 September 1995. The following day, the offices had been broken into and had been ransacked.<ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf Greek Helsinki Monitor & Minority Rights Group- Greece; Greece against its Macedonian minority] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209033640/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf |date=2006-12-09 }}</ref> Later Members of ''Rainbow'' had been charged for "causing and inciting mutual hatred among the citizens" because the party had bilingual signs written in both [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]].<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur25/044/1998/en/ Amnesty International; Greece: Charges against members of the "Rainbow" party should be dropped]</ref> On 20 October 2005, the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)]] ordered the Greek government to pay penalties to the ''Rainbow Party'' for violations of 2 ECHR articles.<ref name="Greece"/> ''Rainbow'' has seen limited success at a national level, its best result being achieved in the 1994 European elections, with a total of 7,263 votes. Since 2004 it has participated in European Parliament elections and local elections, but not in national elections. A few of its members have been elected in local administrative posts. ''Rainbow'' has recently re-established ''Nova Zora'', a newspaper that was first published for a short period in the mid-1990s, with reportedly 20,000 copies being distributed free of charge.<ref>[http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 Македонците во Грција треба да си ги бараат правата] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823234401/http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 |date=23 August 2011 }} – ''""Нова зора"...печати во 20.000 примероци/Nova Zora...is printed in 20,000 copies"''</ref><ref>[http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 "Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509162418/http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 |date=9 May 2010 }} – ''""Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција...При печатењето на тиражот од 20.000 примероци се појавиле само мали технички проблеми/Nova Zora – the first Macedonian language newspaper in Greece...There were only small technical problems with the printing of the circulation of 20,000"''</ref><ref>[http://www.vreme.com.mk/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=2&tabid=1&EditionID=2001&ArticleID=138979 Нема печатница за македонски во Грција]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – ''"Весникот е наречен "Нова зора" и треба да се печати во 20.000 примероци/The Newspaper is called Nova Zora and 20,000 copies are printed."''</ref>

====Serbia====
{{Main|Macedonians in Serbia}}

Within [[Serbia]], Macedonians constitute an officially recognised ethnic minority at both a local and national level. Within [[Vojvodina]], Macedonians are recognised under the [[Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina]], along with other ethnic groups. Large Macedonian settlements within Vojvodina can be found in [[Plandište]], [[Jabuka]], [[Glogonj]], [[Dužine]] and [[Kačarevo]]. These people are mainly the descendants of economic migrants who left the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] in the 1950s and 1960s. The [[Macedonians in Serbia]] are represented by a national council and in recent years the Macedonian language has begun to be taught. The most recent census recorded 22,755 Macedonians living in Serbia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-06-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811224233/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref>

====Albania====
{{Main|Macedonians of Albania}}

Macedonians represent the second largest ethnic minority population in [[Albania]]. Albania recognises the existence of a Macedonian minority within the [[Mala Prespa]] region, most of which is comprised by [[Pustec Municipality]]. Macedonians have full minority rights within this region, including the right to education and the provision of other services in the [[Macedonian language]]. There also exist unrecognised Macedonian populations living in the [[Gollaborda|Golo Brdo]] region, the "Dolno Pole" area near the town of [[Peshkopi]], around [[Lake Ohrid]] and [[Korce]] as well as in [[Gora (region)|Gora]]. 4,697 people declared themselves Macedonians in the 1989 census.<ref>Artan Hoxha and Alma Gurraj, Local Self-Government and Decentralization: Case of Albania. History, Reforms and Challenges. In: Local Self Government and Decentralization in South — East Europe. Proceedings of the workshop held in Zagreb, Croatia 6 April 2001. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Zagreb Office, Zagreb 2001, pp. 194–224 ([http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/kroatien/50257.pdf PDF]).</ref>

====Bulgaria====
{{Main|Ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria}}

[[Bulgarians]] are considered most closely related to the neighboring Macedonians and it is sometimes claimed that there is no clear ethnic difference between them.<ref>{{cite book |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe |last1=Day |first1=Alan John |last2=East |first2=Roger |last3=Thomas |first3=Richard |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-85743-063-8 |page=94}}</ref> As regards self-identification, a total of 1,654 people officially declared themselves to be ethnic Macedonians in the last Bulgarian census in 2011 (0,02%) and 561 of them are in [[Blagoevgrad Province]] (0,2%).<ref>{{in lang|bg}} [http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R9.aspx?OBL=BLG Official census data]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> 1,091 of them are Macedonian citizens, who are [[permanent resident]]s in Bulgaria.<ref>[http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx Население с чуждо гражданство по страни] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004020646/http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx |date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> Krassimir Kanev, chairman of the non-governmental organization [[Bulgarian Helsinki Committee]], claimed 15,000–25,000 in 1998 (see [https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF here]). In the same report Macedonian nationalists  (Popov et al., 1989) claimed that 200,000 ethnic Macedonians live in Bulgaria. However, ''Bulgarian Helsinki Committee'' stated that the vast majority of the Slavic-speaking population in [[Pirin Macedonia]] has a Bulgarian national self-consciousness and a [[Macedonian Bulgarians|regional Macedonian identity]] similar to the Macedonian regional identity in [[Greek Macedonia]]. Finally, according to personal evaluation of a leading local ethnic Macedonian political activist, Stoyko Stoykov, the present number of Bulgarian citizens with ethnic Macedonian self-consciousness is between 5,000 and 10,000.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.focus-fen.net/?id=f1218
|title=FOCUS Information Agency
|publisher=focus-fen.net
|access-date=14 March 2009
}}
</ref> In 2000, the [[Bulgarian Constitutional Court]] banned [[UMO Ilinden-Pirin]], a small Macedonian political party, as a separatist organization. Subsequently, activists attempted to re-establish the party but could not gather the required number of signatures.

<gallery class="center">
File:Map of the majority ethnic groups of Macedonia by municipality.svg|Macedonians in North Macedonia, according to the 2002 census
File:Macedonians in Serbia.png|Concentration of Macedonians in Serbia
File:MalaPrespaiGoloBrdo.png|Regions where Macedonians live within Albania
File:Torbesija.png|Macedonian Muslims in North Macedonia
</gallery>

===Diaspora===
{{Further|Macedonian diaspora}}
[[File:Macedonian people in the world.svg|thumb|300x300px|Macedonian diaspora in the world (includes people with Slovenian ancestry or citizenship). 
{{Legend|#000000|North Macedonia}}
{{Legend|#BA9B15|+ 100,000}}
{{Legend|#F9D616|+ 10,000}}
{{Legend|#FFF0B3|+ 1,000}}]]

Significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the traditional immigrant-receiving nations, as well as in Western European countries. Census data in many European countries (such as Italy and Germany) does not take into account the ethnicity of émigrés from the Republic of North Macedonia.

====Argentina====
Most Macedonians can be found in [[Buenos Aires]], [[La Pampa Province|the Pampas]] and [[Córdoba Province, Argentina|Córdoba]]. An estimated 30,000 Macedonians can be found in Argentina.<ref name=Naveski_1>Nasevski, Boško; Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica (1995). Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95. Skopje: Матица на Иселениците на Македонија.</ref>
====Australia====
{{further|Macedonian Australians}}
The official number of Macedonians in Australia by birthplace or birthplace of parents is 83,893 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20041028074111/http://www.crc.nsw.gov.au/statistics/Sect1/Table1p08Aust.pdf 2001]). The main Macedonian communities are found in Melbourne, [[Geelong]], Sydney, [[Wollongong]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Canberra]] and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]. The 2006 census recorded 83,983 people of Macedonian ancestry and the 2011 census recorded 93,570 people of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|title=The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2011 Census|url=https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|publisher=Australian Government|page=58|year=2014|access-date=23 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417222156/https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Brazil====
{{further|Macedonians in Brazil}}
An estimated 45,000 people in Brazil are of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite book
|script-title=mk:Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2=Angelova, Dora |author3=Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher= Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52 & 53 }}</ref> The Macedonians can be primarily found in [[Porto Alegre]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[São Paulo]] and [[Curitiba]].
====Canada====
{{further|Macedonian Canadians}}
The Canadian census in 2001 records 37,705 individuals claimed wholly or partly Macedonian heritage in Canada,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=U.S. Census website |access-date=28 March 2020 }}</ref> although community spokesmen have claimed that there are actually 100,000–150,000 Macedonians in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120720212139/http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 July 2012 |access-date=7 March 2006 }}</ref>
====United States====
{{further|Macedonian Americans}}
A significant Macedonian community can be found in the United States. The official number of Macedonians in the US is 49,455 ([https://www.census.gov 2004]). The Macedonian community is located mainly in [[Michigan]], New York, [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]] and [[New Jersey]]<ref>[http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm Euroamericans.net] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050319231734/http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm |date=19 March 2005 }}</ref>
====Germany====
{{further|Macedonians in Germany}}
There are an estimated 61,000 citizens of North Macedonia in Germany (mostly in the [[Ruhrgebiet]]) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060405204342/http://wohnbevoelkerung_in_deutschland.know-library.net/ 2001]).
====Italy====
There are 74,162 citizens of North Macedonia in Italy ([http://demo.istat.it/str2006/query.php?lingua=eng&Rip=S0&paese=A12&submit=Tavola Foreign Citizens in Italy]).
====Switzerland====
{{further|Macedonians in Switzerland}}
In 2006 the Swiss Government recorded 60,362 Macedonian Citizens living in Switzerland.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120425144012/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/01/07/blank/key/01/01.Document.20578.xls bfs.admin.ch]</ref>
====Romania====
{{further|Macedonians in Romania}}
Macedonians are an officially recognised minority group in Romania. They have a special reserved seat in the nations parliament. In 2002, they numbered 731.
====Slovenia====
{{further|Macedonians in Slovenia}}
Macedonians began relocating to Slovenia in the 1950s when the two regions formed a part of a single country, [[Yugoslavia]].
====Other countries====
Other significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the other Western European countries such as Austria, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United Kingdom, and the whole European Union. {{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Also in Uruguay, with a significant population in [[Montevideo]].{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=August 2019}}

The culture of the people is characterized with both traditionalist and modernist attributes. It is strongly bound with their native land and the surrounding in which they live. The rich cultural heritage of the Macedonians is accented in the folklore, the picturesque traditional folk costumes, decorations and ornaments in city and village homes, the architecture, the monasteries and churches, iconostasis, wood-carving and so on. The culture of Macedonians can roughly be explained as a Balkanic, closely related to that of [[Bulgarians]] and [[Serbs]].

===Architecture===
[[File:Robevihouse.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] architecture in [[Ohrid]].]]
[[File:Makedonski Nosii 2.jpg|thumb|right|Macedonian girls in traditional folk costumes.]]
The typical Macedonian village house is influelnced by [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman Architecture]] .Presented as a construction with two floors, with a hard facade composed of large stones and a wide balcony on the second floor. In villages with predominantly agricultural economy, the first floor was often used as a storage for the harvest, while in some villages the first floor was used as a cattle-pen.

The stereotype for a traditional Macedonian city house is a two-floor building with white façade, with a forward extended second floor, and black wooden elements around the windows and on the edges.

===Cinema and theater===
{{main|Cinema of North Macedonia}}

The history of film making in North Macedonia dates back over 110 years. The first film to be produced on the territory of the present-day the country was made in 1895 by [[Manakis brothers|Janaki and Milton Manaki]] in [[Bitola]]. In 1995 [[Before the Rain (1994 film)|Before the Rain]] became the first Macedonian movie to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 67th Academy Awards {{!}} 1995 |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1995 |website=Oscars.org {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |access-date=27 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

From 1993 to 1994, 1,596 performances were held in the newly formed republic, and more than 330,000 people attended. The Macedonian National Theater (drama, opera, and ballet companies), the Drama Theater, the Theater of the Nationalities (Albanian and Turkish drama companies) and the other theater companies comprise about 870 professional actors, singers, ballet dancers, directors, playwrights, set and costume designers, etc. There is also a professional theatre for children and three amateur theaters. For the last thirty years a traditional festival of Macedonian professional theaters has been taking place in [[Prilep]] in honor of [[Vojdan Černodrinski]], the founder of the modern Macedonian theater. Each year a festival of amateur and experimental Macedonian theater companies is held in [[Kočani]].

===Music and art===
{{main|Music of North Macedonia}}

Macedonian music has many things in common with the music of neighboring [[Balkan]] countries, but maintains its own distinctive sound.

The founders of modern Macedonian painting included [[Lazar Licenovski]], [[Nikola Martinoski]], [[Dimitar Pandilov]], and [[Vangel Kodzoman]]. They were succeeded by an exceptionally talented and fruitful generation, consisting of [[Borka Lazeski]], [[Dimitar Kondovski]], [[Petar Mazev]] who are now deceased, and [[Rodoljub Anastasov]] and many others who are still active. Others include: [[Vasko Taskovski]] and [[Vangel Naumovski]]. In addition to [[Dimo Todorovski]], who is considered to be the founder of modern [[Macedonian sculpture]], the works of [[Petar Hadzi Boskov]], [[Boro Mitrikeski]], [[Novak Dimitrovski]] and [[Tome Serafimovski]] are also outstanding.

===Economy===
In the past, the Macedonian population was predominantly involved with agriculture, with a very small portion of the people who were engaged in trade (mainly in the cities). But after the creation of the People's Republic of Macedonia which started a social transformation based on Socialist principles, a middle and heavy industry were started.

===Language===
{{main|Macedonian language}}

The Macedonian language ({{lang|mk|македонски јазик}}) is a member of the Eastern group of [[South Slavic languages]]. [[Standard Macedonian]] was implemented as the official language of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after being [[Codification (linguistics)|codified]] in the 1940s, and has accumulated a thriving [[Macedonian literature|literary tradition]].

The closest relative of Macedonian is [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Levinson|O'Leary|1992|p=239}}</ref> followed by [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]. All the [[South Slavic languages]] form a [[dialect continuum]], in which Macedonian and Bulgarian form an [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern subgroup]]. The [[Torlakian]] dialect group is intermediate between Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian, comprising some of the northernmost [[Dialects of the Macedonian language|dialects of Macedonian]] as well as varieties spoken in southern Serbia and western Bulgaria. Torlakian is often classified as part of the Eastern South Slavic dialects.

The [[Macedonian alphabet]] is an adaptation of the [[Cyrillic script]], as well as language-specific conventions of spelling and punctuation. It is rarely [[Romanization of Macedonian|Romanized]].

===Religion===
{{main|Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church|Roman Catholicism in North Macedonia|Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Protestantism in North Macedonia|Islam in North Macedonia}}
[[File:2011 Ochryda, Cerkiew św. Pantelejmona (02).jpg|thumb|right|250px|One of the well-known monasteries – [[Saint Panteleimon, Ohrid|St. Panteleimon]] in Ohrid.]]

Most Macedonians are members of the [[Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church]]. The official name of the church is Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric and is the body of Christians who are united under the Archbishop of Ohrid and North Macedonia, exercising jurisdiction over Macedonian Orthodox Christians in the Republic of North Macedonia and in [[exarchate]]s in the [[Macedonian diaspora]].

The church gained autonomy from the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] in 1959 and declared the restoration of the historic [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]]. On 19 July 1967, the Macedonian Orthodox Church declared [[autocephaly]] from the Serbian church. Due to protest from the Serbian Orthodox Church, the move was not recognised by any of the churches of the [[Eastern Orthodox Communion]], and since then, the Macedonian Orthodox Church is not in communion with any Orthodox Church.<ref>The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. By Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley. p. 381</ref> A small number of Macedonians belong to the [[Roman Catholic]] and the [[Protestant Church|Protestant]] churches.

Between the 15th and the 20th centuries, during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]], a number of Orthodox Macedonian Slavs converted to Islam. Today in the Republic of North Macedonia, they are regarded as [[Macedonian Muslims]], who constitute the second largest religious community of the country.

===Names===
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia#Macedonian names|l1=Macedonian names}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Macedonian cuisine}}
[[File:Грав во тава(тафче гравче) (3).jpg|thumb|right|[[Tavče Gravče]], the [[national dish]] of Macedonians.]]
Macedonian cuisine is a representative of the cuisine of the [[Balkans]]—reflecting Mediterranean (Greek) and Middle Eastern (Turkish) influences, and to a lesser extent Italian, German and Eastern European (especially Hungarian) ones. The relatively warm climate in North Macedonia provides excellent growth conditions for a variety of vegetables, herbs and fruits. Thus, Macedonian cuisine is particularly diverse.

[[Shopska salad]], a food from [[Bulgaria]], is an appetizer and side dish which accompanies almost every meal.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} Macedonian cuisine is also noted for the diversity and quality of its [[dairy products]], wines, and local alcoholic beverages, such as [[rakija]]. [[Tavče Gravče]] and [[mastika]] are considered the national dish and drink of North Macedonia, respectively.

==Symbols==
{{See also|Flags of North Macedonia|National symbols of North Macedonia|Proposed coat of arms of North Macedonia}}

Symbols used by members of the ethnic group include:

* '''[[Golden Lion of North Macedonia|Lion]]''': The lion first appears in the [[Fojnica Armorial]] from 17th century, where the coat of arms of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] is included among those of other entities. On the coat of arms is a crown; inside a yellow crowned lion is depicted standing rampant, on a red background. On the bottom enclosed in a red and yellow border is written "Macedonia". The use of the lion to represent Macedonia was continued in foreign heraldic collections throughout the 16th to 18th centuries.<ref>Matkovski, Aleksandar, ''Grbovite na Makedonija'', Skopje, 1970.</ref><ref>Александар Матковски (1990) Грбовите на Македонија, Мисла, Skopje, Macedonia — {{ISBN|86-15-00160-X}} </ref> Nevertheless, during the late 19th century the [[Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization]] arose, which modeled itself after the earlier [[Internal Revolutionary Organization|Bulgarian revolutionary traditions]] and adopted their symbols as the [[Bulgarian lion|lion]], etc.<ref>Duncan M. Perry, The Politics of Terror: The Macedonian Liberation Movements, 1893–1903, Duke University Press, 1988, pp. 39–40.</ref><ref>J. Pettifer as ed., The New Macedonian Question, Springer, 1999 {{ISBN|0230535798}}, p. 236.</ref> Modern versions of the historical lion has also been added to the emblem of several political parties, organizations and sports clubs. However, this symbol is not totally accepted while the state [[coat of arms of Bulgaria]] is somewhat similar.
* '''[[Vergina Flag (North Macedonia)|Vergina Sun]]:''' (official flag, 1992–1995) The [[Vergina Sun]] is used unofficially by various associations and cultural groups in the Macedonian diaspora. The [[Vergina]] Sun is believed to have been associated with [[Greeks|ancient Greek]] kings such as [[Alexander the Great]] and [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], although it was used as an ornamental design in ancient Greek art long before the Macedonian period. The symbol was depicted on a golden larnax found in a 4th-century BC royal tomb belonging to either Philip II or Philip III of Macedon in the [[Greece|Greek]] region of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]]. The [[Greeks]] regard the use of the symbol by North Macedonia as a misappropriation of a [[Greece|Hellenic symbol]], unrelated to Slavic cultures, and a direct claim on the legacy of Philip II. However, archaeological items depicting the symbol have also been excavated in the territory of [[North Macedonia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://haemus.org.mk/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Ohrid-World-Heritage-Site.pdf|title=Macedonian Cultural Heritage: Ohrid World Heritage Site}}</ref> Toni Deskoski, Macedonian professor of International Law, argues that the Vergina Sun is not a Macedonian symbol but it's a Greek symbol that is used by Macedonians in the nationalist context of [[Macedonism]] and that the Macedonians need to get rid of it.<ref>[https://english.republika.mk/news/macedonia/deskoski-vergina-sun-flag-is-not-macedonian-we-need-to-get-rid-of-this-greek-symbol/ Deskoski: Vergina Sun flag is not Macedonian, we need to get rid of this Greek symbol], Republica.mk: "The Vergina Sun flag was a national flag for only three years and that was one of the biggest mistakes. Neither the Ilinden fighters nor the partisans in the National Liberation War knew that symbol. That flag is the biggest hoax of Macedonianism. We need to unanimously reject and get rid of this Greek symbol. Let the Greeks glorify their symbols."</ref> In 1995, [[Greece]] lodged a claim for [[Trademark|trademark protection]] of the Vergina Sun as a state symbol under [[WIPO]].<ref>[http://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/guest/ifetch5?ENG+6TER+15+1151315-REVERSE+0+0+1055+F+125+431+101+25+SEP-0/HITNUM,B+KIND%2fEmblem+] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060329000458/http://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/guest/ifetch5?ENG%206TER%2015%201151315-REVERSE%200%200%201055%20F%20125%20431%20101%2025%20SEP-0%2FHITNUM%2CB%20KIND%2FEmblem%20 |title= wipo.int|date=29 March 2006 }}</ref> In [[Greece]] the symbol against a blue field is used vastly in the area of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and it has official status.The Vergina sun on a red field was the first flag of the independent Republic of Macedonia, until it was removed from the state flag under an agreement reached between the Republic of Macedonia and [[Greece]] in September 1995.<ref>Floudas, Demetrius Andreas; {{cite news |publisher=24 (1996) Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 285|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3719/is_199601/ai_n8752910 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060127053906/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3719/is_199601/ai_n8752910 |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2006 | title= A Name for a Conflict or a Conflict for a Name? An Analysis of Greece's Dispute with FYROM |access-date=24 January 2007 | year=1996}}</ref> On 17 June 2018, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia signed the [[Prespa Agreement]], which stipulates the removal of the Vergina Sun's public use across the latter's territory.<ref name="2018FinalAgreement">{{cite document|url=http://s.kathimerini.gr/resources/article-files/symfwnia-aggliko-keimeno.pdf|title=FINAL AGREEMENT FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE DIFFERENCES AS DESCRIBED IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS 817 (1993) AND 845 (1993), THE TERMINATION OF THE INTERIM ACCORD OF 1995, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN THE PARTIES |publisher=Kathimerini.gr|access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref><ref name="VerginaSunBan">{{cite web|url=https://www.crashonline.gr/epikairotita/1164670/chanetai-kai-o-ilios-tis-verginas-ti-orizei-i-symfonia-gia-to-sima/|title=Also the "Sun of Vergina" is being lost: what the agreement (original: Χάνεται και "ο Ηλιος της Βεργίνας": Τι ορίζει η συμφωνία για το σήμα)|publisher=Crash Online |date=14 June 2018|access-date=22 June 2018}}</ref> In a session held on early July 2019, the [[government of North Macedonia]] announced the complete removal of the Vergina Sun from all public areas, institutions and monuments in the country, with the deadline for its removal being set to 12 August 2019, in line with the Prespa Agreement.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2019/07/14/north-macedonia-remove-star-vergina-public-spaces/|title=North Macedonia to remove the Star of Vergina from all public spaces|publisher=GCT.com|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news247.gr/politiki/voreia-makedonia-o-zaef-aposyrei-apo-pantoy-ton-ilio-tis-verginas.7474687.html|title=North Macedonia: Zaev removes from anywhere the Vergina Sun (original title: "Βόρεια Μακεδονία: Ο Ζάεφ αποσύρει από παντού τον Ήλιο της Βεργίνας")|publisher=News247|access-date=15 July 2019|date=14 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.republika.mk/news/macedonia/kutlesh-star-no-longer-to-be-seen-in-public-use/|title=Kutlesh star no longer to be seen in public use|publisher=Republika.mk|access-date=15 July 2019|date=12 July 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|North Macedonia}}
* [[Demographic history of North Macedonia]]
* [[List of Macedonians (ethnic group)|List of Macedonians]]
* [[Demographics of the Republic of North Macedonia]]
* [[Macedonian language]]
* [[Ethnogenesis]]
* [[South Slavs]]
* [[Macedonians (Greeks)]]
* [[Macedonians (Bulgarians)]]

==References==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Brown, Keith, ''The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation'', [[Princeton University Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|0-691-09995-2}}.
* {{cite journal
| last = Brunnbauer
| first = Ulf
|date=September 2004
| title = Fertility, families and ethnic conflict: Macedonians and Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia, 1944–2002
| journal=[[Nationalities Papers]]
| volume = 32
| issue = 3
| pages = 565–598
| doi = 10.1080/0090599042000246406
| s2cid = 128830053
}}
* Cowan, Jane K. (ed.), ''Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference'', Pluto Press, 2000. A collection of articles.
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700|year=2001|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC|isbn=9781139428880}}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250|year=2006|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt|url-access=registration|isbn=9780521815390}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Curta |first=Florin |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |title=The Slavic Lingua Franca. Linguistic Notes of an Archaeologist Turned Historian. |format=PDF |year=2004 |journal=East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=125–148 |access-date=2009-07-24 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}} |doi=10.1163/187633004x00134 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814025431/http://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |archive-date=14 August 2012 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, c. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages|year=2011|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCSrBgAAQBAJ|isbn=9780748644896}}
* Danforth, Loring M., ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', Princeton University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}.
* {{Cite book|last=Fine |first=John V A Jr. |title=The Early medieval Balkans. A Critical Survey from the 6th to the late 12th Century.|publisher=University Michigan Press|year=1991|isbn=9780472081493|postscript={{inconsistent citations}} }}
* Karakasidou, Anastasia N., ''Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990'', [[University Of Chicago Press]], 1997, {{ISBN|0-226-42494-4}}. Reviewed in ''[[Journal of Modern Greek Studies]]'' '''18''':2 (2000), p465.
* Mackridge, Peter, Eleni Yannakakis (eds.), ''Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912'', Berg Publishers, 1997, {{ISBN|1-85973-138-4}}.
* Poulton, Hugh, ''Who Are the Macedonians?'', [[Indiana University Press]], 2nd ed., 2000. {{ISBN|0-253-21359-2}}.
* Roudometof, Victor, ''Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question'', Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}.
* Κωστόπουλος, Τάσος, ''Η απαγορευμένη γλώσσα: Η κρατική καταστολή των σλαβικών διαλέκτων στην ελληνική Μακεδονία σε όλη τη διάρκεια του 20ού αιώνα'' (εκδ. Μαύρη Λίστα, Αθήνα 2000). [Tasos Kostopoulos, ''The forbidden language: state suppression of the Slavic dialects in Greek Macedonia through the 20th century'', Athens: Black List, 2000]
* The Silent People Speak, by Robert St. John, 1948, xii, 293, 301–313 and 385.
* {{cite web|last=Karatsareas|first=Petros|title=Greece's Macedonian Slavic heritage was wiped out by linguistic oppression – here's how
|url=https://theconversation.com/greeces-macedonian-slavic-heritage-was-wiped-out-by-linguistic-oppression-heres-how-94675|publisher=The Conversation|access-date=19 April 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Margaronis|first=Maria|title=Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-47258809|publisher=BBC|access-date=24 February 2019}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060113204437/http://newbalkanpolitics.org.mk/OldSite/Issue_2/ismail.eng.asp New Balkan Politics – Journal of Politics]
* [http://www.macedonians.co.uk/ Macedonians in the UK]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100305065457/http://www.umdiaspora.org/ United Macedonian Diaspora]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080629050307/http://www.smk.org.mk/ World Macedonian Congress]
* [http://www.maticanaiselenici.com/ House of Immigrants]

{{Ethnic groups in North Macedonia}}
{{North Macedonia topics}}
{{Slavic ethnic groups}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macedonians (Ethnic Group)}}
[[Category:Ethnic Macedonian people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Albania]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Greece]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Macedonia (region)]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in North Macedonia]]
[[Category:Slavic ethnic groups]]
[[Category:South Slavs]]

Flag of North Macedonia

2021-05-11T05:20:18Z

Macedonian: Deskoski

{{short description|National flag}}
{{Infobox flag
| Name =Republic of North Macedonia
| Nickname =
| Image = Flag of North Macedonia.svg
| Alt = Flag of North Macedonia
| Use = 111111
| Symbol = {{FIAV|normal}}
| Proportion = 1:2
| Adoption = 5 October 1995 (as established in the Constitution of North Macedonia)
| Design = A stylised yellow sun on a red field, with eight broadening rays extending from the centre to the edge of the field.
| Designer = [[Miroslav Grčev]]
| Noborder2 = no
}}
[[File:Wavingmacedonianflag-crop.png|thumb|right|210px|The flag of North Macedonia hoisted at the [[Serbia]]n-Macedonian border in [[Tabanovce]]]]

The '''flag of North Macedonia''' is the [[national flag]] of the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]] and depicts a stylized yellow sun on a red field, with eight broadening rays extending from the center to the edge of the field. It was created by [[Miroslav Grčev]] and was adopted on 5 October 1995. The first flag of the country, known as the [[Vergina Flag (North Macedonia)|Vergina Flag]], featured the [[Vergina Sun]], a symbol that had been discovered at [[Vergina|Aigai]], the first capital and burial ground of the ancient kings of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]]. Greece considers the Vergina Sun to be a Greek symbol and imposed a year-long [[Economic sanctions|economic embargo]] in order to force the then ''Republic of Macedonia'' to remove it from its flag, resulting in the current design. The new eight-rayed sun represents the "new sun of Liberty" referred to in "[[Denes nad Makedonija]]", the [[national anthem]] of [[North Macedonia]].

==History==

===Flag of People's Republic of Macedonia (1944–1946)===
[[File:Flag of North Macedonia (1944–1946).svg|thumb|The flag of the [[People's Republic of Macedonia]] between 1944 and 1946]]
The modern Macedonian state was proclaimed underground on 2 August 1944 by the [[ASNOM|Anti-Fascist Assembly of the National Liberation of Macedonia]] (ASNOM), the state's supreme legislative and executive body until 1946. The state was originally known as Democratic Federal Macedonia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globusmagazin.com.mk/?ItemID=AFA08064DBFFFA4DB6101665D39B6A88|title=Глобус|work=globusmagazin.com.mk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?mId=25&vId=74488315&lId=1&pmId=25|title=My Info Agent|work=mia.com.mk|access-date=2010-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308121705/http://damj.manu.edu.mk/pdf/0008Dwie%20Gwary%20Macedonskie%202.pdf|archive-date=2012-03-08|url-status=dead}}</ref> and was renamed the People's Republic of Macedonia in 1945. The ASNOM became operational in December, shortly after the German retreat. The flag was adopted during ASNOM's second [[plenary session]] in December. The first version of the flag depicted a gold-edged five-pointed red star centred on a red field.

===Flag of Socialist Republic of Macedonia (1946–1992)===
[[File:Flag of North Macedonia (1946–1992).svg|thumb|The flag of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] from 1946 to 1992]]
Between December 1946 and September 1991, the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] (known as the People's Republic of Macedonia until 1963) was one of the six [[Country|constituent republics]] of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. It was the only Yugoslav republic not to use the [[Pan-Slavic colours]] on its flag. Macedonia instead adopted an amended version of its previous flag, depicting a gold-edged five-pointed red star in the [[Canton (heraldry)|canton]] against a red field in a design similar to the flags of the [[Flag of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union]] or the [[Flag of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]]. This flag was adopted on 31 December 1946 under Article 4 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of Macedonia<ref>Barraclough, E.M.C. and Crampton, William G. (eds). ''Flags of the World'', p. 148. F. Warne, 1978</ref> and remained in use until well after Macedonia's independence from Yugoslavia in September 1991, due to lack of agreement about what should replace it.{{cn|date=March 2016}}

==="Vergina Flag" (1992–1995)===
{{Main|Vergina Sun}}
[[File:Flag of North Macedonia (1992–1995).svg|thumb|The flag of the Republic of Macedonia between 1992 and 1995, bearing the [[Vergina Sun]]]]
In 1991, [[Todor Petrov]], president of the nationalist organization [[World Macedonian Congress]], who supports the controversial [[antiquization]]-policy, designated and proposed the [[Vergina Sun]]<ref>[https://fotw.info/flags/mk_verg.html Macedonia: The "Sun of Vergina" flag (1992-1995)]</ref> as the national symbol of the then ''Republic of Macedonia''. On 11 August 1992, the newly independent Republic of Macedonia adopted the new flag to replace the old Communist "red star" insignia. The flag depicted the "Vergina Sun" symbol, a stylised yellow sun centred on a red field with eight main and eight secondary rays emanating from the sun, tapering to a point. This ancient symbol was named after the Greek town where it had been discovered in archaeological excavations of the [[Macedon|ancient Macedonian]] city of [[Vergina|Aigai]].

[[File:Macflags-trajkovskihall.png|thumb|left|The former and current flags of Macedonia and North Macedonia in front of the [[Boris Trajkovski Sports Arena]] in [[Skopje]]]]
The Vergina Sun was regarded by Greece as a symbol of continuity between [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|ancient Macedonia]] and modern Greek culture, and in particular as a symbol of the [[Argead dynasty]] of [[Philip II of Macedon]] and his son [[Alexander the Great]]. From the late 1970s it had also been adopted by many both in Greece and the then Socialist Republic of Macedonia to symbolise historical connections with ancient Macedonia and had been paraded in demonstrations by Greeks and ethnic Macedonians at home and abroad.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hamilakis|first1=Yiannis|title=The Nation and its Ruins: Antiquity, Archaeology, and National Imagination in Greece|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0199572909|page=131|quote=From the late 1970s onwards, and as the dispute over Macedonia intensified, this motif became extremely popular, almost to the point of becoming an unofficial national crest and symbol, in both Greece and the Yugoslav Republic. Countless commercial adverts, logos, shopfronts, T-shirts, pins, medals, and posters, were carrying it, along with its official endorsement in a 100-drachma Greek coin with the head of Alexander on one face and the ‘sun’ on the other, on postage stamps, and on official campaign posters distributed throughout Greece and abroad.}}</ref>

The flag, the new state's constitution and its name all became the focus of a dispute between the two countries, during which Greece imposed an economic blockade on the Republic from February 1994. In July 1995, Greece lodged a request with the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) for exclusive [[trademark]] protection to the Vergina Sun.<ref name=WIPO>[http://www.b-info.com/places/Macedonia/republic/news/95-07/jul31.mak "Greece petitions for int'l rights to Vergina Star"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060602222422/http://www.b-info.com/places/Macedonia/republic/news/95-07/jul31.mak |date=2006-06-02 }}, ANA, 31 July 1995 . See also WIPO registrations: [http://www.wipo.int/branddb/en/showData.jsp?ID=6TER.GR0001 1], [http://www.wipo.int/branddb/en/showData.jsp?ID=6TER.GR0002 2], [http://www.wipo.int/branddb/en/showData.jsp?ID=6TER.GR0003 3]. </ref>

Greek objections also prevented the flag from being flown at the [[United Nations Headquarters]] building in [[New York City]]. The blockade was lifted in October 1995 when an agreement was reached to change the flag, modify the constitution and resolve the [[Macedonia naming dispute|naming dispute]] through [[United Nations]]-sponsored negotiations.<ref>Wood, Michael C., Participation of Former Yugoslav States in the United Nations and Multilateral Treaties, [http://www.mpil.de/en/pub/research/details/publications/institute/mpyunl/volume_1.cfm "Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law"], Vol. 1, 1997, p. 240.</ref> The change of the flag was at first not accepted by conservative Macedonians, nationalists, and Greek patriots. In the first years after the change, both flags were officially flown for a long time. Between 1995 and 1998, in the municipalities where then-opposition party [[VMRO-DPMNE]] ruled, only the old flag was flown from institution buildings. Popular opinion was divided about the merits of changing the flag. As part of the [[Prespa agreement]] of 2018, which resolved the naming dispute, the government of [[North Macedonia]] committed to removing the Vergina Sun from all public spaces and from public use, including its use in flags.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://vlada.mk/node/16768?ln=en-gb |title=Announcement of the Inter-ministerial working group for fulfilment of the obligations stipulated in the Final Agreement for the Settlement of the Differences as Described in the United Nations Security Council Resolutions 817 (1993) and 845 (1993) |date=2019-02-13 |website=www.vlada.mk |access-date=2019-02-13}}</ref> Toni Deskoski, Macedonian professor of International Law, argues that the Vergina Sun is not a Macedonian symbol but it's a Greek symbol that is used by Macedonians in the nationalist context of [[Macedonism]] and that the Macedonians need to get rid of it.<ref>[https://english.republika.mk/news/macedonia/deskoski-vergina-sun-flag-is-not-macedonian-we-need-to-get-rid-of-this-greek-symbol/ Deskoski: Vergina Sun flag is not Macedonian, we need to get rid of this Greek symbol], Republica.mk: "The Vergina Sun flag was a national flag for only three years and that was one of the biggest mistakes. Neither the Ilinden fighters nor the partisans in the National Liberation War knew that symbol. That flag is the biggest hoax of Macedonianism. We need to unanimously reject and get rid of this Greek symbol. Let the Greeks glorify their symbols."</ref>

== Design ==

The flag ratio is 1:2 (height/width), with two colors:
<center>
{| class=wikitable width=60% style="text-align:center;"
|-
! System
!style="background:#ce2028;color:white"| Red
!style="background:#f9d616"| Yellow
|-
| [[RGB color model|RGB]] || 206-32-40<ref name=colors>[http://heraldika.org.mk/en/national-flag-republic-of-macedonia/ Flag of the Republic of Macedonia (Macedonian Heraldry Society)]</ref> || 249-214-22<ref name=colors/>
|-
| [[Web colors#Converting RGB to hexadecimal|Hexadecimal format]] || #CE2028<ref name=colors/> || #F9D616<ref name=colors/>
|-
|[[CMYK]]|| 0-68-65-19 || 0-14-89-2
|-
| [[Pantone]] (approximate) || 1795 C|| 115 C
|-
|}
</center>
[[File:Construction sheet of the flag of North Macedonia.svg|thumb|center|top|450px|Flag construction sheet.<ref>[http://heraldika.org.mk/en/news/konstrukcija-na-znameto-na-republika-makedonija/ Construction sheet of the Flag of the Republic of Macedonia (Macedonian Heraldry Society)]</ref>]]

== Flag proposals ==
Before the current state flag was officially adopted, the following flags were proposed in 1995:<ref name="хералд">[http://www.heraldika.org.mk/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/MkHerald5-web-s.pdf Македонски Хералд број 5]</ref>

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 2.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 3.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 4.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 5.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 6.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 7.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 8.svg
File:Flag proposal of Macedonia - 9.svg
File:Flag of Macedonia - initial design.svg
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|North Macedonia|Heraldry}}
*[[Flags of North Macedonia]]
*[[National emblem of North Macedonia|Emblem of North Macedonia]]
*[[Flag of Macedonia (Greece)]]
*[[Miroslav Grčev]]

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://makedonija.name/government/macedonia-flags Makedonija.name: Macedonian flag]
* {{FOTW|id=mk|title=North Macedonia}}

{{Symbols of Macedonia}}
{{North Macedonia topics}}
{{Flag of Europe}}
{{nationalflags}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Flag of North Macedonia}}
[[Category:Flags of North Macedonia| ]]
[[Category:Flags introduced in 1995|North Macedonia]]
[[Category:National symbols of North Macedonia]]
[[Category:National flags|North Macedonia]]

Vergina Sun

2021-05-11T05:19:02Z

Macedonian: /* North Macedonia */ Deskoski

{{short description|Rayed solar symbol}}
[[File:Vergina Sun - Golden Larnax.png|thumb|The Vergina Sun, as depicted on the top of the [[Larnax|Golden Larnax]] of [[Philip II of Macedon]].]]
[[File:Architrave with sculpted metope showing sun god Helios in a quadriga; from temple of Athena at Troy, ca 300-280 BCE; Altes Museum, Berlin (25308440197) (cropped) 1.jpg|thumb|A relief sculpture depicting [[Helios]] with a rayed [[Halo (religious iconography)#Ancient Greek world|halo]] ([[Athena]]'s temple, [[Troy VIII|Ilion]], early 4th century BC)]]
The '''Vergina Sun''' ({{lang-el|Ήλιος της Βεργίνας|Ilios tis Vergínas|Sun of Vergina}}), also known as the '''Star of Vergina''', '''Vergina Star''' or '''Argead Star''', is a [[Solar symbol#Rayed depictions|rayed solar symbol]] first appearing in [[ancient Greek art]] of the period between the 6th and 2nd centuries BC. The Vergina Sun proper has sixteen triangular rays, while comparable symbols of the same period variously have sixteen, twelve, eight or (rarely) six rays.

The name "Vergina Sun" became widely used after the archaeological excavations in and around the small town of [[Vergina]], in [[northern Greece]], during the late 1970s.<ref name="Andronikos1981">{{cite book|author=Manolis Andronikos|title=The Finds from the Royal Tombs at Vergina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEnpPwAACAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-85672-204-2}}</ref> In older references, the name "Argead Star" or "Star of the Argeadai" is used for the Sun as the possible royal symbol of the [[Argead dynasty]] of the ancient [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|kingdom of Macedonia]]. There it was depicted on a golden [[larnax]] found in a 4th-century BC royal tomb belonging to either [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] or [[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III]] of Macedon, the father and half-brother of [[Alexander the Great]], respectively.

Tentatively interpreted as the historical royal symbol of ancient Macedonia, rather than just a generic decorative element in [[ancient Greek art]], the Vergina Sun came into popular use among [[Macedonian Greeks]] since the 1980s, and became commonly used as an official emblem in the [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek region of Macedonia]], and by other Greek state entities during the 1990s.

The Vergina Sun symbol was the subject in a controversy in the first half of 1990s between Greece and the newly independent [[Republic of Macedonia]] (now North Macedonia), which adopted it as a symbol of [[Macedonian nationalism]] and depicted it on its [[Flag of North Macedonia|national flag]]. Eventually, in 1995 and as a [[Macedonia naming dispute#Interim accord|result of this dispute]], the young republic's flag was revised into a different rayed solar symbol. On 17 June 2018, the two countries signed the [[Prespa Agreement]], which stipulates the removal of the Vergina Sun from public use in North Macedonia.<ref name="VerginaSunBan"/> Eventually, in early July 2019 the government of North Macedonia announced the complete removal of the symbol from all public areas, institutions and monuments in the country, except archeological sites.

==Antiquity==
[[File:Departure warrior Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2305.jpg|thumb|A [[hoplite]] with an eight-pointed sun on his left shoulder. Side A of an [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] Attic [[Red-figure pottery|red-figure]] belly-[[amphora]], 500–490 BC, from [[Vulci]], Italy. Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich, Germany]]

Early representations of the symbol go back to at least the 6th century BC, with [[hoplites]] depicted as bearing sixteen-pointed and eight-pointed sunburst symbols on their shields and armor,<ref>see e.g.:
{{cite news |url=http://tovima.dolnet.gr/print_article.php?e=B&f=12515&m=B06&aa=1 |publisher=Το ΒΗΜΑ |script-title=el:Γιατί ο τάφος της Βεργίνας ανήκει στον βασιλέα της Μακεδονίας Φίλιππο Β' |author=Νικόλαος Μάρτης |date=January 10, 1999 |language=el |access-date=April 18, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821163634/http://tovima.dolnet.gr/print_article.php?e=B&f=12515&m=B06&aa=1 |archive-date=August 21, 2007 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}
[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Greek_Shields590-540.html Greek Shield Patterns: ca. 590 BC – 540 BC].
[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Greek_Shields540-500.html Greek Shield Patterns: ca. 540 BC – 500 BC]
[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Greek_Shields475-430.html Greek Shield Patterns: ca. 475 BC – 430 BC]</ref><ref>[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Greek_Shields430-400.html Greek Shield Patterns: ca. 430 BC- 400 BC].
[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Greek_Shields400-350.html Greek Shield Patterns: ca. 400 BC – 350 BC].
[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Greek_Shields350-.html Greek Shield Patterns: post 350 BC]</ref> and the same symbols being represented on coins from both island and mainland Greece from at least the 5th century BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/image?lookup=1990.26.0214 |title=Perseus:image:1990.26.0214 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2009-03-22}}
{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/image?lookup=1989.00.0174 |title=Perseus:image:1989.00.0174 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2009-03-22}}
{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/image?lookup=1990.26.0218 |title=Perseus:image:1990.26.0218 |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |access-date=2009-03-22}}</ref> The ''[[Iliad]]'' describes the first panoply of Achilles as having star motifs.<ref>[http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/armour5.htm The Greek Age of Bronze, ''Iliad Armour'']</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.+Il.+16.130&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134 Iliad, 16.130–135]</ref>

During his excavations at [[Vergina]], the site of the ancient Macedonian capital of [[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aegae]], the archaeologist [[Manolis Andronikos]] found the symbol on the coffin ([[larnax]]) believed to belong to [[Philip II of Macedon]], father of [[Alexander the Great]].<ref name="Andronikos1981">{{cite book|author=Manolis Andronikos|title=The Finds from the Royal Tombs at Vergina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vEnpPwAACAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-85672-204-2}}</ref> The "sunburst" symbol was already well known as a symbol used both by the Macedonian royal dynasty (e.g. on coins), as well as being present in the [[Hellenistic civilization]] more generally. The symbol might represent the Sun god ([[Helios]]), whose role as a patron deity of the [[Argead dynasty]] might be implied by a story about [[Perdiccas I of Macedon]] narrated by [[Herodotus]] (8.127).<ref>Winthrop Lindsay Adams, ''Alexander the Great: Legacy of a Conqueror'' (2005) p. 109.</ref> In the early 1980s, following the discovery of the larnax, there was some debate as to whether the symbol should be considered the "royal emblem" of the Argeads specifically. Αs [[Eugene Borza]] (1982) pointed out, the symbol was widely used in Hellenistic-era art, and Adams (1983) emphasized its use as a decorative element in [[ancient Greek art]] in general and that it cannot be said to represent either a "royal" or "national" emblem of Macedon exclusively.<ref>Adams, J.P. The ''Larnakes'' from Tomb II at Vergina. ''Archaeological News'' (1983). 12:1–7</ref>

===Golden Larnax===
In 1977/8, archaeologist Manolis Andronikos led excavations of burial mounds at the small [[Central Macedonia]]n town of Vergina in Greece. There, by the perimeter of a large mound, the ''Great Tumulus'', he unearthed three tombs. The tombs were subsequently identified as royal burial sites for members of the late 4th-century BC [[Argead dynasty]], the family of [[Alexander the Great]].{{sfn|Musgrave|Prag|Neave|Fox|2010|loc=1. Introduction}}

Of the three tombs, the first—Tomb I—suffered looting, leaving little more by the time of its discovery than then the well known wall painting depicting the [[Persephone#Abduction|Abduction of Persephone]] by [[Hades]] and the buried fragments of human remains. Tombs II and III, however, remained undisturbed, still containing many [[artefact (archaeology)|artefacts]]. Among them were two gold [[cremation|ash]] coffins ([[larnakes]]) in Tomb II and a silver funerary urn in Tomb III.{{sfn|Musgrave|Prag|Neave|Fox|2010|loc=1. Introduction}}

[[File:Image larnax of philip.jpg|thumb|The Golden Larnax of Philip II of Macedon ([[Vergina]] Collection, National Archaeological Museum of [[Thessaloniki]]).]]
The coffin of Tomb II's primary occupant, the Golden Larnax, featured the sixteen-rayed sun design and that of the occupant's wife, entombed in the antechamber, a twelve-ray sun. Andronikos variously described the symbol as a "star", "starburst", and "sunburst".<ref>Danforth, L. M. ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', p. 163. Princeton University Press, 1997</ref> He posited the tomb might belong to King [[Philip II of Macedon]], father of [[Alexander the Great]].

Following the discovery at the Great Tumulus, there was much debate over who had been buried there, especially in Tomb II. It dated to the later half of the 4th century BC, making its royal occupants contemporaneous with Alexander the Great. As Alexander himself had been buried in [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Egypt]], the only remaining plausible Argead men and their wives likely to be buried in Tomb II were Philip II and his last wife [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra Eurydice]], or Alexander's half-brother [[Philip III Arrhidaeus]] and [[Eurydice II of Macedon|Eurydice II]].{{sfn|Musgrave|Prag|Neave|Fox|2010|loc=1. Introduction}}

On 21 April 2000, the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]] journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' published "The Eye Injury of King Philip II and the Skeletal Evidence from the Royal Tomb II at Vergina", by Antonis Bartsiokas. In it, Bartsiokas cited osteological analyses to contradict the determination of Philip II as the tomb's occupant and made a case for Philip III.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/macedon/|title=Not Philip II of Macedon – Archaeology Magazine Archive|website=www.archaeology.org|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Musgrave|Prag|Neave|Fox|2010|loc=Abstract}} However, a good deal of evidence still contradicts Bartsiokas' claims.{{sfn|Musgrave|Prag|Neave|Fox|2010|loc=1. Introduction}}

During 1992 and 1993, the Great Tumulus was rebuilt.{{sfn|Musgrave|Prag|Neave|Fox|2010|loc=1. Introduction}}

===Gallery===
<gallery>
File:Stele Aristionos.JPG|A drawing of the "[[Stele of Aristion]]", from the collections of Harvard University, 1894. Funerary [[stele]] of an Athenian [[hoplite]] (Aristion) having a sixteen-pointed Vergina sun symbol on his right shoulder, c. 520 BC. Relief at the [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]].
File:Amfora by Exekias Ajax and Achilles.JPG|[[Achilles]] and [[Ajax the Great|Ajax]] playing a board game. Eight-pointed sun symbols are depicted on their cloaks. [[Amphora]] by [[Exekias]], 6th century BC, Vatican Museum.
File:Herakles Amazons MAR Palermo NI1897.jpg|Heracles fighting the Amazons. Attic black-figure [[lekythos]], early 5th century BC, from [[Gela]]. An amazon bearing a Vergina sun symbol on her shield. Regional Archaeological Museum "Antonio Salinas", [[Palermo]].
File:Getty Villa - Storage jar with the Judgment of Paris (detail) - inv. 83.AE.10.jpg|A Vergina sun on Athena's shield. [[Pithos]] with the Judgment of Paris, from Athens (4th century BC).
File:Pyrrhus Kingdom of Epirus.JPG|Ancient Greek coin of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]], [[Epirus (ancient state)|Kingdom of Epirus]] (r. 297–272 BC). An eight-pointed sun symbol before [[Athena]]'s face.
File:Cales Æ 2260022.jpg|Ancient Greek coin from [[Campania]], Italy (3rd century BC). A Vergina sun symbol is depicted above the bull.
File:AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg|The sixteen-rayed "Vergina Sun" design on the "[[Cybele]] Plaque" from [[Ai Khanoum]], [[Bactria]] (3rd century BC). The "sunburst" here represents a star, not the Sun, shown in a [[star and crescent]] configuration alongside [[Helios]], who is shown separately in the form of a bust with a rayed halo of thirteen rays.<ref>F. Tissot, ''Catalogue of the National Museum of Afghanistan'', 1931-1985 (2006), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=TaSOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 p. 42].</ref>
File: Ancient megarian Cups depicting the Macedonian sunburst (3rd-2nd centuries BC).jpg | Ancient megarian cups depicting the sixteen-rayed Macedonian sunburst (3rd-2nd centuries BC) found in [[Ohrid]], [[North Macedonia]].
</gallery>

==Modern reception==
===Official status in Greece ===
{{see|Flag of Macedonia (Greece)}}
[[File:Flag of Greek Macedonia.svg|thumb|The Vergina Sun, designated as an official national symbol by the [[Hellenic Parliament]] since February 1993, appears on the (unofficial) [[Flag of Macedonia (Greece)|flag of Greek Macedonia]].]]
The symbol was introduced in Greece as popular imagery from the mid-1980s and, after 1991, increasingly so in many new contexts in Greece. The Vergina Sun was widely adopted by [[Macedonians (Greek)|Greek Macedonians]] as a symbol of [[Greek Macedonia]]. The Vergina Sun on a blue background became commonly used as an official emblem of the three administrative regions, the prefectures and the municipalities of Greek Macedonia.

[[File:100 drachmas coin.jpg|thumb|The Vergina Sun on the modern Greek 100 drachmas coin]]
[[File:Flag of Kutlesh in Solun, Greece.JPG|thumb|180px|Vergina Sun on a building, [[Thessaloniki]]]]

It was used in official contexts on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Greek 100 [[Greek drachma|drachmas]] coin of 1990–2001,<ref name="Bank of Greece">[http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en Bank of Greece] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090328051044/http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en |date=March 28, 2009 }}. Drachma Banknotes & Coins: [http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/coin_selection.asp?Value=100 100 drachmas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101144104/http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/coin_selection.asp?Value=100 |date=2009-01-01 }}. – Retrieved on 27 March 2009.</ref><ref name="Gounaris, Basil C. 2003 p. 77">Gounaris, Basil C. (2003): "The Politics of Currency: Stamps, Coins, Banknotes, and the Circulation of Modern Greek Tradition", in ''The Usable Past. Greek Metahistories'', Keith S. Brown and Yannis Hamilakis (eds.), Lexington Books, p. 77. {{ISBN|0-7391-0384-9}}</ref>
The symbol is placed on the bottom left corner of the Greek driving license,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yme.gr/index.php?getwhat=1&oid=531&id=&tid=531|title=YME.gr|website=www.yme.gr|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref> and on Greek [[passport]]s, it forms the [[watermark]] image across pages 22 and 23. It is the emblem of the 3rd Greek Squadron of Control and Warning Station, of Greek [[Units for the Reinstatement of Order]], the Greek [[First Army (Greece)|First Army]],<ref>Borza, Eugene N. "Macedonia Redux", in ''The Eye Expanded: life and the arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity'', ed. Frances B Tichener & Richard F. Moorton, p. 260. University of California Press, 1999. See also: [http://www.army.gr/n/g/archive/signs/html/1h_stratia.html Greek military: 1st STRATIA] and [http://www.army.gr/n/g/archive/signs/html/34_mk_ta3.html 34 Μ/Κ ΤΑΞ]
[http://www.army.gr/default.php?pname=EMBLHMA_1%CE%A3%CE%A4%CE%A1%CE%91%CE%A4%CE%99%CE%91_PERIGRAFH&la=1 First Army emblem], Hellenic Army General Staff</ref> the 193 Squadron of Multiple Missile Launchers and the 34th Mechanized Infantry Brigade.<ref>[http://www.army.gr/default.php?pname=PERIGRAFH_EMBLIMATOS_34MKTAX&la=1 34th Mechanized Infantry Brigade emblem], Hellenic Army General Staff</ref>

In February 1993 the Greek parliament passed a bill designating the Vergina Sun as an official Greek national symbol.<ref name="Danforth 166">Danforth, L. M. ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', p. 166</ref> In July 1995, Greece lodged a claim for trademark protection of the Vergina Sun as an official state emblem under Article 6ter of the ''[[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property]]''<ref name="Article 6ter">[http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/paris/trtdocs_wo020.html#P155_22332 Article 6ter], ''[[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property]]''.</ref> with the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/ifetch5?ENG+SIXTER+15-00+21605669-KEY+256+0+-1+F-ENG+3+5+1+25+SEP-0/HITNUM,B+CC%2fGR+|title=WIPO Protection of State Emblems (Article 6ter) database, sixteen-pointed Vergina Sun|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6wFfGsOUU?url=http://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/ifetch5?ENG+SIXTER+15-00+11521248-KEY+256+0+699+F-ENG+8+10+1+25+SEP-0%2FHITNUM%2CB+GR|archive-date=5 January 2018|access-date=5 January 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/ifetch5?ENG+SIXTER+15-00+21605669-KEY+256+0+-1+F-ENG+4+5+1+25+SEP-0/HITNUM,B+CC%2fGR+|title=WIPO Protection of State Emblems (Article 6ter) database, twelve-pointed Vergina Sun|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6wFgL6yqB?url=http://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/ifetch5?ENG+SIXTER+15-00+11521248-KEY+256+0+700+F-ENG+9+10+1+25+SEP-0%2FHITNUM%2CB+GR|archive-date=5 January 2018|access-date=5 January 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/ifetch5?ENG+SIXTER+15-00+21605669-KEY+256+0+-1+F-ENG+5+5+1+25+SEP-0/HITNUM,B+CC%2fGR+|title=WIPO Protection of State Emblems (Article 6ter) database, eight-pointed Vergina Sun|publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6wFgPolYU?url=http://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/ifetch5?ENG+SIXTER+15-00+11521248-KEY+256+0+701+F-ENG+10+10+1+25+SEP-0%2FHITNUM%2CB+GR|archive-date=5 January 2018|access-date=5 January 2018|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===North Macedonia===
{{see|Flag of North Macedonia|Macedonia naming dispute|Macedonian nationalism}}
[[File:Flag of North Macedonia (1992–1995).svg|thumb|The [[flag of the Republic of Macedonia]] between 1992 and 1995.]]
[[File:Flag of North Macedonia.svg|right|thumb|The current [[flag of North Macedonia]], adopted on 5 October 1995]]

In 1991, [[Todor Petrov]] proposed the Vergina Sun as the national symbol of the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia). The symbol was adopted by the [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]], as a symbol of the newly independent [[Republic of Macedonia]] and in 1992 the newly formed country displayed the symbol on its new flag. This lasted until 1995, when the Republic of Macedonia was forced to modify its flag by Greece.<ref>[https://fotw.info/flags/mk_verg.html Macedonia: The "Sun of Vergina" flag (1992–1995)]</ref>

The decision in the Republic of Macedonia caused controversy both within the republic and outside it in its relations with Greece. The republic's large [[Albanian people|Albanian]] minority complained that it was an ethnic symbol of the ethnic Macedonian national identity and was not suitable for a multi-ethnic state.<ref name="Danforth 166"/>
Greek opposition was even more vehement. The Greek government and many Greek people, especially Greek Macedonians, saw it as the misappropriation of a Hellenic symbol and a direct claim on the legacy of Philip II.
The dispute was exacerbated by clauses in the Republic of Macedonia's constitution that Greeks saw as a territorial claim on the Greek [[Macedonia (region)|region of Macedonia]].
A Greek Foreign Ministry spokesman said in January 1995 that "the symbol is Greek and has been stolen." Nationalists on both sides subsequently associated the symbol with the (much later) [[Star of Bethlehem]] and have argued that their respective communities have used the symbol for sacred purposes before the Vergina discovery.<ref name="Danforth 166"/>
The Greek position on the symbol has been supported by some abroad, such as the former United States Secretary of State, [[Henry Kissinger]], who reportedly told a questioner:

{{cquote|I believe that Greece is right to object and I agree with Athens. The reason is that I know history, which is not the case with most of the others, including most of the Government and Administration in Washington. The strength of the Greek case is that of the history which I must say that Athens has not used so far with success.<ref>[http://www.hri.org/Martis/contents/doc2.html "Henry Kissinger: An Analysis of the Global Geopolitical Environment"], [http://www.hri.org/Martis/ Nikolaos Martis: MACEDONIA], 1995, Accessed 12 May 2007</ref>}}

Speaking on the [[BBC World Service]]'s ''[[The World Today (BBC World Service)|The World Today]]'' programme, archaeologist Bajana Mojsov from the Republic of Macedonia said that "the symbolic weight attached to the Vergina Star was archaeologically absurd – but politically inevitable," arguing:
{{cquote|The star of Vergina applies to the 3rd century BC northern [[Greece]] – a very different situation, not related to the 21st century AD. I think it's modern politics, and we're witnessing the use of an archaeological symbol for history that it's really not related to.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3372117.stm|title=When archaeology gets bent |work=[[BBC World Service]] |year=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040110072103/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3372117.stm|access-date=2006-10-12|archive-date=2004-01-10}}</ref>}}

At the same time, Demetrius Floudas, Senior Associate at [[Hughes Hall, Cambridge]], and one of the leading analysts of the Macedonia naming dispute, claimed that:
{{cquote|what prompted the adoption of the Vergina Star was a desire from Skopje's part to advance maximalist objectives in order to barter with them for other concessions at the negotiating table when the time comes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Floudas |first=Demetrius Andreas |journal= Journal of Political and Military Sociology |volume=24 |pages=285–32|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292495625| title=A Name for a Conflict or a Conflict for a Name? An Analysis of Greece's Dispute with FYROM |access-date=2019-01-14 | year=1996|issue=2 }}</ref>}}

Although the authorities in Skopje denied any ulterior motives, the flag became a major issue in the wider political dispute between the two countries of the early 1990s (see [[Foreign relations of North Macedonia]]). Greek objections led to the flag being banned from use in a variety of places, including the [[United Nations]], the [[Olympic Games]] and offices of the Republic of Macedonia in the [[United States]] and [[Australia]].<ref name="Danforth 166"/>

The Republic of Macedonia lodged an objection against Greece's registration of the symbol with WIPO in October 1995. The dispute was partially resolved under a compromise brokered by [[Cyrus Vance]] at the United Nations.<ref name="un32193">{{cite journal|url=http://untreaty.un.org/unts/120001_144071/6/3/00004456.pdf |title=Interim Accord (with related letters and translations of the Interim Accord in the languages of the Contracting Parties) |date=13 September 1995 |journal=UN Treaty Series |publisher=United Nations |pages=Article 7.2 and Related Letters pp.15–18 |volume=1891 |number=I–32193 |access-date=20 March 2011 |location=New York |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325011434/http://untreaty.un.org/unts/120001_144071/6/3/00004456.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 }}</ref>
The symbol was removed from the flag of the Republic of Macedonia as part of an agreement to establish diplomatic and economic relations between the two sides,<ref name="un32193"/> and it was replaced by a stylised yellow sun with eight widening beams on red ground. The symbol was not referred to as the "Star of Vergina" in the agreement as signed, although the Greeks described it as such in correspondence with Vance.<ref name="un32193"/>

The Liberal Party (LP) of the Republic of Macedonia, in December 2013, via its president Yvonne Velickovski, proposed with a draft law to ban the use of the Vergina Sun for civil purposes within the Republic of Macedonia, as "a positive step that will result in the promotion of good neighborly relations between Macedonia and Greece".
The draft law requires use of the WIPO-protected Greek symbol to be banned in the Macedonian president's office, events organized under state administration, public Macedonian institutions or political parties, NGOs, media, as well as individuals in the Republic of Macedonia. The draft however was rejected in December 2013 by the majority of the Macedonian Parliament, which at the time was controlled by the nationalist [[VMRO-DPMNE]] party.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history-of-macedonia.com/2013/11/04/fyrom-liberal-party-leader-proposed-banning-of-the-vergina-sun-symbol-for-civil-purposes/|title=FYROM: Liberal Party Leader proposed banning of the Vergina Sun Symbol for civil purposes|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref>

In early August 2017, the Macedonian consul in Toronto, Canada, Jovica Palashevski, sparked a diplomatic incident between the Republic of Macedonia and Greece, when he delivered a speech against the backdrop of an [[irredentist]] map of [[Greater Macedonia]] and a red Vergina Sun flag. After strong Greek protests, the Foreign Ministry of the Republic of Macedonia condemned the incident and recalled its diplomat back to Skopje for consultations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mia.mk/en/Inside/RenderSingleNews/323/133825621|title=Dimitrov says MoFA won't tolerate 'excursions' like the diplomatic blunder in Toronto|publisher=Macedonian Information Agency|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.top-channel.tv/lajme/english/artikull.php?id=20702|title=Another diplomatic incident between Greece and Macedonia|publisher=Macedonia's Top-Channel TV|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aixmi.gr/index.php/se-alytrwtiki-ekdilwsi-symmeteixe-skopianos/|title=Σε αλυτρωτική εκδήλωση συμμετείχε Σκοπιανός πρόξενος – Σφοδρή απάντηση από το ΥΠΕΞ (English: Skopian consul participated in an irredentist event – Foreign Ministry)|publisher=Aixmi.gr|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.real.gr/DefaultArthro.aspx?page=arthro&id=627632&catID=14|title=Σκοπιανός πρόξενος με φόντο χάρτη της ΠΓΔΜ με ελληνικά εδάφη – ΥΠΕΞ: Ο αλυτρωτισμός εξακολουθεί (English: Macedonian Consul against a backdrop of Greater Macedonia – Greek MoFA: "Macedonian irredentism continues") |publisher=Real.gr|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.gr/news/politiki/story/93449/ypex-katadiki-tis-symmetoxis-toy-skopianoy-proxenoy-se-alytrotiki-ekdilosi-sto-toronto|title=ΥΠΕΞ: Καταδίκη της συμμετοχής του σκοπιανού πρόξενου σε αλυτρωτική εκδήλωση στο Τορόντο (English: Greek MoFA condemns the participation of Macedonian Consul in an irredentist event at Toronto)|access-date=23 August 2017}}</ref>

Toni Deskoski, Macedonian professor of International Law, argues that the Vergina Sun is not a Macedonian symbol but it's a Greek symbol that is used by Macedonians in the nationalist context of [[Macedonism]] and that the Macedonians need to get rid of it.<ref>[https://english.republika.mk/news/macedonia/deskoski-vergina-sun-flag-is-not-macedonian-we-need-to-get-rid-of-this-greek-symbol/ Deskoski: Vergina Sun flag is not Macedonian, we need to get rid of this Greek symbol], Republica.mk: "The Vergina Sun flag was a national flag for only three years and that was one of the biggest mistakes. Neither the Ilinden fighters nor the partisans in the National Liberation War knew that symbol. That flag is the biggest hoax of Macedonianism. We need to unanimously reject and get rid of this Greek symbol. Let the Greeks glorify their symbols."</ref>

===Private use===

====Greece====

Outside of official usage, the symbol was also used in the logo of the Thessaloniki-based [[TV Macedonia|''Makedonia'']] television station, and of the Bank of Macedonia-Thrace. Today, an eight-point sun is the logo of [[Thessaloniki International Film Festival]] and part of the logo of Greek Parliament party [[Greek Solution]]. A six-pointed Vergina sun is the logo of the Thessaloniki-based ''Vergina'' television station, it also appears on Municipality of [[Chalkidona]] coat of arms in Thessaloniki region unit, on [[Makedonikos FC]] (Greek: Μακεδονικός) logo which is a Greek professional football club based in [[Neapoli, Thessaloniki|Neapoli]], on ''ASF ALEXANDRIAS'' in [[Imathia]], on [[Makedonikos Foufas F.C.]] in [[Kozani]], on ''MAS VERGINA'', on ''Megas Alexandros BC'' in [[Leptokarya]] and on ''VERGINA BC'' in [[Kalamaria]]. A seven-pointed sun is the logo of Thessaloniki-based political party ''EPOS''. <ref>https://eposellas.gr/ </ref>
It is also used by organisations of the [[Greek Macedonian diaspora]], such as the Pan-Macedonian Association,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macedonia.com/english/|title=Pan-Macedonian Network – Macedonia – English|website=www.macedonia.com|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref> as well as by numerous commercial enterprises and in [[Macedonians (Greeks)#Contemporary Macedonians|Greek Macedonian demonstrations]].

====North Macedonia====
In North Macedonia, the municipality of [[Makedonska Kamenica municipality|Makedonska Kamenica]] still displays it on its municipal flag.<ref name="Makedonska Kamenica municipality">[http://www.makedonskakamenica.gov.mk/ "Makedonska Kamenica" municipality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615160607/http://www.makedonskakamenica.gov.mk/ |date=2009-06-15 }}{{in lang|mk}}</ref>
According to Macedonian press reports from 2005,<ref name="Makedonskosonce.com">{{cite web |title=Makedonskosonce.com |work=MAKEDONCITE NA BALKANOT |access-date=2007-07-21 |url=http://www.makedonskosonce.com/broevis/2005/sonce586.pdf/30_31_pustec.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808035044/http://www.makedonskosonce.com/broevis/2005/sonce586.pdf/30_31_pustec.pdf |archive-date=2007-08-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> a similar choice was made by the municipality of [[Liqenas]] in neighbouring [[Albania]], which has a Macedonian population.<ref name="southeasteurope.org">[http://www.southeasteurope.org/documents/0009albminorities.pdf "On the Status of the Minorities in the Republic of Albania"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305040315/http://www.southeasteurope.org/documents/0009albminorities.pdf |date=March 5, 2009 }}, Albanian [[Helsinki Committee]] with support of the Finnish Foundation ‘KIOS’ and "Finnish NGO
Foundation for Human Rights".</ref><ref name="greekhelsinki.gr">''Finally, Albania recognizes a Greek and a Macedonian minority'' – [http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/bhr/english/organizations/ghm/ghm_14_05_01.doc Partly or Fully Unrecognized National Minorities: Statement to the UN Working Group on Minorities, 7th session, Geneva, 14–18 May 2001] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305040313/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/bhr/english/organizations/ghm/ghm_14_05_01.doc |date=5 March 2009 }}, Greek [[Helsinki Committee]]</ref>

The symbol is also used by other ethnic Macedonian minority groups in neighbouring countries and by diaspora organisations.<ref>e.g. [http://www.unitedmacedonians.org/ United Macedonians Organization website]</ref>
The [[Aromanians]] in the Republic of Macedonia use an eight-pointed Vergina sun as their symbol.<ref>Cowan, Jane K. ''Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference'', p. 124. Pluto Press, 2000</ref> In Canada, a Macedonian advocacy group called United Macedonians Organization uses a stylized version of the sun as part of its logo and makes extensive use of the red Vergina sun flag.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unitedmacedonians.org/|title=United Macedonians|website=www.unitedmacedonians.org|access-date=14 May 2017}}</ref>

In 2018, [[IP Australia]], the agency of the [[Department of Industry, Innovation and Science|Australian Department of Industry, Innovation and Science]] responsible for administering the intellectual property rights in [[Australia]], denied the [[World Macedonian Congress]] the right of registering and using the Vergina Sun on its trademark, citing the [[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property|Paris Convention]] which recognizes the emblem as a national symbol of Greece.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://neoskosmos.com/en/112621/fyroms-world-macedonian-congress-australia-applies-to-take-ip-australia-to-court/|title=FYROM's World Macedonian Congress – Australia applies to take IP Australia to court|publisher=Neos Kosmos|access-date=20 March 2018}}</ref>

===Prespa Agreement===
{{main|Prespa Agreement}}
On 17 June 2018, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia signed the [[Prespa Agreement]], which stipulates the removal of the Vergina Sun's public use for across the latter's territory.<ref name="2018FinalAgreement">{{cite document|url=http://s.kathimerini.gr/resources/article-files/symfwnia-aggliko-keimeno.pdf|title=FINAL AGREEMENT FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE DIFFERENCES AS DESCRIBED IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS 817 (1993) AND 845 (1993), THE TERMINATION OF THE INTERIM ACCORD OF 1995, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN THE PARTIES |publisher=Kathimerini.gr|access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref><ref name="VerginaSunBan">{{cite web|url=https://www.crashonline.gr/epikairotita/1164670/chanetai-kai-o-ilios-tis-verginas-ti-orizei-i-symfonia-gia-to-sima/|title=Also the "Sun of Vergina" is being lost: what the agreement (original: Χάνεται και "ο Ηλιος της Βεργίνας": Τι ορίζει η συμφωνία για το σήμα)|publisher=Crash Online |date=14 June 2018|access-date=22 June 2018}}</ref>

In a session held on early July 2019, the [[government of North Macedonia]] announced the complete removal of the Vergina Sun from all public areas, institutions and monuments in the country, with the deadline for its removal being set to 12 August 2019, in line with the Prespa Agreement.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2019/07/14/north-macedonia-remove-star-vergina-public-spaces/|title=North Macedonia to remove the Star of Vergina from all public spaces|publisher=GCT.com|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news247.gr/politiki/voreia-makedonia-o-zaef-aposyrei-apo-pantoy-ton-ilio-tis-verginas.7474687.html|title=North Macedonia: Zaev removes from anywhere the Vergina Sun (original title: "Βόρεια Μακεδονία: Ο Ζάεφ αποσύρει από παντού τον Ήλιο της Βεργίνας")|publisher=News247|access-date=15 July 2019|date=14 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.republika.mk/news/macedonia/kutlesh-star-no-longer-to-be-seen-in-public-use/|title=Kutlesh star no longer to be seen in public use|publisher=Republika.mk|access-date=15 July 2019|date=12 July 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Greece|North Macedonia}}
*[[Macedonia naming dispute]]
*[[Ashoka Chakra]]
*[[Radiant crown]]
*[[Solar symbol]]
*[[Sun (heraldry)]]

==References==

===Footnotes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite journal |last1=Musgrave |first1=Jonathan |last2=Prag |first2=A. J. N. W. |last3=Neave |first3=Richard |last4=Fox |first4=Robin Lane |last5=White |first5=Hugh |date=August 2010 |title=The Occupants of Tomb II at Vergina. Why Arrhidaios and Eurydice must be excluded |journal=[[International Journal of Medical Sciences]] |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=s1–s15 |publisher=[[Ivyspring International Publisher]] |doi=10.7150/ijms.7.s1 |doi-broken-date=2021-01-19 |access-date=11 August 2013 |url=http://www.medsci.org/v07p00s1.htm }}
* ''Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Heritage'', ed. W. Lindsay Adams and Eugene N. Borza. University Press of America, 1982. {{ISBN|0-8191-2448-6}}
* The ''Larnakes'' from Tomb II at Vergina. ''Archaeological News''. John Paul Adams
* ''In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon'', Eugene N. Borza. Princeton University Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-691-05549-1}}
* "Macedonia Redux", Eugene N. Borza, in ''The Eye Expanded: life and the arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity'', ed. Frances B Tichener & Richard F. Moorton. University of California Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-520-21029-8}}
* ''Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference'', Jane K. Cowan. Pluto Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-7453-1589-5}}
* ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', Loring M. Danforth. Princeton University Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-691-04357-4}}
* ''Macedonia and Greece: The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation'', McFarland & Company, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7864-0228-8}}
* {{cite book | last = Schell | first = Dorothea | editor = R. W. Brednich and H. Schmitt, Münster| title = Symbole: Zur Bedeutung der Zeichen in der Kultur | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-3-89325-550-4 | pages = 298–307, p. 301 | chapter = Der Stern von Vergina als nationales Symbol in Griechenland | ref = Schell |display-editors=etal}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20031102053433/http://www.kzu.ch/fach/as/aktuell/2000/04_vergina/verg_04.htm Image of gold box with Vergina Sun in Thessaloniki Museum]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051124191546/http://fotw.net/flags/gr-maced.html Flags of Greek Macedonia] – Flags of the World

{{Symbols of Greece}}
{{Greek Macedonia}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek culture]]
[[Category:Culture of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)]]
[[Category:Heraldic charges]]
[[Category:National symbols of Greece]]
[[Category:Nationalist symbols]]
[[Category:Solar symbols]]

Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-11T05:16:24Z

Macedonian: /* Symbols */

Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-11T05:14:24Z

Macedonian: /* Symbols */ Macedonian professor Deskoski, ref.

{{short description|South Slavic ethnic group associated with the geographical region of Macedonia}}
{{about||the population of North Macedonia|Demographics of North Macedonia|the ancient people|Ancient Macedonians|other uses|Macedonian (disambiguation)|and|Macedonian Slavs (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| image =Macedonian people in the world.svg
| caption =Map of the Macedonian diaspora in the world
| group = Macedonians Македонци ''Makedonci''
| population = [[Circa|c.]] '''2.5 million'''<ref name="Nasevski">{{cite book
|title= Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2= Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher=Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52–53 }}</ref>
| popplace = {{flagicon|North Macedonia}} [[North Macedonia]] 1,297,981{{lower|<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100703105852/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 |date=21 June 2004 }}.</ref>}}
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop1 = 98,570 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref1 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/PopularAreas?ReadForm&prenavtabname=Popular%20Locations&type=popular&&navmapdisplayed=true&javascript=true&textversion=false&collection=Census&period=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&productlabel=Ancestry%20by%20Country%20of%20Birth%20of%20Parents&breadcrumb=POTL&topic=Ancestry& 2006 Census].</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Republic of Macedonia MFA estimate] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop2 = 115,210(2020)
| ref2 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls 2006 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519210527/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls |date=19 May 2011 }}.</ref>}}
| region3 = {{flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop3 = 65,347 (2017)
| ref3 = {{lower|<ref>[http://demo.istat.it/str2017/index.html Foreign Citizens in Italy, 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806142909/http://www.demo.istat.it/bil2016/index.html |date=6 August 2017 }}.</ref>}}
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop4 = 61,304–63,000
| ref4 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf 2005 Figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193114/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region5 = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| pop5 = 57,200–200,000
| ref5 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[https://www.census.gov|547;&-ds_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_&-TABLE_NAMEX=&-ci_type=A&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G2000_B04003&-tree_id=4001&-all_geo_types=N&-redoLog=false&-geo_id=01000US&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en 2009 Community Survey] .</ref>}}
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| pop6 = 45,000
| ref6 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski"/> }}
| region7 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop7 = 43,110 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref7 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118090345/http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2012|title=My Info Agent|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=92333&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=801&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= 2006 census].</ref>}}
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Turkey}}
| pop8 = 31,518 (2001 census)
| ref8 = {{lower|<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& 2001 census] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215085128/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& |date=15 February 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}}
| pop9 = 30,000
| ref9 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski" />}}
| region11 = {{flagcountry|Serbia}}
| pop11 = 22,755 (2011 census)
| ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://popis2011.stat.rs/?lang=en|title=Попис у Србији 2011.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
| region12 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop12 = 20,135
| ref12 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/022498.html Tabelle 13]: Ausländer nach Staatsangehörigkeit (ausgewählte Staaten), Altersgruppen und Geschlecht — p. 74.</ref>}}
| region13 = {{flagcountry|The Netherlands}}
| pop13 = 10,000–15,000
| ref13 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region14 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| pop14 = 9,000 (est.)
| ref14 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Finland}}
| pop15 = 8,963
| ref15 = <ref name="un">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates17.shtml|title=United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs|website=un.org|access-date=2018-06-29}}</ref>
| region16 = {{flagcountry|Hungary}}
| pop16 = 7,253
| ref16 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html 1996 estimate] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705022945/http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html |date=5 July 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Albania}}
| pop17 = 5,512 (2011 census)
| ref17 = {{lower|<ref>[http://minorityrights.org/minorities/macedonians/ minorityrights.org]</ref>}}
| region18 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
| pop18 = 5,392 (2018)
| ref18 = <ref>[https://www.statbank.dk/FOLK2 Population by country of origin]</ref>
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Greece}}
| pop10 = 10,000–30,000
| ref10 = <ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref>
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Slovakia}}
| pop19 = 4,600
| ref19 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/42/39332415.xls OECD Statistics].</ref>}}
| region20 = {{flagcountry|Croatia}}
| pop20 = 4,138 (2011 census)
| ref20 = {{lower|<ref>{{Croatian Census 2011|E}}</ref>}}
| region21 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| pop21 = 4,491 (2009)
| ref21 = <ref>[http://www.scb.se/statistik/_publikationer/BE0101_2009A01_BR_03_BE0110TAB.pdf Population by country of birth 2009].</ref>
| region22 = {{flagcountry|Slovenia}}
| pop22 = 3,972 (2002 census)
| ref22 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.stat.si/popis2002/si/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7 2002 census (stat.si)].</ref>}}
| region23 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
| pop23 = 3,419 (2002)
| ref23 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dofi.fgov.be/fr/statistieken/statistiques_etrangers/Stat_ETRANGERS.htm|title=Belgium population statistics|publisher=dofi.fgov.be|access-date=9 June 2008}}</ref>}}
| region24 = {{flagcountry|Norway}}
| pop24 = 3,045
| ref24 = {{lower|<ref>
[http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html 2008 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112145417/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html |date=12 January 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region25 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| pop25 = 2,300–15,000
| ref25 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html 2003 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102733/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html |date=6 October 2014 }},[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region26 = {{flagcountry|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
| pop26 = 2,278 (2005)
| ref26 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf 2005 census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183909/http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region27 = {{flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
| pop27 = 2,011
| ref27 = {{lower|<ref>[https://www.czso.cz/documents/11292/27914491/1612_c01t14.pdf/4bbedd77-c239-48cd-bf5a-7a43f6dbf71b?version=1.0 czso.cz]</ref>}}
| region28 = {{flagcountry|Poland}}
| pop28 = 2,000–4,500
| ref28 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Makedonci vo Svetot] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/260  Polands Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947], p. 260.</ref>}}
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| pop29 = 1,654 (2011 census)
| ref29 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/NPDOCS/Census2011final.pdf Bulgaria 2011 census]</ref>}}
| region30 = {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| pop30 = 1,264 ([[2011 Romanian census|2011 census]])
| ref30 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/sR_Tab_8.xls |title= Rezultatele finale ale Recensământului din 2011 – Tab8. Populaţia stabilă după etnie – judeţe, municipii, oraşe, comune |date= 5 July 2013 |access-date= 18 December 2013 |publisher= [[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)]] |language= ro}}</ref>}}
| region31 = {{flagcountry|Montenegro}}
| pop31 = 900 (2011 census)
| ref31 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf Montenegro 2011 census].</ref>}}
| region32 = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| pop32 = 807–1,500
| ref32 = {{lower|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |title=2006 census |access-date=2 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127012451/http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |archive-date=27 November 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930042306/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=30 September 2011 }}</ref>}}
| region33 = {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| pop33 = 325 (2010) – 1,000 (est.)
| ref33 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>[http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.pdf Russia 2010 census]</ref>}}
| languages = '''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]'''
| rels = Predominantly [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] ([[Macedonian Orthodox Church]]) minority [[Islam]] ([[Macedonian Muslims]]) and [[Catholicism]] ([[Catholic Church in North Macedonia|Roman Catholic]] and [[Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Macedonian Greek Catholic]])
| related = Other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]]<ref>"Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States", p. 517 The Macedonians are a Southern Slav people, closely related to Bulgarians.</ref><ref>"Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook", p. 54 Macedonians are a Slavic people closely related to the neighboring Bulgarians.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dt2TXexiKTgC&q=political+and+economic+dictionary+of+Eastern+Europe+bulgarians&pg=PA96 |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe|first1=Alan John|last1=Day|first2=Roger|last2=East|first3=Richard|last3=Thomas|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|page=96|isbn=9780203403747}}</ref>
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}

'''Macedonians''' ({{lang-mk|Македонци|Makedonci}}) are a [[nation]] and a [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] ethnic group native to the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] in Southeast Europe. They speak the [[Macedonian language]], a [[South Slavic language]]. About two thirds of all ethnic Macedonians live in [[North Macedonia]] and there are also [[Macedonian diaspora|communities in a number of other countries]].

==History==
{{Main|History of the Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
{{See also|Macedonian historiography}}
The formation of the ethnic Macedonians as a separate community has been shaped by [[Refugees of the Greek Civil War|population displacement]]<ref>James Horncastle, The Macedonian Slavs in the Greek Civil War, 1944–1949; Rowman & Littlefield, 2019, {{ISBN|1498585051}}, p. 130.</ref> as well as by [[Slavic dialects of Greece#Ban for use, language shift and language death|language shift]],<ref>Stern, Dieter and Christian Voss (eds). 2006. "Towards the peculiarities of language shift in Northern Greece". In: “Marginal Linguistic Identities: Studies in Slavic Contact and Borderland Varieties.” Eurolinguistische Arbeiten. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag; {{ISBN|9783447053549}}, pp. 87–101.</ref>{{dubious|date=April 2020}} both the result of the political developments in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] during the 20th century. Following the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], the decisive point in the [[ethnogenesis]] of the South Slavic ethnic group was the creation of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after World War II, a state in the framework of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. This was followed by the development of a separate Macedonian language and national literature, and the foundation of a distinct [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] and national historiography.

===Ancient and Roman period===
In antiquity, much of central-northern Macedonia (the [[Vardar river|Vardar basin]]) was inhabited by [[Paionians]] who expanded from the lower Strymon basin. The Pelagonian plain was inhabited by the [[Pelagones]], an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] tribe of [[Upper Macedonia]]; whilst the western region (Ohrid-Prespa) was said to have been inhabited by [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[tribe]]s.<ref>A J Toynbee. ''Some Problems of Greek History'', Pp 80; 99–103</ref> During the late Classical Period, having already developed several sophisticated ''[[polis]]''-type settlements and a thriving economy based on mining,<ref>The Problem of the Discontinuity in Classical and Hellenistic Eastern Macedonia, Marjan Jovanonv. УДК 904:711.424(497.73)</ref> Paeonia became a constituent province of the [[Argead]] – [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian kingdom]].<ref>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011. Map 2</ref> In 310 BC, the [[Celts]] attacked deep into the south, subduing the Dardanians, Paeonians and [[Triballi]]. [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest brought with it a significant [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] of the region. During the Dominate period, 'barbarian' federates were settled on Macedonian soil at times; such as the Sarmatians settled by Constantine (330s AD)<ref>Peter Heather, Goths and Romans 332–489. p. 129</ref> or the (10 year) settlement of Alaric's Goths.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Macedonia in Late Antiquity'' p. 551. In A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011</ref> In contrast to 'frontier provinces', Macedonia (north and south) continued to be a flourishing Christian, Roman province in Late Antiquity and into the early Middle Ages.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | last1 = Curta | first1 = Florin | year = 2012 | title = Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia? | journal = Journal of History | volume = 47 | page = 73 }}</ref>

===Medieval period===
Linguistically, the South Slavic languages from which Macedonian developed are thought to have expanded in the region during the post-Roman period, although the exact mechanisms of this linguistic expansion remains a matter of scholarly discussion.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2004|p=148}}</ref> Traditional historiography has equated these changes with the commencement of raids and 'invasions' of [[Sclaveni]] and [[Antes (people)|Antes]] from [[Wallachia]] and western [[Ukraine]] during the 6th and 7th centuries.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|p=29}}</ref> However, recent anthropological and archaeological perspectives have viewed the appearance of [[Early Slavs|Slavs]] in Macedonia, and throughout the [[Balkans]] in general, as part of a broad and complex process of transformation of the cultural, political and ethno-linguistic Balkan landscape before the collapse of Roman authority. The exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined.<ref>T E Gregory, ''A History of Byzantium''. Wiley- Blackwell, 2010. p. 169</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation text|Curta|2001|pp=335–345}}</ref> What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to "barbarian" [[Bulgaria]], northern Macedonia remained [[Byzantine Greeks|Roman]] in its cultural outlook into the 7th century.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Yet at the same time, sources attest numerous [[Slavic tribes]] in the environs of [[Thessaloniki]] and further afield, including the [[Berziti]] in Pelagonia.<ref>Florin Curta. ''Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia?'' 2013</ref> Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, [[Kuver]]'s "Bulgars"<ref>The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Denis Sinor, Cambridge University Press, 1990,
{{ISBN|0521243041}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA215&dq=bulgars++kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=R2a5UtaVJ8LTywPEpoDYBg&ved=0CF0Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 215–216.]</ref> – a mix of [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Bulgars]] and [[Pannonian Avars]] – settled the "Keramissian plain" ([[Pelagonia]]) around [[Bitola]] in the late 7th century.{{efn|See:<ref>The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1991, {{ISBN|0472081497}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C&pg=PA72&dq=bulgars+macedonia+kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=zka5Uo2BMYX8ywOOjYGYDQ&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 72.]</ref><ref>''Во некрополата "Млака" пред тврдината во Дебреште, Прилеп, откопани се гробови со наоди од доцниот 7. и 8. век. Тие се делумно или целосно кремирани и не се ниту ромеjски, ниту словенски. Станува збор наjвероjатно, за Кутригурите. Ова протобугарско племе, под водство на Кубер, а како потчинето на аварскиот каган во Панониjа, околу 680 г. се одметнало од Аварите и тргнало кон Солун. Кубер ги повел со себе и Сермесиjаните, (околу 70.000 на број), во нивната стара татковина. Сермесиjаните биле Ромеи, жители на балканските провинции што Аварите ги заробиле еден век порано и ги населиле во Западна Панониjа, да работат за нив. На Кубер му била доверена управата врз нив.'' In English: In the necropolis 'Malaka' in the fortress of Debreshte, near Prilep, graves were dug with findings from the late 7th and early 8th century. They are partially or completely cremated and neither Roman nor Slavic. The graves are probably remains from the [[Kutrigurs]]. This Bulgar tribe was led by Kuber... Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) [http://www.kroraina.com/macedon/mik_3_2.html стр. 32–33.]</ref><ref>"The" Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans, East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450 – 1450, Florin Curta, Roman Kovalev, BRILL, 2008, {{ISBN|9004163891}}, p. 460.</ref><ref>W Pohl. ''The Avars (History)'' in Regna and Gentes. The Relationship Between Late Antique and Early Medieval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World. pp. 581, 587</ref>}} Later pockets of settlers included "Danubian" [[Bulgars]]<ref>''They spread from the original heartland in north-east Bulgaria to the Drina in the west, and to Macedonia in the south-west.; На целиот тој простор, во маса метални производи (делови од воената опрема, облека и накит), меѓу стандардните форми користени од словенското население, одвреме-навреме се појавуваат специфични предмети врзани за бугарско болјарство како носители на новата државна управа''. See: Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) стр. 35; 364–365.</ref><ref>Dejan Bulić, The Fortifications of the Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine Period on the Later Territory of the South-Slavic Principalities, and Their Re-occupation in [[Tibor Živković]] et al., The World of the Slavs: Studies of the East, West and South Slavs: Civitas, Oppidas, Villas and Archeological Evidence (7th to 11th Centuries AD) with Srđan Rudić as ed. Istorijski institut, 2013, Belgrade; {{ISBN|8677431047}}, pp. 186–187.</ref> in the 9th century; [[Vardariotai|Magyars (Vardariotai)]]<ref>Florin Curta. 'The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, C. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages. pp. 259, 281</ref> and [[Armenians]] in the 10th–12th centuries,<ref>Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire edited by Hélène Ahrweiler, Angeliki E. Laiou. p. 58. Many were apparently based in Bitola, Stumnitsa and Moglena</ref> [[Cumans]] and [[Pechenegs]] in the 11th–13th centuries,<ref>Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Istvan Varsary. p. 67</ref> and [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxon miners]] in the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxKBMhz3e7AC&q=saxon+miners+macedonia&pg=PA89|title=Balkan Worlds|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780765638519|last1=Stoianovich|first1=Traian|date=September 1994}}</ref>

Having previously been Byzantine clients, the ''Sklaviniae'' of Macedonia probably switched their allegiance to [[Bulgaria]] during the reign of [[Irene of Athens|Empress Irene]],<ref>J V A Fine. The Early Medieval Balkans. Pp 110–11</ref>{{why|date=June 2019}} and was gradually incorporated into the [[Bulgarian Empire]] before the mid-9th century. Subsequently, the literary and ecclesiastical centres in [[Ohrid]], not only became a second cultural capital of medieval Bulgaria, but soon eclipsed those in [[Preslav]].<ref>Alexander Schenker. ''The Dawn of Slavic''. pp. 188–190. Schenker argues that Ohrid was 'innovative' and 'native Slavic' whilst Preslav very much relied on Greek modelling</ref>{{dubious|date=December 2013}} On the other hand cultural, ecclesiastical and political developments of Slavic Orthodox Culture occurred in Byzantine Macedonia.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|pp=113, 196}} ''Two brothers ... Constantine and Methodius ..were fluent in the dialect of Slavic in the environs of Thessaloniki. They devised an alphabet to convey Slavic phonetics | He [Samuel] restored the Bulgarian Orthodox patriarchate.. in Ohrid''</ref><ref>Francis Dvornik. ''The Slavs'' p. 167</ref><ref>Ostrogorsky, ''History of the Byzantine State'' p. 310</ref>

=== Ottoman period ===
[[File:Georgi Pulevski.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Georgi Pulevski]] is the first known person, who in the middle of 1870s insisted on the existence of a separate (Slavic) Macedonian language and ethnicity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Alexander Vezenkov as ed., Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Three: Shared Pasts, Disputed Legacies; Balkan Studies Library, BRILL, 2015; {{ISBN|9004290362}}, p. 454.</ref>]]
After the final Ottoman conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans in the 14/15th century, all Eastern Orthodox Christians were included in a specific ethno-religious community under ''Graeco-Byzantine'' jurisdiction called [[Rum Millet]]. The belonging to this religious commonwealth was so important that most of the common people began to identify themselves as ''Christians''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&q=millet++bulgarian+identity+detrez&pg=PA47|title=Europe and the Historical Legacies in the Balkans|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9789052013749|last1=Detrez|first1=Raymond|last2=Segaert|first2=Barbara|year=2008}}</ref> However ethnonyms never disappeared and some form of primary ethnic identity was available.<ref>Balkan cultural commonality and ethnic diversity. Raymond Detrez (Ghent University, Belgium).</ref> This is confirmed from a Sultan's [[Firman]] from 1680 which describes the ethnic groups in the Balkan territories of the Empire as follows: Greeks, Albanians, Serbs, Vlachs and Bulgarians.<ref>История на българите. Късно средновековие и Възраждане, том 2, Георги Бакалов, TRUD Publishers, 2004, {{ISBN|9545284676}}, стр. 23. (Bg.)</ref> The [[rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]] in the early 19th century brought opposition to this continued situation. At that time the classical Rum Millet began to degrade. The coordinated actions, carried out by Bulgarian national leaders supported by the majority of the Slavic-speaking population in today Republic of North Macedonia in order to be recognized as a separate ethnic entity, constituted the so-called "[[Bulgarian Millet]]", recognized in 1870.<ref>The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire, Selcuk Aksin Somel, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|1461731763}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC&pg=PA168&dq=bulgarian+millet+macedonia&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=uv6dUpOrG6rMygOXlYGYCA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 168.]</ref> At the time of its creation, people living in Vardar Macedonia, were not in the Exarchate. However, as a result of plebiscites held between 1872 and 1875, the Slavic districts in the area voted overwhelmingly (over 2/3) to go over to the new national Church.<ref>The Politics of Terror: The MacEdonian Liberation Movements, 1893–1903, Duncan M. Perry, Duke University Press, 1988, {{ISBN|0822308134}}, p. 15.</ref> Referring to the results of the plebiscites, and on the basis of statistical and ethnological indications, the [[1876 Conference of Constantinople]] included most of Macedonia into the Bulgarian ethnic territory.<ref>The A to Z of Bulgaria, Raymond Detrez, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|0810872021}}, p. 271.</ref> The borders of new Bulgarian state, drawn by the 1878 [[Treaty of San Stefano]], also included Macedonia, but the treaty was never put into effect and the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)]] "returned" Macedonia to the Ottoman Empire.

== Genetics ==
Anthropologically, Macedonians possess genetic lineages postulated to represent Balkan prehistoric and historic [[South Slavs#Genetics|demographic processes]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Peričić | first1 = Marijana | display-authors = etal | title = High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 22 | issue = 10| pages = 1964–1975 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msi185 | pmid = 15944443 | date = October 2005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Such lineages are also typically found in other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]], [[Serbs]], [[Bosniaks]] and [[Montenegrins]], but also in [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Romanians]].{{efn|See:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973(11)00079-2/fulltext|title=Genetic data for 17 Y-chromosomal STR loci in Macedonians in the Republic of Macedonia|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=5|issue=4|pages=e108–e111|access-date=18 March 2015|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2011.04.005|pmid=21549657|year=2011|last1=Jakovski|first1=Zlatko|last2=Nikolova|first2=Ksenija|last3=Jankova-Ajanovska|first3=Renata|last4=Marjanovic|first4=Damir|last5=Pojskic|first5=Naris|last6=Janeska|first6=Biljana}}</ref><ref name="pmid15361127">{{cite journal |vauthors=Petlichkovski A, Efinska-Mladenovska O, Trajkov D, Arsov T, Strezova A, Spiroski M |title=High-resolution typing of HLA-DRB1 locus in the Macedonian population |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=486–91 |year=2004 |pmid=15361127 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2004.00273.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=''European Journal of Human Genetics'' – Y chromosomal heritage of Croatian population and its island isolates. | volume=11 |issue=7 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200992 |pmid=12825075 |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |pages=535–542|year=2003 |last1=Barać |first1=Lovorka |last2=Peričić |first2=Marijana |last3=Klarić |first3=Irena Martinović |last4=Rootsi |first4=Siiri |last5=Janićijević |first5=Branka |last6=Kivisild |first6=Toomas |last7=Parik |first7=Jüri |last8=Rudan |first8=Igor |last9=Villems |first9=Richard |last10=Rudan |first10=Pavao |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Semino |first1=Ornella |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |title=The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic ''Homo sapiens sapiens'' in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective |journal=Science |volume=290 |pages=1155–59 |year=2000 |pmid=11073453 |doi=10.1126/science.290.5494.1155 |last2=Passarino |first2=G |last3=Oefner |first3=PJ |last4=Lin |first4=AA |last5=Arbuzova |first5=S |last6=Beckman |first6=LE |last7=De Benedictis |first7=G |last8=Francalacci |first8=P |last9=Kouvatsi |first9=A |display-authors=8 |issue=5494 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031125151213/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2003 |df=dmy |bibcode=2000Sci...290.1155S }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mksg/tan/2000/00000055/00000001/art00009;jsessionid=t6k1ukjgmoic.alexandra|title=HLA-DRB and -DQB1 polymorphism in the Macedonian population|access-date=18 March 2015|date=January 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rebala | first1 = K | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 52 | issue = 5| pages = 406–14 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6 | pmid = 17364156 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name ="balto-slavic">{{cite journal | last1 = Kushniarevich | first1 = Alena | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = Genetic heritage of the Balto-Slavic speaking populations: a synthesis of autosomal, mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal data | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 9| page = e0135820 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 | pmid = 26332464 | pmc = 4558026 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name = "GenesGeo">{{cite journal|last1=Novembre|first1=John|display-authors=etal|title=Genes mirror geography within Europe|journal=Nature|date=2008|volume=456|issue=7218|pages=98–101|doi=10.1038/nature07331|pmid=18758442|pmc=2735096|bibcode=2008Natur.456...98N}}</ref>}}

Y-DNA studies suggest that Macedonians along with neighboring South Slavs are distinct from other [[Slavs|Slavic-speaking]] populations in Europe and a majority of their [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups]] are likely to be inherited from inhabitants of the Balkans that predated sixth-century Slavic migrations.<ref name="Rębała 406–414">{{Cite journal|last1=Rębała|first1=Krzysztof|last2=Mikulich|first2=Alexei I.|last3=Tsybovsky|first3=Iosif S.|last4=Siváková|first4=Daniela|last5=Džupinková|first5=Zuzana|last6=Szczerkowska-Dobosz|first6=Aneta|last7=Szczerkowska|first7=Zofia|date=2007-03-16|title=Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|volume=52|issue=5|pages=406–414|doi=10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6|pmid=17364156|issn=1434-5161|doi-access=free}}</ref> A diverse set of Y-DNA haplogroups are found in Macedonians at significant levels, including I2a1b, E-V13, J2a, R1a1, R1b, G2a, encoding a complex pattern of demographic processes.<ref>Renata Jankova et al., Y-chromosome diversity of the three major ethno-linguistic groups in the Republic of North Macedonia; Forensic Science International: Genetics; Volume 42, September 2019, Pages 165–170.</ref> Similar distributions of the same haplogroups are found in neighboring populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna">Trombetta B. "Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent" http://gbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/7/1940.long</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Spiroski | first1 = Mirko | last2 = Arsov | first2 = Todor | last3 = Krüger | first3 = Carmen | last4 = Willuweit | first4 = Sascha | last5 = Roewer | first5 = Lutz | year = 2005 | title = Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes in Macedonian population samples | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 148 | issue = 1| pages = 69–74 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.04.067 | pmid = 15607593 }}</ref> R1a1 and I2a1b are typically found in Slavic-speaking populations across Europe<ref>[[Anatole Klyosov]], DNA Genealogy; [[Scientific Research Publishing]], Inc. USA, 2018; {{ISBN|1618966197}}, p. 211.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underhill | first1 = Peter A. | last2 = Poznik | first2 = G. David | last3 = Rootsi | first3 = Siiri | last4 = Järve | first4 = Mari | last5 = Lin | first5 = Alice A. | last6 = Wang | first6 = Jianbin | last7 = Passarelli | first7 = Ben | display-authors = etal | year = 2015| title = The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 124–31 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid = 24667786 | pmc = 4266736 }} (Supplementary Table 4)</ref> while haplogroups such as E-V13 and J2 occur at high frequencies in neighboring non-Slavic populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna"/> On the other hand R1b is the most frequently occurring haplogroup in [[Western Europe]] and G2a is most frequently found in [[Caucasus]] and the adjacent areas. Genetic similarity, irrespective of language and ethnicity, has a strong correspondence to geographic proximity in European populations.<ref name = "balto-slavic"/><ref name = "GenesGeo"/><ref>{{Citation |vauthors=Lao O, Lu TT, Nothnagel M, etal |title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=18 |issue=16 |pages=1241–8 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18691889 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049 |s2cid=16945780 }}</ref>

In regard to population genetics, not all regions of Southeastern Europe had the same ratio of native Byzantine and invading Slavic population, with the territory of the [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern Balkans]] ([[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Thrace]] and [[Moesia]]) having a higher percentages of locals compared to Slavs. Considering the majority of the Balkan Slavs came via the Eastern Carpathian route, lower percentage on east does not imply that the number of the Slavs there was lesser than among the [[Western South Slavic|Western South Slavs]]. Most probably on the territory of Western South Slavs was a state of desolation which produced there a [[founder effect]].<ref>Florin Curta's An ironic smile: the Carpathian Mountains and the migration of the Slavs, Studia mediaevalia Europaea et orientalia. Miscellanea in honorem professoris emeriti Victor Spinei oblata, edited by George Bilavschi and Dan Aparaschivei, 47–72. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Române, 2018.</ref><ref>A. Zupan et al. The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations; Annals of Human Biology 40 (6) July 2013.</ref> The region of Macedonia suffered less disruption than frontier provinces closer to the Danube, with towns and forts close to [[Ohrid]], [[Bitola]] and along the [[Via Egnatia]]. Re-settlements and the cultural links of the Byzantine Era further shaped the demographic processes which the Macedonian ancestry is linked to.<ref>Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages: 500-1250. Florin Curta, 2006 https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Southeastern_Europe_in_the_Middle_Ages_5/YIAYMNOOe0YC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=southeastern+europe,+curta&printsec=frontcover</ref>

==Identities==
{{See also|Macedonian Question|Macedonian nationalism|Macedonians (Bulgarians)|Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia}}

The large majority of Macedonians identify as [[Eastern Orthodox Christians]], who speak a [[South Slavic language]], and share a cultural and historical "Orthodox Byzantine–Slavic heritage" with their neighbours. The concept of a "Macedonian" ethnicity, distinct from their Orthodox Balkan neighbours, is seen to be a comparatively newly emergent one.{{efn|See:<ref>[[Krste Misirkov]], ''On the Macedonian Matters'' (''Za Makedonckite Raboti''), Sofia, 1903: "And, anyway, what sort of new Macedonian nation can this be when we and our fathers and grandfathers and great-grandfathers have always been called Bulgarians?"</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Sperling | first1 = James | last2 = Kay | first2 = Sean | last3 = Papacosma | first3 = S. Victor | title = Limiting institutions?: the challenge of Eurasian security governance | year = 2003 | publisher=Manchester University Press | location = Manchester, UK | isbn = 978-0-7190-6605-4 | pages = 57 |quote=Macedonian nationalism Is a new phenomenon. In the early twentieth century, there was no separate Slavic Macedonian identity }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Titchener | first1 = Frances B. | last2 = Moorton | first2 = Richard F. | title = The eye expanded: life and the arts in Greco-Roman antiquity | year = 1999 | publisher=University of California Press | location = Berkeley | isbn = 978-0-520-21029-5 | pages = 259|quote=On the other hand, the Macedonians are a newly emergent people in search of a past to help legitimize their precarious present as they attempt to establish their singular identity in a Slavic world dominated historically by Serbs and Bulgarians. ... The twentieth-century development of a Macedonian ethnicity, and its recent evolution into independent statehood following the collapse of the Yugoslav state in 1991, has followed a rocky road. In order to survive the vicissitudes of Balkan history and politics, the Macedonians, who have had no history, need one.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Kaufman | first1 = Stuart J. | title = Modern hatreds: the symbolic politics of ethnic war | year = 2001 | publisher=Cornell University Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-8014-8736-6 | pages = 193|quote=The key fact about Macedonian nationalism is that it is new: in the early twentieth century, Macedonian villagers defined their identity religiously—they were either "Bulgarian," "Serbian," or "Greek" depending on the affiliation of the village priest. ... According to the new Macedonian mythology, modern Macedonians are the direct descendants of Alexander the Great's subjects. They trace their cultural identity to the ninth-century Saints Cyril and Methodius, who converted the Slavs to Christianity and invented the first Slavic alphabet, and whose disciples maintained a centre of Christian learning in western Macedonia. A more modern national hero is Gotse Delchev, leader of the turn-of-the-century Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), which was actually a largely pro-Bulgarian organization but is claimed as the founding Macedonian national movement.}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Press_quote">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278|quote= Despite the recent development of Macedonian identity, as Loring Danforth notes, it is no more or less artificial than any other identity. It merely has a more recent ethnogenesis – one that can therefore more easily be traced through the recent historical record.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Zielonka | first1 = Jan | last2 = Pravda | first2 = Alex | title = Democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe | year = 2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-924409-6 | pages = 422|quote=Unlike the Slovene and Croatian identities, which existed independently for a long period before the emergence of SFRY Macedonian identity and language were themselves a product federal Yugoslavia, and took shape only after 1944. Again unlike Slovenia and Croatia, the very existence of a separate Macedonian identity was questioned—albeit to a different degree—by both the governments and the public of all the neighboring nations (Greece being the most intransigent)}}</ref>}} The earliest manifestations of incipient Macedonian identity emerged during the second half of the 19th century<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129231959/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 January 2019|quote=Macedonian nationalism did not arise until the end of the last century.|date=14 May 1995|work=The New York Times|last=Bonner|title=The World; The Land That Can't Be Named|first=Raymond|access-date=29 January 2019|location=New York|author-link=Raymond Bonner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=They were also insisting that the Macedonians sacrifice their national name, under which, as we have seen throughout this work, their national identity and their nation formed in the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=269|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=Under very trying circumstances, most ethnic Macedonians chose a Macedonian identity. That identity began to form with the Slav awakening in Macedonia in the first half of the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=284|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|date=2008|author-link=Andrew Rossos|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> among limited circles of Slavic-speaking intellectuals, predominantly outside the region of Macedonia. They arose after the [[First World War]] and especially during 1930s, and thus were consolidated by Communist Yugoslavia's governmental policy after the [[Second World War]].{{efn|See:<ref>Loring M. Danforth, ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', 1995, Princeton University Press, p.65, {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}</ref><ref>Stephen Palmer, Robert King, ''Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian question'', Hamden, Connecticut Archon Books, 1971, p.p.199-200</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOPUnWM8RAYC&q=The+Macedonian+Question,+Britain+and+the+Southern+Balkans+1939-1949&pg=PP13|title=The Macedonian Question : Britain and the Southern Balkans 1939–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780191528729|last1=Livanios|first1=Dimitris|date=17 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="Woodhouse">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYAwZFwyYdwC&q=Chris+Woodhouse+Struggle+for+Greece+1941-1949&pg=PR25|title=The Struggle for Greece, 1941–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850654926|last1=Woodhouse|first1=Christopher M.|year=2002}}</ref><ref name="macedonians">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_NbmSoRsRcC&q=who+are+the+macedonians&pg=PP1|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850652380|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=1995}}</ref>}}

===Historical overview===
Throughout the Middle Ages and Ottoman rule up until the early 20th century<ref name="Woodhouse"/><ref name="macedonians"/><ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF Center for Documentation and Information on Minorities in Europe, Southeast Europe (CEDIME-SE) – "Macedonians of Bulgaria", p. 14.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF |date=23 July 2006 }}</ref> the Slavic-speaking population majority in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] were more commonly referred to (both by themselves and outsiders) as [[Bulgarians]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbuavUZKEwC&q=Who+are+the+Macedonians|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850655343|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/im3/im_6_1.htm|title=Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија, Иван Микулчиќ, Македонска академија на науките и уметностите – Скопје, 1996, стр. 72.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/da/da_summary.htm|title=Formation of the Bulgarian nation (summary) |author=Academician Dimitŭr Simeonov Angelov |publisher=Sofia-Press |year=1978 |pages=413–415 |access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> However, in pre-nationalist times, terms such as "Bulgarian" did not possess a strict ethno-nationalistic meaning, rather, they were loose, often interchangeable terms which could simultaneously denote regional habitation, allegiance to a particular empire, religious orientation, membership in certain social groups.{{efn|See:<ref>When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans. J V A Fine. pp. 3–5.</ref><ref>Relexification Hypothesis in Rumanian. Paul Wexler. p. 170</ref><ref>Cumans and Tartars: Oriental military in the pre-Ottoman Balkans. Istvan Vasary. p. 18</ref><ref>Byzantium's Balkan Frontier. Paul Stephenson. p. 78–79</ref>}} Similarly, a "Byzantine" was a ''Roman'' subject of Constantinople, and the term bore no strict ethnic connotations, Greek or otherwise.<ref>The Edinburgh History of the Greeks; 500–1250: The Middle Ages. Florin Curta. 2013. p. 294 (echoing Anthony D Smith and Anthony Kaldellis) "no clear notion exists that the Greek nation survived into Byzantine times...the ethnic identity of those who lived in Greece during the Middle Ages is best described as Roman."</ref> Overall, in the Middle Ages, "a person's origin was distinctly regional",<ref>Mats Roslund. ''Guests in the House: Cultural Transmission Between Slavs and Scandinavians''; 2008. p. 79</ref> and in [[Ottoman era]], before the 19th-century [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]], it was based on the corresponding [[Millet system|confessional community]]. After the rise of nationalism, most of the Slavic-speaking population in the area, joined the [[Bulgarian Millet|Bulgarian community]], through voting in its favor on a plebiscites held during the 1870s, by a qualified majority (over two-thirds).

===19th-century emergence===
With the creation of the [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgarian Principality]] in 1878, the Macedonian upper stratum had to decide whether Macedonia was to emerge as an independent state or as part of a "[[Greater Bulgaria]]".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzci446GLakC&q=Chary,+macedonia+jews+novoosvobodeni&pg=PA45|title=The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution, 1940–1944|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780822976011|last1=Chary|first1=Frederick B.|date=15 November 1972}}</ref> During this period, the first expressions of [[Macedonian nationalism#Macedonism|Macedonism]] by certain Macedonian intellectuals occurred in [[Belgrade]], [[Sofia]], [[Istanbul]], [[Thessaloniki]] and [[St. Petersburg]]. In the 1860s, according to [[Petko Slaveykov]], some young intellectuals from Macedonia were claiming that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians.<ref>[[s:en:Translation:The Macedonian question|The Macedonian Question]] an article from 1871 by [[Petko Slaveykov]] published in the newspaper Macedonia in Carigrad (now [[Istanbul]]). In this article Petko Slaveykov writes: "We have many times heard from the Macedonists that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians."</ref> In a letter written to the Bulgarian Exarch in February 1874 [[Petko Slaveykov]] reports that discontent with the current situation “has given birth among local patriots to the disastrous idea of working independently on the advancement of their [[Macedonian dialects|own local dialect]] and what’s more, of their own, separate Macedonian church leadership.”<ref>[[s:en:Translation:A letter from P.R. Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch|A letter from Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch]] written in [[Thessaloniki|Solun]] in February 1874</ref> The activities of these people were also registered by [[Stojan Novaković]].<ref>Балканска питања и мање историјско-политичке белешке о Балканском полуострву 1886–1905. Стојан Новаковић, Београд, 1906.</ref> The nascent Macedonian nationalism, illegal at home in the theocratic Ottoman Empire, and illegitimate internationally, waged a precarious struggle for survival against overwhelming odds: in appearance against the Ottoman Empire, but in fact against the three expansionist Balkan states and their respective patrons among the great powers.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref>

The first known author that propagated the concept of a Macedonian ethnicity was [[Georgi Pulevski]], who in 1875 published ''Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish'', in which he wrote:
{{cquote|What do we call a nation? – People who are of the same origin and who speak the same words and who live and make friends of each other, who have the same customs and songs and entertainment are what we call a nation, and the place where that people lives is called the people's country. Thus the Macedonians also are a nation and the place which is theirs is called Macedonia.<ref>Rečnik od tri jezika: s. makedonski, arbanski i turski [Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish], U državnoj štampariji, 1875, p. 48f.</ref>}}

On the other hand, [[Theodosius of Skopje]], a priest who have hold a high-ranking positions within the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] was chosen as a bishop of the [[episcopacy]] of [[Skopje]] in 1885. As a bishop of Skopje, Theodosius renounced de facto the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] and attempted to restore the [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] as a separate Macedonian Orthodox Church in all eparchies of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]],<ref>Theodosius of Skopje Centralen D'rzhaven istoricheski archiv (Sofia) 176, op. 1. arh.ed. 595, l.5–42 – Razgledi, X/8 (1968), pp. 996–1000.</ref> responsible for the spiritual, cultural and educational life of all Macedonian Orthodox Christians.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> During this time period Metropolitan Bishop [[Theodosius of Skopje]] made several pleas to the Bulgarian church to allow a separate Macedonian church, and ultimately on 4 December 1891 he sent a [[s:Translation:Theodosius, the metropolitan of Skopje, to Pope Leo XIII|letter]] to the Pope Leo XIII to ask for a [[s:Translation:The conditions of transfer of Macedonian eparchies to Union with the Roman Catholic Church|recognition]] and a [[s:Translation:Bishop Augusto Bonetti on the talks with Theodosius, the Metropolitan of Skopje|protection]] from the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1892 the local [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] parish school council in the city of [[Kastoria]] (then Kostur) adopted the proposal of a group of teachers "to eliminate both [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] and introduce [[Kostur dialect|local dialect]]<ref>Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistic Variation and Change; University Press, 2002; {{ISBN|0748615156}}, p. 132.</ref> as the language of instruction in the town school," but the idea failed the same year.<ref name="books.google.com">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC&pg=PA575 ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''], Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, p. 545</ref><ref>Friedman, Victor A. “The First Philological Conference for the Macedonian" in The Earliest Stage of Language Planning: "The First Congress" Phenomenon with Joshua A. Fishman as ed. Walter de Gruyter, 2011, {{ISBN|3110848988}}, p. 162.</ref>

In 1903 [[Krste Misirkov|Krste Petkov Misirkov]] published his book ''[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters|On Macedonian Matters]]'' in which he laid down the principles of the modern Macedonian nationhood and language.<ref name=misirkov>{{cite web|url=http://www.misirkov.org/ |title=上位表示されないので休止しました |access-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220160042/http://www.misirkov.org/ |archive-date=20 December 2014 }}</ref> This [[s:mk:За македонцките работи|book]] written in the standardized [[Dialects of Macedonian|central dialect of Macedonia]] is considered by ethnic Macedonians as a milestone of the ethnic Macedonian identity and the apogee of the process of Macedonian awakening.<ref name="books.google.com"/> In his article "[[s:mk:Крсте Петков Мисирков/ Македонски национализам|Macedonian Nationalism]]" he wrote:

{{cquote|I hope it will not be held against me that I, as a Macedonian, place the interests of my country before all... I am a Macedonian, I have a Macedonian's consciousness, and so I have my own Macedonian view of the past, present, and future of my country and of all the South Slavs; and so I should like them to consult us, the Macedonians, about all the questions concerning us and our neighbours, and not have everything end merely with agreements between Bulgaria and Serbia about us – but without us.}}

Misirkov argued that the dialect of central Macedonia (Veles-Prilep-Bitola-Ohrid)<ref>[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters#A few words on the Macedonian literary language|On Macedonian Matters – A few works on the Macedonian literary language]]</ref> should be taken as a standard Macedonian literary language, in which Macedonians should write, study, and worship; the autocephalous [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] should be restored; and the Slavic people of Macedonia should be identified in their Ottoman identity cards (''[[nofuz]]'') as "Macedonians".<ref name=misirkov/>

The next great figure of the Macedonian awakening was [[Dimitrija Čupovski]], one of the founders of the [[Macedonian Literary Society]], established in [[Saint Petersburg]] in 1902. In the period 1913–1918, Čupovski published the newspaper ''Македонскi Голосъ (Macedonian Voice)'' in which he and fellow members of the Petersburg Macedonian Colony propagated the existence of a Macedonian people separate from the Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs, and sought to popularize the idea for an independent Macedonian state.

===20th-century development===
After the [[Balkan Wars]], following division of the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] amongst the [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Kingdom of Greece]], the [[Kingdom of Bulgaria]] and the [[Kingdom of Serbia]], and after World War I, the idea of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation was further spread among the Slavic-speaking population. The suffering during the wars, the endless struggle of the Balkan monarchies for dominance over the population increased the Macedonians' sentiment that the institutionalization of an independent Macedonian nation would put an end to their suffering. On the question of whether they were Serbs or Bulgarians, the people more often started answering: "Neither Bulgar, nor Serb... I am Macedonian only, and I'm sick of war."<ref>Историја на македонската нација. Блаже Ристовски, 1999, Скопје.</ref><ref>"On the Monastir Road". Herbert Corey, ''National Geographic'', May 1917 ([http://www.promacedonia.org/gall/ng1917/217E0388.JPG p. 388.])</ref>

[[Stratis Myrivilis]], an important Greek writer, in his ''Life in the Tomb'', from his experiences as a soldier in the [[Macedonian front]] (1916–18), described also the self-identitification of the local population: "...They don't want to be called Bulgar, neither Srrp, neither Grrts. Only Macedon Orthodox...."<ref>Life in the Tomb, Η ζωή εν τάφω, first edition, 1924</ref>

The consolidation of an international Communist organization (the [[Comintern]]) in the 1920s led to some failed attempts by the Communists to use the [[Macedonian Question]] as a political weapon. In the 1920 Yugoslav parliamentary elections, 25% of the total Communist vote came from Macedonia, but participation was low (only 55%), mainly because the pro-Bulgarian IMRO organised a boycott against the elections. In the following years, the communists attempted to enlist the pro-IMRO sympathies of the population in their cause. In the context of this attempt, in 1924 the Comintern organized the filed signing of the so-called [[May Manifesto]], in which independence of partitioned Macedonia was required.<ref>Victor Roudometof, ''Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans (Contributions to the Study of World History)'', Praeger, 2001, p.187</ref> In 1925 with the help of the Comintern, the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (United)]] was created, composed of former left-wing [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (IMRO) members. This organization promoted in the early 1930s the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian nation.<ref>The Situation in Macedonia and the Tasks of IMRO (United) – published in the official newspaper of IMRO (United), "Македонско дело", N.185, April 1934.</ref> This idea was internationalized and backed by the Comintern which issued in 1934 a [[Resolution of the Comintern on the Macedonian Question|resolution supporting the development of the entity]].<ref>Резолюция о македонской нации (принятой Балканском секретариате Коминтерна — Февраль 1934 г, Москва.</ref> This action was attacked by the IMRO, but was supported by the [[Balkan]] communists. The Balkan communist parties supported the national consolidation of the ethnic Macedonian people and created Macedonian sections within the parties, headed by prominent IMRO (United) members. The sense of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation gained credence during World War II when ethnic Macedonian communist partisan detachments were formed. In 1943 the Communist Party of Macedonia was established and the resistance movement grew up. After the World War II ethnic Macedonian institutions were created in the three parts of the region of Macedonia, then under communist control,<ref name="Barbara Jelavich">History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century. Barbara Jelavich, 1983.</ref> including the establishment of the [[People's Republic of Macedonia]] within the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (SFRJ).

The available data indicates that despite the policy of assimilation, pro-Bulgarian sentiments among the Macedonian Slavs in Yugoslavia were still sizable during the interwar period. However if the Yugoslavs would recognize the Slavic inhabitants of Vardar Macedonia as Bulgarians, it would mean that the area should be part of Bulgaria. Practically in [[post-World War II]] Macedonia, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's state policy of forced [[Serbianisation]] was changed with a new one — of [[Macedonization]]. The codification of the Macedonian language and the recognition of the Macedonian nation had the main goal: finally to ban any [[Bulgarophilia]] among the Macedonians and to build a new consciousness, based on identification with Yugoslavia. As result Yugoslavia introduced again an abrupt ''de-Bulgarization'' of the people in the [[PR Macedonia]], such as it already had conducted in the [[Vardar Banovina]] during the [[Interwar period]]. Around 100,000 pro-Bulgarian elements were imprisoned for violations of the special ''[[Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honour]]'', and over 1,200 were allegedly killed. In this way generations of students grew up educated in strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment which during the times of [[Communist Yugoslavia]], increased to the level of [[state policy]]. Its main agenda was a result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarians and the new Macedonian nation, because Macedonians could confirm themselves as a separate community with its own history, only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. This policy has continued in the new Republic of Macedonia after 1990, although with less intensity. Thus, the Bulgarian part of the identity of the Slavic-speaking population in Vardar Macedonia has died out.{{efn|See:<ref>"Within Greece, and also within the new kingdom of Yugoslavia, which Serbia had joined in 1918, the ejection of the Bulgarian church, the closure of Bulgarian schools, and the banning of publication in Bulgarian, together with the expulsion or flight to Bulgaria of a large proportion of the Macedonian Slav intelligentsia, served as the prelude to campaigns of forcible cultural and linguistic assimilation...In both countries, these policies of de-bulgarization and assimilation were pursued, with fluctuating degrees of vigor, right through to 1941, when the Second World War engulfed the Balkan peninsula. The degree of these policies' success, however, remains open to question. The available evidence suggests that Bulgarian national sentiment among the Macedonian Slavs of Yugoslavia and Greece remained strong throughout the interwar period, though they lacked the means to offer more than passive resistance to official policies." For more see: F. A. K. Yasamee, Nationality in the Balkans: The case of the Macedonians. Balkans: A Mirror of the New World Order, Istanbul: Eren Publishing, 1995; pp. 121–132.</ref><ref>"As in Kosovo, the restoration of Serbian rule in 1918, to which the Strumica district and several other Bulgarian frontier salients accrued in 1919 (Bulgaria also having lost all its Aegean coastline to Greece), marked the replay of the first Serbian occupation (1913–1915). Once again, the Exarchist clergy and Bulgarian teachers were expelled, all Bulgarian-language signs and books removed, and all Bulgarian clubs, societies, and organizations dissolved, The Serbianization of family surnames proceeded as before the war, with Stankov becoming Stankovic and Atanasov entered in the books by Atanackovic... Thousands of Macedonians left for Bulgaria. Though there were fewer killings of "Bulgarians" (a pro-Bulgarian source claimed 342 such instances and 47 additional disappearances in 1918 – 1924), the conventional forms of repression (jailings, internments etc.) were applied more systematically and with greater effect than before (the same source lists 2,900 political arrests in the same period)... Like Kosovo, Macedonia was slated for Serb settlements and internal colonization. The authorities projected the settlement of 50,000 families in Macedonia, though only 4,200 families had been placed in 280 colonies by 1940." For more see: Ivo Banac, "The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics" The Macedoine, Cornell University Press, 1984; {{ISBN|0801416752}}, pp. 307–328.</ref><ref>Yugoslav Communists recognized the existence of a Macedonian nationality during WWII to quiet fears of the Macedonian population that a communist Yugoslavia would continue to follow the former Yugoslav policy of forced Serbianization. Hence, for them to recognize the inhabitants of Macedonia as Bulgarians would be tantamount to admitting that they should be part of the Bulgarian state. For that the Yugoslav Communists were most anxious to mold Macedonian history to fit their conception of Macedonian consciousness. The treatment of Macedonian history in Communist Yugoslavia had the same primary goal as the creation of the Macedonian language: to de-Bulgarize the Macedonian Slavs, and to create an national consciousness that would inspire identification with Yugoslavia. For more see: Stephen E. Palmer, Robert R. King, Yugoslav communism and the Macedonian question, Archon Books, 1971, {{ISBN|0208008217}}, Chapter 9: The encouragement of Macedonian culture.</ref><ref>The Serbianization of the Vardar region ended and Yugoslavization was not introduced either; rather, a policy of cultural, linguistic, and “historical” Macedonization by de-Bulgarianization was implemented, with immediate success. For more see: Irina Livezeanu and Arpad von KlimoThe Routledge as ed. History of East Central Europe since 1700, Routledge, 2017, {{ISBN|1351863428}}, p. 490.</ref><ref>In Macedonia, post-WWII generations grew up "overdosed" with strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment, leading to the creation of mainly negative stereotypes for Bulgaria and its nation. The anti-Bulgariansim (or Bulgarophobia) increased almost to the level of state ideology during the ideological monopoly of the League of Communists of Macedonia, and still continues to do so today, although with less ferocity... However, it is more important to say openly that a great deal of these anti-Bulgarian sentiments result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarian and the Macedonian nations. Macedonia could confirm itself as a state with its own past, present and future only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. For more see: Mirjana Maleska. With the eyes of the "other" (about Macedonian-Bulgarian relations and the Macedonian national identity). In New Balkan Politics, Issue 6, pp. 9–11. Peace and Democracy Center: "Ian Collins", Skopje, Macedonia, 2003. ISSN 1409-9454.</ref><ref>After WWII in Macedonia the past was systematically falsified to conceal the fact that many prominent ‘Macedonians’ had supposed themselves to be Bulgarians, and generations of students were taught the pseudo-history of the Macedonian nation. The mass media and education were the key to this process of national acculturation, speaking to people in a language that they came to regard as their Macedonian mother tongue, even if it was perfectly understood in Sofia. For more see: Michael L. Benson, Yugoslavia: A Concise History, Edition 2, Springer, 2003, {{ISBN|1403997209}}, p. 89.</ref><ref>Once specifically Macedonian interests came to the fore under the Yugoslav communist umbrella and in direct confrontation with the Bulgarian occupation authorities (during WWII), the Bulgarian part of the identity of Vardar Macedonians was destined to die out – in a process similar to the triumph of Austrian over German-Austrian identity in post-war years. Drezov K. (1999) Macedonian identity: an overview of the major claims. In: Pettifer J. (eds) The New Macedonian Question. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London; {{ISBN|978-0-333-92066-4}}, p. 51.</ref><ref>Additionally, some 100,000 people were imprisoned in the post-1944 period for violations of the law for the "protection of Macedonian national honor," and some 1,260 Bulgarian sympathizers were allegedly killed. (Troebst, 1997: 248–50, 255–57; 1994: 116–22; Poulton, 2000: 118–19). For more see: Roudometof, Victor, Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question, Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}, p. 104.</ref>}}

===21st-century uncertainty===
Following the collapse of Yugoslavia, the issue of Macedonian identity emerged again. Nationalists and governments alike from neighbouring countries (especially Greece and Bulgaria) espouse the view that the Macedonian ethnicity is a modern, artificial creation. Such views have been seen by Macedonian historians to represent irredentist motives on Macedonian territory.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Moreover, some historians point out that ''all'' modern nations are recent, politically motivated constructs based on creation "myths".<ref>Smith A.D. ''The Antiquity of Nations''. 2004, p. 47</ref> The creation of Macedonian identity is "no more or less artificial than any other identity".<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278}}</ref> Contrary to the claims of Romantic nationalists, modern, territorially bound and mutually exclusive nation states have little in common with their preceding large territorial or dynastic medieval empires; and any connection between them is tenuous at best.<ref>Danforth, L. ''The Macedonian Conflict. Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. p. 25</ref> In any event, irrespective of shifting political affiliations, the Macedonian Slavs shared in the fortunes of the [[Byzantine commonwealth]] and the [[Rum millet]] and they can claim them as their heritage.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Loring Danforth states similarly, the ancient heritage of modern Balkan countries is not "the mutually exclusive property of one specific nation" but "the shared inheritance of all Balkan peoples".<ref>''Ancient Macedonia: National Symbols.'' L Danforth in ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''. Wiley –Blackwell 2010. p. 597-8</ref>

A more radical and uncompromising strand of Macedonian nationalism has recently emerged called "ancient Macedonism", or "[[Antiquisation]]". Proponents of this view see modern Macedonians as direct descendants of the ancient Macedonians. This view faces criticism by academics as it is not supported by archaeology or other historical disciplines, and also could marginalize the Macedonian identity.<ref>The Handbook of Political Change in Eastern Europe, Sten Berglund, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013, {{ISBN|1782545883}},[https://books.google.com/books?id=hmtuqFnuDZwC&pg=PA622&dq=antiquisation+macedonia=#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 622.]</ref><ref>Transforming National Holidays: Identity Discourse in the West and South Slavic Countries, 1985–2010, Ljiljana Šarić, Karen Gammelgaard, Kjetil Rå Hauge, John Benjamins Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|9027206384}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=F0aecYH2yQMC&pg=PA207&dq=antiquization+macedonia#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 207–208.]</ref> Surveys on the effects of the controversial [[nation-building]] project [[Skopje 2014]] and on the perceptions of the population of Skopje revealed a high degree of uncertainty regarding the latter's national identity. A supplementary national poll showed that there was a great discrepancy between the population's sentiment and the narrative the state sought to promote.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Muhić | first1 = Maja | last2 = Takovski | first2 = Aleksandar | year = 2014 | title = Redefining National Identity in Macedonia. Analyzing Competing Origins Myths and Interpretations through Hegemonic Representations. | journal = Etnološka Tribina | volume = 44 | issue = 37| page = 144 | doi = 10.15378/1848-9540.2014 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Additionally, during the last two decades, tens of thousands of citizens of North Macedonia have applied for Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Sinisa Jakov Marusic, More Macedonians Apply for Bulgarian Citizenship. [https://balkaninsight.com/2014/08/05/more-macedonians-apply-for-bulgarian-citizenship/ Aug 5, 2014, Balkans Inside.]</ref> In the period 2002–2021 some 90,000 acquired it while ca. 53,000 applied and are still waiting.<ref>Предоставяне на българско гражданство, Справка за преиода 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 г. (Bulgarian citizenship Information for the period 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 year); Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за 2012-2013 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for 2012-2013 year), p. 7] Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 23.01.2013 – 22.01.2014 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 23.01.2013–22.01.2014 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 year), p. 5; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 year), p. 6; Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 14 януари – 31 декември 2017 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 14 January - 31 December 2017); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2018 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2018); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2019 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2019). Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2020 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2020).</ref> Bulgaria has a special ethnic dual-citizenship regime which makes a constitutional distinction between ''ethnic Bulgarians'' and ''Bulgarian citizens''. In the case of the Macedonians, merely declaring their national identity as Bulgarian is enough to gain a citizenship.<ref>Bulgaria which has an ethnic citizenship regime and has a liberal dual citizenship regime makes a constitutional distinction between Bulgarians and Bulgarian citizens, whereas the former category reflects an ethnic (blood) belonging and the later the civic (territorial) belonging. In line with this definition, naturalization in Bulgaria is facilitated for those individuals who can prove that they belong to the Bulgarian nation...The birth certificates of parents and grandparents, their mother tongue, membership in Bulgarian institutions as the Bulgarian Church, former Bulgarian citizenship of the parents and so on are relevant criteria for the establishment of the ethnic origin of the applicant. In the case of Macedonian citizens, declaring their national identity as Bulgarian suffices to obtain Bulgarian citizenship, without the requirement for permanent residence in Bulgaria, or the language examination etc. For more see: Jelena Džankić, Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges, Southeast European Studies, Ashgate Publishing, 2015, {{ISBN|1472446410}}, p. 126.</ref> By making the procedure simpler, Bulgaria stimulates more Macedonian citizens (of Slavic origin) to apply for a Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria, Historical Dictionaries of Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, {{ISBN|1442241802}}, p. 318.</ref> However, many Macedonians who apply for Bulgarian citizenship as ''Bulgarians by origin'',<ref>Jo Shaw and Igor Štiks as ed., Citizenship after Yugoslavia, Routledge, 2013, {{ISBN|1317967070}}, p. 106.</ref> have few ties with Bulgaria.<ref>Rainer Bauböck, Debating Transformations of National Citizenship, IMISCOE Research Series, Springer, 2018, {{ISBN|3319927191}}, pp. 47–48.</ref> Further, those applying for [[Bulgarian citizenship]] usually say they do so to gain access to [[Member state of the European Union|member states of the European Union]] rather to assert Bulgarian identity.<ref>Michael Palairet, Macedonia: A Voyage through History (Vol. 2, From the Fifteenth Century to the Present), Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016, {{ISBN|1443888494}}, p. 347.</ref> This phenomenon is called ''[[placebo effect|placebo]] identity''.<ref>Mina Hristova, In-between Spaces: Dual Citizenship and Placebo Identity at the Triple Border between Serbia, Macedonia and Bulgaria in New Diversities; Volume 21, No. 1, 2019, pp. 37-55.</ref> Some Macedonians view the Bulgarian policy as part of a strategy to destabilize the Macedonian national identity.<ref>Risteski, L. (2016). “Bulgarian passports” – Possibilities for greater mobility of Macedonians and/or strategies for identity manipulation? EthnoAnthropoZoom/ЕтноАнтропоЗум, (10), 80-107. https://doi.org/10.37620/EAZ14100081r</ref> As a nation engaged in a dispute over its distinctiveness from Bulgarians, Macedonians have always perceived themselves as being threatened from its neighbor.<ref>Ljubica Spaskovska, Country report on Macedonia, November 2012. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, p.20.</ref> Bulgaria insists its neighbor to admit the common historical roots of their languages and nations, a view Skopje continues to reject.<ref>Bulgaria asks EU to stop 'fake' Macedonian identity. [https://www.dw.com/en/bulgaria-asks-eu-to-stop-fake-macedonian-identity/a-55020781 Deutsche Welle, 23.09.2020.]</ref> As result, Bulgaria blocked the official start of EU accession talks with North Macedonia.<ref>Bulgaria blocks EU accession talks with North Macedonia. [https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/bulgaria-blocks-eu-accession-talks-with-north-macedonia Nov 17, 2020, National post].</ref>

==Ethnonym==
The national name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] term ''Makedonía'', related to the name of the [[Macedonia (region)|region]], named after the [[ancient Macedonians]] and their [[Macedon|kingdom]]. It originates from the [[ancient Greek]] adjective [[makednos]], meaning "tall",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2364596 μακεδνός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> which shares its roots with the adjective ''makrós'', meaning the same.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmakro%2Fs1 μακρός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> The name is originally believed to have meant either "highlanders" or "the tall ones", possibly descriptive of these [[Ancient Macedonians|ancient people]].<ref name="Macedonia">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Macedonia Macedonia], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref><ref>[[Eugene N. Borza]], ''Makedonika'', Regina Books, {{ISBN|0-941690-65-2}}, p.114: The "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin both to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".</ref><ref>Nigel Guy Wilson, ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece'', Routledge, 2009, p.439: The latest archaeological findings have confirmed that Macedonia took its name from a tribe of tall, Greek-speaking people, the Makednoi.</ref> With the conquest of the Balkans by the [[Ottomans]] in the late 14th century, the name of Macedonia disappeared as a geographical designation for several centuries. The name was revived just during the early 19th century, after the foundation of the modern [[Greece|Greek]] state with its Western Europe-derived [[Philhellenism|obsession with Ancient Greece]].<ref>Jelavich Barbara, History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century, 1983, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0521274591}}, page 91.</ref><ref>John S. Koliopoulos, Thanos M. Veremis, Modern Greece: A History since 1821. A New History of Modern Europe, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, {{ISBN|1444314831}}, p. 48.</ref> As result of the [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire]], massive Greek [[Megali Idea|religious and school propaganda]] occurred, and a process of ''[[Hellenization]]'' was implemented among Slavic-speaking population of the area.<ref>Richard Clogg, Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002, {{ISBN|1850657068}}, p. 160.</ref><ref>Dimitar Bechev, Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Scarecrow Press, 2009, {{ISBN|0810862956}}, Introduction, pp. VII-VIII.</ref> In this way, the name ''Macedonians'' was applied to the local Slavs, aiming to stimulate the development of [[Grecoman|close ties]] between them and the [[Greeks]], linking both sides to the [[ancient Macedonians]], as a counteract against the growing [[National awakening of Bulgaria|Bulgarian cultural influence]] into the region.<ref>J. Pettifer, The New Macedonian Question, St Antony's group, Springer, 1999, {{ISBN|0230535798}}, pp. 49–51.</ref><ref>Anastas Vangeli, Nation-building ancient Macedonian style: the origins and the effects of the so-called antiquization in Macedonia. Nationalities Papers, the Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity, Volume 39, 2011 pp. 13–32.</ref> As a consequence since 1850s some Slavic intellectuals from the area, adopted the designation ''Macedonian'' as a regional identity, and it began to gain a popularity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Tchavdar Marinov, Entangled Histories of the Balkans, Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies, BRILL, 2013, {{ISBN|900425076X}}, pp. 283–285.</ref> Serbian politics then, also encouraged this kind of [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalism]] to neutralize the Bulgarian influx, thereby promoting Serbian interests there.<ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, 1900–1996, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 65.</ref> In the early 20th century the local ''Bulgarians'' already called themselves Macedonians, and were called in this way by their neighbors.<ref>E. Damianopoulos, The Macedonians: Their Past and Present, Springer, 2012, {{ISBN|1137011904}}, p. 185.</ref> During the [[interbellum]] Bulgaria also supported to some extent the Macedonian ''regional identity'', especially in Yugoslavia. Its aim was to prevent the [[Serbianization]] of the local Slavic-speakers, because the very name ''Macedonia'' was prohibited in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.<ref>Donald Bloxham, The Final Solution: A Genocide, OUP Oxford, 2009, {{ISBN|0199550336}}, p. 65.</ref><ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 76.</ref> Ultimately the designation Macedonian, changed its status in 1944, and went from being predominantly a regional, ethnographic denomination, to a national one.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Pieter Plas, Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Volume 34 of Multiple Europesq Peter Lang, 2005, {{ISBN|9052012970}}, p. 173.</ref>

==Population==
{{Ethnic Macedonians}}
The vast majority of Macedonians live along the valley of the river [[Vardar]], the central region of the Republic of North Macedonia. They form about 64.18% of the population of North Macedonia (1,297,981 people according to the [https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census]). Smaller numbers live in eastern [[Albania]], northern [[Greece]], and southern [[Serbia]], mostly abutting the border areas of the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]]. A large number of Macedonians have immigrated overseas to [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and to many European countries: [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Austria]] among others.

===Balkans===

====Greece====
{{See also|Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia}}

The existence of an ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece is rejected by the Greek government. The number of people speaking Slavic dialects has been estimated at somewhere between 10,000 and 250,000.{{efn|See:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnxZfdDXC7gC&q=number+of+slavophone+greece&pg=PA234|title=Bulgaria and Europe|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781843318286|last1=Katsikas|first1=Stefanos|date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=GR|title=Ethnologue report for Greece|work=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=13 February 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209045725/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004|date=9 February 2011}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605045853/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004|date=5 June 2011}}.</ref><ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Jacques Bacid, PhD Macedonia Through the Ages. Columbia University, 1983.</ref><ref>Hill, P. (1999) "Macedonians in Greece and Albania: A Comparative study of recent developments". Nationalities Papers Volume 27, 1 March 1999, p. 44(14).</ref><ref>Poulton, H.(2000), "Who are the Macedonians?", C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.</ref>}} Most of these people however do not have an ethnic Macedonian national consciousness, with most choosing to identify as ethnic [[Greeks]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC&q=number+of+slav+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA74|title=The Macedonian Conflict|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=0691043566|last1=Danforth|first1=Loring M.|date=6 April 1997}}</ref> or rejecting both ethnic designations and preferring terms such as ''"natives"'' instead.<ref name="Greece">{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61651.htm|title=Greece|publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|access-date=27 October 2016}}</ref> In 1999 the [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights|Greek Helsinki Monitor]] estimated that the number of people identifying as ethnic Macedonians numbered somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000,<ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD3TZJy5HagC&q=number+of+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA152|title=Culture and Rights|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780521797351|last1=Cowan|first1=Jane K.|last2=Dembour|first2=Marie-Bénédicte|last3=Wilson|first3=Richard A.|date=29 November 2001}}</ref> Macedonian sources generally claim the number of ethnic Macedonians living in Greece at somewhere between 200,000–350,000.<ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press, p. 45</ref> The ethnic Macedonians in Greece have faced difficulties from the Greek government in their ability to self-declare as members of a ''"Macedonian minority"'' and to refer to their native language as ''"Macedonian"''.<ref name="Greece"/>

Since the late 1980s there has been an ethnic Macedonian revival in Northern Greece, mostly centering on the region of [[Florina]].<ref>Detrez, Raymond; Plas, Pieter (2005), Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Peter Lang, pp. 50</ref> Since then ethnic Macedonian organisations including the [[Rainbow (Greece)|Rainbow political party]] have been established.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110928045606/http://www.novamakedonija.com.mk/NewsDetal.asp?vest=6110956302&id=9&setIzdanie=21996 Second Macedonian newspaper in Greece] – ''"Втор весник на Македонците во Грција...Весникот се вика "Задруга"...За нецел месец во Грција излезе уште еден весник на Македонците/A Second Macedonian Newspaper in greece...The Newspaper is Called "Zadruga/Koinothta"...Barely a month ago in Greece another newspaper for the Macedonians was released."''</ref> ''Rainbow'' first opened its offices in Florina on 6 September 1995. The following day, the offices had been broken into and had been ransacked.<ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf Greek Helsinki Monitor & Minority Rights Group- Greece; Greece against its Macedonian minority] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209033640/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf |date=2006-12-09 }}</ref> Later Members of ''Rainbow'' had been charged for "causing and inciting mutual hatred among the citizens" because the party had bilingual signs written in both [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]].<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur25/044/1998/en/ Amnesty International; Greece: Charges against members of the "Rainbow" party should be dropped]</ref> On 20 October 2005, the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)]] ordered the Greek government to pay penalties to the ''Rainbow Party'' for violations of 2 ECHR articles.<ref name="Greece"/> ''Rainbow'' has seen limited success at a national level, its best result being achieved in the 1994 European elections, with a total of 7,263 votes. Since 2004 it has participated in European Parliament elections and local elections, but not in national elections. A few of its members have been elected in local administrative posts. ''Rainbow'' has recently re-established ''Nova Zora'', a newspaper that was first published for a short period in the mid-1990s, with reportedly 20,000 copies being distributed free of charge.<ref>[http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 Македонците во Грција треба да си ги бараат правата] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823234401/http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 |date=23 August 2011 }} – ''""Нова зора"...печати во 20.000 примероци/Nova Zora...is printed in 20,000 copies"''</ref><ref>[http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 "Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509162418/http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 |date=9 May 2010 }} – ''""Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција...При печатењето на тиражот од 20.000 примероци се појавиле само мали технички проблеми/Nova Zora – the first Macedonian language newspaper in Greece...There were only small technical problems with the printing of the circulation of 20,000"''</ref><ref>[http://www.vreme.com.mk/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=2&tabid=1&EditionID=2001&ArticleID=138979 Нема печатница за македонски во Грција]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – ''"Весникот е наречен "Нова зора" и треба да се печати во 20.000 примероци/The Newspaper is called Nova Zora and 20,000 copies are printed."''</ref>

====Serbia====
{{Main|Macedonians in Serbia}}

Within [[Serbia]], Macedonians constitute an officially recognised ethnic minority at both a local and national level. Within [[Vojvodina]], Macedonians are recognised under the [[Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina]], along with other ethnic groups. Large Macedonian settlements within Vojvodina can be found in [[Plandište]], [[Jabuka]], [[Glogonj]], [[Dužine]] and [[Kačarevo]]. These people are mainly the descendants of economic migrants who left the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] in the 1950s and 1960s. The [[Macedonians in Serbia]] are represented by a national council and in recent years the Macedonian language has begun to be taught. The most recent census recorded 22,755 Macedonians living in Serbia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-06-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811224233/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref>

====Albania====
{{Main|Macedonians of Albania}}

Macedonians represent the second largest ethnic minority population in [[Albania]]. Albania recognises the existence of a Macedonian minority within the [[Mala Prespa]] region, most of which is comprised by [[Pustec Municipality]]. Macedonians have full minority rights within this region, including the right to education and the provision of other services in the [[Macedonian language]]. There also exist unrecognised Macedonian populations living in the [[Gollaborda|Golo Brdo]] region, the "Dolno Pole" area near the town of [[Peshkopi]], around [[Lake Ohrid]] and [[Korce]] as well as in [[Gora (region)|Gora]]. 4,697 people declared themselves Macedonians in the 1989 census.<ref>Artan Hoxha and Alma Gurraj, Local Self-Government and Decentralization: Case of Albania. History, Reforms and Challenges. In: Local Self Government and Decentralization in South — East Europe. Proceedings of the workshop held in Zagreb, Croatia 6 April 2001. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Zagreb Office, Zagreb 2001, pp. 194–224 ([http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/kroatien/50257.pdf PDF]).</ref>

====Bulgaria====
{{Main|Ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria}}

[[Bulgarians]] are considered most closely related to the neighboring Macedonians and it is sometimes claimed that there is no clear ethnic difference between them.<ref>{{cite book |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe |last1=Day |first1=Alan John |last2=East |first2=Roger |last3=Thomas |first3=Richard |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-85743-063-8 |page=94}}</ref> As regards self-identification, a total of 1,654 people officially declared themselves to be ethnic Macedonians in the last Bulgarian census in 2011 (0,02%) and 561 of them are in [[Blagoevgrad Province]] (0,2%).<ref>{{in lang|bg}} [http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R9.aspx?OBL=BLG Official census data]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> 1,091 of them are Macedonian citizens, who are [[permanent resident]]s in Bulgaria.<ref>[http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx Население с чуждо гражданство по страни] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004020646/http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx |date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> Krassimir Kanev, chairman of the non-governmental organization [[Bulgarian Helsinki Committee]], claimed 15,000–25,000 in 1998 (see [https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF here]). In the same report Macedonian nationalists  (Popov et al., 1989) claimed that 200,000 ethnic Macedonians live in Bulgaria. However, ''Bulgarian Helsinki Committee'' stated that the vast majority of the Slavic-speaking population in [[Pirin Macedonia]] has a Bulgarian national self-consciousness and a [[Macedonian Bulgarians|regional Macedonian identity]] similar to the Macedonian regional identity in [[Greek Macedonia]]. Finally, according to personal evaluation of a leading local ethnic Macedonian political activist, Stoyko Stoykov, the present number of Bulgarian citizens with ethnic Macedonian self-consciousness is between 5,000 and 10,000.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.focus-fen.net/?id=f1218
|title=FOCUS Information Agency
|publisher=focus-fen.net
|access-date=14 March 2009
}}
</ref> In 2000, the [[Bulgarian Constitutional Court]] banned [[UMO Ilinden-Pirin]], a small Macedonian political party, as a separatist organization. Subsequently, activists attempted to re-establish the party but could not gather the required number of signatures.

<gallery class="center">
File:Map of the majority ethnic groups of Macedonia by municipality.svg|Macedonians in North Macedonia, according to the 2002 census
File:Macedonians in Serbia.png|Concentration of Macedonians in Serbia
File:MalaPrespaiGoloBrdo.png|Regions where Macedonians live within Albania
File:Torbesija.png|Macedonian Muslims in North Macedonia
</gallery>

===Diaspora===
{{Further|Macedonian diaspora}}
[[File:Macedonian people in the world.svg|thumb|300x300px|Macedonian diaspora in the world (includes people with Slovenian ancestry or citizenship). 
{{Legend|#000000|North Macedonia}}
{{Legend|#BA9B15|+ 100,000}}
{{Legend|#F9D616|+ 10,000}}
{{Legend|#FFF0B3|+ 1,000}}]]

Significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the traditional immigrant-receiving nations, as well as in Western European countries. Census data in many European countries (such as Italy and Germany) does not take into account the ethnicity of émigrés from the Republic of North Macedonia.

====Argentina====
Most Macedonians can be found in [[Buenos Aires]], [[La Pampa Province|the Pampas]] and [[Córdoba Province, Argentina|Córdoba]]. An estimated 30,000 Macedonians can be found in Argentina.<ref name=Naveski_1>Nasevski, Boško; Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica (1995). Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95. Skopje: Матица на Иселениците на Македонија.</ref>
====Australia====
{{further|Macedonian Australians}}
The official number of Macedonians in Australia by birthplace or birthplace of parents is 83,893 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20041028074111/http://www.crc.nsw.gov.au/statistics/Sect1/Table1p08Aust.pdf 2001]). The main Macedonian communities are found in Melbourne, [[Geelong]], Sydney, [[Wollongong]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Canberra]] and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]. The 2006 census recorded 83,983 people of Macedonian ancestry and the 2011 census recorded 93,570 people of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|title=The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2011 Census|url=https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|publisher=Australian Government|page=58|year=2014|access-date=23 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417222156/https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Brazil====
{{further|Macedonians in Brazil}}
An estimated 45,000 people in Brazil are of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite book
|script-title=mk:Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2=Angelova, Dora |author3=Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher= Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52 & 53 }}</ref> The Macedonians can be primarily found in [[Porto Alegre]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[São Paulo]] and [[Curitiba]].
====Canada====
{{further|Macedonian Canadians}}
The Canadian census in 2001 records 37,705 individuals claimed wholly or partly Macedonian heritage in Canada,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=U.S. Census website |access-date=28 March 2020 }}</ref> although community spokesmen have claimed that there are actually 100,000–150,000 Macedonians in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120720212139/http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 July 2012 |access-date=7 March 2006 }}</ref>
====United States====
{{further|Macedonian Americans}}
A significant Macedonian community can be found in the United States. The official number of Macedonians in the US is 49,455 ([https://www.census.gov 2004]). The Macedonian community is located mainly in [[Michigan]], New York, [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]] and [[New Jersey]]<ref>[http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm Euroamericans.net] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050319231734/http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm |date=19 March 2005 }}</ref>
====Germany====
{{further|Macedonians in Germany}}
There are an estimated 61,000 citizens of North Macedonia in Germany (mostly in the [[Ruhrgebiet]]) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060405204342/http://wohnbevoelkerung_in_deutschland.know-library.net/ 2001]).
====Italy====
There are 74,162 citizens of North Macedonia in Italy ([http://demo.istat.it/str2006/query.php?lingua=eng&Rip=S0&paese=A12&submit=Tavola Foreign Citizens in Italy]).
====Switzerland====
{{further|Macedonians in Switzerland}}
In 2006 the Swiss Government recorded 60,362 Macedonian Citizens living in Switzerland.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120425144012/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/01/07/blank/key/01/01.Document.20578.xls bfs.admin.ch]</ref>
====Romania====
{{further|Macedonians in Romania}}
Macedonians are an officially recognised minority group in Romania. They have a special reserved seat in the nations parliament. In 2002, they numbered 731.
====Slovenia====
{{further|Macedonians in Slovenia}}
Macedonians began relocating to Slovenia in the 1950s when the two regions formed a part of a single country, [[Yugoslavia]].
====Other countries====
Other significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the other Western European countries such as Austria, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United Kingdom, and the whole European Union. {{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Also in Uruguay, with a significant population in [[Montevideo]].{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=August 2019}}

The culture of the people is characterized with both traditionalist and modernist attributes. It is strongly bound with their native land and the surrounding in which they live. The rich cultural heritage of the Macedonians is accented in the folklore, the picturesque traditional folk costumes, decorations and ornaments in city and village homes, the architecture, the monasteries and churches, iconostasis, wood-carving and so on. The culture of Macedonians can roughly be explained as a Balkanic, closely related to that of [[Bulgarians]] and [[Serbs]].

===Architecture===
[[File:Robevihouse.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] architecture in [[Ohrid]].]]
[[File:Makedonski Nosii 2.jpg|thumb|right|Macedonian girls in traditional folk costumes.]]
The typical Macedonian village house is influelnced by [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman Architecture]] .Presented as a construction with two floors, with a hard facade composed of large stones and a wide balcony on the second floor. In villages with predominantly agricultural economy, the first floor was often used as a storage for the harvest, while in some villages the first floor was used as a cattle-pen.

The stereotype for a traditional Macedonian city house is a two-floor building with white façade, with a forward extended second floor, and black wooden elements around the windows and on the edges.

===Cinema and theater===
{{main|Cinema of North Macedonia}}

The history of film making in North Macedonia dates back over 110 years. The first film to be produced on the territory of the present-day the country was made in 1895 by [[Manakis brothers|Janaki and Milton Manaki]] in [[Bitola]]. In 1995 [[Before the Rain (1994 film)|Before the Rain]] became the first Macedonian movie to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 67th Academy Awards {{!}} 1995 |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1995 |website=Oscars.org {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |access-date=27 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

From 1993 to 1994, 1,596 performances were held in the newly formed republic, and more than 330,000 people attended. The Macedonian National Theater (drama, opera, and ballet companies), the Drama Theater, the Theater of the Nationalities (Albanian and Turkish drama companies) and the other theater companies comprise about 870 professional actors, singers, ballet dancers, directors, playwrights, set and costume designers, etc. There is also a professional theatre for children and three amateur theaters. For the last thirty years a traditional festival of Macedonian professional theaters has been taking place in [[Prilep]] in honor of [[Vojdan Černodrinski]], the founder of the modern Macedonian theater. Each year a festival of amateur and experimental Macedonian theater companies is held in [[Kočani]].

===Music and art===
{{main|Music of North Macedonia}}

Macedonian music has many things in common with the music of neighboring [[Balkan]] countries, but maintains its own distinctive sound.

The founders of modern Macedonian painting included [[Lazar Licenovski]], [[Nikola Martinoski]], [[Dimitar Pandilov]], and [[Vangel Kodzoman]]. They were succeeded by an exceptionally talented and fruitful generation, consisting of [[Borka Lazeski]], [[Dimitar Kondovski]], [[Petar Mazev]] who are now deceased, and [[Rodoljub Anastasov]] and many others who are still active. Others include: [[Vasko Taskovski]] and [[Vangel Naumovski]]. In addition to [[Dimo Todorovski]], who is considered to be the founder of modern [[Macedonian sculpture]], the works of [[Petar Hadzi Boskov]], [[Boro Mitrikeski]], [[Novak Dimitrovski]] and [[Tome Serafimovski]] are also outstanding.

===Economy===
In the past, the Macedonian population was predominantly involved with agriculture, with a very small portion of the people who were engaged in trade (mainly in the cities). But after the creation of the People's Republic of Macedonia which started a social transformation based on Socialist principles, a middle and heavy industry were started.

===Language===
{{main|Macedonian language}}

The Macedonian language ({{lang|mk|македонски јазик}}) is a member of the Eastern group of [[South Slavic languages]]. [[Standard Macedonian]] was implemented as the official language of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after being [[Codification (linguistics)|codified]] in the 1940s, and has accumulated a thriving [[Macedonian literature|literary tradition]].

The closest relative of Macedonian is [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Levinson|O'Leary|1992|p=239}}</ref> followed by [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]. All the [[South Slavic languages]] form a [[dialect continuum]], in which Macedonian and Bulgarian form an [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern subgroup]]. The [[Torlakian]] dialect group is intermediate between Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian, comprising some of the northernmost [[Dialects of the Macedonian language|dialects of Macedonian]] as well as varieties spoken in southern Serbia and western Bulgaria. Torlakian is often classified as part of the Eastern South Slavic dialects.

The [[Macedonian alphabet]] is an adaptation of the [[Cyrillic script]], as well as language-specific conventions of spelling and punctuation. It is rarely [[Romanization of Macedonian|Romanized]].

===Religion===
{{main|Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church|Roman Catholicism in North Macedonia|Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Protestantism in North Macedonia|Islam in North Macedonia}}
[[File:2011 Ochryda, Cerkiew św. Pantelejmona (02).jpg|thumb|right|250px|One of the well-known monasteries – [[Saint Panteleimon, Ohrid|St. Panteleimon]] in Ohrid.]]

Most Macedonians are members of the [[Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church]]. The official name of the church is Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric and is the body of Christians who are united under the Archbishop of Ohrid and North Macedonia, exercising jurisdiction over Macedonian Orthodox Christians in the Republic of North Macedonia and in [[exarchate]]s in the [[Macedonian diaspora]].

The church gained autonomy from the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] in 1959 and declared the restoration of the historic [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]]. On 19 July 1967, the Macedonian Orthodox Church declared [[autocephaly]] from the Serbian church. Due to protest from the Serbian Orthodox Church, the move was not recognised by any of the churches of the [[Eastern Orthodox Communion]], and since then, the Macedonian Orthodox Church is not in communion with any Orthodox Church.<ref>The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. By Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley. p. 381</ref> A small number of Macedonians belong to the [[Roman Catholic]] and the [[Protestant Church|Protestant]] churches.

Between the 15th and the 20th centuries, during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]], a number of Orthodox Macedonian Slavs converted to Islam. Today in the Republic of North Macedonia, they are regarded as [[Macedonian Muslims]], who constitute the second largest religious community of the country.

===Names===
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia#Macedonian names|l1=Macedonian names}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Macedonian cuisine}}
[[File:Грав во тава(тафче гравче) (3).jpg|thumb|right|[[Tavče Gravče]], the [[national dish]] of Macedonians.]]
Macedonian cuisine is a representative of the cuisine of the [[Balkans]]—reflecting Mediterranean (Greek) and Middle Eastern (Turkish) influences, and to a lesser extent Italian, German and Eastern European (especially Hungarian) ones. The relatively warm climate in North Macedonia provides excellent growth conditions for a variety of vegetables, herbs and fruits. Thus, Macedonian cuisine is particularly diverse.

[[Shopska salad]], a food from [[Bulgaria]], is an appetizer and side dish which accompanies almost every meal.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} Macedonian cuisine is also noted for the diversity and quality of its [[dairy products]], wines, and local alcoholic beverages, such as [[rakija]]. [[Tavče Gravče]] and [[mastika]] are considered the national dish and drink of North Macedonia, respectively.

==Symbols==
{{See also|Flags of North Macedonia|National symbols of North Macedonia|Proposed coat of arms of North Macedonia}}

Symbols used by members of the ethnic group include:

* '''[[Golden Lion of North Macedonia|Lion]]''': The lion first appears in the [[Fojnica Armorial]] from 17th century, where the coat of arms of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] is included among those of other entities. On the coat of arms is a crown; inside a yellow crowned lion is depicted standing rampant, on a red background. On the bottom enclosed in a red and yellow border is written "Macedonia". The use of the lion to represent Macedonia was continued in foreign heraldic collections throughout the 16th to 18th centuries.<ref>Matkovski, Aleksandar, ''Grbovite na Makedonija'', Skopje, 1970.</ref><ref>Александар Матковски (1990) Грбовите на Македонија, Мисла, Skopje, Macedonia — {{ISBN|86-15-00160-X}} </ref> Nevertheless, during the late 19th century the [[Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization]] arose, which modeled itself after the earlier [[Internal Revolutionary Organization|Bulgarian revolutionary traditions]] and adopted their symbols as the [[Bulgarian lion|lion]], etc.<ref>Duncan M. Perry, The Politics of Terror: The Macedonian Liberation Movements, 1893–1903, Duke University Press, 1988, pp. 39–40.</ref><ref>J. Pettifer as ed., The New Macedonian Question, Springer, 1999 {{ISBN|0230535798}}, p. 236.</ref> Modern versions of the historical lion has also been added to the emblem of several political parties, organizations and sports clubs. However, this symbol is not totally accepted while the state [[coat of arms of Bulgaria]] is somewhat similar.
* '''[[Vergina Flag (North Macedonia)|Vergina Sun]]:''' (official flag, 1992–1995) The [[Vergina Sun]] is used unofficially by various associations and cultural groups in the Macedonian diaspora. The [[Vergina]] Sun is believed to have been associated with [[Greeks|ancient Greek]] kings such as [[Alexander the Great]] and [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], although it was used as an ornamental design in ancient Greek art long before the Macedonian period. The symbol was depicted on a golden larnax found in a 4th-century BC royal tomb belonging to either Philip II or Philip III of Macedon in the [[Greece|Greek]] region of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]]. The [[Greeks]] regard the use of the symbol by North Macedonia as a misappropriation of a [[Greece|Hellenic symbol]], unrelated to Slavic cultures, and a direct claim on the legacy of Philip II. However, archaeological items depicting the symbol have also been excavated in the territory of [[North Macedonia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://haemus.org.mk/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Ohrid-World-Heritage-Site.pdf|title=Macedonian Cultural Heritage: Ohrid World Heritage Site}}</ref> Toni Deskoski, Macedonian professor of International Law, argues that the Vergina Sun is not a Macedonian symbol but it's a Greek symbol that is used in the nationalist context of [[Macedonism]] and that the Macedonians need to get rid of it.<ref>[https://english.republika.mk/news/macedonia/deskoski-vergina-sun-flag-is-not-macedonian-we-need-to-get-rid-of-this-greek-symbol/ Deskoski: Vergina Sun flag is not Macedonian, we need to get rid of this Greek symbol], Republica.mk: "The Vergina Sun flag was a national flag for only three years and that was one of the biggest mistakes. Neither the Ilinden fighters nor the partisans in the National Liberation War knew that symbol. That flag is the biggest hoax of Macedonianism. We need to unanimously reject and get rid of this Greek symbol. Let the Greeks glorify their symbols."</ref> In 1995, [[Greece]] lodged a claim for [[Trademark|trademark protection]] of the Vergina Sun as a state symbol under [[WIPO]].<ref>[http://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/guest/ifetch5?ENG+6TER+15+1151315-REVERSE+0+0+1055+F+125+431+101+25+SEP-0/HITNUM,B+KIND%2fEmblem+] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060329000458/http://www.wipo.int/cgi-6te/guest/ifetch5?ENG%206TER%2015%201151315-REVERSE%200%200%201055%20F%20125%20431%20101%2025%20SEP-0%2FHITNUM%2CB%20KIND%2FEmblem%20 |title= wipo.int|date=29 March 2006 }}</ref> In [[Greece]] the symbol against a blue field is used vastly in the area of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and it has official status.The Vergina sun on a red field was the first flag of the independent Republic of Macedonia, until it was removed from the state flag under an agreement reached between the Republic of Macedonia and [[Greece]] in September 1995.<ref>Floudas, Demetrius Andreas; {{cite news |publisher=24 (1996) Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 285|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3719/is_199601/ai_n8752910 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060127053906/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3719/is_199601/ai_n8752910 |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 January 2006 | title= A Name for a Conflict or a Conflict for a Name? An Analysis of Greece's Dispute with FYROM |access-date=24 January 2007 | year=1996}}</ref> On 17 June 2018, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia signed the [[Prespa Agreement]], which stipulates the removal of the Vergina Sun's public use across the latter's territory.<ref name="2018FinalAgreement">{{cite document|url=http://s.kathimerini.gr/resources/article-files/symfwnia-aggliko-keimeno.pdf|title=FINAL AGREEMENT FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE DIFFERENCES AS DESCRIBED IN THE UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTIONS 817 (1993) AND 845 (1993), THE TERMINATION OF THE INTERIM ACCORD OF 1995, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN THE PARTIES |publisher=Kathimerini.gr|access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref><ref name="VerginaSunBan">{{cite web|url=https://www.crashonline.gr/epikairotita/1164670/chanetai-kai-o-ilios-tis-verginas-ti-orizei-i-symfonia-gia-to-sima/|title=Also the "Sun of Vergina" is being lost: what the agreement (original: Χάνεται και "ο Ηλιος της Βεργίνας": Τι ορίζει η συμφωνία για το σήμα)|publisher=Crash Online |date=14 June 2018|access-date=22 June 2018}}</ref> In a session held on early July 2019, the [[government of North Macedonia]] announced the complete removal of the Vergina Sun from all public areas, institutions and monuments in the country, with the deadline for its removal being set to 12 August 2019, in line with the Prespa Agreement.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://greekcitytimes.com/2019/07/14/north-macedonia-remove-star-vergina-public-spaces/|title=North Macedonia to remove the Star of Vergina from all public spaces|publisher=GCT.com|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news247.gr/politiki/voreia-makedonia-o-zaef-aposyrei-apo-pantoy-ton-ilio-tis-verginas.7474687.html|title=North Macedonia: Zaev removes from anywhere the Vergina Sun (original title: "Βόρεια Μακεδονία: Ο Ζάεφ αποσύρει από παντού τον Ήλιο της Βεργίνας")|publisher=News247|access-date=15 July 2019|date=14 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.republika.mk/news/macedonia/kutlesh-star-no-longer-to-be-seen-in-public-use/|title=Kutlesh star no longer to be seen in public use|publisher=Republika.mk|access-date=15 July 2019|date=12 July 2019}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|North Macedonia}}
* [[Demographic history of North Macedonia]]
* [[List of Macedonians (ethnic group)|List of Macedonians]]
* [[Demographics of the Republic of North Macedonia]]
* [[Macedonian language]]
* [[Ethnogenesis]]
* [[South Slavs]]
* [[Macedonians (Greeks)]]
* [[Macedonians (Bulgarians)]]

==References==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Brown, Keith, ''The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation'', [[Princeton University Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|0-691-09995-2}}.
* {{cite journal
| last = Brunnbauer
| first = Ulf
|date=September 2004
| title = Fertility, families and ethnic conflict: Macedonians and Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia, 1944–2002
| journal=[[Nationalities Papers]]
| volume = 32
| issue = 3
| pages = 565–598
| doi = 10.1080/0090599042000246406
| s2cid = 128830053
}}
* Cowan, Jane K. (ed.), ''Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference'', Pluto Press, 2000. A collection of articles.
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700|year=2001|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC|isbn=9781139428880}}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250|year=2006|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt|url-access=registration|isbn=9780521815390}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Curta |first=Florin |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |title=The Slavic Lingua Franca. Linguistic Notes of an Archaeologist Turned Historian. |format=PDF |year=2004 |journal=East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=125–148 |access-date=2009-07-24 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}} |doi=10.1163/187633004x00134 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814025431/http://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |archive-date=14 August 2012 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, c. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages|year=2011|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCSrBgAAQBAJ|isbn=9780748644896}}
* Danforth, Loring M., ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', Princeton University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}.
* {{Cite book|last=Fine |first=John V A Jr. |title=The Early medieval Balkans. A Critical Survey from the 6th to the late 12th Century.|publisher=University Michigan Press|year=1991|isbn=9780472081493|postscript={{inconsistent citations}} }}
* Karakasidou, Anastasia N., ''Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990'', [[University Of Chicago Press]], 1997, {{ISBN|0-226-42494-4}}. Reviewed in ''[[Journal of Modern Greek Studies]]'' '''18''':2 (2000), p465.
* Mackridge, Peter, Eleni Yannakakis (eds.), ''Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912'', Berg Publishers, 1997, {{ISBN|1-85973-138-4}}.
* Poulton, Hugh, ''Who Are the Macedonians?'', [[Indiana University Press]], 2nd ed., 2000. {{ISBN|0-253-21359-2}}.
* Roudometof, Victor, ''Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question'', Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}.
* Κωστόπουλος, Τάσος, ''Η απαγορευμένη γλώσσα: Η κρατική καταστολή των σλαβικών διαλέκτων στην ελληνική Μακεδονία σε όλη τη διάρκεια του 20ού αιώνα'' (εκδ. Μαύρη Λίστα, Αθήνα 2000). [Tasos Kostopoulos, ''The forbidden language: state suppression of the Slavic dialects in Greek Macedonia through the 20th century'', Athens: Black List, 2000]
* The Silent People Speak, by Robert St. John, 1948, xii, 293, 301–313 and 385.
* {{cite web|last=Karatsareas|first=Petros|title=Greece's Macedonian Slavic heritage was wiped out by linguistic oppression – here's how
|url=https://theconversation.com/greeces-macedonian-slavic-heritage-was-wiped-out-by-linguistic-oppression-heres-how-94675|publisher=The Conversation|access-date=19 April 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Margaronis|first=Maria|title=Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-47258809|publisher=BBC|access-date=24 February 2019}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060113204437/http://newbalkanpolitics.org.mk/OldSite/Issue_2/ismail.eng.asp New Balkan Politics – Journal of Politics]
* [http://www.macedonians.co.uk/ Macedonians in the UK]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100305065457/http://www.umdiaspora.org/ United Macedonian Diaspora]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080629050307/http://www.smk.org.mk/ World Macedonian Congress]
* [http://www.maticanaiselenici.com/ House of Immigrants]

{{Ethnic groups in North Macedonia}}
{{North Macedonia topics}}
{{Slavic ethnic groups}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macedonians (Ethnic Group)}}
[[Category:Ethnic Macedonian people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Albania]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Greece]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Macedonia (region)]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in North Macedonia]]
[[Category:Slavic ethnic groups]]
[[Category:South Slavs]]

Macedonians (Greeks)

2021-05-11T04:36:12Z

Macedonian: Reverted 1 edit by Local hero (talk): Rvv, that's the officiaal flag.

Talk:Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T19:24:45Z

Macedonian: /* Symbols */ re

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{{notice|The renaming poll of June 2005 (now closed) is archived at [[Talk:Macedonian Slavs/Poll]]. (See also [[Talk:Macedonians (ethnic group)/Archive2|Archive 2]] for many comments arising from this poll.)}}

== Macedonian art ==

Sculpture and installation artists Gligor Stefanov and Petre Nikoloski were the first to represent an independant Macedonia in the Venice Biennale in 1993.

== Symbols ==

The whole section "Symbols" is undue. About half the Macedonians live outside North Macedonia, so the national symbols of the state can not be seen as representing the whole ethnic group. Actually, the ethnic group is not even mentioned in the section. It is all about the state. --[[User:TU-nor|T*U]] ([[User talk:TU-nor|talk]]) 18:58, 8 May 2021 (UTC)

:I agree that state symbols should not be listed, but the Vergina Sun is indeed used by ethnic Macedonians globally. For example, [https://www.bashkiapustec.gov.al/ Pustec Municipality, Albania], [https://www.omoilindenpirin.org/ OMO Ilinden Pirin, Bulgaria], the [https://wmc-a.com/ World Macedonian Congress], and [[Rockdale_Ilinden FC]] in Australia all feature the Vergina Sun in their emblems/logos. This widespread use by ethnic Macedonian groups should be noted on the article. --[[User:Local hero|Local hero]] [[User talk:Local hero|talk]] 04:06, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
::The Vergina Sun is a symbol proposed as a flag by the nationalist [[Todor Petrov]] and was used as a flag between 1992 and 1995. It's not an official symbol anymore, now used mainly by some nationalists of North Macedonia and its diaspora. North Macedonia is in the process of removing the symbol from all public areas, institutions, and monuments in the country, per the Prespa Agreement. It does not have a place in this article, the main article is enough. [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 06:11, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::I tend to agree with Local hero that mention of the Vergina Star may be due. The fact that it is not official is really not an argument against, as long as it is widely used, especially in the diaspora. The presentation would have to be carefully worded in order to explain its maverick nature and not give an impression of officiality or even semi-officiality, as was the case with the section I removed. --[[User:TU-nor|T*U]] ([[User talk:TU-nor|talk]]) 07:35, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::: I'm not sure how legally sound the above proposal is. In February 1993 the Greek parliament passed a bill designating the Vergina Sun as an official Greek national symbol. In July 1995, Greece lodged a claim for trademark protection of the Vergina Sun as an official state emblem under Article 6ter of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property with the World Intellectual Property Organization. The Prespa agreement from 2018 stipulates the removal of the Vergina Sun from public use in North Macedonia. In a session held on early July 2019, the government of North Macedonia announced the complete removal of the Vergina Sun from all public areas, institutions and monuments in the country, with the deadline for its removal being set to 12 August 2019. Historical myths fanned by some nationalist circles cannot justify the legalization of certain unsubstantiated allegations. See: [[Antiquization]]. [[User:Jingiby|Jingiby]] ([[User talk:Jingiby|talk]]) 09:41, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::::Seriously? I fail to see how Greek or Macedonian legislation in any way could prevent Wikipedia from mentioning the use of the symbol by nationalists (or football clubs, for that matter). And {{tq|legalization}}? C'mon, Wikipedia is not ''that'' powerful. --[[User:TU-nor|T*U]] ([[User talk:TU-nor|talk]]) 10:52, 10 May 2021 (UTC)

::::::We should steer clear from reflecting nationalist propaganda and far-right ideologies across Wikipedia's articles. The use of the Vergina Sun by far-right nationalist Macedonians is already well-documented and reflected on the appropriate articles on the matter, such as: [[Antiquization]] and [[Macedonian nationalism]]. IMO, that's more than enough and provides the readers the necessary info about the nationalist ideology behind the flag's use. The last thing we need now is to have this nationalist propaganda's symbols being reflected outside of context, even on articles about the people (whose majority, mind you, does not agree/adopt this far-right ideology). In Wikipedia we have been careful so far as to not list nationalist propaganda symbols in any way out of the context for what they are about, no matter how popular it may be among a segment of people and in the diaspora (percentage of population, etc). Because this would falsely imply that this is a national symbol and not a political ideology, which isn't true.
::::::Is important that Wikipedia doesn't give the far-right political ideologies more spotlight than needed, nor portray them as being national ideologies when there isn't the case. This is true not only for the Macedonians but other nations too. For example, the article of the [[Turkish people]] avoids using Grey Wolf symbols, even though 11% of the Turks (2019 poll) endorse the far-right ideology and even have adopted the Grey wolf symbol (finger gestures, tattoos, banners and more). Same for the article of the [[Germans]] which avoids listing the swastika as their symbol today even though far-right nationalist Germans (which constitute roughly 5% to 8% of the total population, depending on what sources you look at) are still using it (flags, tattoos, etc). Like wise, the symbol of Greater Albania from the article [[Albanians]], which is pretty popular among Albanian nationalists, and so on. We should be careful and acknowledge that Wikipedia has already covered the issue of the Macedonian nationalism adequately and its symbols such as the Vergina flag, and if there is new information to add about it, this can be done, not here about the people themselves, but on the relevant articles: [[Antiquization]] and [[Macedonian nationalism]]. TL;DR: Ideologies should not be mixed with people. Good day. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 11:03, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::::::I am not sure that swastika and grey wolf are really relevant examples. I do not remember having seen any of them used in emblems of diaspora football clubs or in official emblems of municipalities in neighbouring countries. --[[User:TU-nor|T*U]] ([[User talk:TU-nor|talk]]) 12:54, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::::The diaspora and Macedonian minority groups in neighboring countries have no obligations to the things you mentioned. [[User:Kromid|Kromid]] ([[User talk:Kromid|talk]]) 11:11, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
{{od}}
I agree with Macedonian, Jingiby, and SilentResident. Furthermore, i believe that [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Icons#Political_issues|MOS:Icons#Political_issues]] also relates. [[User:Demetrios1993|Demetrios1993]] ([[User talk:Demetrios1993|talk]]) 11:31, 10 May 2021 (UTC)

:This is silly. Official legislation of any country has nothing to do with the fact that so many ethnic Macedonians use the symbol. Anecdotally, I own such a flag and can't recall attending a Macedonian wedding that didn't have one displayed. If the Vergina Sun is only used by nationalists, then most every ethnic Macedonian association in the world is nationalist. For God's sake, a [https://www.skopjetruck.com/ trucking company] in the US uses it in its logo. This article needs to describe reality which is that the Vergina Sun is widely used among this ethnic group. If there is a single symbol of ethnic Macedonians worldwide, this is it. --[[User:Local hero|Local hero]] [[User talk:Local hero|talk]] 14:05, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::Not true. I'm sure you are well aware, as a member of the Macedonian diaspora, that the Vergina Sun is used by members of the Macedonian diaspora almost solely in a nationalist context. True, the diaspora does not have to obey the Prespa Agreement, but it's also true that the Macedonian ultra-nationalist organizations such as the [[World Macedonian Congress]] (which is behind the use of the symbol by the Republic of Macedonia in the first place) promote - if not push - the use of the symbol by the various Macedonian diaspora associations, and I'm sure you are well aware of what I'm talking about. I do not see why should Wikipedia fall into that trap. [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 15:58, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
::Well, TU-nor, they do. The Turkish people who adopt the far-right Grey Wolves ideology have presence in several European countries, including France, Belgium, Netherlands and Germany, prompting the parliaments in these countries to take legislative action against them. In Germany alone, their associations are numbering at least 18.000 members and that is making them the biggest far-right group that is organized in the country nowadays and is promoting ethnic hatred and violence against Syrians, Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Cypriots and Assyrians, and the German lawmakers are already debating on how to deal with them; with proposals to outlaw and ban them in Germany, citing France's similar steps in dealing with them. [https://www.dw.com/en/german-lawmakers-urge-ban-on-extreme-right-turkish-gray-wolves/a-55528032] I am glad Wikipedia avoided mentioning the Grey Wolves on the articles of the Turkish people because I strongly believe people and ideologies are not to be mixed together, even if a part of them are still espousing these ideologies. Likewise, about Macedonians and Vergina Sun: many of those who are espousing the far-right ideology of Macedonism, are from the diaspora's far-right spectrum which not only is organized into groups but is actively promoting these irredendist ideologies, adopted the Vergina Sun as their symbol and are pressing the VMRO-DPMNE for the rescinding of the Prespa Agreement once it returns into power someday. Fewer of the Macedonists are actively encouraging ethnic hatred against Bulgarians, Albanians and Greeks and even promoting irredendist claims to history and territories of neighboring countries. However not every Macedonian agrees with this ideology/has adopted its symbols. I strongly insist that we dont mix ideologies and people in Wikipedia, even if segments of the Macedonian diaspora appear to do so. That would be a bad idea and certainly not an actual improvement for the article. --- [[User:SilentResident|❖ ''SilentResident'' ❖]] ([[User talk:SilentResident|talk ✉]] | [[Special:Contributions/SilentResident|contribs ✎]]) 15:44, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
::: Precisely. [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 16:04, 10 May 2021 (UTC)

The Vergina Sun is used in extremely mainstream contexts by ethnic Macedonians globally, as stated above, from soccer teams to trucking companies. The Greek users here are trying and failing to paint a picture that it is somehow dangerous to state the reality that the Vergina Sun is the foremost symbol of ethnic Macedonians by tying in some Turkish group and the Prespa agreement. Why would we censor the fact that this symbol has such widespread use by these people? --[[User:Local hero|Local hero]] [[User talk:Local hero|talk]] 16:24, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
: ''"The foremost symbol of ethnic Macedonians"'' is blatant nationalist nonsense, since the Vergina Sun was introduced to the then Republic of Macedonia by the ultra-nationalists in 1991. You are expressing your wishful thinking, if not a claim to an alleged continuity of the modern ethnic Macedonians with the (unrelated) ancient Macedonians, which is so much favored by the ethnic Macedonian ultra-nationalists. Keep in mind that this is the English Wikipedia, not the Macedonian Wikipedia where the notorious [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PxS5tZc-yf4 "Wikipedia Warriors"] may be free to do whatever they want. [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 18:35, 10 May 2021 (UTC)

::The only thing I'm alleging is that ethnic Macedonians use the Vergina Sun as a symbol. Bottom line. I'm sorry if it hurts your feelings but Macedonians continue to widely use the symbol despite its removal from government use in North Macedonia. And please don't revert edits when no consensus for removal of content has been achieved here.
::The only question we need to answer here is this: ''do ethnic Macedonians use the Vergina Sun as a symbol?'' The answer is clearly yes. Do you claim that they do not? I can provide endless examples... --[[User:Local hero|Local hero]] [[User talk:Local hero|talk]] 18:41, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::Yes, various organizations use the Vergina Sun, but as Silent Resident pointed out, it's in an extremist, irredentist context. Such behavior is not representative of ethnic Macedonians as a whole. [[User:Khirurg|Khirurg]] ([[User talk:Khirurg|talk]]) 19:08, 10 May 2021 (UTC)

::::Indeed, [http://www.saintmaryohio.org/Images/festival/FestivalFlyer.png this] must be a "far-right", "extremist", "irredentist" church festival in Ohio with such extreme activities as folk dancing, food, and kids activities. This is pathetic. --[[User:Local hero|Local hero]] [[User talk:Local hero|talk]] 19:11, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
:::::No, not all ethnic Macedonians, ''some'' ethnic Macedonians use the Vergina Sun as a symbol, including you, as you said. There is nothing wrong with that, anyone can do whatever they want with their life, even owning a nationalist symbol. But trying to present it here as if that is the norm, well, that's far from the truth. We have the [[National symbols of North Macedonia]] and the [[Flags of North Macedonia]] where your beloved Vergina Sun is mentioned. The whole "Symbols" section is undue here, as TU-nor said, and you agreed. So please do not revert again. [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 19:13, 10 May 2021 (UTC)

::::::Is there a certain threshold of ethnic Macedonians that have to declare their use of the Vergina Sun as a symbol or something? How could we possibly measure this?
::::::I agreed with TU nor that ''state-associated'' symbols should not be included. Symbols that are widely used by ethnic Macedonians and their organizations should be included. The [[Greek Macedonians]] article states that the Vergina Sun is commonly used among that population. Why can't we say the same here? --[[User:Local hero|Local hero]] [[User talk:Local hero|talk]] 19:20, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
* The Verginia Sun is a symbol that is widely used by ethnic Macedonians. The Prespa Agreement recognized ethnic Macedonians as ethnic Macedonians, and bans the usage of the symbol by public institutions, i.e. bans its usage in public institutions and monuments. But it does not ban the usage of it by Macedonian people. In any case, what an ethnic group uses as a symbol is relevant here, not what the Prespa Agreement allows or not. Any comparision with the Grey Wolves, swastika or a "Greater Albania symbol" (there is no such a symbol) is very problematic. The Vergiania Sun is widely used outside of a nationalist context. Also, the same symbol is also mentioned on [[Macedonians (Greeks)]]. Why its mention there is not a problem but here it is? Both communities use the symbol, and both articles rightly mention that. [[User:Ktrimi991|Ktrimi991]] ([[User talk:Ktrimi991|talk]]) 19:21, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
::The symbol is not used by all ethnic Macedonians. Heck, it has even been banned from North Macedonia! [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 19:24, 10 May 2021 (UTC)

Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T19:19:56Z

Macedonian: Undid revision 1022482958 by Local hero (talk) Rv, you said it yourself: "I agree that state symbols should not be listed". See talk page.

{{short description|South Slavic ethnic group associated with the geographical region of Macedonia}}
{{about||the population of North Macedonia|Demographics of North Macedonia|the ancient people|Ancient Macedonians|other uses|Macedonian (disambiguation)|and|Macedonian Slavs (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| image =Macedonian people in the world.svg
| caption =Map of the Macedonian diaspora in the world
| group = Macedonians Македонци ''Makedonci''
| population = [[Circa|c.]] '''2.5 million'''<ref name="Nasevski">{{cite book
|title= Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2= Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher=Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52–53 }}</ref>
| popplace = {{flagicon|North Macedonia}} [[North Macedonia]] 1,297,981{{lower|<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100703105852/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 |date=21 June 2004 }}.</ref>}}
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop1 = 98,570 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref1 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/PopularAreas?ReadForm&prenavtabname=Popular%20Locations&type=popular&&navmapdisplayed=true&javascript=true&textversion=false&collection=Census&period=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&productlabel=Ancestry%20by%20Country%20of%20Birth%20of%20Parents&breadcrumb=POTL&topic=Ancestry& 2006 Census].</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Republic of Macedonia MFA estimate] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop2 = 115,210(2020)
| ref2 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls 2006 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519210527/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls |date=19 May 2011 }}.</ref>}}
| region3 = {{flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop3 = 65,347 (2017)
| ref3 = {{lower|<ref>[http://demo.istat.it/str2017/index.html Foreign Citizens in Italy, 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806142909/http://www.demo.istat.it/bil2016/index.html |date=6 August 2017 }}.</ref>}}
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop4 = 61,304–63,000
| ref4 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf 2005 Figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193114/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region5 = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| pop5 = 57,200–200,000
| ref5 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[https://www.census.gov|547;&-ds_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_&-TABLE_NAMEX=&-ci_type=A&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G2000_B04003&-tree_id=4001&-all_geo_types=N&-redoLog=false&-geo_id=01000US&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en 2009 Community Survey] .</ref>}}
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| pop6 = 45,000
| ref6 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski"/> }}
| region7 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop7 = 43,110 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref7 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118090345/http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2012|title=My Info Agent|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=92333&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=801&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= 2006 census].</ref>}}
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Turkey}}
| pop8 = 31,518 (2001 census)
| ref8 = {{lower|<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& 2001 census] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215085128/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& |date=15 February 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}}
| pop9 = 30,000
| ref9 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski" />}}
| region11 = {{flagcountry|Serbia}}
| pop11 = 22,755 (2011 census)
| ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://popis2011.stat.rs/?lang=en|title=Попис у Србији 2011.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
| region12 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop12 = 20,135
| ref12 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/022498.html Tabelle 13]: Ausländer nach Staatsangehörigkeit (ausgewählte Staaten), Altersgruppen und Geschlecht — p. 74.</ref>}}
| region13 = {{flagcountry|The Netherlands}}
| pop13 = 10,000–15,000
| ref13 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region14 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| pop14 = 9,000 (est.)
| ref14 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Finland}}
| pop15 = 8,963
| ref15 = <ref name="un">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates17.shtml|title=United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs|website=un.org|access-date=2018-06-29}}</ref>
| region16 = {{flagcountry|Hungary}}
| pop16 = 7,253
| ref16 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html 1996 estimate] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705022945/http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html |date=5 July 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Albania}}
| pop17 = 5,512 (2011 census)
| ref17 = {{lower|<ref>[http://minorityrights.org/minorities/macedonians/ minorityrights.org]</ref>}}
| region18 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
| pop18 = 5,392 (2018)
| ref18 = <ref>[https://www.statbank.dk/FOLK2 Population by country of origin]</ref>
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Greece}}
| pop10 = 10,000–30,000
| ref10 = <ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref>
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Slovakia}}
| pop19 = 4,600
| ref19 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/42/39332415.xls OECD Statistics].</ref>}}
| region20 = {{flagcountry|Croatia}}
| pop20 = 4,138 (2011 census)
| ref20 = {{lower|<ref>{{Croatian Census 2011|E}}</ref>}}
| region21 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| pop21 = 4,491 (2009)
| ref21 = <ref>[http://www.scb.se/statistik/_publikationer/BE0101_2009A01_BR_03_BE0110TAB.pdf Population by country of birth 2009].</ref>
| region22 = {{flagcountry|Slovenia}}
| pop22 = 3,972 (2002 census)
| ref22 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.stat.si/popis2002/si/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7 2002 census (stat.si)].</ref>}}
| region23 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
| pop23 = 3,419 (2002)
| ref23 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dofi.fgov.be/fr/statistieken/statistiques_etrangers/Stat_ETRANGERS.htm|title=Belgium population statistics|publisher=dofi.fgov.be|access-date=9 June 2008}}</ref>}}
| region24 = {{flagcountry|Norway}}
| pop24 = 3,045
| ref24 = {{lower|<ref>
[http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html 2008 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112145417/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html |date=12 January 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region25 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| pop25 = 2,300–15,000
| ref25 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html 2003 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102733/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html |date=6 October 2014 }},[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region26 = {{flagcountry|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
| pop26 = 2,278 (2005)
| ref26 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf 2005 census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183909/http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region27 = {{flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
| pop27 = 2,011
| ref27 = {{lower|<ref>[https://www.czso.cz/documents/11292/27914491/1612_c01t14.pdf/4bbedd77-c239-48cd-bf5a-7a43f6dbf71b?version=1.0 czso.cz]</ref>}}
| region28 = {{flagcountry|Poland}}
| pop28 = 2,000–4,500
| ref28 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Makedonci vo Svetot] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/260  Polands Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947], p. 260.</ref>}}
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| pop29 = 1,654 (2011 census)
| ref29 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/NPDOCS/Census2011final.pdf Bulgaria 2011 census]</ref>}}
| region30 = {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| pop30 = 1,264 ([[2011 Romanian census|2011 census]])
| ref30 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/sR_Tab_8.xls |title= Rezultatele finale ale Recensământului din 2011 – Tab8. Populaţia stabilă după etnie – judeţe, municipii, oraşe, comune |date= 5 July 2013 |access-date= 18 December 2013 |publisher= [[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)]] |language= ro}}</ref>}}
| region31 = {{flagcountry|Montenegro}}
| pop31 = 900 (2011 census)
| ref31 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf Montenegro 2011 census].</ref>}}
| region32 = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| pop32 = 807–1,500
| ref32 = {{lower|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |title=2006 census |access-date=2 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127012451/http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |archive-date=27 November 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930042306/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=30 September 2011 }}</ref>}}
| region33 = {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| pop33 = 325 (2010) – 1,000 (est.)
| ref33 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>[http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.pdf Russia 2010 census]</ref>}}
| languages = '''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]'''
| rels = Predominantly [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] ([[Macedonian Orthodox Church]]) minority [[Islam]] ([[Macedonian Muslims]]) and [[Catholicism]] ([[Catholic Church in North Macedonia|Roman Catholic]] and [[Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Macedonian Greek Catholic]])
| related = Other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]]<ref>"Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States", p. 517 The Macedonians are a Southern Slav people, closely related to Bulgarians.</ref><ref>"Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook", p. 54 Macedonians are a Slavic people closely related to the neighboring Bulgarians.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dt2TXexiKTgC&q=political+and+economic+dictionary+of+Eastern+Europe+bulgarians&pg=PA96 |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe|first1=Alan John|last1=Day|first2=Roger|last2=East|first3=Richard|last3=Thomas|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|page=96|isbn=9780203403747}}</ref>
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}

'''Macedonians''' ({{lang-mk|Македонци|Makedonci}}) are a [[nation]] and a [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] ethnic group native to the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] in Southeast Europe. They speak the [[Macedonian language]], a [[South Slavic language]]. About two thirds of all ethnic Macedonians live in [[North Macedonia]] and there are also [[Macedonian diaspora|communities in a number of other countries]].

==History==
{{Main|History of the Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
{{See also|Macedonian historiography}}
The formation of the ethnic Macedonians as a separate community has been shaped by [[Refugees of the Greek Civil War|population displacement]]<ref>James Horncastle, The Macedonian Slavs in the Greek Civil War, 1944–1949; Rowman & Littlefield, 2019, {{ISBN|1498585051}}, p. 130.</ref> as well as by [[Slavic dialects of Greece#Ban for use, language shift and language death|language shift]],<ref>Stern, Dieter and Christian Voss (eds). 2006. "Towards the peculiarities of language shift in Northern Greece". In: “Marginal Linguistic Identities: Studies in Slavic Contact and Borderland Varieties.” Eurolinguistische Arbeiten. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag; {{ISBN|9783447053549}}, pp. 87–101.</ref>{{dubious|date=April 2020}} both the result of the political developments in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] during the 20th century. Following the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], the decisive point in the [[ethnogenesis]] of the South Slavic ethnic group was the creation of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after World War II, a state in the framework of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. This was followed by the development of a separate Macedonian language and national literature, and the foundation of a distinct [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] and national historiography.

===Ancient and Roman period===
In antiquity, much of central-northern Macedonia (the [[Vardar river|Vardar basin]]) was inhabited by [[Paionians]] who expanded from the lower Strymon basin. The Pelagonian plain was inhabited by the [[Pelagones]], an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] tribe of [[Upper Macedonia]]; whilst the western region (Ohrid-Prespa) was said to have been inhabited by [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[tribe]]s.<ref>A J Toynbee. ''Some Problems of Greek History'', Pp 80; 99–103</ref> During the late Classical Period, having already developed several sophisticated ''[[polis]]''-type settlements and a thriving economy based on mining,<ref>The Problem of the Discontinuity in Classical and Hellenistic Eastern Macedonia, Marjan Jovanonv. УДК 904:711.424(497.73)</ref> Paeonia became a constituent province of the [[Argead]] – [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian kingdom]].<ref>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011. Map 2</ref> In 310 BC, the [[Celts]] attacked deep into the south, subduing the Dardanians, Paeonians and [[Triballi]]. [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest brought with it a significant [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] of the region. During the Dominate period, 'barbarian' federates were settled on Macedonian soil at times; such as the Sarmatians settled by Constantine (330s AD)<ref>Peter Heather, Goths and Romans 332–489. p. 129</ref> or the (10 year) settlement of Alaric's Goths.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Macedonia in Late Antiquity'' p. 551. In A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011</ref> In contrast to 'frontier provinces', Macedonia (north and south) continued to be a flourishing Christian, Roman province in Late Antiquity and into the early Middle Ages.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | last1 = Curta | first1 = Florin | year = 2012 | title = Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia? | journal = Journal of History | volume = 47 | page = 73 }}</ref>

===Medieval period===
Linguistically, the South Slavic languages from which Macedonian developed are thought to have expanded in the region during the post-Roman period, although the exact mechanisms of this linguistic expansion remains a matter of scholarly discussion.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2004|p=148}}</ref> Traditional historiography has equated these changes with the commencement of raids and 'invasions' of [[Sclaveni]] and [[Antes (people)|Antes]] from [[Wallachia]] and western [[Ukraine]] during the 6th and 7th centuries.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|p=29}}</ref> However, recent anthropological and archaeological perspectives have viewed the appearance of [[Early Slavs|Slavs]] in Macedonia, and throughout the [[Balkans]] in general, as part of a broad and complex process of transformation of the cultural, political and ethno-linguistic Balkan landscape before the collapse of Roman authority. The exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined.<ref>T E Gregory, ''A History of Byzantium''. Wiley- Blackwell, 2010. p. 169</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation text|Curta|2001|pp=335–345}}</ref> What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to "barbarian" [[Bulgaria]], northern Macedonia remained [[Byzantine Greeks|Roman]] in its cultural outlook into the 7th century.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Yet at the same time, sources attest numerous [[Slavic tribes]] in the environs of [[Thessaloniki]] and further afield, including the [[Berziti]] in Pelagonia.<ref>Florin Curta. ''Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia?'' 2013</ref> Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, [[Kuver]]'s "Bulgars"<ref>The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Denis Sinor, Cambridge University Press, 1990,
{{ISBN|0521243041}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA215&dq=bulgars++kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=R2a5UtaVJ8LTywPEpoDYBg&ved=0CF0Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 215–216.]</ref> – a mix of [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Bulgars]] and [[Pannonian Avars]] – settled the "Keramissian plain" ([[Pelagonia]]) around [[Bitola]] in the late 7th century.{{efn|See:<ref>The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1991, {{ISBN|0472081497}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C&pg=PA72&dq=bulgars+macedonia+kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=zka5Uo2BMYX8ywOOjYGYDQ&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 72.]</ref><ref>''Во некрополата "Млака" пред тврдината во Дебреште, Прилеп, откопани се гробови со наоди од доцниот 7. и 8. век. Тие се делумно или целосно кремирани и не се ниту ромеjски, ниту словенски. Станува збор наjвероjатно, за Кутригурите. Ова протобугарско племе, под водство на Кубер, а како потчинето на аварскиот каган во Панониjа, околу 680 г. се одметнало од Аварите и тргнало кон Солун. Кубер ги повел со себе и Сермесиjаните, (околу 70.000 на број), во нивната стара татковина. Сермесиjаните биле Ромеи, жители на балканските провинции што Аварите ги заробиле еден век порано и ги населиле во Западна Панониjа, да работат за нив. На Кубер му била доверена управата врз нив.'' In English: In the necropolis 'Malaka' in the fortress of Debreshte, near Prilep, graves were dug with findings from the late 7th and early 8th century. They are partially or completely cremated and neither Roman nor Slavic. The graves are probably remains from the [[Kutrigurs]]. This Bulgar tribe was led by Kuber... Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) [http://www.kroraina.com/macedon/mik_3_2.html стр. 32–33.]</ref><ref>"The" Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans, East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450 – 1450, Florin Curta, Roman Kovalev, BRILL, 2008, {{ISBN|9004163891}}, p. 460.</ref><ref>W Pohl. ''The Avars (History)'' in Regna and Gentes. The Relationship Between Late Antique and Early Medieval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World. pp. 581, 587</ref>}} Later pockets of settlers included "Danubian" [[Bulgars]]<ref>''They spread from the original heartland in north-east Bulgaria to the Drina in the west, and to Macedonia in the south-west.; На целиот тој простор, во маса метални производи (делови од воената опрема, облека и накит), меѓу стандардните форми користени од словенското население, одвреме-навреме се појавуваат специфични предмети врзани за бугарско болјарство како носители на новата државна управа''. See: Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) стр. 35; 364–365.</ref><ref>Dejan Bulić, The Fortifications of the Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine Period on the Later Territory of the South-Slavic Principalities, and Their Re-occupation in [[Tibor Živković]] et al., The World of the Slavs: Studies of the East, West and South Slavs: Civitas, Oppidas, Villas and Archeological Evidence (7th to 11th Centuries AD) with Srđan Rudić as ed. Istorijski institut, 2013, Belgrade; {{ISBN|8677431047}}, pp. 186–187.</ref> in the 9th century; [[Vardariotai|Magyars (Vardariotai)]]<ref>Florin Curta. 'The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, C. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages. pp. 259, 281</ref> and [[Armenians]] in the 10th–12th centuries,<ref>Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire edited by Hélène Ahrweiler, Angeliki E. Laiou. p. 58. Many were apparently based in Bitola, Stumnitsa and Moglena</ref> [[Cumans]] and [[Pechenegs]] in the 11th–13th centuries,<ref>Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Istvan Varsary. p. 67</ref> and [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxon miners]] in the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxKBMhz3e7AC&q=saxon+miners+macedonia&pg=PA89|title=Balkan Worlds|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780765638519|last1=Stoianovich|first1=Traian|date=September 1994}}</ref>

Having previously been Byzantine clients, the ''Sklaviniae'' of Macedonia probably switched their allegiance to [[Bulgaria]] during the reign of [[Irene of Athens|Empress Irene]],<ref>J V A Fine. The Early Medieval Balkans. Pp 110–11</ref>{{why|date=June 2019}} and was gradually incorporated into the [[Bulgarian Empire]] before the mid-9th century. Subsequently, the literary and ecclesiastical centres in [[Ohrid]], not only became a second cultural capital of medieval Bulgaria, but soon eclipsed those in [[Preslav]].<ref>Alexander Schenker. ''The Dawn of Slavic''. pp. 188–190. Schenker argues that Ohrid was 'innovative' and 'native Slavic' whilst Preslav very much relied on Greek modelling</ref>{{dubious|date=December 2013}} On the other hand cultural, ecclesiastical and political developments of Slavic Orthodox Culture occurred in Byzantine Macedonia.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|pp=113, 196}} ''Two brothers ... Constantine and Methodius ..were fluent in the dialect of Slavic in the environs of Thessaloniki. They devised an alphabet to convey Slavic phonetics | He [Samuel] restored the Bulgarian Orthodox patriarchate.. in Ohrid''</ref><ref>Francis Dvornik. ''The Slavs'' p. 167</ref><ref>Ostrogorsky, ''History of the Byzantine State'' p. 310</ref>

=== Ottoman period ===
[[File:Georgi Pulevski.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Georgi Pulevski]] is the first known person, who in the middle of 1870s insisted on the existence of a separate (Slavic) Macedonian language and ethnicity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Alexander Vezenkov as ed., Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Three: Shared Pasts, Disputed Legacies; Balkan Studies Library, BRILL, 2015; {{ISBN|9004290362}}, p. 454.</ref>]]
After the final Ottoman conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans in the 14/15th century, all Eastern Orthodox Christians were included in a specific ethno-religious community under ''Graeco-Byzantine'' jurisdiction called [[Rum Millet]]. The belonging to this religious commonwealth was so important that most of the common people began to identify themselves as ''Christians''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&q=millet++bulgarian+identity+detrez&pg=PA47|title=Europe and the Historical Legacies in the Balkans|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9789052013749|last1=Detrez|first1=Raymond|last2=Segaert|first2=Barbara|year=2008}}</ref> However ethnonyms never disappeared and some form of primary ethnic identity was available.<ref>Balkan cultural commonality and ethnic diversity. Raymond Detrez (Ghent University, Belgium).</ref> This is confirmed from a Sultan's [[Firman]] from 1680 which describes the ethnic groups in the Balkan territories of the Empire as follows: Greeks, Albanians, Serbs, Vlachs and Bulgarians.<ref>История на българите. Късно средновековие и Възраждане, том 2, Георги Бакалов, TRUD Publishers, 2004, {{ISBN|9545284676}}, стр. 23. (Bg.)</ref> The [[rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]] in the early 19th century brought opposition to this continued situation. At that time the classical Rum Millet began to degrade. The coordinated actions, carried out by Bulgarian national leaders supported by the majority of the Slavic-speaking population in today Republic of North Macedonia in order to be recognized as a separate ethnic entity, constituted the so-called "[[Bulgarian Millet]]", recognized in 1870.<ref>The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire, Selcuk Aksin Somel, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|1461731763}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC&pg=PA168&dq=bulgarian+millet+macedonia&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=uv6dUpOrG6rMygOXlYGYCA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 168.]</ref> At the time of its creation, people living in Vardar Macedonia, were not in the Exarchate. However, as a result of plebiscites held between 1872 and 1875, the Slavic districts in the area voted overwhelmingly (over 2/3) to go over to the new national Church.<ref>The Politics of Terror: The MacEdonian Liberation Movements, 1893–1903, Duncan M. Perry, Duke University Press, 1988, {{ISBN|0822308134}}, p. 15.</ref> Referring to the results of the plebiscites, and on the basis of statistical and ethnological indications, the [[1876 Conference of Constantinople]] included most of Macedonia into the Bulgarian ethnic territory.<ref>The A to Z of Bulgaria, Raymond Detrez, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|0810872021}}, p. 271.</ref> The borders of new Bulgarian state, drawn by the 1878 [[Treaty of San Stefano]], also included Macedonia, but the treaty was never put into effect and the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)]] "returned" Macedonia to the Ottoman Empire.

== Genetics ==
Anthropologically, Macedonians possess genetic lineages postulated to represent Balkan prehistoric and historic [[South Slavs#Genetics|demographic processes]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Peričić | first1 = Marijana | display-authors = etal | title = High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 22 | issue = 10| pages = 1964–1975 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msi185 | pmid = 15944443 | date = October 2005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Such lineages are also typically found in other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]], [[Serbs]], [[Bosniaks]] and [[Montenegrins]], but also in [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Romanians]].{{efn|See:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973(11)00079-2/fulltext|title=Genetic data for 17 Y-chromosomal STR loci in Macedonians in the Republic of Macedonia|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=5|issue=4|pages=e108–e111|access-date=18 March 2015|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2011.04.005|pmid=21549657|year=2011|last1=Jakovski|first1=Zlatko|last2=Nikolova|first2=Ksenija|last3=Jankova-Ajanovska|first3=Renata|last4=Marjanovic|first4=Damir|last5=Pojskic|first5=Naris|last6=Janeska|first6=Biljana}}</ref><ref name="pmid15361127">{{cite journal |vauthors=Petlichkovski A, Efinska-Mladenovska O, Trajkov D, Arsov T, Strezova A, Spiroski M |title=High-resolution typing of HLA-DRB1 locus in the Macedonian population |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=486–91 |year=2004 |pmid=15361127 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2004.00273.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=''European Journal of Human Genetics'' – Y chromosomal heritage of Croatian population and its island isolates. | volume=11 |issue=7 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200992 |pmid=12825075 |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |pages=535–542|year=2003 |last1=Barać |first1=Lovorka |last2=Peričić |first2=Marijana |last3=Klarić |first3=Irena Martinović |last4=Rootsi |first4=Siiri |last5=Janićijević |first5=Branka |last6=Kivisild |first6=Toomas |last7=Parik |first7=Jüri |last8=Rudan |first8=Igor |last9=Villems |first9=Richard |last10=Rudan |first10=Pavao |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Semino |first1=Ornella |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |title=The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic ''Homo sapiens sapiens'' in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective |journal=Science |volume=290 |pages=1155–59 |year=2000 |pmid=11073453 |doi=10.1126/science.290.5494.1155 |last2=Passarino |first2=G |last3=Oefner |first3=PJ |last4=Lin |first4=AA |last5=Arbuzova |first5=S |last6=Beckman |first6=LE |last7=De Benedictis |first7=G |last8=Francalacci |first8=P |last9=Kouvatsi |first9=A |display-authors=8 |issue=5494 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031125151213/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2003 |df=dmy |bibcode=2000Sci...290.1155S }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mksg/tan/2000/00000055/00000001/art00009;jsessionid=t6k1ukjgmoic.alexandra|title=HLA-DRB and -DQB1 polymorphism in the Macedonian population|access-date=18 March 2015|date=January 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rebala | first1 = K | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 52 | issue = 5| pages = 406–14 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6 | pmid = 17364156 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name ="balto-slavic">{{cite journal | last1 = Kushniarevich | first1 = Alena | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = Genetic heritage of the Balto-Slavic speaking populations: a synthesis of autosomal, mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal data | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 9| page = e0135820 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 | pmid = 26332464 | pmc = 4558026 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name = "GenesGeo">{{cite journal|last1=Novembre|first1=John|display-authors=etal|title=Genes mirror geography within Europe|journal=Nature|date=2008|volume=456|issue=7218|pages=98–101|doi=10.1038/nature07331|pmid=18758442|pmc=2735096|bibcode=2008Natur.456...98N}}</ref>}}

Y-DNA studies suggest that Macedonians along with neighboring South Slavs are distinct from other [[Slavs|Slavic-speaking]] populations in Europe and a majority of their [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups]] are likely to be inherited from inhabitants of the Balkans that predated sixth-century Slavic migrations.<ref name="Rębała 406–414">{{Cite journal|last1=Rębała|first1=Krzysztof|last2=Mikulich|first2=Alexei I.|last3=Tsybovsky|first3=Iosif S.|last4=Siváková|first4=Daniela|last5=Džupinková|first5=Zuzana|last6=Szczerkowska-Dobosz|first6=Aneta|last7=Szczerkowska|first7=Zofia|date=2007-03-16|title=Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|volume=52|issue=5|pages=406–414|doi=10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6|pmid=17364156|issn=1434-5161|doi-access=free}}</ref> A diverse set of Y-DNA haplogroups are found in Macedonians at significant levels, including I2a1b, E-V13, J2a, R1a1, R1b, G2a, encoding a complex pattern of demographic processes.<ref>Renata Jankova et al., Y-chromosome diversity of the three major ethno-linguistic groups in the Republic of North Macedonia; Forensic Science International: Genetics; Volume 42, September 2019, Pages 165–170.</ref> Similar distributions of the same haplogroups are found in neighboring populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna">Trombetta B. "Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent" http://gbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/7/1940.long</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Spiroski | first1 = Mirko | last2 = Arsov | first2 = Todor | last3 = Krüger | first3 = Carmen | last4 = Willuweit | first4 = Sascha | last5 = Roewer | first5 = Lutz | year = 2005 | title = Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes in Macedonian population samples | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 148 | issue = 1| pages = 69–74 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.04.067 | pmid = 15607593 }}</ref> R1a1 and I2a1b are typically found in Slavic-speaking populations across Europe<ref>[[Anatole Klyosov]], DNA Genealogy; [[Scientific Research Publishing]], Inc. USA, 2018; {{ISBN|1618966197}}, p. 211.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underhill | first1 = Peter A. | last2 = Poznik | first2 = G. David | last3 = Rootsi | first3 = Siiri | last4 = Järve | first4 = Mari | last5 = Lin | first5 = Alice A. | last6 = Wang | first6 = Jianbin | last7 = Passarelli | first7 = Ben | display-authors = etal | year = 2015| title = The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 124–31 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid = 24667786 | pmc = 4266736 }} (Supplementary Table 4)</ref> while haplogroups such as E-V13 and J2 occur at high frequencies in neighboring non-Slavic populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna"/> On the other hand R1b is the most frequently occurring haplogroup in [[Western Europe]] and G2a is most frequently found in [[Caucasus]] and the adjacent areas. Genetic similarity, irrespective of language and ethnicity, has a strong correspondence to geographic proximity in European populations.<ref name = "balto-slavic"/><ref name = "GenesGeo"/><ref>{{Citation |vauthors=Lao O, Lu TT, Nothnagel M, etal |title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=18 |issue=16 |pages=1241–8 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18691889 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049 |s2cid=16945780 }}</ref>

In regard to population genetics, not all regions of Southeastern Europe had the same ratio of native Byzantine and invading Slavic population, with the territory of the [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern Balkans]] ([[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Thrace]] and [[Moesia]]) having a higher percentages of locals compared to Slavs. Considering the majority of the Balkan Slavs came via the Eastern Carpathian route, lower percentage on east does not imply that the number of the Slavs there was lesser than among the [[Western South Slavic|Western South Slavs]]. Most probably on the territory of Western South Slavs was a state of desolation which produced there a [[founder effect]].<ref>Florin Curta's An ironic smile: the Carpathian Mountains and the migration of the Slavs, Studia mediaevalia Europaea et orientalia. Miscellanea in honorem professoris emeriti Victor Spinei oblata, edited by George Bilavschi and Dan Aparaschivei, 47–72. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Române, 2018.</ref><ref>A. Zupan et al. The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations; Annals of Human Biology 40 (6) July 2013.</ref> The region of Macedonia suffered less disruption than frontier provinces closer to the Danube, with towns and forts close to [[Ohrid]], [[Bitola]] and along the [[Via Egnatia]]. Re-settlements and the cultural links of the Byzantine Era further shaped the demographic processes which the Macedonian ancestry is linked to.<ref>Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages: 500-1250. Florin Curta, 2006 https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Southeastern_Europe_in_the_Middle_Ages_5/YIAYMNOOe0YC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=southeastern+europe,+curta&printsec=frontcover</ref>

==Identities==
{{See also|Macedonian Question|Macedonian nationalism|Macedonians (Bulgarians)|Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia}}

The large majority of Macedonians identify as [[Eastern Orthodox Christians]], who speak a [[South Slavic language]], and share a cultural and historical "Orthodox Byzantine–Slavic heritage" with their neighbours. The concept of a "Macedonian" ethnicity, distinct from their Orthodox Balkan neighbours, is seen to be a comparatively newly emergent one.{{efn|See:<ref>[[Krste Misirkov]], ''On the Macedonian Matters'' (''Za Makedonckite Raboti''), Sofia, 1903: "And, anyway, what sort of new Macedonian nation can this be when we and our fathers and grandfathers and great-grandfathers have always been called Bulgarians?"</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Sperling | first1 = James | last2 = Kay | first2 = Sean | last3 = Papacosma | first3 = S. Victor | title = Limiting institutions?: the challenge of Eurasian security governance | year = 2003 | publisher=Manchester University Press | location = Manchester, UK | isbn = 978-0-7190-6605-4 | pages = 57 |quote=Macedonian nationalism Is a new phenomenon. In the early twentieth century, there was no separate Slavic Macedonian identity }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Titchener | first1 = Frances B. | last2 = Moorton | first2 = Richard F. | title = The eye expanded: life and the arts in Greco-Roman antiquity | year = 1999 | publisher=University of California Press | location = Berkeley | isbn = 978-0-520-21029-5 | pages = 259|quote=On the other hand, the Macedonians are a newly emergent people in search of a past to help legitimize their precarious present as they attempt to establish their singular identity in a Slavic world dominated historically by Serbs and Bulgarians. ... The twentieth-century development of a Macedonian ethnicity, and its recent evolution into independent statehood following the collapse of the Yugoslav state in 1991, has followed a rocky road. In order to survive the vicissitudes of Balkan history and politics, the Macedonians, who have had no history, need one.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Kaufman | first1 = Stuart J. | title = Modern hatreds: the symbolic politics of ethnic war | year = 2001 | publisher=Cornell University Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-8014-8736-6 | pages = 193|quote=The key fact about Macedonian nationalism is that it is new: in the early twentieth century, Macedonian villagers defined their identity religiously—they were either "Bulgarian," "Serbian," or "Greek" depending on the affiliation of the village priest. ... According to the new Macedonian mythology, modern Macedonians are the direct descendants of Alexander the Great's subjects. They trace their cultural identity to the ninth-century Saints Cyril and Methodius, who converted the Slavs to Christianity and invented the first Slavic alphabet, and whose disciples maintained a centre of Christian learning in western Macedonia. A more modern national hero is Gotse Delchev, leader of the turn-of-the-century Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), which was actually a largely pro-Bulgarian organization but is claimed as the founding Macedonian national movement.}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Press_quote">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278|quote= Despite the recent development of Macedonian identity, as Loring Danforth notes, it is no more or less artificial than any other identity. It merely has a more recent ethnogenesis – one that can therefore more easily be traced through the recent historical record.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Zielonka | first1 = Jan | last2 = Pravda | first2 = Alex | title = Democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe | year = 2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-924409-6 | pages = 422|quote=Unlike the Slovene and Croatian identities, which existed independently for a long period before the emergence of SFRY Macedonian identity and language were themselves a product federal Yugoslavia, and took shape only after 1944. Again unlike Slovenia and Croatia, the very existence of a separate Macedonian identity was questioned—albeit to a different degree—by both the governments and the public of all the neighboring nations (Greece being the most intransigent)}}</ref>}} The earliest manifestations of incipient Macedonian identity emerged during the second half of the 19th century<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129231959/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 January 2019|quote=Macedonian nationalism did not arise until the end of the last century.|date=14 May 1995|work=The New York Times|last=Bonner|title=The World; The Land That Can't Be Named|first=Raymond|access-date=29 January 2019|location=New York|author-link=Raymond Bonner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=They were also insisting that the Macedonians sacrifice their national name, under which, as we have seen throughout this work, their national identity and their nation formed in the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=269|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=Under very trying circumstances, most ethnic Macedonians chose a Macedonian identity. That identity began to form with the Slav awakening in Macedonia in the first half of the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=284|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|date=2008|author-link=Andrew Rossos|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> among limited circles of Slavic-speaking intellectuals, predominantly outside the region of Macedonia. They arose after the [[First World War]] and especially during 1930s, and thus were consolidated by Communist Yugoslavia's governmental policy after the [[Second World War]].{{efn|See:<ref>Loring M. Danforth, ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', 1995, Princeton University Press, p.65, {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}</ref><ref>Stephen Palmer, Robert King, ''Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian question'', Hamden, Connecticut Archon Books, 1971, p.p.199-200</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOPUnWM8RAYC&q=The+Macedonian+Question,+Britain+and+the+Southern+Balkans+1939-1949&pg=PP13|title=The Macedonian Question : Britain and the Southern Balkans 1939–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780191528729|last1=Livanios|first1=Dimitris|date=17 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="Woodhouse">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYAwZFwyYdwC&q=Chris+Woodhouse+Struggle+for+Greece+1941-1949&pg=PR25|title=The Struggle for Greece, 1941–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850654926|last1=Woodhouse|first1=Christopher M.|year=2002}}</ref><ref name="macedonians">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_NbmSoRsRcC&q=who+are+the+macedonians&pg=PP1|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850652380|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=1995}}</ref>}}

===Historical overview===
Throughout the Middle Ages and Ottoman rule up until the early 20th century<ref name="Woodhouse"/><ref name="macedonians"/><ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF Center for Documentation and Information on Minorities in Europe, Southeast Europe (CEDIME-SE) – "Macedonians of Bulgaria", p. 14.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF |date=23 July 2006 }}</ref> the Slavic-speaking population majority in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] were more commonly referred to (both by themselves and outsiders) as [[Bulgarians]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbuavUZKEwC&q=Who+are+the+Macedonians|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850655343|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/im3/im_6_1.htm|title=Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија, Иван Микулчиќ, Македонска академија на науките и уметностите – Скопје, 1996, стр. 72.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/da/da_summary.htm|title=Formation of the Bulgarian nation (summary) |author=Academician Dimitŭr Simeonov Angelov |publisher=Sofia-Press |year=1978 |pages=413–415 |access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> However, in pre-nationalist times, terms such as "Bulgarian" did not possess a strict ethno-nationalistic meaning, rather, they were loose, often interchangeable terms which could simultaneously denote regional habitation, allegiance to a particular empire, religious orientation, membership in certain social groups.{{efn|See:<ref>When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans. J V A Fine. pp. 3–5.</ref><ref>Relexification Hypothesis in Rumanian. Paul Wexler. p. 170</ref><ref>Cumans and Tartars: Oriental military in the pre-Ottoman Balkans. Istvan Vasary. p. 18</ref><ref>Byzantium's Balkan Frontier. Paul Stephenson. p. 78–79</ref>}} Similarly, a "Byzantine" was a ''Roman'' subject of Constantinople, and the term bore no strict ethnic connotations, Greek or otherwise.<ref>The Edinburgh History of the Greeks; 500–1250: The Middle Ages. Florin Curta. 2013. p. 294 (echoing Anthony D Smith and Anthony Kaldellis) "no clear notion exists that the Greek nation survived into Byzantine times...the ethnic identity of those who lived in Greece during the Middle Ages is best described as Roman."</ref> Overall, in the Middle Ages, "a person's origin was distinctly regional",<ref>Mats Roslund. ''Guests in the House: Cultural Transmission Between Slavs and Scandinavians''; 2008. p. 79</ref> and in [[Ottoman era]], before the 19th-century [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]], it was based on the corresponding [[Millet system|confessional community]]. After the rise of nationalism, most of the Slavic-speaking population in the area, joined the [[Bulgarian Millet|Bulgarian community]], through voting in its favor on a plebiscites held during the 1870s, by a qualified majority (over two-thirds).

===19th-century emergence===
With the creation of the [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgarian Principality]] in 1878, the Macedonian upper stratum had to decide whether Macedonia was to emerge as an independent state or as part of a "[[Greater Bulgaria]]".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzci446GLakC&q=Chary,+macedonia+jews+novoosvobodeni&pg=PA45|title=The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution, 1940–1944|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780822976011|last1=Chary|first1=Frederick B.|date=15 November 1972}}</ref> During this period, the first expressions of [[Macedonian nationalism#Macedonism|Macedonism]] by certain Macedonian intellectuals occurred in [[Belgrade]], [[Sofia]], [[Istanbul]], [[Thessaloniki]] and [[St. Petersburg]]. In the 1860s, according to [[Petko Slaveykov]], some young intellectuals from Macedonia were claiming that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians.<ref>[[s:en:Translation:The Macedonian question|The Macedonian Question]] an article from 1871 by [[Petko Slaveykov]] published in the newspaper Macedonia in Carigrad (now [[Istanbul]]). In this article Petko Slaveykov writes: "We have many times heard from the Macedonists that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians."</ref> In a letter written to the Bulgarian Exarch in February 1874 [[Petko Slaveykov]] reports that discontent with the current situation “has given birth among local patriots to the disastrous idea of working independently on the advancement of their [[Macedonian dialects|own local dialect]] and what’s more, of their own, separate Macedonian church leadership.”<ref>[[s:en:Translation:A letter from P.R. Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch|A letter from Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch]] written in [[Thessaloniki|Solun]] in February 1874</ref> The activities of these people were also registered by [[Stojan Novaković]].<ref>Балканска питања и мање историјско-политичке белешке о Балканском полуострву 1886–1905. Стојан Новаковић, Београд, 1906.</ref> The nascent Macedonian nationalism, illegal at home in the theocratic Ottoman Empire, and illegitimate internationally, waged a precarious struggle for survival against overwhelming odds: in appearance against the Ottoman Empire, but in fact against the three expansionist Balkan states and their respective patrons among the great powers.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref>

The first known author that propagated the concept of a Macedonian ethnicity was [[Georgi Pulevski]], who in 1875 published ''Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish'', in which he wrote:
{{cquote|What do we call a nation? – People who are of the same origin and who speak the same words and who live and make friends of each other, who have the same customs and songs and entertainment are what we call a nation, and the place where that people lives is called the people's country. Thus the Macedonians also are a nation and the place which is theirs is called Macedonia.<ref>Rečnik od tri jezika: s. makedonski, arbanski i turski [Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish], U državnoj štampariji, 1875, p. 48f.</ref>}}

On the other hand, [[Theodosius of Skopje]], a priest who have hold a high-ranking positions within the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] was chosen as a bishop of the [[episcopacy]] of [[Skopje]] in 1885. As a bishop of Skopje, Theodosius renounced de facto the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] and attempted to restore the [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] as a separate Macedonian Orthodox Church in all eparchies of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]],<ref>Theodosius of Skopje Centralen D'rzhaven istoricheski archiv (Sofia) 176, op. 1. arh.ed. 595, l.5–42 – Razgledi, X/8 (1968), pp. 996–1000.</ref> responsible for the spiritual, cultural and educational life of all Macedonian Orthodox Christians.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> During this time period Metropolitan Bishop [[Theodosius of Skopje]] made several pleas to the Bulgarian church to allow a separate Macedonian church, and ultimately on 4 December 1891 he sent a [[s:Translation:Theodosius, the metropolitan of Skopje, to Pope Leo XIII|letter]] to the Pope Leo XIII to ask for a [[s:Translation:The conditions of transfer of Macedonian eparchies to Union with the Roman Catholic Church|recognition]] and a [[s:Translation:Bishop Augusto Bonetti on the talks with Theodosius, the Metropolitan of Skopje|protection]] from the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1892 the local [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] parish school council in the city of [[Kastoria]] (then Kostur) adopted the proposal of a group of teachers "to eliminate both [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] and introduce [[Kostur dialect|local dialect]]<ref>Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistic Variation and Change; University Press, 2002; {{ISBN|0748615156}}, p. 132.</ref> as the language of instruction in the town school," but the idea failed the same year.<ref name="books.google.com">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC&pg=PA575 ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''], Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, p. 545</ref><ref>Friedman, Victor A. “The First Philological Conference for the Macedonian" in The Earliest Stage of Language Planning: "The First Congress" Phenomenon with Joshua A. Fishman as ed. Walter de Gruyter, 2011, {{ISBN|3110848988}}, p. 162.</ref>

In 1903 [[Krste Misirkov|Krste Petkov Misirkov]] published his book ''[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters|On Macedonian Matters]]'' in which he laid down the principles of the modern Macedonian nationhood and language.<ref name=misirkov>{{cite web|url=http://www.misirkov.org/ |title=上位表示されないので休止しました |access-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220160042/http://www.misirkov.org/ |archive-date=20 December 2014 }}</ref> This [[s:mk:За македонцките работи|book]] written in the standardized [[Dialects of Macedonian|central dialect of Macedonia]] is considered by ethnic Macedonians as a milestone of the ethnic Macedonian identity and the apogee of the process of Macedonian awakening.<ref name="books.google.com"/> In his article "[[s:mk:Крсте Петков Мисирков/ Македонски национализам|Macedonian Nationalism]]" he wrote:

{{cquote|I hope it will not be held against me that I, as a Macedonian, place the interests of my country before all... I am a Macedonian, I have a Macedonian's consciousness, and so I have my own Macedonian view of the past, present, and future of my country and of all the South Slavs; and so I should like them to consult us, the Macedonians, about all the questions concerning us and our neighbours, and not have everything end merely with agreements between Bulgaria and Serbia about us – but without us.}}

Misirkov argued that the dialect of central Macedonia (Veles-Prilep-Bitola-Ohrid)<ref>[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters#A few words on the Macedonian literary language|On Macedonian Matters – A few works on the Macedonian literary language]]</ref> should be taken as a standard Macedonian literary language, in which Macedonians should write, study, and worship; the autocephalous [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] should be restored; and the Slavic people of Macedonia should be identified in their Ottoman identity cards (''[[nofuz]]'') as "Macedonians".<ref name=misirkov/>

The next great figure of the Macedonian awakening was [[Dimitrija Čupovski]], one of the founders of the [[Macedonian Literary Society]], established in [[Saint Petersburg]] in 1902. In the period 1913–1918, Čupovski published the newspaper ''Македонскi Голосъ (Macedonian Voice)'' in which he and fellow members of the Petersburg Macedonian Colony propagated the existence of a Macedonian people separate from the Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs, and sought to popularize the idea for an independent Macedonian state.

===20th-century development===
After the [[Balkan Wars]], following division of the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] amongst the [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Kingdom of Greece]], the [[Kingdom of Bulgaria]] and the [[Kingdom of Serbia]], and after World War I, the idea of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation was further spread among the Slavic-speaking population. The suffering during the wars, the endless struggle of the Balkan monarchies for dominance over the population increased the Macedonians' sentiment that the institutionalization of an independent Macedonian nation would put an end to their suffering. On the question of whether they were Serbs or Bulgarians, the people more often started answering: "Neither Bulgar, nor Serb... I am Macedonian only, and I'm sick of war."<ref>Историја на македонската нација. Блаже Ристовски, 1999, Скопје.</ref><ref>"On the Monastir Road". Herbert Corey, ''National Geographic'', May 1917 ([http://www.promacedonia.org/gall/ng1917/217E0388.JPG p. 388.])</ref>

[[Stratis Myrivilis]], an important Greek writer, in his ''Life in the Tomb'', from his experiences as a soldier in the [[Macedonian front]] (1916–18), described also the self-identitification of the local population: "...They don't want to be called Bulgar, neither Srrp, neither Grrts. Only Macedon Orthodox...."<ref>Life in the Tomb, Η ζωή εν τάφω, first edition, 1924</ref>

The consolidation of an international Communist organization (the [[Comintern]]) in the 1920s led to some failed attempts by the Communists to use the [[Macedonian Question]] as a political weapon. In the 1920 Yugoslav parliamentary elections, 25% of the total Communist vote came from Macedonia, but participation was low (only 55%), mainly because the pro-Bulgarian IMRO organised a boycott against the elections. In the following years, the communists attempted to enlist the pro-IMRO sympathies of the population in their cause. In the context of this attempt, in 1924 the Comintern organized the filed signing of the so-called [[May Manifesto]], in which independence of partitioned Macedonia was required.<ref>Victor Roudometof, ''Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans (Contributions to the Study of World History)'', Praeger, 2001, p.187</ref> In 1925 with the help of the Comintern, the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (United)]] was created, composed of former left-wing [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (IMRO) members. This organization promoted in the early 1930s the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian nation.<ref>The Situation in Macedonia and the Tasks of IMRO (United) – published in the official newspaper of IMRO (United), "Македонско дело", N.185, April 1934.</ref> This idea was internationalized and backed by the Comintern which issued in 1934 a [[Resolution of the Comintern on the Macedonian Question|resolution supporting the development of the entity]].<ref>Резолюция о македонской нации (принятой Балканском секретариате Коминтерна — Февраль 1934 г, Москва.</ref> This action was attacked by the IMRO, but was supported by the [[Balkan]] communists. The Balkan communist parties supported the national consolidation of the ethnic Macedonian people and created Macedonian sections within the parties, headed by prominent IMRO (United) members. The sense of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation gained credence during World War II when ethnic Macedonian communist partisan detachments were formed. In 1943 the Communist Party of Macedonia was established and the resistance movement grew up. After the World War II ethnic Macedonian institutions were created in the three parts of the region of Macedonia, then under communist control,<ref name="Barbara Jelavich">History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century. Barbara Jelavich, 1983.</ref> including the establishment of the [[People's Republic of Macedonia]] within the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (SFRJ).

The available data indicates that despite the policy of assimilation, pro-Bulgarian sentiments among the Macedonian Slavs in Yugoslavia were still sizable during the interwar period. However if the Yugoslavs would recognize the Slavic inhabitants of Vardar Macedonia as Bulgarians, it would mean that the area should be part of Bulgaria. Practically in [[post-World War II]] Macedonia, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's state policy of forced [[Serbianisation]] was changed with a new one — of [[Macedonization]]. The codification of the Macedonian language and the recognition of the Macedonian nation had the main goal: finally to ban any [[Bulgarophilia]] among the Macedonians and to build a new consciousness, based on identification with Yugoslavia. As result Yugoslavia introduced again an abrupt ''de-Bulgarization'' of the people in the [[PR Macedonia]], such as it already had conducted in the [[Vardar Banovina]] during the [[Interwar period]]. Around 100,000 pro-Bulgarian elements were imprisoned for violations of the special ''[[Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honour]]'', and over 1,200 were allegedly killed. In this way generations of students grew up educated in strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment which during the times of [[Communist Yugoslavia]], increased to the level of [[state policy]]. Its main agenda was a result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarians and the new Macedonian nation, because Macedonians could confirm themselves as a separate community with its own history, only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. This policy has continued in the new Republic of Macedonia after 1990, although with less intensity. Thus, the Bulgarian part of the identity of the Slavic-speaking population in Vardar Macedonia has died out.{{efn|See:<ref>"Within Greece, and also within the new kingdom of Yugoslavia, which Serbia had joined in 1918, the ejection of the Bulgarian church, the closure of Bulgarian schools, and the banning of publication in Bulgarian, together with the expulsion or flight to Bulgaria of a large proportion of the Macedonian Slav intelligentsia, served as the prelude to campaigns of forcible cultural and linguistic assimilation...In both countries, these policies of de-bulgarization and assimilation were pursued, with fluctuating degrees of vigor, right through to 1941, when the Second World War engulfed the Balkan peninsula. The degree of these policies' success, however, remains open to question. The available evidence suggests that Bulgarian national sentiment among the Macedonian Slavs of Yugoslavia and Greece remained strong throughout the interwar period, though they lacked the means to offer more than passive resistance to official policies." For more see: F. A. K. Yasamee, Nationality in the Balkans: The case of the Macedonians. Balkans: A Mirror of the New World Order, Istanbul: Eren Publishing, 1995; pp. 121–132.</ref><ref>"As in Kosovo, the restoration of Serbian rule in 1918, to which the Strumica district and several other Bulgarian frontier salients accrued in 1919 (Bulgaria also having lost all its Aegean coastline to Greece), marked the replay of the first Serbian occupation (1913–1915). Once again, the Exarchist clergy and Bulgarian teachers were expelled, all Bulgarian-language signs and books removed, and all Bulgarian clubs, societies, and organizations dissolved, The Serbianization of family surnames proceeded as before the war, with Stankov becoming Stankovic and Atanasov entered in the books by Atanackovic... Thousands of Macedonians left for Bulgaria. Though there were fewer killings of "Bulgarians" (a pro-Bulgarian source claimed 342 such instances and 47 additional disappearances in 1918 – 1924), the conventional forms of repression (jailings, internments etc.) were applied more systematically and with greater effect than before (the same source lists 2,900 political arrests in the same period)... Like Kosovo, Macedonia was slated for Serb settlements and internal colonization. The authorities projected the settlement of 50,000 families in Macedonia, though only 4,200 families had been placed in 280 colonies by 1940." For more see: Ivo Banac, "The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics" The Macedoine, Cornell University Press, 1984; {{ISBN|0801416752}}, pp. 307–328.</ref><ref>Yugoslav Communists recognized the existence of a Macedonian nationality during WWII to quiet fears of the Macedonian population that a communist Yugoslavia would continue to follow the former Yugoslav policy of forced Serbianization. Hence, for them to recognize the inhabitants of Macedonia as Bulgarians would be tantamount to admitting that they should be part of the Bulgarian state. For that the Yugoslav Communists were most anxious to mold Macedonian history to fit their conception of Macedonian consciousness. The treatment of Macedonian history in Communist Yugoslavia had the same primary goal as the creation of the Macedonian language: to de-Bulgarize the Macedonian Slavs, and to create an national consciousness that would inspire identification with Yugoslavia. For more see: Stephen E. Palmer, Robert R. King, Yugoslav communism and the Macedonian question, Archon Books, 1971, {{ISBN|0208008217}}, Chapter 9: The encouragement of Macedonian culture.</ref><ref>The Serbianization of the Vardar region ended and Yugoslavization was not introduced either; rather, a policy of cultural, linguistic, and “historical” Macedonization by de-Bulgarianization was implemented, with immediate success. For more see: Irina Livezeanu and Arpad von KlimoThe Routledge as ed. History of East Central Europe since 1700, Routledge, 2017, {{ISBN|1351863428}}, p. 490.</ref><ref>In Macedonia, post-WWII generations grew up "overdosed" with strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment, leading to the creation of mainly negative stereotypes for Bulgaria and its nation. The anti-Bulgariansim (or Bulgarophobia) increased almost to the level of state ideology during the ideological monopoly of the League of Communists of Macedonia, and still continues to do so today, although with less ferocity... However, it is more important to say openly that a great deal of these anti-Bulgarian sentiments result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarian and the Macedonian nations. Macedonia could confirm itself as a state with its own past, present and future only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. For more see: Mirjana Maleska. With the eyes of the "other" (about Macedonian-Bulgarian relations and the Macedonian national identity). In New Balkan Politics, Issue 6, pp. 9–11. Peace and Democracy Center: "Ian Collins", Skopje, Macedonia, 2003. ISSN 1409-9454.</ref><ref>After WWII in Macedonia the past was systematically falsified to conceal the fact that many prominent ‘Macedonians’ had supposed themselves to be Bulgarians, and generations of students were taught the pseudo-history of the Macedonian nation. The mass media and education were the key to this process of national acculturation, speaking to people in a language that they came to regard as their Macedonian mother tongue, even if it was perfectly understood in Sofia. For more see: Michael L. Benson, Yugoslavia: A Concise History, Edition 2, Springer, 2003, {{ISBN|1403997209}}, p. 89.</ref><ref>Once specifically Macedonian interests came to the fore under the Yugoslav communist umbrella and in direct confrontation with the Bulgarian occupation authorities (during WWII), the Bulgarian part of the identity of Vardar Macedonians was destined to die out – in a process similar to the triumph of Austrian over German-Austrian identity in post-war years. Drezov K. (1999) Macedonian identity: an overview of the major claims. In: Pettifer J. (eds) The New Macedonian Question. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London; {{ISBN|978-0-333-92066-4}}, p. 51.</ref><ref>Additionally, some 100,000 people were imprisoned in the post-1944 period for violations of the law for the "protection of Macedonian national honor," and some 1,260 Bulgarian sympathizers were allegedly killed. (Troebst, 1997: 248–50, 255–57; 1994: 116–22; Poulton, 2000: 118–19). For more see: Roudometof, Victor, Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question, Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}, p. 104.</ref>}}

===21st-century uncertainty===
Following the collapse of Yugoslavia, the issue of Macedonian identity emerged again. Nationalists and governments alike from neighbouring countries (especially Greece and Bulgaria) espouse the view that the Macedonian ethnicity is a modern, artificial creation. Such views have been seen by Macedonian historians to represent irredentist motives on Macedonian territory.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Moreover, some historians point out that ''all'' modern nations are recent, politically motivated constructs based on creation "myths".<ref>Smith A.D. ''The Antiquity of Nations''. 2004, p. 47</ref> The creation of Macedonian identity is "no more or less artificial than any other identity".<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278}}</ref> Contrary to the claims of Romantic nationalists, modern, territorially bound and mutually exclusive nation states have little in common with their preceding large territorial or dynastic medieval empires; and any connection between them is tenuous at best.<ref>Danforth, L. ''The Macedonian Conflict. Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. p. 25</ref> In any event, irrespective of shifting political affiliations, the Macedonian Slavs shared in the fortunes of the [[Byzantine commonwealth]] and the [[Rum millet]] and they can claim them as their heritage.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Loring Danforth states similarly, the ancient heritage of modern Balkan countries is not "the mutually exclusive property of one specific nation" but "the shared inheritance of all Balkan peoples".<ref>''Ancient Macedonia: National Symbols.'' L Danforth in ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''. Wiley –Blackwell 2010. p. 597-8</ref>

A more radical and uncompromising strand of Macedonian nationalism has recently emerged called "ancient Macedonism", or "[[Antiquisation]]". Proponents of this view see modern Macedonians as direct descendants of the ancient Macedonians. This view faces criticism by academics as it is not supported by archaeology or other historical disciplines, and also could marginalize the Macedonian identity.<ref>The Handbook of Political Change in Eastern Europe, Sten Berglund, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013, {{ISBN|1782545883}},[https://books.google.com/books?id=hmtuqFnuDZwC&pg=PA622&dq=antiquisation+macedonia=#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 622.]</ref><ref>Transforming National Holidays: Identity Discourse in the West and South Slavic Countries, 1985–2010, Ljiljana Šarić, Karen Gammelgaard, Kjetil Rå Hauge, John Benjamins Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|9027206384}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=F0aecYH2yQMC&pg=PA207&dq=antiquization+macedonia#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 207–208.]</ref> Surveys on the effects of the controversial [[nation-building]] project [[Skopje 2014]] and on the perceptions of the population of Skopje revealed a high degree of uncertainty regarding the latter's national identity. A supplementary national poll showed that there was a great discrepancy between the population's sentiment and the narrative the state sought to promote.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Muhić | first1 = Maja | last2 = Takovski | first2 = Aleksandar | year = 2014 | title = Redefining National Identity in Macedonia. Analyzing Competing Origins Myths and Interpretations through Hegemonic Representations. | journal = Etnološka Tribina | volume = 44 | issue = 37| page = 144 | doi = 10.15378/1848-9540.2014 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Additionally, during the last two decades, tens of thousands of citizens of North Macedonia have applied for Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Sinisa Jakov Marusic, More Macedonians Apply for Bulgarian Citizenship. [https://balkaninsight.com/2014/08/05/more-macedonians-apply-for-bulgarian-citizenship/ Aug 5, 2014, Balkans Inside.]</ref> In the period 2002–2021 some 90,000 acquired it while ca. 53,000 applied and are still waiting.<ref>Предоставяне на българско гражданство, Справка за преиода 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 г. (Bulgarian citizenship Information for the period 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 year); Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за 2012-2013 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for 2012-2013 year), p. 7] Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 23.01.2013 – 22.01.2014 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 23.01.2013–22.01.2014 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 year), p. 5; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 year), p. 6; Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 14 януари – 31 декември 2017 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 14 January - 31 December 2017); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2018 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2018); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2019 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2019). Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2020 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2020).</ref> Bulgaria has a special ethnic dual-citizenship regime which makes a constitutional distinction between ''ethnic Bulgarians'' and ''Bulgarian citizens''. In the case of the Macedonians, merely declaring their national identity as Bulgarian is enough to gain a citizenship.<ref>Bulgaria which has an ethnic citizenship regime and has a liberal dual citizenship regime makes a constitutional distinction between Bulgarians and Bulgarian citizens, whereas the former category reflects an ethnic (blood) belonging and the later the civic (territorial) belonging. In line with this definition, naturalization in Bulgaria is facilitated for those individuals who can prove that they belong to the Bulgarian nation...The birth certificates of parents and grandparents, their mother tongue, membership in Bulgarian institutions as the Bulgarian Church, former Bulgarian citizenship of the parents and so on are relevant criteria for the establishment of the ethnic origin of the applicant. In the case of Macedonian citizens, declaring their national identity as Bulgarian suffices to obtain Bulgarian citizenship, without the requirement for permanent residence in Bulgaria, or the language examination etc. For more see: Jelena Džankić, Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges, Southeast European Studies, Ashgate Publishing, 2015, {{ISBN|1472446410}}, p. 126.</ref> By making the procedure simpler, Bulgaria stimulates more Macedonian citizens (of Slavic origin) to apply for a Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria, Historical Dictionaries of Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, {{ISBN|1442241802}}, p. 318.</ref> However, many Macedonians who apply for Bulgarian citizenship as ''Bulgarians by origin'',<ref>Jo Shaw and Igor Štiks as ed., Citizenship after Yugoslavia, Routledge, 2013, {{ISBN|1317967070}}, p. 106.</ref> have few ties with Bulgaria.<ref>Rainer Bauböck, Debating Transformations of National Citizenship, IMISCOE Research Series, Springer, 2018, {{ISBN|3319927191}}, pp. 47–48.</ref> Further, those applying for [[Bulgarian citizenship]] usually say they do so to gain access to [[Member state of the European Union|member states of the European Union]] rather to assert Bulgarian identity.<ref>Michael Palairet, Macedonia: A Voyage through History (Vol. 2, From the Fifteenth Century to the Present), Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016, {{ISBN|1443888494}}, p. 347.</ref> This phenomenon is called ''[[placebo effect|placebo]] identity''.<ref>Mina Hristova, In-between Spaces: Dual Citizenship and Placebo Identity at the Triple Border between Serbia, Macedonia and Bulgaria in New Diversities; Volume 21, No. 1, 2019, pp. 37-55.</ref> Some Macedonians view the Bulgarian policy as part of a strategy to destabilize the Macedonian national identity.<ref>Risteski, L. (2016). “Bulgarian passports” – Possibilities for greater mobility of Macedonians and/or strategies for identity manipulation? EthnoAnthropoZoom/ЕтноАнтропоЗум, (10), 80-107. https://doi.org/10.37620/EAZ14100081r</ref> As a nation engaged in a dispute over its distinctiveness from Bulgarians, Macedonians have always perceived themselves as being threatened from its neighbor.<ref>Ljubica Spaskovska, Country report on Macedonia, November 2012. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, p.20.</ref> Bulgaria insists its neighbor to admit the common historical roots of their languages and nations, a view Skopje continues to reject.<ref>Bulgaria asks EU to stop 'fake' Macedonian identity. [https://www.dw.com/en/bulgaria-asks-eu-to-stop-fake-macedonian-identity/a-55020781 Deutsche Welle, 23.09.2020.]</ref> As result, Bulgaria blocked the official start of EU accession talks with North Macedonia.<ref>Bulgaria blocks EU accession talks with North Macedonia. [https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/bulgaria-blocks-eu-accession-talks-with-north-macedonia Nov 17, 2020, National post].</ref>

==Ethnonym==
The national name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] term ''Makedonía'', related to the name of the [[Macedonia (region)|region]], named after the [[ancient Macedonians]] and their [[Macedon|kingdom]]. It originates from the [[ancient Greek]] adjective [[makednos]], meaning "tall",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2364596 μακεδνός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> which shares its roots with the adjective ''makrós'', meaning the same.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmakro%2Fs1 μακρός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> The name is originally believed to have meant either "highlanders" or "the tall ones", possibly descriptive of these [[Ancient Macedonians|ancient people]].<ref name="Macedonia">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Macedonia Macedonia], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref><ref>[[Eugene N. Borza]], ''Makedonika'', Regina Books, {{ISBN|0-941690-65-2}}, p.114: The "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin both to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".</ref><ref>Nigel Guy Wilson, ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece'', Routledge, 2009, p.439: The latest archaeological findings have confirmed that Macedonia took its name from a tribe of tall, Greek-speaking people, the Makednoi.</ref> With the conquest of the Balkans by the [[Ottomans]] in the late 14th century, the name of Macedonia disappeared as a geographical designation for several centuries. The name was revived just during the early 19th century, after the foundation of the modern [[Greece|Greek]] state with its Western Europe-derived [[Philhellenism|obsession with Ancient Greece]].<ref>Jelavich Barbara, History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century, 1983, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0521274591}}, page 91.</ref><ref>John S. Koliopoulos, Thanos M. Veremis, Modern Greece: A History since 1821. A New History of Modern Europe, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, {{ISBN|1444314831}}, p. 48.</ref> As result of the [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire]], massive Greek [[Megali Idea|religious and school propaganda]] occurred, and a process of ''[[Hellenization]]'' was implemented among Slavic-speaking population of the area.<ref>Richard Clogg, Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002, {{ISBN|1850657068}}, p. 160.</ref><ref>Dimitar Bechev, Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Scarecrow Press, 2009, {{ISBN|0810862956}}, Introduction, pp. VII-VIII.</ref> In this way, the name ''Macedonians'' was applied to the local Slavs, aiming to stimulate the development of [[Grecoman|close ties]] between them and the [[Greeks]], linking both sides to the [[ancient Macedonians]], as a counteract against the growing [[National awakening of Bulgaria|Bulgarian cultural influence]] into the region.<ref>J. Pettifer, The New Macedonian Question, St Antony's group, Springer, 1999, {{ISBN|0230535798}}, pp. 49–51.</ref><ref>Anastas Vangeli, Nation-building ancient Macedonian style: the origins and the effects of the so-called antiquization in Macedonia. Nationalities Papers, the Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity, Volume 39, 2011 pp. 13–32.</ref> As a consequence since 1850s some Slavic intellectuals from the area, adopted the designation ''Macedonian'' as a regional identity, and it began to gain a popularity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Tchavdar Marinov, Entangled Histories of the Balkans, Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies, BRILL, 2013, {{ISBN|900425076X}}, pp. 283–285.</ref> Serbian politics then, also encouraged this kind of [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalism]] to neutralize the Bulgarian influx, thereby promoting Serbian interests there.<ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, 1900–1996, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 65.</ref> In the early 20th century the local ''Bulgarians'' already called themselves Macedonians, and were called in this way by their neighbors.<ref>E. Damianopoulos, The Macedonians: Their Past and Present, Springer, 2012, {{ISBN|1137011904}}, p. 185.</ref> During the [[interbellum]] Bulgaria also supported to some extent the Macedonian ''regional identity'', especially in Yugoslavia. Its aim was to prevent the [[Serbianization]] of the local Slavic-speakers, because the very name ''Macedonia'' was prohibited in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.<ref>Donald Bloxham, The Final Solution: A Genocide, OUP Oxford, 2009, {{ISBN|0199550336}}, p. 65.</ref><ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 76.</ref> Ultimately the designation Macedonian, changed its status in 1944, and went from being predominantly a regional, ethnographic denomination, to a national one.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Pieter Plas, Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Volume 34 of Multiple Europesq Peter Lang, 2005, {{ISBN|9052012970}}, p. 173.</ref>

==Population==
{{Ethnic Macedonians}}
The vast majority of Macedonians live along the valley of the river [[Vardar]], the central region of the Republic of North Macedonia. They form about 64.18% of the population of North Macedonia (1,297,981 people according to the [https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census]). Smaller numbers live in eastern [[Albania]], northern [[Greece]], and southern [[Serbia]], mostly abutting the border areas of the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]]. A large number of Macedonians have immigrated overseas to [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and to many European countries: [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Austria]] among others.

===Balkans===

====Greece====
{{See also|Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia}}

The existence of an ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece is rejected by the Greek government. The number of people speaking Slavic dialects has been estimated at somewhere between 10,000 and 250,000.{{efn|See:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnxZfdDXC7gC&q=number+of+slavophone+greece&pg=PA234|title=Bulgaria and Europe|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781843318286|last1=Katsikas|first1=Stefanos|date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=GR|title=Ethnologue report for Greece|work=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=13 February 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209045725/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004|date=9 February 2011}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605045853/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004|date=5 June 2011}}.</ref><ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Jacques Bacid, PhD Macedonia Through the Ages. Columbia University, 1983.</ref><ref>Hill, P. (1999) "Macedonians in Greece and Albania: A Comparative study of recent developments". Nationalities Papers Volume 27, 1 March 1999, p. 44(14).</ref><ref>Poulton, H.(2000), "Who are the Macedonians?", C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.</ref>}} Most of these people however do not have an ethnic Macedonian national consciousness, with most choosing to identify as ethnic [[Greeks]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC&q=number+of+slav+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA74|title=The Macedonian Conflict|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=0691043566|last1=Danforth|first1=Loring M.|date=6 April 1997}}</ref> or rejecting both ethnic designations and preferring terms such as ''"natives"'' instead.<ref name="Greece">{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61651.htm|title=Greece|publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|access-date=27 October 2016}}</ref> In 1999 the [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights|Greek Helsinki Monitor]] estimated that the number of people identifying as ethnic Macedonians numbered somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000,<ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD3TZJy5HagC&q=number+of+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA152|title=Culture and Rights|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780521797351|last1=Cowan|first1=Jane K.|last2=Dembour|first2=Marie-Bénédicte|last3=Wilson|first3=Richard A.|date=29 November 2001}}</ref> Macedonian sources generally claim the number of ethnic Macedonians living in Greece at somewhere between 200,000–350,000.<ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press, p. 45</ref> The ethnic Macedonians in Greece have faced difficulties from the Greek government in their ability to self-declare as members of a ''"Macedonian minority"'' and to refer to their native language as ''"Macedonian"''.<ref name="Greece"/>

Since the late 1980s there has been an ethnic Macedonian revival in Northern Greece, mostly centering on the region of [[Florina]].<ref>Detrez, Raymond; Plas, Pieter (2005), Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Peter Lang, pp. 50</ref> Since then ethnic Macedonian organisations including the [[Rainbow (Greece)|Rainbow political party]] have been established.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110928045606/http://www.novamakedonija.com.mk/NewsDetal.asp?vest=6110956302&id=9&setIzdanie=21996 Second Macedonian newspaper in Greece] – ''"Втор весник на Македонците во Грција...Весникот се вика "Задруга"...За нецел месец во Грција излезе уште еден весник на Македонците/A Second Macedonian Newspaper in greece...The Newspaper is Called "Zadruga/Koinothta"...Barely a month ago in Greece another newspaper for the Macedonians was released."''</ref> ''Rainbow'' first opened its offices in Florina on 6 September 1995. The following day, the offices had been broken into and had been ransacked.<ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf Greek Helsinki Monitor & Minority Rights Group- Greece; Greece against its Macedonian minority] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209033640/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf |date=2006-12-09 }}</ref> Later Members of ''Rainbow'' had been charged for "causing and inciting mutual hatred among the citizens" because the party had bilingual signs written in both [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]].<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur25/044/1998/en/ Amnesty International; Greece: Charges against members of the "Rainbow" party should be dropped]</ref> On 20 October 2005, the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)]] ordered the Greek government to pay penalties to the ''Rainbow Party'' for violations of 2 ECHR articles.<ref name="Greece"/> ''Rainbow'' has seen limited success at a national level, its best result being achieved in the 1994 European elections, with a total of 7,263 votes. Since 2004 it has participated in European Parliament elections and local elections, but not in national elections. A few of its members have been elected in local administrative posts. ''Rainbow'' has recently re-established ''Nova Zora'', a newspaper that was first published for a short period in the mid-1990s, with reportedly 20,000 copies being distributed free of charge.<ref>[http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 Македонците во Грција треба да си ги бараат правата] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823234401/http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 |date=23 August 2011 }} – ''""Нова зора"...печати во 20.000 примероци/Nova Zora...is printed in 20,000 copies"''</ref><ref>[http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 "Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509162418/http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 |date=9 May 2010 }} – ''""Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција...При печатењето на тиражот од 20.000 примероци се појавиле само мали технички проблеми/Nova Zora – the first Macedonian language newspaper in Greece...There were only small technical problems with the printing of the circulation of 20,000"''</ref><ref>[http://www.vreme.com.mk/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=2&tabid=1&EditionID=2001&ArticleID=138979 Нема печатница за македонски во Грција]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – ''"Весникот е наречен "Нова зора" и треба да се печати во 20.000 примероци/The Newspaper is called Nova Zora and 20,000 copies are printed."''</ref>

====Serbia====
{{Main|Macedonians in Serbia}}

Within [[Serbia]], Macedonians constitute an officially recognised ethnic minority at both a local and national level. Within [[Vojvodina]], Macedonians are recognised under the [[Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina]], along with other ethnic groups. Large Macedonian settlements within Vojvodina can be found in [[Plandište]], [[Jabuka]], [[Glogonj]], [[Dužine]] and [[Kačarevo]]. These people are mainly the descendants of economic migrants who left the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] in the 1950s and 1960s. The [[Macedonians in Serbia]] are represented by a national council and in recent years the Macedonian language has begun to be taught. The most recent census recorded 22,755 Macedonians living in Serbia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-06-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811224233/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref>

====Albania====
{{Main|Macedonians of Albania}}

Macedonians represent the second largest ethnic minority population in [[Albania]]. Albania recognises the existence of a Macedonian minority within the [[Mala Prespa]] region, most of which is comprised by [[Pustec Municipality]]. Macedonians have full minority rights within this region, including the right to education and the provision of other services in the [[Macedonian language]]. There also exist unrecognised Macedonian populations living in the [[Gollaborda|Golo Brdo]] region, the "Dolno Pole" area near the town of [[Peshkopi]], around [[Lake Ohrid]] and [[Korce]] as well as in [[Gora (region)|Gora]]. 4,697 people declared themselves Macedonians in the 1989 census.<ref>Artan Hoxha and Alma Gurraj, Local Self-Government and Decentralization: Case of Albania. History, Reforms and Challenges. In: Local Self Government and Decentralization in South — East Europe. Proceedings of the workshop held in Zagreb, Croatia 6 April 2001. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Zagreb Office, Zagreb 2001, pp. 194–224 ([http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/kroatien/50257.pdf PDF]).</ref>

====Bulgaria====
{{Main|Ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria}}

[[Bulgarians]] are considered most closely related to the neighboring Macedonians and it is sometimes claimed that there is no clear ethnic difference between them.<ref>{{cite book |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe |last1=Day |first1=Alan John |last2=East |first2=Roger |last3=Thomas |first3=Richard |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-85743-063-8 |page=94}}</ref> As regards self-identification, a total of 1,654 people officially declared themselves to be ethnic Macedonians in the last Bulgarian census in 2011 (0,02%) and 561 of them are in [[Blagoevgrad Province]] (0,2%).<ref>{{in lang|bg}} [http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R9.aspx?OBL=BLG Official census data]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> 1,091 of them are Macedonian citizens, who are [[permanent resident]]s in Bulgaria.<ref>[http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx Население с чуждо гражданство по страни] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004020646/http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx |date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> Krassimir Kanev, chairman of the non-governmental organization [[Bulgarian Helsinki Committee]], claimed 15,000–25,000 in 1998 (see [https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF here]). In the same report Macedonian nationalists  (Popov et al., 1989) claimed that 200,000 ethnic Macedonians live in Bulgaria. However, ''Bulgarian Helsinki Committee'' stated that the vast majority of the Slavic-speaking population in [[Pirin Macedonia]] has a Bulgarian national self-consciousness and a [[Macedonian Bulgarians|regional Macedonian identity]] similar to the Macedonian regional identity in [[Greek Macedonia]]. Finally, according to personal evaluation of a leading local ethnic Macedonian political activist, Stoyko Stoykov, the present number of Bulgarian citizens with ethnic Macedonian self-consciousness is between 5,000 and 10,000.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.focus-fen.net/?id=f1218
|title=FOCUS Information Agency
|publisher=focus-fen.net
|access-date=14 March 2009
}}
</ref> In 2000, the [[Bulgarian Constitutional Court]] banned [[UMO Ilinden-Pirin]], a small Macedonian political party, as a separatist organization. Subsequently, activists attempted to re-establish the party but could not gather the required number of signatures.

<gallery class="center">
File:Map of the majority ethnic groups of Macedonia by municipality.svg|Macedonians in North Macedonia, according to the 2002 census
File:Macedonians in Serbia.png|Concentration of Macedonians in Serbia
File:MalaPrespaiGoloBrdo.png|Regions where Macedonians live within Albania
File:Torbesija.png|Macedonian Muslims in North Macedonia
</gallery>

===Diaspora===
{{Further|Macedonian diaspora}}
[[File:Macedonian people in the world.svg|thumb|300x300px|Macedonian diaspora in the world (includes people with Slovenian ancestry or citizenship). 
{{Legend|#000000|North Macedonia}}
{{Legend|#BA9B15|+ 100,000}}
{{Legend|#F9D616|+ 10,000}}
{{Legend|#FFF0B3|+ 1,000}}]]

Significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the traditional immigrant-receiving nations, as well as in Western European countries. Census data in many European countries (such as Italy and Germany) does not take into account the ethnicity of émigrés from the Republic of North Macedonia.

====Argentina====
Most Macedonians can be found in [[Buenos Aires]], [[La Pampa Province|the Pampas]] and [[Córdoba Province, Argentina|Córdoba]]. An estimated 30,000 Macedonians can be found in Argentina.<ref name=Naveski_1>Nasevski, Boško; Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica (1995). Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95. Skopje: Матица на Иселениците на Македонија.</ref>
====Australia====
{{further|Macedonian Australians}}
The official number of Macedonians in Australia by birthplace or birthplace of parents is 83,893 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20041028074111/http://www.crc.nsw.gov.au/statistics/Sect1/Table1p08Aust.pdf 2001]). The main Macedonian communities are found in Melbourne, [[Geelong]], Sydney, [[Wollongong]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Canberra]] and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]. The 2006 census recorded 83,983 people of Macedonian ancestry and the 2011 census recorded 93,570 people of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|title=The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2011 Census|url=https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|publisher=Australian Government|page=58|year=2014|access-date=23 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417222156/https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Brazil====
{{further|Macedonians in Brazil}}
An estimated 45,000 people in Brazil are of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite book
|script-title=mk:Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2=Angelova, Dora |author3=Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher= Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52 & 53 }}</ref> The Macedonians can be primarily found in [[Porto Alegre]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[São Paulo]] and [[Curitiba]].
====Canada====
{{further|Macedonian Canadians}}
The Canadian census in 2001 records 37,705 individuals claimed wholly or partly Macedonian heritage in Canada,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=U.S. Census website |access-date=28 March 2020 }}</ref> although community spokesmen have claimed that there are actually 100,000–150,000 Macedonians in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120720212139/http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 July 2012 |access-date=7 March 2006 }}</ref>
====United States====
{{further|Macedonian Americans}}
A significant Macedonian community can be found in the United States. The official number of Macedonians in the US is 49,455 ([https://www.census.gov 2004]). The Macedonian community is located mainly in [[Michigan]], New York, [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]] and [[New Jersey]]<ref>[http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm Euroamericans.net] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050319231734/http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm |date=19 March 2005 }}</ref>
====Germany====
{{further|Macedonians in Germany}}
There are an estimated 61,000 citizens of North Macedonia in Germany (mostly in the [[Ruhrgebiet]]) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060405204342/http://wohnbevoelkerung_in_deutschland.know-library.net/ 2001]).
====Italy====
There are 74,162 citizens of North Macedonia in Italy ([http://demo.istat.it/str2006/query.php?lingua=eng&Rip=S0&paese=A12&submit=Tavola Foreign Citizens in Italy]).
====Switzerland====
{{further|Macedonians in Switzerland}}
In 2006 the Swiss Government recorded 60,362 Macedonian Citizens living in Switzerland.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120425144012/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/01/07/blank/key/01/01.Document.20578.xls bfs.admin.ch]</ref>
====Romania====
{{further|Macedonians in Romania}}
Macedonians are an officially recognised minority group in Romania. They have a special reserved seat in the nations parliament. In 2002, they numbered 731.
====Slovenia====
{{further|Macedonians in Slovenia}}
Macedonians began relocating to Slovenia in the 1950s when the two regions formed a part of a single country, [[Yugoslavia]].
====Other countries====
Other significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the other Western European countries such as Austria, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United Kingdom, and the whole European Union. {{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Also in Uruguay, with a significant population in [[Montevideo]].{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=August 2019}}

The culture of the people is characterized with both traditionalist and modernist attributes. It is strongly bound with their native land and the surrounding in which they live. The rich cultural heritage of the Macedonians is accented in the folklore, the picturesque traditional folk costumes, decorations and ornaments in city and village homes, the architecture, the monasteries and churches, iconostasis, wood-carving and so on. The culture of Macedonians can roughly be explained as a Balkanic, closely related to that of [[Bulgarians]] and [[Serbs]].

===Architecture===
[[File:Robevihouse.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] architecture in [[Ohrid]].]]
[[File:Makedonski Nosii 2.jpg|thumb|right|Macedonian girls in traditional folk costumes.]]
The typical Macedonian village house is influelnced by [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman Architecture]] .Presented as a construction with two floors, with a hard facade composed of large stones and a wide balcony on the second floor. In villages with predominantly agricultural economy, the first floor was often used as a storage for the harvest, while in some villages the first floor was used as a cattle-pen.

The stereotype for a traditional Macedonian city house is a two-floor building with white façade, with a forward extended second floor, and black wooden elements around the windows and on the edges.

===Cinema and theater===
{{main|Cinema of North Macedonia}}

The history of film making in North Macedonia dates back over 110 years. The first film to be produced on the territory of the present-day the country was made in 1895 by [[Manakis brothers|Janaki and Milton Manaki]] in [[Bitola]]. In 1995 [[Before the Rain (1994 film)|Before the Rain]] became the first Macedonian movie to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 67th Academy Awards {{!}} 1995 |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1995 |website=Oscars.org {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |access-date=27 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

From 1993 to 1994, 1,596 performances were held in the newly formed republic, and more than 330,000 people attended. The Macedonian National Theater (drama, opera, and ballet companies), the Drama Theater, the Theater of the Nationalities (Albanian and Turkish drama companies) and the other theater companies comprise about 870 professional actors, singers, ballet dancers, directors, playwrights, set and costume designers, etc. There is also a professional theatre for children and three amateur theaters. For the last thirty years a traditional festival of Macedonian professional theaters has been taking place in [[Prilep]] in honor of [[Vojdan Černodrinski]], the founder of the modern Macedonian theater. Each year a festival of amateur and experimental Macedonian theater companies is held in [[Kočani]].

===Music and art===
{{main|Music of North Macedonia}}

Macedonian music has many things in common with the music of neighboring [[Balkan]] countries, but maintains its own distinctive sound.

The founders of modern Macedonian painting included [[Lazar Licenovski]], [[Nikola Martinoski]], [[Dimitar Pandilov]], and [[Vangel Kodzoman]]. They were succeeded by an exceptionally talented and fruitful generation, consisting of [[Borka Lazeski]], [[Dimitar Kondovski]], [[Petar Mazev]] who are now deceased, and [[Rodoljub Anastasov]] and many others who are still active. Others include: [[Vasko Taskovski]] and [[Vangel Naumovski]]. In addition to [[Dimo Todorovski]], who is considered to be the founder of modern [[Macedonian sculpture]], the works of [[Petar Hadzi Boskov]], [[Boro Mitrikeski]], [[Novak Dimitrovski]] and [[Tome Serafimovski]] are also outstanding.

===Economy===
In the past, the Macedonian population was predominantly involved with agriculture, with a very small portion of the people who were engaged in trade (mainly in the cities). But after the creation of the People's Republic of Macedonia which started a social transformation based on Socialist principles, a middle and heavy industry were started.

===Language===
{{main|Macedonian language}}

The Macedonian language ({{lang|mk|македонски јазик}}) is a member of the Eastern group of [[South Slavic languages]]. [[Standard Macedonian]] was implemented as the official language of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after being [[Codification (linguistics)|codified]] in the 1940s, and has accumulated a thriving [[Macedonian literature|literary tradition]].

The closest relative of Macedonian is [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Levinson|O'Leary|1992|p=239}}</ref> followed by [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]. All the [[South Slavic languages]] form a [[dialect continuum]], in which Macedonian and Bulgarian form an [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern subgroup]]. The [[Torlakian]] dialect group is intermediate between Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian, comprising some of the northernmost [[Dialects of the Macedonian language|dialects of Macedonian]] as well as varieties spoken in southern Serbia and western Bulgaria. Torlakian is often classified as part of the Eastern South Slavic dialects.

The [[Macedonian alphabet]] is an adaptation of the [[Cyrillic script]], as well as language-specific conventions of spelling and punctuation. It is rarely [[Romanization of Macedonian|Romanized]].

===Religion===
{{main|Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church|Roman Catholicism in North Macedonia|Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Protestantism in North Macedonia|Islam in North Macedonia}}
[[File:2011 Ochryda, Cerkiew św. Pantelejmona (02).jpg|thumb|right|250px|One of the well-known monasteries – [[Saint Panteleimon, Ohrid|St. Panteleimon]] in Ohrid.]]

Most Macedonians are members of the [[Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church]]. The official name of the church is Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric and is the body of Christians who are united under the Archbishop of Ohrid and North Macedonia, exercising jurisdiction over Macedonian Orthodox Christians in the Republic of North Macedonia and in [[exarchate]]s in the [[Macedonian diaspora]].

The church gained autonomy from the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] in 1959 and declared the restoration of the historic [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]]. On 19 July 1967, the Macedonian Orthodox Church declared [[autocephaly]] from the Serbian church. Due to protest from the Serbian Orthodox Church, the move was not recognised by any of the churches of the [[Eastern Orthodox Communion]], and since then, the Macedonian Orthodox Church is not in communion with any Orthodox Church.<ref>The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. By Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley. p. 381</ref> A small number of Macedonians belong to the [[Roman Catholic]] and the [[Protestant Church|Protestant]] churches.

Between the 15th and the 20th centuries, during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]], a number of Orthodox Macedonian Slavs converted to Islam. Today in the Republic of North Macedonia, they are regarded as [[Macedonian Muslims]], who constitute the second largest religious community of the country.

===Names===
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia#Macedonian names|l1=Macedonian names}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Macedonian cuisine}}
[[File:Грав во тава(тафче гравче) (3).jpg|thumb|right|[[Tavče Gravče]], the [[national dish]] of Macedonians.]]
Macedonian cuisine is a representative of the cuisine of the [[Balkans]]—reflecting Mediterranean (Greek) and Middle Eastern (Turkish) influences, and to a lesser extent Italian, German and Eastern European (especially Hungarian) ones. The relatively warm climate in North Macedonia provides excellent growth conditions for a variety of vegetables, herbs and fruits. Thus, Macedonian cuisine is particularly diverse.

[[Shopska salad]], a food from [[Bulgaria]], is an appetizer and side dish which accompanies almost every meal.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} Macedonian cuisine is also noted for the diversity and quality of its [[dairy products]], wines, and local alcoholic beverages, such as [[rakija]]. [[Tavče Gravče]] and [[mastika]] are considered the national dish and drink of North Macedonia, respectively.

==See also==
{{Portal|North Macedonia}}
* [[Demographic history of North Macedonia]]
* [[List of Macedonians (ethnic group)|List of Macedonians]]
* [[Demographics of the Republic of North Macedonia]]
* [[Macedonian language]]
* [[Ethnogenesis]]
* [[South Slavs]]
* [[Macedonians (Greeks)]]
* [[Macedonians (Bulgarians)]]

==References==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Brown, Keith, ''The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation'', [[Princeton University Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|0-691-09995-2}}.
* {{cite journal
| last = Brunnbauer
| first = Ulf
|date=September 2004
| title = Fertility, families and ethnic conflict: Macedonians and Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia, 1944–2002
| journal=[[Nationalities Papers]]
| volume = 32
| issue = 3
| pages = 565–598
| doi = 10.1080/0090599042000246406
| s2cid = 128830053
}}
* Cowan, Jane K. (ed.), ''Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference'', Pluto Press, 2000. A collection of articles.
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700|year=2001|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC|isbn=9781139428880}}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250|year=2006|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt|url-access=registration|isbn=9780521815390}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Curta |first=Florin |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |title=The Slavic Lingua Franca. Linguistic Notes of an Archaeologist Turned Historian. |format=PDF |year=2004 |journal=East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=125–148 |access-date=2009-07-24 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}} |doi=10.1163/187633004x00134 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814025431/http://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |archive-date=14 August 2012 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, c. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages|year=2011|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCSrBgAAQBAJ|isbn=9780748644896}}
* Danforth, Loring M., ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', Princeton University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}.
* {{Cite book|last=Fine |first=John V A Jr. |title=The Early medieval Balkans. A Critical Survey from the 6th to the late 12th Century.|publisher=University Michigan Press|year=1991|isbn=9780472081493|postscript={{inconsistent citations}} }}
* Karakasidou, Anastasia N., ''Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990'', [[University Of Chicago Press]], 1997, {{ISBN|0-226-42494-4}}. Reviewed in ''[[Journal of Modern Greek Studies]]'' '''18''':2 (2000), p465.
* Mackridge, Peter, Eleni Yannakakis (eds.), ''Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912'', Berg Publishers, 1997, {{ISBN|1-85973-138-4}}.
* Poulton, Hugh, ''Who Are the Macedonians?'', [[Indiana University Press]], 2nd ed., 2000. {{ISBN|0-253-21359-2}}.
* Roudometof, Victor, ''Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question'', Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}.
* Κωστόπουλος, Τάσος, ''Η απαγορευμένη γλώσσα: Η κρατική καταστολή των σλαβικών διαλέκτων στην ελληνική Μακεδονία σε όλη τη διάρκεια του 20ού αιώνα'' (εκδ. Μαύρη Λίστα, Αθήνα 2000). [Tasos Kostopoulos, ''The forbidden language: state suppression of the Slavic dialects in Greek Macedonia through the 20th century'', Athens: Black List, 2000]
* The Silent People Speak, by Robert St. John, 1948, xii, 293, 301–313 and 385.
* {{cite web|last=Karatsareas|first=Petros|title=Greece's Macedonian Slavic heritage was wiped out by linguistic oppression – here's how
|url=https://theconversation.com/greeces-macedonian-slavic-heritage-was-wiped-out-by-linguistic-oppression-heres-how-94675|publisher=The Conversation|access-date=19 April 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Margaronis|first=Maria|title=Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-47258809|publisher=BBC|access-date=24 February 2019}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060113204437/http://newbalkanpolitics.org.mk/OldSite/Issue_2/ismail.eng.asp New Balkan Politics – Journal of Politics]
* [http://www.macedonians.co.uk/ Macedonians in the UK]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100305065457/http://www.umdiaspora.org/ United Macedonian Diaspora]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080629050307/http://www.smk.org.mk/ World Macedonian Congress]
* [http://www.maticanaiselenici.com/ House of Immigrants]

{{Ethnic groups in North Macedonia}}
{{North Macedonia topics}}
{{Slavic ethnic groups}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}
{{Authority control}}

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Talk:Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T19:13:32Z

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== May 2021 ==

[[File:Stop hand nuvola.svg|30px|alt=Stop icon]] This is your '''only warning'''; if you [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalize]] Wikipedia again, as you did at [[:Theseus]], you may be '''[[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|blocked from editing]] without further notice'''. {{Z190}} [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 18:50, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
{{Block indent|''If this is a [[Network address translation|shared IP address]], and you did not make the edits referred to above, consider [[Wikipedia:Why create an account?|creating an account]] for yourself or [[Special:UserLogin|logging in with an existing account]] so that you can avoid further irrelevant notices.''}}

Theseus

2021-05-10T18:49:56Z

Macedonian: Reverted 1 edit by 2001:56A:723C:5600:EDE2:E4F5:8CA1:2842 (talk) to last revision by ClueBot NG

{{short description|legendary king of Athens}}
{{other uses|Theseus (disambiguation)}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Greek myth}}
[[File:Kylix 57.1.jpg|thumb|317x247px|Silver [[kylix]] with Theseus and the Marathon bull, 445–440 BCE, part of the Vassil Bojkov collection, [[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]]]
'''Theseus''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|θ|iː|sj|uː|s}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|θ|iː|s|i|ə|s}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Θησεύς}} {{IPA-grc|tʰɛːsěu̯s|}}) was the [[myth]]ical king and founder-hero of [[Athens]]. His role in history has been called "a major cultural transition, like the making of the new Olympia by Hercules."<ref>Ruck, Carl A.P., and Danny Staples (1994). "Theseus: Making the New Athens." Pp. 203–222 in ''The World of Classical Myth.'' Durham, NC: [[Carolina Academic Press]].</ref>{{Rp|204}} The myths surrounding Theseus—his journeys, exploits, and friends—have provided material for fiction throughout the ages.

Theseus is sometimes described as the son of [[Aegeus]], King of Athens, and sometimes as the son of the god [[Poseidon]]. He is raised by his mother, [[Aethra (Greek mythology)|Aethra]], and when he discovers his connection to Aegeus travels overland to Athens, having many adventures on the way. When he reaches Athens, he finds that Aegeus is married to [[Medea]] (formerly wife of [[Jason]]), who plots against him.

The most famous legend about Theseus is his slaying of the [[Minotaur]], half man and half bull. He then goes on to unite [[Attica]] under Athenian rule: the ''[[synoikismos]]'' ('dwelling together'). As the unifying king, he is credited with building a palace on the fortress of the [[Acropolis]]. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] reports that after the ''synoikismos'', Theseus established a cult of [[Aphrodite Pandemos]] ('Aphrodite of all the People') on the southern slope of the Acropolis.

[[Plutarch]]'s ''Life of Theseus'' makes use of varying accounts of the death of the [[Minotaur]], Theseus' escape, how [[Ariadne]], daughter of [[King Minos]], fell in love with Theseus, and his betrayal of her.<ref group="lower-roman">"May I therefore succeed in purifying Fable, making her submit to reason and take on the semblance of History. But where she obstinately disdains to make herself credible, and refuses to admit any element of probability, I shall pray for kindly readers, and such as receive with indulgence the tales of antiquity." (Plutarch, ''Life of Theseus'', translated by Bernadotte Perrin).</ref>

Plutarch's avowed purpose is to construct a [[Parallel Lives|life that parallels]] the ''Life of [[Romulus]]'', the [[founding myth]] of Rome. Plutarch's sources, not all of whose texts have survived independently, included [[Pherecydes of Athens|Pherecydes]] (mid-fifth century BCE), Demon (c. 400 BCE), [[Philochorus]], and [[Cleidemus]] (both fourth century BCE).<ref>Cueva, Edmund P. (1996). "Plutarch's Ariadne in Chariton's Chaereas and Callirhoe." ''[[American Journal of Philology]]'', '''117'''(3):473–84.</ref> As the subject of myth, the existence of Theseus as a real person has not been proven, but scholars believe that he may have been alive during the Late Bronze Age<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/thes/hd_thes.htm|title=Theseus, Hero of Athens|last=Greene|first=Andrew|access-date=2018-11-25}}</ref> possibly as a king in the 8th or 9th century BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780199997329/student/materials/chapter23/commentary/|title=Classical Mythology Tenth Edition|last1=Morford|first1=Mark|last2=Lenardon|first2=Robert J.|website=Oxford University Press|publisher=Oxford University Press|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110071244/https://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/9780199997329/student/materials/chapter23/commentary/|archive-date=2014-11-10|url-status=live|access-date=31 October 2016|last3=Sham|first3=Michael}}</ref>

==Birth and early years==

[[File:Laurent de la La Hyre 002.jpg|thumb|left|220px|upright=1.3|''Theseus and Aethra'', by [[Laurent de La Hyre]]]]

[[Aegeus]], one of the primordial [[kings of Athens]], was childless. Desiring an heir, he asked the [[Oracle of Delphi]] for advice. Her cryptic words were "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. He asked the advice of his host [[Pittheus]], king of [[Troezen (mythology)|Troezen]]. Pittheus understood the prophecy, got Aegeus drunk, and gave Aegeus his daughter [[Aethra (mother of Theseus)|Aethra]].<ref>Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, and Michael Sham. 2014. ''Classical Mythology'' (10th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

But following the instructions of [[Athena]] in a dream, Aethra left the sleeping Aegeus and waded across to the island of Sphairia that lay close to Troezen's shore. There she poured a libation to Sphairos (Pelops's charioteer) and [[Poseidon]] and was possessed by the sea god in the night. The mix gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double paternity, with one immortal and one mortal, was a familiar feature of other [[Greek hero]]es.<ref group="lower-roman">The theory, expounded as natural history by [[Aristotle]], was accepted through the nineteenth century and only proven wrong in modern [[genetics]]: see [[Telegony (heredity)|Telegony]]. Sometimes in myth, the result could be twins, one born divine of a divine father, the other human of a human sire: see [[Dioscuri]]. Of a supposed Parnassos, founder of [[Delphi]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] observes, "Like the other heroes, as they are called, he had two fathers; one they say was the god Poseidon, the human father being Cleopompus." (''Description of Greece'' x.6.1).</ref> After Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, however, he buried his sandals and sword under a huge rock<ref group="lower-roman">Rock "which had a hollow in it just large enough to receive these objects," Plutarch says.</ref> and told Aethra that when their son grew up, he should move the rock, if he were heroic enough, and take the tokens for himself as evidence of his royal parentage. In Athens, Aegeus was joined by [[Medea]], who had left [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]] after slaughtering the children she had borne and had taken Aegeus as her new consort.

Thus Theseus was raised in his mother's land. When Theseus grew up and became a brave young man, he moved the rock and recovered his father's tokens. His mother then told him the truth about his father's identity and that he must take the sword and sandals back to the king [[Aegeus]] to claim his birthright. To journey to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe way) or by land, following a dangerous path around the [[Saronic Gulf]], where he would encounter a string of six entrances to the [[Greek underworld|Underworld]],<ref group="lower-roman">Compared to [[Labours of Hercules|Hercules and his Labours]], "Theseus is occupied only with the sacred Entrances that are local to the lands of Athens" (Ruck and Staples 1994:204).</ref> each guarded by a [[chthonic]] enemy. Young, brave, and ambitious, Theseus decided to go alone by the land route and defeated a great many bandits along the way.

==The Six Labours==
[[File:Theseus Map.jpg|thumb|right|Map of Theseus's labours]]
[[File:Theseus Minotaur BM Vase E84 n4.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Theseus and the [[Crommyonian Sow]], with Phaea (detail of a kylix)]]

* At the first site, which was [[Epidaurus]], sacred to [[Apollo]] and the healer [[Asclepius]], Theseus turned the tables on the chthonic bandit, [[Periphetes]], the Club Bearer, who beat his opponents into the Earth, taking from him the stout staff that often identifies Theseus in vase-paintings.
* At the [[Isthmus of Corinth|Isthmian]] entrance to the Underworld was a robber named [[Sinis (mythology)|Sinis]], often called "Pityokamptes" ({{Lang-grc-gre|Πιτυοκάμπτης||he who bends Pinetrees}}). He would capture travelers, tie them between two [[pine]] trees that were bent down to the ground, and then let the trees go, [[Dismemberment#Torn apart by two trees|tearing his victims apart]]. Theseus slew him by his method. He then had seduced Sinis' daughter, [[Perigune]], fathering the child [[Melanippus]].
* In another deed north of the [[Isthmus]], at a place called [[Crommyon]], he killed an enormous pig, the [[Crommyonian Sow]], bred by an old crone named Phaea. Some versions name the sow herself as Phaea. The [[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]] by [[Pseudo-Apollodorus]] described the Crommyonian Sow as an offspring of [[Typhon]] and [[Echidna (mythology)|Echidna]].
* Near [[Megara]], a robber named [[Sciron]] forced travelers along the narrow cliff-face pathway to wash his feet. While they knelt, he kicked them off the cliff behind them, where they were eaten by a giant turtle (or, in some versions, a sea monster). Theseus pushed him off the cliff where he was eaten as well.
* Another of these enemies was [[Cercyon of Eleusis|Cercyon]], king at the holy site of [[Eleusis]], who challenged passers-by to a wrestling match and, when he had beaten them, killed them. Theseus beat Cercyon at wrestling and then killed him instead.
* The last bandit was [[Procrustes]] the Stretcher, who had two beds, one of which he offered to passers-by in the plain of Eleusis. He then '' made'' them fit into it, either by stretching them or by cutting off their feet. Since he had two beds of different lengths, no one would fit. Theseus turned the tables on Procrustes, cutting off his legs and decapitating him with his axe.

==Medea, the Marathonian Bull, Androgeus, and the Pallantides==

When Theseus arrived in Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. [[Aegeus]] gave him hospitality but was suspicious of the young, powerful stranger's intentions. Aegeus's consort [[Medea]] recognized Theseus immediately as Aegeus' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus' kingdom instead of her son [[Medus]]. She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the [[Cretan Bull|Marathonian Bull]], an emblem of Cretan power.

[[File:Kylix Aisón Teseo (M.A.N. Madrid) 04.jpg|thumb|right|220px|upright=1.3|Theseus captures the [[Cretan Bull|Marathonian Bull]] (kylix painted by [[Aison (vase painter)|Aison]], 5th century BCE)]]

On the way to [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]], Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named [[Hecale]]. She swore to make a sacrifice to [[Zeus]] if Theseus were successful in capturing the bull. Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale's hut, she was dead. In her honor Theseus gave her name to one of the [[deme]]s of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children.

When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognized the sandals and the sword and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus's hands. Thus father and son were reunited, and Medea fled to Asia. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Medea {{!}} Characteristics, Family, & Plays|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Medea-Greek-mythology|access-date=2021-04-27|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

When Theseus appeared in the town, his reputation had preceded him, as a result of his having traveled along the notorious coastal road from Troezen and slain some of the most feared bandits there. It was not long before the [[Pallantides]]' hopes of succeeding the childless Aegeus would be lost if they did not get rid of Theseus (the Pallantides were the sons of [[Pallas (son of Pandion)|Pallas]] and nephews of King [[Aegeus]], who was then living at the royal court in the sanctuary of Delphic Apollo).<ref>Plutarch, [http://www.theoi.com/Text/PlutarchTheseus.html ''Life of Theseus'', XII]</ref> So they set a trap for him. One band of them would march on the town from one side while another lay in wait near a place called Gargettus in ambush. The plan was that after Theseus, Aegeus, and the palace guards had been forced out the front, the other half would surprise them from behind. However, Theseus was not fooled. Informed of the plan by a herald named Leos, he crept out of the city at midnight and surprised the Pallantides. "Theseus then fell suddenly upon the party lying in ambush, and slew them all. Thereupon the party with Pallas dispersed," Plutarch reported.<ref>Plutarch [http://www.theoi.com/Text/PlutarchTheseus.html ''Life of Theseus'', XIII]</ref>

==Theseus and the Minotaur==

[[Pasiphaë]], wife of King [[Minos]] of Crete, had several children. The eldest of these, [[Androgeus (son of Minos)|Androgeus]], set sail for Athens to take part in the [[Panathenaic Games]], which were held there every four years. Being strong and skillful, he did very well, winning some events outright. He soon became a crowd favorite, much to the resentment of the Pallantides who assassinated him, incurring the wrath of Minos.

[[File: Theseus and the Minotaur.gif|thumb|left|upright|Theseus and the Minotaur]]

When King Minos heard what had befallen his son, he ordered the Cretan fleet to set sail for Athens. Minos asked Aegeus for his son's assassins, and if they were to be handed to him, the city would be spared. However, not knowing who the assassins were, King [[Aegeus]] surrendered the whole city to Minos' mercy. His retribution was that, at the end of every [[Great Year]], which occurred after every seven cycles on the solar calendar, the seven most courageous youths and the seven most beautiful maidens were to board a boat and be sent as tribute to Crete, never to be seen again.

[[File:Minotaur.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Theseus and the Minotaur on 6th-century [[black-figure pottery]]]]

In another version, King Minos had waged war with the Athenians and was successful. He then demanded that, at nine-year intervals, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the [[Minotaur]], a half-man, half-bull monster that lived in the [[Labyrinth]] created by [[Daedalus]].

{{anchor|Labyrinth}}On the third occasion, Theseus volunteered to talk to the monster to stop this horror. He took the place of one of the youths and set off with a black sail, promising to his father, [[Aegeus]], that if successful he would return with a white sail.<ref group="lower-roman">Plutarch quotes [[Simonides]] to the effect that the alternate sail given by Aegeus was not white, but "a scarlet sail dyed with the tender flower of luxuriant [[Quercus ilex|holm oak]]." (Plutarch, 17.5).</ref> Like the others, Theseus was stripped of his weapons when they sailed. On his arrival in Crete, [[Ariadne]], King Minos' daughter, fell in love with Theseus and, on the advice of Daedalus, gave him a ball of thread (a [[wiki: clew|clew]]), so he could find his way out of the Labyrinth.<ref group="lower-roman">Ariadne is sometimes represented in vase-paintings with the thread wound on her [[spindle (textiles)|spindle]].</ref> That night, Ariadne escorted Theseus to the Labyrinth, and Theseus promised that if he returned from the Labyrinth he would take Ariadne with him. As soon as Theseus entered the Labyrinth, he tied one end of the ball of string to the doorpost and brandished his sword which he had kept hidden from the guards inside his tunic. Theseus followed Daedalus' instructions given to Ariadne: go forwards, always down, and never left or right. Theseus came to the heart of the Labyrinth and also upon the sleeping Minotaur. The beast awoke and a tremendous fight then occurred. Theseus overpowered the Minotaur with his strength and stabbed the beast in the throat with his sword (according to one ''[[scholium]]'' on Pindar's Fifth Nemean Ode, Theseus strangled it).<ref>[[Károly Kerényi|Kerényi, Karl]] (1959). ''The Heroes of the Greeks.'' p. 232, note 532.</ref>

After decapitating the beast, Theseus used the string to escape the Labyrinth and managed to escape with all of the young Athenians and Ariadne as well as her younger sister [[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]]. Then he and the rest of the crew fell asleep on the beach of the island of Naxos, where they stopped on their way back, looking for water. Athena woke Theseus and told him to leave early that morning and to leave Ariadne there for Dionysus, for Naxos was his island. Stricken with distress, Theseus forgot to put up the white sails instead of the black ones, so his father, the king, believing he was dead, committed suicide, throwing himself off a cliff of [[Sounion]] and into the sea, thus causing this body of water to be named the Aegean Sea.

==Ship of Theseus==
{{main|Ship of Theseus}}
According to [[Plutarch]]'s ''Life of Theseus'', the ship Theseus used on his return from [[Minoan civilization|Minoan Crete]] to [[Classical Athens|Athens]] was kept in the Athenian harbor as a memorial for several centuries.
<blockquote>"The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of [[Athens]] returned had thirty oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of [[Demetrius Phalereus]],<ref group="lower-roman">Demetrius Phalereus was a distinguished orator and statesman, who governed Athens for a decade before being exiled, in 307 BCE.</ref> for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in new and stronger timber in their place…"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/theseus.html|title=Theseus|last=Plutarch|author-link=Plutarch|website=The Internet Classics Archive|publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |access-date=17 January 2013}}</ref></blockquote>

The ship had to be maintained in a seaworthy state, for, in return for Theseus's successful mission, the Athenians had pledged to honor [[Apollo]] every year henceforth. Thus, the Athenians sent a religious mission to the island of [[Delos]] (one of Apollo's most sacred sanctuaries) on the Athenian state galley—the ship itself—to pay their fealty to the god. To preserve the purity of the occasion, no executions were permitted between the time when the religious ceremony began to when the ship returned from Delos, which took several weeks.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/completeworks00plat/page/37 |title=Plato: Complete Works |publisher=Hackett |others=Associate editor, D. S. Hutchinson |year=1997 |isbn=0-87220-349-2 |editor-last=Cooper |editor-first=John M. |location=Indianapolis |page=[https://archive.org/details/completeworks00plat/page/37 37] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

To preserve the ship, any wood that wore out or rotted was replaced; it was thus unclear to philosophers how much of the original ship remained, giving rise to the philosophical question of whether it should be considered "the same" ship or not. Such philosophical questions about the nature of identity are sometimes referred to as the "[[Ship of Theseus]]" paradox.

Regardless of these issues, the Athenians preserved the ship. They believed that Theseus had been an actual, historical figure and the ship gave them a tangible connection to their divine provenance.

==Theseus and Pirithous==
[[File:Antonio_Canova_Teseo_defeats_the_centaur.jpg|thumb|220px|upright=1.2|''Theseus Defeats the Centaur'' by [[Antonio Canova]] (1804–1819), [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]]]]

Theseus's best friend was [[Pirithous]], king of the [[Lapiths]]. Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof so he rustled Theseus's herd of cattle and drove it from [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] and Theseus set out in pursuit. Pirithous took up his arms and the pair met to do battle but were so impressed with each other they took an oath of friendship and joined the [[Calydonian boar hunt]].

In ''Iliad'' I, [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]] numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed." No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in the literary epic. Later, Pirithous was preparing to marry [[Hippodamia (wife of Pirithous)|Hippodamia]]. The [[centaur]]s were guests at the wedding feast, but got drunk and tried to abduct the women, including Hippodamia. The Lapiths won the ensuing battle.

In [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' Theseus fights against and kills [[Eurytus]], the "fiercest of all the fierce centaurs"<ref>Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' XII: 217–153</ref> at the wedding of [[Pirithous]] and [[Hippodamia (wife of Pirithous)|Hippodamia]].

===Abduction of Persephone and encounter with Hades===
[[File:Theseus Helene Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2309 n2.jpg|thumb|left|220px|upright=1.2|Theseus carries off Helen, on an [[Attica|Attic]] red-figure [[amphora]], c. 510 BCE]]

Theseus, a great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, [[Pirithous]], since they were sons of Zeus and Poseidon, pledged themselves to marry daughters of Zeus.<ref>Scholia on ''Iliad'' III.144 and a fragment (#227) of [[Pindar]], according to Kerenyi 1951:237, note 588.</ref> Theseus, in an old tradition,<ref>[[Athenaeus]], ''[[Deipnosophistae]]'' [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&id=Literature.AthV3&entity=Literature.AthV3.p0079&q1=helen&pview=hide 13.4 (557a)];

cf. Kerenyi (1959:234) and note.</ref> chose [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose [[Persephone]], even though she was already married to [[Hades]], king of the underworld. They left Helen with Theseus's mother, [[Aethra (Greek mythology)|Aethra]] at [[Aphidna]], whence she was rescued by the [[Dioscuri]].

On Pirithous's behalf they rather unwisely traveled to the underworld, domain of [[Persephone]] and her husband [[Hades]]. As they wandered through the outskirts of [[Tartarus]], Theseus sat down to rest on a rock. As he did so he felt his limbs change and grow stiff. He tried to rise but could not. He was fixed to the rock. As he turned to cry out to his friend, he saw that Pirithous too was crying out. Around him gathered the terrible band of [[Furies]] with snakes in their hair, torches, and long whips in their hands. Before these monsters, the hero's courage failed and he was led away to eternal punishment.

For many months in half-darkness, Theseus sat immovably fixed to the rock, mourning for both his friend and for himself. In the end, he was rescued by [[Heracles]] who had come to the underworld for his 12th task. There he persuaded Persephone to forgive him for the part he had taken in the rash venture of Pirithous. So Theseus was restored to the upper air but Pirithous never left the kingdom of the dead, for when Heracles tried to free Pirithous, the underworld shook. They then decided the task was beyond any hero and left. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the [[Dioscuri]] had taken Helen and Aethra to [[Sparta]].

==Phaedra and Hippolytus==
[[File:Theseus saves Hippodameia, Athens - Pl. Victoria, 2005.JPG|thumb|220px|upright=1.3|''Theseus saves Hippodameia'', work by [[Johannes Pfuhl]] in Athens]]

[[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]], Theseus' second wife and the daughter of King Minos, bore Theseus two sons, [[Demophon of Athens|Demophon]] and [[Acamas (son of Theseus)|Acamas]]. While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with [[Hippolytus (son of Theseus)|Hippolytus]], Theseus' son by the [[Amazons|Amazon]] queen [[Hippolyta]]. According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned [[Aphrodite]] to become a follower of [[Artemis]], so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity.

Alternatively, in Euripides' version, ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]'', Phaedra's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress's love and he swore he would not reveal the nurse as his source of information. To ensure that she would die with dignity, Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself. Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from [[Poseidon]] against his son. The curse caused Hippolytus' horses to be frightened by a sea monster, usually a bull, and drag their rider to his death. Artemis would later tell Theseus the truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite.

In a version recounted by the Roman playwright [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], entitled ''[[Phaedra (Seneca)|Phaedra]]'', after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus called upon Neptune (as he did Poseidon in Euripides' interpretation) to kill his son.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Sen.+Phaed.+941&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0008 Sen. ''Phaed.'' 941–949]</ref> Upon hearing the news of Hippolytus' death at the hands of Neptune's sea monster, Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Sen.+Phaed.+1156&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0008. Sen. ''Phaed.'' 1159–1198.]</ref>

In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself. [[Dionysus]] sent a wild bull that terrified Hippolytus's horses.

A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of [[Aphrodite]]. Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that [[Asclepius]] had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near [[Aricia, Italy|Aricia]] in [[Latium]].

==Other stories and death of Theseus==
[[File:Affreschi romani - Ercolano - Teseo liberatore1.JPG|220px|thumb|upright|A fresco depicting Theseus, from [[Herculaneum]] ([[Ercolano]]), Italy, 45–79 AD]]

According to some sources{{cn|date=July 2019}}, Theseus also was one of the [[Argonauts]], although [[Apollonius of Rhodes]] states in the ''[[Argonautica]]''{{cn|reason=A secondary source is needed here, please|date=July 2019}} that Theseus was still in the underworld at this time. Both statements are inconsistent with [[Medea]] being Aegeus' wife by the time Theseus first came to Athens. With Phaedra, Theseus fathered [[Acamas (son of Theseus)|Acamas]], who was one of those who hid in the [[Trojan Horse]] during the [[Trojan War]]. Theseus welcomed the wandering [[Oedipus]] and helped [[Adrastus]] to bury the [[Seven against Thebes]].

[[Lycomedes]] of the island of [[Skyros]] threw Theseus off a cliff after he had lost popularity in Athens. In 475 BCE, in response to an oracle, [[Cimon]] of Athens, having conquered Skyros for the Athenians, identified as the remains of Theseus "a coffin of a great corpse with a bronze spear-head by its side and a sword." (Plutarch, ''Life of Theseus'').<ref name="burkert85">{{cite book|last=Burkert|first=Walter|title=Greek Religion|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1985|isbn=9780674362819|page=206}}</ref> The remains found by Cimon were reburied in Athens. The early modern name ''Theseion'' (Temple of Theseus) was mistakenly applied to the [[Temple of Hephaestus]] which was thought to be the actual site of the [[temenos|hero's tomb]].
{{clear}}

==Adaptations of the myth==
[[File:Theseus-SW.jpg|thumb|upright|Theseus with the head of Minotaur]]
[[File:Theseus Slaying Minotaur by Barye.jpg|thumb|upright|''Theseus Slaying Minotaur'' (1843), bronze sculpture by [[Antoine-Louis Barye]]]]
[[File:Theseus deeds BM E 84.JPG|thumb|The deeds of Theseus, on an [[Attica|Attic]] [[Red-figure pottery|red-figured]] ''[[Kylix (drinking cup)|kylix]]'', c. 440–430 BCE ([[British Museum]])]]
===Literature===

* [[Sophocles]]' [[tragedy]] ''[[Oedipus at Colonus]]'' features Theseus as a major character.
* [[Euripides]]' tragedy ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]'' and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]'s ''[[Phaedra (Seneca)|Phaedra]]'' revolve around the death of Theseus' son.
* In [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s epic chivalric romance "[[The Knight's Tale]]," one of the ''[[The Canterbury Tales|Canterbury Tales]]'', Theseus is the duke of Athens, husband of Ypolita, and protector of Emelye, Ypolita's sister, for whom the two knights of Thebes, Arcite and Palamon, do battle.
* [[Jakob Ayrer]] wrote the play ''Theseus'' (1618)
* [[Jean Racine|Racine]]'s ''[[Phèdre]]'' (1677) features Theseus as well as Hippolytus and the title character Phaedra.
* Theseus is a prominent character as the Duke of Athens in [[William Shakespeare]]'s plays, ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' and ''[[The Two Noble Kinsmen]]''. [[Hippolyta]] also appears in both plays.
* [[F. L. Lucas]]'s epic poem ''Ariadne'' (1932) is an epic reworking of the Labyrinth myth: Aegle, one of the sacrificial maidens who accompany Theseus to Crete, is Theseus's sweetheart, the Minotaur is Minos himself in a bull-mask, and Ariadne, learning on Naxos of Theseus's earlier love for Aegle, decides to leave him for the Ideal [Dionysus].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.cambridge.org/fr/academic/subjects/literature/english-literature-1830-1900/ariadne|title=Ariadne|author=F. L. Lucas|year=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1107677524|author-link=F. L. Lucas}}</ref>
* [[André Gide]]'s ''Thésée'' (1946) is a fictional autobiography where the mythical hero of Athens, now elderly, narrates his life story from his carefree youth to his killing of the Minotaur.
* [[Mary Renault]]'s ''[[The King Must Die]]'' (1958) is a dramatic retelling of the Theseus legend from his childhood in Troizen until the return from Crete to Athens. While fictional, it is generally faithful to the spirit and flavor of the best-known variations of the original story. The sequel is ''[[The Bull from the Sea]]'' (1962), about the hero's later career.
* [[Evangeline Walton]]'s historical fiction novel ''[[The Sword is Forged]]'' (1983) chronicles the story of Theseus and Antiope.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/evangeline-walton/the-sword-is-forged/ |title=The Sword is Forged |author= Evangeline Walton |work=[[Kirkus Reviews]] |year=1983 |access-date=16 March 2016}}</ref>
*[[Fran Ross]]' 1974 novel [[Oreo (novel)|''Oreo'']] draws heavily from the Theseus myth.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mullen|first=Harryette Mullen|date=2002-03-01|title="Apple Pie with Oreo Crust": Fran Ross's Recipe for an Idiosyncratic American Novel|url=https://academic.oup.com/melus/article/27/1/107/946664|journal=MELUS|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=107–129|doi=10.2307/3250639|jstor=3250639|issn=0163-755X}}</ref>
* [[Stephen Dobyns]], wrote the poem ''Theseus within the Labyrinth'' (1986) which provides a retelling of the myth of Ariadne, Theseus and the Minotaur, in particular the feelings of Ariadne.
* In issue No. 12 of the [[Fright Night (comic series)|'' Fright Night'' comic series]], entitled ''Bull-Whipped'', Theseus and the Minotaur are resurrected by the comic's Aunt Claudia Hinault, who is the reincarnation of [[Ariadne]].
* [[Kir Bulychov]]'s 1993 book ''An Attempt on Theseus' Life'' ({{Lang-ru|Покушение на Тезея|italic=yes}}) is about a plot to assassinate a man during a [[virtual reality]] tour in which he lives through Theseus' life.
* [[Aleksey Ryabinin]]'s book ''Theseus: The story of ancient gods, goddesses, kings, and warriors'' (2018) provides a retelling of the myths of Theseus, Aegeus, Minotaur, Ariadne, Pirithous and other personages of Greek mythology.<ref>Ryabinin, Aleksey. 2018. ''Theseus.The story of ancient gods, goddesses, kings, and warriors.'' СПб.: Антология. {{ISBN|978-5-6040037-6-3}}.</ref><ref>[https://www.kp.ru/daily/26795.4/3829133/ O.Zdanov. Life and adventures of Theseus]. // «KP», 14.02.2018.</ref>
* [[Troy Denning]]'s 1996 novel ''Pages of Pain'' features an amnesic Theseus fighting to recover his past while interacting with some of the more colorful beings of the [[Planescape]] universe.
* [[Steven Pressfield]]'s novel ''[[Last of the Amazons]]'' (2002) attempts to situate Theseus's meeting and subsequent marriage to Antiope, as well as the ensuing war, in a historically plausible setting.
* [[Jorge Luis Borges]] presents a variation of the myth in a short story, "[[The House of Asterion]]" ({{Lang-es|"La Casa de Asterión"|italic=no}}).
* British comedian [[Tony Robinson]] wrote a version of the Theseus story entitled ''Theseus: Super Hero''.

===Opera, film, television and video game===
{{refimprove|section|date=May 2021}}
* ''[[Thésée]]'' (1675) is an early French opera by [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] to a [[libretto]] by [[Philippe Quinault]], based on Ovid.
* ''[[Teseo]]'' (1713) is an [[opera seria]] by [[George Frideric Handel]] to a libretto by [[Nicola Francesco Haym]], based on Quinault.
* The opera ''[[Hippolyte et Aricie]]'' (1733) by [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]], based on Racine, features Theseus as a character.
* Theseus is played by [[Bob Mathias]] in the film ''[[Minotaur, the Wild Beast of Crete]]'' (1960)
*Theseus is played by [[Tom Hardy]] in the film ''[[Minotaur (film)|Minotaur]]'' (2006).
* The first episode of the 2001 children's television series ''[[MythQuest]]'', entitled "Minotaur," features a story in which the modern-day teen-aged protagonist finds himself unexpectedly thrust into Theseus' role and must follow through with the events of the existing myth, including slaying the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne and Daedalus.<ref>[http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Recap/MythQuestE1TheMinotaur TV Tropes – Recap: ''Myth Quest'' E 1 "The Minotaur"]</ref>{{better source|date=June 2017}} The storyline was also adapted into a novelisation.<ref>[http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1341248.The_Minotaur The Minotaur (MythQuest #1)] goodreads.com</ref>
* In the miniseries ''[[Helen of Troy (TV miniseries)|Helen of Troy]]'' (2003), Theseus, played by [[Stellan Skarsgård]], kidnaps Helen with Pirithous and waits for her to reach marriageable age; however, he is slain by [[Dioscuri|Pollux]] and she is returned to Sparta.
*In the video game ''[[God of War 2]]'' (2007) Theseus, voiced by [[Paul Eiding]], serves as a guardian to the Sisters of Fate. He wears a bronze armband that serves as a key across the Sisters lair.
* In the film ''[[Immortals (2011 film)|Immortals]]'' (2011), directed by [[Tarsem Singh]], Theseus, played by [[Henry Cavill]], leads a war against King Hyperion of Heraklion, played by [[Mickey Rourke]].
* The Indian film ''[[Ship of Theseus (film)|Ship of Theseus]]'' (2012), directed by [[Anand Gandhi]], is an exploration of the philosophical idea underlying the myth.
* In 2013, the BBC series ''[[Atlantis (TV series)|Atlantis]]'' was released. In the first episode of season one, ''The Earth Bull'', Jason enters the labyrinth. He is helped by ''[[Ariadne]]'' to slay him, as the myth of the Minotaur. Jason is based on the characters of ''Theseus'', ''[[Perseus]]'' and the myth of ''[[Jason]]'' And The Argonauts. In Season 2 Part 1, ''[[Medea]]'' is introduced. Pasiphaё seeks to take back Atlantis after Ariadne is made Queen. The plot seems to be leading to [[Jason]] and The Argonauts.
* In the video game ''[[Hades (video game)]]'', Theseus serves as a boss, accompanied by the Minotaur, attempting to keep the protagonist from escaping the underworld.

==References==

=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|group=lower-roman}}

=== Citations ===
<references />

== Further reading ==
'''Primary sources'''
* Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]''
* [[Ovid]], [[Metamorphoses]]
* [[Plutarch]], ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/theseus.html Theseus]''

'''Secondary sources'''
* [[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' (1985)
* [[Stephen Dobyns]], ''Theseus within the Labyrinth'' (1986) https://www.jstor.org/stable/20600617
* [[Károly Kerényi|Kerényi, Karl]], ''The Heroes of the Greeks'' (1959)
* Price, Anne, ''The Quest for Theseus'' (London, 1970) examines the Theseus-Minotaur-Ariadne myth and its historical basis, and later treatments and adaptations of it in Western culture.
* Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth'': ch. IX "Theseus: making the new Athens" (1994), pp. 203–222.
* Sideris, Athanasios, [https://www.academia.edu/19830301/Theseus_in_Thrace._The_Silver_Lining_on_the_Clouds_of_the_Athenian-Thracian_Relations_in_the_5th_century_BC ''Theseus in Thrace. The silver lining on the clouds of the Athenian-Thracian relations in the 5th century BC''] (Sofia, 2015) presents new iconographical sources and examines the role of Theseus in the state ideology of Athens and its gift-diplomacy with Thrace.
* Walker, Henry J., ''Theseus and Athens'', Oxford University Press (US 1995). The most thorough scholarly examination of Theseus's archaic origins and classical myth and cult, and his place in classical literature.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource|Lives (Dryden translation)/Theseus|Theseus}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.theoi.com/Text/PlutarchTheseus.html (Theoi Project) Plutarch: ''Life of Theseus'']
* [http://greekmythcomix.com/comic/theseus-and-the-minotaur-pt1/ Greek Myth Comix: The Story of Theseus, Pt. 1] [http://greekmythcomix.com/comic/theseus-and-the-minotaur-pt2/ Pt. 2] [http://greekmythcomix.com/comic/theseus-and-the-minotaur-pt3/ Pt. 3] The story of Theseus in comic-strip format, by [http://greekmythcomix.com Greek Myth Comix]

{{Plutarch|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Theseus| ]]
[[Category:Argonauts]]
[[Category:Attic mythology]]
[[Category:Characters in A Midsummer Night's Dream]]
[[Category:Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid]]
[[Category:Founding monarchs]]
[[Category:Greek mythological heroes]]
[[Category:Heroes who ventured to Hades]]
[[Category:Kings of Athens]]
[[Category:Male Shakespearean characters]]
[[Category:Mythological swordfighters]]
[[Category:Children of Poseidon]]
[[Category:Demigods]]

Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T18:36:18Z

Macedonian: Reverted 1 edit by Local hero (talk): Rv, see talk page

{{short description|South Slavic ethnic group associated with the geographical region of Macedonia}}
{{about||the population of North Macedonia|Demographics of North Macedonia|the ancient people|Ancient Macedonians|other uses|Macedonian (disambiguation)|and|Macedonian Slavs (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| image =Macedonian people in the world.svg
| caption =Map of the Macedonian diaspora in the world
| group = Macedonians Македонци ''Makedonci''
| population = [[Circa|c.]] '''2.5 million'''<ref name="Nasevski">{{cite book
|title= Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2= Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher=Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52–53 }}</ref>
| popplace = {{flagicon|North Macedonia}} [[North Macedonia]] 1,297,981{{lower|<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100703105852/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 |date=21 June 2004 }}.</ref>}}
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Australia}}
| pop1 = 98,570 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref1 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/PopularAreas?ReadForm&prenavtabname=Popular%20Locations&type=popular&&navmapdisplayed=true&javascript=true&textversion=false&collection=Census&period=2006&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&productlabel=Ancestry%20by%20Country%20of%20Birth%20of%20Parents&breadcrumb=POTL&topic=Ancestry& 2006 Census].</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Republic of Macedonia MFA estimate] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop2 = 115,210(2020)
| ref2 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls 2006 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519210527/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/AuslaendischeBevoelkerung/Tabellen/Content100/AlterAufenthaltsdauer,property=file.xls |date=19 May 2011 }}.</ref>}}
| region3 = {{flagcountry|Italy}}
| pop3 = 65,347 (2017)
| ref3 = {{lower|<ref>[http://demo.istat.it/str2017/index.html Foreign Citizens in Italy, 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806142909/http://www.demo.istat.it/bil2016/index.html |date=6 August 2017 }}.</ref>}}
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
| pop4 = 61,304–63,000
| ref4 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf 2005 Figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193114/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/22/publ.Document.88215.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region5 = {{flagcountry|United States}}
| pop5 = 57,200–200,000
| ref5 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[https://www.census.gov|547;&-ds_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_&-TABLE_NAMEX=&-ci_type=A&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G2000_B04003&-tree_id=4001&-all_geo_types=N&-redoLog=false&-geo_id=01000US&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en 2009 Community Survey] .</ref>}}
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}}
| pop6 = 45,000
| ref6 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski"/> }}
| region7 = {{flagcountry|Canada}}
| pop7 = 43,110 (2016 census)–200,000
| ref7 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118090345/http://www.mia.com.mk/default.aspx?vId=26258490&lId=2|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2012|title=My Info Agent|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=92333&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=801&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= 2006 census].</ref>}}
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Turkey}}
| pop8 = 31,518 (2001 census)
| ref8 = {{lower|<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& 2001 census] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215085128/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/extraction/retrieve/en/theme3/cens/cens_nscbirth?OutputDir=EJOutputDir_107&user=unknown&clientsessionid=977006CF24C55C1E56E251C52D2EDAE8.extraction-worker-1&OutputFile=cens_nscbirth.htm&OutputMode=U&NumberOfCells=4&Language=en&OutputMime=text%2Fhtml& |date=15 February 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}}
| pop9 = 30,000
| ref9 = {{lower|<ref name="Nasevski" />}}
| region11 = {{flagcountry|Serbia}}
| pop11 = 22,755 (2011 census)
| ref11 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://popis2011.stat.rs/?lang=en|title=Попис у Србији 2011.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref>
| region12 = {{flagcountry|Austria}}
| pop12 = 20,135
| ref12 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>[http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstruktur/bevoelkerung_nach_staatsangehoerigkeit_geburtsland/022498.html Tabelle 13]: Ausländer nach Staatsangehörigkeit (ausgewählte Staaten), Altersgruppen und Geschlecht — p. 74.</ref>}}
| region13 = {{flagcountry|The Netherlands}}
| pop13 = 10,000–15,000
| ref13 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region14 = {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| pop14 = 9,000 (est.)
| ref14 = {{lower|<ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
| region15 = {{flagcountry|Finland}}
| pop15 = 8,963
| ref15 = <ref name="un">{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates17.shtml|title=United Nations Population Division | Department of Economic and Social Affairs|website=un.org|access-date=2018-06-29}}</ref>
| region16 = {{flagcountry|Hungary}}
| pop16 = 7,253
| ref16 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html 1996 estimate] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705022945/http://faq.macedonia.org/history/12.1.3.html |date=5 July 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region17 = {{flagcountry|Albania}}
| pop17 = 5,512 (2011 census)
| ref17 = {{lower|<ref>[http://minorityrights.org/minorities/macedonians/ minorityrights.org]</ref>}}
| region18 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
| pop18 = 5,392 (2018)
| ref18 = <ref>[https://www.statbank.dk/FOLK2 Population by country of origin]</ref>
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Greece}}
| pop10 = 10,000–30,000
| ref10 = <ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref>
| region19 = {{flagcountry|Slovakia}}
| pop19 = 4,600
| ref19 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/26/42/39332415.xls OECD Statistics].</ref>}}
| region20 = {{flagcountry|Croatia}}
| pop20 = 4,138 (2011 census)
| ref20 = {{lower|<ref>{{Croatian Census 2011|E}}</ref>}}
| region21 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| pop21 = 4,491 (2009)
| ref21 = <ref>[http://www.scb.se/statistik/_publikationer/BE0101_2009A01_BR_03_BE0110TAB.pdf Population by country of birth 2009].</ref>
| region22 = {{flagcountry|Slovenia}}
| pop22 = 3,972 (2002 census)
| ref22 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.stat.si/popis2002/si/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7 2002 census (stat.si)].</ref>}}
| region23 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}}
| pop23 = 3,419 (2002)
| ref23 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dofi.fgov.be/fr/statistieken/statistiques_etrangers/Stat_ETRANGERS.htm|title=Belgium population statistics|publisher=dofi.fgov.be|access-date=9 June 2008}}</ref>}}
| region24 = {{flagcountry|Norway}}
| pop24 = 3,045
| ref24 = {{lower|<ref>
[http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html 2008 figures] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112145417/http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/arkiv/tab-2007-05-24-05-en.html |date=12 January 2009 }}.</ref>}}
| region25 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| pop25 = 2,300–15,000
| ref25 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html 2003 census] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006102733/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/macedoine-arym_442/presentation-macedoine-arym_991/donnees-generales_12144.html |date=6 October 2014 }},[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref>}}
| region26 = {{flagcountry|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
| pop26 = 2,278 (2005)
| ref26 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf 2005 census] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183909/http://www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/BiH/BiH_Marko_Railic.pdf |date=3 March 2016 }}.</ref>}}
| region27 = {{flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
| pop27 = 2,011
| ref27 = {{lower|<ref>[https://www.czso.cz/documents/11292/27914491/1612_c01t14.pdf/4bbedd77-c239-48cd-bf5a-7a43f6dbf71b?version=1.0 czso.cz]</ref>}}
| region28 = {{flagcountry|Poland}}
| pop28 = 2,000–4,500
| ref28 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Makedonci vo Svetot] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626055957/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=26 June 2008 }}.</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/260  Polands Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947], p. 260.</ref>}}
| region29 = {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| pop29 = 1,654 (2011 census)
| ref29 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/NPDOCS/Census2011final.pdf Bulgaria 2011 census]</ref>}}
| region30 = {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| pop30 = 1,264 ([[2011 Romanian census|2011 census]])
| ref30 = {{lower|<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/sR_Tab_8.xls |title= Rezultatele finale ale Recensământului din 2011 – Tab8. Populaţia stabilă după etnie – judeţe, municipii, oraşe, comune |date= 5 July 2013 |access-date= 18 December 2013 |publisher= [[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)]] |language= ro}}</ref>}}
| region31 = {{flagcountry|Montenegro}}
| pop31 = 900 (2011 census)
| ref31 = {{lower|<ref>[http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf Montenegro 2011 census].</ref>}}
| region32 = {{flagcountry|New Zealand}}
| pop32 = 807–1,500
| ref32 = {{lower|<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |title=2006 census |access-date=2 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127012451/http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/7C1B027C-9D93-4657-96CB-901111E560E5/0/07birhtplace.xls |archive-date=27 November 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc Population Estimate from the MFA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930042306/http://www.mfa.gov.mk//Upload/ContentManagement/Files/Broj%20na%20makedonski%20iselenici%20vo%20svetot.doc |date=30 September 2011 }}</ref>}}
| region33 = {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| pop33 = 325 (2010) – 1,000 (est.)
| ref33 = {{lower|<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>[http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/Documents/Vol4/pub-04-01.pdf Russia 2010 census]</ref>}}
| languages = '''[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]'''
| rels = Predominantly [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] ([[Macedonian Orthodox Church]]) minority [[Islam]] ([[Macedonian Muslims]]) and [[Catholicism]] ([[Catholic Church in North Macedonia|Roman Catholic]] and [[Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Macedonian Greek Catholic]])
| related = Other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]]<ref>"Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States", p. 517 The Macedonians are a Southern Slav people, closely related to Bulgarians.</ref><ref>"Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook", p. 54 Macedonians are a Slavic people closely related to the neighboring Bulgarians.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dt2TXexiKTgC&q=political+and+economic+dictionary+of+Eastern+Europe+bulgarians&pg=PA96 |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe|first1=Alan John|last1=Day|first2=Roger|last2=East|first3=Richard|last3=Thomas|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|page=96|isbn=9780203403747}}</ref>
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}

'''Macedonians''' ({{lang-mk|Македонци|Makedonci}}) are a [[nation]] and a [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] ethnic group native to the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] in Southeast Europe. They speak the [[Macedonian language]], a [[South Slavic language]]. About two thirds of all ethnic Macedonians live in [[North Macedonia]] and there are also [[Macedonian diaspora|communities in a number of other countries]].

==History==
{{Main|History of the Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
{{See also|Macedonian historiography}}
The formation of the ethnic Macedonians as a separate community has been shaped by [[Refugees of the Greek Civil War|population displacement]]<ref>James Horncastle, The Macedonian Slavs in the Greek Civil War, 1944–1949; Rowman & Littlefield, 2019, {{ISBN|1498585051}}, p. 130.</ref> as well as by [[Slavic dialects of Greece#Ban for use, language shift and language death|language shift]],<ref>Stern, Dieter and Christian Voss (eds). 2006. "Towards the peculiarities of language shift in Northern Greece". In: “Marginal Linguistic Identities: Studies in Slavic Contact and Borderland Varieties.” Eurolinguistische Arbeiten. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag; {{ISBN|9783447053549}}, pp. 87–101.</ref>{{dubious|date=April 2020}} both the result of the political developments in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] during the 20th century. Following the [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]], the decisive point in the [[ethnogenesis]] of the South Slavic ethnic group was the creation of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after World War II, a state in the framework of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. This was followed by the development of a separate Macedonian language and national literature, and the foundation of a distinct [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]] and national historiography.

===Ancient and Roman period===
In antiquity, much of central-northern Macedonia (the [[Vardar river|Vardar basin]]) was inhabited by [[Paionians]] who expanded from the lower Strymon basin. The Pelagonian plain was inhabited by the [[Pelagones]], an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] tribe of [[Upper Macedonia]]; whilst the western region (Ohrid-Prespa) was said to have been inhabited by [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[tribe]]s.<ref>A J Toynbee. ''Some Problems of Greek History'', Pp 80; 99–103</ref> During the late Classical Period, having already developed several sophisticated ''[[polis]]''-type settlements and a thriving economy based on mining,<ref>The Problem of the Discontinuity in Classical and Hellenistic Eastern Macedonia, Marjan Jovanonv. УДК 904:711.424(497.73)</ref> Paeonia became a constituent province of the [[Argead]] – [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian kingdom]].<ref>A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011. Map 2</ref> In 310 BC, the [[Celts]] attacked deep into the south, subduing the Dardanians, Paeonians and [[Triballi]]. [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest brought with it a significant [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] of the region. During the Dominate period, 'barbarian' federates were settled on Macedonian soil at times; such as the Sarmatians settled by Constantine (330s AD)<ref>Peter Heather, Goths and Romans 332–489. p. 129</ref> or the (10 year) settlement of Alaric's Goths.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Macedonia in Late Antiquity'' p. 551. In A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011</ref> In contrast to 'frontier provinces', Macedonia (north and south) continued to be a flourishing Christian, Roman province in Late Antiquity and into the early Middle Ages.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal | last1 = Curta | first1 = Florin | year = 2012 | title = Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia? | journal = Journal of History | volume = 47 | page = 73 }}</ref>

===Medieval period===
Linguistically, the South Slavic languages from which Macedonian developed are thought to have expanded in the region during the post-Roman period, although the exact mechanisms of this linguistic expansion remains a matter of scholarly discussion.<ref>{{harvtxt|Curta|2004|p=148}}</ref> Traditional historiography has equated these changes with the commencement of raids and 'invasions' of [[Sclaveni]] and [[Antes (people)|Antes]] from [[Wallachia]] and western [[Ukraine]] during the 6th and 7th centuries.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|p=29}}</ref> However, recent anthropological and archaeological perspectives have viewed the appearance of [[Early Slavs|Slavs]] in Macedonia, and throughout the [[Balkans]] in general, as part of a broad and complex process of transformation of the cultural, political and ethno-linguistic Balkan landscape before the collapse of Roman authority. The exact details and chronology of population shifts remain to be determined.<ref>T E Gregory, ''A History of Byzantium''. Wiley- Blackwell, 2010. p. 169</ref><ref>{{Harvard citation text|Curta|2001|pp=335–345}}</ref> What is beyond dispute is that, in contrast to "barbarian" [[Bulgaria]], northern Macedonia remained [[Byzantine Greeks|Roman]] in its cultural outlook into the 7th century.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Yet at the same time, sources attest numerous [[Slavic tribes]] in the environs of [[Thessaloniki]] and further afield, including the [[Berziti]] in Pelagonia.<ref>Florin Curta. ''Were there any Slavs in seventh-century Macedonia?'' 2013</ref> Apart from Slavs and late Byzantines, [[Kuver]]'s "Bulgars"<ref>The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Denis Sinor, Cambridge University Press, 1990,
{{ISBN|0521243041}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA215&dq=bulgars++kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=R2a5UtaVJ8LTywPEpoDYBg&ved=0CF0Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 215–216.]</ref> – a mix of [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Bulgars]] and [[Pannonian Avars]] – settled the "Keramissian plain" ([[Pelagonia]]) around [[Bitola]] in the late 7th century.{{efn|See:<ref>The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, John Van Antwerp Fine, University of Michigan Press, 1991, {{ISBN|0472081497}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C&pg=PA72&dq=bulgars+macedonia+kuber&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=zka5Uo2BMYX8ywOOjYGYDQ&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 72.]</ref><ref>''Во некрополата "Млака" пред тврдината во Дебреште, Прилеп, откопани се гробови со наоди од доцниот 7. и 8. век. Тие се делумно или целосно кремирани и не се ниту ромеjски, ниту словенски. Станува збор наjвероjатно, за Кутригурите. Ова протобугарско племе, под водство на Кубер, а како потчинето на аварскиот каган во Панониjа, околу 680 г. се одметнало од Аварите и тргнало кон Солун. Кубер ги повел со себе и Сермесиjаните, (околу 70.000 на број), во нивната стара татковина. Сермесиjаните биле Ромеи, жители на балканските провинции што Аварите ги заробиле еден век порано и ги населиле во Западна Панониjа, да работат за нив. На Кубер му била доверена управата врз нив.'' In English: In the necropolis 'Malaka' in the fortress of Debreshte, near Prilep, graves were dug with findings from the late 7th and early 8th century. They are partially or completely cremated and neither Roman nor Slavic. The graves are probably remains from the [[Kutrigurs]]. This Bulgar tribe was led by Kuber... Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) [http://www.kroraina.com/macedon/mik_3_2.html стр. 32–33.]</ref><ref>"The" Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars and Cumans, East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450 – 1450, Florin Curta, Roman Kovalev, BRILL, 2008, {{ISBN|9004163891}}, p. 460.</ref><ref>W Pohl. ''The Avars (History)'' in Regna and Gentes. The Relationship Between Late Antique and Early Medieval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World. pp. 581, 587</ref>}} Later pockets of settlers included "Danubian" [[Bulgars]]<ref>''They spread from the original heartland in north-east Bulgaria to the Drina in the west, and to Macedonia in the south-west.; На целиот тој простор, во маса метални производи (делови од воената опрема, облека и накит), меѓу стандардните форми користени од словенското население, одвреме-навреме се појавуваат специфични предмети врзани за бугарско болјарство како носители на новата државна управа''. See: Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) стр. 35; 364–365.</ref><ref>Dejan Bulić, The Fortifications of the Late Antiquity and the Early Byzantine Period on the Later Territory of the South-Slavic Principalities, and Their Re-occupation in [[Tibor Živković]] et al., The World of the Slavs: Studies of the East, West and South Slavs: Civitas, Oppidas, Villas and Archeological Evidence (7th to 11th Centuries AD) with Srđan Rudić as ed. Istorijski institut, 2013, Belgrade; {{ISBN|8677431047}}, pp. 186–187.</ref> in the 9th century; [[Vardariotai|Magyars (Vardariotai)]]<ref>Florin Curta. 'The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, C. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages. pp. 259, 281</ref> and [[Armenians]] in the 10th–12th centuries,<ref>Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire edited by Hélène Ahrweiler, Angeliki E. Laiou. p. 58. Many were apparently based in Bitola, Stumnitsa and Moglena</ref> [[Cumans]] and [[Pechenegs]] in the 11th–13th centuries,<ref>Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Istvan Varsary. p. 67</ref> and [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxon miners]] in the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxKBMhz3e7AC&q=saxon+miners+macedonia&pg=PA89|title=Balkan Worlds|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780765638519|last1=Stoianovich|first1=Traian|date=September 1994}}</ref>

Having previously been Byzantine clients, the ''Sklaviniae'' of Macedonia probably switched their allegiance to [[Bulgaria]] during the reign of [[Irene of Athens|Empress Irene]],<ref>J V A Fine. The Early Medieval Balkans. Pp 110–11</ref>{{why|date=June 2019}} and was gradually incorporated into the [[Bulgarian Empire]] before the mid-9th century. Subsequently, the literary and ecclesiastical centres in [[Ohrid]], not only became a second cultural capital of medieval Bulgaria, but soon eclipsed those in [[Preslav]].<ref>Alexander Schenker. ''The Dawn of Slavic''. pp. 188–190. Schenker argues that Ohrid was 'innovative' and 'native Slavic' whilst Preslav very much relied on Greek modelling</ref>{{dubious|date=December 2013}} On the other hand cultural, ecclesiastical and political developments of Slavic Orthodox Culture occurred in Byzantine Macedonia.<ref>{{harvtxt|Fine|1991|pp=113, 196}} ''Two brothers ... Constantine and Methodius ..were fluent in the dialect of Slavic in the environs of Thessaloniki. They devised an alphabet to convey Slavic phonetics | He [Samuel] restored the Bulgarian Orthodox patriarchate.. in Ohrid''</ref><ref>Francis Dvornik. ''The Slavs'' p. 167</ref><ref>Ostrogorsky, ''History of the Byzantine State'' p. 310</ref>

=== Ottoman period ===
[[File:Georgi Pulevski.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Georgi Pulevski]] is the first known person, who in the middle of 1870s insisted on the existence of a separate (Slavic) Macedonian language and ethnicity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Alexander Vezenkov as ed., Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume Three: Shared Pasts, Disputed Legacies; Balkan Studies Library, BRILL, 2015; {{ISBN|9004290362}}, p. 454.</ref>]]
After the final Ottoman conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans in the 14/15th century, all Eastern Orthodox Christians were included in a specific ethno-religious community under ''Graeco-Byzantine'' jurisdiction called [[Rum Millet]]. The belonging to this religious commonwealth was so important that most of the common people began to identify themselves as ''Christians''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&q=millet++bulgarian+identity+detrez&pg=PA47|title=Europe and the Historical Legacies in the Balkans|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9789052013749|last1=Detrez|first1=Raymond|last2=Segaert|first2=Barbara|year=2008}}</ref> However ethnonyms never disappeared and some form of primary ethnic identity was available.<ref>Balkan cultural commonality and ethnic diversity. Raymond Detrez (Ghent University, Belgium).</ref> This is confirmed from a Sultan's [[Firman]] from 1680 which describes the ethnic groups in the Balkan territories of the Empire as follows: Greeks, Albanians, Serbs, Vlachs and Bulgarians.<ref>История на българите. Късно средновековие и Възраждане, том 2, Георги Бакалов, TRUD Publishers, 2004, {{ISBN|9545284676}}, стр. 23. (Bg.)</ref> The [[rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]] in the early 19th century brought opposition to this continued situation. At that time the classical Rum Millet began to degrade. The coordinated actions, carried out by Bulgarian national leaders supported by the majority of the Slavic-speaking population in today Republic of North Macedonia in order to be recognized as a separate ethnic entity, constituted the so-called "[[Bulgarian Millet]]", recognized in 1870.<ref>The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire, Selcuk Aksin Somel, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|1461731763}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC&pg=PA168&dq=bulgarian+millet+macedonia&hl=bg&sa=X&ei=uv6dUpOrG6rMygOXlYGYCA&ved=0CEMQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 168.]</ref> At the time of its creation, people living in Vardar Macedonia, were not in the Exarchate. However, as a result of plebiscites held between 1872 and 1875, the Slavic districts in the area voted overwhelmingly (over 2/3) to go over to the new national Church.<ref>The Politics of Terror: The MacEdonian Liberation Movements, 1893–1903, Duncan M. Perry, Duke University Press, 1988, {{ISBN|0822308134}}, p. 15.</ref> Referring to the results of the plebiscites, and on the basis of statistical and ethnological indications, the [[1876 Conference of Constantinople]] included most of Macedonia into the Bulgarian ethnic territory.<ref>The A to Z of Bulgaria, Raymond Detrez, Scarecrow Press, 2010, {{ISBN|0810872021}}, p. 271.</ref> The borders of new Bulgarian state, drawn by the 1878 [[Treaty of San Stefano]], also included Macedonia, but the treaty was never put into effect and the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)]] "returned" Macedonia to the Ottoman Empire.

== Genetics ==
Anthropologically, Macedonians possess genetic lineages postulated to represent Balkan prehistoric and historic [[South Slavs#Genetics|demographic processes]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Peričić | first1 = Marijana | display-authors = etal | title = High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 22 | issue = 10| pages = 1964–1975 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msi185 | pmid = 15944443 | date = October 2005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Such lineages are also typically found in other [[South Slavs]], especially [[Bulgarians]], [[Serbs]], [[Bosniaks]] and [[Montenegrins]], but also in [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Romanians]].{{efn|See:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.fsigenetics.com/article/S1872-4973(11)00079-2/fulltext|title=Genetic data for 17 Y-chromosomal STR loci in Macedonians in the Republic of Macedonia|journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics|volume=5|issue=4|pages=e108–e111|access-date=18 March 2015|doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2011.04.005|pmid=21549657|year=2011|last1=Jakovski|first1=Zlatko|last2=Nikolova|first2=Ksenija|last3=Jankova-Ajanovska|first3=Renata|last4=Marjanovic|first4=Damir|last5=Pojskic|first5=Naris|last6=Janeska|first6=Biljana}}</ref><ref name="pmid15361127">{{cite journal |vauthors=Petlichkovski A, Efinska-Mladenovska O, Trajkov D, Arsov T, Strezova A, Spiroski M |title=High-resolution typing of HLA-DRB1 locus in the Macedonian population |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=486–91 |year=2004 |pmid=15361127 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2004.00273.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=''European Journal of Human Genetics'' – Y chromosomal heritage of Croatian population and its island isolates. | volume=11 |issue=7 | doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200992 |pmid=12825075 |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |pages=535–542|year=2003 |last1=Barać |first1=Lovorka |last2=Peričić |first2=Marijana |last3=Klarić |first3=Irena Martinović |last4=Rootsi |first4=Siiri |last5=Janićijević |first5=Branka |last6=Kivisild |first6=Toomas |last7=Parik |first7=Jüri |last8=Rudan |first8=Igor |last9=Villems |first9=Richard |last10=Rudan |first10=Pavao |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Semino |first1=Ornella |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |title=The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic ''Homo sapiens sapiens'' in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective |journal=Science |volume=290 |pages=1155–59 |year=2000 |pmid=11073453 |doi=10.1126/science.290.5494.1155 |last2=Passarino |first2=G |last3=Oefner |first3=PJ |last4=Lin |first4=AA |last5=Arbuzova |first5=S |last6=Beckman |first6=LE |last7=De Benedictis |first7=G |last8=Francalacci |first8=P |last9=Kouvatsi |first9=A |display-authors=8 |issue=5494 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031125151213/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/Science_2000_v290_p1155.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2003 |df=dmy |bibcode=2000Sci...290.1155S }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mksg/tan/2000/00000055/00000001/art00009;jsessionid=t6k1ukjgmoic.alexandra|title=HLA-DRB and -DQB1 polymorphism in the Macedonian population|access-date=18 March 2015|date=January 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rebala | first1 = K | display-authors = etal | year = 2007 | title = Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 52 | issue = 5| pages = 406–14 | doi = 10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6 | pmid = 17364156 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name ="balto-slavic">{{cite journal | last1 = Kushniarevich | first1 = Alena | display-authors = etal | year = 2015 | title = Genetic heritage of the Balto-Slavic speaking populations: a synthesis of autosomal, mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal data | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 10 | issue = 9| page = e0135820 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 | pmid = 26332464 | pmc = 4558026 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name = "GenesGeo">{{cite journal|last1=Novembre|first1=John|display-authors=etal|title=Genes mirror geography within Europe|journal=Nature|date=2008|volume=456|issue=7218|pages=98–101|doi=10.1038/nature07331|pmid=18758442|pmc=2735096|bibcode=2008Natur.456...98N}}</ref>}}

Y-DNA studies suggest that Macedonians along with neighboring South Slavs are distinct from other [[Slavs|Slavic-speaking]] populations in Europe and a majority of their [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups]] are likely to be inherited from inhabitants of the Balkans that predated sixth-century Slavic migrations.<ref name="Rębała 406–414">{{Cite journal|last1=Rębała|first1=Krzysztof|last2=Mikulich|first2=Alexei I.|last3=Tsybovsky|first3=Iosif S.|last4=Siváková|first4=Daniela|last5=Džupinková|first5=Zuzana|last6=Szczerkowska-Dobosz|first6=Aneta|last7=Szczerkowska|first7=Zofia|date=2007-03-16|title=Y-STR variation among Slavs: evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|volume=52|issue=5|pages=406–414|doi=10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6|pmid=17364156|issn=1434-5161|doi-access=free}}</ref> A diverse set of Y-DNA haplogroups are found in Macedonians at significant levels, including I2a1b, E-V13, J2a, R1a1, R1b, G2a, encoding a complex pattern of demographic processes.<ref>Renata Jankova et al., Y-chromosome diversity of the three major ethno-linguistic groups in the Republic of North Macedonia; Forensic Science International: Genetics; Volume 42, September 2019, Pages 165–170.</ref> Similar distributions of the same haplogroups are found in neighboring populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna">Trombetta B. "Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent" http://gbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/7/1940.long</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Spiroski | first1 = Mirko | last2 = Arsov | first2 = Todor | last3 = Krüger | first3 = Carmen | last4 = Willuweit | first4 = Sascha | last5 = Roewer | first5 = Lutz | year = 2005 | title = Y-chromosomal STR haplotypes in Macedonian population samples | journal = Forensic Science International | volume = 148 | issue = 1| pages = 69–74 | doi = 10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.04.067 | pmid = 15607593 }}</ref> R1a1 and I2a1b are typically found in Slavic-speaking populations across Europe<ref>[[Anatole Klyosov]], DNA Genealogy; [[Scientific Research Publishing]], Inc. USA, 2018; {{ISBN|1618966197}}, p. 211.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underhill | first1 = Peter A. | last2 = Poznik | first2 = G. David | last3 = Rootsi | first3 = Siiri | last4 = Järve | first4 = Mari | last5 = Lin | first5 = Alice A. | last6 = Wang | first6 = Jianbin | last7 = Passarelli | first7 = Ben | display-authors = etal | year = 2015| title = The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a | journal = European Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 124–31 | doi = 10.1038/ejhg.2014.50 | pmid = 24667786 | pmc = 4266736 }} (Supplementary Table 4)</ref> while haplogroups such as E-V13 and J2 occur at high frequencies in neighboring non-Slavic populations.<ref name ="balkan-ydna"/> On the other hand R1b is the most frequently occurring haplogroup in [[Western Europe]] and G2a is most frequently found in [[Caucasus]] and the adjacent areas. Genetic similarity, irrespective of language and ethnicity, has a strong correspondence to geographic proximity in European populations.<ref name = "balto-slavic"/><ref name = "GenesGeo"/><ref>{{Citation |vauthors=Lao O, Lu TT, Nothnagel M, etal |title=Correlation between genetic and geographic structure in Europe |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=18 |issue=16 |pages=1241–8 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18691889 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.07.049 |s2cid=16945780 }}</ref>

In regard to population genetics, not all regions of Southeastern Europe had the same ratio of native Byzantine and invading Slavic population, with the territory of the [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern Balkans]] ([[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Thrace]] and [[Moesia]]) having a higher percentages of locals compared to Slavs. Considering the majority of the Balkan Slavs came via the Eastern Carpathian route, lower percentage on east does not imply that the number of the Slavs there was lesser than among the [[Western South Slavic|Western South Slavs]]. Most probably on the territory of Western South Slavs was a state of desolation which produced there a [[founder effect]].<ref>Florin Curta's An ironic smile: the Carpathian Mountains and the migration of the Slavs, Studia mediaevalia Europaea et orientalia. Miscellanea in honorem professoris emeriti Victor Spinei oblata, edited by George Bilavschi and Dan Aparaschivei, 47–72. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Române, 2018.</ref><ref>A. Zupan et al. The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations; Annals of Human Biology 40 (6) July 2013.</ref> The region of Macedonia suffered less disruption than frontier provinces closer to the Danube, with towns and forts close to [[Ohrid]], [[Bitola]] and along the [[Via Egnatia]]. Re-settlements and the cultural links of the Byzantine Era further shaped the demographic processes which the Macedonian ancestry is linked to.<ref>Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages: 500-1250. Florin Curta, 2006 https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Southeastern_Europe_in_the_Middle_Ages_5/YIAYMNOOe0YC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=southeastern+europe,+curta&printsec=frontcover</ref>

==Identities==
{{See also|Macedonian Question|Macedonian nationalism|Macedonians (Bulgarians)|Slavic speakers in Ottoman Macedonia}}

The large majority of Macedonians identify as [[Eastern Orthodox Christians]], who speak a [[South Slavic language]], and share a cultural and historical "Orthodox Byzantine–Slavic heritage" with their neighbours. The concept of a "Macedonian" ethnicity, distinct from their Orthodox Balkan neighbours, is seen to be a comparatively newly emergent one.{{efn|See:<ref>[[Krste Misirkov]], ''On the Macedonian Matters'' (''Za Makedonckite Raboti''), Sofia, 1903: "And, anyway, what sort of new Macedonian nation can this be when we and our fathers and grandfathers and great-grandfathers have always been called Bulgarians?"</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Sperling | first1 = James | last2 = Kay | first2 = Sean | last3 = Papacosma | first3 = S. Victor | title = Limiting institutions?: the challenge of Eurasian security governance | year = 2003 | publisher=Manchester University Press | location = Manchester, UK | isbn = 978-0-7190-6605-4 | pages = 57 |quote=Macedonian nationalism Is a new phenomenon. In the early twentieth century, there was no separate Slavic Macedonian identity }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Titchener | first1 = Frances B. | last2 = Moorton | first2 = Richard F. | title = The eye expanded: life and the arts in Greco-Roman antiquity | year = 1999 | publisher=University of California Press | location = Berkeley | isbn = 978-0-520-21029-5 | pages = 259|quote=On the other hand, the Macedonians are a newly emergent people in search of a past to help legitimize their precarious present as they attempt to establish their singular identity in a Slavic world dominated historically by Serbs and Bulgarians. ... The twentieth-century development of a Macedonian ethnicity, and its recent evolution into independent statehood following the collapse of the Yugoslav state in 1991, has followed a rocky road. In order to survive the vicissitudes of Balkan history and politics, the Macedonians, who have had no history, need one.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Kaufman | first1 = Stuart J. | title = Modern hatreds: the symbolic politics of ethnic war | year = 2001 | publisher=Cornell University Press | location = New York | isbn = 0-8014-8736-6 | pages = 193|quote=The key fact about Macedonian nationalism is that it is new: in the early twentieth century, Macedonian villagers defined their identity religiously—they were either "Bulgarian," "Serbian," or "Greek" depending on the affiliation of the village priest. ... According to the new Macedonian mythology, modern Macedonians are the direct descendants of Alexander the Great's subjects. They trace their cultural identity to the ninth-century Saints Cyril and Methodius, who converted the Slavs to Christianity and invented the first Slavic alphabet, and whose disciples maintained a centre of Christian learning in western Macedonia. A more modern national hero is Gotse Delchev, leader of the turn-of-the-century Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), which was actually a largely pro-Bulgarian organization but is claimed as the founding Macedonian national movement.}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Press_quote">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278|quote= Despite the recent development of Macedonian identity, as Loring Danforth notes, it is no more or less artificial than any other identity. It merely has a more recent ethnogenesis – one that can therefore more easily be traced through the recent historical record.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Zielonka | first1 = Jan | last2 = Pravda | first2 = Alex | title = Democratic consolidation in Eastern Europe | year = 2001 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-924409-6 | pages = 422|quote=Unlike the Slovene and Croatian identities, which existed independently for a long period before the emergence of SFRY Macedonian identity and language were themselves a product federal Yugoslavia, and took shape only after 1944. Again unlike Slovenia and Croatia, the very existence of a separate Macedonian identity was questioned—albeit to a different degree—by both the governments and the public of all the neighboring nations (Greece being the most intransigent)}}</ref>}} The earliest manifestations of incipient Macedonian identity emerged during the second half of the 19th century<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129231959/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/05/14/weekinreview/the-world-the-land-that-can-t-be-named.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 January 2019|quote=Macedonian nationalism did not arise until the end of the last century.|date=14 May 1995|work=The New York Times|last=Bonner|title=The World; The Land That Can't Be Named|first=Raymond|access-date=29 January 2019|location=New York|author-link=Raymond Bonner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=They were also insisting that the Macedonians sacrifice their national name, under which, as we have seen throughout this work, their national identity and their nation formed in the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=269|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|quote=Under very trying circumstances, most ethnic Macedonians chose a Macedonian identity. That identity began to form with the Slav awakening in Macedonia in the first half of the nineteenth century.|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|page=284|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|date=2008|author-link=Andrew Rossos|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> among limited circles of Slavic-speaking intellectuals, predominantly outside the region of Macedonia. They arose after the [[First World War]] and especially during 1930s, and thus were consolidated by Communist Yugoslavia's governmental policy after the [[Second World War]].{{efn|See:<ref>Loring M. Danforth, ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', 1995, Princeton University Press, p.65, {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}</ref><ref>Stephen Palmer, Robert King, ''Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian question'', Hamden, Connecticut Archon Books, 1971, p.p.199-200</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOPUnWM8RAYC&q=The+Macedonian+Question,+Britain+and+the+Southern+Balkans+1939-1949&pg=PP13|title=The Macedonian Question : Britain and the Southern Balkans 1939–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780191528729|last1=Livanios|first1=Dimitris|date=17 April 2008}}</ref><ref name="Woodhouse">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYAwZFwyYdwC&q=Chris+Woodhouse+Struggle+for+Greece+1941-1949&pg=PR25|title=The Struggle for Greece, 1941–1949|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850654926|last1=Woodhouse|first1=Christopher M.|year=2002}}</ref><ref name="macedonians">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_NbmSoRsRcC&q=who+are+the+macedonians&pg=PP1|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850652380|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=1995}}</ref>}}

===Historical overview===
Throughout the Middle Ages and Ottoman rule up until the early 20th century<ref name="Woodhouse"/><ref name="macedonians"/><ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF Center for Documentation and Information on Minorities in Europe, Southeast Europe (CEDIME-SE) – "Macedonians of Bulgaria", p. 14.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF |date=23 July 2006 }}</ref> the Slavic-speaking population majority in the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] were more commonly referred to (both by themselves and outsiders) as [[Bulgarians]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbuavUZKEwC&q=Who+are+the+Macedonians|title=Who are the Macedonians?|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781850655343|last1=Poulton|first1=Hugh|year=2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/im3/im_6_1.htm|title=Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија, Иван Микулчиќ, Македонска академија на науките и уметностите – Скопје, 1996, стр. 72.|access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kroraina.com/knigi/da/da_summary.htm|title=Formation of the Bulgarian nation (summary) |author=Academician Dimitŭr Simeonov Angelov |publisher=Sofia-Press |year=1978 |pages=413–415 |access-date=18 March 2015}}</ref> However, in pre-nationalist times, terms such as "Bulgarian" did not possess a strict ethno-nationalistic meaning, rather, they were loose, often interchangeable terms which could simultaneously denote regional habitation, allegiance to a particular empire, religious orientation, membership in certain social groups.{{efn|See:<ref>When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans. J V A Fine. pp. 3–5.</ref><ref>Relexification Hypothesis in Rumanian. Paul Wexler. p. 170</ref><ref>Cumans and Tartars: Oriental military in the pre-Ottoman Balkans. Istvan Vasary. p. 18</ref><ref>Byzantium's Balkan Frontier. Paul Stephenson. p. 78–79</ref>}} Similarly, a "Byzantine" was a ''Roman'' subject of Constantinople, and the term bore no strict ethnic connotations, Greek or otherwise.<ref>The Edinburgh History of the Greeks; 500–1250: The Middle Ages. Florin Curta. 2013. p. 294 (echoing Anthony D Smith and Anthony Kaldellis) "no clear notion exists that the Greek nation survived into Byzantine times...the ethnic identity of those who lived in Greece during the Middle Ages is best described as Roman."</ref> Overall, in the Middle Ages, "a person's origin was distinctly regional",<ref>Mats Roslund. ''Guests in the House: Cultural Transmission Between Slavs and Scandinavians''; 2008. p. 79</ref> and in [[Ottoman era]], before the 19th-century [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]], it was based on the corresponding [[Millet system|confessional community]]. After the rise of nationalism, most of the Slavic-speaking population in the area, joined the [[Bulgarian Millet|Bulgarian community]], through voting in its favor on a plebiscites held during the 1870s, by a qualified majority (over two-thirds).

===19th-century emergence===
With the creation of the [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgarian Principality]] in 1878, the Macedonian upper stratum had to decide whether Macedonia was to emerge as an independent state or as part of a "[[Greater Bulgaria]]".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzci446GLakC&q=Chary,+macedonia+jews+novoosvobodeni&pg=PA45|title=The Bulgarian Jews and the Final Solution, 1940–1944|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780822976011|last1=Chary|first1=Frederick B.|date=15 November 1972}}</ref> During this period, the first expressions of [[Macedonian nationalism#Macedonism|Macedonism]] by certain Macedonian intellectuals occurred in [[Belgrade]], [[Sofia]], [[Istanbul]], [[Thessaloniki]] and [[St. Petersburg]]. In the 1860s, according to [[Petko Slaveykov]], some young intellectuals from Macedonia were claiming that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians.<ref>[[s:en:Translation:The Macedonian question|The Macedonian Question]] an article from 1871 by [[Petko Slaveykov]] published in the newspaper Macedonia in Carigrad (now [[Istanbul]]). In this article Petko Slaveykov writes: "We have many times heard from the Macedonists that they are not Bulgarians, but they are rather Macedonians, descendants of the Ancient Macedonians."</ref> In a letter written to the Bulgarian Exarch in February 1874 [[Petko Slaveykov]] reports that discontent with the current situation “has given birth among local patriots to the disastrous idea of working independently on the advancement of their [[Macedonian dialects|own local dialect]] and what’s more, of their own, separate Macedonian church leadership.”<ref>[[s:en:Translation:A letter from P.R. Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch|A letter from Slaveykov to the Bulgarian Exarch]] written in [[Thessaloniki|Solun]] in February 1874</ref> The activities of these people were also registered by [[Stojan Novaković]].<ref>Балканска питања и мање историјско-политичке белешке о Балканском полуострву 1886–1905. Стојан Новаковић, Београд, 1906.</ref> The nascent Macedonian nationalism, illegal at home in the theocratic Ottoman Empire, and illegitimate internationally, waged a precarious struggle for survival against overwhelming odds: in appearance against the Ottoman Empire, but in fact against the three expansionist Balkan states and their respective patrons among the great powers.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref>

The first known author that propagated the concept of a Macedonian ethnicity was [[Georgi Pulevski]], who in 1875 published ''Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish'', in which he wrote:
{{cquote|What do we call a nation? – People who are of the same origin and who speak the same words and who live and make friends of each other, who have the same customs and songs and entertainment are what we call a nation, and the place where that people lives is called the people's country. Thus the Macedonians also are a nation and the place which is theirs is called Macedonia.<ref>Rečnik od tri jezika: s. makedonski, arbanski i turski [Dictionary of Three languages: Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish], U državnoj štampariji, 1875, p. 48f.</ref>}}

On the other hand, [[Theodosius of Skopje]], a priest who have hold a high-ranking positions within the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] was chosen as a bishop of the [[episcopacy]] of [[Skopje]] in 1885. As a bishop of Skopje, Theodosius renounced de facto the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] and attempted to restore the [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] as a separate Macedonian Orthodox Church in all eparchies of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]],<ref>Theodosius of Skopje Centralen D'rzhaven istoricheski archiv (Sofia) 176, op. 1. arh.ed. 595, l.5–42 – Razgledi, X/8 (1968), pp. 996–1000.</ref> responsible for the spiritual, cultural and educational life of all Macedonian Orthodox Christians.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008">{{Cite book|url=http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128222837/http://research.policyarchive.org/11853.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-01-28|title=Macedonia and the Macedonians: A History|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|first=Andrew|last=Rossos|author-link=Andrew Rossos|date=2008|isbn=978-0817948832|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref> During this time period Metropolitan Bishop [[Theodosius of Skopje]] made several pleas to the Bulgarian church to allow a separate Macedonian church, and ultimately on 4 December 1891 he sent a [[s:Translation:Theodosius, the metropolitan of Skopje, to Pope Leo XIII|letter]] to the Pope Leo XIII to ask for a [[s:Translation:The conditions of transfer of Macedonian eparchies to Union with the Roman Catholic Church|recognition]] and a [[s:Translation:Bishop Augusto Bonetti on the talks with Theodosius, the Metropolitan of Skopje|protection]] from the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1892 the local [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] parish school council in the city of [[Kastoria]] (then Kostur) adopted the proposal of a group of teachers "to eliminate both [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] and introduce [[Kostur dialect|local dialect]]<ref>Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistic Variation and Change; University Press, 2002; {{ISBN|0748615156}}, p. 132.</ref> as the language of instruction in the town school," but the idea failed the same year.<ref name="books.google.com">[https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC&pg=PA575 ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''], Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, p. 545</ref><ref>Friedman, Victor A. “The First Philological Conference for the Macedonian" in The Earliest Stage of Language Planning: "The First Congress" Phenomenon with Joshua A. Fishman as ed. Walter de Gruyter, 2011, {{ISBN|3110848988}}, p. 162.</ref>

In 1903 [[Krste Misirkov|Krste Petkov Misirkov]] published his book ''[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters|On Macedonian Matters]]'' in which he laid down the principles of the modern Macedonian nationhood and language.<ref name=misirkov>{{cite web|url=http://www.misirkov.org/ |title=上位表示されないので休止しました |access-date=18 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220160042/http://www.misirkov.org/ |archive-date=20 December 2014 }}</ref> This [[s:mk:За македонцките работи|book]] written in the standardized [[Dialects of Macedonian|central dialect of Macedonia]] is considered by ethnic Macedonians as a milestone of the ethnic Macedonian identity and the apogee of the process of Macedonian awakening.<ref name="books.google.com"/> In his article "[[s:mk:Крсте Петков Мисирков/ Македонски национализам|Macedonian Nationalism]]" he wrote:

{{cquote|I hope it will not be held against me that I, as a Macedonian, place the interests of my country before all... I am a Macedonian, I have a Macedonian's consciousness, and so I have my own Macedonian view of the past, present, and future of my country and of all the South Slavs; and so I should like them to consult us, the Macedonians, about all the questions concerning us and our neighbours, and not have everything end merely with agreements between Bulgaria and Serbia about us – but without us.}}

Misirkov argued that the dialect of central Macedonia (Veles-Prilep-Bitola-Ohrid)<ref>[[s:Translation:On Macedonian Matters#A few words on the Macedonian literary language|On Macedonian Matters – A few works on the Macedonian literary language]]</ref> should be taken as a standard Macedonian literary language, in which Macedonians should write, study, and worship; the autocephalous [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]] should be restored; and the Slavic people of Macedonia should be identified in their Ottoman identity cards (''[[nofuz]]'') as "Macedonians".<ref name=misirkov/>

The next great figure of the Macedonian awakening was [[Dimitrija Čupovski]], one of the founders of the [[Macedonian Literary Society]], established in [[Saint Petersburg]] in 1902. In the period 1913–1918, Čupovski published the newspaper ''Македонскi Голосъ (Macedonian Voice)'' in which he and fellow members of the Petersburg Macedonian Colony propagated the existence of a Macedonian people separate from the Greeks, Bulgarians and Serbs, and sought to popularize the idea for an independent Macedonian state.

===20th-century development===
After the [[Balkan Wars]], following division of the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] amongst the [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Kingdom of Greece]], the [[Kingdom of Bulgaria]] and the [[Kingdom of Serbia]], and after World War I, the idea of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation was further spread among the Slavic-speaking population. The suffering during the wars, the endless struggle of the Balkan monarchies for dominance over the population increased the Macedonians' sentiment that the institutionalization of an independent Macedonian nation would put an end to their suffering. On the question of whether they were Serbs or Bulgarians, the people more often started answering: "Neither Bulgar, nor Serb... I am Macedonian only, and I'm sick of war."<ref>Историја на македонската нација. Блаже Ристовски, 1999, Скопје.</ref><ref>"On the Monastir Road". Herbert Corey, ''National Geographic'', May 1917 ([http://www.promacedonia.org/gall/ng1917/217E0388.JPG p. 388.])</ref>

[[Stratis Myrivilis]], an important Greek writer, in his ''Life in the Tomb'', from his experiences as a soldier in the [[Macedonian front]] (1916–18), described also the self-identitification of the local population: "...They don't want to be called Bulgar, neither Srrp, neither Grrts. Only Macedon Orthodox...."<ref>Life in the Tomb, Η ζωή εν τάφω, first edition, 1924</ref>

The consolidation of an international Communist organization (the [[Comintern]]) in the 1920s led to some failed attempts by the Communists to use the [[Macedonian Question]] as a political weapon. In the 1920 Yugoslav parliamentary elections, 25% of the total Communist vote came from Macedonia, but participation was low (only 55%), mainly because the pro-Bulgarian IMRO organised a boycott against the elections. In the following years, the communists attempted to enlist the pro-IMRO sympathies of the population in their cause. In the context of this attempt, in 1924 the Comintern organized the filed signing of the so-called [[May Manifesto]], in which independence of partitioned Macedonia was required.<ref>Victor Roudometof, ''Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy: The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans (Contributions to the Study of World History)'', Praeger, 2001, p.187</ref> In 1925 with the help of the Comintern, the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (United)]] was created, composed of former left-wing [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] (IMRO) members. This organization promoted in the early 1930s the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian nation.<ref>The Situation in Macedonia and the Tasks of IMRO (United) – published in the official newspaper of IMRO (United), "Македонско дело", N.185, April 1934.</ref> This idea was internationalized and backed by the Comintern which issued in 1934 a [[Resolution of the Comintern on the Macedonian Question|resolution supporting the development of the entity]].<ref>Резолюция о македонской нации (принятой Балканском секретариате Коминтерна — Февраль 1934 г, Москва.</ref> This action was attacked by the IMRO, but was supported by the [[Balkan]] communists. The Balkan communist parties supported the national consolidation of the ethnic Macedonian people and created Macedonian sections within the parties, headed by prominent IMRO (United) members. The sense of belonging to a separate Macedonian nation gained credence during World War II when ethnic Macedonian communist partisan detachments were formed. In 1943 the Communist Party of Macedonia was established and the resistance movement grew up. After the World War II ethnic Macedonian institutions were created in the three parts of the region of Macedonia, then under communist control,<ref name="Barbara Jelavich">History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century. Barbara Jelavich, 1983.</ref> including the establishment of the [[People's Republic of Macedonia]] within the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (SFRJ).

The available data indicates that despite the policy of assimilation, pro-Bulgarian sentiments among the Macedonian Slavs in Yugoslavia were still sizable during the interwar period. However if the Yugoslavs would recognize the Slavic inhabitants of Vardar Macedonia as Bulgarians, it would mean that the area should be part of Bulgaria. Practically in [[post-World War II]] Macedonia, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's state policy of forced [[Serbianisation]] was changed with a new one — of [[Macedonization]]. The codification of the Macedonian language and the recognition of the Macedonian nation had the main goal: finally to ban any [[Bulgarophilia]] among the Macedonians and to build a new consciousness, based on identification with Yugoslavia. As result Yugoslavia introduced again an abrupt ''de-Bulgarization'' of the people in the [[PR Macedonia]], such as it already had conducted in the [[Vardar Banovina]] during the [[Interwar period]]. Around 100,000 pro-Bulgarian elements were imprisoned for violations of the special ''[[Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honour]]'', and over 1,200 were allegedly killed. In this way generations of students grew up educated in strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment which during the times of [[Communist Yugoslavia]], increased to the level of [[state policy]]. Its main agenda was a result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarians and the new Macedonian nation, because Macedonians could confirm themselves as a separate community with its own history, only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. This policy has continued in the new Republic of Macedonia after 1990, although with less intensity. Thus, the Bulgarian part of the identity of the Slavic-speaking population in Vardar Macedonia has died out.{{efn|See:<ref>"Within Greece, and also within the new kingdom of Yugoslavia, which Serbia had joined in 1918, the ejection of the Bulgarian church, the closure of Bulgarian schools, and the banning of publication in Bulgarian, together with the expulsion or flight to Bulgaria of a large proportion of the Macedonian Slav intelligentsia, served as the prelude to campaigns of forcible cultural and linguistic assimilation...In both countries, these policies of de-bulgarization and assimilation were pursued, with fluctuating degrees of vigor, right through to 1941, when the Second World War engulfed the Balkan peninsula. The degree of these policies' success, however, remains open to question. The available evidence suggests that Bulgarian national sentiment among the Macedonian Slavs of Yugoslavia and Greece remained strong throughout the interwar period, though they lacked the means to offer more than passive resistance to official policies." For more see: F. A. K. Yasamee, Nationality in the Balkans: The case of the Macedonians. Balkans: A Mirror of the New World Order, Istanbul: Eren Publishing, 1995; pp. 121–132.</ref><ref>"As in Kosovo, the restoration of Serbian rule in 1918, to which the Strumica district and several other Bulgarian frontier salients accrued in 1919 (Bulgaria also having lost all its Aegean coastline to Greece), marked the replay of the first Serbian occupation (1913–1915). Once again, the Exarchist clergy and Bulgarian teachers were expelled, all Bulgarian-language signs and books removed, and all Bulgarian clubs, societies, and organizations dissolved, The Serbianization of family surnames proceeded as before the war, with Stankov becoming Stankovic and Atanasov entered in the books by Atanackovic... Thousands of Macedonians left for Bulgaria. Though there were fewer killings of "Bulgarians" (a pro-Bulgarian source claimed 342 such instances and 47 additional disappearances in 1918 – 1924), the conventional forms of repression (jailings, internments etc.) were applied more systematically and with greater effect than before (the same source lists 2,900 political arrests in the same period)... Like Kosovo, Macedonia was slated for Serb settlements and internal colonization. The authorities projected the settlement of 50,000 families in Macedonia, though only 4,200 families had been placed in 280 colonies by 1940." For more see: Ivo Banac, "The National Question in Yugoslavia. Origins, History, Politics" The Macedoine, Cornell University Press, 1984; {{ISBN|0801416752}}, pp. 307–328.</ref><ref>Yugoslav Communists recognized the existence of a Macedonian nationality during WWII to quiet fears of the Macedonian population that a communist Yugoslavia would continue to follow the former Yugoslav policy of forced Serbianization. Hence, for them to recognize the inhabitants of Macedonia as Bulgarians would be tantamount to admitting that they should be part of the Bulgarian state. For that the Yugoslav Communists were most anxious to mold Macedonian history to fit their conception of Macedonian consciousness. The treatment of Macedonian history in Communist Yugoslavia had the same primary goal as the creation of the Macedonian language: to de-Bulgarize the Macedonian Slavs, and to create an national consciousness that would inspire identification with Yugoslavia. For more see: Stephen E. Palmer, Robert R. King, Yugoslav communism and the Macedonian question, Archon Books, 1971, {{ISBN|0208008217}}, Chapter 9: The encouragement of Macedonian culture.</ref><ref>The Serbianization of the Vardar region ended and Yugoslavization was not introduced either; rather, a policy of cultural, linguistic, and “historical” Macedonization by de-Bulgarianization was implemented, with immediate success. For more see: Irina Livezeanu and Arpad von KlimoThe Routledge as ed. History of East Central Europe since 1700, Routledge, 2017, {{ISBN|1351863428}}, p. 490.</ref><ref>In Macedonia, post-WWII generations grew up "overdosed" with strong anti-Bulgarian sentiment, leading to the creation of mainly negative stereotypes for Bulgaria and its nation. The anti-Bulgariansim (or Bulgarophobia) increased almost to the level of state ideology during the ideological monopoly of the League of Communists of Macedonia, and still continues to do so today, although with less ferocity... However, it is more important to say openly that a great deal of these anti-Bulgarian sentiments result from the need to distinguish between the Bulgarian and the Macedonian nations. Macedonia could confirm itself as a state with its own past, present and future only through differentiating itself from Bulgaria. For more see: Mirjana Maleska. With the eyes of the "other" (about Macedonian-Bulgarian relations and the Macedonian national identity). In New Balkan Politics, Issue 6, pp. 9–11. Peace and Democracy Center: "Ian Collins", Skopje, Macedonia, 2003. ISSN 1409-9454.</ref><ref>After WWII in Macedonia the past was systematically falsified to conceal the fact that many prominent ‘Macedonians’ had supposed themselves to be Bulgarians, and generations of students were taught the pseudo-history of the Macedonian nation. The mass media and education were the key to this process of national acculturation, speaking to people in a language that they came to regard as their Macedonian mother tongue, even if it was perfectly understood in Sofia. For more see: Michael L. Benson, Yugoslavia: A Concise History, Edition 2, Springer, 2003, {{ISBN|1403997209}}, p. 89.</ref><ref>Once specifically Macedonian interests came to the fore under the Yugoslav communist umbrella and in direct confrontation with the Bulgarian occupation authorities (during WWII), the Bulgarian part of the identity of Vardar Macedonians was destined to die out – in a process similar to the triumph of Austrian over German-Austrian identity in post-war years. Drezov K. (1999) Macedonian identity: an overview of the major claims. In: Pettifer J. (eds) The New Macedonian Question. St Antony’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London; {{ISBN|978-0-333-92066-4}}, p. 51.</ref><ref>Additionally, some 100,000 people were imprisoned in the post-1944 period for violations of the law for the "protection of Macedonian national honor," and some 1,260 Bulgarian sympathizers were allegedly killed. (Troebst, 1997: 248–50, 255–57; 1994: 116–22; Poulton, 2000: 118–19). For more see: Roudometof, Victor, Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question, Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}, p. 104.</ref>}}

===21st-century uncertainty===
Following the collapse of Yugoslavia, the issue of Macedonian identity emerged again. Nationalists and governments alike from neighbouring countries (especially Greece and Bulgaria) espouse the view that the Macedonian ethnicity is a modern, artificial creation. Such views have been seen by Macedonian historians to represent irredentist motives on Macedonian territory.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Moreover, some historians point out that ''all'' modern nations are recent, politically motivated constructs based on creation "myths".<ref>Smith A.D. ''The Antiquity of Nations''. 2004, p. 47</ref> The creation of Macedonian identity is "no more or less artificial than any other identity".<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{Cite book | last1 = Rae | first1 = Heather | title = State identities and the homogenisation of peoples | year = 2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn = 0-521-79708-X | pages =278}}</ref> Contrary to the claims of Romantic nationalists, modern, territorially bound and mutually exclusive nation states have little in common with their preceding large territorial or dynastic medieval empires; and any connection between them is tenuous at best.<ref>Danforth, L. ''The Macedonian Conflict. Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. p. 25</ref> In any event, irrespective of shifting political affiliations, the Macedonian Slavs shared in the fortunes of the [[Byzantine commonwealth]] and the [[Rum millet]] and they can claim them as their heritage.<ref name="Rossos A. 2008"/> Loring Danforth states similarly, the ancient heritage of modern Balkan countries is not "the mutually exclusive property of one specific nation" but "the shared inheritance of all Balkan peoples".<ref>''Ancient Macedonia: National Symbols.'' L Danforth in ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia''. Wiley –Blackwell 2010. p. 597-8</ref>

A more radical and uncompromising strand of Macedonian nationalism has recently emerged called "ancient Macedonism", or "[[Antiquisation]]". Proponents of this view see modern Macedonians as direct descendants of the ancient Macedonians. This view faces criticism by academics as it is not supported by archaeology or other historical disciplines, and also could marginalize the Macedonian identity.<ref>The Handbook of Political Change in Eastern Europe, Sten Berglund, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013, {{ISBN|1782545883}},[https://books.google.com/books?id=hmtuqFnuDZwC&pg=PA622&dq=antiquisation+macedonia=#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 622.]</ref><ref>Transforming National Holidays: Identity Discourse in the West and South Slavic Countries, 1985–2010, Ljiljana Šarić, Karen Gammelgaard, Kjetil Rå Hauge, John Benjamins Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|9027206384}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=F0aecYH2yQMC&pg=PA207&dq=antiquization+macedonia#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 207–208.]</ref> Surveys on the effects of the controversial [[nation-building]] project [[Skopje 2014]] and on the perceptions of the population of Skopje revealed a high degree of uncertainty regarding the latter's national identity. A supplementary national poll showed that there was a great discrepancy between the population's sentiment and the narrative the state sought to promote.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Muhić | first1 = Maja | last2 = Takovski | first2 = Aleksandar | year = 2014 | title = Redefining National Identity in Macedonia. Analyzing Competing Origins Myths and Interpretations through Hegemonic Representations. | journal = Etnološka Tribina | volume = 44 | issue = 37| page = 144 | doi = 10.15378/1848-9540.2014 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Additionally, during the last two decades, tens of thousands of citizens of North Macedonia have applied for Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Sinisa Jakov Marusic, More Macedonians Apply for Bulgarian Citizenship. [https://balkaninsight.com/2014/08/05/more-macedonians-apply-for-bulgarian-citizenship/ Aug 5, 2014, Balkans Inside.]</ref> In the period 2002–2021 some 90,000 acquired it while ca. 53,000 applied and are still waiting.<ref>Предоставяне на българско гражданство, Справка за преиода 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 г. (Bulgarian citizenship Information for the period 22.01.2002-15.01.2012 year); Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за 2012-2013 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for 2012-2013 year), p. 7] Доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 23.01.2013 – 22.01.2014 година (Report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 23.01.2013–22.01.2014 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2014-31.12.2014 year), p. 5; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2015-31.12.2015 year), p. 6; Годишен доклад за дейността на КБГБЧ за периода 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 година (Annual report on the activities of the CBCBA for the period 01.01.2016-31.12.2016 year), p. 6; Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 14 януари – 31 декември 2017 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 14 January - 31 December 2017); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2018 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2018); Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2019 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2019). Доклад за дейността на комисията по българско гражданство за периода 01 януари – 31 декември 2020 г. (Activity Report of the Bulgarian Citizenship Commission for the period 01 January - 31 December 2020).</ref> Bulgaria has a special ethnic dual-citizenship regime which makes a constitutional distinction between ''ethnic Bulgarians'' and ''Bulgarian citizens''. In the case of the Macedonians, merely declaring their national identity as Bulgarian is enough to gain a citizenship.<ref>Bulgaria which has an ethnic citizenship regime and has a liberal dual citizenship regime makes a constitutional distinction between Bulgarians and Bulgarian citizens, whereas the former category reflects an ethnic (blood) belonging and the later the civic (territorial) belonging. In line with this definition, naturalization in Bulgaria is facilitated for those individuals who can prove that they belong to the Bulgarian nation...The birth certificates of parents and grandparents, their mother tongue, membership in Bulgarian institutions as the Bulgarian Church, former Bulgarian citizenship of the parents and so on are relevant criteria for the establishment of the ethnic origin of the applicant. In the case of Macedonian citizens, declaring their national identity as Bulgarian suffices to obtain Bulgarian citizenship, without the requirement for permanent residence in Bulgaria, or the language examination etc. For more see: Jelena Džankić, Citizenship in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro: Effects of Statehood and Identity Challenges, Southeast European Studies, Ashgate Publishing, 2015, {{ISBN|1472446410}}, p. 126.</ref> By making the procedure simpler, Bulgaria stimulates more Macedonian citizens (of Slavic origin) to apply for a Bulgarian citizenship.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Historical Dictionary of Bulgaria, Historical Dictionaries of Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, {{ISBN|1442241802}}, p. 318.</ref> However, many Macedonians who apply for Bulgarian citizenship as ''Bulgarians by origin'',<ref>Jo Shaw and Igor Štiks as ed., Citizenship after Yugoslavia, Routledge, 2013, {{ISBN|1317967070}}, p. 106.</ref> have few ties with Bulgaria.<ref>Rainer Bauböck, Debating Transformations of National Citizenship, IMISCOE Research Series, Springer, 2018, {{ISBN|3319927191}}, pp. 47–48.</ref> Further, those applying for [[Bulgarian citizenship]] usually say they do so to gain access to [[Member state of the European Union|member states of the European Union]] rather to assert Bulgarian identity.<ref>Michael Palairet, Macedonia: A Voyage through History (Vol. 2, From the Fifteenth Century to the Present), Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016, {{ISBN|1443888494}}, p. 347.</ref> This phenomenon is called ''[[placebo effect|placebo]] identity''.<ref>Mina Hristova, In-between Spaces: Dual Citizenship and Placebo Identity at the Triple Border between Serbia, Macedonia and Bulgaria in New Diversities; Volume 21, No. 1, 2019, pp. 37-55.</ref> Some Macedonians view the Bulgarian policy as part of a strategy to destabilize the Macedonian national identity.<ref>Risteski, L. (2016). “Bulgarian passports” – Possibilities for greater mobility of Macedonians and/or strategies for identity manipulation? EthnoAnthropoZoom/ЕтноАнтропоЗум, (10), 80-107. https://doi.org/10.37620/EAZ14100081r</ref> As a nation engaged in a dispute over its distinctiveness from Bulgarians, Macedonians have always perceived themselves as being threatened from its neighbor.<ref>Ljubica Spaskovska, Country report on Macedonia, November 2012. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, p.20.</ref> Bulgaria insists its neighbor to admit the common historical roots of their languages and nations, a view Skopje continues to reject.<ref>Bulgaria asks EU to stop 'fake' Macedonian identity. [https://www.dw.com/en/bulgaria-asks-eu-to-stop-fake-macedonian-identity/a-55020781 Deutsche Welle, 23.09.2020.]</ref> As result, Bulgaria blocked the official start of EU accession talks with North Macedonia.<ref>Bulgaria blocks EU accession talks with North Macedonia. [https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/bulgaria-blocks-eu-accession-talks-with-north-macedonia Nov 17, 2020, National post].</ref>

==Ethnonym==
The national name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] term ''Makedonía'', related to the name of the [[Macedonia (region)|region]], named after the [[ancient Macedonians]] and their [[Macedon|kingdom]]. It originates from the [[ancient Greek]] adjective [[makednos]], meaning "tall",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2364596 μακεδνός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> which shares its roots with the adjective ''makrós'', meaning the same.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmakro%2Fs1 μακρός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> The name is originally believed to have meant either "highlanders" or "the tall ones", possibly descriptive of these [[Ancient Macedonians|ancient people]].<ref name="Macedonia">[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Macedonia Macedonia], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref><ref>[[Eugene N. Borza]], ''Makedonika'', Regina Books, {{ISBN|0-941690-65-2}}, p.114: The "highlanders" or "Makedones" of the mountainous regions of western Macedonia are derived from northwest Greek stock; they were akin both to those who at an earlier time may have migrated south to become the historical "Dorians".</ref><ref>Nigel Guy Wilson, ''Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece'', Routledge, 2009, p.439: The latest archaeological findings have confirmed that Macedonia took its name from a tribe of tall, Greek-speaking people, the Makednoi.</ref> With the conquest of the Balkans by the [[Ottomans]] in the late 14th century, the name of Macedonia disappeared as a geographical designation for several centuries. The name was revived just during the early 19th century, after the foundation of the modern [[Greece|Greek]] state with its Western Europe-derived [[Philhellenism|obsession with Ancient Greece]].<ref>Jelavich Barbara, History of the Balkans, Vol. 2: Twentieth Century, 1983, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0521274591}}, page 91.</ref><ref>John S. Koliopoulos, Thanos M. Veremis, Modern Greece: A History since 1821. A New History of Modern Europe, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, {{ISBN|1444314831}}, p. 48.</ref> As result of the [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire]], massive Greek [[Megali Idea|religious and school propaganda]] occurred, and a process of ''[[Hellenization]]'' was implemented among Slavic-speaking population of the area.<ref>Richard Clogg, Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2002, {{ISBN|1850657068}}, p. 160.</ref><ref>Dimitar Bechev, Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia, Scarecrow Press, 2009, {{ISBN|0810862956}}, Introduction, pp. VII-VIII.</ref> In this way, the name ''Macedonians'' was applied to the local Slavs, aiming to stimulate the development of [[Grecoman|close ties]] between them and the [[Greeks]], linking both sides to the [[ancient Macedonians]], as a counteract against the growing [[National awakening of Bulgaria|Bulgarian cultural influence]] into the region.<ref>J. Pettifer, The New Macedonian Question, St Antony's group, Springer, 1999, {{ISBN|0230535798}}, pp. 49–51.</ref><ref>Anastas Vangeli, Nation-building ancient Macedonian style: the origins and the effects of the so-called antiquization in Macedonia. Nationalities Papers, the Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity, Volume 39, 2011 pp. 13–32.</ref> As a consequence since 1850s some Slavic intellectuals from the area, adopted the designation ''Macedonian'' as a regional identity, and it began to gain a popularity.<ref>Roumen Daskalov, Tchavdar Marinov, Entangled Histories of the Balkans, Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies, BRILL, 2013, {{ISBN|900425076X}}, pp. 283–285.</ref> Serbian politics then, also encouraged this kind of [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalism]] to neutralize the Bulgarian influx, thereby promoting Serbian interests there.<ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, 1900–1996, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 65.</ref> In the early 20th century the local ''Bulgarians'' already called themselves Macedonians, and were called in this way by their neighbors.<ref>E. Damianopoulos, The Macedonians: Their Past and Present, Springer, 2012, {{ISBN|1137011904}}, p. 185.</ref> During the [[interbellum]] Bulgaria also supported to some extent the Macedonian ''regional identity'', especially in Yugoslavia. Its aim was to prevent the [[Serbianization]] of the local Slavic-speakers, because the very name ''Macedonia'' was prohibited in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.<ref>Donald Bloxham, The Final Solution: A Genocide, OUP Oxford, 2009, {{ISBN|0199550336}}, p. 65.</ref><ref>Chris Kostov, Contested Ethnic Identity: The Case of Macedonian Immigrants in Toronto, Peter Lang, 2010, {{ISBN|3034301960}}, p. 76.</ref> Ultimately the designation Macedonian, changed its status in 1944, and went from being predominantly a regional, ethnographic denomination, to a national one.<ref>Raymond Detrez, Pieter Plas, Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Volume 34 of Multiple Europesq Peter Lang, 2005, {{ISBN|9052012970}}, p. 173.</ref>

==Population==
{{Ethnic Macedonians}}
The vast majority of Macedonians live along the valley of the river [[Vardar]], the central region of the Republic of North Macedonia. They form about 64.18% of the population of North Macedonia (1,297,981 people according to the [https://web.archive.org/web/20040621055714/http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp?br=18 2002 census]). Smaller numbers live in eastern [[Albania]], northern [[Greece]], and southern [[Serbia]], mostly abutting the border areas of the [[North Macedonia|Republic of North Macedonia]]. A large number of Macedonians have immigrated overseas to [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and to many European countries: [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Austria]] among others.

===Balkans===

====Greece====
{{See also|Slavic-speakers of Greek Macedonia}}

The existence of an ethnic Macedonian minority in Greece is rejected by the Greek government. The number of people speaking Slavic dialects has been estimated at somewhere between 10,000 and 250,000.{{efn|See:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnxZfdDXC7gC&q=number+of+slavophone+greece&pg=PA234|title=Bulgaria and Europe|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9781843318286|last1=Katsikas|first1=Stefanos|date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=GR|title=Ethnologue report for Greece|work=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=13 February 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209045725/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004|date=9 February 2011}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004 UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605045853/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=37&menu=004|date=5 June 2011}}.</ref><ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Jacques Bacid, PhD Macedonia Through the Ages. Columbia University, 1983.</ref><ref>Hill, P. (1999) "Macedonians in Greece and Albania: A Comparative study of recent developments". Nationalities Papers Volume 27, 1 March 1999, p. 44(14).</ref><ref>Poulton, H.(2000), "Who are the Macedonians?", C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.</ref>}} Most of these people however do not have an ethnic Macedonian national consciousness, with most choosing to identify as ethnic [[Greeks]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmesOn_HhfEC&q=number+of+slav+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA74|title=The Macedonian Conflict|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=0691043566|last1=Danforth|first1=Loring M.|date=6 April 1997}}</ref> or rejecting both ethnic designations and preferring terms such as ''"natives"'' instead.<ref name="Greece">{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61651.htm|title=Greece|publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|access-date=27 October 2016}}</ref> In 1999 the [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights|Greek Helsinki Monitor]] estimated that the number of people identifying as ethnic Macedonians numbered somewhere between 10,000 and 30,000,<ref name="dev.eurac.edu">[http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (Greece) – GREEK HELSINKI MONITOR (GHM)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030523145306/http://dev.eurac.edu:8085/mugs2/do/blob.html?type=html&serial=1044526702223 |date=23 May 2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD3TZJy5HagC&q=number+of+macedonians+in+greece&pg=PA152|title=Culture and Rights|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=9780521797351|last1=Cowan|first1=Jane K.|last2=Dembour|first2=Marie-Bénédicte|last3=Wilson|first3=Richard A.|date=29 November 2001}}</ref> Macedonian sources generally claim the number of ethnic Macedonians living in Greece at somewhere between 200,000–350,000.<ref>L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press, p. 45</ref> The ethnic Macedonians in Greece have faced difficulties from the Greek government in their ability to self-declare as members of a ''"Macedonian minority"'' and to refer to their native language as ''"Macedonian"''.<ref name="Greece"/>

Since the late 1980s there has been an ethnic Macedonian revival in Northern Greece, mostly centering on the region of [[Florina]].<ref>Detrez, Raymond; Plas, Pieter (2005), Developing cultural identity in the Balkans: convergence vs divergence, Peter Lang, pp. 50</ref> Since then ethnic Macedonian organisations including the [[Rainbow (Greece)|Rainbow political party]] have been established.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110928045606/http://www.novamakedonija.com.mk/NewsDetal.asp?vest=6110956302&id=9&setIzdanie=21996 Second Macedonian newspaper in Greece] – ''"Втор весник на Македонците во Грција...Весникот се вика "Задруга"...За нецел месец во Грција излезе уште еден весник на Македонците/A Second Macedonian Newspaper in greece...The Newspaper is Called "Zadruga/Koinothta"...Barely a month ago in Greece another newspaper for the Macedonians was released."''</ref> ''Rainbow'' first opened its offices in Florina on 6 September 1995. The following day, the offices had been broken into and had been ransacked.<ref>[http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf Greek Helsinki Monitor & Minority Rights Group- Greece; Greece against its Macedonian minority] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209033640/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/rainbow-english.pdf |date=2006-12-09 }}</ref> Later Members of ''Rainbow'' had been charged for "causing and inciting mutual hatred among the citizens" because the party had bilingual signs written in both [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]].<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur25/044/1998/en/ Amnesty International; Greece: Charges against members of the "Rainbow" party should be dropped]</ref> On 20 October 2005, the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)]] ordered the Greek government to pay penalties to the ''Rainbow Party'' for violations of 2 ECHR articles.<ref name="Greece"/> ''Rainbow'' has seen limited success at a national level, its best result being achieved in the 1994 European elections, with a total of 7,263 votes. Since 2004 it has participated in European Parliament elections and local elections, but not in national elections. A few of its members have been elected in local administrative posts. ''Rainbow'' has recently re-established ''Nova Zora'', a newspaper that was first published for a short period in the mid-1990s, with reportedly 20,000 copies being distributed free of charge.<ref>[http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 Македонците во Грција треба да си ги бараат правата] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823234401/http://www.utrinski.com.mk/?ItemID=37A12ADE09614C45AA6D0395682BF917 |date=23 August 2011 }} – ''""Нова зора"...печати во 20.000 примероци/Nova Zora...is printed in 20,000 copies"''</ref><ref>[http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 "Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509162418/http://www.a1.com.mk/vesti/default.aspx?VestID=122849 |date=9 May 2010 }} – ''""Нова зора" – прв весник на македонски јазик во Грција...При печатењето на тиражот од 20.000 примероци се појавиле само мали технички проблеми/Nova Zora – the first Macedonian language newspaper in Greece...There were only small technical problems with the printing of the circulation of 20,000"''</ref><ref>[http://www.vreme.com.mk/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=2&tabid=1&EditionID=2001&ArticleID=138979 Нема печатница за македонски во Грција]{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} – ''"Весникот е наречен "Нова зора" и треба да се печати во 20.000 примероци/The Newspaper is called Nova Zora and 20,000 copies are printed."''</ref>

====Serbia====
{{Main|Macedonians in Serbia}}

Within [[Serbia]], Macedonians constitute an officially recognised ethnic minority at both a local and national level. Within [[Vojvodina]], Macedonians are recognised under the [[Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina]], along with other ethnic groups. Large Macedonian settlements within Vojvodina can be found in [[Plandište]], [[Jabuka]], [[Glogonj]], [[Dužine]] and [[Kačarevo]]. These people are mainly the descendants of economic migrants who left the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] in the 1950s and 1960s. The [[Macedonians in Serbia]] are represented by a national council and in recent years the Macedonian language has begun to be taught. The most recent census recorded 22,755 Macedonians living in Serbia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-06-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811224233/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Nacionalna%20pripadnost-Ethnicity.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref>

====Albania====
{{Main|Macedonians of Albania}}

Macedonians represent the second largest ethnic minority population in [[Albania]]. Albania recognises the existence of a Macedonian minority within the [[Mala Prespa]] region, most of which is comprised by [[Pustec Municipality]]. Macedonians have full minority rights within this region, including the right to education and the provision of other services in the [[Macedonian language]]. There also exist unrecognised Macedonian populations living in the [[Gollaborda|Golo Brdo]] region, the "Dolno Pole" area near the town of [[Peshkopi]], around [[Lake Ohrid]] and [[Korce]] as well as in [[Gora (region)|Gora]]. 4,697 people declared themselves Macedonians in the 1989 census.<ref>Artan Hoxha and Alma Gurraj, Local Self-Government and Decentralization: Case of Albania. History, Reforms and Challenges. In: Local Self Government and Decentralization in South — East Europe. Proceedings of the workshop held in Zagreb, Croatia 6 April 2001. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Zagreb Office, Zagreb 2001, pp. 194–224 ([http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/kroatien/50257.pdf PDF]).</ref>

====Bulgaria====
{{Main|Ethnic Macedonians in Bulgaria}}

[[Bulgarians]] are considered most closely related to the neighboring Macedonians and it is sometimes claimed that there is no clear ethnic difference between them.<ref>{{cite book |title=Political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe |last1=Day |first1=Alan John |last2=East |first2=Roger |last3=Thomas |first3=Richard |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1-85743-063-8 |page=94}}</ref> As regards self-identification, a total of 1,654 people officially declared themselves to be ethnic Macedonians in the last Bulgarian census in 2011 (0,02%) and 561 of them are in [[Blagoevgrad Province]] (0,2%).<ref>{{in lang|bg}} [http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R9.aspx?OBL=BLG Official census data]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> 1,091 of them are Macedonian citizens, who are [[permanent resident]]s in Bulgaria.<ref>[http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx Население с чуждо гражданство по страни] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004020646/http://censusresults.nsi.bg/Reports/2/2/R11.aspx |date=4 October 2011 }}</ref> Krassimir Kanev, chairman of the non-governmental organization [[Bulgarian Helsinki Committee]], claimed 15,000–25,000 in 1998 (see [https://web.archive.org/web/20060723084106/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/cedime-se-bulgaria-macedonians.PDF here]). In the same report Macedonian nationalists  (Popov et al., 1989) claimed that 200,000 ethnic Macedonians live in Bulgaria. However, ''Bulgarian Helsinki Committee'' stated that the vast majority of the Slavic-speaking population in [[Pirin Macedonia]] has a Bulgarian national self-consciousness and a [[Macedonian Bulgarians|regional Macedonian identity]] similar to the Macedonian regional identity in [[Greek Macedonia]]. Finally, according to personal evaluation of a leading local ethnic Macedonian political activist, Stoyko Stoykov, the present number of Bulgarian citizens with ethnic Macedonian self-consciousness is between 5,000 and 10,000.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.focus-fen.net/?id=f1218
|title=FOCUS Information Agency
|publisher=focus-fen.net
|access-date=14 March 2009
}}
</ref> In 2000, the [[Bulgarian Constitutional Court]] banned [[UMO Ilinden-Pirin]], a small Macedonian political party, as a separatist organization. Subsequently, activists attempted to re-establish the party but could not gather the required number of signatures.

<gallery class="center">
File:Map of the majority ethnic groups of Macedonia by municipality.svg|Macedonians in North Macedonia, according to the 2002 census
File:Macedonians in Serbia.png|Concentration of Macedonians in Serbia
File:MalaPrespaiGoloBrdo.png|Regions where Macedonians live within Albania
File:Torbesija.png|Macedonian Muslims in North Macedonia
</gallery>

===Diaspora===
{{Further|Macedonian diaspora}}
[[File:Macedonian people in the world.svg|thumb|300x300px|Macedonian diaspora in the world (includes people with Slovenian ancestry or citizenship). 
{{Legend|#000000|North Macedonia}}
{{Legend|#BA9B15|+ 100,000}}
{{Legend|#F9D616|+ 10,000}}
{{Legend|#FFF0B3|+ 1,000}}]]

Significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the traditional immigrant-receiving nations, as well as in Western European countries. Census data in many European countries (such as Italy and Germany) does not take into account the ethnicity of émigrés from the Republic of North Macedonia.

====Argentina====
Most Macedonians can be found in [[Buenos Aires]], [[La Pampa Province|the Pampas]] and [[Córdoba Province, Argentina|Córdoba]]. An estimated 30,000 Macedonians can be found in Argentina.<ref name=Naveski_1>Nasevski, Boško; Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica (1995). Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95. Skopje: Матица на Иселениците на Македонија.</ref>
====Australia====
{{further|Macedonian Australians}}
The official number of Macedonians in Australia by birthplace or birthplace of parents is 83,893 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20041028074111/http://www.crc.nsw.gov.au/statistics/Sect1/Table1p08Aust.pdf 2001]). The main Macedonian communities are found in Melbourne, [[Geelong]], Sydney, [[Wollongong]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[Canberra]] and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]. The 2006 census recorded 83,983 people of Macedonian ancestry and the 2011 census recorded 93,570 people of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|title=The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2011 Census|url=https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|publisher=Australian Government|page=58|year=2014|access-date=23 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417222156/https://www.border.gov.au/ReportsandPublications/Documents/research/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Brazil====
{{further|Macedonians in Brazil}}
An estimated 45,000 people in Brazil are of Macedonian ancestry.<ref>{{cite book
|script-title=mk:Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95
|last= Nasevski
|first= Boško
|author2=Angelova, Dora |author3=Gerovska, Dragica
|year= 1995
|publisher= Матица на Иселениците на Македонија
|location= Skopje
|pages= 52 & 53 }}</ref> The Macedonians can be primarily found in [[Porto Alegre]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[São Paulo]] and [[Curitiba]].
====Canada====
{{further|Macedonian Canadians}}
The Canadian census in 2001 records 37,705 individuals claimed wholly or partly Macedonian heritage in Canada,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=U.S. Census website |access-date=28 March 2020 }}</ref> although community spokesmen have claimed that there are actually 100,000–150,000 Macedonians in Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120720212139/http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC823709 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 July 2012 |access-date=7 March 2006 }}</ref>
====United States====
{{further|Macedonian Americans}}
A significant Macedonian community can be found in the United States. The official number of Macedonians in the US is 49,455 ([https://www.census.gov 2004]). The Macedonian community is located mainly in [[Michigan]], New York, [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]] and [[New Jersey]]<ref>[http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm Euroamericans.net] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050319231734/http://www.euroamericans.net/euroamericans.net/macedonian.htm |date=19 March 2005 }}</ref>
====Germany====
{{further|Macedonians in Germany}}
There are an estimated 61,000 citizens of North Macedonia in Germany (mostly in the [[Ruhrgebiet]]) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060405204342/http://wohnbevoelkerung_in_deutschland.know-library.net/ 2001]).
====Italy====
There are 74,162 citizens of North Macedonia in Italy ([http://demo.istat.it/str2006/query.php?lingua=eng&Rip=S0&paese=A12&submit=Tavola Foreign Citizens in Italy]).
====Switzerland====
{{further|Macedonians in Switzerland}}
In 2006 the Swiss Government recorded 60,362 Macedonian Citizens living in Switzerland.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120425144012/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/01/07/blank/key/01/01.Document.20578.xls bfs.admin.ch]</ref>
====Romania====
{{further|Macedonians in Romania}}
Macedonians are an officially recognised minority group in Romania. They have a special reserved seat in the nations parliament. In 2002, they numbered 731.
====Slovenia====
{{further|Macedonians in Slovenia}}
Macedonians began relocating to Slovenia in the 1950s when the two regions formed a part of a single country, [[Yugoslavia]].
====Other countries====
Other significant Macedonian communities can also be found in the other Western European countries such as Austria, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, United Kingdom, and the whole European Union. {{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Also in Uruguay, with a significant population in [[Montevideo]].{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=August 2019}}

The culture of the people is characterized with both traditionalist and modernist attributes. It is strongly bound with their native land and the surrounding in which they live. The rich cultural heritage of the Macedonians is accented in the folklore, the picturesque traditional folk costumes, decorations and ornaments in city and village homes, the architecture, the monasteries and churches, iconostasis, wood-carving and so on. The culture of Macedonians can roughly be explained as a Balkanic, closely related to that of [[Bulgarians]] and [[Serbs]].

===Architecture===
[[File:Robevihouse.JPG|thumb|right|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] architecture in [[Ohrid]].]]
[[File:Makedonski Nosii 2.jpg|thumb|right|Macedonian girls in traditional folk costumes.]]
The typical Macedonian village house is influelnced by [[Ottoman architecture|Ottoman Architecture]] .Presented as a construction with two floors, with a hard facade composed of large stones and a wide balcony on the second floor. In villages with predominantly agricultural economy, the first floor was often used as a storage for the harvest, while in some villages the first floor was used as a cattle-pen.

The stereotype for a traditional Macedonian city house is a two-floor building with white façade, with a forward extended second floor, and black wooden elements around the windows and on the edges.

===Cinema and theater===
{{main|Cinema of North Macedonia}}

The history of film making in North Macedonia dates back over 110 years. The first film to be produced on the territory of the present-day the country was made in 1895 by [[Manakis brothers|Janaki and Milton Manaki]] in [[Bitola]]. In 1995 [[Before the Rain (1994 film)|Before the Rain]] became the first Macedonian movie to be nominated for an Academy Award.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 67th Academy Awards {{!}} 1995 |url=https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1995 |website=Oscars.org {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |access-date=27 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

From 1993 to 1994, 1,596 performances were held in the newly formed republic, and more than 330,000 people attended. The Macedonian National Theater (drama, opera, and ballet companies), the Drama Theater, the Theater of the Nationalities (Albanian and Turkish drama companies) and the other theater companies comprise about 870 professional actors, singers, ballet dancers, directors, playwrights, set and costume designers, etc. There is also a professional theatre for children and three amateur theaters. For the last thirty years a traditional festival of Macedonian professional theaters has been taking place in [[Prilep]] in honor of [[Vojdan Černodrinski]], the founder of the modern Macedonian theater. Each year a festival of amateur and experimental Macedonian theater companies is held in [[Kočani]].

===Music and art===
{{main|Music of North Macedonia}}

Macedonian music has many things in common with the music of neighboring [[Balkan]] countries, but maintains its own distinctive sound.

The founders of modern Macedonian painting included [[Lazar Licenovski]], [[Nikola Martinoski]], [[Dimitar Pandilov]], and [[Vangel Kodzoman]]. They were succeeded by an exceptionally talented and fruitful generation, consisting of [[Borka Lazeski]], [[Dimitar Kondovski]], [[Petar Mazev]] who are now deceased, and [[Rodoljub Anastasov]] and many others who are still active. Others include: [[Vasko Taskovski]] and [[Vangel Naumovski]]. In addition to [[Dimo Todorovski]], who is considered to be the founder of modern [[Macedonian sculpture]], the works of [[Petar Hadzi Boskov]], [[Boro Mitrikeski]], [[Novak Dimitrovski]] and [[Tome Serafimovski]] are also outstanding.

===Economy===
In the past, the Macedonian population was predominantly involved with agriculture, with a very small portion of the people who were engaged in trade (mainly in the cities). But after the creation of the People's Republic of Macedonia which started a social transformation based on Socialist principles, a middle and heavy industry were started.

===Language===
{{main|Macedonian language}}

The Macedonian language ({{lang|mk|македонски јазик}}) is a member of the Eastern group of [[South Slavic languages]]. [[Standard Macedonian]] was implemented as the official language of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]] after being [[Codification (linguistics)|codified]] in the 1940s, and has accumulated a thriving [[Macedonian literature|literary tradition]].

The closest relative of Macedonian is [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]],<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Levinson|O'Leary|1992|p=239}}</ref> followed by [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]. All the [[South Slavic languages]] form a [[dialect continuum]], in which Macedonian and Bulgarian form an [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern subgroup]]. The [[Torlakian]] dialect group is intermediate between Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian, comprising some of the northernmost [[Dialects of the Macedonian language|dialects of Macedonian]] as well as varieties spoken in southern Serbia and western Bulgaria. Torlakian is often classified as part of the Eastern South Slavic dialects.

The [[Macedonian alphabet]] is an adaptation of the [[Cyrillic script]], as well as language-specific conventions of spelling and punctuation. It is rarely [[Romanization of Macedonian|Romanized]].

===Religion===
{{main|Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church|Roman Catholicism in North Macedonia|Macedonian Greek Catholic Church|Protestantism in North Macedonia|Islam in North Macedonia}}
[[File:2011 Ochryda, Cerkiew św. Pantelejmona (02).jpg|thumb|right|250px|One of the well-known monasteries – [[Saint Panteleimon, Ohrid|St. Panteleimon]] in Ohrid.]]

Most Macedonians are members of the [[Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Macedonian Orthodox Church]]. The official name of the church is Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric and is the body of Christians who are united under the Archbishop of Ohrid and North Macedonia, exercising jurisdiction over Macedonian Orthodox Christians in the Republic of North Macedonia and in [[exarchate]]s in the [[Macedonian diaspora]].

The church gained autonomy from the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] in 1959 and declared the restoration of the historic [[Orthodox Archbishopric of Ohrid (ancient)|Archbishopric of Ohrid]]. On 19 July 1967, the Macedonian Orthodox Church declared [[autocephaly]] from the Serbian church. Due to protest from the Serbian Orthodox Church, the move was not recognised by any of the churches of the [[Eastern Orthodox Communion]], and since then, the Macedonian Orthodox Church is not in communion with any Orthodox Church.<ref>The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. By Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley. p. 381</ref> A small number of Macedonians belong to the [[Roman Catholic]] and the [[Protestant Church|Protestant]] churches.

Between the 15th and the 20th centuries, during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]], a number of Orthodox Macedonian Slavs converted to Islam. Today in the Republic of North Macedonia, they are regarded as [[Macedonian Muslims]], who constitute the second largest religious community of the country.

===Names===
{{Main|Culture of North Macedonia#Macedonian names|l1=Macedonian names}}

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Macedonian cuisine}}
[[File:Грав во тава(тафче гравче) (3).jpg|thumb|right|[[Tavče Gravče]], the [[national dish]] of Macedonians.]]
Macedonian cuisine is a representative of the cuisine of the [[Balkans]]—reflecting Mediterranean (Greek) and Middle Eastern (Turkish) influences, and to a lesser extent Italian, German and Eastern European (especially Hungarian) ones. The relatively warm climate in North Macedonia provides excellent growth conditions for a variety of vegetables, herbs and fruits. Thus, Macedonian cuisine is particularly diverse.

[[Shopska salad]], a food from [[Bulgaria]], is an appetizer and side dish which accompanies almost every meal.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} Macedonian cuisine is also noted for the diversity and quality of its [[dairy products]], wines, and local alcoholic beverages, such as [[rakija]]. [[Tavče Gravče]] and [[mastika]] are considered the national dish and drink of North Macedonia, respectively.

==See also==
{{Portal|North Macedonia}}
* [[Demographic history of North Macedonia]]
* [[List of Macedonians (ethnic group)|List of Macedonians]]
* [[Demographics of the Republic of North Macedonia]]
* [[Macedonian language]]
* [[Ethnogenesis]]
* [[South Slavs]]
* [[Macedonians (Greeks)]]
* [[Macedonians (Bulgarians)]]

==References==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Brown, Keith, ''The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation'', [[Princeton University Press]], 2003. {{ISBN|0-691-09995-2}}.
* {{cite journal
| last = Brunnbauer
| first = Ulf
|date=September 2004
| title = Fertility, families and ethnic conflict: Macedonians and Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia, 1944–2002
| journal=[[Nationalities Papers]]
| volume = 32
| issue = 3
| pages = 565–598
| doi = 10.1080/0090599042000246406
| s2cid = 128830053
}}
* Cowan, Jane K. (ed.), ''Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference'', Pluto Press, 2000. A collection of articles.
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region, c. 500–700|year=2001|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcFGhCVs0sYC|isbn=9781139428880}}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250|year=2006|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/southeasterneuro0000curt|url-access=registration|isbn=9780521815390}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Curta |first=Florin |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |title=The Slavic Lingua Franca. Linguistic Notes of an Archaeologist Turned Historian. |format=PDF |year=2004 |journal=East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=125–148 |access-date=2009-07-24 |postscript={{inconsistent citations}} |doi=10.1163/187633004x00134 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814025431/http://www.scribd.com/doc/48903516/The-Slavic-Lingua-Franca-by-Florin-Curta-2004 |archive-date=14 August 2012 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Curta|first=Florin|author-link=Florin Curta|title=The Edinburgh History of the Greeks, c. 500 to 1050: The Early Middle Ages|year=2011|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QCSrBgAAQBAJ|isbn=9780748644896}}
* Danforth, Loring M., ''The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World'', Princeton University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}.
* {{Cite book|last=Fine |first=John V A Jr. |title=The Early medieval Balkans. A Critical Survey from the 6th to the late 12th Century.|publisher=University Michigan Press|year=1991|isbn=9780472081493|postscript={{inconsistent citations}} }}
* Karakasidou, Anastasia N., ''Fields of Wheat, Hills of Blood: Passages to Nationhood in Greek Macedonia, 1870–1990'', [[University Of Chicago Press]], 1997, {{ISBN|0-226-42494-4}}. Reviewed in ''[[Journal of Modern Greek Studies]]'' '''18''':2 (2000), p465.
* Mackridge, Peter, Eleni Yannakakis (eds.), ''Ourselves and Others: The Development of a Greek Macedonian Cultural Identity since 1912'', Berg Publishers, 1997, {{ISBN|1-85973-138-4}}.
* Poulton, Hugh, ''Who Are the Macedonians?'', [[Indiana University Press]], 2nd ed., 2000. {{ISBN|0-253-21359-2}}.
* Roudometof, Victor, ''Collective Memory, National Identity, and Ethnic Conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian Question'', Praeger Publishers, 2002. {{ISBN|0-275-97648-3}}.
* Κωστόπουλος, Τάσος, ''Η απαγορευμένη γλώσσα: Η κρατική καταστολή των σλαβικών διαλέκτων στην ελληνική Μακεδονία σε όλη τη διάρκεια του 20ού αιώνα'' (εκδ. Μαύρη Λίστα, Αθήνα 2000). [Tasos Kostopoulos, ''The forbidden language: state suppression of the Slavic dialects in Greek Macedonia through the 20th century'', Athens: Black List, 2000]
* The Silent People Speak, by Robert St. John, 1948, xii, 293, 301–313 and 385.
* {{cite web|last=Karatsareas|first=Petros|title=Greece's Macedonian Slavic heritage was wiped out by linguistic oppression – here's how
|url=https://theconversation.com/greeces-macedonian-slavic-heritage-was-wiped-out-by-linguistic-oppression-heres-how-94675|publisher=The Conversation|access-date=19 April 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Margaronis|first=Maria|title=Greece's invisible minority – the Macedonian Slavs|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-47258809|publisher=BBC|access-date=24 February 2019}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Macedonians (ethnic group)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060113204437/http://newbalkanpolitics.org.mk/OldSite/Issue_2/ismail.eng.asp New Balkan Politics – Journal of Politics]
* [http://www.macedonians.co.uk/ Macedonians in the UK]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100305065457/http://www.umdiaspora.org/ United Macedonian Diaspora]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080629050307/http://www.smk.org.mk/ World Macedonian Congress]
* [http://www.maticanaiselenici.com/ House of Immigrants]

{{Ethnic groups in North Macedonia}}
{{North Macedonia topics}}
{{Slavic ethnic groups}}
{{Eastern Christianity footer}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macedonians (Ethnic Group)}}
[[Category:Ethnic Macedonian people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Albania]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Greece]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Macedonia (region)]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in North Macedonia]]
[[Category:Slavic ethnic groups]]
[[Category:South Slavs]]

Talk:Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T18:35:37Z

Macedonian: /* Symbols */ re

User talk:64.28.14.6

2021-05-10T17:36:57Z

Macedonian: General note: Removal of content, blanking on :Finiq.

== May 2021 ==

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I'm [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]]. I noticed that you recently removed content from [[:Finiq]] without adequately explaining why. In the future, it would be helpful to others if you described your changes to Wikipedia with an accurate [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]]. If this was a mistake, don't worry; the removed content has been restored. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on [[User_talk:Macedonian|my talk page]]. Thanks. [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 17:36, 10 May 2021 (UTC)
{{Block indent|''If this is a [[Network address translation|shared IP address]], and you did not make the edits referred to above, consider [[Wikipedia:Why create an account?|creating an account]] for yourself or [[Special:UserLogin|logging in with an existing account]] so that you can avoid further irrelevant notices.''}}

Finiq

2021-05-10T17:36:43Z

Macedonian: Reverted 1 edit by 64.28.14.6 (talk) to last revision by Bes-ART

{{Infobox settlement (Albanian)
|type = m
|name = Finiq
|other_name = Φοινίκη (Finiki)
|flag =
|emblem = Stema e Bashkisë Finiq.svg
|skyline = Finiq.jpg
|caption = The highlands of Delvinë and the hill of Finiq, ancient Phoinike, in the center of the picture behind the plains.
|county = [[Vlorë County|Vlorë]]
|mayor = Kristo Kiço
|party = Greek Ethnic Minority for the Future (M.E.G.A)
|coordinates = {{coord|39|54|N|20|3|E|type:adm1st_region:AL_dim:100000|display=inline}}
|elevation =
|area munic = 444.28
|population as of = 2011
|population munic = 10529
|population unit = 1333
|postal code = 9716
|area code = (0)895
|vehicle plate = AL
|website = {{URL|http://www.bfiniq.gov.al|Official Website}}
}}
'''Finiq''' ({{lang-sq|Finiq or Finiqi}}, {{lang-el|Φοινίκη}}, ''Finiki'') is a predominantly [[Greeks|Greek]]-inhabited settlement, considered town or village,<ref name="Shkurti2002">{{cite book|author=Spiro Shkurti|title=Bujqësia në Arbërinë e shek. XIII-XVII|year=2002|publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e Shqipërisë Instituti i Kulturës Popullore|page=60|quote=Për të krijuar bindje për këtë mjafton të shënojmë se në fshatin Finiq (Delvinë), psh, nga 359 burra në moshë madhore (kryefamiljarë) që kishte në fund të shekullit XVI, vetëm 6 persona ishin të ardhur, pra, vetëm 1,6% e të gjithë popullsisë së vendbanimit.}}</ref><ref name="Shqipërisëshqiptar1985">{{cite book|author1=Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë|author2=Fjalori enciklopedik shqiptar|title=Fjalor enciklopedik shqiptar|year=1985|publisher=Akademia e Shkencave e RPSSH|page=260|quote=FINIQI. Fshat në rrethin e Sarandës (L), në rrë- zën P të malit të Finiqit.}}</ref><ref name="Gloyer2015">{{cite book|author=Gillian Gloyer|title=Albania|date=7 January 2015|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-855-4|page=228|quote=The modern village of Finiqi is on a minor road which links the Saranda–Delvina road and the main Saranda-Gjirokastra road.}}</ref> and municipality in [[Vlorë County]], in southern Albania located 8 km from the [[Ionian Sea]] and 20 km north of the [[Greece|Greek]] border. It was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former [[Communes of Albania|communes]] [[Aliko]], [[Dhivër]], [[Livadhja]], [[Mesopotam]], and Finiq itself. Thus becoming one of the two [[Greeks in Albania|Greek national minority]] municipalities, alongside [[Dropull]]. The seat of the municipality is the village [[Dermish]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150924085559/http://www.reformaterritoriale.al/images/presentations/Ligji%20ndarja%20territoriale_Fletore_zyrtare.pdf Law nr. 115/2014]</ref> The total population is 10,529 (2011 census),<ref name="census11">{{cite web |url=http://www.instat.gov.al/media/3070/12__vlore.pdf |title=Population and housing census - Vlorë 2011 |access-date=2019-09-25 |publisher=[[Institute of Statistics (Albania)|INSTAT]] }}</ref> in a total area of 444.28 km2.<ref name="LAU">{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/345175/501971/EU-28-LAU-2019-NUTS-2016.xlsx |title=Correspondence table LAU – NUTS 2016, EU-28 and EFTA / available Candidate Countries |access-date=2019-09-25 |publisher=[[Eurostat]]|format=XLS }}</ref>

The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 1,333,<ref name=census11/> however according to the civil offices was 6,780 (2011 estimate).<ref name="City population">{{cite web|url=http://www.observator.org.al/odf2/komunat_vlore-en.html|title=Vlora's communes|access-date=13 January 2016}}</ref>

==Demographics==
The 2015 Albanian civil registry recorded a much higher municipal population of 39,055.<ref name="City population"/> The municipal unit of Finiq comprises the villages Finiq, Buronjë (Mavropull), Çlirim, [[Vrion, Sarandë|Vrion]], [[Karahaxhë]] and [[Bregas]] (Vromero).<ref>[http://www.interreg.gr/inst/interreg/gallery/File/Programmes/Greece%20-%20Albania/Simpliroma%20Programmatismou/EN/18-12-07_Programme_Complement_GREECE%20ALBANIA.doc Greece – Albania Neighbourhood Programme] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327014915/http://www.interreg.gr/inst/interreg/gallery/File/Programmes/Greece%20-%20Albania/Simpliroma%20Programmatismou/EN/18-12-07_Programme_Complement_GREECE%20ALBANIA.doc |date=March 27, 2012 }}</ref> Finiq and all the villages of the municipality are solely inhabited by Greeks, except the village of Çlirim, which is mixed.<ref name= Kallivretakis>Kallivretakis, Leonidas (1995). "[http://helios-eie.ekt.gr/EIE/handle/10442/8696 Η ελληνική κοινότητα της Αλβανίας υπό το πρίσμα της ιστορικής γεωγραφίας και δημογραφίας [The Greek Community of Albania in terms of historical geography and demography]." In Nikolakopoulos, Ilias, Kouloubis Theodoros A. & Thanos M. Veremis (eds). ''Ο Ελληνισμός της Αλβανίας [The Greeks of Albania]''. University of Athens. p, 31, 54; p. 51. "Μ Μικτός πληθυσμός"; p.54. "ΣΜΤ (ΜΤΣ) 569 Μ".</ref><ref>Badlands-Borderland: A History of Southern Albania/Northern Epirus
by T.J. Winnifrith,{{ISBN|0-7156-3201-9}},2003,Page 69,"... 16. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dkRoAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Greek-speaking+children+in+modern+Finiq+%22&dq=%22Greek-speaking+children+in+modern+Finiq+%22&lr=&hl=el&cd=1 Greek-speaking children in modern Finiq ..."]</ref>

==History==
In antiquity, [[Phoenice]] was the political center of the Epirot Greek tribe of the [[Chaonians]]. Early [[Byzantine architecture]] (4th-7th century) is evident in the settlement in particular that of the three aisled basilica type.<ref>Giakoumis, 2002, p. 123</ref>

The settlement retained its ancient name and is mentioned in an Ottoman record of 1431 as ''Finiki''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kyriazis |first1=Doris |title=Διατοπικότητα και διαχρονικότητα των νεοελληνικών γλωσσικών ιδιωμάτων της νότιας Αλβανίας |journal=Proceedings of the International Conference Series of Modern Greek Dialects and Linguistic Theory |year=2019 |volume=8 |page=122 |doi=10.26220/mgdlt.v8i1.3010 |url=https://mmm.library.upatras.gr/index.php/mgdlt/article/view/3010 |access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref> According to the ''Chronicle of Gjirokaster'' the first years of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule (15th century) were peaceful but after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] (1453) Finiki (that time known as ''Phinikoupolis'') was destroyed by the Muslims.<ref>Giakoumis, 2002, p. 71</ref> At the end of the 16th century Finiki witnessed a drastic population increase and became one of the largest settlements in the area with 359 households (compared to contemporary Gjirokastër with 302 and Delvine with only 204 taxable households).<ref>Giakoumis, 2002, p. 54</ref>

At 1870 a secondary Greek language school was already operating in Finiq.<ref>{{cite web|last=Koltsida|first=Athina|script-title=el:Η Εκπαίδευση στη Βόρειο Ήπειρο κατά την Ύστερη Περίοδο της Οθωμανικής Αυτοκρατορίας [Education in Northern Epirus during the Latter Ottoman Period] |url=http://invenio.lib.auth.gr/record/104814?ln=el|publisher=[[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]]|access-date=16 December 2012|year=2008 |language=el|format=pdf|page=187}} (''PhD Thesis'')</ref>

==See also==
*[[Phoenice]]
*[[Chaonians]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite journal|last1=Konstantinos.|first1=Giakoumis|title=The monasteries of Jorgucat and Vanishte in Dropull and of Spelaio in Lunxheri as monuments and institutions during the Ottoman period in Albania (16th-19th centuries)|date=2002|url=http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.390688|access-date=20 May 2018|publisher=University of Birmingham}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081028140625/http://www.phoinike.com/ https://web.archive.org/web/20081028140625/http://www.phoinike.com/]

{{Municipalities of Albania}}
{{Vlorë County}}
{{Finiq div}}
{{Northern Epirus}}

[[Category:Finiq| ]]
[[Category:Municipalities in Vlorë County]]
[[Category:Epirus]]
[[Category:Northern Epirus]]
[[Category:Greek communities in Albania]]
[[Category:Administrative units of Finiq]]
[[Category:Towns in Albania]]

Talk:Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T16:07:17Z

Macedonian: /* Symbols */ typo fix

Talk:Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T16:04:57Z

Macedonian: /* Symbols */

Rugby football

2021-05-10T16:02:55Z

Macedonian: Reverted 1 edit by 69.167.206.138 (talk) to last revision by Olef641

{{short description|Collective term for rugby union and rugby league team sports}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Foot Ball, Kingston-upon-Thames, Shrove Tuesday, Feb. 24th, 1846.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''Football'' match in the 1846 [[Shrove Tuesday]] in [[Kingston upon Thames]], [[England]]]]

'''Rugby''' is a collective name for the family of [[team sport]]s of [[rugby union]] and [[rugby league]], as well as the earlier forms of [[football]] from which both games, as well as [[Australian rules football]] and [[gridiron football]], evolved.

The two variants of Gridiron football — [[Canadian football]] and, to a lesser extent, [[American football]] — were once considered forms of rugby football but are seldom now referred to as such. In fact, the governing body of Canadian football, [[Football Canada]], was known as the Canadian Rugby Union as late as 1967, more than fifty years after the sport parted ways with the established rules of rugby union or league.<ref>{{cite magazine| url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/niallmccarthy/2015/09/18/the-rugby-world-cup-second-only-to-soccer-in-attendance-infographic/#6d95490f6e1b |title=The Rugby World Cup: Second Only to the Soccer World Cup in Attendance [Infographic] |magazine=Forbes |date=18 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/rugby-league/42097084 |title=Rugby League World Cup:Will World Cup joy finally come for Sam Burgess? |work=BBC Sport |date=30 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/27/sports/rugby/rugby-world-cup-league-and-union.html |title=The Other (and Less Popular) Rugby World Cup Gets Underway |newspaper=The New York Times|date=27 October 2017}}</ref>

Rugby football was thought to have been started about 1845 at [[Rugby School]] in [[Rugby, Warwickshire]], England although forms of football in which the ball was carried and tossed date to [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times. Rugby split into two sports in 1895, when twenty-one clubs split from the [[Rugby Football Union]] to form the [[Rugby Football League|Northern Rugby Football Union]] (later renamed the Rugby Football League in 1922) in the [[George Hotel, Huddersfield|George Hotel]], [[Huddersfield]], over broken-time payments to players who took time off from work to play the sport, thus making rugby league the first code to turn [[professional sport|professional]] and pay players. Rugby union turned professional one hundred years later in 1995, following the [[1995 Rugby World Cup]] in South Africa.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2011/oct/02/broken-time-review |title=Broken Time -review |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://moneyweek.com/405912/27-august-1995-rugby-union-turns-professional/ |title=27 August 1995:Rugby Union turns professional |publisher=MoneyWeek |date=27 August 2015}}</ref> The respective world governing bodies are [[World Rugby]] (rugby union) and the [[Rugby League International Federation]] (rugby league).

Rugby football was one of many versions of football played at [[Public school (United Kingdom)|English public schools]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm|title=Rugby Football History| website=www.rugbyfootballhistory.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/Schism.html|title=Rugby Football History| website=www.rugbyfootballhistory.com}}</ref> Although rugby league initially used rugby union rules, they are now wholly separate sports, with rugby league being much more similar to gridiron football{{cn|date=April 2021}}. In addition to these two codes, both American and Canadian football evolved from rugby football in the beginning of the 20th century.

== Forms ==
{{See also|Comparison of rugby league and rugby union}}
Following the 1895 split in rugby football, the two forms [[rugby league]] and [[rugby union]] differed in administration only. Soon the rules of rugby league were modified, resulting in two distinctly different forms of rugby. Rugby union would not become an openly professional sport until 100 years later.

The Olympic form of rugby is known as [[Rugby Sevens]]. In this form of the game, each team has seven players on the field at one time playing seven-minute halves. The rules and pitch size are the same as rugby union.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://passport.worldrugby.org/?page=beginners&p=21|title=A Beginners's Guide to Rugby Union : Rugby Sevens - The Olympic dream|website=passport.worldrugby.org}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of rugby union|History of rugby league}}

== Antecedents of rugby ==
[[File:Giovanni-Stradano-Gioco-del-calcio-in-piazza-Santa-Maria-Novella-1561-62-1024x721.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Calcio Fiorentino]] match in [[Piazza Santa Maria Novella]] in Florence, painted by [[Stradanus|Jan Van der Straet]]]]
Although rugby football was codified at [[Rugby School]], many rugby playing countries had pre-existing football games not dissimilar to rugby.

Forms of traditional football similar to rugby have been played throughout Europe and beyond. Many of these involved handling of the ball, and scrummaging formations. For example, New Zealand had [[Ki-o-rahi]], Australia [[marn grook]], Japan [[kemari]], Georgia [[lelo burti]], the Scottish Borders Jeddart Ba' and Cornwall [[Cornish hurling]], Central Italy [[Calcio Fiorentino]], South Wales [[cnapan]], East Anglia [[Camping (game)|Campball]] and Ireland had [[Caid (sport)|caid]], an ancestor of [[Gaelic football]].

=== Establishment of modern rugby ===
In 1871, English clubs met to form the [[Rugby Football Union]] (RFU). In 1892, after charges of professionalism (compensation of team members) were made against some clubs for paying players for missing work, the [[Rugby Football League|Northern Rugby Football Union]], usually called the Northern Union (NU), was formed.<ref>{{cite news | last =Baker | first =Andrew | title =100 years of rugby league: From the great divide to the Super era | newspaper = [[The Independent]]| date =20 August 1995 | url =https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/100-years-of-rugby-league-from-the-great-divide-to-the-super-era-1597130.html | access-date =25 September 2009 }}</ref> The existing rugby union authorities responded by issuing sanctions against the clubs, players, and officials involved in the new organization. After the schism, the separate clubs were named "rugby league" and "rugby union".<ref>{{cite book|title=Rugby's great split: class, culture and the origins of rugby league football|url=https://archive.org/details/rugbysgreatsplit00coll|url-access=limited|author=Tony Collins|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rugbysgreatsplit00coll/page/n109 87]–120|chapter=Schism 1893–1895|edition=2nd|publisher=Routlage|year=2006|isbn=0-415-39616-6}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" width=860px
!width=60px|Date
!width=800px| Event
|-
| 1100–1800 || Many different types of football are played throughout Britain.
|-
| 1830 || Running with the ball in hands became common in 1830s at [[Rugby School]] and Rugby School football became popular throughout the UK in the 1850s, and 1860s.
|-
| 1845 || First written code of rules adopted at Rugby School by [[William Delafield Arnold]], W. W. Shirley and Frederick Hutchins.<ref>{{cite book |first=Graham |last=Curry |year=2001 | title=Football: A Study in Diffusion |location=Leicester |publisher=University of Leicester |page=28 |url=https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/7821/1/391137.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite wikisource |Laws of Football as played at Rugby School (1845)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Macrory |first=Jenny |year=1991 |title=Running with the Ball: The Birth of Rugby Football |location=London |publisher=HarperCollins |page=93 |isbn=0002184028}}</ref>
|-
| 1857 || The first ever match in Scotland was in December 1857, [[Edinburgh University RFC|Edinburgh University]] v. [[Edinburgh Academicals FC|Edinburgh Academicals]]
|-
| 1861 || The [[Montevideo Cricket Club]] is founded in Montevideo, Uruguay. The first club to play rugby outside the British Islands.
|-
| 1863 || [[The Football Association]] (FA) is formed, formalising the schism (banned carrying ball in hands, holding other players in place (akin to [[Blocking (American football)|blocking]]), tackling, and [[hacking (rugby)|hacking]] (kicking an opponent in the shins) between [[association football]] and rugby football.
|-
| 1864 || The first rugby clubs are formed, followed by hundreds more in Cumberland, Lancashire and Yorkshire in the 1870s, and 1880s.
|-
| 1865 || The British Army plays a game of rugby against civilians in Montreal, introducing rugby to the country. This movement would later evolve into Canadian football.
|-
| 1871 || The [[Rugby Football Union]] is founded, following a meeting of 25 clubs at the Pall Mall restaurant.
|-
| 1871 || [[1871 Scotland versus England rugby union match|First recognised international rugby match]], played between England and Scotland.
|-
| 1876 || [[Matthew Bloxam]]'s letter is published in ''The Meteor''. It claims [[William Webb Ellis]], a pupil at Rugby School, picked up the ball and invented rugby. Although a Rugby Football Union inquiry in 1895 found no actual proof, it decided to perpetuate the myth.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}}
|-
| 1877 || The number of players is reduced from 20 to 15 a side.
|-
| 1880 || English Rugby rules required for a tackled player, when the ball was "fairly held", to put the ball down immediately for [[scrummage]].
[[Walter Camp]] proposed at the US [[College Football]] 1880 rules convention that the contested [[Scrum (rugby)|scrummage]] be replaced with a "[[line of scrimmage]]" where the team with the ball started with uncontested possession. This change effectively started the evolution of the modern game of [[History of American Football|American football]] away from its rugby origins.
|-
| 1883 || [[1883 Home Nations Championship|First]] [[Six Nations Championship|Home Nations Championship]] between England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
|-
| 1886 || Concerned at the growing dominance of the largely working-class northern clubs, the Rugby Football Union introduces strict amateur rules: no one was allowed to seek or receive payment or other material reward for taking part in the game.
|-
| 1888 || [[1888–1889 New Zealand Native football team|New Zealand Native football team]] tours Britain, Australia and New Zealand in 1888 and 1889.
|-
| 1890 || Modern points scoring is uniformly accepted by the Home Nations for the 1890–91 season.
|-
| 1892 || Charges of professionalism are laid against rugby football clubs in Bradford and Leeds, after they compensated players for missing work. This was despite the fact that the Rugby Football Union (RFU) was allowing other players to be paid, such as the [[1888 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|1888 British Isles team that toured Australasia]], and the account of [[Harry Hamill]] of his payments to represent New South Wales (NSW) against England in 1904.
|-
| 1893 || Yorkshire clubs propose allowing players to be paid six shillings 'broken-time' payments when they miss work due to matches. RFU votes down proposal. Widespread suspensions of northern clubs and players begin.
|-
| 1895 || [[History of rugby league|The Schism]] in rugby football results in the formation of the [[Rugby Football League|Northern Rugby Football Union]] (NRFU). Many factors played a part in the split, including the success of working class northern teams, a decree by the RFU banning the playing of rugby at grounds where entrance fees were charged, threat of expulsion from the RFU if clubs cannot prove their amateurism, and the banning of "broken time payments" to players who had taken time off work to play rugby. Twenty-two clubs met at the George Hotel, Huddersfield and formed the "Northern Rugby Football Union". Within fifteen years of that first meeting in Huddersfield, more than 200 RFU clubs had left to join the Northern Union.
|-
| 1897 || To make the game more exciting, the Northern Union abolishes the line-out and reduces value of all goals to two points. Line outs were replaced with punting the ball back into play from the touch-line. Tries worth three points.
|-
| 1897 || The [[Challenge Cup]] is established and proves a success from the start. [[Batley Bulldogs|Batley]] became the first winners, beating [[St Helens R.F.C.|Saint Helens]] 10–3.
|-
| 1898 || Professionalism is introduced in the Northern Union. The professionalism is strictly part-time, with players obliged to have other "proper" jobs.
|-
| 1900 || Rugby union features at the [[1900 Olympics]]. It finishes in the [[1924 Summer Olympics|1924 Olympics]].
|-
| 1901 || The experiment in the Northern Union with the punt-out ends after only four years. In future, play will be restarted with a scrum after the ball goes out of play
|-
| 1904 || First rugby league international match. England lose to [[Other Nationalities rugby league team|Other Nationalities]] 3–9, at Wigan.
|-
| 1905 || Wales narrowly beat [[The Original All Blacks]], in what was dubbed as "The Game of the Century".
|-
| 1906 || England play South Africa (known as the [[Springboks]]) in rugby union for the first time. [[James Peters (rugby)|James Peters]] is withdrawn from the England squad after the South Africans objected to playing against a black player.
|-
| 1906 || [[Jimmy Peters (rugby)|James Peters]] becomes the first black person to play rugby union for England, against Scotland.
|-
| 1906 || In the Northern Union the number of players is reduced from fifteen to thirteen a side, in order to allow more room for creative play. The early form of play-the-ball is introduced as the game's way of restarting play after a tackle.
|-
| 1907 || [[1907–1908 New Zealand rugby tour of Australia and Great Britain|A New Zealand professional rugby team tours Britain]]. [[Albert Henry Baskerville]], a Post Office clerk in New Zealand, organises a touring side branded the 'All Golds' in Sydney due to the players receiving a share of any profits from the tour. They play under rugby union rules in Sydney. On their way to Britain, Australia's greatest player, [[Dally Messenger]], joins them on tour. They win the game's first test series 2–1, but Baskerville dies of pneumonia on the way home at the age of 25.
|-
| 1907 || Rugby league spreads to Australia and New Zealand. The [[New South Wales Rugby Football League]] is founded at Bateman's Hotel in Sydney. The New South Wales Rugby League sets up an eight-team competition after a row with the [[New South Wales Rugby Union]] over compensation for injured players. The first Premiership is won by [[South Sydney Rabbitohs|South Sydney]]. Rugby league goes on to displace rugby union as the primary football code in New South Wales and Queensland.
|-
| 1908 || [[1908–09 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain|The first Australian Kangaroo tourists visit Britain]]. [[Hunslet R.L.F.C.|Hunslet]] become the first club to win all four trophies available to them; the Championship, the Challenge Cup, the Yorkshire Cup and the Yorkshire League. Hunslet were led by [[Albert Goldthorpe]], a dominant figure in the early years of the code.
|-
| 1910 || The Rugby Union Home Nations Championship becomes the [[Five Nations Championship]] when France joins.
|-
| 1910 || [[1910 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand|The first Northern Union British Lions tour Australia and New Zealand]], winning the test matches in Sydney, Brisbane and Auckland.
|-
| 1912 || [[1912–13 South Africa rugby union tour of Europe|South African rugby union tour of the British Isles and France]]. The tourists achieved a "[[Grand Slam (rugby union)|Grand Slam]]" of victories over all five major European teams, England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales and France.
|-
| 1914 || [[1914 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand|British tourists defeat Australia 14–6 to win Ashes in final test]], finishing with only ten men in what becomes known as 'Rorke's Drift' Test match. Proposals are made and preliminary steps taken in Australia to amalgamate the rules of rugby league with [[Australian rules football]] – Australia's dominant football code outside New South Wales and Queensland – to form a [[universal football]] code for the country,<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Age|location=Melbourne, VIC|title=National football|date=17 April 1915|page=12}}</ref> but efforts to that end subside as [[World War I]] escalates,<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Mercury|date=30 March 1915|title=Annual meeting of the league – the proposed universal code|location=Hobart, TAS|page=8}}</ref> and are never seriously revived.
|-
| 1922 || Northern Union changes its name to the [[Rugby Football League]], the name used for the sport in Australia.
|-
| 1925 || [[1924–25 New Zealand rugby union tour of Britain, Ireland and France|All Blacks Rugby Union tour of Britain, France, and Canada]]. The New Zealanders remained undefeated throughout the tour, earning the title "The Invincibles".
|-
| 1929 || First rugby league Challenge Cup Final is played at Wembley. Wigan defeat Dewsbury 13–2 in front of 41,500.
|-
| 1930 || Rugby union's European Cup starts, outside the Five Nations. It is interrupted by WWII.
|-
| 1930 || Unprecedented fourth rugby league test match played between Britain and Australia at Rochdale after third test is drawn 0–0. Britain win the test 3–0 to take the Ashes.
|-
| 1932 || First rugby league match under floodlights.
|-
| 1933 || On New Year's Eve, England and Australia play in Paris – the first game of rugby league in France. The French had been excluded from the rugby union Five Nations competition amid allegations of professionalism, so the country was receptive to the new game.
|-
| 1934 || Rugby league is established in France by [[Jean Galia]], a former rugby union international and champion boxer. By 1939, the French league has 225 clubs.
|-
| 1941 || The [[Vichy France|French Vichy government]] bans rugby league, because of its links with the Allies and a desire to ban all professional sports. The code's funds and property are all confiscated or passed to rugby union clubs. Rugby union is allowed to carry on unscathed and regains much of the ground it had lost to rugby league. To this day, the rugby league clubs' assets have never been returned to them.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}}
|-
| 1943 || A Northern Command army rugby league side defeats a Northern Command rugby union side 18–11 at Headingley playing rugby union rules. The following year a Combined Services rugby league side beats a Combined Services rugby union side 15–10. These are the only league v. union matches played until 1996.
|-
| 1944 || With the fall of the Vichy Government, the French ban on rugby league is lifted.
|-
| 1945 || [[Brian Bevan]] makes his rugby league debut for Warrington. Over the next 16 seasons he scored 740 tries for the club in 620 games. His career total was 796, more than 200 ahead of his nearest rival.
|-
| 1946 || The [[Lance Todd Trophy]] first presented to Challenge Cup final [[Man of the match]]. Wakefield's [[Billy Stott]] is first winner. [[Lance Todd]], killed in a car accident in 1942, was a 1907 New Zealand tourist who managed Salford from 1928 to 1940.
|-
| 1946 || The most famous rugby league tour of all,{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} as the Lions sail to Australia on HMS ''Indomitable'', stoking the boilers to keep fit. After a five-day train journey across Australia, [[Gus Risman]]'s team retain the Ashes, drawing one and winning two Tests.
|-
| 1949 || The [[French Rugby League]] is banned from using 'rugby' in its name. Changes its name to Jeu à Treize (Game of Thirteen).
|-
| 1951 || The [[South American Rugby Championship]] commences.
|-
| 1951 || The [[South African Rugby Union]] tour the British Isles and France. South Africa achieved a second five-nation Grand Slam.
|-
| 1951 ||Just a decade after being wound up, France win their first rugby league series in Australia. They repeat the feat by winning again in 1955.
|-
| 1951 || Rugby league's [[Cec Thompson]] becomes the first black player to represent Great Britain in any sport.
|-
| 1952 || Rugby union's European Cup restarts.
|-
| 1954 || 102,569 spectators watch the 1953–54 rugby league Challenge Cup final at Bradford, setting a new record for attendance at a rugby football match of either code.
|-
| 1954 || First [[Rugby League World Cup]], the first for either code of rugby, staged in France. Great Britain beat France 16–12 in final at Parc des Princes, Paris.
|-
| 1956 || Springboks' rugby union tour of New Zealand. South Africa suffer their first ever test series loss against New Zealand.
|-
| 1957 || Australia wins the Rugby League World Cup.
|-
| 1958 || Rugby league's Cec Thompson becomes the first black manager of any sport in Britain.
|-
| 1958 || Great Britain defeat Australia 25–18 in the second rugby league test match with only eight fit players on the pitch. [[Alan Prescott]] plays for 77 minutes with a broken arm.
|-
| 1960 || Great Britain wins the Rugby League World Cup. The tournament is decided on a league system.
|-
| 1964 || Substitutes allowed in rugby league for the first time, but only for players injured before half-time.
|-
| 1966 || The [[Rugby League International Board]] introduces a rule that a team in possession is allowed three play-the-balls and on the fourth tackle a scrum is to be formed. The Southern hemisphere adopts the rule the following year, but it becomes six-tackle rugby in 1972, and in 1983 the scrum was replaced by a handover.
|-
| 1967 || Professional rugby league adopts Sunday as its main match day, in a bid to reverse declining attendances.
|-
| 1968 || Substitutes allowed in rugby union for the first time, but only for injured players.
|-
| 1969 || Springbok rugby union tour to Britain and Ireland. The tour is marked by protests against [[apartheid]]; South Africa would not tour the Home Nations again until after the end of apartheid.
|-
| 1969 || Rugby league finally gains recognition as a sport in British universities and colleges.
|-
| 1970 || Great Britain wins rugby league's Ashes in Australia, after winning the final two test matches.
|-
| 1970 || Rugby league's World Cup attracts poor crowds in England. Australia win.
|-
| 1971 || New Zealand wins a rugby league series in Britain for the first time since the original 1907–08 tour.
|-
| 1971 || Lions rugby union tour of Australia and New Zealand. This is the only Lions team to have won a test series in New Zealand.
|-
| 1971 || Springbok rugby union tour of Australia is marked by protests.
|-
| 1972 || Timekeepers and sirens were introduced into rugby league for first time.
|-
| 1972 || Great Britain regains the Rugby League World Cup in France.
|-
| 1973 || Rugby union's [[Barbarian F.C.|Barbarians]] defeat the All Blacks at [[Cardiff Arms Park]].
|-
| 1973 || The [[British Amateur Rugby League Association]] sets itself up to run the sport at grassroots level after complaining of neglect by the RFL. Formal re-unification takes 30 years.
|-
| 1974 || Rugby union's Lions tour of South Africa. The notorious '99' call.
|-
| 1975 || Wales and England field separate teams in the Rugby League World Cup, played over several months in both hemispheres. Australia takes the trophy by finishing one point ahead of England in the final league table.
|-
| 1976 || New Zealand rugby union tour of South Africa. Twenty-eight nations boycott the [[1976 Summer Olympics]] in protest against the [[International Olympic Committee]]'s refusal to ban New Zealand from the games for defying the IOC's ban on sporting contact with South Africa.
|-
| 1978 || New Zealand rugby union tour of Britain and Ireland – New Zealand completes [[Grand Slam (rugby union)|Grand Slam]] of victories over England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales for the first time.
|-
| 1980 || Australia establishes rugby league's [[State of Origin series]], where Queensland and New South Wales born players face each other. From 1982 onwards, it is played as a three match series and is recognised as the fiercest, toughest rugby in the world.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}
|-
| 1981 || The ‘[[Sin Bin]]’ is introduced into rugby league, in Australia.
|-
| 1981 || Springbok rugby union tour of New Zealand.
|-
| 1981 || South Africa is banned by the [[International Rugby Board]] from international competition until such time as apartheid ended.
|-
| 1982 || Rugby union's [[Pacific Tri-Nations]] between Tonga, Fiji and Samoa.
|-
| 1982 || Australian rugby league tourists win all tour games for first time and become known as 'The Invincibles'.
|-
| 1983 || A rugby league try is increased to four points. The character of the game changes further with the introduction of the turn-over possession on the sixth tackle, drastically reducing the number of scrums. The Sin Bin is introduced for offences that do not merit a sending off.
|-
| 1983 || The Rugby League international transfer ban is lifted.
|-
| 1984 || Australia rugby union tour of Britain and Ireland – Australia completes the Grand Slam of victories over England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales for the first time.
|-
| 1987 || [[New Zealand Rugby Union]] defeats France 29–9 in the first [[Rugby Union World Cup]], held in New Zealand and Australia.
|-
| 1987 || A "free gangway" between the two codes of rugby at amateur level is introduced, but individual cases of discrimination continue.
|-
| 1987 || The RFU introduces the Courage Leagues into Rugby Union – a league pyramid with roughly 1000 clubs playing in 108 leagues each with promotion and relegation.
|-
| 1988 || Rugby league's [[Wigan Warriors|Wigan]] start their run of eight Challenge Cup final victories. The modern version of the Team of All the Talents, featuring players like [[Ellery Hanley]], [[Andy Gregory]], [[Jason Robinson (rugby player)|Jason Robinson]] and [[Shaun Edwards]] dominate for a decade, winning three World Cup titles in the process.
|-
| 1989 || Widnes beat Canberra 30–18 in first official [[World Club Challenge]].
|-
| 1990 || Russia takes up rugby league. Russia goes on to appear in the 2000 World Cup and to enter club sides in the Challenge Cup.
|-
| 1990 || [[Blood replacement|Blood-bin]] introduced into rugby league.
|-
| 1990 || The ban on French Rugby League using 'rugby' in its name is lifted. It changes its name back to Rugby à Treize.
|-
| 1991 || Australia defeat England 12–6 at Twickenham, London, in the second Rugby Union World Cup, held in the British Isles and France.
|-
| 1992 || The Springboks are readmitted to international rugby union.
|-
| 1992 || 73,631 at Wembley see Australia defeat Great Britain 10–6 in the Rugby League World Cup final.
|-
| 1994 || [[David Hinchliffe]] MP introduces the Sports (Discrimination) Bill, to ban discrimination of amateur players of rugby league and other sports.
|-
| 1994 || The three British Armed Services recognises rugby league as a sport. Rugby league would be on the same footing as other sports in the Services.
|-
| 1995 || The International Rugby Board declares Rugby Union an 'open' professional game. It removes all restrictions on payments or benefits to those connected with the game.
|-
| 1995 || South Africa defeats New Zealand 15–12 (after extra time) at Ellis Park, Johannesburg in the third Rugby Union World Cup, held in South Africa.
|-
| 1995 || Rugby League centenary is celebrated by reviving the World Cup in Britain. Australia beat England 16–8 in the final at Wembley. Fiji, Tonga, South Africa and Western Samoa join the established nations in a successful tournament, whilst Ireland, Scotland, the US, Russia, the Cook Islands, Moldova and Morocco all compete in an [[Emerging Nations Tournament]].
|-
| 1995 || The [[Heineken Cup]] is formed as a competition for 12 Rugby Union European clubs.
|-
| 1995 || As part of the [[Super League war|struggle for television rights in Australia]], the RFL in Britain is offered £87 million by [[News Corporation (1980–2013)|News Corporation]] to set up rugby league's [[Super League]]. The game agrees to switch to a summer season, with Paris St Germain joining leading British clubs in a 14 team competition.
|-
| 1996 || The RFL introduces video referees into rugby league's Super League.
|-
| 1996 || Rugby union's [[Tri Nations Series]] begins between Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
|-
| 1996 || [[Bath Rugby]] and [[Wigan Warriors|Wigan]], England's top union and league sides respectively, made history by playing against each other at both codes of rugby. The first match was at Maine Road, Manchester under league rules, Wigan beating Bath 82–6; then two weeks later the return match was held at Twickenham under union rules, Bath 44 beating Wigan 19.
|-
| 1996 || Inaugural season of [[Super Rugby]], a professional rugby union competition fielding teams from Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
|-
| 1997 || In Australia, the Super League war came to an end, with News International and the Australian Rugby League agreeing to merge their competitions to create the [[National Rugby League]].
|-
| 1998 || [[Rugby sevens]] at the Commonwealth Games and Asian Games commences.
|-
| 1999 || [[IRB Sevens World Series]] commences.
|-
| 1999 || Australia defeat France 35–12 at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff in the fourth rugby union World Cup, held in Wales with matches also being played in England, Scotland, Ireland and France.
|-
| 2000 || The IRB introduces the 'Sin Bin' into international rugby union, after being trialled on the domestic stage within the southern hemisphere's Super 12 competition.
|-
| 2000 || The IRB introduces the "Television Match Official" (TMO) into international rugby union, after being trialled on the domestic stage within the southern hemisphere's Super 12 competition.
|-
| 2000 || Rugby union's Courage League is replaced by the [[Zurich Premiership]].
|-
| 2000 || Rugby union's Five Nations becomes the Six Nations Championship, when Italy joins.
|-
| 2000 || New Zealand narrowly defeats Australia at Stadium Australia (Sydney) in rugby union, in front of 109,874 spectators, a world-record crowd for either code.
|-
| 2001 || Lions rugby union tour of Australia. The [[Wallabies (rugby union)|Wallabies]] defeat the Lions in a series for the first time ever.
|-
| 2001 || Inaugural season of [[Pro14]], a professional rugby union competition fielding teams from Ireland, Italy, Scotland, South Africa and Wales.
|-
| 2003 || Rugby union's [[Churchill Cup]] commences with Canada, the US, and England Saxons (England "A") as permanent participants and one invited team (later three).
|-
| 2003 || England defeat Australia 20–17 (after extra time) at Stadium Australia, Sydney in the fifth Rugby Union World Cup, held in Australia.
|-
| 2003 || The [[Rugby League European Federation]] (RLEF) is created to promote the sport across Europe.
|-
| 2003 || Inaugural season of [[Top League]], a professional rugby union competition in [[Japan]].
|-
| 2004 || Inaugural season of [[Top Challenge League]], a professional second tier rugby union competition in [[Japan]].
|-
| 2006 || French team [[Catalans Dragons]] are granted a rugby league Super League licence.
|-
| 2007 || South Africa defeat England 15–6 at [[Stade de France]], in the sixth rugby union World Cup, held in France with matches also being played in Scotland and Wales.
|-
| 2008 || Rugby league holds its first World Cup since 2000, with New Zealand defeating Australia in Brisbane by a score of 34–20 in the final to take their first Rugby League World Cup.
|-
| 2011 || New Zealand defeat France 8–7 at [[Eden Park]], Auckland, in the seventh rugby union World Cup, held in New Zealand.
|-
| 2011 || 14 teams qualify for the [[2013 Rugby League World Cup]]: Australia, England, New Zealand, Samoa, Wales, Fiji, France, Papua New Guinea, Ireland, Scotland, Tonga, Cook Islands, Italy and United States of America.
|-
| 2012 || The Tri-Nations series is expanded to include Argentina, and is renamed [[The Rugby Championship]].
|-
| 2015 || New Zealand defeat Australia 34–17 at [[Twickenham Stadium]], England, in the eighth rugby union World Cup, held in the United Kingdom. In doing so, New Zealand becomes the first team to win consecutive titles.
|-
| 2016 || Inaugural season of [[PRO Rugby]] in the United States. The competition folded after just one season.
|-
| 2016 || [[Rugby sevens]] at the [[Olympic Games]] commences.
|-
| 2017 || [[Toronto Wolfpack]] become the first fully professional rugby team in [[Canada]], joining the British/French professional rugby league system in the third tier [[League 1 (rugby league)|League 1]].
|-
| 2018 || Inaugural season of [[Major League Rugby]], a professional rugby union competition fielding teams in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].
|-
| 2019 || Inaugural season of [[Global Rapid Rugby]], a professional rugby union competition fielding teams from the [[Asia-Pacific]] region.
|-
| 2020 || Inaugural season of [[Súper Liga Americana de Rugby]], a professional rugby union competition in [[Latin America]]. Inaugural seasons of [[Super Rugby Aotearoa]], [[Super Rugby AU]], and [[Super Rugby Unlocked]].
|-
| 2021 || Inaugural seasons of [[Continental Club Rugby League]], a third-tier competition for European clubs, and [[Super Rugby Trans-Tasman]], a professional rugby union competition in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].
|-
|}

{{Gallery
| title = Early forms of rugby
| align = center
| footer =
| style =
| state =
| height =
| width =
| captionstyle =
|File:"La soule en Basse Normandie" 1852.jpg|A [[scrum (rugby)|scrummage]] in a [[traditional football|La soule]] game in [[Basse Normandie]], [[France]], 1852
|File:Moeurs anglaises durand.jpg|Depiction of a "football" game in London, 1868. Illustration by [[Godefroy Durand]]
|File:Scotland rugbyteam 1871.jpg|Scotland first rugby team (wearing brown<ref name="ReferenceA">Glasgow Herald (Glasgow, Scotland), Tuesday, 28 March 1871; Issue 9746</ref>) for the 1st international, v. England in Edinburgh, 1871
|File:England 1871 first.jpg|The England team in the 1st international, v. Scotland in Edinburgh, 1871
|File:Rochdale hornets 1875.jpg|[[Rochdale Hornets]] team of 1875
}}

== Global status of rugby codes ==
{{History of American football}}
[[File:Uudeküla Ragbiväljak 2011.jpg|thumb|Rugby field in [[Tapa Parish]], [[Estonia]]]]
Rugby union is both a professional and amateur game, and is dominated by the first tier unions: [[Rugby union in New Zealand|New Zealand]], [[Rugby union in Ireland|Ireland]], [[Rugby union in Wales|Wales]], [[Rugby union in England|England]], [[Rugby union in South Africa|South Africa]], [[Rugby union in Australia|Australia]], [[Rugby union in Argentina|Argentina]], [[Rugby union in Scotland|Scotland]], [[Rugby union in Italy|Italy]], [[Rugby union in France|France]] and [[Rugby union in Japan|Japan]]. Second and third tier unions include [[Rugby union in Belgium|Belgium]], [[Rugby union in Brazil|Brazil]], [[Rugby union in Canada|Canada]], [[Rugby union in Chile|Chile]], [[Rugby union in Fiji|Fiji]], [[Rugby union in Georgia|Georgia]], [[Rugby union in Germany|Germany]], [[Rugby union in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], [[Rugby union in Kenya|Kenya]], [[Rugby union in Namibia|Namibia]], [[Rugby union in the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Rugby union in Portugal|Portugal]], [[Rugby union in Romania|Romania]], [[Rugby union in Russia|Russia]], [[Rugby union in Samoa|Samoa]], [[Rugby union in Spain|Spain]], [[Rugby union in Tonga|Tonga]], [[Rugby union in the United States|the United States]] and [[Rugby union in Uruguay|Uruguay]]. Rugby Union is administered by [[World Rugby]] (WR), whose headquarters are located in [[Dublin]], Ireland. It is the [[national sport]] in New Zealand, Wales, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Georgia and [[Rugby union in Madagascar|Madagascar]], and is the most popular form of rugby globally.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kemp |first=Stuart |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2437023820070826 |title=Rugby World Cup gaining wide popularity |agency=Reuters |access-date=30 May 2011 |date=24 August 2007}}</ref> The Olympic Games have admitted the seven-a-side version of the game, known as [[Rugby sevens]], into the programme from Rio de Janeiro in 2016 onwards.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/news/newsid=2035087.html#olympics+sevens+heaven+rugby |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103082612/http://www.irb.com/rugbyandtheolympics/news/newsid=2035087.html#olympics+sevens+heaven+rugby |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 January 2010 |title=International Rugby Board – News |publisher=Irb.com |access-date=30 May 2011}}</ref> There was a possibility sevens would be a demonstration sport at the [[2012 London Olympics]] but many sports including sevens were dropped.<ref name=SportsDropped>{{Cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2005-07-08-baseball-softball-dropped_x.htm |title=Baseball, softball bumped from Olympics |first=Vicki |last=Michaelis |access-date=17 August 2008 |date=8 July 2005 |work=USA Today }}</ref>

In Canada and the United States, rugby developed into [[gridiron football]]. During the late 1800s (and even the early 1900s), the two forms of the game were very similar (to the point where the United States was able to win the gold medal for [[rugby union at the 1924 Summer Olympics]]), but numerous rule changes have differentiated the gridiron-based game from its rugby counterpart, introduced by [[Walter Camp]] in the United States and [[John Thrift Meldrum Burnside]] in Canada. Among unique features of the North American game are
* the separation of play into [[down (American football)|downs]] instead of releasing the ball immediately upon tackling
* the requirement that the team with the ball set into a [[formation (American football)|set formation]] for at least one second before [[snap (football)|resuming play after a tackle]] (and the allowance of up to 40 seconds to do so)
* the allowance for one [[forward pass]] from behind the site of the last tackle on each down
* the evolution of hard plastic equipment (particularly the [[football helmet]] and [[shoulder pads]])
* a smaller and pointier ball that is favorable to being passed but makes [[drop kick]]s impractical
* a generally smaller and narrower field measured in customary units instead of metric (in [[Indoor American football|some variants of the American game]] a field can be as short as 50 yards between end zones)
*`a distinctive field (shaped like a gridiron, from which the code's nickname is derived) with lines marked in five-yard intervals

Rugby league is also both a professional and amateur game, administered on a global level by the [[Rugby League International Federation]]. In addition to amateur and semi-professional competitions in the [[Rugby league in the United States|United States]], [[Rugby league in Russia|Russia]], [[Rugby league in Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Rugby league in Serbia|Serbia]], Europe and Australasia, there are two major professional competitions—the Australasian [[National Rugby League]] and the [[Super League]]. International Rugby League is dominated by [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia]], [[England national rugby league team|England]] and [[New Zealand national rugby league team|New Zealand]]. In [[Rugby league in Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]] and [[Rugby league in New Zealand|New Zealand]], it is the national sport.<ref name="PNG vow to upset World Cup odds">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_league/7671217.stm|title=PNG vow to upset World Cup odds|date=15 October 2008|work=Rugby League|publisher=Federación Peruana de Frontón|access-date=3 July 2009|quote=But it would still be one of the biggest shocks in World Cup history if Papua New Guinea – ''the only country to have rugby league as its national sport'' – were to qualify for the last four.}}</ref><ref name="PNG seal 2010 Four Nations place">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_league/8336567.stm|title=PNG seal 2010 Four Nations place|publisher=BBC|date=1 November 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last = Falcous|first = Mark |doi=10.1080/17460260701591684 |title = Rugby League in the National Imaginary of New Zealand Aotearoa |journal = Sport in History |volume=27 |issue = 3 |year=2007 |quote=1907–2007 Centenary of International Rugby |pages = 423–446|s2cid = 143871555 }}</ref> Other nations from the South Pacific and Europe also play in the [[Rugby League Pacific Cup|Pacific Cup]] and [[Rugby League European Cup|European Cup]] respectively.

== Rules ==
{{further|Comparison of rugby league and rugby union|Laws of rugby league|Rugby union numbering schemes}}
[[File:Rugby Lineout.jpg|thumb|A rugby lineout being conducted. A group from either team lifts a player to fight and catch the ball for their team. (OSUWRC 2014)]]
[[File:Scrum-1.JPG|thumb|[[Rugby union]]: A [[Scrum (rugby union)|scrum]] between the [[Crusaders (rugby union)|Crusaders]] and the [[Brumbies]] (May 2006)]]
Distinctive features common to both rugby codes include the oval [[rugby ball|ball]] and throwing the ball forward is not allowed so that players can gain ground only by running with the ball or by kicking it. As the sport of rugby league moved further away from its union counterpart, rule changes were implemented with the aim of making a faster-paced and more try-oriented game. Unlike American and Canadian football, the players do not wear any sort of protection or armour.

The main differences between the two games, besides league having teams of 13 players and union of 15, involve the [[tackle (football move)|tackle]] and its aftermath:
* Union players contest possession following the tackle: depending on the situation, either a [[Playing rugby union#Ruck|ruck]] or a [[Playing rugby union#Maul|maul]] can occur. League players may not contest possession after making a tackle: play is continued with a ''[[Playing rugby league#Play-the-ball|play-the-ball]]''.
* In league, if the team in possession fails to score before a set of six tackles, it surrenders possession. Union has no six-tackle rule; a team can keep the ball for an unlimited number of tackles before scoring as long as it maintains possession and does not commit an offence.

[[set piece (football)|Set pieces]] of the union code include the "[[scrum (rugby union)|scrum]]", which occurs after a minor infringement of the rules (most often a knock-on, when a player knocks the ball forward), where packs of opposing players push against each other for possession, and the "[[line-out (rugby union)|line-out]]", in which parallel lines of players from each team, arranged perpendicular to the [[touch-line]], attempt to catch the ball thrown from [[touch (rugby)|touch]]. A rule has been added to line-outs which allows the jumper to be pulled down once a players' feet are on the ground.

In the league code, the scrum still exists, but with greatly reduced importance as it involves fewer players and is rarely contested. Set pieces are generally started from the play-the-ball situation. Many of the [[rugby league positions]] have names and requirements similar to [[rugby union positions]], but there are no [[Flanker (rugby union)|flankers]] in rugby league.

== Culture ==

=== Home countries ===
In England, rugby union is widely regarded as an "establishment" sport, played mostly by members of the [[upper classes|upper]] and [[middle classes]]. For example, many pupils at [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public school]]s and [[grammar school]]s play rugby union, although the game (which had a long history of being played at [[state school]]s until the 1980s) is becoming increasingly popular in [[comprehensive school]]s.<ref>Phillips, Buchler. [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmcumeds/99/99ap22.htm Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence to Select Committee on Culture, Media and Sport]</ref> Despite this stereotype, the game, particularly in the [[West Country]] is popular amongst all classes. In contrast, rugby league has traditionally been seen as a working-class pursuit. Another exception to rugby union's upper-class stereotype is in Wales, where it has been traditionally associated with small village teams made up of coal miners and other industrial workers who played on their days off.<ref>Sommerville, D. (1997). The Encyclopedia of Rugby Union. Aurum Press, UK. {{ISBN|1-85410-481-0}}.</ref> In Ireland, both rugby union and rugby league are unifying forces across the national and sectarian divide, with the Ireland international teams representing both political entities.

In Australia, support for both codes is concentrated in New South Wales, Queensland and the Australian Capital Territory. The same perceived class barrier as exists between the two games in England also occurs in these states, fostered by rugby union's prominence and support at private schools.<ref name="Collins Paper">Collins, T. (2005). "Australian Nationalism and Working-Class Britishness: The Case of Rugby League Football." History Compass, Vol. 3, No. 1.</ref>

Exceptions to the above include New Zealand (although rugby league is still considered to be a lower class game by many or a game for 'westies' referring to lower class western suburbs of Auckland and more recently, southern Auckland where the game is also popular), Wales, France (except Paris), Cornwall, Gloucestershire, Somerset, Scottish Borders, County Limerick (see [[Munster Rugby]]) and the Pacific Islands, where rugby union is popular in working class communities. Nevertheless, rugby league is perceived as the game of the working-class people in northern England<ref>Collins, T. (1998). Rugby’s Great Split: Class, Culture and the Origins of Rugby League Football (London).</ref> and in the Australian states of New South Wales and Queensland.<ref name="Collins Paper" />

In the United Kingdom, rugby union fans sometimes used the term "rugger" as an alternative name for the sport, (see [[Oxford '-er']]), although this archaic expression has not had currency since the 1950s or earlier.<ref>Rugger:
* [[OED]]: Rugger "Slang or colloquial alteration of RUGBY (in the sense of 'Rugby football'). Freq. attrib. rugger-tackle".
* Tony Collins, ''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/recordings/individual/leeds-leeds-collins-tony.shtml Football, rugby, rugger?]'', BBC sound recording with written transcript, and a comment in prose by Jonnie Robinson, Curator, English accents and dialects, British Library Sound Archive.</ref> New Zealanders refer to rugby union simply as either "rugby" or "union", or even simply "football", and to rugby league as "rugby league" or "league".<ref>The New Zealand Pocket Oxford Dictionary. {{ISBN|0-19-558379-5}}.</ref> In the U.S., people who play rugby are sometimes called "ruggers", a term little used elsewhere except facetiously.

=== Internationally ===
There is a strong tradition of [[rugby union in France]], particularly in the Basque, Occitan and Catalan areas along the border with Spain. The game is very popular in South Africa, having been introduced by English-speaking settlers in the 19th century. British colonists also brought the game with them to Australia and New Zealand, where the game is widely played. It has spread thence to much of Polynesia, having particularly strong followings in Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga. Rugby union continues to grow in the Americas and parts of Asia as well.

== Injuries ==
About a quarter of rugby players are injured in each season.<ref>[https://physioworks.com.au/Injuries-Conditions/Activities/rugby-union-injuries]</ref>

Being a high contact sport, rugby union has the highest announced rates of concussions<ref name="urlHigh school rugby cancelled across Nova Scotia due to safety concerns | CBC News">{{cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/rugby-federation-cancels-games-1.5120503 |title=High school rugby cancelled across Nova Scotia due to safety concerns | CBC News }}</ref> and outside England also has the highest number of catastrophic injuries<ref name="urlRugby Player Welfare, Part 2: Rugby Is Not the NFL...Not Yet, Anyway | Bleacher Report | Latest News, Videos and Highlights">{{cite web |url=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1723404-rugby-player-welfare-part-two-rugby-is-not-the-nfl-not-yet-anyways |title=Rugby Player Welfare, Part 2: 'Rugby Is Not the NFL'...Not Yet, Anyway | Bleacher Report | Latest News, Videos and Highlights }}</ref> out of any team sport.<ref name="urlWhat Sport Has The Most Concussions? | Concussion Rate">{{cite web |url=https://completeconcussions.com/2018/12/05/concussion-rates-what-sport-most-concussions/ |title=What Sport Has The Most Concussions? | Concussion Rate }}</ref><ref name=pmid25138311/> Research finding that during match play, concussion was reported at a higher level, and during training at a lower level, but still at a higher level than most players of another sport to receive.<ref name=pmid25138311>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s40279-014-0233-3 |pmid=25138311 |title=A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Concussion in Rugby Union |journal=Sports Medicine |volume=44 |issue=12 |pages=1717–1731 |year=2014 |last1=Gardner |first1=Andrew J |last2=Iverson |first2=Grant L |last3=Williams |first3=W. Huw |last4=Baker |first4=Stephanie |last5=Stanwell |first5=Peter |s2cid=23808676 }}</ref>

== Rugby ball ==
[[File:Rugbyball2.jpg|thumb|A [[Gilbert (sports equipment)|Gilbert]] rugby football as used in rugby union]]

A [[rugby ball]], originally called a quanco, is a diamond shape ball used for easier passing.
Richard Lindon and Bernardo Solano started making balls for Rugby school out of hand stitched, four-panel, leather casings and pigs' bladders. The rugby ball's distinctive shape is supposedly due to the pig's bladder, although early balls were more plum-shaped than oval. The balls varied in size in the beginning depending upon how large the pig's bladder was.

In rugby union, World Rugby regulates the size and shape of the ball under Law 2 (also known as Law E.R.B); an official rugby union ball is oval and made of four panels, has a length in-line of 280–300 millimetres, a circumference (end to end) of 740–770 millimetres, and a circumference (in width) of 580–620 millimetres. It is made of leather or suitable synthetic material and may be treated to make it [[Waterproofing|water resistant]] and easier to grip. The rugby ball may not weigh more than 460 grams or less than 410 and has an air pressure of 65.71–68.75 [[Pascal (unit)|kilopascals]], or 0.67–0.70 kilograms per square centimetre, or 9.5–10.0 lbs per square inch.<ref>International rugby board. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120417010050/http://www.irblaws.com/downloads/EN/IRB_Laws_2012_EN.pdf "Rugby ball laws"] 22 February 2010.</ref> Spare balls are allowed under the condition that players or teams do not seek an advantage by changing the ball. Smaller sized balls may also be used in games between younger players.
Much larger versions of traditional balls are also available for purchase, but these are mainly for their novelty attraction.

== World Cups ==
The [[Rugby World Cup]], which was first held in New Zealand and Australia in [[1987 Rugby World Cup|1987]], occurs every four years. It is an international tournament organized by [[World Rugby]]. The event is played in the union format and features the top 20 teams from around the world. South Africa won the [[2019 Rugby World Cup]], which was played in Japan.

The [[Rugby League World Cup]] was the first World Cup of either of the Rugby codes and was first held in France in [[1954 Rugby League World Cup|1954]], and as of 2013 occurs on a 4-year cycle. It is an international tournament that is organized by the [[Rugby League International Federation]]. The event is played in the league format and features the top 14 teams from around the world. Australia won the [[2017 Rugby League World Cup]], played in Australia, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea.

== Rugby shirt ==
{{see also|Rugby union numbering schemes}}
[[Rugby shirt]]s were formerly entirely made of cotton but are now made of a cotton and polyester mix. This material has the advantage of not absorbing as much water or mud as cotton alone.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} Owing to the more aggressive nature of the game, rugby clothing, in general, is designed to be much more robust and hardwearing than that worn for association football.

The rugby jerseys are slightly different depending on the type of rugby game played. The shirts worn by [[rugby league]] footballers commonly have a large "V" around the neck. The players in rugby union wear jerseys with a more traditional design, sometimes completely white ([[Cahors Rugby]] in France). The number of the player and his or her surname are placed on the upper back of the jersey (often name above number, with the number being significantly larger and more central), and the logo of the team on the upper left chest.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}

== Rugby betting ==
{{See also|Sports betting}}
With the popularity of rugby over the years, many betting establishments have made it possible for viewers of the game to place wagers on games. The various types of wagers that can be placed on games vary, however, the main types of bets that can be placed are as follows:
* Fixed-odds betting
* Futures/Outright Bets
* Prop Bets / Specials
* Over/Under Bets

Like most team sports, both forms of rugby are vulnerable to match-fixing, particularly bets involving easily manipulated outcomes, such as conceding penalties and first point scorer. A recent example is a deliberate infringement by [[Ryan Tandy]] in order for the first points scored to be a penalty goal in a 2010 NRL match; the attempt backfired when instead of taking a shot at goal, a try was scored.

==See also==
*[[College rugby]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Rugby football}}
{{Wikisource|Laws of Football played at Rugby School (1845)}}
{{Wikivoyage|Rugby football}}
* [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/49661/rugbys-most-unfortunate-faces Rugby's Most Unfortunate Faces]—slideshow by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=smnuRhNtT2E Video on the Basics of Rugby Union]
* Full Guide of [https://rugbynest.com Rugby World Cup 2019] in Japan

{{Football codes}}
{{Team Sport|state=collapsed}}

{{Portal bar|Sports}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rugby Football}}
[[Category:Rugby football| ]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Games and sports introduced in the 19th century]]
[[Category:Rugby School]]

Talk:Macedonians (ethnic group)

2021-05-10T15:58:46Z

Macedonian:

Monaco

2021-05-10T15:35:49Z

Macedonian: /* History */ Rm claim that contradicts the sourced content of the sentence which follows.

{{short description|City-state and microstate on the French Riviera}}
{{about|the city-state}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Principality of Monaco
| common_name = Monaco
| native_name = {{native name|fr|Principauté de Monaco|nbsp=omit}} {{native name|lij|Principatu de Mùnegu|nbsp=omit}}
| image_flag = Flag of Monaco.svg
| image_coat = Coat of Arms of Monaco.svg
| national_motto = {{native phrase|la|Deo Juvante}} ({{Lang-en|"With God's Help"}})
| national_anthem = ''[[Hymne Monégasque]]'' ({{Lang-en|"Hymn of Monaco"}})
<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Monaco National Anthem.ogg]]</div>
| image_map = Location Monaco Europe.png
| map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=green |region=Europe |region_color=green & dark grey }}
| image_map2 =
| map2_width =
| capital = Monaco {{nowrap|([[city-state]])}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|43|44|N|7|25|E|type:city}}
| largest_settlement = [[Monte Carlo]]
| largest_settlement_type = quarter
| official_languages = [[French language|French]]<ref>{{cite web |access-date=22 May 2008 |url=http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/036c62fe5f92f2efc1256f5b0054fa42gb?OpenDocument&3Gb |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722170607/http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/036c62fe5f92f2efc1256f5b0054fa42gb?OpenDocument&3Gb |archive-date=22 July 2011 |title=Constitution de la Principauté |publisher=[[Council of Government (Monaco)|Council of Government]] |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| languages_type = [[Lingua franca|Common languages]]
| languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Monégasque dialect|Monégasque]] |[[Italian language|Italian]] |[[Occitan language|Occitan]]|[[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list |[[Monégasque people|Monégasques]] |[[Italian people|Italians]] | [[French people|French]] |[[Occitans]]}}
| demonym = {{unbulleted list |Monégasque |Monacan{{ref label|infoboxc|c|}}}}
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] semi-[[constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Monaco|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Prince Albert II]]
| leader_title2 = [[Minister of State (Monaco)|Minister of State]]
| leader_name2 = [[Pierre Dartout]]
| legislature = [[National Council (Monaco)|National Council]]
| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
| established_event1 = [[House of Grimaldi]] (under the sovereignty of the [[Republic of Genoa]])
| established_date1 = 8 January 1297
| established_event2 = from the [[Alpes-Maritimes|French Empire]]
| established_date2 = 17 May 1814
| established_event3 = from occupation of the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|Sixth Coalition]]
| established_date3 = 17 June 1814
| established_event4 = [[Franco-Monégasque Treaties|Franco-Monégasque Treaty]]
| established_date4 = 2 February 1861
| established_event5 = [[Constitution of Monaco|Constitution]]
| established_date5 = 5 January 1911
| area_km2 = 2.1
| area_rank = 193rd 
| area_sq_mi = 1.26 
| percent_water = negligible<ref name="monacodata">{{cite web|url=http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/e89a6190e96cbd1fc1256f7f005dbe6e/e1201ddb4e532285c125702a004775bc/$FILE/Pocket%202009.pdf |title=Monaco en Chiffres |access-date=15 November 2009 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091115210931/http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/e89a6190e96cbd1fc1256f7f005dbe6e/e1201ddb4e532285c125702a004775bc/$FILE/Pocket%202009.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2009 }}, Principauté de Monaco. Retrieved 7 June 2010.</ref>
| population_estimate = {{steady}} 38,300<ref>{{cite web |title=Population on 1 January and is one of the smallest country. It is 2nd most smallest country.|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1 |website=ec.europa.eu/eurostat |publisher=Eurostat |access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref>
| population_census = 37,308<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monacostatistics.mc/content/download/446317/5060895/file/Rapport%20Recensement%202016.pdf|title=Recensement de la Population 2016|language=fr|publisher=Institut Monégasque de la Statistique et des Études Économiques (IMSEE)|date=February 2018|access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2019
| population_estimate_rank = 190th
| population_census_year = 2016
| population_density_km2 = 18,713
| population_density_sq_mi = 48,462 
| population_density_rank = 1st 
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $7.672 billion (2015 est.)<ref name="WF">{{cite web |title=EUROPE :: MONACO |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/monaco/ |website=CIA.gov |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2015
| GDP_PPP_rank = 158th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $115,700 (2015 est.)<ref name="WF"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 3rd
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $7.185 billion<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP (current US$) - Monaco |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=MC&name_desc=false |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2018{{ref label|infoboxb|b|}}
| GDP_nominal_rank = 145th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $185,741<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP per capita (current US$) - Monaco |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=MC&name_desc=false |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=4 February 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 1st
| Gini = 
| Gini_year =
| Gini_change = 
| Gini_ref =
| Gini_rank =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
| currency = [[Euro]] ([[Euro sign|€]])
| currency_code = EUR
| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| drives_on = [[Driving side|right]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whatsideoftheroad.com/ |title=What side of the road do people drive on? |publisher=Whatsideoftheroad.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Monaco|+377]]
| cctld = [[.mc]]
| footnote_a = {{note|infoboxa}} Government offices are however, located in the ''Quartier'' of [[Monaco-Ville]].
| footnote_b = {{note|infoboxb}} GDP per capita calculations include non-resident workers from France and Italy.
| footnote_c = {{note|infoboxc}} ''Monacan'' is the term for residents.
| map2_caption =
| religion = 86.0% [[Christianity]] —80.9% [[Catholic Church in Monaco|Roman Catholic]] ([[State religion|official]])<ref name="MonacoReligion">{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927091747/http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/036c62fe5f92f2efc1256f5b0054fa42gb?OpenDocument&3Gb |date=27 September 2011 |title=Constitution de la Principaute}} (French): Art. 9., Principaute De Monaco: Ministère d'Etat (archived from [http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/036c62fe5f92f2efc1256f5b0054fa42gb?OpenDocument&3Gb the original] on 27 September 2011).</ref> —5.1% Other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] 11.7% [[Irreligion|No religion]] 1.7% [[Judaism]] 0.6% Others<ref name="Survey">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125173538/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2017|title=The Global Religious Landscape|publisher=Pewforum.org|access-date=2 October 2015}}</ref>
| today =
}}

'''Monaco''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Monaco.ogg|ˈ|m|ɒ|n|ə|k|oʊ}}; {{IPA-fr|mɔnako}}), officially the '''Principality of Monaco''' ({{lang-fr|Principauté de Monaco}}),{{efn|name=a}} is a [[Sovereign state|sovereign]] [[city-state]] and [[microstate]] on the [[French Riviera]] close to the Italian region of Liguria, in [[Western Europe]]. Bordered by [[France]] to the north, east and west, it is lapped by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south. The [[principality]] is home to 38,682 residents,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=MC|title=Population, total |publisher=World Bank|access-date=18 September 2019}}</ref> of whom 9,486 are Monégasque nationals;<ref>{{Cite web|title=Demography / Population and employment / IMSEE - Monaco IMSEE|url=https://www.monacostatistics.mc/Population-and-employment/Demography|access-date=25 September 2020|website=www.monacostatistics.mc}}</ref> it is widely recognised for being one of the most expensive and wealthiest places in the world. The [[official language]] is [[French language|French]], although [[Monégasque dialect|Monégasque]] (a dialect of [[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]]), [[Italian language|Italian]] and English are spoken and understood by a sizeable group.{{efn|For further information, see [[languages of Monaco]].}}

With an area of {{convert|2.1|km2|abbr=on}}, it is the second smallest sovereign state in the world, after [[Vatican City]]. Its {{convert|19,009|/km2|/mi2|adj=pre|inhabitants}} make it the [[List of countries by population density|most densely-populated]] sovereign state in the world. Monaco has a land border of {{convert|5.47|km|abbr=on}} and the world's shortest coastline of approximately {{convert|3.83|km|abbr=on}};<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monacostatistics.mc/IMSEE/Publications/monaco-statistics-pocket|title=Monaco Statistics / IMSEE — Monaco IMSEE |language= fr |publisher=Imsee.mc |access-date= 3 August 2016}}</ref> it has a width that varies between {{convert|1700|and|349|m|abbr=on|ft}}. The highest point in the state is a narrow pathway named [[Chemin des Révoires]] on the slopes of [[Mont Agel]], in the [[Les Révoires]] ward, which is {{convert|161|m|ft|abbr=off}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]]. The principality is about {{cvt|15|km}} from the [[France–Italy border|border]] with [[Italy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.distanza.org/Ventimiglia/Principato%20di%20Monaco|title=Ventimiglia - Principato di Monaco|website=www.distanza.org|access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref> Its most populous ward is [[Larvotto|Larvotto/Bas Moulins]] with a population of 5,443 as of 2008. Through [[land reclamation]], Monaco's land mass has [[Land reclamation in Monaco|expanded by 20 percent]]. In 2005, it had an area of only {{convert|1.974|km²|abbr=on}}. The principality is governed under a form of [[constitutional monarchy]], with [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Prince Albert II]] as [[head of state]]. Although Prince Albert II is a constitutional monarch, he wields immense political power; the [[Minister of State (Monaco)|Minister of State]] is the [[head of government]]. The officeholder can be either a Monégasque or French citizen; the monarch consults with the [[Government of France]] before an appointment. The [[House of Grimaldi]] has ruled Monaco, with brief interruptions, since 1297.<ref>In fact [[François Grimaldi|Francesco Grimaldi]], who captured [[Monaco-Ville|the Rock]] on the night of 8 January 1297, was forced to flee Monaco only four years after the fabled raid, never to come back. The Grimaldi family was not able to permanently secure their holding until 1419 when they purchased Monaco, along with two neighbouring villages, [[Menton]] and [[Roquebrune-Cap-Martin|Roquebrune]]. Source: {{cite book|last=Edwards|first=Anne|author-link=Anne Edwards|title=The Grimaldis of Monaco: The Centuries of Scandal – The Years of Grace|year=1992|publisher=[[William Morrow and Company|William Morrow]]|isbn=978-0-688-08837-8}}</ref> The state's sovereignty was officially recognised by the [[Franco-Monégasque Treaties|Franco-Monégasque Treaty of 1861]], with Monaco becoming a full [[United Nations]] voting member in 1993. Despite Monaco's independence and separate foreign policy, its defence is the responsibility of France. However, Monaco does maintain two small [[Military of Monaco|military units]].

Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the state's first casino, the [[Monte Carlo Casino]], as well as a [[Marseille–Ventimiglia railway|railway connection]] to Paris.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.montecarlolegend.com/monte-carlo-the-birth-of-a-legend/|title=Monte Carlo: The Birth of a Legend|publisher=SBM Group |access-date=23 August 2013}}</ref> Since then, Monaco's mild climate, scenery and gambling facilities have contributed to the principality's status as a tourist destination and recreation centre for the rich. In more recent years, Monaco has become a major [[banking centre]] and has sought to diversify its economy into the services sector and small, [[High value products|high-value-added]], non-polluting industries. The state has no [[income tax]], [[Tax rates around the world|low business taxes]] and is well known for being a [[tax haven]]. Over 30% of the resident population are [[millionaire]]s,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Beck|first=Katie|title=The country running out of space for its millionaires|url=https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20180206-the-country-running-out-of-space-for-its-millionaires|access-date=25 September 2020|website=www.bbc.com|language=en}}</ref> with real estate prices reaching €100,000 ($142,000) per square metre in 2018. Monaco is not formally a part of the [[European Union]] (EU), but it [[Monaco–European Union relations|participates in certain EU policies]], including customs and border controls. Through its relationship with France, Monaco uses the [[euro]] as its sole currency; prior to this it used the [[Monégasque franc]]. Monaco joined the [[Council of Europe]] in 2004 and is a member of the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] (OIF). It is also the host of the annual street circuit motor race [[Monaco Grand Prix]], one of the original Grands Prix of [[Formula One]] and birthplace of [[Scuderia Ferrari]] driver [[Charles Leclerc]]. The principality has a club football team, [[AS Monaco]], who compete in the [[Ligue 1|French Ligue 1]] and have become [[List of French football champions|French champions]] on multiple occasions. A centre of research into [[marine conservation]], Monaco is home to one of the world's first protected marine habitats,<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 February 2020|title=Monaco's Prince Albert II: Oceans are a 'family heritage,' with little time to save them|url=https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2020-02-13/an-interview-with-prince-albert-ii-of-monaco-on-the-state-of-the-planet|access-date=26 September 2020|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref> an [[Oceanographic Museum of Monaco|Oceanographic Museum]] and the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] Environment Labs, which is the only [[marine laboratory]] in the [[United Nations]] structure.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre (OA-ICC)|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/consultative_process/icp20presentations/Swarzenski.pdf|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Monaco}}
[[File:Meyers b9 s0067b.jpg|thumb|left|''Monoecus'' in Roman [[Liguria]] in [[Italy]], around 1st century BC]]

Monaco's name comes from the nearby 6th-century BCE [[Phocaea]]n [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] colony. Referred to by the [[Liguria]]ns as ''Monoikos'', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] "μόνοικος", "single house", from "μόνος" (''monos'') "alone, single"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmo%2Fnos |title=μόνος |access-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629164313/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmo%2Fnos |archive-date=29 June 2011 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> + "οἶκος" (''oikos'') "house".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Doi%29%3Dkos1 |title=οἶκος |access-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629164225/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Doi%29%3Dkos1 |archive-date=29 June 2011 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> According to an ancient myth, [[Hercules]] passed through the Monaco area and turned away the previous gods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monaco-montecarlo.com/index-history_monaco-en.html |title=History of Monaco |publisher=Monaco-montecarlo.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> As a result, a temple was constructed there, the temple of Hercules Monoikos. Because the only temple of this area was the "House" of Hercules, the city was called Monoikos.<ref>''Strabo, Geography, Gaul, 4.6.3'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/4F*.html at LacusCurtious]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmo%2Fnoikos |title=μόνοικος |access-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629164248/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dmo%2Fnoikos |archive-date=29 June 2011 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> It ended up in the hands of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which gave it to the Genoese.

An ousted branch of a Genoese family, the [[House of Grimaldi|Grimaldi]], contested it for a hundred years before actually gaining control. Though the [[Republic of Genoa]] would last until the 19th century, they allowed the Grimaldi family to keep Monaco, and, likewise, both France and [[Spain]] left it alone for hundreds of years. France did not annex it until the [[French Revolution]], but after the defeat of [[Napoleon]] it was put under the care of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]].

In the 19th century, when [[Sardinia]] became a part of [[Italy]], the region came under French influence again but France allowed it to remain independent. Like France, Monaco was overrun by the [[Axis powers]] during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and for a short time was administered by Italy, then the [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]], before finally being liberated. Although the occupation lasted for just a short time, it resulted in the deportation of the [[Jews|Jewish]] population and execution of several [[French Resistance|resistance]] members from Monaco. Since then Monaco has been independent. It has taken some steps towards [[Microstates and the European Union|integration with the European Union]].

===Arrival of the Grimaldi family===
[[File:Raniero I de Mónaco.jpg|thumb|upright|Rainier I of Grimaldi, victor of the naval battle at [[Battle of Zierikzee|Zierikzee]] and first sovereign Grimaldi ruler of Monaco]]
Following a land grant from Emperor [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] in 1191, Monaco was refounded in 1215 as a colony of Genoa.<ref name="state1">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3397.htm |title=Monaco |publisher=State.gov |date=16 November 2011 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monacolife.net/?content=articles&action=show&id=28 |title=Monaco Life |publisher=Monaco Life |date=26 July 2011 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> Monaco was first ruled by a member of the House of Grimaldi in 1297, when [[François Grimaldi|Francesco Grimaldi]], known as "''Malizia''" (translated from Italian either as "The Malicious One" or "The Cunning One"), and his men captured the fortress protecting the [[Rock of Monaco]] while dressed as [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] [[monk]]s – a ''monaco'' in Italian – although this is a coincidence as the area was already known by this name.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visitmonaco.com/us/About-Monaco/History |title=Monaco history |publisher=Visitmonaco.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

Francesco, however, was evicted only a few years after by the Genoese forces, and the struggle over "the Rock" continued for another century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fr.montecarlosbm.com/sejour-luxe-monaco/monte-carlo/histoire/ |title=Histoire de Monaco, famille Grimaldi | Monte-Carlo SBM |publisher=Fr.montecarlosbm.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The Grimaldi family was Genoese and the struggle was something of a family feud. However, the Genoese became engaged in other conflicts, and in the late 1300s Genoa lost Monaco in conflict with the [[Crown of Aragon]] over [[Corsica]].<ref name="explorethemed.com">{{cite web|url=http://explorethemed.com/AragonMed.asp?c=1|title=The Mediterranean Empire of the Crown of Aragon|website=explorethemed.com}}</ref> [[Aragon]] eventually became part of a united Spain, and other parts of the land grant came to be integrated piecemeal into other states.<ref name="explorethemed.com" />

===1400–1800===
[[File:Italia 1494-it.svg|thumb|left|Monaco in 1494]]
In 1419, the Grimaldi family purchased Monaco from the Crown of Aragon and became the official and undisputed rulers of "the Rock of Monaco". In 1612 [[Honoré II]] began to style himself "Prince" of Monaco.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://monaco.me/ |title=Monaco – The Principality of Monaco |publisher=Monaco.me |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> In the 1630s, he sought French protection against the Spanish forces and, in 1642, was received at the court of [[Louis XIII]] as a "duc et pair étranger".<ref name="monacoangebote.de">{{cite web |url=http://www.monacoangebote.de/index.php?q=en/history |title=The History Of Monaco |publisher=Monacoangebote.de |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116210501/http://www.monacoangebote.de/index.php?q=en%2Fhistory |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The princes of Monaco thus became vassals of the French kings while at the same time remaining sovereign princes.<ref>with the title [[Duc de Valentinois]] and other lesser French titles, to most of which the House of Grimaldi still lays claim,</ref> Though successive princes and their families spent most of their lives in [[Paris]], and intermarried with French and Italian nobilities, the House of Grimaldi is Italian. The principality continued its existence as a protectorate of France until the [[French Revolution]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www3.monaco.mc/monaco/info/history1.html |title=Monaco: History |publisher=.monaco.mc |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629221745/http://www3.monaco.mc/monaco/info/history1.html |archive-date=29 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===19th century===
[[File:County of nice.svg|thumb|left|Map of the French annexation in 1860]]
In 1793, Revolutionary forces captured Monaco and until 1814 it was occupied by the French (in this period much of Europe had been overrun by the French armies under the command of [[Napoleon|Napoleon Bonaparte]]).<ref name="monacoangebote.de"/><ref name="Monte-carlo.mc">{{cite web |url=http://www.monte-carlo.mc/en/general/important-dates/ |title=Important dates – Monaco Monte-Carlo |publisher=Monte-carlo.mc |date=|accessdate=28 May 2012}}</ref>
The principality was reestablished in 1814 under the Grimaldis, only to be designated a protectorate of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] by the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815.<ref name="Monte-carlo.mc"/> Monaco remained in this position until 1860 when, by the [[Treaty of Turin (1860)|Treaty of Turin]], the Sardinian forces pulled out of the principality; the surrounding [[County of Nice]] (as well as [[Savoy]]) was ceded to France.<ref name="infoplease1">{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859729.html |title=24 X 7 |publisher=Infoplease.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> Monaco became a French protectorate once again.

Before this time there was unrest in [[Menton]] and [[Roquebrune-Cap-Martin|Roquebrune]], where the townspeople had become weary of heavy taxation by the Grimaldi family. They declared their independence, hoping for annexation by Sardinia. France protested. The unrest continued until [[Charles III, Prince of Monaco|Charles III of Monaco]] gave up his claim to the two mainland towns (some 95% of the principality at the time) that had been ruled by the Grimaldi family for over 500 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accesspropertiesmonaco.com/en/histoire |title=History of the Principality of Monaco – Access Properties Monaco – Real-estate Agency Monaco |publisher=Access Properties Monaco |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

These were ceded to France in return for 4,100,000 francs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://monacodc.org/monhistory.html |title=History of Monaco |publisher=Monacodc.org |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The transfer and Monaco's sovereignty were recognised by the [[Franco-Monégasque Treaties|Franco-Monégasque Treaty]] of 1861. In 1869, the principality stopped collecting income tax from its residents—an indulgence the Grimaldi family could afford to entertain thanks solely to the extraordinary success of the casino.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/principaute-monaco-monte-carlo/ |title=Histoire de la Principauté – Monaco – Mairie de Monaco – Ma ville au quotidien – Site officiel de la Mairie de Monaco |publisher=Monaco-mairie.mc |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603055329/http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/principaute-monaco-monte-carlo |archive-date=3 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This made Monaco not only a playground for the rich, but a favoured place for them to live.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/monaco.htm |title=MONACO |publisher=Tlfq.ulaval.ca |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Monegasque Revolution.jpg|thumb|left|The Mayor of Monaco announcing concessions, ending the absolute monarchy of [[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Prince Albert I]] in 1910]]
Until the [[Monégasque Revolution]] of 1910 forced the adoption of the 1911 [[Constitution of Monaco]], the [[List of rulers of Monaco|princes of Monaco]] were [[Absolute monarchy|absolute rulers]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/2530539.stm |title=Monaco timeline |work=BBC News |date=28 March 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The new constitution, however, barely reduced the autocratic rule of the Grimaldi family and [[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Prince Albert I]] soon suspended it during the [[World War I|First World War]].

In July 1918, a new [[Franco-Monégasque Treaties|Franco-Monégasque Treaty]] was signed, providing for limited French protection over Monaco. The treaty, endorsed in 1919 by the [[Treaty of Versailles]], established that Monégasque international policy would be aligned with French political, military and economic interests. It also resolved the [[Monaco succession crisis of 1918|Monaco succession crisis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/Monaco-POLITICS-GOVERNMENT-AND-TAXATION.html |title=Monaco Politics, government, and taxation|publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Prince Rainier III and Princess Grace.jpg|thumb|right|The marriage of actress [[Grace Kelly]] to [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco|Prince Rainier III]] brought media attention to the principality.]]

In 1943, the [[Royal Italian Army|Italian Army]] invaded and occupied Monaco, forming a [[Fascism|fascist]] administration.<ref name="monaco.alloexpat.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.monaco.alloexpat.com/monaco_information/history_of_monaco.php |title=Monaco History, History of Monaco – Allo' Expat Monaco - World War II |publisher=Monaco.alloexpat.com |access-date=28 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527162437/http://www.monaco.alloexpat.com/monaco_information/history_of_monaco.php |archive-date=27 May 2012 }}</ref> In September 1943, following the fall from power of [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], the German [[Wehrmacht]] occupied [[Italy]] and Monaco and the [[Nazism|Nazi]] deportation of the Jewish population began. [[René Blum (ballet)|René Blum]], the prominent French Jew who founded the Ballet de l'Opéra in Monte Carlo, was arrested in his [[Paris]] home and held in the [[Drancy internment camp|Drancy]] deportation camp outside the French capital before being transported to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], where he was later killed.<ref>Abramovici P. ''Un rocher bien occupé : Monaco pendant la guerre 1939–1945'' Editions Seuil, Paris 2001, {{ISBN|2-02-037211-8}}</ref> Blum's colleague [[Raoul Gunsbourg]], the director of the [[Opéra de Monte-Carlo]], helped by the [[French Resistance]], escaped arrest and fled to [[Switzerland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tmeheust.free.fr/monacohistoire2.html |title=Monaco histoire |publisher=Tmeheust.free.fr |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> In August 1944, the Germans executed René Borghini, Joseph-Henri Lajoux and Esther Poggio, who were Resistance leaders.

[[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco|Rainier III]], who ruled until 2005, succeeded to the throne following the death of his grandfather, Prince [[Louis II, Prince of Monaco|Louis II]], in 1949. On 19 April 1956, Prince Rainier married the American actress [[Grace Kelly]], an event that was widely televised and covered in the popular press, focusing the world's attention on the tiny principality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/monaco.htm |title=Monaco – Principality of Monaco – Principauté de Monaco – French Riviera Travel and Tourism |publisher=Nationsonline.org |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

A 1962 amendment to the constitution abolished capital punishment, provided for [[women's suffrage]] and established a [[Supreme Court of Monaco]] to guarantee fundamental liberties. In 1963, a crisis developed when [[Charles de Gaulle]] blockaded Monaco, angered by its status as a tax haven for wealthy French citizens. The 2014 film ''[[Grace of Monaco (film)|Grace of Monaco]]'' is loosely based on this crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pagesix.com/2014/04/02/monaco-royals-will-not-be-at-cannes-grace-of-monaco-premiere/?_ga=1.162783800.562580333.1395152845|title=Monaco royals will not be at Cannes 'Grace of Monaco' premiere – Page Six|work=Page Six}}</ref>

In 1993, the Principality of Monaco became a member of the [[United Nations]], with full voting rights.<ref name="infoplease1"/><ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/monaco/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref>

===21st century===
[[File:Vista de Mónaco, 2016-06-23, DD 13.jpg|thumb|View of Monaco in 2016]]
In 2002, a new treaty between France and Monaco specified that, should there be no heirs to carry on the Grimaldi dynasty, the principality would still remain an independent nation rather than revert to France. Monaco's military defence, however, is still the responsibility of France.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europe-cities.com/en/657/monaco/history/chronology/ |title=History of Monaco. Monaco chronology |publisher=Europe-cities.com |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116210452/http://www.europe-cities.com/en/657/monaco/history/chronology/ |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/monaco/monaco_military.html |title=Monaco Military 2012, CIA World Factbook |publisher=Theodora.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

On 31 March 2005, Rainier III, who was too ill to exercise his duties, relinquished them to his only son and heir, Albert.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourmonaco.com/royal |title=Monaco Royal Family |publisher=Yourmonaco.com |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614130705/http://www.yourmonaco.com/royal |archive-date=14 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He died six days later, after a reign of 56 years, with his son succeeding him as [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Albert II]], [[Sovereign Prince of Monaco]]. Following a period of official mourning, Prince Albert II formally assumed the princely crown on 12 July 2005,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.palais.mc/monaco/palais-princier/english/h.s.h.-prince-albert-ii/biography/biography.391.html |title=Biography – Prince's Palace of Monaco |publisher=Palais.mc |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> in a celebration that began with a solemn [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] at [[Saint Nicholas Cathedral, Monaco|Saint Nicholas Cathedral]], where his father had been buried three months earlier. His accession to the Monégasque throne was a two-step event with a further ceremony, drawing heads of state for an elaborate reception, held on 18 November 2005, at the historic [[Prince's Palace of Monaco|Prince's Palace]] in [[Monaco-Ville]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.montecarlosbm.com/luxury-trip-monaco/visit-monaco/monaco-history/ |title=History of Monaco, Grimaldi family |publisher=Monte-Carlo SBM |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> On 27 August 2015, Albert II apologised for Monaco's role during [[World War II]] in facilitating the deportation of a total of 90 Jews and resistance fighters, of whom only nine survived. "We committed the irreparable in handing over to the neighbouring authorities women, men and a child who had taken refuge with us to escape the persecutions they had suffered in France," Albert said at a ceremony in which a monument to the victims was unveiled at the Monaco cemetery. "In distress, they came specifically to take shelter with us, thinking they would find neutrality."<ref>{{cite news|last=Williams|first=Carol J.|title=More than seven decades later, Monaco apologises for deporting Jews|url=http://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-monaco-jews-deportation-apology-20150827-story.html|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=27 August 2015|access-date=31 August 2015}}</ref>

In 2015, Monaco unanimously approved a modest [[Land reclamation in Monaco|land reclamation]] expansion intended primarily to accommodate desperately needed housing and a small green/park area.<ref name="rivieratimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.rivieratimes.com/index.php/monaco-article/items/monaco-land-reclamation-project-gets-green-light.html|title=Monaco land reclamation project gets green light|work=rivieratimes.com|access-date=8 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904002030/http://www.rivieratimes.com/index.php/monaco-article/items/monaco-land-reclamation-project-gets-green-light.html|archive-date=4 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Monaco had previously considered an expansion in 2008, but had called it off.<ref name="rivieratimes.com" /> The plan is for about six [[hectare]]s of apartment buildings, parks, shops and offices to a land value of about 1 billion euros.<ref name="thenational.ae">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenational.ae/business/industry-insights/property/monaco-1-billion-reclamation-plan-for-luxury-homes-district|title=Monaco €1 billion reclamation plan for luxury homes district|author=Colin Randall|work=thenational.ae}}</ref> The development will be adjacent to the [[Larvotto]] district and also will include a small marina.<ref name="thenational.ae" /><ref name="mooringspot.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mooringspot.com/anse-portier-marina-monaco-monte-carlo-new-berths|title=Monaco's New Marina, in 10 Years from now|work=mooringspot.com|access-date=8 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904002029/http://www.mooringspot.com/anse-portier-marina-monaco-monte-carlo-new-berths|archive-date=4 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> There were four main proposals, and the final mix of use will be finalised as the development progresses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimdobson/2015/06/25/the-future-of-monaco-man-made-island-and-floating-formula-one-race-track/|title=Forbes Life|work=forbes.com}}</ref> The name for the new district is [[Le Portier|Anse du Portier]].<ref name="mooringspot.com" />

On 3 September 2020, the first Monégasque satellite, OSM-1 CICERO was launched into space from French Guiana aboard a Vega rocket.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.orbitalsolutions.mc/post/historical-launch-on-sept-2nd-2020-the-first-satellite-from-monaco-is-now-orbiting-the-earth|title=Historical launch on Sept. 2nd, 2020: The first satellite from Monaco is now orbiting the earth|first=Francesco M.|last=Bongiovanni|date=5 September 2020|website=Orbital Solutions}}</ref> The satellite was built in Monaco by Orbital Solutions Monaco.
[[File:Panorama von Monaco-La Turbie.jpg|thumb|750px|center|upright=2.75|<div style="text-align: center;">Panoramic view of Monaco from the ''[[Tête de Chien]]'' (Dog's Head) high rock promontory</div>]]

== Government ==
=== Politics ===
{{Main|Politics of Monaco}}
[[File:Prince Albert II 2016.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Albert II, Prince of Monaco]]]]

Monaco has been governed under a [[constitutional monarchy]] since 1911, with the [[Prince of Monaco|Sovereign Prince of Monaco]] as [[head of state]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3397.htm |title=Monaco |website=State.gov |date=16 November 2011 |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> The [[Executive (government)|executive branch]] consists of a [[Minister of State (Monaco)|Minister of State]] as the [[head of government]], who presides over the other five members of the [[Council of Government]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monaco-iq.com/politics |title=Politics |publisher=Monaco-IQ |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> Until 2002, the Minister of State was a French citizen appointed by the prince from among candidates proposed by the Government of France; since a constitutional amendment in 2002, the Minister of State can be French or Monégasque.<ref name="state1" /> On 1 September 2020, Prince Albert II appointed a French citizen, [[Pierre Dartout]], to the office.<ref name="monaco-consulate1">{{cite web |url=http://www.monaco-consulate.com/index.php/about/history/ |title=History « Consulate General of Monaco |website=Monaco-Consulate.com |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610201643/http://www.monaco-consulate.com/index.php/about/history/ |archive-date=10 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Under the 1962 [[Constitution of Monaco]], the prince shares his [[veto]] power with the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] [[National Council (Monaco)|National Council]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://globaledge.msu.edu/Countries/Monaco/government |title=Monaco: Government |website=GlobalEdge.msu.edu |date=4 October 2004 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The 24 members of the National Council are elected for five-year terms; 16 are chosen through a majority electoral system and 8 by proportional representation.<ref name="freedomhouse1">{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2011/monaco |title=Monaco |publisher=Freedom House |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115151511/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2011/monaco |archive-date=15 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> All legislation requires the approval of the National Council, which is dominated by the conservative [[National and Democratic Union|Rally and Issues for Monaco]] (REM) party which holds 20 seats.<ref name="freedomhouse1" /> [[Union Monégasque]] holds three seats<ref name="freedomhouse1" /> while [[Renaissance (Monegasque political party)|Renaissance]] holds one seat. The principality's city affairs are directed by the [[Communal Council of Monaco|Communal Council]],<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web|url=http://www.monacohebdo.mc/4786-deux-listes-pour-une-mairie|title=Deux listes pour une mairie|work=Monaco Hebdo|access-date=15 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510034909/http://www.monacohebdo.mc/4786-deux-listes-pour-une-mairie|archive-date=10 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> which consists of 14 elected members and is presided over by a [[List of mayors of Monaco|mayor]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/elus-monaco/|title=Les élus|author=Mairie de Monaco|work=La Mairie de Monaco|access-date=15 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515063156/http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/elus-monaco/|archive-date=15 May 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Georges Marsan]] has held the mayorship since 2003. Unlike the National Council, communal councillors are elected for four-year terms<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/mairie-monaco/le-conseil-communal/|title=Le Conseil Communal – Mairie de Monaco|work=La Mairie de Monaco|access-date=15 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116232740/http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/mairie-monaco/le-conseil-communal/|archive-date=16 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> and are strictly [[non-partisan]]; however, [[Opposition (politics)|oppositions]] inside the council frequently form.<ref name=autogenerated3/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nicematin.com/article/actualites/elections-communales-a-monaco-vingt-quatre-candidats-en-lice.460784.html|title=Élections communales à Monaco: vingt-quatre candidats en lice|work=nicematin.com}}</ref>
{{clear}}

=== Security ===
{{See also|Law enforcement in Monaco|}}
[[File:The Palace Guards.jpg|thumb|Palace guards in Monaco]]
The wider defence of the nation is provided by France. Monaco has no navy or air force, but on both a per-capita and per-area basis, Monaco has one of the largest police forces (515 police officers for about 38,000 people) and police presences in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monte-carlo.mc/en/information/safety/ |title=Security in Monaco |website=Monte-carlo.mc |date=13 May 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> Its police includes a special unit which operates patrol and surveillance boats jointly with the military. Police forces in Monaco are commanded by a French officer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gouv.mc/Gouvernement-et-Institutions/Le-Gouvernement/Departement-de-l-Interieur/Direction-de-la-Surete-Publique/Division-de-Police-Maritime-et-Aeroportuaire |title=Division de Police Maritime et Aéroportuaire |language= fr |website=Gouv.mc |date=16 August 1960 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

There is also a small [[Military of Monaco|military force]]. This consists of a bodyguard unit for the prince and his palace in [[Monaco-Ville]] called the [[Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince]] (Prince's Company of Carabiniers);<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.palais.mc/monaco/palais-princier/english/sovereign-house/the-palace-guards/the-palace-guards.453.html |title=The Palace Guards – Prince's Palace of Monaco |website=Palais.mc |date=27 January 2011 |access-date=28 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423061945/http://www.palais.mc/monaco/palais-princier/english/sovereign-house/the-palace-guards/the-palace-guards.453.html |archive-date=23 April 2012 }}</ref> together with the militarised, armed fire and civil defence corps ([[Corps des Sapeurs-Pompiers de Monaco|Sapeurs-Pompiers]]) it forms Monaco's total forces.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pompiers.gouv.mc/321/wwwnew.nsf/1909!/x1Fr?OpenDocument%261Fr |title=Archived copy |access-date=22 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206010807/http://www.pompiers.gouv.mc/321/wwwnew.nsf/1909!/x1Fr?OpenDocument&1Fr |archive-date=6 December 2013 }}</ref> The Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince was created by [[Honoré IV, Prince of Monaco|Prince Honoré IV]] in 1817 for the protection of the principality and the princely family. The company numbers exactly 116 officers and men; while the [[non-commissioned officer]]s and [[soldier]]s are local, the officers have generally served in the [[French Army]]. In addition to their guard duties as described, the carabiniers patrol the principality's beaches and coastal waters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gouv.mc/Gouvernement-et-Institutions/Le-Gouvernement/Departement-de-l-Interieur/Compagnie-des-Carabiniers-du-Prince |title=Compagnie des Carabiniers du Prince |language= fr |website=Gouv.mc |access-date=12 March 2013}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{See also|Land reclamation in Monaco}}
[[File:Monaco satellite map.png|thumb|left|Satellite view of Monaco, with the France–Monaco border shown in yellow]]
Monaco is a sovereign [[city-state]], with five quarters and ten wards,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://monaco.me/monaco/monaco-districts/ |title=Monaco Districts |publisher=Monaco.me |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> located on the [[French Riviera]] in [[Western Europe]]. It is bordered by France's [[Alpes-Maritimes]] [[Departments of France|department]] on three sides, with one side bordering the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Its centre is about {{convert|16|km|abbr=on}} from [[Italy]] and only {{convert|13|km|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Nice]].<ref name="cia"/>

It has an area of {{convert|2.1|km²|abbr=on}}, or {{convert|208|ha|acre|abbr=off}}, and a population of 38,400,<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.monacostatistics.mc/IMSEE/Publications/monaco-statistics-pocket|title="monaco statistics pocket" / Publications / IMSEE - Monaco IMSEE|first=Government of|last=Monaco|website=Monacostatistics.mc}}</ref> making Monaco the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-smallest]] and the most [[List of countries by population density|densely populated country in the world]].<ref name="cia" /> The country has a [[land border]] of only {{convert|5.47|km|abbr=on}},<ref name="auto" /> a [[coastline]] of {{convert|3.83|km|abbr=on}}, a [[Maritime boundary|maritime claim]] that extends {{Convert|22.2|km|mi|1}}, and a width that varies between {{convert|1700|and|349|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="about">{{cite web|url=http://mapofeurope.com/monaco/ |title=Geography and Map of Monaco |publisher=mapofeurope.com |access-date=11 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="visitmonaco">{{cite web |url=http://visitmonaco.com/us/About-Monaco/Geography/Monaco%27s-Areas |title=Monaco's Areas / Monaco Official Site |publisher=Visitmonaco.com |access-date=12 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116210456/http://visitmonaco.com/us/About-Monaco/Geography/Monaco%27s-Areas |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The highest point in the country is at the access to the ''Patio Palace'' residential building on the [[Chemin des Révoires]] (ward [[Les Révoires]]) from the D6007 (''Moyenne Corniche'' street) at {{convert|164.4|m|ft|abbr=off}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].<ref>''Highest point at ground level (Access to Patio Palace on D6007)'' {{cite web|url=http://www.gouv.mc/content/download/175997/2030403/file/monaco%20statistics%20pocket%202014.pdf|publisher=Monaco Statistics – Principality of Monaco|title=Monaco Statistics pocket – Edition 2014}}</ref> The lowest point in the country is the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/highlow.htm |title=Highest and lowest points in countries islands oceans of the world |publisher=Worldatlas.com |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref>

[[Saint-Jean brook|Saint-Jean]] is the longest flowing body of water, around {{convert|0.19|km|m mi ft|abbr=in}} in length, and [[Fontvieille lake|Fontvieille]] is the largest lake, approximately {{convert|0.5|ha|m2 acre ft2|2|abbr=on}} in area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&cp=5&gs_id=28&xhr=t&q=monaco&safe=off&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&biw=1366&bih=704&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wl |title=Monaco |publisher=Google Maps|access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> Monaco's most populated ''quartier'' is [[Monte Carlo]], and the most populated ward is [[Larvotto|Larvotto/Bas Moulins]].<ref name="Recensement"/>

After a recent{{when|date=June 2020}} expansion of [[Port Hercules]],<ref name="Extension"/> Monaco's total area grew to {{convert|2.02|km²|abbr=on}} or {{convert|202|ha|acre|abbr=off}};<ref name="Recensement"/> consequently, new plans have been approved to extend the district of Fontvieille by {{convert|0.08|km²|abbr=on}} or {{convert|8|ha|acre|abbr=off}}, with land [[Reclaimed land|reclaimed]] from the Mediterranean Sea. Land reclamation projects include extending the district of Fontvieille.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news|last=Samuel|first=Henry |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/monaco/6894991/Monaco-to-build-into-the-sea-to-create-more-space.html |title=Monaco to build into the sea to create more space |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=28 December 2009 |access-date=22 March 2012 |location=London}}</ref><ref name="OpenDoc">{{cite web |author=Robert Bouhnik |url=http://cloud.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/3952ae296ac3807cc1256f73002bd426gb?OpenDocument&6Gb&Count=10000 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121220003236/http://cloud.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/3952ae296ac3807cc1256f73002bd426gb?OpenDocument&6Gb&Count=10000 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 December 2012 |title=Home > Files and Reports > Public works(Gb) |publisher=Cloud.gouv.mc |date=19 October 2010 |access-date=22 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalopinions.proboards.com/index.cgi?action=display&board=currentmonaco&thread=192&page=5 |title=Royal Opinions – Social, Political, & Economical Affairs of Monaco |publisher=Royalopinions.proboards.com |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="Extension">{{cite web |author=Robert BOUHNIK |url=http://cloud.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/1ddf179c1910b5fbc1256fc60036dcc6gb?OpenDocument&Count=10000&InfoChap=%20Files%20and%20Reports&InfoSujet=2002%20Archives%20-%20Extension%20of%20%22La%20Condamine%20Port%22&6Gb |title=Home > Files and Reports > Public works > 2002 Archives — Extension of "La Condamine Port"(Gb) |publisher=Cloud.gouv.mc |date=19 October 2010 |access-date=22 March 2012 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.econostrum.info/Monaco-remet-sur-le-tapis-le-projet-d-extension-en-mer_a9166.html |title=Monaco remet sur le tapis le projet d'extension en mer |publisher=Econostrum.info |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> There are two [[port]]s in Monaco, Port Hercules and Port Fontvieille.<ref name="Presentation">{{cite web |url=http://www.ports-monaco.com/lang-en.html |title=Presentation |publisher=Ports-monaco.com |date=1 January 2006 |access-date=22 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620235447/http://www.ports-monaco.com/lang-en.html |archive-date=20 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Monaco's only [[natural resource]] is [[fishing]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nyIYViMSlOE |title=Prince Albert of Monaco interview on fishing issues |publisher=YouTube |date=30 June 2011 |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> with almost the entire country being an [[urban area]], Monaco lacks any sort of commercial [[agriculture|agriculture industry]]. There is a neighbouring French port called [[Cap d'Ail]] that is near Monaco.<ref name="Presentation"/>

[[File:Monaco_City_001.jpg|thumb|center|750px|upright=3.2|<div style="text-align: center;">Panoramic view of [[La Condamine]] and [[Monte Carlo]]</div>]]

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Update|section|inaccurate=yes|date=July 2015|reason=wards were re-organised in 2013. See [[:fr:Monaco#Organisation territoriale|Monaco#Organisation territoriale (fr)]]}}
[[File:MonacoLibreDeDroits.jpg|thumb|In the centre is [[La Condamine]]. At the right with the smaller harbour is [[Fontvieille, Monaco|Fontvieille]], with [[Rock of Monaco|The Rock]] (the old town, fortress, and Palace) jutting out between the two harbours. At the left are the high-rise buildings of [[Saint Roman (community)|La Rousse/Saint Roman]].]]
[[File:Monaco2021OSM.png|thumb|Enlargeable, detailed map of Monaco]]
Monaco is the [[list of sovereign states and dependencies by area|second-smallest country by area]] in the [[world]]; only [[Vatican City]] is smaller.<ref>{{cite web|last=Robertson |first=Alex |url=http://www.gadling.com/2012/02/01/the-10-smallest-countries-in-the-world/ |title=The 10 smallest countries in the world |website=Gadling.com |date=1 February 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> Monaco is the most [[list of countries and territories by population density|densely populated]] country in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://geography.about.com/od/populationgeography/a/popdensity.htm |title=Population Density |website=Geography.About.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The state consists of only one [[municipality]] (''commune''), the [[Municipality of Monaco]]. There is no geographical distinction between the State and City of Monaco, although responsibilities of the government (state-level) and of the municipality (city-level) are different.<ref name="monaco-consulate1" /> According to the constitution of 1911, the [[principality]] was subdivided into three municipalities:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jci-ec2013.com/en/about/monaco-monte-carlo/general-presentation.html |title=About Monaco |publisher=JCI EC 2013 |date=3 March 2010 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-date=15 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115095412/http://www.jci-ec2013.com/en/about/monaco-monte-carlo/general-presentation.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

* [[Monaco-Ville]], the old city and seat of government of the principality on a rocky promontory extending into the Mediterranean, known as the [[Rock of Monaco]], or simply "The Rock";
* [[Monte Carlo]], the principal residential and resort area with the [[Monte Carlo Casino]] in the east and northeast;
* [[La Condamine]], the southwestern section including the port area, [[Port Hercules]].

The municipalities were merged into one in 1917,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Monte Carlo|url=https://jdtcujk.blogspot.com/2018/12/monte-carlo.html|access-date=18 December 2020|website=Monte Carlo}}</ref>{{how|date=May 2019}} and they were accorded the status of ''[[Ward (electoral subdivision)|Wards]]'' or ''Quartiers'' thereafter.

* [[Fontvieille, Monaco|Fontvieille]] was added as a fourth ward, a newly constructed area claimed from the sea in the 1970s;
* [[Moneghetti]] became the fifth ward, created from part of La Condamine;
* [[Larvotto]] became the sixth ward, created from part of Monte Carlo;
* [[Saint Roman (community)|La Rousse/Saint Roman]] (including Le Ténao) became the seventh ward, also created from part of Monte Carlo.

Subsequently, three additional wards were created:

* [[Saint Michel, Monaco|Saint Michel]], created from part of Monte Carlo;
* [[La Colle, Monaco|La Colle]], created from part of La Condamine;
* [[Les Révoires]], also created from part of La Condamine.

An additional ward was planned by new land reclamation to be settled beginning in 2014<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.west8.nl/projects/landscape/cape_grace_monaco/ |title=West 8 Urban Design & Landscape Architecture / projects / Cape Grace, Monaco |website=West8.nl |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630200229/http://www.west8.nl/projects/landscape/cape_grace_monaco/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> but Prince Albert II announced in his 2009 New Year Speech that he had ended plans due to the economic climate at the time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cityoutmonaco.com/monaco-property/articles/tourodeon2 |title=The new Monaco skyline |publisher=CityOut Monaco |date=17 March 2010 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011020551/http://cityoutmonaco.com/monaco-property/articles/tourodeon2 |archive-date=11 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, Prince Albert II in mid-2010 firmly restarted the program.<ref>{{cite news|last=Samuel |first=Henry |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/monaco/6894991/Monaco-to-build-into-the-sea-to-create-more-space.html |title=Monaco to build into the sea to create more space |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=28 December 2009 |access-date=28 May 2012 |location=London}}</ref><ref name="cityoutmonaco.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.cityoutmonaco.com/monaco-property/articles/monacoprince |title=Prince speaks of future developments |publisher=CityOut Monaco |date=29 December 2009 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011043404/http://cityoutmonaco.com/monaco-property/articles/monacoprince |archive-date=11 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, a new development called [[Le Portier|Anse du Portier]] was announced.<ref name="mooringspot.com" />

==== Traditional quarters and modern geographic areas ====
The four traditional ''quartiers'' of Monaco are [[Monaco-Ville]], [[La Condamine]], [[Monte Carlo]] and [[Fontvieille, Monaco|Fontvieille]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Europe/Monaco.html |title=Monaco – Location and size |website=NationsEncyclopedia.com |date=2 July 2011 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/Larvotto |title=Dictionary – Definition of Larvotto |website=Websters-Online-Dictionary.org |date=1 March 2008 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530230643/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/Larvotto |archive-date=30 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, the [[suburb]] of [[Moneghetti]], the high-level part of La Condamine, is generally seen today as an effective fifth ''Quartier'' of Monaco, having a very distinct atmosphere and topography when compared with low-level La Condamine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visitmonaco.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=Page.viewPage&pageId=16 |title=Tourist Board Official Website |website=Visitmonaco.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

==== Wards ====
{{Update|section|date=July 2015|reason=wards were re-organised in 2013 (see [[:fr:Monaco#Organisation territoriale|Monaco#Organisation territoriale]].}}
[[File:Monaco5.png|thumb|[[Ward (electoral subdivision)|Wards]] of Monaco]]
Monaco is divided into ten [[ward (electoral subdivision)|wards]], with their official numbers; either Fontvieille II or Le Portier would become the effective eleventh ward, if built:<ref name="cityoutmonaco.com" /><ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web |author=Nom (obligatoire) |url=http://www.monacohebdo.mc/9156-extension-en-mer-fontvieille-ou-larvotto |title=Extension en mer: Fontvieille ou Larvotto ? |website=Monacohebdo.mc |access-date=12 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016011101/http://www.monacohebdo.mc/9156-extension-en-mer-fontvieille-ou-larvotto |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://statoids.com/umc.html |title=Monaco Commune |website=Statoids.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Ward (electoral subdivision)|Ward]] || Area (km2) || Population (Census of 2008) || Density (km2)||[[City block|City]] [[City block|Blocks]] ''(îlots)''||Remarks
|-
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#efefef;"| '''Former municipality of [[Monaco-Ville|Monaco]]'''
|-
| [[Monaco-Ville]] || style="text-align:right;"| 0.19 || style="text-align:right;"| 1,034|| style="text-align:right;"| 5,442 || style="text-align:right;"| 19 || Old City
|-
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#efefef;"| '''Former municipality of [[Monte Carlo]]'''
|-
| [[Monte Carlo|Monte Carlo/Spélugues]] (''Bd. Des Moulins-Av. de la Madone'')|| style="text-align:right;"| 0.30 || style="text-align:right;"| 3,834 || style="text-align:right;"| 12,780|| style="text-align:right;"| 20|| Casino and resort area
|-
| [[Saint Roman (community)|La Rousse/Saint Roman]] (''Annonciade-Château Périgord'')|| style="text-align:right;"| 0.13 || style="text-align:right;"| 3,223 || style="text-align:right;"| 24,792|| style="text-align:right;"| 17|| Northeast area, includes [[Le Ténao]]
|-
| [[Larvotto|Larvotto/Bas Moulins]] (''Larvotto-Bd Psse Grace'')|| style="text-align:right;"| 0.34 || style="text-align:right;"| 5,443 || style="text-align:right;"| 16,009|| style="text-align:right;"| 17|| Eastern beach area
|-
| [[Saint Michel, Monaco|Saint Michel]] (''Psse Charlotte-Park Palace'')|| style="text-align:right;"| 0.16 || style="text-align:right;"| 3,907 || style="text-align:right;"| 24,419|| style="text-align:right;"| 24|| Central residential area
|-
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#efefef;"| '''Former municipality of [[La Condamine]]'''
|-
| [[La Condamine]] || style="text-align:right;"| 0.28 || style="text-align:right;"| 3,947 || style="text-align:right;"| 14,096|| style="text-align:right;"| 28|| Northwest port area
|-
| [[La Colle, Monaco|La Colle]] (''Plati-Pasteur-Bd Charles III'')|| style="text-align:right;"| 0.11 || style="text-align:right;"| 2,829 || style="text-align:right;"| 25,718|| style="text-align:right;"| 15|| On the western border with [[Cap-d'Ail|Cap d'Ail]]
|-
| [[Les Révoires]] (''Hector Otto-Honoré Labande'')|| style="text-align:right;"| 0.09 || style="text-align:right;"| 2,545 || style="text-align:right;"| 28,278|| style="text-align:right;"| 11|| Contains the [[Jardin Exotique de Monaco]]
|-
| [[Moneghetti|Moneghetti/ Bd de Belgique]] (''Bd Rainier III-Bd de Belgique'') || style="text-align:right;"| 0.10 || style="text-align:right;"| 3,003 || style="text-align:right;"| 30,030 || style="text-align:right;"| 17|| Central-north residential area
|-
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center; background:#efefef;"| '''[[Land reclamation|New land reclaimed from the sea]]'''
|-
| [[Fontvieille, Monaco|Fontvieille]] || style="text-align:right;"| 0.35 || style="text-align:right;"| 3,901 || style="text-align:right;"| 11,146|| style="text-align:right;"| 10|| Started 1981
|- style="background: #CCC;"
| Monaco<ref name="Recensement" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gouv.mc/Action-Gouvernementale/L-Economie/Analyses-et-Statistiques/Publications/Monaco-Statistiques-Pocket |title=Monaco Statistiques Pocket |language= fr |website=Gouv.mc |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> || style="text-align:right;"| 2.05 || style="text-align:right;"| 33,666 || style="text-align:right;"| 16,422|| style="text-align:right;"| 178||  
|-
| colspan="7" style="background:#fff;"|(1) Not included in the total, as it is only proposed
|}

''Note: for statistical purposes, the Wards of Monaco are further subdivided into 178 [[city block]]s (îlots), which are comparable to the [[census block]]s in the United States''.<ref name="Recensement" />

* Other possible expansions are [[Le Portier]], a project relaunched in 2012<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nicematin.com/economie/monaco-une-extension-en-mer-au-larvotto-de-nouveau-a-letude.898376.html |title=Monaco: une extension en mer au Larvotto de nouveau à l'étude |publisher=Nice-Matin |date=13 June 2012 |access-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116210451/http://www.nicematin.com/economie/monaco-une-extension-en-mer-au-larvotto-de-nouveau-a-letude.898376.html |archive-date=16 January 2013 }}</ref>
* Another possibility was [[Fontvieille II]] Development to commence in 2013<ref name=autogenerated2/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UORSzFBv1tAC&q=%22Fontvieille+II%22&pg=PA51|title=Seizing the Future|isbn=9781412833851|last1=Zey|first1=Michael G.|year=1994}}</ref>

[[File:Monaco depuis since 1861.png|thumb|center|upright=3.2|<div style="text-align: center;">Land reclamation in Monaco since 1861</div>]]

===Architecture===
{{See also|Architecture of Monaco|Monaco villas}}
Monaco exhibits a wide range of architecture, but the principality's signature style, particularly in Monte Carlo, is that of the [[Belle Époque]]. It finds its most florid expression in the 1878–9 [[Monte Carlo Casino|Casino]] and the [[Opéra de Monte-Carlo|Salle Garnier]] created by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]] and Jules Dutrou. Decorative elements include turrets, balconies, pinnacles, multi-coloured ceramics, and caryatids. These were blended to create a picturesque fantasy of pleasure and luxury, and an alluring expression of how Monaco sought and still seeks, to portray itself.<ref>Novella, René; Sassi, Luca ''Monaco : eight centuries of art and architecture'', Epi Communication, 2015</ref> This [[Capriccio (art)|capriccio]] of French, Italian, and Spanish elements were incorporated into hacienda villas and apartments. Following major development in the 1970s, [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco|Prince Rainier III]] banned high-rise development in the principality. His successor, [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Prince Albert II]], overturned this Sovereign Order.<ref name="Fair">{{Cite web|url=http://www.vanityfair.fr/actualites/france/articles/monaco-la-tour-odeon-un-chantier-malheureux/23582|title=La tour Odéon, l'histoire d'un chantier dont les malheurs ont atteint des sommets|last=Fair|first=Vanity|access-date=7 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813111930/http://www.vanityfair.fr/actualites/france/articles/monaco-la-tour-odeon-un-chantier-malheureux/23582|archive-date=13 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> In recent years{{when|date=June 2020}} the accelerating demolition of Monaco's architectural heritage, including its single-family villas, has created dismay.<ref>Lyall, Sarah; Baume, Maïa de la ''Development Blitz Provokes a Murmur of Dissent in Monaco'', New York Times, 11 December 2013; https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/12/world/europe/development-blitz-provokes-a-murmur-of-dissent-in-monaco.html</ref> The principality has no heritage protection legislation.<ref name="lobservateurdemonaco.mc">''Monaco's Heritage In Danger?'', L'Observateur de Monaco, No141, April 2015, pp60-67;http://www.lobservateurdemonaco.mc/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Obs141.pdf</ref>

== Climate ==
Monaco has a [[hot-summer Mediterranean climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''Csa''), with strong maritime influences, with some resemblances to the [[oceanic climate]] (''Cfb'') and the [[humid subtropical climate]] (''Cfa''). As a result, it has balmy warm, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The winters are very mild considering the city's latitude, being as mild as locations located much further south in the [[Mediterranean Basin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldtravelguide.net/monaco/weather-climate-geography |title=Monaco weather, climate and geography |publisher=Worldtravelguide.net |access-date=6 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120821004256/http://www.worldtravelguide.net/monaco/weather-climate-geography |archive-date=21 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cool and rainy interludes can interrupt the dry summer season, the average length of which is also shorter. Summer afternoons are infrequently hot (indeed, temperatures greater than {{convert|30|°C|°F|disp=or}} are rare) as the atmosphere is temperate because of constant sea breezes. On the other hand, the nights are very mild, due to the fairly high temperature of the sea in summer. Generally, temperatures do not drop below {{convert|20|°C}} in this season. In the winter, frosts and snowfalls are extremely rare and generally occur once or twice every ten years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.montecarlodailyphoto.com/2009/12/snow-in-casino-square.html |title=Snow in Casino Square! |publisher=Monte Carlo Daily Photo |date=19 December 2009 |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visitmonaco.com/us/About-Monaco/Weather |title=Monaco – Weather / Monaco Official Site |publisher=Visitmonaco.com |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> On 27 February 2018, both Monaco and [[Monte Carlo]] experienced snowfall.<ref>{{cite web |title=In Pictures: French Riviera hit by snowfall |url=https://www.thelocal.fr/20180226/in-pictures-french-riviera-in-the-snow |website=www.thelocal.fr |date=26 February 2018}}</ref>

{{Weather box
|location = Monaco (1981–2010 averages, extremes 1966–present)
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|Jan record high C = 19.9
|Feb record high C = 23.2
|Mar record high C = 25.6
|Apr record high C = 26.2
|May record high C = 30.3
|Jun record high C = 32.5
|Jul record high C = 34.4
|Aug record high C = 34.5
|Sep record high C = 33.1
|Oct record high C = 29.0
|Nov record high C = 25.0
|Dec record high C = 22.3
|year record high C = 34.5
|Jan high C = 13.0
|Feb high C = 13.0
|Mar high C = 14.9
|Apr high C = 16.7
|May high C = 20.4
|Jun high C = 23.7
|Jul high C = 26.6
|Aug high C = 26.9
|Sep high C = 24.0
|Oct high C = 20.6
|Nov high C = 16.5
|Dec high C = 13.9
|year high C = 19.2
|Jan mean C = 10.2
|Feb mean C = 10.2
|Mar mean C = 12.0
|Apr mean C = 13.8
|May mean C = 17.5
|Jun mean C = 20.9
|Jul mean C = 23.8
|Aug mean C = 24.2
|Sep mean C = 21.1
|Oct mean C = 17.9
|Nov mean C = 13.8
|Dec mean C = 11.2
|year mean C = 16.4
|Jan low C = 7.4
|Feb low C = 7.4
|Mar low C = 9.1
|Apr low C = 10.9
|May low C = 14.6
|Jun low C = 18.0
|Jul low C = 21.0
|Aug low C = 21.4
|Sep low C = 18.3
|Oct low C = 15.2
|Nov low C = 11.2
|Dec low C = 8.5
|year low C = 13.6
|Jan record low C = -3.1
|Feb record low C = -5.2
|Mar record low C = -3.1
|Apr record low C = 3.8
|May record low C = 7.5
|Jun record low C = 9.0
|Jul record low C = 10.5
|Aug record low C = 12.4
|Sep record low C = 10.5
|Oct record low C = 6.5
|Nov record low C = 1.6
|Dec record low C = -1.0
|year record low C = -5.2
|Jan precipitation mm = 67.7
|Feb precipitation mm = 48.4
|Mar precipitation mm = 41.2
|Apr precipitation mm = 71.3
|May precipitation mm = 49.0
|Jun precipitation mm = 32.6
|Jul precipitation mm = 13.7
|Aug precipitation mm = 26.5
|Sep precipitation mm = 72.5
|Oct precipitation mm = 128.7
|Nov precipitation mm = 103.2
|Dec precipitation mm = 88.8
|year precipitation mm = 743.6
|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 6.0
|Feb precipitation days = 4.9
|Mar precipitation days = 4.5
|Apr precipitation days = 7.3
|May precipitation days = 5.5
|Jun precipitation days = 4.1
|Jul precipitation days = 1.7
|Aug precipitation days = 2.5
|Sep precipitation days = 5.1
|Oct precipitation days = 7.3
|Nov precipitation days = 7.1
|Dec precipitation days = 6.5
|year precipitation days = 62.4
|Jan sun = 149.8
|Feb sun = 158.9
|Mar sun = 185.5
|Apr sun = 210.0
|May sun = 248.1
|Jun sun = 281.1
|Jul sun = 329.3
|Aug sun = 296.7
|Sep sun = 224.7
|Oct sun = 199.0
|Nov sun = 155.2
|Dec sun = 136.5
|year sun = 2574.7
|source 1 = [[Météo France]]<ref>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180227004241/https://donneespubliques.meteofrance.fr/FichesClim/FICHECLIM_99138001.pdf
| archive-date = 27 February 2018
| url = https://donneespubliques.meteofrance.fr/FichesClim/FICHECLIM_99138001.pdf
| title = Monaco (99)
| work = Fiche Climatologique: Statistiques 1981–2010 et records
| publisher = Meteo France
| language = fr
| access-date = 26 February 2018}}</ref>
|source 2 = Monaco website (sun only)<ref>{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180302082530/http://www.visitmonaco.com/fr/Pratique/Climat
| archive-date = 2 March 2018
| url = http://www.visitmonaco.com/fr/Monaco-Pratique/Climat
| title = Climatological information for Monaco
| publisher = Monaco Tourist Authority
| language = fr
| access-date = 2 March 2018}}</ref>
|date=September 2010
}}

{|style="width:100%;text-align:center;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|-
!Colspan=14|Climate data for Monaco
|-
!Month
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
!style="border-left-width:medium"|Year
|-
!Average sea temperature °C (°F)
|style="background:#C9C9FF;color:#000000;"|13.4 (56.2)
|style="background:#C3C3FF;color:#000000;"|13.0 (55.5)
|style="background:#C9C9FF;color:#000000;"|13.4 (56.1)
|style="background:#DBDBFF;color:#000000;"|14.6 (58.4)
|style="background:#FFEBAA;color:#000000;"|18.0 (64.3)
|style="background:#FFA000;color:#000000;"|21.8 (71.3)
|style="background:#FF8700;color:#000000;"|23.1 (73.6)
|style="background:#FF7D00;color:#000000;"|23.6 (74.4)
|style="background:#FF9900;color:#000000;"|22.2 (71.9)
|style="background:#FFCB21;color:#000000;"|19.6 (67.2)
|style="background:#FFF7DD;color:#000000;"|17.4 (63.3)
|style="background:#DFDFFF;color:#000000;"|14.9 (58.9)
|style="background:#FFEDB1;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium"|17.9 (64.3)
|-
!Colspan=14 style="background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;"|Source: Weather Atlas<ref name="Weather Atlas">{{cite web |url=https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/monaco/monaco-climate |title=Monaco, Monaco – Climate data |publisher=Weather Atlas |access-date=15 March 2017 }}</ref>
|}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Monaco}}
[[File:Monaco004.jpg|thumb|[[Fontvieille, Monaco|Fontvieille]] and its new harbour]]
Monaco has the world's highest [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|GDP nominal per capita]] at US$185,742 [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP PPP per capita]] at $132,571 and [[List of countries by GNI (nominal, Atlas method) per capita|GNI per capita]] at $183,150.<ref name="unsd">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/monaco |title=The World Bank Group|publisher=[[The World Bank Group]] |access-date=18 September 2019}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120402032202/http://databank.worldbank.org/databank/download/GNIPC.pdf Gross national income per capita 2010, Atlas method and PPP]. World Bank</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://monacodc.org/economy.html |title=Business And Economy |publisher=Monacodc.org |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> It also has an [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment rate]] of 2%,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2129.html |title=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> with over 48,000 workers who commute from France and Italy each day.<ref name="Recensement">{{cite web |url=http://cloud.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/e89a6190e96cbd1fc1256f7f005dbe6e/64a1643c86f9f661c12575ae004cc473/$FILE/ATTW9ZI8/Recensement2008_p8-9.pdf |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/67zk5DtcP?url=http://cloud.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/e89a6190e96cbd1fc1256f7f005dbe6e/64a1643c86f9f661c12575ae004cc473/$FILE/ATTW9ZI8/Recensement2008_p8-9.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 May 2012 |title=Plan General De La Principaute De Monaco |access-date=28 May 2012 }}</ref> According to the [[CIA World Factbook]], Monaco has the world's [[List of countries by poverty|lowest poverty rate]]<ref name="theodora"/> and the highest number of millionaires and billionaires per capita in the world.<ref>{{cite news|last=Alleyne |first=Richard |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1565068/Prince-Albert-We-want-more-for-Monaco.html |title=Prince Albert: We want more for Monaco |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=4 October 2007 |access-date=22 March 2012 |location=London}}</ref> For the fourth year in a row, Monaco in 2012 had the world's most expensive real estate market, at $58,300 per square metre.<ref>{{cite web| author=Katya Wachtel |url=https://www.privatebank.citibank.com/pdf/wealthReport2012_lowRes.pdf |title=The Wealth Report 2012|publisher=Citi Private Bank |date=28 March 2012 |access-date=6 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=Robert Frank |url=https://blogs.wsj.com/wealth/2012/03/28/the-most-expensive-real-estate-in-the-world/ |title=The Most Expensive Real-Estate in the World |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=28 March 2012 |access-date=6 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=Julie Zeveloff| url=http://www.businessinsider.com/most-expensive-real-estate-markets-2013-3 |title=Here Are The World's Most Expensive Real Estate Markets |work=Business Insider |date=7 March 2013 |access-date=7 March 2013}}</ref> The world's most expensive apartment is located in Monaco, a penthouse at the [[Odeon Tower]] valued at $335 million according to [[Forbes]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Martin|first=Guy|title=Inside the World's Most Expensive Apartment: A $335 Million Penthouse in Monaco's Tour Odeon|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/guymartin/2016/10/11/yours-for-335-million-in-monaco-the-five-floor-31500-square-foot-penthouse-atop-la-tour-odeon/|access-date=25 September 2020|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>

One of Monaco's main sources of income is tourism. Each year many foreigners are attracted to its casino and pleasant climate.<ref name="visitmonaco"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://globaledge.msu.edu/Countries/Monaco/economy |title=Monaco: Economy >> globalEDGE: Your source for Global Business Knowledge |publisher=Globaledge.msu.edu |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> It has also become a major [[banking centre]], holding over [[Euro|€]]100 billion worth of funds.<ref>{{cite web |author=Robert BOUHNIK |url=http://cloud.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/607f54a31a14184fc1256a130075eb71gb?OpenDocument&6Gb |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120711135421/http://cloud.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/607f54a31a14184fc1256a130075eb71gb?OpenDocument&6Gb |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 July 2012 |title=Home > Files and Reports > Economy(Gb) |publisher=Cloud.gouv.mc |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=22 March 2012 }}</ref> Banks in Monaco specialise in providing private banking, asset and wealth management services.<ref name="thebanks">{{cite web|url=https://thebanks.eu/articles/banks-in-Monaco | title=Banks in Monaco}}</ref> The principality has successfully sought to diversify its economic base into services and small, high-value-added, non-polluting industries, such as cosmetics and biothermics.{{fv|date=May 2021|reason='Biothermics' do not appear in the linked page. As far as I can tell it's a brand rather than a sector. Biotherm is a subsidiary of L'Oréal who made skin care products in Monaco until 2011: was this talking about them?}}<ref name="theodora">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/monaco/monaco_economy.html |title=Monaco Economy 2012, CIA World Factbook |publisher=Theodora.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

The state retains [[Monopoly|monopolies]] in numerous sectors, including tobacco and the postal service. The telephone network ([[Monaco Telecom]]) used to be fully owned by the state; it now owns only 45%, while the remaining 55% is owned by both [[Cable & Wireless Communications]] (49%) and [[Compagnie Monégasque de Banque]] (6%). It is still, however, a monopoly. Living standards are high, roughly comparable to those in prosperous French metropolitan areas.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/monaco/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref>

Monaco is not a member of the [[European Union]]. However, it is very closely linked via a customs union with France and, as such, its currency is the same as that of France, the [[euro]]. Before 2002, Monaco minted its own coins, the [[Monegasque franc]]. Monaco has acquired the right to mint [[euro coins]] with [[Monegasque euro coins|Monegasque designs]] on its national side.

=== Gambling industry ===
[[File:Le casino de Monte-Carlo.JPG|thumb|[[Monte Carlo Casino]]]]
The plan for casino gambling was drafted during the reign of [[Florestan I, Prince of Monaco|Florestan I]] in 1846. Under Louis-Philippe's [[Petite bourgeoisie|petite-bourgeois]] regime, however, a dignitary such as the [[Prince of Monaco]] was not allowed to operate a gambling house.<ref name="state1"/> All this changed in the dissolute [[Second French Empire]] under [[Napoleon III]]. The [[House of Grimaldi]] was in dire need of money.

The towns of [[Menton, France|Menton]] and [[Roquebrune-Cap-Martin|Roquebrune]], which had been the main sources of income for the Grimaldi family for centuries, were now accustomed to a much-improved standard of living and lenient taxation thanks to the Sardinian intervention and clamoured for financial and political concession, even for separation. The Grimaldi family hoped the newly legal industry would help alleviate the difficulties they faced, above all the crushing debt the family had incurred, but Monaco's first casino would not be ready to operate until after [[Charles III, Prince of Monaco|Charles III]] assumed the throne in 1856.

The grantee of the princely concession (licence) was unable to attract enough business to sustain the operation and, after relocating the casino several times, sold the concession to French casino magnates [[François Blanc|François]] and [[Louis Blanc (businessman)|Louis Blanc]] for 1.7 million francs.

The Blancs had already set up a highly successful casino (in fact the largest in Europe) in Bad-Homburg in the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Homburg, a small German principality comparable to Monaco, and quickly petitioned Charles III to rename a depressed seaside area known as "Les Spelugues (Den of Thieves)" to "Monte Carlo (Mount Charles)."<ref name="Craps">{{cite web |url=http://www.crapsdicecontrol.com/monte_carlo.htm|title=History of Monte Carlo Casino|publisher=Craps Dice Control|access-date=28 April 2012}}</ref> They then constructed their casino in the newly dubbed "Monte Carlo" and cleared out the area's less-than-savoury elements to make the neighbourhood surrounding the establishment more conducive to tourism.

The Blancs opened [[Le Grand Casino de Monte Carlo]] in 1858 and the casino benefited from the tourist traffic the newly built French railway system created.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iptv.org/series.cfm/9038/rick_steves_europe/ep:504|title=Rick Steves' Europe: Little Europe: San Marino, Monaco, Vatican City, Liechtenstein, and Andorra|access-date=27 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114170925/http://www.iptv.org/series.cfm/9038/rick_steves_europe/ep:504|archive-date=14 November 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Due to the combination of the casino and the railroads, Monaco finally recovered from the previous half-century of economic slump and the principality's success attracted other businesses.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ricksteves.com/tvr/littleeurope504_scr.htm |title=Rick Steves Europe: Little Europe: Five Microcountries |publisher=Ricksteves.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> In the years following the casino's opening, Monaco founded its [[Oceanographic Museum]] and the [[Monte Carlo Opera House]], 46 hotels were built and the number of jewelers operating in Monaco increased by nearly five-fold. In an apparent effort to not overtax citizens, it was decreed that the Monégasque citizens were prohibited from entering the casino unless they were employees.<ref>{{cite web| author=Keremcan| url=https://www.gamblingherald.com/why-do-monaco-laws-forbid-locals-from-gambling/| title=Why Do Monaco Laws Forbid Locals from Gambling?| work=Gambling Herald |date=23 August 2016| access-date=7 December 2017}}</ref> By 1869, the casino was making such a vast sum of money that the principality could afford to end tax collection from the Monegasques—a masterstroke that was to attract affluent residents from all over Europe in a policy that still exists today.

Today, [[Société des bains de mer de Monaco]], which owns Le Grand Casino, still operates in the original building that the Blancs constructed and has since been joined by several other casinos, including the [[Le Casino Café de Paris]], the [[Monte Carlo Sporting Club & Casino]] and the [[Sun Casino]]. The most recent{{when|date=June 2020}} addition in Monte Carlo is the [[Monte-Carlo Bay Hotel & Resort|Monte Carlo Bay Casino]], which sits on 4 hectares of the Mediterranean Sea and, among other things, offers 145 slot machines, all equipped with "[[ticket-in, ticket-out]]" (TITO); it is the first Mediterranean casino to use this technology.<ref name="Porter">{{cite book | year=2006 | title=Frommer's Provence and the Riviera (Fifth. ed.) | author=Porter, D. | author2=D. Prince | publisher=Wiley Publishing Inc.}}</ref>

=== Taxes ===
Monaco has a 20% VAT plus high social-insurance taxes, payable by both employers and employees. The employers' contributions are between 28% and 40% (averaging 35%) of gross salary, including benefits, and employees pay a further 10% to 14% (averaging 13%).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lowtax.net/lowtax/html/jmcpetx.html|title=Monaco Personal Taxation | access-date=28 May 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Tour Odéon.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Luxury residential areas in Monaco]]
Monaco has never levied [[income tax]] on [[individual]]s,<ref name=telegraph/> and foreigners are thus able to use it as a "[[tax haven]]" from their own country's high taxes, because as an independent country, Monaco is not obligated to pay taxes to other countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/globalbusiness/7243401/Monaco-might-not-charge-residents-income-tax-but-its-no-tax-haven.html |title=Monaco might not charge residents income tax, but it's no tax haven |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=16 February 2010|access-date=28 May 2012 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lowtax.net/lowtax/html/jmccfir.html |title=Monaco Country and Foreign Investment Regime |publisher=Lowtax.net |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref>

The absence of a personal income tax has attracted many wealthy "tax refugee" residents from European countries, who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco. [[Celebrity|Celebrities]], such as [[Formula One]] drivers, attract most of the attention but the vast majority are lesser-known business people.<ref>{{cite news|author=David Leigh |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2006/jul/10/frontpagenews.uknews |title=The tax haven that today's super-rich City commuters call home |work=The Guardian |date=10 July 2006|access-date=28 May 2012 |location=London}}</ref>

However, due to a bilateral treaty with France, French citizens who reside in Monaco must still pay income and wealth taxes to France.<ref name="state.gov">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2015/241564.htm|title=France and Monaco|work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> The principality also actively discourages the registration of foreign corporations, charging a 33 per cent [[Corporate tax|corporation tax]] on profits unless they can show that at least three-quarters of turnover is generated within Monaco. Unlike classic tax havens, Monaco does not offer offshore financial services.<ref name="telegraph" />

In 1998, the [[Centre for Tax Policy and Administration]], part of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), issued a first report on the consequences of the financial systems of known [[tax haven]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.escapeartist.com/OREQ24/Offshore_Tax_Havens.html |title=Obscure Tax Havens |publisher=Escapeartist.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> Monaco did not appear in the list of these territories until 2004, when the OECD became indignant regarding the Monegasque situation and denounced it in a report, along with [[Andorra]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Liberia]], and the [[Marshall Islands]]. The report underlined Monaco's lack of co-operation regarding financial information disclosure and availability.<ref>''Declaration of 18 April 2004, by the representative of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] Centre for Tax Policy and Administration Gabriel Makhlouf regarding the list of alleged [[tax haven]]s non-cooperative countries comparable''</ref><ref>''Stage Report 2004: Project of [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] on the detrimental tax practices, [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], Paris, 2004''</ref> Later, Monaco overcame the OECD's objections and was removed from the "grey list" of uncooperative jurisdictions. In 2009, Monaco went a step further and secured a place on the "white list" after signing twelve information exchange treaties with other jurisdictions.<ref name=telegraph/>

In 2000, the [[Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering]] (FATF) stated: "The anti-money laundering system in Monaco is comprehensive. However, difficulties have been encountered with Monaco by countries in international investigations on serious crimes that appear to be linked also with tax matters. In addition, the FIU of Monaco (SICCFIN) suffers a great lack of adequate resources. The authorities of Monaco have stated that they will provide additional resources to SICCFIN."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fatf-gafi.org/dataoecd/56/43/33921824.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726051252/http://www.fatf-gafi.org/dataoecd/56/43/33921824.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2011 |title=Review to Identify Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories: Increasing the Worldwide Effectiveness of Anti-Money Laundering Measures |publisher=Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering |date=22 June 2000 |location=Paris |page=8 |access-date=23 May 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Also in 2000, a report by the [[National Assembly of France|French parliamentarians]] [[Arnaud Montebourg]] and [[Vincent Peillon]] stated that Monaco had relaxed policies with respect to money laundering, including within its casino, and that the government of Monaco had been placing political pressure on the judiciary so that alleged crimes were not being properly investigated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/11/rap-info/i2311-2.asp |title=Assemblee-Nationale report |publisher=Assemblee-nationale.fr |date=27 July 1987 |access-date=28 August 2010}}</ref> In its Progress Report of 2005, the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) identified Monaco, along with 36 other territories, as a [[tax haven]],<ref>''Financial Centres with Significant Offshore Activities in Offshore Financial Centres. The Assessment Program. A Progress Report Supplementary Information, IMF, Washington, 2005''</ref> but in its [[Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering|FATF]] report of the same year it took a positive view of Monaco's measures against money-laundering.<ref>''Review to Identify Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories: Increasing the Worldwide Effectiveness of Anti-Money Laundering Measures, [[Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering|FATF]], Paris, 2005''</ref><ref>''Review to Identify Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories: Increasing the Worldwide Effectiveness of Anti-Money Laundering Measures, FATF, Paris, 2006''</ref>

The [[Council of Europe]] also decided to issue reports naming tax havens. Twenty-two territories, including Monaco, were thus evaluated between 1998 and 2000 on a first round. Monaco was the only territory that refused to perform the second round, between 2001 and 2003, whereas the 21 other territories had planned to implement the third and final round, planned between 2005 and 2007.<ref>''First Mutual Evaluation Report on the Principality of Monaco, Moneyval, Strasbourg, 2003''</ref>

=== Numismatics ===
{{Main|Monégasque franc|Monégasque euro coins|Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Monaco)}}
[[File:1FrancMonaco1978face.jpg|thumb|left|1978 [[Monégasque franc]] coin with an effigy of Rainier III]]
Monaco issued its own coins in various devaluations connected to the [[écu]] already in the seventeenth century, but its first decimal coins of the [[Monégasque franc]] were issued in 1837 continued until 2001.

Although Monaco is not a [[European Union]] member, it is allowed to use the [[euro]] as its currency by arrangement with the [[Council of the European Union]]; it is also granted the right to use its [[Monégasque euro coins|own designs]] on the national side of the [[euro coins]], which was introduced in 2002.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurocoins.co.uk/monaco.html |title=Monaco Euro Coins |publisher=Eurocoins.co.uk |date=1 January 2002 |access-date=11 May 2017}}</ref> In preparation for this date, the minting of the new euro coins started as early as 2001. Like Belgium, Finland, France, the Netherlands, and Spain, Monaco decided to put the minting date on its coins. This is why the first euro coins from Monaco have the year 2001 on them, instead of 2002, like the other countries of the [[Eurozone]] that decided to put the year of first circulation (2002) on their coins.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecb.int/euro/coins/html/mo.en.html |title=ECB: Monaco |publisher=Ecb.int |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://monaco.me/monaco-coins/ |title=Monaco Coins |publisher=Monaco.me |date=1 January 2002 |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> Three different designs were selected for the Monégasque coins.<ref name="visitmonaco1">{{cite web |url=http://www.visitmonaco.com/en/Places-to-visit/Museums/The-Museum-of-Stamps-and-Coins |title=Monaco – The Museum of Stamps and Coins |publisher=Visitmonaco.com |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> However, in 2006, the design was changed after the death of ruling Prince Rainier to have the effigy of Prince Albert.<ref name="visitmonaco1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.taxfreegold.co.uk/monaco.html |title=Monegasque Gold Coins – Monaco |publisher=Taxfreegold.co.uk |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref>

Monaco also mints collectors' coins, with face value ranging from €5 to €100.<ref>{{cite web|author=Siam Internet Co., Ltd. |url=http://www.euro-coins.tv/monaco-euro-coins.php |title=Monaco Euro Coins – daily updated collectors value for every single coin |publisher=euro-coins.tv |access-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> These coins are a legacy of an old national practice of minting silver and gold [[commemorative coins]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.williamyoungerman.com/world_gold_coins/monaco_gold_coins.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224123645/http://williamyoungerman.com/world_gold_coins/monaco_gold_coins.htm |archive-date=24 February 2009 |title=Monaco Gold Coins -World Gold Coins |publisher=Williamyoungerman.com |access-date=22 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Unlike normal issues, these coins are not [[legal tender]] in all the Eurozone.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/Europeweb/factfile/Unique-facts-Europe16.htm |title=Unique Facts About Europe: Euro |publisher=Sheppardsoftware.com |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The same practice concerning commemorative coins is exercised by all eurozone countries.
{{clear}}

== Population ==
=== Demographics ===
{{Main|Demographics of Monaco}}

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Population of Monaco by ethnicity
|label1 = [[French People|French]]
|value1 = 28.4
|color1 = #141464
|label2 = [[#Population|Monégasques]]
|value2 = 21.6
|color2 = #649678
|label3 = [[Italians]]
|value3 = 18.7
|color3 = #5AD282
|label4 = [[British People|British]]
|value4 = 7.5
|color4 = #DC64DC
|label5 = [[Belgians]]
|value5 = 2.8
|color5 = #BE5A14
|label6 = [[Germans]]
|value6 = 2.5
|color6 = #5A3C3C
|label7 = [[Swiss people|Swiss]]
|value7 = 2.5
|color7 = #325050
|label8 = [[Americans]]
|color8 = #414181
|value8 = 1.2
|label9 = Other
|color9 = LightYellow
|value9 = 14.8
}}
Monaco's total population was 38,400 in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monacostatistics.mc/IMSEE/Publications/monaco-statistics-pocket |title=Monaco Statistics office|website=Monacostatistics.mc|access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref> Monaco's population is unusual in that the native Monégasques are a minority in their own country: the largest group are French nationals at 28.4%, followed by Monégasque (21.6%), Italian (18.7%), British (7.5%), Belgian (2.8%), German (2.5%), Swiss (2.5%) and U.S. nationals (1.2%).<ref name="2008census">{{cite web |title=General Population Census 2008: Population Recensee et Population Estimee |url=http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/e89a6190e96cbd1fc1256f7f005dbe6e/64a1643c86f9f661c12575ae004cc473/$FILE/Recensement2008_Ch1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614212422/http://www.gouv.mc/devwww/wwwnew.nsf/e89a6190e96cbd1fc1256f7f005dbe6e/64a1643c86f9f661c12575ae004cc473/$FILE/Recensement2008_Ch1.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2011 |publisher=Government of the Principality of Monaco |access-date=7 October 2011 |language=fr |year=2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Citizens of Monaco, whether born in the country or naturalised, are called ''Monégasque''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.everyculture.com/Ma-Ni/Monaco.html |title=Culture of Monaco |publisher=Everyculture.com |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> Monaco has the world's highest [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] at nearly 90 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/monaco/ |title=CIA World Factbook, Monaco |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://theodora.com/wfbcurrent/monaco/monaco_international_rankings_2018.html |title=International Rankings of Monaco - 2018 |publisher=Theodora.com |access-date=4 July 2018}}</ref>

=== Language ===
{{Main|Languages of Monaco}}
[[Image:Street sign in Monégasc-French in MonacoVille.jpg|thumb|Street sign in French and Monégasque in [[Monaco-Ville]].]]
The official language of Monaco is [[French language|French]], while [[Italian language|Italian]] is spoken by the principality's sizeable community from Italy. French and Italian are in fact more spoken in the principality today than [[Monégasque dialect|Monégasque]], its historic vernacular language. A dialect of [[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]], Monégasque is not recognised as an official language; nevertheless, some signage appears in both French and Monégasque, and the language is taught in schools. English is used by [[Americans|American]], [[British people|British]], Anglo-[[Canadians|Canadian]], and [[Irish people|Irish]] residents.

The [[Grimaldi Family|Grimaldi]], [[princes of Monaco]], have Ligurian origin, thus, the traditional national language is [[Monégasque language|Monégasque]], a variety of [[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]], now spoken by only a minority of residents and as a common second language by many native residents. In [[Monaco-Ville]], street signs are printed in both French and Monégasque.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monaco-iq.com/society |title=Society |publisher=Monaco-IQ |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monte-carlo.mc/en/general/principality-of-monaco/ |title=Principality of Monaco – Monaco Monte-Carlo |publisher=Monte-carlo.mc |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref>

== Religion ==
{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = Religion in Monaco according to the ''Global Religious Landscape'' survey by the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum]], 2012<ref name="Survey"/>
|label1 = [[Christianity]]
|value1 = 86
|color1 = Yellow
|label2 = Unaffiliated
|value2 = 11.7
|color2 = Grey
|label3 = [[Judaism]]
|value3 = 1.7
|color3 = Blue
|label4 = [[Islam]]
|value4 = 0.4
|color4 = Green
|label5 = Other religions
|value5 = 0.2
|color5 = Red
}}

===Christianity===
Christians comprise a total of 86% of Monaco's population.<ref name="Survey"/>

According to Monaco 2012 International Religious Freedom Report, Roman Catholics are Monaco's largest religious group, followed by Protestant Christians. The Report states that there are two Protestant churches, an Anglican church and a Reformed church. There are also various other [[Evangelical Protestant]] communities that gather periodically.

====Catholicism====
[[File:Monaco BW 2011-06-07 16-07-20.jpg|thumb|[[Cathedral of Our Lady Immaculate]]]]
[[File:Église de Saint-Dévote Monaco IMG 1202.jpg|thumb|[[Sainte-Dévote Chapel]]]]
{{Main|Catholic Church in Monaco}}
The official religion is [[Roman Catholicism]], with freedom of other religions guaranteed by the constitution.<ref name="MonacoReligion"/> There are five Catholic parish churches in Monaco and one [[Cathedral of Our Lady Immaculate|cathedral]], which is the seat of the [[archbishop of Monaco]].

The diocese, which has existed since the mid-19th century, was raised to a non-metropolitan archbishopric in 1981 as the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Monaco|Archdiocese of Monaco]] and remains exempt (i.e. immediately subject to the Holy See). The [[patron saint]] is [[Saint Devota]].

====Anglican Communion====
There is one [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] church (St Paul's Church), located in the Avenue de Grande Bretagne in Monte Carlo. The church was dedicated in 1925. In 2007 this had a formal membership of 135 Anglican residents in the principality but was also serving a considerably larger number of Anglicans temporarily in the country, mostly as tourists. The church site also accommodates an English-language library of over 3,000 books.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stpaulsmonaco.com/|title=Saint Paul's Church, Monte-Carlo|work=stpaulsmonaco.com}}</ref> The church is part of the Anglican [[Diocese in Europe]].

====Reformed Church of Monaco====
There is one Reformed church, located in the Rue Louis Notari. This church was built in 1958/1959. It is affiliated to the [[United Protestant Church of France]] (Eglise Protestante Unie de France, EPUF), a grouping that incorporates the former Reformed Church of France (Eglise Reformée de France). Through its affiliation with EPUF, the church is part of the [[World Communion of Reformed Churches]]. The Reformed Church of Monaco acts as a host-church to some other Christian communities, in that it allows them to use its Rue Louis Notari building.

====Charismatic Episcopal Church====
The Monaco Parish of the [[Charismatic Episcopal Church]] (Parish of St Joseph) dates from 2017 and meets in the Reformed Church's Rue Louis Notari building.

====Christian Fellowship====
The Monaco Christian Fellowship, formed in 1996, meets in the Reformed Church's Rue Louis Notari building.

====Greek Orthodoxy====
Monaco's 2012 International Religious Freedom Report states that there is one [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] church in Monaco.

====Russian Orthodox====
The Russian Orthodox Parish of the Holy Royal Martyrs meets in the Reformed Church's Rue Louis Notari building.

=== Judaism ===

The Association Culturelle Israélite de Monaco (founded in 1948) is a converted house containing a synagogue, a community Hebrew school, and a [[Kashrut|kosher]] food shop, located in Monte Carlo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mavensearch.com/synagogues/C3414Y41808RX |title=Synagogues in Monte Carlo – Shuls in Monte Carlo – Jewish Temples in Monte Carlo |publisher=Mavensearch.com |date=6 July 2007 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The community mainly consists of retirees from Britain (40%) and [[North Africa]]. Half of the Jewish population is [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]], mainly from North Africa, while the other half is [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]].<ref>Details at [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/monaco.html Jewish Virtual Library]</ref>

=== Islam ===
The [[Muslim]] population of Monaco consists of about 280 people, most of whom are residents not citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/jan/28/muslim-population-country-projection-2030|title=Muslim populations by country: how big will each Muslim population be by 2030?|author=Simon Rogers|work=the Guardian}}</ref> The majority of the Muslim population of Monaco are [[Arabs]], though there are smaller [[Turkish people|Turkish]] minorities as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.muslimpopulation.com/Europe/MONACO/Islam%20in%20Monaco.php|title=Islam in Monaco|work=muslimpopulation.com}}</ref> Monaco does not have any official [[mosque]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicpopulation.com/Europe/MONACO/Islam%20in%20Monaco.htm|title=Islam in Monaco|work=islamicpopulation.com}}</ref>

== Sports ==
=== Formula One ===
{{Main|Monaco Grand Prix}}
[[File:Grand Prix Monaco96 131954710.jpg|thumb|Formation lap for the [[1996 Monaco Grand Prix]]]]
Since 1929, the [[Monaco Grand Prix]] has been held annually in the streets of Monaco.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.monaco-grand-prix-ticket.com/Monaco-Grand-Prix.aspx|title=Monaco Grand Prix|date=3 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303200854/http://www.monaco-grand-prix-ticket.com/Monaco-Grand-Prix.aspx|archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> It is widely considered to be one of the most prestigious automobile races in the world. The erection of the [[Circuit de Monaco]] takes six weeks to complete and the removal after the race takes another three weeks.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

The circuit is narrow and tight and its tunnel, tight corners and many elevation changes make it perhaps the most demanding [[Formula One]] track.<ref>{{cite web|author=liam mcmurray, lesley kazan-pinfield |url=http://www.monaco-f1grandprix.com/course.html |title=Monaco Formula One Grand Prix |publisher=Monaco-f1grandprix.com |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> Driver [[Nelson Piquet]] compared driving the circuit to "riding a bicycle around your living room".

Despite the challenging nature of the course it has only had two fatalities, [[Luigi Fagioli]] who died from injuries received in practice for the [[1952 Monaco Grand Prix]] (run to sports car regulations that year, not Formula 1)<ref>Kettlewell, Mike. "Monaco: Road Racing on the Riviera", in Northey, Tom, editor. World of Automobiles (London: Orbis, 1974), Volume 12, p.1383.</ref> and [[Lorenzo Bandini]], who crashed, burned and died three days later from his injuries in 1967.<ref name=SheboyganPressMay8>"Hulme Wins Monte Carlo; Bandini Hurt", ''[[Sheboygan Press]]'', 8 May 1967, Page 13.</ref> Two other drivers had lucky escapes after they crashed into the harbour, the most famous being [[Alberto Ascari]] in the [[1955 Monaco Grand Prix]] and [[Paul Hawkins (racing driver)|Paul Hawkins]], during the [[1965 Monaco Grand Prix|1965 race]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

Monaco also holds a Grand Prix winner, in the form of [[Charles Leclerc]], who has won two races so far in his career, at the [[2019 Belgian Grand Prix]] and [[2019 Italian Grand Prix]].

=== Formula E ===
Starting in 2015 [[Formula E]] started racing biennially with the [[Historic Grand Prix of Monaco]] on the [[Monaco ePrix]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.autosport.com/fe/news/115918/fe-set-to-use-shorter-monaco-circuit|title=Formula E set to race on shorter version of Monaco circuit|last=Watkins|first=Gary|website=Autosport.com|language=en|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> and used a shorter configuration of the full Formula 1 circuit, keeping it around [[Port Hercules]] until 2021.

[[Venturi Racing|ROKiT Venturi Racing]] is the only motor racing team based in the principality and is headquartered in Fontvieille.<ref>{{cite web |title=Leonardo DiCaprio forms racing team to help speed up electric car sales |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-25300016 |website=bbc.co.uk |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref> The marque competes in Formula E and was one of the founding teams of the fully-electric championship. Managed by former racing driver [[Susie Wolff]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kalinauckas |first1=Alex |title=Ex-Williams F1 tester Susie Wolff becomes Venturi FE team principal |url=https://www.autosport.com/formula-e/news/ex-williams-f1-tester-susie-wolff-becomes-venturi-fe-team-principal-5296742/5296742/ |website=Autosport.com |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref> the outfit holds seven podiums to date and won Formula E's landmark 50th race in [[2019 Hong Kong ePrix|Hong Kong]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kalinauckas |first1=Alex |title=Bird penalised, loses Hong Kong E-Prix win |url=https://www.motorsport.com/formula-e/news/bird-lotterer-penalty-win-stripped/4350171/ |website=Motorsport.com |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref> [[1997 Formula One World Championship|1997 Formula One World Champion]] [[Jacques Villeneuve]] and eleven-time Formula One race winner [[Felipe Massa]] have raced for the team previously.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hensby |first1=Paul |title=Villeneuve joins Sarrazin at Venturi Grand Prix |url=https://www.thecheckeredflag.co.uk/2015/08/villeneuve-joins-sarrazin-at-venturi-grand-prix/ |website=thecheckeredflag.co.uk |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Topher |title=VENTURI ANNOUNCES MASSA FOR SEASON FIVE |url=https://www.e-racing.net/2018/05/15/venturi-announces-massa-for-season-five/ |website=e-racing.net |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref> Ten-time [[Guia Circuit|Macau]] winner [[Edoardo Mortara]] and [[2020 24 Hours of Le Mans]] podium finisher [[Norman Nato]] currently race for the team.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kew |first1=Matt |title=Nato to replace ex-F1 driver Massa at Venturi for 2020-21 Formula E season |url=https://www.autosport.com/formula-e/news/nato-to-replace-ex-f1-driver-massa-at-venturi-for-2020-21-formula-e-season-4978134/4978134/ |website=Autosport.com |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref>

=== Monte Carlo Rally ===
Since 1911 part of the [[Monte Carlo Rally]] has been held in the principality, originally held at the behest of [[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Prince Albert I]]. Like the Grand Prix, the rally is organised by [[Automobile Club de Monaco]]. It has long been considered to be one of the toughest and most prestigious events in [[rallying]] and from 1973 to 2008 was the opening round of the [[World Rally Championship]] (WRC).<ref>{{cite web |author=Federall |url=http://www.acm.mc/page-tab-histo.php?id_menu=5&id_sousmenu=27 |title=ACM – Automobile Club de Monaco |publisher=Acm.mc |access-date=6 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109144441/http://www.acm.mc/page-tab-histo.php?id_menu=5&id_sousmenu=27 |archive-date=9 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> From 2009 until 2011, the rally served as the opening round of the [[Intercontinental Rally Challenge]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/motorsport/8238574/Rallye-Monte-Carlo-Historique.html |title=Rallye Monte Carlo Historique |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |access-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> The rally returned to the WRC calendar in 2012 and has been held annually since.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wrc.com/news/2012-world-rally-championship-events-announced/?fid=14515 |title=2012 World Rally Championship events announced |publisher=wrc.com |date=27 April 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119134015/http://www.wrc.com/news/2012-world-rally-championship-events-announced/?fid=14515 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Due to Monaco's limited size, all but the ending of the rally is held on French territory.

=== Football ===
[[File:Panoramio - V&A Dudush - stade Louis II.jpg|thumb|left|[[Stade Louis II]], home of [[AS Monaco FC]]]]
Monaco hosts two major football teams in the principality: the men's football club, [[AS Monaco FC]], and the women's football club, OS Monaco. AS Monaco plays at the [[Stade Louis II]] and competes in [[Ligue 1]] the first division of [[French football]]. The club is historically one of the most successful clubs in the French league, having won Ligue 1 eight times (most recently in [[2016–17 Ligue 1|2016–17]]) and competed at the top level for all but six seasons since 1953. The club reached the [[2004 UEFA Champions League Final]], with a team that included [[Dado Pršo]], [[Fernando Morientes]], [[Jérôme Rothen]], [[Akis Zikos]] and [[Ludovic Giuly]], but lost 3–0 to Portuguese team [[FC Porto]]. French World Cup-winners [[Thierry Henry]], [[Fabien Barthez]], [[David Trezeguet]], and [[Kylian Mbappe]] have played for the club. The Stade Louis II also played host to the annual [[UEFA Super Cup]] (1998–2012) between the winners of the [[UEFA Champions League]] and the [[UEFA Europa League]].

The women's team, OS Monaco, competes in the women's [[French football league system]]. The club plays in the local regional league, deep down in the league system. It once played in the [[Division 1 Féminine]], in the 1994–95 season, but was quickly relegated.

The [[Monaco national football team]] represents the nation in [[association football]] and is controlled by the [[Monégasque Football Federation]], the governing body for [[football in Monaco]]. However, Monaco is one of only two sovereign states in Europe (along with the [[Vatican City]]) that is not a member of [[UEFA]] and so does not take part in any [[UEFA European Football Championship]] or [[FIFA World Cup]] competitions. The team plays its home matches in the Stade Louis II.

=== Rugby ===
{{Main|Rugby union in Monaco}}
[[Monaco national rugby union team|Monaco's national rugby team]], as of April 2019, is 101st in the [[World Rugby Rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.world.rugby/rankings/mru |title=Men's Rankings |publisher=[[World Rugby]] |date=14 April 2019 |access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref>

=== Basketball ===
Multi-sport club [[AS Monaco FC|AS Monaco]] owns [[AS Monaco Basket]] which was founded in 1928. They play in the French top flight in Basketball [[LNB Pro A]] while participating in the [[EuroCup Basketball|EuroCup]]. They have three [[LNB Pro A Leaders Cup|Pro A Leaders Cup]], two [[LNB Pro B|Pro B]] (Second tier), and one [[Nationale Masculine 1|NM1]] (Third tier) championship. They play in [[Salle Gaston Médecin]], which is part of [[Stade Louis II]].

=== Other sports ===
[[File:2011 Monaco Porsche Supercup.jpg|thumb|left|A view of the 2011 Monaco Porsche Supercup. Motor racing is very popular, with one course encompassing almost the whole country.]]

The [[Monte-Carlo Masters]] is held annually in neighbouring [[Roquebrune-Cap-Martin]], France, as a professional tournament for men as part of tennis's [[ATP Tour Masters 1000|ATP Masters Series]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monte-carlorolexmasters.com/About/Tournament-Fact-Sheet.aspx |title=Tennis – Tournament Fact Sheet |publisher=Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters |date=30 September 2011 |access-date=28 May 2012}}</ref> The tournament has been held since 1897. Golf's [[Monte Carlo Open (golf)|Monte Carlo Open]] was also held at the Monte Carlo Golf Club at Mont Agel in France between 1984 and 1992.

Monaco has a national Davis Cup team, which plays in the European/African Zone.

Monaco has also [[Monaco at the Olympics|competed]] in the Olympic Games, although, no athlete from Monaco has ever won an Olympic medal. At the [[Youth Olympic Games|Youth Olympic Winter Games]], Monaco won a bronze medal in bobsleigh.

The [[2009 Tour de France]], the world's premier cycle race, started from Monaco with a {{convert|15|km|0|adj=mid}} closed-circuit individual time trial starting and finishing there on the first day, and the {{convert|182|km|0|adj=mid}} second leg starting there on the following day and ending in [[Brignoles]], France.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letour.com/2008/TDF/COURSE/us/grand_depart_2009.html |title=Tour de France 2008 – Grand start 2009 |publisher=Letour.com |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116210455/http://www.letour.com/2008/TDF/COURSE/us/grand_depart_2009.html |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Monaco has also staged part of the [[Global Champions Tour]] (International Show-jumping).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalchampionstour.com/events/2012/monte-carlo/ |title=Monte-Carlo |publisher=Global Champions Tour |access-date=6 September 2012 |archive-date=20 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920002331/http://globalchampionstour.com/events/2012/monte-carlo/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2009, the Monaco stage of the Global Champions tour took place between 25 and 27 June.

The [[Monaco Marathon]] is the only marathon in the world to pass through three countries, those of Monaco, France and Italy, before the finish at the [[Stade Louis II]].

The Monaco Ironman 70.3 triathlon race is an annual event with over 1,000 athletes competing and attracts top professional athletes from around the world. The race includes a {{convert|1.9|km|1|adj=mid|abbr=off}} swim, {{convert|90|km|0|adj=mid|abbr=off}} bike ride and {{convert|21.1|km|1|adj=mid|abbr=off}} run.

Since 1993, the headquarters of the [[International Association of Athletics Federations]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/headquarter/index.html |title=Headquarters |publisher=iaaf.org |date=10 June 1994 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605031229/http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/headquarter/index.html |archive-date=5 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the world governing body of [[athletics (sport)|athletics]], is located in Monaco.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/index.html |title=Inside IAAF Intro |publisher=iaaf.org |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604054507/http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/index.html |archive-date=4 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> An IAAF Diamond League meet is annually held at Stade Louis II.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diamondleague-monaco.com/en/Home/ |title=Usain BOLT and Yelena ISINBAEVA for Herculis |publisher=Diamondleague-monaco.com |date=30 April 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-date=2 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502190102/http://www.diamondleague-monaco.com/en/Home/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

A municipal sports complex, the [[Rainier III Nautical Stadium]] in the [[Port Hercules]] district consists of a heated saltwater [[Olympic-size swimming pool]], diving boards and a slide.<ref name="Mon">{{cite web|title=Rainer III Nautical Stadium|url=http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/en/langues-etrangeres/events-entertainment/rainier-iii-nautical-stadium/|work=Marie de Monaco – Rainier III Nautical Stadium|publisher=Marie de Monaco|access-date=25 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517044436/http://www.monaco-mairie.mc/en/langues-etrangeres/events-entertainment/rainier-iii-nautical-stadium/|archive-date=17 May 2013}}</ref> The pool is converted into an [[ice rink]] from December to March.<ref name="Mon"/>

In addition to Formula One, the Circuit de Monaco hosts several support series, including [[FIA Formula 2 Championship|FIA Formula 2]] and [[Porsche Supercup]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=78th Monaco Grand Prix 2021|url=https://www.monacograndprixticket.com/formula1monaco/|access-date=18 December 2020|website=www.monacograndprixticket.com|language=en-EN}}</ref> It has in the past also hosted Formula Three and other Formula Junior programs.

From 10 to 12 July 2014 Monaco inaugurated the Solar1 Monte Carlo Cup, a series of ocean races exclusively for solar-powered boats.<ref>The Riviera Times, Issue 148, July 2014</ref>,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.solar1races.com/wp-content/uploads/Solar1Magazine.pdf|title=Monte-Carlo Cup|website=Solar1races.com|access-date=3 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010190230/http://www.solar1races.com/wp-content/uploads/Solar1Magazine.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The women team of the chess club CE Monte Carlo won the [[European Chess Club Cup]] several times.

[[File:Hafen und Felsen von Monaco-La Turbie.jpg|thumb|center|750px|upright=3.2|<div style="text-align: center;">Panoramic view of [[Monaco City]] and the port of [[Fontvieille, Monaco|Fontvieille]]</div>]]

== Culture ==

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Monégasque cuisine}}

The cuisine of Monaco is a Mediterranean cuisine shaped by the cooking style of Provence and the influences of nearby northern Italian and southern French cooking, in addition to Monaco’s own culinary traditions.

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Monaco}}
[[File:Monaco - panoramio (68).jpg|thumb|Seaside façade of the Salle Garnier, home of the [[Opéra de Monte-Carlo]]]]
Monaco has an [[Opéra de Monte-Carlo|opera house]], a [[Monte-Carlo Philharmonic Orchestra|symphony orchestra]] and a [[Les Ballets de Monte Carlo|classical ballet company]].<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|url=http://www.everyculture.com/Ma-Ni/Monaco.html|title=Culture of Monaco |work=everyculture.com}}</ref> Monaco participated regularly in the [[Monaco in the Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision Song Contest]] between 1959–1979 and 2004–2006, winning in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1971|1971]], although none of the artists participating for the principality was originally Monegasque.

===Visual arts===
Monaco has a national museum of contemporary visual art at the [[New National Museum of Monaco]]. The country also has numerous works of public art, statues, museums, and memorials (see [[list of public art in Monaco]]).

===Museums in Monaco===
{{Main|List of museums in Monaco}}
[[File:Monaco BW 2011-06-07 17-50-43.jpg|thumb|[[Oceanographic Museum]]]]
* [[Monaco Top Cars Collection]]
* [[Napoleon Museum (Monaco)]]
* [[Oceanographic Museum]]

=== Events, festivals and shows ===
The Principality of Monaco hosts major international events such as :
* [[International Circus Festival of Monte-Carlo]]
* [[Mondial du Théâtre]]
* [[Monte-Carlo Television Festival]]

=== Bread Festival ===
Monaco also has an annual bread festival on 17 September every year.<ref>http://officialmonaco.com/bread-festival-annual-contest-winners {{dead link|date=June 2020}}</ref>

== Education ==
=== Primary and secondary schools ===
[[File:Le Lycée Albert 1er de Monaco.jpg|thumb|[[Lycée Albert Premier]] of Monaco]]
Monaco has ten state-operated schools, including: seven [[Nursery school|nursery]] and [[primary school]]s; one [[secondary school]], Collège Charles III;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.college-charles3.mc/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511103100/http://www.college-charles3.mc/ |archive-date=11 May 2011 |title=Collège Charles III |publisher=College-charles3.mc |access-date=28 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> one [[Secondary education in France|''lycée'']] that provides general and technological training, [[Lycee Albert Premier|Lycée Albert 1er]];<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lycee-albert1er.mc/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722170522/http://www.lycee-albert1er.mc/ |archive-date=22 July 2011 |title=Lycée Albert 1er |publisher=Lycee-albert1er.mc |access-date=28 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and one lycée that provides vocational and hotel training, Lycée technique et hôtelier de Monte-Carlo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lycée technique et hôtelier de Monte-Carlo |url=http://www.lycee-technique.mc/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722170522/http://www.lycee-technique.mc/ |archive-date=22 July 2011 |location=Monaco |language=fr |access-date=23 May 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are also two grant-aided denominational private schools, Institution François d'Assise Nicolas Barré and Ecole des Sœurs Dominicaines, and one [[international school]], the [[International School of Monaco]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ismonaco.org/|title=The International School Of Monaco|work=ismonaco.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Education System|url=http://www.monaco-consulate-uk.gouv.mc/315UK/wwwnew.nsf/1909$/e72b5e7946917f37c1257339004c433dgb?OpenDocument&2Gb#EDUCATION%20SYSTEM|access-date=15 February 2013}}</ref> founded in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|title=School Website|url=https://www.ismonaco.org/history-ism|access-date=19 April 2017}}</ref>

=== Colleges and universities ===
There is one university located in Monaco, namely the [[International University of Monaco]] (IUM), an English-language school specializing in business education and operated by the ''Institut des hautes études économiques et commerciales'' (INSEEC) group of schools.

== Flag ==
{{Main|Flag of Monaco}}
[[File:Coat of arms and flag of Monaco.jpg|thumb|right|Monaco's flag and its [[coat of arms]]]]
The flag of Monaco is one of the world's oldest national flag designs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldflags101.com/m/monaco-flag.aspx|title=Monaco Flag - World Flags 101 - Monacan Flags|website=Worldflags101.com}}</ref> Adopted by Monaco on 4 April 1881, it is almost identical to the [[flag of Indonesia]] (adopted by Indonesia on 17 August 1945) except for the ratio of height to width.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldflags101.com/m/monaco-flag.aspx |title=Monaco Flag |publisher=Worldflags101.com |access-date=2 July 2011}}</ref>

== Transport ==
{{Main|Transport in Monaco}}
{{further|Rail transport in Monaco}}
The [[Rail transport in Monaco|Monaco-Monte Carlo station]] is served by the [[SNCF]], the French national rail system. The [[Monaco Heliport]] provides helicopter service to the closest airport, [[Nice Côte d'Azur Airport|Côte d'Azur Airport]] in Nice, France.

The Monaco bus company (CAM) covers all the tourist attractions, museums, [[Jardin Exotique de Monaco|Exotic garden]], business centres, and the Casino or the Louis II Stadium.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.visitmonaco.com/en/7524/getting-around-by-bus|title=Getting around by bus|website=www.visitmonaco.com|access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref>

==Relations with other countries==
{{main|Foreign relations of Monaco}}
[[File:Monacoc1890.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Rock of Monaco]] in 1890]]
Monaco is so old that it has outlived many of the nations and institutions that it has had relations with. The [[Crown of Aragon]] and [[Republic of Genoa]] became a part of other countries, as did the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]]. [[Honoré II, Prince of Monaco]] secured recognition of his independent [[sovereignty]] from [[Spain]] in 1633, and then from [[Louis XIII]] of France by the [[Treaty of Péronne (1641)]].

Monaco made a special agreement with France in 1963 in which French customs laws apply in Monaco and its territorial waters.<ref name="state.gov"/> Monaco uses the [[euro]] but is not a member of the European Union.<ref name="state.gov"/> Monaco shares a {{convert|6|km|mi|adj=mid|abbr=off}} border with France but also has about {{convert|2|km|mi|1|adj=mid|abbr=off}} of coastline with the Mediterranean sea.<ref name="Monaco">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/monaco/|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov}}</ref> Two important agreements that support Monaco's independence from France include the [[Franco-Monégasque Treaties|Franco-Monégasque Treaty]] of 1861 and the [[Monaco succession crisis of 1918#French Treaty of 1918|French Treaty of 1918]] (see also [[Kingdom of Sardinia]]). The United States CIA Factbook records 1419 as the year of Monaco's independence.<ref name="Monaco"/>

*[[France–Monaco relations|France-Monaco relations]]
*[[Monaco–United States relations]]
*[[Monaco–Russia relations]]
[[File:Ambassade de Monaco en France, 22 boulevard Suchet, Paris 16e.jpg|thumb|Embassy of Monaco, Paris, France]]
There are two embassies in Monaco: those of France and Italy.<ref name="embassypages.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.embassypages.com/monaco|title=Monaco – Embassies and Consulates|work=embassypages.com}}</ref> There are about another 30 or so [[consulates]].<ref name="embassypages.com"/> By the 21st century Monaco maintained embassies in Belgium (Brussels), France (Paris), Germany (Berlin), the Vatican, Italy (Rome), Spain (Madrid), Switzerland (Bern), United Kingdom (London) and the United States (Washington).<ref name="embassypages.com"/>

In the year 2000 nearly two-thirds of the residents of Monaco were foreigners.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Monaco.aspx|title=Monaco|encyclopedia=encyclopedia.com}}</ref> In 2015 the immigrant population was estimated at 60%<ref name="Monaco"/> However, it is reported to be difficult to gain citizenship in Monaco, or at least in relative number there are not many people who do so.<ref name="auto2"/> In 2015 an immigration rate of about 4 people per 1,000 was noted, which works out to about 100–150 people a year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2112.html|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov|access-date=8 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905103734/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2112.html|archive-date=5 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> The population of Monaco went from 35,000 in 2008 to 36,000 in 2013, and of that about 20 percent were native Monegasque<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.populationfun.com/monaco-population/|title=Monaco|work=populationfun.com}}</ref> (see also [[Nationality law of Monaco]]).

A recurring issue Monaco encounters with other countries is the attempt by foreign nationals to use Monaco to avoid paying taxes in their own country.<ref name="Monaco"/> Monaco actually collects a number of taxes including a 20% VAT and 33% on companies unless they make over 75% of their income inside Monaco.<ref name="Monaco"/> Monaco does not allow dual citizenship but does have multiple paths to citizenship including by declaration and naturalisation.<ref name="Residency">{{cite web|url=http://flagtheory.com/monaco-residency/|title=Principality of Monaco|work=flagtheory.com}}</ref> In many cases the key issue for obtaining citizenship, rather than attaining residency in Monaco, is the person's ties to their departure country.<ref name="Residency"/> For example, French citizens must still pay taxes to France even if they live full-time in Monaco unless they resided in the country before 1962 for at least 5 years.<ref name="Residency"/> In the early 1960s there was some tension between France and Monaco over taxation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.finance-watch.org/hot-topics/blog/1074-lesson-from-history-monaco-crisis|title=Lessons from history – The Monaco crisis from 1962–1963 and the emancipation of tax havens |author=Charlotte Geiger|work=finance-watch.org}}</ref>

There are no border formalities entering or leaving France. For visitors, a souvenir [[passport]] stamp is available on request at Monaco's tourist office. This is located on the far side of the gardens that face the Casino.

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;line-height:1.2"
|-valign="bottom"
! Microstate
! [[European Union Association Agreement|Association Agreement]]
! [[Eurozone]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The euro outside the euro area |publisher=[[Europa (web portal)]] |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/world/outside_euro_area/index_en.htm |access-date=26 February 2011}}</ref>
! [[Schengen Area]]
! [[Internal Market|EU single market]]
! [[European Union Customs Union|EU customs territory]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exporthelp.europa.eu/thdapp/display.htm?page=rt/rt_EUCustomsUnion.html&docType=main&languageId=EN|title=EU Customs Union|access-date=18 June 2015|publisher=[[European Commission]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619052718/http://exporthelp.europa.eu/thdapp/display.htm?page=rt%2Frt_EUCustomsUnion.html&docType=main&languageId=EN|archive-date=19 June 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
! [[European Union Value Added Tax Area|EU VAT area]]<ref name="VAT">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/common/travellers/within_eu/faq_1179_en.htm|title=Taxation and Customs Union – Within the EU|access-date=9 September 2012|publisher=[[European Commission]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111165632/http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/common/travellers/within_eu/faq_1179_en.htm|archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref>
! [[Dublin Regulation]]
|-
|{{MCO}} ([[Monaco–European Union relations|relations]])
|{{No|Negotiating}}<ref name=AANEG>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/video/player.cfm?ref=I100473|title=RECORDED HRVP Federica MOGHERINI host the ceremony on the occasion of the launching of the Association Agreement(s) negotiations with the Principality of Andorra, the Principality of Monaco and the Republic of San Marino|date=18 March 2015|access-date=18 March 2015|publisher=[[European Commission]]}}</ref>
|{{Yes|[[Monegasque euro coins|Yes]]}}{{efn|[[International status and usage of the euro#Sovereign states|Monetary agreement with the EU]] to issue euros.|name=euros}}
|{{Partial|de facto}}{{efn|Although not a contracting party to the [[Schengen Agreement]], has an [[Schengen Area#Status of the European microstates|open border with France]] and Schengen laws are administered as if it were a part of France.<ref name=obstacles>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=SWD:2012:0388:FIN:EN:HTML|title=Obstacles to access by Andorra, Monaco and San Marino to the EU's Internal Market and Cooperation in other Areas|date=2012|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:41998D0019:EN:HTML|title= The Schengen acquis – Decision of the Executive Committee of 23 June 1998 on Monegasque residence permits|date=22 September 2000|access-date=9 September 2012|journal=[[Official Journal of the European Union]]}}</ref>}}
|{{Partial}}{{efn|Through an agreement with France.<ref>[http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/11/st11/st11466.en11.pdf EU relations with the Principality of Andorra, the Republic of San Marino and the Principality of Monaco]: "If France adopts internal legislation transposing EU directives in certain areas covered by bilateral Agreements with Monaco, the Principality directly applies the French legislation in certain areas"</ref>}}
|{{Yes}}{{efn|Through an [[Franco-Monegasque Treaty|agreement]] with France. Part of the EU Customs territory, administered as part of France.<ref name=obstacles/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/common/faq/faq_1178_en.htm|title=Taxation and Customs – FAQ|publisher=[[European Commission]]|access-date=12 September 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608000239/http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/common/faq/faq_1178_en.htm|archive-date=8 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1992:302:0001:0050:EN:PDF|title=Council Regulation (EEC) No 2913/92 of 12 October 1992 establishing the Community Customs Code|journal=[[Official Journal of the European Union]]|date=19 October 1992|access-date=12 September 2012}}</ref><ref name=euterritory/>|name=France}}
|{{Yes}}{{efn|Also part of the EU excise territory.<ref name=euterritory>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/customs/procedural_aspects/general/sad/guide/1619-08annexi_en.pdf|title=Annex 1: Overview of European Union countries|publisher=[[European Commission]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140504214400/http://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/resources/documents/customs/procedural_aspects/general/sad/guide/1619-08annexi_en.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2014}}</ref>}}{{efn|Through an agreement with France. Administered as a part of France for taxation purposes.<ref name="VAT"/><ref name=obstacles/><ref name=euterritory/><ref name="excise">{{cite journal|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:009:0012:0030:EN:PDF|title=COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2008/118/EC of 16 December 2008 concerning the general arrangements for excise duty and repealing Directive 92/12/EEC|date=14 January 2009|access-date=10 September 2012|journal=[[Official Journal of the European Union]]}}</ref>}}
|{{No}}
|-
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Monaco|Geography|Europe}}

{{div col|colwidth=20em|small=yes}}
* [[Japanese Garden, Monaco]]
* [[Telecommunications in Monaco]]
* [[Outline of Monaco]]
* [[Foreign relations of Monaco]]
* [[Monaco–European Union relations]]
* [[Microstates and the European Union]]
* [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density]]
* [[List of rulers of Monaco]]
* [[List of diplomatic missions in Monaco]]
* [[List of diplomatic missions of Monaco]]
* [[ISO 3166-2:MC]]
{{div col end}}
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist|20em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Monaco}}
; Government
* [http://www.gouv.mc/ Official Government Portal]
* [http://www.palais.mc/ Official website of the Prince's Palace of Monaco]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/MN.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
* [http://www.gouv.mc/content/download/175997/2030403/file/monaco%20statistics%20pocket%202014.pdf Monaco Statistics Pocket – Edition 2014]

; General information
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/monaco/ Monaco]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085244/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/monaco.htm Monaco] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{curlie|Regional/Europe/Monaco}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17615784 Monaco] from the [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.monacodailynews.com/ MonacoDailyNews – Latest Daily News] English-language Monaco news source and publisher of daily newsletter Good Morning Monaco.
* [http://www.monaco.me/ Monaco] information about Monaco
* [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Monaco:_Primary_Documents History of Monaco: Primary documents]
* {{Wikiatlas|Monaco}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|1124039}}
* [https://www.google.com/maps/place/Monaco/@43.7378666,7.4170977,3465m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x12cdc26f7b3f8531:0x74f7784c3ac49cfc!8m2!3d43.7384176!4d7.4246158?hl=en Google Earth view]

; Travel
* [http://www.visitmonaco.com/ Official website for Tourism]

; Other
*[http://www.ordremedecins.mc/ Order of the doctors of Monaco] {{in lang|fr}}
*[http://www.monacolife.net/ Monacolife.net] English news portal
*[http://www.monacotimes.com/ The Monaco Times] – a regular feature in The Riviera Times is the English language newspaper for the French – Italian Riviera and the Principality of Monaco provides monthly local news and information about the business, art and culture, people and lifestyle, events and also the real estate market.
*[http://www.monaco-iq.com/ Monaco-IQ] Monaco information and news aggregator

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Crab

2021-05-10T15:29:50Z

Macedonian: Reverted good faith edits by 81.170.124.89 (talk): Unsourced

{{Other uses}}
{{short description|Infraorder of crustaceans}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Crab
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Early Jurassic|Present}}
| image = Liocarcinus_vernalis.jpg
| image_caption = Grey swimming crab ''[[Liocarcinus vernalis]]''
| taxon = Brachyura
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| subdivision_ranks = Sections and subsections<ref name="Grave">{{cite journal|journal=[[Raffles Bulletin of Zoology]] |year=2009 |volume=Suppl. 21 |pages=1–109 |title=A classification of living and fossil genera of decapod crustaceans |author1=Sammy De Grave |author2=N. Dean Pentcheff |author3=Shane T. Ahyong |url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s21/s21rbz1-109.pdf |display-authors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606064728/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s21/s21rbz1-109.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-06 }}</ref>
| subdivision = * [[Dromiacea]]
* [[Raninoida]]
* [[Cyclodorippoida]]
* [[Eubrachyura]]
** [[Heterotremata]]
** [[Thoracotremata]]
}}
'''Crabs''' are [[Decapoda|decapod]] [[crustacean]]s of the [[infraorder]] '''Brachyura''', which typically have a very short projecting "[[tail]]" ([[abdomen#Other animals|abdomen]]) ({{lang-el|[[:wikt:βραχύς|βραχύς]] |translit=brachys}} = short,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbraxu%2Fs |title=βραχύς |author1=Henry George Liddell |author2=Robert Scott |work=A Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=[[Perseus Digital Library]] |access-date=2010-05-24}}</ref> {{lang|el|[[:wikt:οὐρά|οὐρά]]}} / {{lang|el-Latn|οura}} = tail<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dou%29ra%2F |title=οὐρά |author1=Henry George Liddell |author2=Robert Scott |work=A Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=[[Perseus Digital Library]] |access-date=2010-05-24}}</ref>), usually hidden entirely under the [[thorax]]. They live in all the world's oceans, in fresh water, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. Many other animals with similar names – such as [[hermit crab]]s, [[king crab]]s, [[porcelain crab]]s, [[horseshoe crab]]s, stone crabs, and [[crab louse|crab lice]] – are not true crabs, but many have evolved features similar to true crabs through a process known as [[carcinisation]].

==Description==
[[File:Gecarcinus quadratus (Nosara).jpg|thumb|left|''[[Gecarcinus quadratus]]'', a [[land crab]] from [[Central America]]]]
Crabs are generally covered with a thick [[exoskeleton]], composed primarily of highly mineralized [[chitin]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1=F. Boßelmann |author2=P. Romano |author3=H. Fabritius |author4=D. Raabe |author5=M. Epple |date=October 25, 2007 |title=The composition of the exoskeleton of two crustacea: The American lobster Homarus americanus and the edible crab ''Cancer pagurus'' |journal=[[Thermochimica Acta]] |volume=463 |issue=1–2 |pages=65–68 |doi=10.1016/j.tca.2007.07.018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=P. Chen |author2=A.Y. Lin |author3=J. McKittrick |author4=M.A. Meyers |date=May 2008 |title=Structure and mechanical properties of crab exoskeletons |journal=[[Acta Biomaterialia]] |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=587–596 |doi=10.1016/j.actbio.2007.12.010|pmid=18299257 }}</ref> and armed with a pair of [[chela (organ)|chelae]] (claws). Crabs vary in size from the [[pea crab]], a few millimeters wide, to the [[Japanese spider crab]], with a leg span up to {{convert|4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://na.oceana.org/en/explore/creatures/japanese-spider-crab |title=Japanese spider crab ''Macrocheira kaempferi'' |publisher=[[Oceana (non-profit group)|Oceana North America]] |access-date=2009-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114041143/http://na.oceana.org/en/explore/creatures/japanese-spider-crab |archive-date=2009-11-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Environment==
Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, as well as in [[fresh water]] and on [[Land crab|land]], particularly in [[tropical]] regions. About 850 [[species]] are [[freshwater crabs]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Richard von Sternberg |author2=Neil Cumberlidge |year=2001 |title=On the heterotreme-thoracotreme distinction in the Eubrachyura De Saint Laurent, 1980 (Decapoda: Brachyura) |journal=[[Crustaceana]] |volume=74 |pages=321–338 |doi=10.1163/156854001300104417 |issue=4|url=http://decapoda.nhm.org/pdfs/11802/11802.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.493.6718 }}</ref>

== Sexual dimorphism ==
[[File:Pachygrapsus marmoratus male female.png|thumb|right|The underside of a male (top) and a female (bottom) individual of ''[[Pachygrapsus marmoratus]]'', showing the difference in shape of the abdomen]]
Crabs often show marked [[sexual dimorphism]]. Males often have larger [[Chela (organ)|claws]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sms.si.edu/irLspec/Pachyg_transv.htm |title=''Pachygrapsus transversus'' |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=2010-01-20 |author=L. H. Sweat |date=August 21, 2009}}</ref> a tendency that is particularly pronounced in the [[fiddler crab]]s of the genus ''Uca'' ([[Ocypodidae]]). In fiddler crabs, males have one greatly enlarged claw used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.09.004 |author1=Martin J. How |author2=Jan M. Hemmi |author3=Jochen Zeil |author4=Richard Peters |url=http://richard.eriophora.com.au/pubs/pdf/HowHemmiZeilPeters-07.pdf |title=Claw waving display changes with receiver distance in fiddler crabs, ''Uca perplexa'' |journal=[[Animal Behaviour (journal)|Animal Behaviour]] |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=1015–1022 |year=2008|s2cid=44197123 }}</ref> Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon ([[abdomen]]); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Post-larval development and sexual dimorphism of the spider crab ''Maja brachydactyla'' (Brachyura: Majidae) |author1=Guillermo Guerao |author2=Guiomar Rotllant |journal=[[Scientia Marina]] |volume=73 |issue=4 |year=2009 |pages=797–808 |doi=10.3989/scimar.2009.73n4797 |url=http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/19120/3/1148.pdf|doi-access=free }}</ref> This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their [[pleopod]]s.

==Reproduction and lifecycle==
[[File:Crab (Pachygrapsus marmoratus) on Istrian coast (Adriatic sea).jpg|thumbnail|left|Crab (''Pachygrapsus marmoratus'') on Istrian coast, [[Adriatic Sea]]]]
Crabs attract a mate through chemical ([[pheromone]]s), visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while [[terrestrial crab|terrestrial]] and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, such as [[fiddler crab]] males waving their large claws to attract females. The vast number of brachyuran crabs have [[internal fertilisation]] and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft. Females can store the [[sperm]] for a long time before using it to fertilise their [[ovum|eggs]]. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the female's abdomen, below the tail flap, secured with a sticky material. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development. Females carrying eggs are called "berried" since the eggs resemble round berries.

When development is complete, the female releases the newly hatched [[crustacean larvae|larvae]] into the water, where they are part of the [[plankton]]. The release is often timed with the [[tide|tidal]] and light/dark diel cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forward|first=Jr., Richard B.|date=1987-09-01|title=Larval Release Rhythms of Decapod Crustaceans: An Overview|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1987/00000041/00000002/art00006|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|volume=41|issue=2|pages=165–176}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ricardo|first1=Gerard F.|last2=Davis|first2=Andrew R.|last3=Knott|first3=Nathan A.|last4=Minchinton|first4=Todd E.|date=2014-04-01|title=Diel and tidal cycles regulate larval dynamics in salt marshes and mangrove forests|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-013-2376-4|journal=Marine Biology|language=en|volume=161|issue=4|pages=769–784|doi=10.1007/s00227-013-2376-4|s2cid=84260279|issn=1432-1793}}</ref> The free-swimming tiny [[Zoea|zoea larvae]] can float and take advantage of water currents. They have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals. The zoea of most species must find food, but some crabs provide enough [[Egg yolk|yolk]] in the eggs that the larval stages can continue to live off the yolk.
[[File:Xantho poressa 2009 G1.jpg|thumb|right|Female crab ''[[Xantho poressa]]'' at spawning time in the [[Black Sea]], carrying eggs under her abdomen]]
[[File:Grapsus tenuicrustatus - hawaii - 2015-11-01.webm|thumb|right|A [[grapsus|Grapsus tenuicrustatus]] climbing up a rock in [[Hawaii]]]]

Each species has a particular number of zoeal stages, separated by [[Ecdysis|moults]], before they change into a [[megalopa]] stage, which resembles an adult crab, except for having the abdomen (tail) sticking out behind. After one more moult, the crab is a [[Juvenile (organism)|juvenile]], living on the bottom rather than floating in the water. This last moult, from megalopa to juvenile, is critical, and it must take place in a habitat that is suitable for the juvenile to survive.<ref name="Weis">{{cite book |author=Judith S. Weis |year=2012 |title=Walking Sideways: The Remarkable World of Crabs |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-0-8014-5050-1 |oclc=794640315}}</ref>{{rp|63–77}}

Most species of terrestrial crabs must [[Animal migration|migrate]] down to the ocean to release their larvae; in some cases, this entails very extensive migrations. After living for a short time as larvae in the ocean, the juveniles must do this migration in reverse. In many tropical areas with land crabs, these migrations often result in considerable [[roadkill]] of migrating crabs.<ref name="Weis"/>{{rp|113–114}}

Once crabs have become juveniles, they still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults. They are covered with a hard shell, which would otherwise prevent growth. The moult cycle is coordinated by [[hormone]]s. When preparing for moult, the old shell is softened and partly eroded away, while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it. At the time of moulting, the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the [[carapace]]. The crab must then extract all of itself – including its legs, [[Arthropod mouthparts|mouthparts]], [[eyestalk]]s, and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract – from the old shell. This is a difficult process that takes many hours, and if a crab gets stuck, it will die. After freeing itself from the old shell (now called an [[exuvia]]), the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened. While the new shell is still soft, the crab can expand it to make room for future growth.<ref name="Weis" />{{rp|78–79}}

==Behaviour==
[[File:Carpilius convexus is consuming Heterocentrotus trigonarius in Hawaii.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Carpilius convexus]]'' consuming ''[[Heterocentrotus trigonarius]]'' in Hawaii]]
Crabs typically walk sideways<ref name="Sleinis">{{cite journal |title=Locomotion in a forward walking crab |author1=Sally Sleinis |author2=Gerald E. Silvey |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A |volume=136 |issue=4 |year=1980 |doi=10.1007/BF00657350 |pages=301–312|s2cid=33455459 }}</ref> (a behaviour which gives us the word [[wikt:crabwise|crabwise]]), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient.<ref name="Vidal-Gadea">{{cite journal |title=Skeletal adaptations for forwards and sideways walking in three species of decapod crustaceans |author1=A. G. Vidal-Gadea |author2=M.D. Rinehart |author3=J.H. Belanger |journal=[[Arthropod Structure & Development]] |volume=37 |issue=2 |date=March 2008 |pmid= 18089130 |pages=179–194 |doi=10.1016/j.asd.2007.06.002}}</ref> However, some crabs walk forwards or backwards, including [[Raninidae|raninids]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Spanner crab ''Ranina ranina'' |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/recreational/saltwater/sw-species/spanner-crab |publisher=[[New South Wales Department of Primary Industries]] |access-date=2009-01-04 |year=2005 |work=Fishing and Aquaculture}}</ref> ''[[Libinia emarginata]]''<ref>{{cite journal |title=Muscular anatomy of the legs of the forward walking crab, ''Libinia emarginata'' (Decapoda, Brachyura, Majoidea) |author1=A. G. Vidal-Gadea |author2=J. H. Belanger |journal=[[Arthropod Structure & Development]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |year=2009 |pmid=19166968 |pages=179–194 |doi=10.1016/j.asd.2008.12.002}}</ref> and ''[[Mictyris platycheles]]''.<ref name="Sleinis"/> Some crabs, notably the [[Portunidae]] and [[Matutidae]], are also capable of swimming,<ref name="Ng">{{cite journal|journal=[[Raffles Bulletin of Zoology]] |year=2008 |volume=17 |pages=1–286 |title=Systema Brachyurorum: Part I. An annotated checklist of extant Brachyuran crabs of the world |author=Peter K. L. Ng, [[Danièle Guinot]] & Peter J. F. Davie |url=http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s17/s17rbz.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606061453/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/s17/s17rbz.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-06 }}</ref> the [[Portunidae]] especially so as their last pair of walking legs is flattened into swimming paddles.<ref name="Weis" />{{rp|96}}

Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns such as communicating by drumming or waving their [[Chela (organ)|pincers]]. Crabs tend to be aggressive towards one another, and males often fight to gain access to females.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Crab (animal) |title=Encarta |year=2005 |publisher=[[Microsoft]]|title-link=Encarta }}</ref> On rocky [[shore|seashores]], where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Miles Kelly Book of Life |location=[[Great Bardfield]], [[Essex]] |publisher=[[Miles Kelly Publishing]] |year=2006 |pages=512 |isbn=978-1-84236-715-5}}</ref> [[Fiddler crab]]s (genus ''Uca'') dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.<ref name="Weis"/>{{rp|28–29, 99}}

Crabs are [[omnivore]]s, feeding primarily on [[alga]]e,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00288330.1993.9516571 |title=Natural diet of the crab ''Notomithrax ursus'' (Brachyura, Majidae) at Oaro, South Island, New Zealand |author=Chris M. C. Woods |journal=[[New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research]] |year=1993 |volume=27 |pages=309–315 |url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjmfr/1993/29.php |issue=3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708235203/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjmfr/1993/29.php |archive-date=2008-07-08 }}</ref> and taking any other food, including [[mollusc]]s, [[worm]]s, other [[crustacean]]s, [[fungi]], [[bacteria]], and [[detritus]], depending on their availability and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest [[fitness (biology)|fitness]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Robin Kennish |year=1996 |title=Diet composition influences the fitness of the herbivorous crab ''Grapsus albolineatus'' |journal=[[Oecologia]] |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=22–29 |doi=10.1007/BF00328787|pmid=28307118 |bibcode=1996Oecol.105...22K |s2cid=24146814 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Diet choice in an omnivorous salt-marsh crab: different food types, body size, and habitat complexity |author1=Tracy L. Buck |author2=Greg A. Breed |author3=Steven C. Pennings |author4=Margo E. Chase |author5=Martin Zimmer |author6=Thomas H. Carefoot |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology]] |year=2003 |volume=292 |issue=1 |pages=103–116 |doi=10.1016/S0022-0981(03)00146-1}}</ref> However, some species are more specialised in their diets. Some eat plankton, some eat primarily shellfish such as clams, and some even catch fish.<ref name="Weis"/>{{rp|85}}

Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=[[Danièle Guinot]] & J.–M. Bouchard |year=1998 |title=Evolution of the abdominal holding systems of brachyuran crabs (Crustacea, Decapoda, Brachyura) |journal=[[Zoosystema]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=613–694 |url=http://www.mnhn.fr/publication/zoosyst/z98n4a4.html |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061118171555/http://www.mnhn.fr/publication/zoosyst/z98n4a4.html |archive-date=2006-11-18 }}</ref>

==Human consumption==
===Fisheries===
[[File:The Lobster Pot - a shellfish company from Wales - 2016.webm|thumb|right|A short video on catching and exporting shellfish in [[Wales]].]]
{{Main|Crab fisheries}}
Crabs make up 20% of all marine [[crustacean]]s caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million [[tonne]]s annually. One species, ''[[Portunus trituberculatus]]'', accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important [[taxon|taxa]] include ''[[Portunus pelagicus]]'', several species in the genus ''[[Chionoecetes]]'', the blue crab (''[[Callinectes sapidus]]''), [[Charybdis (genus)|''Charybdis'' spp.]], ''[[Edible crab|Cancer pagurus]]'', the [[Dungeness crab]] (''Metacarcinus magister''), and ''[[Scylla serrata]]'', each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/TabLandArea?tb_ds=Capture&tb_mode=TABLE&tb_act=SELECT&tb_grp=COUNTRY |title=Global Capture Production 1950–2004 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=2006-08-26}}</ref>

In some crab species, meat is harvested by manually twisting and [[Declawing of crabs|pulling off]] one or both claws and returning the live crab to the water in the belief the crab will survive and regenerate the claws.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.myfwc.com/research/saltwater/crustaceans-marine-arthropods/stone-crabs/faq/ |title=Stone Crabs FAQs |access-date=2012-09-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lynsey Patterson |author2=Jaimie T.A. Dick |author3=Robert W. Elwood |date=January 2009 |title=Claw removal and feeding ability in the edible crab, ''Cancer pagurus'': implications for fishery practice |journal=[[Applied Animal Behaviour Science]] |volume=116 |issue=2 |pages=302–305 |doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2008.08.007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071007210836.htm |title=Declawing crabs may lead to their death |access-date=2012-09-21 |website=[[Science Daily]] |author=[[Queen's University, Belfast]] |date=October 10, 2007}}</ref>

===Cookery===
{{see also|Crab meat|List of crab dishes}}
[[File:Crabmasala.jpg|thumb|right|Crab [[masala (spice)|masala]] from [[Karnataka]], [[India]]|alt=Photo of cooked crab in bowl of soup]]
Crabs are prepared and eaten as a dish in many different ways all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as [[soft-shell crab]]; with other species, just the claws or legs are eaten. The latter is particularly common for larger crabs, such as the [[snow crab]]. In many cultures, the [[roe]] of the female crab is also eaten, which usually appears orange or yellow in fertile crabs. This is popular in Southeast Asian cultures, some Mediterranean and Northern European cultures, and on the East, [[Chesapeake Bay|Chesapeake]], and Gulf Coasts of the United States.

In some regions, spices improve the culinary experience. In [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[Indosphere]], [[spice mix|masala]] crab and [[chilli crab]] are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the Chesapeake Bay region, blue crab is often steamed with [[Old Bay Seasoning]]. Alaskan king crab or snow crab legs are usually simply boiled and served with garlic or lemon butter.

For the British dish [[Cancer pagurus#Cookery|dressed crab]], the [[crab meat]] is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding varying amounts of binders, such as egg white, cracker meal, mayonnaise, or mustard, creating a [[crab cake]]. Crabs can also be made into a [[bisque (food)|bisque]], a global dish of French origin which in its authentic form includes in the broth the pulverized shells of the shellfish from which it is made.

[[Crab stick|Imitation crab]], also called [[surimi]], is made from minced fish meat that is crafted and colored to resemble crab meat. While it is sometimes disdained among some elements of the culinary industry as an unacceptably low-quality substitute for real crab, this does not hinder its popularity, especially as a sushi ingredient in Japan and South Korea, and in home cooking, where cost is often a chief concern.<ref name="New York Times">Daniel P. Puzo (February 14, 1985) [http://articles.latimes.com/1985-02-14/food/fo-2740_1_imitation-crab Imitation Crab Draws Criticisms]. ''Los Angeles Times''</ref> Indeed, surimi is an important source of protein in most East and Southeast Asian cultures, appearing in staple ingredients such as fish balls and fish cake.

===Pain===
{{Main|Pain in crustaceans}}
Crabs are often boiled alive. In 2005, Norwegian scientists concluded that crustaceans could not feel pain.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/feb/08/research.highereducation |title=Scientists say lobsters feel no pain |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=February 8, 2005 |author=David Adam}}</ref> However, a study by Bob Elwood and Mirjam Appel of [[Queen's University Belfast|Queens University]] in [[Belfast]], found that hermit crabs reacted to electric shocks. This may indicate that some crustaceans are able to feel and remember pain.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/03/27/crabs.memorypain/ |title=Crabs 'feel and remember pain' suggests new study |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=March 27, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Robert W. Elwood |author2=Mirjam Appel |year=2009 |title=Pain experience in hermit crabs? |journal=[[Animal Behaviour (journal)|Animal Behaviour]] |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=1243–1246 |url=http://forms.mbl.edu/research/services/iacuc/pdf/pain_hermit_crabs.pdf |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.01.028 |s2cid=53197401 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426033110/http://forms.mbl.edu/research/services/iacuc/pdf/pain_hermit_crabs.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-26 }}</ref>

==Evolution==
[[File:Eocarcinus reconstructon.jpg|left|thumb|Reconstruction of ''[[Eocarcinus]],'' the earliest known crab]]
The earliest unambiguous crab [[fossil]]s date from the [[Early Jurassic]], with the oldest being ''[[Eocarcinus]]'' from the early [[Pliensbachian]] of Britain, which likely represents a [[Stem-group|stem-group lineage]], as it lacks several key morphological features that define modern crabs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scholtz|first=Gerhard|date=November 2020|title=Eocarcinus praecursor Withers, 1932 (Malacostraca, Decapoda, Meiura) is a stem group brachyuran|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1467803920301146|journal=Arthropod Structure & Development|language=en|volume=59|pages=100991|doi=10.1016/j.asd.2020.100991|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Carrie E. Schweitzer |author2=Rodney M. Feldmann |year=2010 |title=The oldest Brachyura (Decapoda: Homolodromioidea: Glaessneropsoidea) known to date (Jurassic) |journal=[[Journal of Crustacean Biology]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=251–256 |doi=10.1651/09-3231.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> Most Jurassic crabs are only known from [[Dorsal (anatomy)|dorsal]] (top half of the body) [[Carapace|carapaces]], making it difficult to determine their relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guinot|first=Danièle|date=2019-11-14|title=New hypotheses concerning the earliest brachyurans (Crustacea, Decapoda, Brachyura)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5252/geodiversitas2019v41a22|journal=Geodiversitas|volume=41|issue=1|pages=747|doi=10.5252/geodiversitas2019v41a22|issn=1280-9659|doi-access=free}}</ref> Crabs [[Evolutionary radiation|radiated]] in the [[Late Jurassic]], corresponding with an increase in reef habitats, though they would decline at the end of the Jurassic as the result of the decline of reef ecosystems. Crabs increased in diversity through the Cretaceous and represented the dominant group of [[Decapoda|decapods]] by the end of the period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klompmaker|first=A. A.|last2=Schweitzer|first2=C. E.|last3=Feldmann|first3=R. M.|last4=Kowalewski|first4=M.|date=2013-11-01|title=The influence of reefs on the rise of Mesozoic marine crustaceans|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/41/11/1179-1182/131064|journal=Geology|language=en|volume=41|issue=11|pages=1179–1182|doi=10.1130/G34768.1|issn=0091-7613}}</ref>

The crab [[infraorder]] Brachyura belongs to the group [[Reptantia]], which consists of the walking/crawling decapods ([[lobsters]] and crabs). Brachyura is the [[sister clade]] to the infraorder [[Anomura]], which contains the hermit crabs and relatives. The [[cladogram]] below shows Brachyura's placement within the larger [[order (biology)|order]] [[Decapoda]], from analysis by Wolfe ''et al.'', 2019.<ref name="Wolfe2019">{{cite journal |last1=Wolfe |first1=Joanna M. |last2=Breinholt |first2=Jesse W. |last3=Crandall |first3=Keith A. |last4=Lemmon |first4=Alan R. |last5=Lemmon |first5=Emily Moriarty |last6=Timm |first6=Laura E. |last7=Siddall |first7=Mark E. |last8=Bracken-Grissom |first8=Heather D. |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.0079 |title=A phylogenomic framework, evolutionary timeline and genomic resources for comparative studies of decapod crustaceans |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B | date=24 April 2019 |volume=286 |issue=1901 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2019.0079 |pmid=31014217 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{clade| style=font-size:85%; line-height:85%
|label1='''[[Decapoda]]'''
|1={{clade
|1=[[Dendrobranchiata]] (prawns) [[File:Litopenaeus setiferus.png|50 px]]
|label2=[[Pleocyemata]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Stenopodidea]] (boxer shrimp) [[File:Spongicola venustus.png|50 px]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Procarididea]]
|2=[[Caridea]] (true shrimp) [[File:Macrobrachium sp.jpg|50 px]] }} }}
|label2=[[Reptantia]] (crawling/walking decapods)
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Achelata]] (spiny lobsters, slipper lobsters) [[File:Panulirus argus.png|50 px]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Polychelida]]
|2=[[Astacidea]] (lobsters, crayfish) [[File:Lobster NSRW rotated2.jpg|50 px]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Axiidea]] (mud shrimp, ghost shrimp, or burrowing shrimp)
|2={{clade
|1=[[Gebiidea]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Anomura]] (hermit crabs and others) [[File:Coenobita variabilis.jpg|50 px]]
|2='''[[Brachyura]]''' (crabs) [[File:Charybdis japonica.jpg|50 px]]
}} }} }} }} }} }} }}

Brachyura is separated into several sections, with the [[basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] [[Dromiacea]] diverging the earliest in the evolutionary history, around the [[Late Triassic]] or [[Early Jurassic]]. The group consisting of [[Raninoida]] and [[Cyclodorippoida]] split off next, during the [[Jurassic]] period. The remaining [[clade]] [[Eubrachyura]] then divided during the [[Cretacious]] period into [[Heterotremata]] and [[Thoracotremata]].
A summary of the high-level internal relationships within Brachyura can be shown in the [[cladogram]] below:
<ref name="Ling">{{cite journal |title=Evolutionary History of True Crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura) and the Origin of Freshwater Crabs |author1=Ling Ming Tsang |author2=Christoph D. Schubart |author3=Shane T. Ahyong |author4=Joelle C.Y. Lai |author5=Eugene Y.C. Au |author6=Tin-Yam Chan |author7=Peter K.L. Ng |author8=Ka Hou Chu |journal=[[Molecular Biology and Evolution]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press ]]|volume=31 |issue=5 |year=2014 |pages=1173–1187 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msu068 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="Wolfe2019"/>
{{clade| style=font-size:85%; line-height:85%
|label1='''Brachyura'''
|1={{clade
|1=[[Dromiacea]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Raninoida]]
|2=[[Cyclodorippoida]] }}
|label2=[[Eubrachyura]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Heterotremata]]
|2=[[Thoracotremata]] }} }} }} }}

However, there is a lack of consensus regarding the relationships of the subsequent [[superfamily (taxonomy)|superfamilies]] and [[family (biology)|families]]. The proposed [[cladogram]] below is from analysis by Tsang ''et al'', 2014:<ref name="Ling"/>
{{clade| style=font-size:85%; line-height:85%
|label1='''Brachyura'''
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Dromiacea]]
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Dromioidea]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Dromiidae]] (may be paraphyletic)
|2=[[Dynomenidae]] }}
|label2=[[Homoloidea]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Homolidae]] (paraphyletic)
|2=[[Latreilliidae]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Raninoida]]
|1=[[Raninidae]]
|label2=[[Cyclodorippoida]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Cyclodorippidae]]
|2=[[Cymonomidae]] }} }}
|label2=[[Eubrachyura]]
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Heterotremata]]
|1={{clade
|label1=Freshwater crabs
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Potamoidea]] (Old World freshwater crabs)
|1={{clade
|1=[[Potamonautidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Potamidae]]
|2=[[Gecarcinucidae]] }} }}
|2=[[Pseudothelphusidae]] (New World freshwater crabs) }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Trichodactylidae]] (freshwater crabs)
|2=[[Orithyiidae]] }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Belliidae]]
|2=[[Chasmocarcinidae]] }}
|2=[[Retroplumidae]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Dorippoidea]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Ethusidae]]
|2=[[Dorippidae]] }}
|2=[[Leucosiidae]] }}
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Majoidea]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Inachidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Epialtidae]] (paraphyletic)
|2=[[Majidae]] / [[Mithracidae]] }} }}
|2=[[Corystidae]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Euryplacidae]]
|2=[[Matutidae]] }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Calappidae]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Parthenopidae]]
|2=[[Cancridae]] }}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Carpiliidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Aethridae]]
|2=''[[Pseudocarcinus]]'' of [[Menippidae]] }} }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Menippe (genus)|Menippe]]'' of [[Menippidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Polybiidae]]
|2=[[Portunidae]] }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Pilumnoidea]]
|1={{clade
|1=[[Tanaochelidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Galenidae]]
|2=[[Pilumnidae]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Mathildellidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Eriphiidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Oziidae]]
|2=[[Vultocinidae]] }} }} }}
|2=[[Trapeziidae]] }}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Goneplacidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Scalopidiidae]]
|label2=[[Xanthoidea]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Xanthidae]] (paraphyletic)
|2=[[Panopeidae]] }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}
|label2=[[Thoracotremata]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Pinnotheridae]]
|2=[[Dotillidae]] }}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Percnidae]]
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Xenograpsidae]]
|2=[[Cryptochiridae]] }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Ocypodidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Glyptograpsidae]]
|2=[[Grapsidae]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Plagusiidae]]
|2=[[Gecarcinidae]] }}
|2=[[Sesarmidae]] }}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Mictyridae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Varunidae]]
|2=[[Macrophthalmidae]]
}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

==Classification==
The [[infraorder]] Brachyura contains approximately 7,000 species in 98 [[family (biology)|families]],<ref name="Ling"/><ref name="Ng"/> as many as the remainder of the [[Decapoda]].<ref name="Martin & Davis">{{cite book |url=http://atiniui.nhm.org/pdfs/3839/3839.pdf |title=An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea |author1=Joel W. Martin |author2=George E. Davis |year=2001 |pages=132 |publisher=[[Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County]] }}</ref> The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasingly robust body, and a reduction in the [[abdomen]]. Although many other groups have undergone similar processes, [[carcinisation]] is most advanced in crabs. The [[telson]] is no longer functional in crabs, and the [[uropod]]s are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the [[Sternum (arthropod)|sternum]].

In most decapods, the [[gonopore]]s (sexual openings) are found on the legs. However, since crabs use the first two pairs of [[pleopod]]s (abdominal appendages) for sperm transfer, this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a slimmer shape, the gonopores have moved towards the midline, away from the legs, and onto the sternum.<ref>{{cite journal |author=M. de Saint Laurent |year=1980 |title=Sur la classification et la phylogénie des Crustacés Décapodes Brachyoures. II. Heterotremata et Thoracotremata Guinot, 1977 |journal=[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences]] |volume=t. 290 |pages=1317–1320}}</ref> A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the [[clade]] [[Eubrachyura]], and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the [[Thoracotremata]]. It is still a subject of debate whether a [[Monophyly|monophyletic group]] is formed by those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum.<ref name="Martin & Davis"/>

===Superfamilies===
Numbers of extant and extinct (†) species are given in brackets.<ref name="Ng"/> The superfamily [[Eocarcinoidea]], containing ''[[Eocarcinus]]'' and ''[[Platykotta]]'', was formerly thought to contain the oldest crabs; it is now considered part of the [[Anomura]].<ref name="Chablais">{{cite journal |author1=Jérôme Chablais |author2=Rodney M. Feldmann |author3=Carrie E. Schweitzer |year=2011 |title=A new Triassic decapod, ''Platykotta akaina'', from the Arabian shelf of the northern United Arab Emirates: earliest occurrence of the Anomura |journal=[[Paläontologische Zeitschrift]] |volume=85 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.1007/s12542-010-0080-y |s2cid=5612385 |url=http://decapoda.nhm.org/pdfs/31744/31744.pdf }}</ref>
{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 220
| header = Examples of different crab sections
| image1 = Dromia personata.jpg
| caption1 = ''[[Dromia personata]]'' ([[Dromiacea]]: [[Dromiidae]])
| image2 = Ranina ranina.jpg
| caption2 = ''[[Ranina ranina]]'' ([[Raninoida]]: [[Raninidae]])
| image3 = Corystes cassivelaunus.jpg
| caption3 = ''[[Corystes cassivelaunus]]'' ([[Heterotremata]]: [[Corystidae]])
| image4 = Ocypode quadrata (Martinique).jpg
| caption4 = ''[[Ocypode quadrata]]'' ([[Thoracotremata]]: [[Ocypodidae]])
| image5 = Goneplax rhomboides 2.jpg
| caption5 = ''[[Goneplax rhomboides]]''
}}
* '''Section †[[Callichimaeroida]]'''
** †[[Callichimaeroidea]] (1†)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luque |first1=J. |last2=Feldmann |first2=R. M. |last3=Vernygora |first3=O. |last4=Schweitzer |first4=C. E. |last5=Cameron |first5=C. B. |last6=Kerr |first6=K. A. |last7=Vega |first7=F. J. |last8=Duque |first8=A. |last9=Strange |first9=M. |last10=Palmer |first10=A. R. |last11=Jaramillo |first11=C. |title=Exceptional preservation of mid-Cretaceous marine arthropods and the evolution of novel forms via heterochrony |journal=Science Advances |date=24 April 2019 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=eaav3875 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aav3875|pmid=31032408 |pmc=6482010 |bibcode=2019SciA....5.3875L }}</ref>
* '''Section [[Dromiacea]]'''
** †[[Dakoticancroidea]] (6†)
** [[Dromioidea]] (147, 85†)
** [[Glaessneropsoidea]] (45†)
** [[Homolodromioidea]] (24, 107†)
** [[Homoloidea]] (73, 49†)
* '''Section [[Raninoida]]''' (46, 196†)
* '''Section [[Cyclodorippoida]]''' (99, 27†)
* '''Section [[Eubrachyura]]'''
** '''Subsection [[Heterotremata]]'''
*** [[Aethroidea]] (37, 44†)
*** [[Bellioidea]] (7)
*** [[Bythograeoidea]] (14)
*** [[Calappoidea]] (101, 71†)
*** [[Cancroidea]] (57, 81†)
*** [[Carpilioidea]] (4, 104†)
*** [[Cheiragonoidea]] (3, 13†)
*** [[Corystoidea]] (10, 5†)
*** †[[Componocancroidea]] (1†)
*** [[Dairoidea]] (4, 8†)
*** [[Dorippoidea]] (101, 73†)
*** [[Eriphioidea]] (67, 14†)
*** [[Gecarcinucoidea]] (349)
*** [[Goneplacoidea]] (182, 94†)
*** [[Hexapodoidea]] (21, 25†)
*** [[Leucosioidea]] (488, 113†)
*** [[Majoidea]] (980, 89†)
*** [[Orithyioidea]] (1)
*** [[Palicoidea]] (63, 6†)
*** [[Parthenopoidea]] (144, 36†)
*** [[Pilumnoidea]] (405, 47†)
*** [[Portunoidea]] (455, 200†)
*** [[Potamoidea]] (662, 8†)
*** [[Pseudothelphusoidea]] (276)
*** [[Pseudozioidea]] (22, 6†)
*** [[Retroplumoidea]] (10, 27†)
*** [[Trapezioidea]] (58, 10†)
*** [[Trichodactyloidea]] (50)
*** [[Xanthoidea]] (736, 134†)
** '''Subsection [[Thoracotremata]]'''
*** [[Cryptochiroidea]] (46)
*** [[Grapsoidea]] (493, 28†)
*** [[Ocypodoidea]] (304, 14†)
*** [[Pinnotheroidea]] (304, 13†)

Recent studies have found the following [[superfamily (taxonomy)|superfamilies]] and [[family (biology)|families]] to not be [[monophyletic]], but rather [[paraphyletic]] or [[polyphyletic]]:<ref name="Ling"/><ref name="Wolfe2019"/>
*The [[Thoracotremata]] superfamily [[Grapsoidea]] is polyphyletic
*The [[Thoracotremata]] superfamily [[Ocypodoidea]] is polyphyletic
*The [[Heterotremata]] superfamily [[Calappoidea]] is polyphyletic
*The [[Heterotremata]] superfamily [[Eriphioidea]] is polyphyletic
*The [[Heterotremata]] superfamily [[Goneplacoidea]] is polyphyletic
*The [[Heterotremata]] superfamily [[Potamoidea]] is paraphyletic with respect to [[Gecarcinucoidea]], which is resolved by placing [[Gecarcinucidae]] within [[Potamoidea]]
*The [[Majoidea]] families [[Epialtidae]], [[Mithracidae]] and [[Majidae]] are polyphyletic with respect to each other
*The [[Dromioidea]] family [[Dromiidae]] may be paraphyletic with respect to [[Dynomenidae]]
*The [[Homoloidea]] family [[Homolidae]] is paraphyletic with respect to [[Latreilliidae]]
*The [[Xanthoidea]] family [[Xanthidae]] is paraphyletic with respect to [[Panopeidae]]

==Cultural influences==
[[File:A crab divination pot in Kapsiki.jpg|thumb|A [[Nggàm|crab divination pot]] in Kapsiki, North Cameroon.]]
Both the [[constellation]] [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] and the [[astrological sign]] [[Cancer (astrology)|Cancer]] are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse]] drew the [[Crab Nebula]] in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the [[Crab Pulsar]] lies at the centre of the nebula.<ref>{{cite book |author=B. B. Rossi |year=1969 |title=The Crab Nebula: Ancient History and Recent Discoveries |publisher=Center for Space Research, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |id=CSR-P-69-27 |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19700008151}}</ref> The [[Moche (culture)|Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] worshipped nature, especially the sea,<ref>{{cite book |author=Elizabeth Benson |title=The Mochica: A Culture of Peru |location=New York, NY |publisher=[[Praeger Press]] |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-500-72001-1}}</ref> and often depicted crabs in their art.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Katherine Berrin |author2=Larco Museum |title=The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera |location=New York |publisher=[[Thames and Hudson]] |year=1997 |pages=216 |isbn=978-0-500-01802-6}}</ref> In [[Greek mythology]], [[Karkinos]] was a crab that came to the aid of the [[Lernaean Hydra]] as it battled [[Heracles]]. One of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]'', ''The Crab that Played with the Sea'', tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kipling|first1=Rudyard|title=Just So Stories|date=1902|publisher=Macmillan|url=http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/79/just-so-stories/1297/the-crab-that-played-with-the-sea/|chapter=The Crab that Played with the Sea}}</ref> The auction for the crab quota in 2019, Russia is the largest revenue auction in the world except the spectrum auctions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kalinin|first1=Nikita|last2=Vershinin|first2=Mark|date=2020-10-25|title=Strategic analysis of the Russian crab quota auction in 2019|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X2030912X|journal=Marine Policy|volume=122|language=en|pages=104266|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104266|issn=0308-597X}}</ref>

The [[Kapsiki people]] of North Cameroon use the way crabs handle objects for [[divination]] {{citation needed|date=December 2020}}.

==See also==
* [[Carcinisation]]
* [[Anomura]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Crustaceans}}
*{{Curlie|Science/Biology/Flora_and_Fauna/Animalia/Arthropoda/Crustacea/Malacostraca/Decapoda/|''Decapoda''}}

{{Brachyura|state=expanded}}
{{commercial fish topics}}
{{Edible crustaceans}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q40802}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Crabs| ]]
[[Category:Edible crustaceans]]
[[Category:Commercial crustaceans]]
[[Category:Extant Jurassic first appearances]]

User talk:185.49.37.34

2021-05-10T08:46:01Z

Macedonian: Final warning: Vandalism on :Xenophobia.

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Xenophobia

2021-05-10T08:45:44Z

Macedonian: Reverted 1 edit by 185.49.37.34 (talk) to last revision by Generalrelative

{{redirect|Xenophobe|other uses}}{{Distinguish|Sinophobia}}{{short description|Dislike of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange}}
{{Discrimination sidebar|expanded=Social}}
'''Xenophobia''' (from {{lang-grc|[[Xenos (Greek)|ξένος]]|xénos}}, meaning "stranger" or "foreigner", and ''phóbos'', meaning "fear"<ref>Oxford Standard English Dictionary' (OED). Oxford Press, 2004, CDROM version.</ref>) is the fear or hatred of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/xenophobia?q=xenophobia |title=Xenophobia – definition of xenophobia in English from the Oxford dictionary |work=oxforddictionaries.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/xenophobia |title=Xenophobia – Define Xenophobia at Dictionary.com |work=Dictionary.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/xenophobia|title=Definition of XENOPHOBIA|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref> It is an expression of perceived conflict between an [[In-group and out-group|ingroup]] and an [[In-group and out-group|outgroup]] and may manifest in suspicion by the one of the other's activities, a desire to eliminate their presence, and fear of losing national, ethnic or racial identity.<ref name="auto">Guido Bolaffi. ''Dictionary of race, ethnicity and culture''. SAGE Publications Ltd., 2003. Pp. 332.</ref><ref name="UNESCO – Xenophobia">{{cite web|url=https://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/migration/taskforce/docs/wcar.pdf|title=International Migration, Racism, Discrimination and Xenophobia|date=August 2001|publisher=International Labour Office; International Organization for Migration; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|page=2|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331201752/https://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/migration/taskforce/docs/wcar.pdf|archive-date=31 March 2019}}</ref>

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Alternate definitions ==
A 1997 review article on xenophobia holds that it is "an element of a political struggle about who has the right to be cared for by the state and society: a fight for the collective good of the modern state."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wimmer|first=Andreas|year=1997|title=Explaining xenophobia and racism: A critical review of current research approaches|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=20|issue=1|page=17|doi=10.1080/01419870.1997.9993946}}</ref>

According to Italian sociologist Guido Bolaffi, xenophobia can also be exhibited as an "uncritical exaltation of another culture" which is ascribed "an unreal, stereotyped and exotic quality".<ref name="auto" />

== History ==
[[File:Pflichten der polen.jpg|thumb|right|1940 [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] poster (in German and Polish): ''Obligations of [[Poles|Polish]] Workers in Germany'', which included the death penalty for sexual relations with Germans]]
An early example of xenophobic sentiment in [[Western culture]] is the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] denigration of foreigners as "[[barbarian]]s", the belief that the Greek people and culture were superior to all others, and the subsequent conclusion that barbarians were naturally meant to be enslaved.<ref name="GreeksBarbarians">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3VmQB99c5YC |title=Greeks and Barbarians |publisher=Taylor & Francis |author=Harrison, Thomas |year=2002 |page=3 |isbn=978-0-415-93959-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.medindia.net/patients/patientinfo/xenophobia-examples.htm |title=Xenophobia – Examples in World History |work=Medindia |access-date=2017-12-06 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Ancient Rome|Ancient Romans]] also held notions of superiority over all other peoples, such as in a speech attributed to [[Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC)|Manius Acilius]],<ref name="Invention Racism">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jfylyRawl8EC |title=The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity |publisher=Princeton University Press |author=Isaac, Benjamin H. |year=2006 |page=317 |isbn=978-0-691-12598-5}}</ref>
: There, as you know, there were Macedonians and Thracians and Illyrians, all most warlike nations, here Syrians and Asiatic Greeks, the most worthless peoples among mankind and born for slavery.

The historian Appian claims that the military commander [[Marcus Junius Brutus]], before the [[battle of Philippi]] in 42BC, met an 'Ethiopian' outside the gates of his camp: his soldiers instantly hacked the man to pieces, taking his appearance for a bad omen – to the superstitious Roman, black was the colour of death."<ref>{{cite book |last1=of Alexandria |first1=Appian |title=The Civil Wars |page=4.17}}</ref>

== Regional manifestations ==

=== Americas ===
{{Main|Racism in North America|Racism in South America}}

==== Brazil ====
{{Main|Racism in Brazil|Racial democracy}}
Despite the majority of the country's population being of mixed ([[Pardo]]), African, or indigenous heritage, depictions of non-European Brazilians on the programming of most national television networks is scarce and typically relegated for musicians/their shows. In the case of [[telenovela]]s, Brazilians of [[dark skin|darker skin]] tone are typically depicted as [[Housekeeper (domestic worker)|housekeeper]]s or in positions of lower socioeconomic standing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://isc.temple.edu/evanson/brazilhistory/Bahia.htm |title=Instructional Support Center |access-date=17 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121024219/http://isc.temple.edu/evanson/brazilhistory/Bahia.htm |archive-date=21 November 2011 }}</ref>

==== Canada ====
{{further|Racism in North America#Canada}}
[[Muslim]] and [[Sikhism in Canada|Sikh Canadians]] have faced [[racism]] and [[discrimination]] in recent years, especially since 2001 and the spillover effect of the United States' [[War on Terror]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2011/09/11/911-muslim-women-discrimination_n_957305.html |title=9/11: Women In The Fight Against Discrimination |website=HuffPost |access-date=2016-12-06}}</ref> A 2016 survey from The Environics Institute, which was a follow-up to a study conducted 10 years prior, found that there may be discriminating attitudes that may be a residual of the effects of the [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001 attacks]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Environics Institute: Survey of Muslims in Canada |url=http://www.environicsinstitute.org/uploads/institute-projects/survey%20of%20muslims%20in%20canada%202016%20-%20final%20report.pdf |publisher=The Environics Institute |access-date=4 March 2017}}</ref>

A poll in 2009 by [[Maclean's]] revealed that only 28% of Canadians view [[Islam]] favourably, and only 30% viewed the Sikh religion favourably. 45% of respondents believed Islam encourages violence. In [[Quebec]] in particular, only 17% of respondents had a favourable view of Islam.<ref name="macleans.ca">{{cite web |last=Geddes |first=John |title=What Canadians think of Sikhs, Jews, Christians, Muslims . . . |website=Maclean's |date=April 28, 2009 |url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/what-canadians-think-of-sikhs-jews-christians-muslims/ |access-date=June 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612152407/https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/what-canadians-think-of-sikhs-jews-christians-muslims/ |archive-date=June 12, 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Colombia====

According to the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], by June 2019, there were some 4 million Venezuelan refugees, among whom 1.3 million were in [[Colombia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2019/6/5cfa2a4a4/refugees-migrants-venezuela-top-4-million-unhcr-iom.html|title=Refugees and migrants from Venezuela top 4 million: UNHCR and IOM|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner|date=7 June 2019|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> Because of their urgent situation, many migrants from Venezuela crossed the border illegally, indicating they had few opportunities to gain "access to legal and other rights or basic services and are exposed to exploitation, abuse, manipulation and a wide range of other protection risks, including racism, discrimination and xenophobia".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://reporting.unhcr.org/node/20393|title=Venezuela Situation 2018 Supplementary Appeal {{!}} Global Focus|publisher=UN Refugee Agency|date=1 December 2018|access-date=2019-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204092433/http://reporting.unhcr.org/node/20393|archive-date=4 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since the start of the migrant crisis, media outlets and state officials warned about the increasing discrimination of migrants in the country, especially xenophobia and violence against the migrants.<ref>{{cite news |title=Venezuelans brave torrential border river, face exploitation, abuse – UN urges greater protection |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/04/1036181 |access-date=15 June 2019 |work=UN News |date=5 April 2019}}</ref>

==== Guyana ====
There has been racial tension between the [[Indo-Guyanese]] people and the [[Afro-Guyanese]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2005/09/050920_guyana_race.shtml |title=BBCCaribbean.com – News – Guyana turns attention to racism |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guyana.org/features/conflicts_indiansandblacks.html |title=Conflict between East Indians and Blacks |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="wordpress.com">{{cite web |url=http://barbadosunderground.wordpress.com/2008/01/31/indian-racism-against-afro-guyanese-in-guyana/ |title=Indian Racism Against Afro Guyanese In Guyana |work=Barbados Underground |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref>

==== Mexico ====
{{Main|Racism in Mexico}}
Racism in Mexico has a long history.<ref>"[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEEDF1330F932A25755C0A963958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 The World; Racism? Mexico's in Denial.]", ''The New York Times'', June 11, 1995</ref> Historically, Mexicans with light skin tones had absolute control over dark skinned Amerindians due to the structure of the Spanish colonial caste system. When a Mexican of a darker-skinned tone marries one of a lighter skinned-tone, it is common for them say that they are " 'making the race better' (''mejorando la raza'')". This can be interpreted as a self-attack on their ethnicity.<ref>"[http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/article_2081.shtml Racism in Mexico?]", The Final Call, June 23, 2005</ref> Despite improving economic and social conditions of Indigenous Mexicans, discrimination against indigenous Mexicans continues to this day and there are few laws to protect Indigenous Mexicans from discrimination. Violent attacks against indigenous Mexicans are moderately common and many times go unpunished.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proceso.com.mx/?p=294476 |title=Empresario agrede a valet parking, se ampara y evita la cárcel |author=La Redacción |work=Proceso}}</ref>

==== Venezuela ====
In Venezuela, like other South American countries, economic inequality often breaks along ethnic and racial lines.<ref name=MapOfRacistCountries>{{cite news |last=Fisher |first=Max |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/15/a-fascinating-map-of-the-worlds-most-and-least-racially-tolerant-countries/ |title=Map shows world's 'most racist' countries |work=The Washington Post |date=May 15, 2013 |access-date=April 30, 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170430071325/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/15/a-fascinating-map-of-the-worlds-most-and-least-racially-tolerant-countries/ |archive-date=April 30, 2017 }}</ref> A 2013 Swedish academic study stated that Venezuela was the most racist country in the Americas,<ref name=MapOfRacistCountries /> followed by the [[Dominican Republic]].<ref name=MapOfRacistCountries />

==== United States ====
{{Main|Racism in the United States}}
[[File:Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for boycotting public transportation.jpg|thumb|[[Rosa Parks]] being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white person]]

As in most countries, many people in the U.S. continue to be xenophobic against other races. In the view of a network of scores of US civil rights and human rights organizations, "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and extends to all communities of color." Discrimination against racial, ethnic, and religious minorities is widely acknowledged especially in the case of Indians, Muslims, Sikhs as well as other ethnic groups.

Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority have perceived discrimination in their dealings with other minority racial and religious groups. Philosopher [[Cornel West]] has stated that "racism is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life."<ref>{{cite book |last1=West |first1=Cornel |title=Prophesy Deliverance!: An Afro-American Revolutionary Christianity |date=2002 |page=116}}</ref>

A 2019 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]] suggested that 76% of black and Asian respondents had experienced some form of discrimination, at least from time to time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2019/04/09/race-in-america-2019/|title=Views on Race in America 2019 (Section titled 'Majorities of blacks, Hispanics and Asians say they have experienced discrimination because of their race or ethnicity')|date=2019-04-09|website=Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-13}}</ref>

=== Asia ===
{{Main|Racism in Asia|Islam and antisemitism|Antisemitism in the Arab world|Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East}}
In 2008, a [[Pew Research Center]] survey found that negative views concerning [[Jews]] were most common in the three predominantly Arab nations which were polled, with 97% of Lebanese having an unfavorable opinion of Jews, 95% of Egyptians and 96% of Jordanians.<ref>[http://www.pewglobal.org/files/pdf/262.pdf Unfavorable Views of Jews and Muslims on the increase in Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218070018/http://www.pewglobal.org/files/pdf/262.pdf |date=2017-12-18 }} Pew Global Attitudes Research September 17, 2008, page 10</ref>

==== Bhutan ====
{{See also|Ethnic cleansing in Bhutan|Bhutanese refugees}}
In 1991–92, [[Bhutan]] is said to have deported between 10,000 and 100,000 ethnic Nepalis ([[Lhotshampa]]). The actual number of refugees who were initially deported is debated by both sides. In March 2008, this population began a multiyear resettlement in third countries including the U.S., Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Australia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=77513 |title=IRIN Asia – NEPAL-BHUTAN: Bhutan questions identity of 107,000 refugees in Nepal – Nepal – Refugees/IDPs |agency=IRIN |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref> At present, the [[United States]] is working towards resettling more than 60,000 of these [[Bhutanese refugee|refugees]] in the US in accordance with its third country settlement program.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7082586.stm |title=Bhutan refugees are 'intimidated' |author=Bhaumik, Subir |date=November 7, 2007 |work=BBC News |access-date=2008-04-25}}</ref>

==== Brunei ====
Brunei law provides [[positive discrimination]] in favor of [[Malays (ethnic group)|ethnic Malay]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1298607.stm Country profile: Brunei], BBC News</ref>

==== China ====
{{See also|Ethnic issues in China}}
In [[China]], xenophobia against non-Chinese residents has been inflamed by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China]], with foreigners described as "foreign garbage" and targeted for "disposal".<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Walden |first1=Max |last2=Yang |first2=Samuel | name-list-style = vanc |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-04-09/coronavirus-intensifies-anti-foreigner-sentiment-in-china/12128224 |title=As coronavirus sparks anti-Chinese racism, xenophobia rises in China itself |date=9 April 2020 |work=ABC News }}</ref> Some [[Africans in Guangzhou|black people in China]] were evicted from their homes by police and told to leave China within 24 hours, due to disinformation that they and other foreigners were spreading the virus.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://qz.com/africa/1836510/africans-in-china-being-evicted-from-homes-after-lockdown-ends/ |title=After enduring months of lockdown, Africans in China are being targeted and evicted from apartments |last=Asiedu |first=Kwasi Gyamfi| name-list-style = vanc |website=Quartz Africa|date=11 April 2020}}</ref> Chinese xenophobia and discriminatory practices such as restaurants excluding black customers was criticised by foreign governments and diplomatic corps.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Marsh |first1=Jenni | name-list-style = vanc |title=Beijing faces a diplomatic crisis after reports of mistreatment of Africans in China causes outrage |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/13/asia/china-guangzhou-african-blacklash-hnk-intl/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=13 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-04-16/china-coronavirus-black-african-evictions |title='No blacks': Evicted, harassed and targeted in China for their race amid coronavirus |date=16 April 2020 |website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>

==== Indonesia ====
{{See also|Jakarta Riots of May 1998|Legislation on Chinese Indonesians}}

A number of discriminatory laws against [[Chinese Indonesian#Post-independence and New Order Era|Chinese Indonesians]] were enacted by the government of [[Indonesia]]. In 1959, President [[Sukarno]] approved [[PP 10/1959]] that forced Chinese Indonesians to close their businesses in rural areas and relocate into urban areas. Moreover, political pressures in the 1970s and 1980s restricted the role of the Chinese Indonesian in politics, academics, and the military. As a result, they were thereafter constrained professionally to becoming entrepreneurs and professional managers in trade, manufacturing, and banking. In 1998, Indonesia riots over higher [[food prices]] and rumors of hoarding by merchants and shopkeepers often degenerated into anti-Chinese attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1998/02/24/qanda.t_2.php|title=Breaking News, World News & Multimedia|website=www.iht.com}}</ref>

==== India ====
{{Seealso|Violence against Muslims in India}}
[[File:North East Delhi Riots 2020 (1).jpg|thumb|right|Muslim homes and businesses burned during the [[North East Delhi riots]].<ref>{{citation|last=Ameen|first=Furquan|title=Shiv Vihar: Home for 15 years, but not any more|work=The Telegraph, Kolkata|date = 28 February 2020|location = New Delhi|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/shiv-vihar-home-for-15-years-but-not-any-more/cid/1749520}}</ref>]]
The [[2020 Delhi riots]], which left more than 50 dead and hundreds injured,<ref>{{cite news |title=Delhi riots: Violence that killed 53 in Indian capital 'was anti-Muslim pogrom', says top expert |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/independentpremium/world/delhi-riots-pogrom-violence-deaths-modi-bjp-india-police-a9384891.html |work=The Independent |date=7 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=For Jews, the New Delhi riots have a painfully familiar ring |url=https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/for-jews-the-new-delhi-riots-have-a-painfully-familiar-ring/ |work=The Times of Israel |date=11 March 2020}}</ref> were triggered by protests against a [[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019|citizenship law]] seen by many critics as [[Islamophobia|anti-Muslim]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Assam protests due to politics of xenophobia |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/columnists/171219/assam-protests-due-to-politics-of-xenophobia.html |work=Deccan Chronicle |date=17 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Anti-Muslim violence in Delhi serves Modi well |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/feb/26/violence-delhi-modi-project-bjp-citizenship-law |work=The Guardian |date=26 February 2020}}</ref>

==== Malaysia ====
{{Main|Xenophobia in Malaysia}}

In 2014, the state of [[Penang]] held a referendum that bans foreigners from cooking local cuisines. A well-known local chef, [[Chef Wan]], criticized this law.<ref>{{cite web |work=If Only|url=http://ifonlysingaporeans.blogspot.my/2014/10/penang-bans-foreign-cooks-at-hawker.html |title=If Only Singaporeans Stopped to Think: Penang bans foreign cooks at hawker stalls |publisher=Ifonlysingaporeans.blogspot.my |date=2014-10-27 |access-date=2018-06-11}}</ref>

==== Japan ====
{{Main|Ethnic issues in Japan}}
In 2005, a [[United Nations]] report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and that government recognition of the depth of the problem was not total.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unic.or.jp/new/pr05-057-E.htm |title=Press Conference by Mr Doudou Diène, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights |access-date=2007-01-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070329065052/http://www.unic.or.jp/new/pr05-057-E.htm |archive-date=2007-03-29 }}</ref><ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4671687.stm "Japan racism 'deep and profound".] ''[[BBC News]]'' (2005-07-11). Retrieved 2007-01-05.</ref> The author of the report, [[Doudou Diène]] ([[United Nations Special Rapporteur|Special Rapporteur]] of the [[UN Commission on Human Rights]]), concluded after a nine-day investigation that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan primarily affected three groups: [[Ethnic issues in Japan#Japanese minorities|national minorities]], [[Dekasegi|Latin Americans of Japanese descent]], mainly [[Japanese Brazilians]], and foreigners from poor countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imadr.org/geneva/2006/G0610396.pdf |title='Overcoming "Marginalization" and "Invisibility"', International Movement against all forms of Discrimination and Racism |access-date=2007-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214115324/http://imadr.org/geneva/2006/G0610396.pdf  |archive-date=2006-12-14}}</ref> Surveys conducted in 2017 and 2019 have shown that 40 to nearly 50% of foreigners surveyed have experienced some form of discrimination.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/04/17/national/social-issues/half-foreign-nationals-tokyo-experience-discrimination-survey-shows/|title=Half of foreign nationals in Tokyo experience discrimination, survey shows|date=2019-04-17|work=The Japan Times Online|access-date=2019-12-13|language=en-US|issn=0447-5763}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CERD/Shared%20Documents/JPN/INT_CERD_NGO_JPN_31918_E.pdf|title=Joint Civil Society Report on Racial Discrimination in Japan (page 33)}}</ref> Another report has also noted differences in how the media and some Japanese treat visitors from the West as compared to those from East Asia, with the latter being viewed much less positively than the former.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.japanpolicyforum.jp/society/pt20171130025011.html|title=Issues related to the increase in tourists visiting Japan from abroad ('How foreign tourists are portrayed' and 'Acts of hate?' sections)|website=www.japanpolicyforum.jp|access-date=2019-12-13}}</ref>

[[Japan]] accepted just 16 [[refugees]] in 1999, while the [[United States]] took in 85,010 for resettlement, according to the UNHCR. [[New Zealand]], which is 30 times smaller than Japan, accepted 1,140 refugees in 1999. Just 305 persons were recognized as refugees by Japan from 1981, when Japan ratified the [[U.N.]] [[Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees]], to 2002.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0WDQ/is_2003_Feb_24/ai_98002254 |title=Japan's refugee policy |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwanami.co.jp/jpworld/text/ClosedCountry01.html |title=Questioning Japan's 'Closed Country' Policy on Refugees |access-date=17 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413083037/http://www.iwanami.co.jp/jpworld/text/ClosedCountry01.html |archive-date=13 April 2015 }}</ref> Former Prime Minister [[Taro Aso]] called Japan a "one race" nation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/member.html?nn20051018a7_htm=|title=Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race' - The Japan Times Online|date=19 May 2007}}{{dead link|date=November 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> A 2019 [[Ipsos]] poll also suggested that Japanese respondents had a relatively lower sympathy for refugees compared to most other countries in the survey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2019-06/World-Refugee-Day-2019-Ipsos.pdf|title=Global attitudes towards refugees (page 5)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ipsos.com/en/global-attitudes-towards-refugees|title=Global attitudes towards refugees|website=Ipsos|language=en|access-date=2019-12-13}}</ref>

==== South Korea ====
{{Main|Racism in South Korea}}
Xenophobia in South Korea has been recognized by scholars and the United Nations as a widespread social problem.<ref name=Park>{{citation |title=Foreigners or multicultural citizens? Press media's construction of immigrants in South Korea |first=Keumjae |last=Park |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |year=2014 |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=1565–1586 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2012.758860|s2cid=144943847 }}</ref> An increase in [[immigration to South Korea]] since the 2000s catalyzed more overt expressions of racism, as well as criticism of those expressions.<ref name=Park /><ref name="PMID 27430432" /> Newspapers have frequently reported on and criticized discrimination against immigrants, in forms such as being paid lower than the [[minimum wage]], having their wages withheld, unsafe work conditions, physical abuse, or general denigration.<ref name=Park />

In a 2010–2014 [[World Values Survey]], 44.2% of South Koreans reported they would not want an immigrant or foreign worker as a neighbor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp?WAVE=6&COUNTRY=875|title=WVS Database|website=www.worldvaluessurvey.org}}</ref><ref name="PMID 27430432">{{citation |title=Don't ask for fair treatment? A gender analysis of ethnic discrimination, response to discrimination, and self-rated health among marriage migrants in South Korea |first1=Yugyun |last1=Kim |first2=Inseo |last2=Son |first3=Dainn |last3=Wie|display-authors=etal |date=19 Jul 2016 |journal=International Journal for Equity in Health |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=112 |doi=10.1186/s12939-016-0396-7 |pmid=27430432 |pmc=4949882 |url=|quote=The recent increased influx of immigrants in Korea has ignited racism among Korean natives, which is heightened by economic and cultural nationalism [6]. For example, more than 40 % of Koreans answered that they would not want a foreigner as their neighborhood, based on the recent World Values Survey (2010–2014) [9].}}</ref> Racist attitudes are more commonly expressed towards immigrants from other Asian countries and Africa, and less so towards European and white North American immigrants who can occasionally receive what has been described as "overly kind treatment".<ref name=Park /><ref name=Campbell>{{citation |title=The end of ethnic nationalism? Changing conceptions of national identity and belonging among young South Koreans |last=Campbell |first=Emma |year=2015 |journal=Nations & Nationalism |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=483–502 |doi=10.1111/nana.12120}}</ref> Related discrimination have also been reported with regards to mixed-race children, [[Koreans in China|Chinese Korean]], and [[North Korea]]n immigrants.<ref name=Campbell />

==== Thailand ====
{{Main|Racism in Thailand}}
[[File:Anti Arab sign in Pattaya Beach Thailand.jpg|thumb|[[Anti-Arabism|Anti-Arab]] sign in [[Pattaya Beach]], Thailand]]
There are no laws within the Kingdom of Thailand which criminalize racial discrimination and the use of racist cliches. Unlike neighboring nations which were [[colonialism|colonized]], Thailand's history as an uncolonized state further shaped its existing laws.

Anti-refugee sentiment has been significant in Thailand, with a 2016 [[Amnesty International]] survey indicating that 74% of surveyed Thais do not believe (to varying degrees) that people should be able to take refuge in other countries in order to escape war or persecution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/ACT3041002016ENGLISH.PDF|title=Refugees Welcome Survey 2016}}</ref>

==== Egypt ====
[[Egypt]]ian [[Muslim Brotherhood]] leader [[Mohammed Mahdi Akef]] has denounced what he called "the myth of [[the Holocaust]]" in defending Iranian president [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]]'s [[Holocaust denial|denial]] of it.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4554986.stm "Egyptian Islamists deny Holocaust"], ''[[BBC News]]'', December 23, 2005.</ref> In an article in October 2000 columnist Adel Hammoda alleged in the state-owned Egyptian newspaper ''[[al-Ahram]]'' that Jews made [[Matza]] from the blood of (non-Jewish) children.<ref>''Al-Ahram'' (Egypt), October 28, 2000</ref> Mohammed Salmawy, editor of ''[[Al-Ahram Hebdo]]'', "defended the use of old European myths like the [[blood libel against Jews|blood libel]]" in his newspapers.<ref>Clark, Kate (August 10, 2003). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3136059.stm "Interpreting Egypt's anti-semitic cartoons"], ''[[BBC News]]''.</ref>

==== Jordan ====
[[Jordan]] does not allow entry to Jews who have visible signs of [[Judaism]] or possess personal religious items. The Jordanian ambassador to Israel replied to a complaint by a religious Jew who was denied entry by stating that security concerns required that travelers who are entering the Hashemite Kingdom should not do so with prayer shawls ([[Tallit]]) and phylacteries ([[Tefillin]]).<ref>{{cite news |title=Jordan denies entry to Israeli with Jewish prayer items |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/jordan-denies-entry-to-israeli-with-jewish-prayer-items-1.279743 |date=July 10, 2009 |work=Haaretz |access-date=April 11, 2014}}</ref> Jordanian authorities state that the policy is in order to ensure the Jewish tourists' safety.<ref>{{cite web |title=Israeli tourists asked to hand over Jewish paraphernalia |url=http://www.eturbonews.com/4337/israeli-tourists-asked-hand-over-jewish-paraphernalia |date=August 13, 2008 |publisher=eTurboNews |access-date=July 23, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211182920/http://www.eturbonews.com/4337/israeli-tourists-asked-hand-over-jewish-paraphernalia |archive-date=December 11, 2008 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

In July 2009, six [[Breslov (Hasidic dynasty)|Breslov]] [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidim]] were deported after attempting to enter Jordan in order to visit the tomb of [[Aaron]] / Sheikh Harun on [[Mount Hor]], near [[Petra]], because of an alert from the Ministry of Tourism. The group had taken a [[ferry]] from [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]], Egypt because it understood that Jordanian authorities were making it hard for visible Jews to enter their country from Israel. The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)|Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] is aware of the issue.<ref>{{cite web |author=Mendel, Arieh |script-title=he:חסידי ברסלב גורשו מירדן: "הם מאוד מאוכזבים" |url=http://www.haredim.co.il/ViewArticle.aspx?catID=1&itmID=970 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008033754/http://www.haredim.co.il/ViewArticle.aspx?catID=1&itmID=970 |archive-date=October 8, 2011 |date=July 21, 2009 |publisher=Haredim.co.il |access-date= |language=he}}</ref>

==== Israel ====
{{See also|Racism in Israel|Anti-Arabism in Israel}}
[[File:02 05 03 Die Arab Sand.jpg|thumb|Graffiti reading "Die Arab [[sand nigger|Sand-Niggers]]!" reportedly sprayed by settlers on a house in [[Hebron]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newtrendmag.org/pictures8.htm |title=NTM Pictures8 – NewTrendMag.org |access-date=27 April 2016}}</ref>]]

According to the 2004 U.S. State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for Israel and the Occupied Territories, the Israeli government had done "little to reduce institutional, legal, and societal [[discrimination]] against the country's Arab citizens."<ref name="state.gov-2004">{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41723.htm |title=Israel and the occupied territories |publisher=State.gov |date=2005-02-28 |access-date=2010-07-22}}</ref> The 2005 [[US Department of State]] report on Israel wrote: "[T]he government generally respected the human rights of its citizens; however, there were problems in some areas, including... institutional, legal, and societal discrimination against the country's [[Arab citizens of Israel|Arab citizens]]."<ref name="USDS2005">{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61690.htm |title=Israel and the occupied territories |access-date=2006-08-01 |author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor |date=March 8, 2006 |work=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2005 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> The 2010 U.S. State Department Country Report stated that Israeli law prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, and the Israeli government effectively enforced these prohibitions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154463.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110413173255/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154463.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-04-13 |title=2010 Human Rights Report: Israel and the occupied territories |publisher=State.gov |date=2011-04-08 |access-date=2012-05-29}}</ref> Former [[Likud]] MK and Minister of Defense [[Moshe Arens]] has criticized the treatment of minorities in Israel, saying that they did not bear the full obligation of Israeli citizenship, nor were they extended the full privileges of citizenship.<ref>Quoted in {{Cite book |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-1-58465-327-1 |last=Rebhun |first=Uzi |author2=Chaim Isaac Waxman |title=Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jewsinisraelcont0000unse/page/472 472] |url=https://archive.org/details/jewsinisraelcont0000unse/page/472 }}</ref>

The [[Association for Civil Rights in Israel]] (ACRI) published reports which documented racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that [[anti-Arab racism]] was increasing in the country. One analysis of the report summarized it thus: "Over two-thirds of Israeli teens believe that Arabs are less intelligent, uncultured and violent.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3480345,00.html|title=Racism in Israel on the rise|date=12 August 2007|website=Ynetnews}}</ref><ref name=bbc>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7136068.stm|title=Israeli anti-Arab racism 'rises'|date=10 December 2007|via=news.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> The Israeli government spokesman responded that the Israeli government was "committed to fighting racism whenever it raises its ugly head and is committed to full equality to all Israeli citizens, irrespective of ethnicity, creed or background, as defined by our declaration of independence".<ref name=bbc /> Isi Leibler of the Jerusalem Center for Public affairs argues that Israeli Jews are troubled by "increasingly hostile, even treasonable outbursts by Israeli Arabs against the state" while it is at war with neighboring countries.<ref name=mfa>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2004/1/2003%20Terrorism%20Review 2003 Terrorism Review]. Mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 2010-12-16.</ref> A 2018 poll by Pew Research Center also suggested there to be particularly widespread anti-refugee sentiment among surveyed Israelis compared to the people from other selected countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israels-opposition-to-accepting-refugees-highest-in-west-poll/|title=Israel's opposition to accepting refugees is highest in West — poll|website=www.timesofisrael.com|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>

==== Lebanon ====
[[Hezbollah]]'s [[Al-Manar]] TV channel has often been accused of airing antisemitic broadcasts, accusing the Jews/[[Zionism|Zionists]] of [[conspiracy theories in the Arab world|conspiring against the Arab world]], and frequently airing excerpts from ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'',<ref>{{cite news |last=Sciolino |first=Elaine |author2=Carole Corm |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F02E7DE1031F93AA35751C1A9629C8B63 |title=A New French Headache: When Is Hate on TV Illegal? |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | date=December 9, 2004 |access-date=April 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adl.org/special_reports/protocols/protocols_recycled.asp |title=Anti-Semitic Series on Arab Television: Satellite Network Recycles The Protocols of the Elders of Zion |publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]] | date=January 9, 2004 |access-date=April 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://www.wiesenthal.com/siteapps/advocacy/ActionItem.aspx?c=fwLYKnN8LzH&b=297065 "Urge President Chirac to Block Hezbollah's Antisemitic and Hate TV".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010194739/http://www.wiesenthal.com/siteapps/advocacy/ActionItem.aspx?c=fwLYKnN8LzH&b=297065 |date=2007-10-10 }} ''[[Simon Wiesenthal Center]]''. May 21, 2008.</ref> which the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' describes as a "fraudulent document which served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century". In another incident, an Al-Manar commentator recently referred to "Zionist attempts to transmit [[HIV/AIDS|AIDS]] to Arab countries". Al-Manar officials denied broadcasting any antisemitic incitement and they also stated that their group's position is anti-Israeli, not antisemitic. However, Hezbollah has directed strong rhetoric against both Israel and Jews, and it has cooperated in publishing and distributing outright antisemitic literature. The government of Lebanon has not criticized Hezbollah's continued broadcast of antisemitic material on television.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/nea/136073.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315152840/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/nea/136073.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 15, 2010 |title=2009 Human Rights Report: Lebanon |publisher=State.gov |date=March 11, 2010 |access-date=July 2, 2011}}</ref>

There are also substantial accounts<ref>{{Cite web|title=We want justice for migrant domestic workers in Lebanon|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2019/04/lebanon-migrant-domestic-workers-their-house-is-our-prison/|access-date=2020-06-21|website=www.amnesty.org|language=en}}</ref> of abuses against [[migrant domestic workers in Lebanon]], notably from Ethiopia, Bangladesh, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Sudan, and other countries in Asia and Africa, exacerbated by the [[Kafala system]], or "sponsorship system". Recent increases in abuse have also occurred during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-06|title=Life for Lebanon's migrant domestic workers worsens amid crisis|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/06/life-lebanons-migrant-domestic-workers-worsens-amid-crisis|access-date=2020-06-21|website=Human Rights Watch|language=en}}</ref>

==== Palestine ====
{{Main|Racism in the Palestinian territories}}
{{See also|Human rights in the Palestinian territories|Antisemitism in the Arab world#Palestinian territories|Antisemitism#Palestinian territories|Demographics of the Palestinian territories}}
Various Palestinian organizations and individuals have been regularly accused of being antisemitic. [[Howard Gutman]] believes that much of Muslim hatred of Jews stems from the ongoing [[Arab–Israeli conflict]] and that peace would significantly reduce [[antisemitism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4156355,00.html |title=Jew-hate stems from conflict |work=ynet |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref>

In August, 2003, senior [[Hamas]] official Dr [[Abd Al-Aziz Al-Rantisi]] wrote in the Hamas newspaper ''Al-Risala'':<ref name="wymaninstitute">{{cite web |url=http://www.wymaninstitute.org/articles/2003-denialreport.php |title=David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies: Welcome |publisher=wymaninstitute.org |access-date=March 27, 2015}}</ref>
<blockquote>It is no longer a secret that the Zionists were behind the Nazis' murder of many Jews, and agreed to it, with the aim of intimidating them and forcing them to immigrate to Palestine.</blockquote> In August 2009, Hamas refused to allow Palestinian children to learn about the Holocaust, which it called "a lie invented by the Zionists" and referred to [[Holocaust]] education as a "[[war crime]]".<ref>[http://jta.org/news/article/2009/08/31/1007549/hamas-condemns-un-for-teaching-the-holocaust#When:14:44:00Z "Hamas rips U.N. for teaching the Holocaust."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904093310/http://jta.org/news/article/2009/08/31/1007549/hamas-condemns-un-for-teaching-the-holocaust |date=2009-09-04 }} ''[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency|JTA]]''. 31 August 2009. 31 August 2009.</ref>

==== Saudi Arabia ====
{{See also|Human rights in Saudi Arabia|Antisemitism in Saudi Arabia|Antisemitism#Saudi Arabia territories|Demographics of Saudi Arabia}}
[[File:Banu Qurayza.png|thumb|The [[Banu Qurayza|massacre of the Jewish Banu Qurayza]] in Arabia]]

[[Racism in Saudi Arabia]] is practiced against labor workers who are foreigners, mostly from [[Developing country|developing countries]].
Asian maids who work in the country have been victims of racism and other forms of discrimination,<ref>{{cite book |author1=James Donald |author2=Ali Rattansi |title=Race, Culture and Difference |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3NZonSikZPcC&pg=PA27 |year=1992 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-8039-8580-3 |page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=11601 |title=Asian maids in Gulf face maltreatment |publisher=Middle East Online |date=10 October 2004 |access-date=31 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617123440/http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=11601 |archive-date=2015-06-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Rabiya Parekh |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/worldhaveyoursay/2006/04/south_asian_workers_in_saudi.html |title=World Service – World Have Your Say: South Asian workers in Saudi |publisher=BBC |date=2006-04-04 |access-date=2011-04-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/Religion/?id=3.0.2720941512 |title=Saudi Arabia: Asian immigrant forced to clean mosques for 'skipping prayers' – Adnkronos Religion |publisher=Adnkronos.com |date=2003-04-07 |access-date=2011-04-22}}</ref> foreign workers have been raped, exploited, under- or unpaid, physically abused,<ref name="the guardian1">{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/13/saudi-arabia-treatment-foreign-workers |date=13 January 2013 |title=Saudi Arabia's treatment of foreign workers under fire after beheading of Sri Lankan maid |last=Chamberlain |first=Gethin |work=The Guardian |access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> overworked and locked in their places of employment. The international organisation [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) describes these conditions as "near-[[Islamic views on slavery|slavery]]" and attributes them to "deeply rooted gender, religious, and racial discrimination".<ref name="humanrightswatch1">{{cite web |author=Human Rights Watch |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=printdoc&docid=412ef32a4 |title='Bad Dreams:' Exploitation and Abuse of Migrant Workers in Saudi Arabia |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=14 July 2004 |access-date=14 January 2013}}</ref> In many cases the workers are unwilling to report their employers for fear of losing their jobs or further abuse.<ref name="humanrightswatch1" />

There were several cases of [[antisemitism in Saudi Arabia]] and it is common within the country's religious circles. The [[Media of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian media]] often attacks Jews in books, in news articles, in its Mosques and with what some describe as [[antisemitic]] satire. Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that [[Antisemitic conspiracy theories|Jews are conspiring]] to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' as factual.<ref name=CMIP-KSA2001>[http://www.edume.org/reports/10/38.htm CMIP report: The Jews in World History according to the Saudi textbooks] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928005805/http://www.edume.org/reports/10/38.htm |date=2007-09-28 }}. ''The Danger of World Jewry'', by Abdullah al-Tall, pp. 140–141 (Arabic). ''Hadith and Islamic Culture'', Grade 10, (2001) pp. 103–104.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/pdfdocs/KSAtextbooks06.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823125127/http://www.freedomhouse.org/religion/pdfdocs/KSAtextbooks06.pdf |archive-date=2006-08-23 |title=Saudi Arabia's Curriculum of Intolerance | publisher=Center for Religious Freedom of Freedom House | year=2006}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
{{Main|Racism in Europe|Antisemitism in Europe|Antiziganism}}
[[File:02015-10-02 Der anti-islamische Protest in Polen.JPG|thumb|Anti-Muslim rally in [[Poland]], 21 July 2015]]
[[File:Demonstrace za slušné Česko – demise Andreje Babiše 2.jpg|thumb|Pro-EU Czechs protest in [[Prague]] against politicians accused of pro-Russian sympathies, 17 November 2018. The sign reads: "...all [[Russians]]...go away from the Czech Republic or die!"]]

A study that ran from 2002 to 2015 has mapped the countries in Europe with the highest incidents of racial bias towards black people, based on data from 288,076 white Europeans. It used the [[Implicit-association test]] (a reaction-based psychological test designed to measure implicit racial bias). The strongest bias was found in several Central (the [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]])) and Eastern European countries ([[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Moldova]], [[Bulgaria]]), as well as [[Malta]], [[Italy]], and [[Portugal]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Waugh |first1=Rob |title=This map shows the most racist countries in Europe (and how Britain ranks) |url=http://metro.co.uk/2017/05/03/this-map-shows-the-most-racist-countries-in-europe-and-how-britain-ranks-6612608/ |website=Metro |location=UK |publisher=Metro |access-date=6 May 2017}}</ref> A 2017 report by the University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism tentatively suggests that "individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of antisemitic violence in [[Western Europe]]".<ref>http://www.hlsenteret.no/publikasjoner/digitale-hefter/antisemittisk-vold-i-europa_engelsk_endelig-versjon.pdf</ref>

The extent of negative attitudes towards [[Muslim]]s varies across different parts of Europe. There have been reports of hate crimes targeting Muslims across Europe.<ref>{{cite news |title=Why Is Europe So Islamophobic? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/opinion/europe-islamophobia-attacks.html |work=The New York Times |date=6 March 2020}}</ref>
{{bar box
|title=Unfavorable views of Muslims, 2019<ref>{{cite news |title=European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism — 6. Minority groups |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/14/minority-groups/ |work=Pew Research Center |date=14 October 2019}}</ref>
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1='''Country'''
|right1='''Percent'''
|width=400px
|bars=

{{bar percent|[[Poland]]|peru|66}}
{{bar percent|[[Czech Republic]]|peru|64}}
{{bar percent|[[Hungary]]|peru|58}}
{{bar percent|[[Greece]]|peru|57}}
{{bar percent|[[Lithuania]]|peru|56}}
{{bar percent|[[Italy]]|peru|55}}
{{bar percent|[[Spain]]|darkorange|42}}
{{bar percent|[[Sweden]]|orange|28}}
{{bar percent|[[Germany]]|gold|24}}
{{bar percent|[[France]]|gold|22}}
{{bar percent|[[Russia]]|gold|19}}
{{bar percent|[[United Kingdom]]|gold|18}}

}}

==== Belgium ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in Belgium|1980 Antwerp summer camp attack|Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting}}
There were recorded well over a hundred antisemitic attacks in [[Belgium]] in 2009. This was a 100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant background from the [[Middle East]]. In 2009, the Belgian city of [[Antwerp]], often referred to as [[Europe]]'s last [[shtetl]], experienced a surge in antisemitic violence. [[Bloeme Evers-Emden]], an Amsterdam resident and [[Auschwitz]] survivor, was quoted in the newspaper ''[[Aftenposten]]'' in 2010: "The antisemitism now is even worse than before the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]]. The antisemitism has become more violent. Now they are threatening to kill us."<ref name="aftenposten.no">{{cite web |author=AV: per kr. aale |url=http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3584266.ece |title=Hets av jøder er økende i Europa – Aftenposten |publisher=Aftenposten.no |access-date=2012-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120411225535/http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3584266.ece |archive-date=2012-04-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== France ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in France}}
In 2004, France experienced rising levels of Islamic antisemitism and acts that were publicized around the world.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3880585.stm Chirac vows to fight race attacks] BBC. July 9, 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3586543.stm |title=Anti-Semitism 'on rise in Europe' |work=BBC News |date=March 31, 2004 |access-date=April 10, 2014}}</ref><ref name=NYT-Smith>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/26/international/26antisemitism.html |work=The New York Times |first=Craig S. |last=Smith |title=Jews in France Feel Sting as Anti-Semitism Surges Among Children of Immigrants |date=March 26, 2006 |access-date=April 10, 2014}}</ref> In 2006, rising levels of antisemitism were recorded in French schools. Reports related to the tensions between the children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children.<ref name=NYT-Smith /> The climax was reached when [[Ilan Halimi]] was tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. In 2007, over 7,000 members of the community petitioned for asylum in the United States, citing antisemitism in France.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://jta.org/news/article/2007/03/20/100725/Frenchpetition |title=French Jews petition U.S. for asylum |publisher=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] | date=2007-03-20 |access-date=April 10, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905044711/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2007/03/20/100725/Frenchpetition |archive-date=September 5, 2012 }}</ref>

In the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 recorded acts of antisemitism took place in France, more than the whole of 2008.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091217075855/http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1260447430597&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Anti-semitism is making a loud comeback] Jerusalem Post. December 13, 2009</ref> Speaking to the [[World Jewish Congress]] in December 2009, the French Interior Minister Hortefeux described the acts of antisemitism as "a poison to our republic". He also announced that he would appoint a special coordinator for fighting racism and antisemitism.<ref>[http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/main/showNews/id/8718 French interior minister says anti-Semitism at an alarming level] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607011253/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/main/showNews/id/8718 |date=June 7, 2011 }} December 14, 2009</ref>

==== Germany ====
{{Main|Racism in Germany}}
The period after Germany's loss of [[World War I]] led to the increased espousal of [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] and other forms of [[racism]] in the country's political discourse, for example, emotions which were initially expressed by members of the right-wing [[Freikorps]] finally culminated in the ascent of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in 1933. The [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Nazi Party's racial policy]] and the [[Nuremberg Laws|Nuremberg Race Laws]] against [[Jews]] and other non-[[Aryan race|Aryans]] represented the most explicit racist policies in twentieth century Europe. These laws deprived all Jews (including half-Jews and quarter-Jews) and all other non-Aryans of German citizenship. The official title of Jews became "subjects of the state". At first, the Nuremberg Race Laws only forbade racially mixed sexual relationships and marriages between Aryans and Jews but later they were extended to "[[Romani people|Gypsies]], [[Black people|Negroes]] or their bastard offspring".<ref name="Burleigh1991">{{cite book |author=Michael Burleigh |title=The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 |date=7 November 1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-39802-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/49 49] |url=https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/49 }}</ref> Such interracial relationships were known as "racial pollution" [[Rassenschande]], and they became a criminal and punishable offence under the race laws.<ref name="Burleigh1991" /><ref>{{cite book |author=S. H. Milton |chapter="Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany |title=Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany |editor=Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus |year=2001 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-08684-2 |pages=216, 231}}</ref> The Nazi racial theory regarded [[Poles]] and other [[Slavs|Slavic peoples]] as racially inferior ''[[Untermensch]]en''. Nazi Germany's Directive No.1306 stated: "Polishness equals subhumanity. Poles, Jews and gypsies are on the same inferior level."<ref>From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939-1941 (1997), by Sheldon Dick ed. [[Bernd Wegner]], p.50</ref>

According to a 2012 survey, 18% of [[Turks in Germany]] believe that Jews are inferior human beings.<ref>Liljeberg Research International: [https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf ''Deutsch-Türkische Lebens und Wertewelten 2012''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011112234/https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf |date=October 11, 2012 }}, July/August 2012, p. 68</ref><ref>[[Die Welt]]: [https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article108659406/Tuerkische-Migranten-hoffen-auf-muslimische-Mehrheit.html ''Türkische Migranten hoffen auf muslimische Mehrheit''], August 17, 2012. Retrieved August 23, 2012</ref>

==== Hungary ====
Anti-refugee sentiment has been strong in Hungary,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/buffett/hungary/hungarian-identity/|title=Hungarian views deeply impacted by country's history|work=Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/9089/hungary-refugees-not-welcome|title=Hungary: 'Refugees not welcome'|date=2018-05-09|website=InfoMigrants|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> and Hungarian authorities along the border have been accused of detaining migrants under harsh conditions<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boell.de/en/2018/01/03/hungary-2017-detained-refugees-persecuted-ngos-lack-legal-certainty|title=Hungary 2017: Detained refugees, persecuted NGOs, lack of legal certainty {{!}} Heinrich Böll Stiftung|website=Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> with some reported instances of beatings and other violence from the guards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-hungary-border-police-guards-fence-beating-asylum-seekers-migrants-serbia-push-back-a7610411.html|title=Hungarian border guards 'taking selfies with beaten migrants'|date=2017-03-04|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Refugee crisis: Hungary uses water cannon as people head to Serbian border|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OEeW0-gFHKI|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://budapestbeacon.com/hungarian-police-accused-of-beating-torturing-refugees/|title=Hungarian police accused of beating, torturing refugees|last=Sentinel|first=-Budapest|date=2017-03-06|website=The Budapest Beacon|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> Surveys from Pew Research Center have also suggested that negative views of refugees and Muslims are held by the majority of the country's locals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs/|title=Europeans Fear Wave of Refugees Will Mean More Terrorism, Fewer Jobs|date=2016-07-11|website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/09/19/a-majority-of-europeans-favor-taking-in-refugees-but-most-disapprove-of-eus-handling-of-the-issue/|title=Europeans support taking in refugees – but not EU's handling of issue|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>

As in other European countries, the [[Romani people]] faced disadvantages, including unequal treatment, discrimination, segregation and harassment. Negative stereotypes are often linked to Romani unemployment and reliance on state benefits.<ref name="FRA">{{cite news |url=http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2013-thematic-situation-report-3_en_1.pdf |title=Racism, discrimination, intolerance and extremism: learning from experiences in Greece and Hungary |publisher=European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) |date=December 2013 |access-date=2014-02-22}}</ref> In 2008 and 2009 nine attacks took place against Romani in Hungary, resulting in six deaths and multiple injuries. According to the Hungarian curia (supreme court), these murders were motivated by [[Antiziganism|anti-Romani sentiment]] and sentenced the perpetrators to [[life imprisonment]].<ref name="FRA" />

==== Italy ====
{{Main|Racism in Italy}}
[[Anti-Roma]] sentiment exists in [[Italy]] and takes the form of hostility, prejudice, discrimination or racism directed at Romani people. There's no reliable data for the total number of Roma people living in Italy, but estimates put it between 140,000 and 170,000. Many national and local political leaders engaged in rhetoric during 2007 and 2008 that maintained that the extraordinary rise in crime at the time was mainly a result of uncontrolled immigration of people of Roma origin from recent [[European Union]] member state Romania.<ref>Thomas Hammarberg, "Memorandum following the visit to Italy on 19–20 June 2008," the [[Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights]], CommDH(2008)18, para. 26, 28 July 2008</ref> National and local leaders declared their plans to expel Roma from settlements in and around major cities and to deport illegal immigrants. The mayors of Rome and Milan signed "Security Pacts" in May 2007 that "envisaged the forced eviction of up to 10,000 Romani people."<ref>[[Amnesty International]], The State of the World’s Human Rights 2008: Italy, POL 10/001/2008, June 2008, pp. 171-172</ref>

According to a May 2008 poll 68% of Italians, wanted to see all of the country's approximately 150,000 Gypsies, many of them Italian citizens, expelled.<ref name=Guardian>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/17/italy 68% of Italians want Roma expelled – poll], ''[[The Guardian]]'', Tom Kington, Rome, 17 May 2008</ref> The survey, published as mobs in Naples burned down Gypsy camps that month, revealed that the majority also wanted all Gypsy camps in Italy to be demolished.<ref name=Guardian />

==== Netherlands ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in the Netherlands}}
In the early 2012 the Dutch right-wing [[Party for Freedom]] established an [[Anti-Slavic sentiment|anti-Slavic]] (predominantly [[Anti-Polish sentiment|anti-Polish]]) and [[Antiziganism|anti-Romani]] website, where native [[Dutch people]] could air their frustration about losing their job because of cheaper workers from [[Poland]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]] and other non-Germanic [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an countries. This led to commentaries involving [[hate speech]] and other racial prejudice mainly against Poles and Roma, but also aimed at other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/news/115208|title=Dutch far right opens anti-Polish hotline|website=EUobserver}}</ref> According to a 2015 report by the [[OECD]] and [[European Commission|EU Commission]], 37% of young people born in the country with immigrant parents say they had experienced discrimination in their lives.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/06/23/racism-denmark-an-exchange/|title=Racism in the North: An Exchange|last1=Eakin|first1=Hugh|date=2016-06-23|access-date=2019-12-14|last2=Rose|first2=Flemming|language=en|issn=0028-7504|last3=Mchangama|first3=Jacob|journal=New York Review of Books}}</ref>

In the [[Netherlands]], antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported, allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys from [[Morocco|Moroccan]] descent. A phrase made popular during football matches against the so-called Jewish football club [[AFC Ajax|Ajax]] has been adopted by Muslim youth and is frequently heard at pro-Palestinian demonstrations: "Hamas, Hamas, Jews to the gas!" According to the Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel, a pro-Israel lobby group in the Netherlands, in 2009, the number of anti-Semitic incidents in [[Amsterdam]], the city that is home to most of the approximately 40,000 [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Dutch Jews]], was said to have doubled compared to 2008.<ref name="nrc.nl">Berkhout, Karel. (2010-01-26) [http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2468489.ece/Anti-Semitism_on_the_rise_in_Amsterdam "Anti-Semitism on the rise in Amsterdam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302092941/http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2468489.ece/Anti-Semitism_on_the_rise_in_Amsterdam |date=2010-03-02 }}. ''NRC Handelsblad''. Retrieved 2012-06-01.</ref>

==== Norway ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in Norway}}
In 2010, the [[Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation]] after one year of research, revealed that [[antisemitism]] was common among Norwegian [[Muslim]]s. Teachers at schools with large shares of Muslims revealed that Muslim students often "praise or admire Adolf Hitler for his killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students," and "Muslims laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the [[Holocaust]]." Additionally that "while some students might protest when some express support for [[terrorism]], none object when students express hate of Jews" and that it says in "the Quran that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews." Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One [[Jew]]ish father also told that his child after school had been taken by a Muslim mob (though managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and hanged because he was a Jew".<ref name="Jødiske barn blir hetset 2010">{{cite news |publisher=NRK |title=Nett-TV: Lørdagsrevyen 13.03.10 Jødiske barn blir hetset |date=March 13, 2010 |url=https://www.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317183545/https://www.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057/ |archive-date=March 17, 2010 |url-status=dead |language=no |access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref>

==== Russia ====
{{Main|Racism in Russia}}
{{further|History of the Jews in the Soviet Union|History of the Jews in Russia}}
[[File:protestinrussia.jpg|thumb|A demonstration in Russia. The antisemitic slogans cite [[Henry Ford]] and [[Elizabeth of Russia|Empress Elizabeth]].]]

By the beginning of the 20th century, most European Jews lived in the so-called [[Pale of Settlement]], the Western frontier of the [[Russian Empire]] consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions. Many pogroms accompanied the [[Russian Revolution|Revolution of 1917]] and the ensuing [[Russian Civil War]], an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former [[Russian Empire]]; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-215022/anti-Semitism |title=anti-Semitism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>[[Hilary L. Rubinstein]], Daniel C. Cohn-Sherbok, Abraham J. Edelheit, [[William D. Rubinstein]], ''The Jews in the Modern World'', Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref>

In the 2000s, [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] groups inside [[Russia]] had risen to include as many as tens of thousands of people.<ref>{{cite news |title=A gathering storm of Russian thugs |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/08/14/MNGUSE7N2D1.DTL |work=The San Francisco Chronicle |first=Anna |last=Badkhen |date=2005-08-14}}</ref> Racism against both the Russian citizens ([[peoples of the Caucasus]], [[indigenous peoples of Siberia]] and Russian Far East, etc.) and non-Russian citizens of Africans, Central Asians, East Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.) and Europeans (Ukrainians, etc.) is a significant problem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=726 |title=Racist Violence, Rhetoric Plague Russia |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018174645/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=726 |archive-date=18 October 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In 2016, [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] reported that "Researchers who track xenophobia in Russia have recorded an "impressive" decrease in hate crimes as the authorities appear to have stepped up pressure on far-right groups".<ref>{{cite news |title=Hate Crimes Said Down In Russia As Kremlin Cracks Down On Nationalist Critics |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-sova-hate-crimes-down-nationalist-crackdown/27562759.html |work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) |date=February 19, 2016}}</ref>

==== Sweden ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in Sweden}}
A government study in 2006 estimated that 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult Muslims "harbour systematic antisemitic views".<ref name="GovStudy">Henrik Bachner and Jonas Ring. {{cite web |url=http://intolerans.levandehistoria.se/article/article_docs/antisemitism_english.pdf |title=Antisemitic images and attitudes in Sweden |access-date=2007-02-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221140257/http://intolerans.levandehistoria.se/article/article_docs/antisemitism_english.pdf |archive-date=February 21, 2007 }}. levandehistoria.se</ref> The former prime minister [[Göran Persson]] described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said, "It's not true to say that the Swedes are antisemitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be."<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/922248.html Anti-Semitism, in Sweden? Depends who you're asking], ''Haaretz'', November 9, 2007.</ref>

In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzk told ''Die Presse'', an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East", although he added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews". Sieradzk also stated that approximately 30 Jewish families have emigrated from Malmö to Israel in the past year, specifically to escape from harassment. Also in March, the Swedish newspaper ''Skånska Dagbladet'' reported that attacks on Jews in Malmö totaled 79 in 2009, about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics.<ref>[http://www.jta.org/news/article/2010/03/22/1011279/report-anti-semitic-attacks-in-rise-in-scandanavia Report: Anti-Semitic attacks rising in Scandinavia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325205944/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2010/03/22/1011279/report-anti-semitic-attacks-in-rise-in-scandanavia |date=March 25, 2010 }}, Jewish Telegraphic Agency (JTA), March 22, 2010.</ref> In December 2010, the [[Jews|Jewish]] [[human rights]] organization [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] issued a travel advisory concerning [[Sweden]], advising Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens by Muslims in the city of [[Malmö]].<ref>[http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441467&ct=8971903 Simon Wiesenthal Center to Issue Travel Advisory for Sweden – Officials Confer With Swedish Justice Minister Beatrice Ask | Simon Wiesenthal Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218192040/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441467&ct=8971903 |date=2010-12-18 }}. Wiesenthal.com (2010-12-14). Retrieved 2012-06-01.</ref>

==== Ukraine ====
{{Main|Racism and discrimination in Ukraine}}
Israel's Antisemitism Report for 2017 stated that "A striking exception in the trend of decrease in antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe was Ukraine, where the number of recorded [[Antisemitism in Ukraine|antisemitic attacks]] was doubled from last year and surpassed the tally for all the incidents reported throughout the entire region combined."<ref name="RU2017">{{cite news |title=Report 2017: Ukraine had more antisemitic cases than all former USSR countries combined |url=https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Antisemitism/Report-Ukraine-had-more-antisemitic-incidents-than-all-former-Soviet-countries-combined-540096 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Ukrainian state historian, Vladimir Vyatrovich dismissed the Israeli report as anti-Ukrainian propaganda and a researcher of antisemitism from Ukraine, Vyacheslav Likhachev said the Israeli report was flawed and amateurish.<ref name="RU2017"/>

=== Africa ===
==== Ivory Coast ====
In the past recent years, [[Ivory Coast]] has seen a resurgence in ethnic tribal hatred and religious intolerance. In addition to the many victims among the various tribes of the northern and southern regions of the country that have perished in the ongoing conflict, [[White people|white]] foreigners residing or visiting Ivory Coast have also been subjected to violent attacks. According to a report by Human Rights Watch, the Ivory Coast government is guilty of fanning ethnic hatred for its own political ends.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/Africa/1932930.stm Ivory Coast "fanning ethnic hatred"] BBC News. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529154708/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1932930.stm |date=2006-05-29 }}</ref>

In 2004, the [[Congrès Panafricain des Jeunes et des Patriotes|Young Patriots]] of Abidjan, a strongly [[nationalist]] organisation, rallied by the state media, plundered possessions of foreign nationals in [[Abidjan]]. Calls for violence against whites and non-Ivorians were broadcast on national radio and TV after the Young Patriots seized control of its offices. Rapes, beatings, and murders of persons of European and Lebanese descent followed. Thousands of expatriates and white or ethnic Lebanese Ivorians fled the country. The attacks drew international condemnation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/11/19/wapp19.xml&sSheet=/news/2004/11/19/ixnewstop.html |title=News |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200411/s1242699.htm |title=Europeans flee Ivory Coast violence. 13 November 2004. ABC News Online |access-date=2017-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324232450/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200411/s1242699.htm |archive-date=2009-03-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Mauritania ====
{{Main|Slavery in Mauritania}}
{{further|Slavery in modern Africa}}
[[Slavery in Mauritania]] persists despite its abolition in 1980 and mostly affects the descendants of black Africans abducted into [[slavery]] who now live in [[Mauritania]] as "black [[Moors]]" or ''[[haratin]]'' and who partially still serve the "white Moors", or ''bidhan'', as slaves. The practice of slavery in Mauritania is most dominant within the traditional upper class of the Moors. For centuries, the ''haratin'' lower class, mostly poor black Africans living in rural areas, have been considered natural slaves by these Moors. Social attitudes have changed among most urban Moors, but in rural areas, the ancient divide remains.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L18334379.htm |title=Thomson Reuters Foundation |publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref>

==== Niger ====
In October 2006, [[Niger]] announced that it would deport to Chad the "[[Diffa Arabs]]", [[Arabs]] living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6087048.stm |title=Africa – Niger starts mass Arab expulsions |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref> Their population numbered about 150,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L25138454.htm |title=Thomson Reuters Foundation |publisher=Thomson Reuters Foundation |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref> While the government was rounding up Arabs in preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages. Niger's government eventually suspended their controversial decision to deport the Arabs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6081416.stm |title=Africa – Niger's Arabs to fight expulsion |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?docid=469638881e |title=Refworld – The Leader in Refugee Decision Support |author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |work=Refworld |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref>

==== South Africa ====
{{Main|Xenophobia in South Africa}}

[[File:People's March Anti Xenophobia.jpg|thumb|March against [[xenophobia in South Africa]], Johannesburg, 23 April 2015]]
Xenophobia in [[South Africa]] has been present in both the [[apartheid]] and [[History of South Africa (1994–present)|post–apartheid]] eras. Hostility between the [[British people|British]] and [[Boer]]s exacerbated by the [[Second Boer War]] led to rebellion by poor Afrikaners who looted British-owned shops.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blgjhkGD0vgC |title=The Afrikaners: Biography of a People |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |author=Giliomee, Hermann |year=2003 |page=383 |isbn=978-1-85065-714-9}}</ref> South Africa also passed numerous acts intended to keep out Indians, such as the Immigrants Regulation Act of 1913, which provided for the exclusion of "undesirables", a group of people that included Indians. This effectively halted Indian immigration. The Township Franchise Ordinance of 1924 was intended to "deprive Indians of municipal franchise".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/politics-and-society/anti-indian-legislation-1800s-1959 |title=Anti-Indian Legislation 1800s – 1959 |work=South African History Online |access-date=27 June 2016}}</ref> Xenophobic attitudes toward the Chinese have also been present, sometimes in the form of robberies or hijackings,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/africa/940619/chinese-traders-changed-south-africa-now-theyre-leaving/|title=Chinese migrants have changed the face of South Africa. Now they're leaving.|last=Kuo|first=Lily|website=Quartz Africa|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> and a hate speech case in 2018 was put to court the year later with 11 offenders on trial.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-03-14-hate-speech-case-a-message-about-racism-discrimination/|title=ANTI-CHINESE SENTIMENT: Hate speech case a message about racism, discrimination|last=Ho|first=Ufrieda|website=Daily Maverick|language=en|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>

In 1994 and 1995, gangs of armed youth destroyed the homes of foreign nationals living in [[Johannesburg]], demanding that the police work to repatriate them to their home countries.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/xenophobic-violence-democratic-south-africa |title=Xenophobic violence in democratic South Africa |work=South Africa History Online |access-date=29 June 2016}}</ref>
In 2008, a widely documented spate of xenophobic attacks occurred in Johannesburg.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/20/world/africa/20safrica.html |title=South Africans Take Out Rage on Immigrants |work=The New York Times |date=20 May 2008 |access-date=29 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/20/zimbabwe.southafrica |title=Thousands seek sanctuary as South Africans turn on refugees |work=The Guardian |date=20 May 2008 |access-date=29 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7407914.stm |title=Thousands flee S Africa attacks |work=BBC News |date=19 May 2008 |access-date=29 June 2016}}</ref> It is estimated that tens of thousands of migrants were displaced; property, businesses and homes were widely looted.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-05-28-analysis-the-ugly-truth-behind-sas-xenophobic-violence/ |title=Analysis: The ugly truth behind SA's xenophobic violence |work=Daily Maverick |date=28 May 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016}}</ref> The death toll after the attack stood at 56.<ref name="auto1" />

In 2015, another widely documented series of [[2015 South African xenophobic riots|xenophobic attacks]] occurred in South Africa, mostly against migrant [[Zimbabwe]]ans.<ref name="auto2">{{cite news |url=http://www.chronicle.co.zw/xenophobia-death-toll-climbs-to-7/ |title=Xenophobia death toll climbs to 7 |work=The Chronicle |date=20 April 2015 |access-date=30 June 2016 |author=Kazunga, Oliver}}</ref> This followed remarks by [[Zulu people|Zulu]] King [[Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu]] stating that the migrants should "pack their bags and leave".<ref name="auto1" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/04/deaths-south-africa-mobs-target-foreigners-150415063058933.html |title=Deaths in South Africa as mobs target foreigners |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=15 April 2015 |access-date=30 June 2016}}</ref> As of 20 April 2015, 7 people had died and more than 2000 foreigners had been displaced.<ref name="auto2" />

Following the riots and murders of other Africans from 2008 and 2015, violence again [[2019 Johannesburg riots|broke out in 2019]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Xenophobic violence flares in South Africa |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2019/09/14/xenophobic-violence-flares-in-south-africa?cid1=cust/dailypicks1/n/bl/n/2019099n/owned/n/n/dailypicks1/n/n/AP/305928/n |access-date=13 September 2019 |work=[[The Economist]] |date=14 September 2019 |quote=Dozens of people were killed in anti-foreigner riots in 2008 and 2015. But the most recent outbreak of violence shines a particularly harsh light on the rabble-rousing of South African politicians, some of whom have blamed migrants for supposedly taking jobs from locals and committing crimes.}}</ref>

==== Sudan ====
{{Main|Racism in Sudan}}
{{See also|War in Darfur|South Sudan|Slavery in Sudan}}
In the [[Sudan]], [[black people|black]] African captives in the civil war were often [[slavery in modern Africa|enslaved]], and female prisoners were often abused sexually,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/05/30/wdarf30.xml&sSheet=/news/2004/05/30/ixworld.html |title=News |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref> with their [[Arab]] captors claiming that Islamic law grants them permission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Pages/islamandslavery.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012161707/http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Pages/islamandslavery.html|url-status=dead|title=Islam and Slavery|archive-date=October 12, 2007}}</ref> According to [[CBS News]], slaves have been sold for US$50 a piece.<ref>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/1999/01/25/world/main29927.shtml Curse Of Slavery Haunts Sudan] CBS News. January 25, 1998</ref> In September 2000, the [[U.S. State Department]] alleged that "the Sudanese government's support of slavery and its continued military action which has resulted in numerous deaths are due in part to the victims' religious beliefs."<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/09/05/state.dept.religion/index.html U.S. State Department report says 'religious intolerance remains far too common' around world. September 6, 2000] CNN US News</ref> Jok Madut Jok, professor of history at [[Loyola Marymount University]], states that the abduction of women and children of the south is [[slavery]] by any definition. The government of Sudan insists that the whole matter is no more than the traditional tribal [[feud]]ing over resources.<ref>Jok Madut Jok (2001), p.3</ref>

==== Uganda ====
{{main|Expulsion of Asians from Uganda}}
Former British colonies in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] have many citizens of [[South Asian]] descent. They were brought by the [[British Empire]] from [[British India]] to do clerical work in imperial service.<ref name="Amin-Indophobia">General Amin and the Indian Exodus from Uganda
Hasu H. Patel, ''Issue: A Journal of Opinion'', Vol. 2, No. 4 (Winter, 1972), pp. 12-22 {{DOI|10.2307/1166488}}</ref> The most prominent case of [[Anti-Indian sentiment|anti-Indian racism]] was the [[ethnic cleansing]] of the Indian (called Asian) minority in [[Uganda]] by the [[Strongman (politics)|strongman]] [[dictator]] and [[human rights]] violator [[Idi Amin]].<ref name="Amin-Indophobia" />

=== Oceania ===
==== Australia ====
{{Main|Racism in Australia}}
[[File:1910 White Australia badge.png|thumb|150px|This badge from 1910 was produced by the [[Australian Natives' Association]], comprising Australian-born [[White people|whites]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/culture/social/display/31785-australian-natives-association-centenary |title=Australian Natives Association Centenary – Monument Australia |website=monumentaustralia.org.au |access-date=22 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701191748/http://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/culture/social/display/31785-australian-natives-association-centenary |archive-date=1 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>See [http://museumvictoria.com.au/learning-federation/white-australia/medal---australia-for-australians/ Museum Victoria description] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105150237/http://museumvictoria.com.au/learning-federation/white-australia/medal---australia-for-australians/ |date=5 January 2016 }}</ref>]]
The [[Immigration Restriction Act 1901]] ([[White Australia policy]]) effectively barred people of non-European descent from [[Immigration to Australia|immigrating to Australia]]. There was never any specific policy titled as such, but the term was invented later to encapsulate a collection of policies that were designed to exclude people from [[Asia]] (particularly [[China]]) and the [[Pacific Islands]] (particularly [[Melanesia]]) from immigrating to Australia.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Wendy Lewis]], Simon Balderstone and John Bowan |title=Events That Shaped Australia |page=102 |publisher=New Holland |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-74110-492-9}}</ref> The [[Menzies Government (1949–1966)|Menzies]] and [[Holt Government]]s effectively dismantled the policies between 1949 and 1966 and the [[Whitlam Government]] passed laws to ensure that [[Race (human classification)|race]] would be totally disregarded as a component for immigration to Australia in 1973.<ref name="immi.gov.au">{{cite web |url=http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |title=Fact Sheet – Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy |work=Australian Immigration |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia, National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship |access-date=27 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131355/http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |archive-date=2015-09-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[2005 Cronulla riots]] were a series of [[race riots]] and outbreaks of [[mob violence]] in [[Sydney]]'s southern suburb [[Cronulla]] which resulted from strained relations between [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|Anglo-Celtic]] and (predominantly [[Muslim]]) [[Lebanese Australians]]. [[Travel warning]]s for Australia were issued by some countries but were later removed.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Gender, Race and National Identity: Nations of Flesh and Blood |last=Hogan |first=Jackie |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-134-17406-5 |pages=152–153}}</ref> In December 2005, a fight broke out between a group of [[Surf Life Saving Club|volunteer surf lifesavers]] and Lebanese youth. These incidents were considered to be a key factor in a [[Hate crime|racially motivated]] confrontation the following weekend.<ref name=hazard>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/ep38cronulla1.pdf |title=Strike Force Neil, Cronulla Riots, Review of the Police Response Media Component Volume 1 of 4 |access-date=3 October 2012 |format=PDF-19.4 Mb |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110235157/http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/ep38cronulla1.pdf |archive-date=2012-11-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Violence spread to other southern suburbs of Sydney, where more assaults occurred, including two stabbings and attacks on ambulances and police officers.<ref name="4corners">{{cite episode |title=Riot and Revenge |date=13 March 2006 |credits=[[Liz Jackson]] (presenter) |transcript=Transcript |transcript-url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2006/s1590953.htm |url=http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2006/s1590953.htm |series=Four Corners |series-link=Four Corners (Australian TV program) |network=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] |season=2006 |access-date=25 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102055516/http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2006/s1588360.htm |archive-date=2010-01-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 30 May 2009, Indian students protested against what they claimed were racist attacks, blocking streets in central [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]]. Thousands of students gathered outside the [[Royal Melbourne Hospital]] where one of the victims was admitted.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/indians-abroad/18-Indians-detained-for-breaching-Australia-peace-rally/articleshow/4602328.cms |title=18 Indians detained for breaching Australia peace rally |work=The Times of India |date=June 1, 2009}}</ref> In light of this event, the Australian Government started a [[Helpline]] for Indian students to report such incidents.<ref>{{cite web |last=Topsfield |first=Jewel |title=Helpline thrown to Indian students |website=The Age |date=May 11, 2009 |url=https://www.theage.com.au/national/helpline-thrown-to-indian-students-20090511-b0mt.html |access-date=June 11, 2018}}</ref> The [[United Nations]] High Commissioner for Human Rights, [[Navi Pillay]], termed these attacks "disturbing" and called for Australia to investigate the matters further.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/world/report_un-asks-australia-to-investigate-root-cause-of-attacks-on-indian_1355539 |title=UN asks Australia to investigate 'root cause' of attacks on Indian |work=dna |access-date=24 January 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Afrophobia]]
* [[Albanophobia]]
* [[Aporophobia]]
* [[Chauvinism]]
* [[Ethnocentrism]]
* [[Environmental racism]]
* [[European Commission against Racism and Intolerance]]
* [[Hispanophobia]]
* [[List of anti-cultural, anti-national, and anti-ethnic terms]]
* [[List of ethnic slurs]]
* [[List of phobias]]
* [[Nativism (politics)]]
* [[Opposition to immigration]]
* [[Racism]]
* [[Russophobia]]
* [[Sinophobia]]
* [[Stranger danger]]
* [[Überfremdung]]
* [[Xenocentrism]]
* [[Xenophilia]]
* [[Xenoracism]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohePlRGBdg4C |last=Fredrickson |first=George |title=Racism: A Short History |date=April 30, 2009 |isbn=978-1-4008-2431-1}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}

{{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}}
{{Racism topics}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{Ethnicity}}
{{Nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Xenophobia| ]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Phobias]]
[[Category:Hatred]]

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== May 2021 ==

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I'm [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]]. I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/2409:4054:2113:7C24:A05F:104C:DC80:B388|your recent contributions]] to [[:Hierarchy]] have been undone because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. If you have any questions, you can ask for assistance at the [[Wikipedia:Teahouse|Teahouse]]. Thanks.{{Z186}} [[User:Macedonian|Macedonian]] ([[User talk:Macedonian|talk]]) 15:28, 9 May 2021 (UTC)
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Hierarchy

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{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}
{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}
A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: {{Lang-grc|ἱεραρχία|translit=hierarkhia|lit=rule of a high priest|label=none}}, from {{transl|grc|[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]}}, 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[mathematics]], [[philosophy]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], [[systematic biology]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).

A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.

==Nomenclature==
{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).

In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/>
* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)
* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)
* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)
* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)
*'''Terms about Positioning'''
**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object
**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance
**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)
**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure
*'''Terms about Placement'''
**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an [[Tree structure|inverted-tree structure]]
**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached
**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level
**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy
**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.
**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)
**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)
** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)
** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)
** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)
*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)
** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another
** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has
*'''Terms about Nature'''
** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')
** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')

In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.

Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].

===Degree of branching ===
[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.

In a '''linear hierarchy''', the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].

In a '''branching hierarchy''', one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.

A '''flat hierarchy''' is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.

An '''overlapping hierarchy''' is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).

==Etymology==
Possibly the first use of the English word ''hierarchy'' cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία, {{transl|grc|hierarchia}}) both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Hierarchy]</ref> The Greek term ''hierarchia'' means 'rule of a high priest',<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> from {{transl|grc|hierarches}} (ἱεράρχης, 'president of sacred rites, high-priest')<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],
Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ''hiereus'' (ἱερεύς, 'priest')<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ''arche'' (ἀρχή, 'first place or power, rule').<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun.

Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.

=={{anchor|hierachy|Visually representing hierarchies}}Representing hierarchies==
[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram. The hierarchical aspect represented here is that needs at lower levels of the pyramid are considered more basic and must be fulfilled before higher ones are met.]]
A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.

These pyramids are often diagrammed with a [[triangle]] [[diagram]] which serves to emphasize the size differences between the levels (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]). An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right.

Another common representation of a hierarchical scheme is as a [[Tree structure|tree diagram]]. [[Phylogenetic trees]], [[charts]] showing the structure of {{section link||organizations}}, and [[Bracket (tournament)|playoff brackets]] in sports are often illustrated this way.

More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].

==Visual hierarchy==
In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.

An example of visually representing hierarchy is through nested clusters. Nested clusters represent hierarchical relationships using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure is most effective in representing simple hierarchical relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.

For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. Child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and parent elements are at the top. This structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking.

==Informal representation==
In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref>
# No element is superior to itself, and
# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.
The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].
The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.

==Mathematical representation==
{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}
Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings
|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].

"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. 
Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parentheses is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:
(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).
In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.

==Subtypes==
===Nested hierarchy===
[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]
A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:

: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math>

A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.

Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|author-link=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=la|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|access-date=2011-09-24}}</ref>

: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math>

Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.

In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref>

===Containment hierarchy===
A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:

: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math>

The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to ''y''.

A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].

Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last1=Kopisch|first1=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref>

===Subsumptive containment hierarchy===
A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|access-date=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last1=Funke|first1=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.

===Compositional containment hierarchy===
A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.

The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].

In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.

==Contexts and applications==
According to Kulish (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/>

While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref>

[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]

===Organizations===
{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}

[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[Military|armed forces]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].

In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.

=== Life===
{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}

Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref>

The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics.
When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.

Other hierarchical representations in biology include [[ecological pyramids]] which illustrate energy flow or [[trophic levels]] in [[ecosystems]], and [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomic]] hierarchies, including the [[Linnean classification]] scheme and [[phylogenetic trees]] that reflect inferred patterns of evolutionary relationship among living and extinct species.

===Computer graphic imaging===
{{Main|3D modeling}}
[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.

===Linguistics===
Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.

[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.

In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.

On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.

===Music===
The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.

The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."

=== Examples of other applications ===


{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
==== Information-based ==== 
* [[Library classification]]
** [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]
{{col-3}}
==== City planning-based ==== 
* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads]]
** [[Street hierarchy|Streets]]
* [[Settlement hierarchy]]
** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010]]
** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968)]]
{{col-3}}

==== Linguistics-based ==== 
* [[Tree model|Language family tree]]
* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars]]
* [[Direct–inverse language]]s
* [[Structural linguistics]]
** [[Parse tree]]
** [[Formal grammar]]s
** [[Abstract syntax tree]]
* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages]]
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}

==== Power- or authority-based ==== 
* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies]]
** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe]]
** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China]]
* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies]]
** [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]
** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy]]
** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy]]
** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy]]
** see also [[autocephaly]]
* Political party hierarchies
** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party]]
*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]
*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau]]
** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
** [[Communist Party of China]]
* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command]]
** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks]]
** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units]]
** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands]]
* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance]]
** [[Pecking order]]
* [[Social stratification|Social classes]]
** [[Caste system in India]]
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan]]
** [[Master race#Hierarchy|White racist hierarchy]]
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion]] (Ender's Game)

{{col-3}}

==== Value-based ==== 
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art]]
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence]]
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs]]
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances]]
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values]]

{{col-3}}

==== Perception-based ==== 
* [[Color wheel]]
** [[Primary colors]]
*** [[Secondary colors]]
**** [[Tertiary colors]]
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}

==== History-based ==== 
* [[Three-age system]]
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization]]
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler]]
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]
* [[Spiral dynamics]]

{{col-3}}

==== Science-based ====

* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe]]
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems]]
* [[Biological classification]]
* [[Biological organization]]
* [[Phylogenetic tree]]
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development]]
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions]]

{{col-3}}

==== Technology-based ====
* [[Memory hierarchy]]
** [[Cache hierarchy]]
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters]]
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs]]
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization]]
** [[Hierarchical query]]
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage]]
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh)]]
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices]]
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses]]
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory]]
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation]]
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks]]
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells]]
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations)]]
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses]]
* [[Structure]]
** [[Data Structure]]
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming)]]
{{col-end}}

==== Religion-based ==== 
* Levels of consciousness
**[[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras]]
**[[Great chain of being]]
**[[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]
**[[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary]]
* Levels of spiritual development
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism]]
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism]]
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy]]
* Ages in the evolution of society
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology]]
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion)]]
**[[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism]]
**[[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism]]
*[[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches]]
*[[UFO religion]]s
**[[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet]]
* Deities
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism]]
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy]]
* Angels
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity]]
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam]]
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism]]
***[[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic]]
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism]]
* Devils and Demons
**[[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]
**[[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]
*[[Hell]]s
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell)]]
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell)]]
*[[Religious stratification|Religions in society]]
* (organizational hierarchies are listed under {{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})

====Methods using hierarchy====
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process]]
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process]]
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design]]
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model]]
* [[Hierarchical clustering]]
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks]]
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction]]
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling]]
* [[Hierarchical modulation]]
* [[Hierarchical proportion]]
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function]]
* [[Hierarchical storage management]]
* [[Hierarchical task network]]
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory]]
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket]]
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern]]
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control]]
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller]]
}}

== Criticisms ==
In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.

[[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.

===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity===
[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]
In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].

In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[Anarchy]]
* [[Class browser]]
* [[Forms of government]]
* [[Graph theory]]
* [[Heterarchy]]
* [[Hierarchical classifier]]
* [[Hierarchical epistemology]]
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model]]
* [[Hierarchical INTegration]]
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language]]
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition]]
* [[Hierarchy problem]]
* {{section link|Holarchy|Different meanings}}
* [[Instrumental value]]
* [[Layer (disambiguation)]]
* [[Multilevel model]]
* [[Multitree]]
* [[Ordinary (officer)]]
** {{section link|Characters of Halo|High Prophets}}
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria]]
* [[Peter Principle]]
* [[Ring (computer security)]]
* [[Social dominance theory]]
}}

===Structure-related concepts===
''(For example, in {{section link||Subtype}})''
* [[Is-a]]
** [[Hypernymy]] (and [[supertype]])
** [[Hyponymy]] (and [[subtype]])
* [[Has-a]]
** [[Holonymy]]
** [[Meronymy]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|first1=Valerie|last1=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|author-link2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}
* {{cite conference|last1=Akl |first1=Selim G. |author-link=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|author-link=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|author-link=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=fr|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}
** Also includes full copies of:
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last1=Shahbaba|first1=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|s2cid=10611032|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-03}}
** {{cite journal|last1=Shahbaba|first1=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]
[[Category:Patterns]]
[[Category:Structure]]
[[Category:Political culture]]

Troy

2021-05-09T15:20:31Z

Macedonian: Undid revision 1022255652 by 2601:242:600:DA00:917D:6AEB:40D2:DB60 (talk) Rvv

{{Other uses|Troy (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|Homeric ancient city in northwest Asia Minor}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Troy
| native_name = Τροία,Iaιον
| alternate_name =
| image = Walls of Troy (2).jpg
| image_size = 280
| alt =
| caption = East tower and cul-de-sac wall before the east gate of Troy VI, considered the floruit of Bronze Age Troy. The complex would have been surmounted and augmented by [[mudbrick]] structures.
| map_type = Turkey Marmara#Turkey#Europe
| map_alt =
| map_size = 280
| relief =
| coordinates = {{coord|39|57|27|N|26|14|20|E|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Hisarlik]], [[Çanakkale Province]], [[Turkey]]
| region = [[Troad]]
| type = Walled city
| part_of = Historical National Park of Troia
| length =
| width =
| area = Varies depending on time period. 13th century BC (Troy VI): {{convert|300000|m2|acre}}<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2013|p=27}}</ref>
| height = The unexcavated hill of [[Hisarlik]] was {{convert|31.2|m|ft}} high, {{convert|38.5|m|ft}} elevation. The city began as a citadel at the top, ended by covering the entire height to the south (the north being precipitous)<ref>{{harvnb|Blegen|1995|p=24}}</ref>
| builder = Various peoples living in the region at different historical periods
| material = Native [[limestone]], wood, mudbrick
| built = 3500 BC from the start of Troy Zero
| abandoned = Main periods of abandonment as a residential city: 950 BC – 750 BC 450 AD – 1200 AD 1300 AD
| epochs =
| cultures = [[Bronze Age]] (entire) [[Greek Dark Ages|Dark Age]] (partial) [[Classical Greece|Classical]] and [[Hellenistic]] Periods (entire) [[Roman Empire]] (entire) [[Byzantine Empire]] (one century)
| dependency_of =
| occupants = [[Luwian]] speakers in the Late Bronze Age, Greek speakers subsequently
| event =
| excavations =
| archaeologists = [[Frank Calvert|The Calverts]], [[Heinrich Schliemann]], [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]] [[Carl Blegen]] and the University of Cincinnati, [[Manfred Korfmann]] and the University of Tübingen, [[Rüstem Aslan]] of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University (current)
| condition = High authenticity, low degree of reconstruction
| ownership = State property of the Turkish Republic through the [[Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Turkey)|Ministry of Culture and Tourism]]
| management = General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums in conjunction with other relevant local organizations
| public_access = Regular visiting hours, bus access, some parking
| website = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849 Unesco WHS 849]
| notes =
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_offname = Archaeological Site of Troy
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_criteria = (ii)(iii)(vi)
| designation1_date = 1998 (22nd [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| delisted1_date =
| designation1_partof =
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849 849]
| designation1_free1name =
| designation1_free1value =
}}

[[File:Ilios - the city and country of the Trojans - the results of researches and discoveries on the site of Troy and throughout the Troad in the years 1871-72-73-78-79, including an autobiography of the (14597820599).jpg|thumb|285px|The Troy ridge, 1880, sketched from the plain below. This woodcut is published in some of the works of [[Schliemann]]. He describes the view as being "from the north", necessarily meaning from the northwest. Only the west end of the ridge is visible. The angular appearance is due to Schliemann's excavations. The notch at the top is "Schliemann's Trench". For much of Troy's archaeological history, the plain was an inlet of the sea, with Troy Ridge projecting into it, hence Korfmann's classification of it as a maritime city.]]
'''Troy''' ({{lang-grc|Τροία}}, ''Troía'', {{lang|grc|Ἴλιον}}, ''Ī́lion'' or {{lang|grc|Ἴλιος}}, ''Ī́lios''; {{lang-la|Troia}}, also {{lang|la|Īlium}};<ref name=ilium group=note>''Troia'' is the typical Latin name for the city. ''Īlium'' is a more poetic term: {{cite web |first1=Charlton T. |last1=Lewis |last2=Short |first2=Charles |title=Ilium |work=[[A Latin Dictionary]] |publisher=Tufts University: The Perseus Digital Library |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3DIlium1 |access-date=2018-04-22}}</ref> [[Hittite language|Hittite]]: 𒌷𒃾𒇻𒊭 ''Wilusa'' or 𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭 ''Truwisa'';<ref>{{cite book |last=Korfmann |first=Manfred O. |author-link=Manfred Korfmann |editor-last=Winkler |editor-first=Martin M |title=Troy: From Homer's Iliad to Hollywood Epic |year=2007 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |location=Oxford, England |isbn=978-1-4051-3183-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/troyfromhomersil0000unse/page/25 25] |quote=Troy or Ilios (or Wilios) is most probably identical with Wilusa or Truwisa ... mentioned in the Hittite sources |url=https://archive.org/details/troyfromhomersil0000unse/page/25 }}</ref><ref name="Burney2004">{{cite book |last=Burney |first=Charles |title=Historical dictionary of the Hittites |year=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Metuchen, N.J |isbn=978-0-8108-4936-5 |page=311 |chapter=Wilusa}}</ref> {{lang-tr|Truva or Troya}}), also '''Ilium''', was a city in the northwest of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] (modern [[Turkey]]), southwest of the Çanakkale Strait, south of the mouth of the [[Dardanelles]] and northwest of [[Mount Ida (Turkey)|Mount Ida]].<ref group=note>The region inherits these names from Roman provincial or regional names in late [[Classical antiquity]]: [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] ("lesser Asia"), or Anatolia ("place of the rising sun") now [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[Anatolia|Anadolu]]</ref> The location in the present day is the hill of [[Hisarlik]] and its immediate vicinity. In modern scholarly nomenclature, the Ridge of Troy (including Hisarlik) borders the Plain of Troy, flat agricultural land, which conducts the lower [[Karamenderes River|Scamander River]] to the strait. Troy was the setting of the [[Trojan War]] described in the Greek [[Epic Cycle]], in particular in the ''[[Iliad]]'', one of the two epic poems attributed to [[Homer]]. [[metre (poetry)|Metrical]] evidence from the ''Iliad'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'' suggests that the name {{lang|grc|Ἴλιον}} (''Ilion'') formerly began with a [[digamma]]: {{lang|grc|Ϝίλιον}} (''Wilion'');<ref name=met group=note/> this is also supported by the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] name for what is thought to be the same city, [[Wilusa]]. According to archaeologist [[Manfred Korfmann]], Troy's location near the [[Aegean Sea]], as well as the [[Sea of Marmara]] and the [[Black Sea]], made it a hub for military activities and trade, and the chief site of a culture that Korfmann calls the "Maritime Troja Culture", which extended over the region between these seas.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2003|p=27}}</ref>

The city was destroyed at [[Late Bronze Age collapse|the end]] of the [[Bronze Age]] – a phase that is generally believed to represent the end of the Trojan War – and was abandoned or near-abandoned during the [[Greek Dark Ages|subsequent Dark Age]]. After this, the site acquired a new, Greek-speaking population, and the city became, along with the rest of Anatolia, a part of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]]. The Troad, the region containing the former city, was then conquered by [[Alexander the Great]], an admirer of [[Achilles]], who he believed had the same type of glorious (but short-lived) destiny. After the Roman conquest of this now Hellenistic Greek-speaking world, a new capital called '''Ilium''' (from Greek: Ἴλιον, ''Ilion'') was founded on the site in the reign of the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Augustus]]. It flourished until the establishment of [[Constantinople]], became a [[Diocese|bishopric]], was abandoned, repopulated for a few centuries in the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine era]], before being abandoned again (although it has remained a [[titular see]] of the [[Catholic Church]]).

Troy's physical location on Hisarlik was forgotten in antiquity, and, by the early modern era, even its existence as a Bronze Age city was questioned and held to be mythical or quasi-mythical. In 1822, the Scottish journalist [[Charles Maclaren]] was the first modern scholar to categorically identify Hisarlik as the likely location of Troy.<ref name="Bibliobazaar">{{cite book|last1=Maclaren|first1=Charles|title=A Dissertation On the Topography of the Plain of Troy: Including an Examination of the Opinions of Demetrius, Chevalier, Dr. Clarke, and Major Rennell|year=1822|publisher=Bibliobazaar|isbn=978-1-146-73161-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkkMAAAAYAAJ|access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref>{{sfn|Schliemann|1881|p=189}} During the mid-19th century, the Calvert family, wealthy [[Levantines in Turkey|Levantine]] English emigrants living in Troad, inhabiting a working farm a few miles from Hisarlik, purchased much of the hill in the belief that it contained the ruins of Troy. They were antiquarians. Two of the family, Frederick and especially the youngest, Frank, surveyed the Troad and conducted a number of trial excavations there. In 1865, [[Frank Calvert]] excavated trial trenches on the hill, discovering the Roman settlement. Realizing he did not have the funds for a full excavation, he attempted to recruit the [[British Museum]], and was refused. A chance meeting with Calvert in [[Çanakkale]] and a visit to the site by [[Heinrich Schliemann]], a wealthy German businessman and archaeologist, also looking for Troy, offered a second opportunity for funding.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1985|pp=54–55}}.</ref> Schliemann had been at first skeptical about the identification of Hisarlik with Troy, but was persuaded by Calvert.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bryce |first=Trevor |title=The Trojans and their neighbours |year=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-34959-8 |page=37}}</ref> As Schliemann was about to leave the area, Calvert wrote to him asking him to take over the entire excavation. Schliemann agreed. The Calverts, who made their money in the diplomatic service, expedited the acquisition of a Turkish [[firman]]. In 1868, Schliemann excavated an initial deep trench across the mound called today "Schliemann's trench." These excavations revealed several cities built in succession. Subsequent excavations by following archaeologists elaborated on the number and dates of the cities.

Since the rediscovery of Troy, a village near the ruins named Tevfikiye has supported the archaeological site and the associated tourist trade. It is in the modern [[Çanakkale Province]], {{convert|30|km|mi}} south-west of the city of [[Çanakkale]]. On modern maps, Ilium is shown a short distance inland from the Scamander estuary, across the Plain of Troy.

Troy was added to the [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|UNESCO World Heritage]] list in 1998.

{{TOC limit|3}}

==The name==
The naming conventions relating to the story of "Troy" are quite complex. In Greek mythology [[Tros (mythology)|Tros]] founded the colony of Troas on the [[Anatolia]]n coast (modern-day Turkey), and the city of Ilios was founded by [[Ilus (son of Tros)|Ilus]], his son.<ref name=":10">[[Diodorus Siculus]], ''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4D*.html#75.3 4.75.3]</ref><ref>[[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D637 6.637-678]</ref> In Greek, it is common to feminize some proper names by changing their ending to -ia, like Troia. Ilios was Latinized to Ilium, and Troas has been Anglicized to Troy.

There is some evidence of a city with similar names in actual, historic Anatolia. For example, most of the peninsula was ruled at the time by the [[Hittites|Hittite]] empire, and there is a document that seems to refer to a treaty between them and a king [[Alaksandu]] of a city called [[Wilusa]]. Some modern scholars believe Wilusa to have been Ilios (Troy), the W in earlier Greek having been lost after the Bronze Age.<ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 588.</ref> Aleksandu is, of course, noteworthy for being similar to [[Paris (mythology)|Alexandros]] (Paris) of Ilium/Troy during the Trojan War, though the treaty is dated to at least fifty years before the traditional time of that event.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Suzanne |last1=Said |first2=Ruth |last2=Webb |title=Homer and the Odyssey |pages=77 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2011}}</ref>

== Homeric Troy ==
[[File:Polyxena_Sarcophagus_Now_in_Troy_Museum_7938.jpg|thumb|left|Polyxena Sarcophagus in [[Troy Museum]], named after the depiction of the sacrifice of [[Polyxena]], the last act of the Greeks at Troy.]]
{{Further|Homeric Question|Historicity of the Iliad}}
[[File:Troas.png|thumb|285px|Map of the Troad, including the site of Troy]]
'''Homeric Troy''' refers primarily to the city described in the ''[[Iliad]]'', one of the earliest literary works of the [[Western Canon]]. The ''Iliad'' is a long originally oral poem composed in its own dialect of ancient Greek in [[dactylic hexameter]], traditionally believed to have been composed by a blind poet of the Anatolian Greek coast, [[Homer]]. It covers the 10th year of a war against Troy conducted by a coalition of [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaean]], or Greek, states under the leadership of a high king, [[Agamemnon]] of [[Mycenae]]. The city was defended by a coalition of states in the [[Dardanelles]] and West Anatolian region under another high king, [[Priam]], whose capital was Troy. The cause of the war was the elopement of Agamemnon's brother's wife, [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], with [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], a prince of Troy.

After the literary time of the poem, the city was destroyed when the Greeks pretended to leave after secreting a squad of soldiers in a gigantic [[Trojan Horse|wooden horse monument]], which the Trojans brought inside the walls.<ref group=note>In the spirit of Schliemann, which tries to match legendary events with archaeology, one theory suggests a gate modified in Troy VII (or late Troy VI) resulted from the Trojans dismantling the gate to admit the horse. {{cite book |last=Aşkin |first=Mustafa |title=Troy |year=1981 |publisher=Keskin |location=Istanbul |edition=2005 rev |page=[https://archive.org/details/troywithlegendsf00aski/page/34 34] |isbn=978-975-7559-37-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/troywithlegendsf00aski/page/34}}</ref> In the dead of night they exited the horse and opened the gates to the Achaeans nearby. Troy was burned and the population slaughtered, although many had other fates.

Besides the ''Iliad'', there are references to Troy in the other major work attributed to Homer, the ''[[Odyssey]]'', as well as in other ancient Greek literature (such as [[Aeschylus]]'s [[The Oresteia|''Oresteia'']]). The Homeric legend of Troy was elaborated by the Roman poet [[Virgil]] in his ''[[Aeneid]]''. The fall of Troy with the story of the [[Trojan Horse]] and the sacrifice of [[Polyxena]], Priam's youngest daughter, is the subject of a later Greek epic by [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]] ("Quintus of Smyrna").

The Greeks and Romans took for a fact the [[Historicity of the Iliad|historicity of the Trojan War]] and the identity of Homeric Troy with a site in Anatolia on a peninsula called the [[Troad]] ([[Biga Peninsula]]). [[Alexander the Great]], for example, visited the site in 334 BC and there made sacrifices at tombs associated with the Homeric heroes [[Achilles]] and [[Patroclus]]. In [[Piri Reis]] book ''Kitab-ı Bahriye'' (Book of the Sea, 1521) which details many ports and islands of the Mediterranean, the description of the island [[Tenedos]] mentions Troy and its ruins, lying on the shore opposite of the island.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reis|first1=Piri|title=Kitab-ı Bahriye|year=2013|publisher=Boyut|isbn=9789752310513}}</ref>

In the ''Iliad'', the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] set up their camp near the mouth of the River [[Scamander]] (modern [[Karamenderes]]),<ref name="ShopesHamilton2008">{{cite book|last1=Cenker|first1=Işil Cerem|last2=Thys-Şenocak|first2=Lucienne|editor=Shopes, Linda |editor2=Hamilton, Paula|title=Oral History and Public Memories|url=https://archive.org/details/oralhistorypubli00hami|url-access=limited|year=2008|publisher=Temple University Press|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-1-59213-141-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/oralhistorypubli00hami/page/n94 76]}}</ref> where they beached their ships. The city of Troy itself stood on a hill across the plain of Scamander where the battles of the Trojan War took place. The site of the ancient city is some {{convert|5|km|mi}} from the coast today, but 3,000 years ago the mouths of Scamander were much closer to the city,<ref>[[Strabo]], ''[[Geographia|Geography]]'' XIII, I, 36, tr. H. L. Jones, Loeb Classical Library; [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', V.33, tr. H. Rackham, W. S. Jones and D. E. Eichholz, Loeb Classical Library.</ref> discharging into a large bay that formed a natural harbor, which has since been filled with [[alluvial]] material. Recent geological findings have permitted the identification of the ancient Trojan coastline, and the results largely confirm the accuracy of the Homeric geography of Troy.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2736059.stm |title=Geologists investigate Trojan battlefield |date=7 February 2003 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

In November 2001, the geologist John C. Kraft from the [[University of Delaware]] and the classicist [[John V. Luce]] from [[Trinity College, Dublin]], presented the results of investigations, begun in 1977, into the geology of the region.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Bronze Age Paleogeographies at Ancient Troy | last=Kraft | first=John C. | date=November 2001 | publisher=[[Geological Society of America]] | journal=Archaeological Geology | number=125}}</ref> They compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the ''Iliad'' and other classical sources, notably [[Strabo]]'s ''[[Geographica|Geographia]]'', and concluded that there is a regular consistency between the location of Schliemann's Troy and other locations such as the Greek camp, the geological evidence, descriptions of the [[topography]] and accounts of the battle in the ''Iliad''.<ref>Some additional references on the topic are:{{cite journal | title=Harbor areas at ancient Troy: Sedimentology and geomorphology complement Homer's Iliad | author1=Kraft, John C. | author2=Rapp, George | author3=Kayan, Ilhan | author4=Luce, John V. |journal=Geology | volume=31 | number=2 | date= February 2003| pages=163 | doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0163:HAAATS>2.0.CO;2 }}; {{cite web |url=http://www.udel.edu/PR/UDaily/2003/troy030303.html |title=Press Release: Geology corresponds with Homer's description of ancient Troy|publisher=University of Delaware}}</ref>

During the [[Greek Dark Ages]] that followed the fall of Troy, writing in Greece disappeared in the period between the abandonment of [[Linear B]] and the creation of the [[Greek alphabet]]. There are consequently no historians from the period. Writing reappeared in [[Archaic Greece]]. In [[Classical Greece]], many historians recorded existing oral accounts of the Trojan War as had survived in the [[oral tradition]]. These histories offer a span of roughly two centuries from the 1334 BC date of [[Duris of Samos]] to the 1135 BC date of Ephoros of Kyme in [[Aeolis]]. Blegen preferred the 1184 BC date of [[Eratosthenes]], which was most favored at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Blegen|1995|pp=162–163}}</ref><ref group=note>His date is 328 years before the First Olympiad at 776 BC, based on the sequence of Spartan kings, to the Dorian Invasion, which happened two generations after the Trojan War, plus 40 years per generation.</ref> Whether or not the archaeology matched this span and these dates was to be later determined by excavation.

== Excavation history ==

=== The search for Troy ===

[[File:Alexandria Troas Thermen.JPG|thumb|left|280px|Alexandria Troas]]
With the rise of critical history, Troy and the Trojan War were consigned to legend.<ref group=note>[[George Grote]] in particular affirmed that it was "... in the eyes of modern inquiry essentially a legend and nothing more.... If we are asked whether it be not a legend embodying portions of historical matter ... our answer must be, that as the possibility of it cannot be denied, so neither can the reality of it be affirmed." {{cite book | title=A History of Greece from the Earliest Period to the Close of the Generation Contemporary with Alexander the Great | first=George | last=Grote | volume=1 | location=London | publisher=J. Murray | year=1869 | page=312}}</ref> However, not everyone agreed with this view. Dissidents believing the ''Iliad,'' ''Odyssey,'' and other Greek texts recounting the Trojan War to be historical records were to become the first archaeologists at Troy. For centuries the true location of ancient Troy remained the subject of interest and speculation.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=36}} "Ubi Troja fuit?</ref> Travellers in Anatolia looked for possible locations. Because of its name, the [[Troad]] peninsula was highly suspect.

Early modern travellers in the 16th and 17th centuries, including [[Pierre Belon]] and [[Pietro Della Valle]], had identified Troy with [[Alexandria Troas]], a ruined town approximately {{convert|20|km|mi}} south of the currently accepted location.{{sfn|Schliemann|1881|p=184}} In the late 18th century, [[Jean Baptiste LeChevalier]] identified a location near the village of [[:tr:Pınarbaşı, Ezine|Pınarbaşı, Ezine]], a mound approximately {{convert|5|km|mi}} south of the currently accepted location. Published in his ''Voyage de la Troade'', it was the most commonly accepted theory for almost a century.{{sfn|Schliemann|1881|pp=184–191}}

In 1822, the Scottish journalist [[Charles Maclaren]] was the first to identify with confidence the position of the city as it is now known.<ref name="Bibliobazaar"/>{{sfn|Schliemann|1881|p=189}} In the second half of the 19th century archaeological excavation of the site believed to have been Homeric Troy began. As the Iliad is taught in every Greek language curriculum in the world, interest in the site has been unflagging. Homeric experts often memorize large parts of the poem. Literary quotes are commonplace. Since the Calvert family began excavation at Hisarlik, hundreds of interested persons have excavated there. Fortunately all excavation has been conducted under the management of key persons termed its "archaeologists." Their courses of excavation have been divided into the phases described below. Sometimes there have been decades between phases. Today interest in the site is as strong as ever. Further plans for excavation have no end in the foreseeable future.

==== The Calverts ====
[[File:Frank calvert portrait-png.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Frank Calvert, 1866, age 38. Picture was excised from a family group photograph displaying 12 persons in front of the farmhouse near Hisarlik<ref name=allen-1995-380>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=380}}</ref>]]
Frank Calvert was born into an English [[Latin Church in Turkey|Levantine family]] on [[Malta]] in 1828. He was the youngest of six sons and one daughter born to James Calvert and his wife, the former Louisa Lander, the sister of Charles Alexander Lander, James' business partner. In social standing they were of the aristocracy. James was a distant relative of the Calverts who founded [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]],<ref name=robinson153>{{harvnb|Robinson|1994|p=153}}</ref> and Louisa was a direct descendant of the Campbells of Argyll (Scottish clansmen).<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=26}}</ref> Not having inherited any wealth, they took to the colonies, married in Ottoman [[İzmir|Smyrna]] in 1815, and settled in Malta, which had changed hands from the [[French colonial empire|French]] to the [[British Empire]] with the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)]]. They associated with the "privileged" social circles of Malta, but they were poor. James clerked in the mail and grain offices of the [[Civil Service (United Kingdom)|Civil Service]].<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|pp=26–31}}</ref>

The family regarded itself as a single enterprise. They shared property, assisted each other, lived together and had common interests, one of which was the antiquities of the Troad. They did not do well in Malta, but in 1829 the Dardanelles region underwent an upswing of its business cycle due to historical circumstances. The [[Greek War of Independence]] was about to be concluded in favor of an independent state by the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1832)]]. The [[Levant Company]], which had had a monopoly on trade through the Dardanelles, was terminated. The price in [[Pound sterling|pounds]] of the [[Ottoman lira|Turkish piastre]] fell. A manyfold increase in British traffic through straits was anticipated. A new type of job suddenly appeared: British Consul in the Dardanelles, which brought wealth with it.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=32}}</ref><ref group=note>By Ottoman law every ship entering the Dardanelles from the Aegean must stop at Çanakkale to acquire one or more [[firman]]s or permissions for a fee. The total bill included other fees as well. The Turkish officials did not themselves service the ships. Instead they allowed each nation to hire a resident consul or consular agent to reside in Çanakkale and greet and service each ship as it came in. They were allowed to apply a schedule of consular fees in addition for this service. One individual might be an agent for more than one nation. Hard-working agents such as the Calverts grew rich on the fees, regardless of whether they were also paid a salary. Agents were not subject to Turkish law, but they might be removed if complaints of extortion or skimming the Turkish fees were made. The best and richest of the agents made themselves as charismatic as possible by living an ostentatious life, throwing parties and dinners, staging hunting expeditions, loaning money to the natives and just generally being charitable and sympathetic. Large numbers of these agents were soon found in most of the Mediterranean ports of the Ottoman Empire. It was a way to get rich quick. A recent study of these consular positions and men who filled them can be found in {{harvnb|Levantine Heritage Foundation|2013}}</ref>

=====Charles Lander=====
Charles Lander applied, and was made British Consul of the Dardanelles in 1829. He spoke five languages, knew the region well, and had the best connections. A row of new consular offices was being constructed in Çanakkale along the shore of the strait. He was at first poor. In 1833 he bought a house in town ample enough to invite his sister's sons to join him in the enterprise. Without exception they left home at 16 to be tutored in the trade at their uncle's house and placed in lucrative consular positions. Frederick, the eldest, stayed on to assist Charles. The youngest, Frank, at school in Athens, arrived last, but his interest in archaeology led him into a different career.<ref name=robinson153/>

Çanakkale was a boom town. In 1831 Lander married Adele, a brief but idyllic relationship that gave them three daughters in quick succession. When the Calverts began to arrive, finding quarters in the crowded town proved to be difficult. The Turkish building code requiring buildings of wood, conflagrations were frequent.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=15}}</ref> The family escaped one fire with nothing but the clothes they were wearing.<ref>{{harvnb|Levantine Heritage Foundation|2013|p=10}}</ref> Lander's collection of books on the Troad was totally destroyed. In 1840 Lander suffered a tragedy when his wife, Adele, died in her 40s, leaving three small children. He chose this time to settle his estate, making Frederick his legal heir, guardian of his children, and co-executor (along with himself).

Lander dedicated himself to the consular service, leaving the details of the estate and its reponsibilites to Frederick. The family grew wealthy on the fees paid by the ships they serviced. When Frank arrived in 1845<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=48}}</ref> with his sister he had nothing much to do. By this time the family had a new library. Using its books Frank explored the Troad.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1994|p=154}}</ref> He and Lander became collectors. The women in the family took a supportive role as well.

=====Frederick Calvert=====
Lander died in 1846 of a fever endemic to the region, leaving Frederick as executor of the will and head of the family. In 1847 he assumed his uncle's consular position. He was also an agent of Lloyd's of [[London]], which insured ship cargos. Despite Frank's youth he began to play an important role in the family consular business, especially when Frederick was away.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|pp=17–22}}</ref> A few years prior to the death of Lander, the population of Çanakkale was on the rise, from 10,000 in 1800 to 11,000 in 1842.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1994|p=157}}</ref> The British numbered about 40 families.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=16}}</ref> The increase in ship traffic meant prosperity for the Calverts, who expedited the ships of several nations, including the United States. They had other ambitions: James William Whittall, British consul in Smyrna, was spreading his doctrine of the "Trojan Colonization Society," (never more than an idea) which was influential on the Calverts, whom he visited.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=99}}</ref>

======Calvert investments in the Troad======
In 1847 Frederick invested the profits of the family business in two large tracts in the Troad, amounting to many thousands of acres.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|pp=22, 266}}</ref><ref group=note>Legally he was accessing the Lander money as trustee for the children. The properties were in his wife's name, as foreign males were not allowed to own real estate. Deeds were quitclaim.</ref> He founded a company, Calvert Bros. and Co., an "extended family company."<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=86}}</ref> The first purchase was a farm at [[Erenköy, Çanakkale|Erenköy]], on the coast about half-way between Çanakkale and Troy. Frederick used it as a station for ships that could not make Çanakkale. The area was a target for Greek immigration. The family became money-lenders, lending only to Greeks at rates considered high (20%).<ref name="Allen 1999 267">{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=267}}</ref>

[[File:Ilios - the city and country of the Trojans - the results of researches and discoveries on the site of Troy and throughout the Troad in the years 1871-72-73-78-79, including an autobiography of the (14598254988).jpg|thumb|left|300px|Frank Calvert's sketch of the location of Thymbra Farm on the right bank of Kemer Creek (the ancient Thymbria), a right tributary of the Scamander. Using it one can easily locate the farm, which was confiscated by the Turkish government in 1939 (again, as it was Turkish headquarters in the Battle of Gallipoli) and remains a government farm. The modern buildings are next to the old farm on the east. The village was redistricted out of existence, but it was never there during the Calvert tenure.<ref>{{cite book | title=Homeric Sites Around Troy | first=Jonathan | last=Brown | location=Canberra, Australia | publisher=Parrot Press | year=2017 | pages=140–142}}</ref>]]

Frederick also bought a farm he intended to work, the Batak Farm (named for the Batak wetlands), later changed by Frank to [[Thymbra]] Farm, because he believed it was the site of Homeric Thymbra, after which the Thymbra Gate of Homeric Troy had been named. It was located at an abandoned village called Akça Köy, {{cvt|4|mi|km|order=flip}} to the southeast of Hisarlik. The farm was the last of the village. It harvested and marketed the cups and acorns of [[Quercus macrolepis]], the Valonia Oak, from which valonia, a compound used in dyeing and tanning, is extracted. The farm also raised cotton and wheat and bred horses. Frederick introduced the [[plough]] and drained the wetlands. The farm eventually became famous as a way station for archaeologists and the home of the Calvert collection of antiquities, which Frank kept locked in a hidden room. The main house, featuring multiple guest bedrooms, was situated on a low ridge in a compound with several outbuildings. It was more of a manor, operated by farm workers and domestic servants.

In 1850–1852 Frederick solved the residence problem by having a mansion built for him in Çanakkale. Two Turkish houses were said to have been put together, but Turkish houses were required to be of wood. This one was of massive stone, which was permitted to foreigners, and was placed partly on fill jetting into the straits. It probably was the length of two Turkish houses. It remained the major building of the town until it was removed in 1942, due to earlier earthquake damage. The last of the Calvert descendants still in the region had ceded it to the town in 1939. The Town Hall was then built on the site. The mansion's extensive gardens became a public park.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=382}}</ref>

The entire family of the times took up permanent residence in the mansion, which was never finished. It was almost always occupied by visitors and social events. The Calverts began a tour-guide business, conducting visitors throughout the Troad. Frank was the chief guide. The women held musicales and sang in the salons. The house attracted a stream of distinguished visitors, each with a theory about the location of Troy. Frederick, however, was not there for the opening of the house. After a fall from a horse in 1851, complications forced him to seek medical care in London for 18 months,<ref name="Allen 1999 267"/> the first of a series of disasters. He was back by 1853.

======Crimean War debacle======
The [[Crimean War]] began in October 1853 and lasted through February 1856. Russia had arbitrarily occupied the Danube frontier of the [[Ottoman Empire]] including the [[Crimea]], and Britain and France were providing military assistance to the Ottomans. The rear of the conflict was Istanbul and the Dardanelles. Britain relied heavily on the Levantine families for interfacing, intelligence, and guidance. Edmund Calvert was a British agent, but this was not Frederick's calling. Not long after his return the initial British expeditionary force of 10,000 men was held up in ships in the straits, with no place to bivouac, no supplies, and a commissariat of four non-Turkish speakers.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|pp=86–89}}</ref>

The [[British Army]] had reached a low point of efficiency since [[Duke of Wellington|Wellington]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harpan|1976|p=13}}</ref> Although it was the responsibility of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], the fact that the crown retained the prerogative of command made them hesitate to update it, for fear of its being used against them.<ref>{{harvnb|Harpan|1976|p=4}}</ref> One of the major problems was the fragmentation of the administration into "a number of separate, distinct, and mutually independent authorities," with little centralization.<ref>{{harvnb|Harpan|1976|p=7}}</ref> There were always issues of who was in command and what they commanded. A [[Supply Corps]] as such did not exist. The immediate needs of the soldiers were supplied by the [[Commissariat|Commissariat Department]], responsible to the [[HM Treasury|Treasury]].<ref>{{harvnb|Harpan|1976|p=12}}</ref> [[Commissary|Commissaries]] were assigned to units as needed, but they acted to solve supply problems ad hoc. They had no idea beforehand what the army needed, or what it had, or where it was located.

All the needs were given to contractors, who usually required money in advance. They were allowed to borrow from recommended banks. The Commissariat then paid the banks, but should it fail to do so, the debts were still incumbent on the debtors. Contractors were allowed to charge a percentage for their services, and also to include a percentage given to their suppliers as enticement. The Commissariat could thus build entire impromptu supply departments on the basis of immediate need, which is what Frederick did for them.<ref name=allen-1999-87-88>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|pp=87–88}}</ref>

The [[logistics]] problems were of the same type customarily undertaken by the consular staff, but of larger scale. Frederick was able to perform critical services for the army. Within several days he had all the men billeted ashore and had developed an organization of local suppliers on short notice. He secured their immediate attention by offering higher interest rates, to which the Commissary did not then object. He was so successful that he was given the problem of transporting men and supplies to the front.<ref group=note>The current in the Dardanelles was about 4 [[Knot (unit)|knots]], requiring a wait by sailing ships for the winds to overcome it. The Land Transport Department of the Commissary therefore undertook to develop overland trails and use horses and mules as pack animals. There were no roads or railroads. Frederick also was able to procure a few steamers to use as tugs for supply ships.</ref> For that he developed his own transport division of contractors paid as direct employees of his own company. He also advised the Medical Department in their choice of a site near Erenköy for a military hospital, named [[Renkioi Hospital]].<ref name=allen-1999-87-88/>

The army, arriving at [[Gallipoli]] in April 1854, did well at first, thanks to the efforts of Frederick Calvert and his peers. They were contracted by Deputy Assistant Commander-General of the Commissariat, John William Smith, on the instruction of the Commander-General, William Filder, who had given Smith their names in advance, especially that of Frederick Calvert. Frederick was waiting for the fleet in Gallipoli.<ref>{{harvnb|Harpin|1976|p=76}}</ref><ref group=note>The Commissary at this time was entirely civilian, accountable only to the Treasury. Its ranks were named the same as military ranks to give them credibility to the military, but there the resemblance ends. The date March is sometimes given, but this is the date the commissaries arrived. The name: there were so many “Smiths” among the dignitaries that the sources confuse which was which. A common error identifies “General Smith” with Deputy Assistant Comissary-General Charles Bagot-Smith. Lord Trevelyan, however, explicitly identifies John William as the commissary who contacted and handled Calvert and the other contractors: {{harvnb|House of Commons|1855|pp=15–17}}</ref> By June the army was doing badly. The Commissary seemed to have no understanding of military schedules. Needed supplies were not getting to their destinations for a number of reasons: perishables were spoiled through delay, cargos were lost or abandoned because there was no tracking system, or cut because a commissary speculated that they should be, etc. Frederick attempted to carry on by using his own resources in the expectation of collecting the money later by due process. By the end of the war his bill to the Commissary would be several thousand pounds. He had had to mortgage family properties in the Troad.<ref name="Allen 1999 88">{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=88}}</ref>

By June it was obvious to Parliament that the [[British cabinet|cabinet]] position of [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] was beyond the ability of only one [[Minister of the Crown|minister]]. He was divested of his colonial duties, leaving him as [[Secretary of State for War]],<ref>{{harvnb|Harpin|1976|p=18}}</ref> but the Commissary was still not in his domain. In August, Frederick purchased the winter feed for the animals and left it on the dock at Salonica. Filder had adopted a policy of purchasing hay from London and having it pressed for land transport, even though chopped hay was readily available at a much cheaper price around the Dardanelles.<ref>{{harvnb|Tulloch|1857|p=144}}</ref> The Commissariat was supposed to inspect and accept it at Salonica, but the presses had been set up in the wrong location. By the time they were ready for the hay, most of it had spoiled, so they did not accept any of it.

The winter was especially severe. The animals starved, and without transport, so did the men, trying to make do without food, clothing, shelter or medical supplies.<ref>{{harvnb|Harpin|1976|p=22}}</ref> Estimates of the death rate were as high as 35%, 42% in the field hospitals.<ref>{{harvnb|Harpin|1976|p=20}}</ref> [[Florence Nightingale]] on the scene sounded the alarm to the general public. A scandal ensued; [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] wrote to the Prime Minister. The folly of an army dying because not allowed to help itself while its Commissariat was not efficient enough to move even the minimum of supplies became manifest to the whole nation. In December Parliament placed the Commissariat under the army and opened an investigation.<ref>{{harvnb|Harpin|1976|p=75}}</ref> In January, 1855, the government resigned, to be replaced shortly by another determined to do whatever was necessary to obtain a functional supply corps.<ref>{{harvnb|Harpin|1976|p=26}}</ref>

The army found that it could not after all dispense with the Treasury or its system of payment. The first investigation went before Parliament in April, 1855. Filder’s defense was that he had conformed strictly to regulations,<ref group=note>Some analysts have characterized this obedience to regulation against all reason as a social disorder; for example, {{cite web | year=1988 | title=Pathological Responses to Accounting Controls:The British Commissariat in the Crimea 1854-1856 | first=W. N. | last=Funnell | location=Australia | publisher=University of Wollongong | url= https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1138&context=accfinwp}}</ref> and that he was not responsible for accidental events, which were “the visitations of God.”<ref>{{harvnb|Tulloch|1857|p=179}}</ref> John William Smith, Frederick’s handler in the Commissariat, included a number of favorable statements about him in the report, such as “the Commissariat would have been perfectly helpless without Mr. Calvert.”<ref>{{harvnb|House of Commons|1855|pp=15, 87, 97, 148, 224}}</ref> Parliament exonerated the Commissariat, finding “no one in the Crimea was to blame.”<ref>{{harvnb|Tulloch|1857|p=xv}}</ref>

Anticipating this result, the new government started a secret investigation of its own under [[John McNeill (diplomat)|J. McNeill]], a civilian physician, and a milItary officer, [[Alexander Tulloch|Colonel A.M. Tulloch]], which it outed in April after the acquittal. The new investigation lasted until January, 1856, and had nothing favorable to say. Losses higher than any battle could produce, and higher than those of any of the allies, were not to be dismissed as accidental.

The new commissioners attacked the system: “the system hitherto relied on as sufficient to provide for every emergency, had totally failed.”<ref>{{harvnb|Tulloch|1857|pp=182, xi}}</ref> The blow fell mainly on Filder. He had plenty of alternatives, Tulloch asserted, which he might have been expected to take. Chopped hay and cattle were readily and cheaply available in the Constantinople region. Filder had some cattle transports at his command in October. Once the supplies had been transported to the Crimea, they could have been carried inland by the troops themselves.<ref>{{harvnb|Tulloch|1857|pp=141–148}}</ref> Of Filder, Tulloch said: “He was highly paid — not to do merely what he was ordered, but in the expectation that, when difficulties arose, he would show himself equal to the emergency, by ... exercising that discretion and intelligence which the public has a right to expect ....”<ref>{{harvnb|Tulloch|1857|p=134}}</ref>

Filder was retired by the medical board because of age and sent home. Meanwhile, the Commissary had introduced the word "[[Profiteering (business)|profiteering]]" in a effort to cast the blame from itself. The decisions had been made by greedy contractors charging high interest rates, who had introduced delays to push the price up. John William Smith recanted what he had said about Frederick, now claiming that Frederick had put private interests before the public, without clarifying what he meant. The insinuation was enough to brand him as a profiteer.<ref name="Allen 1999 88"/> The entire Commissariat took it up as a theme, the banks refusing to honor contractor claims. Restrictions on loans tightened; cash flow problems developed. The inflated economy of the Troad began to collapse. The report was released in January. By then most contractors were in bankruptcy. British troops went home at the end of the war in February, relationships with the Turkish merchants deteriorating to the point where conducting business with them was no longer viable.

The cost of living remained high. Frederick was no longer trusted as a consular agent and had trouble finding work. His friend, John Brunton, head of the military hospital near Erenköy, was ordered to dismantle and sell the facility. He suggested that Brunton sell the medical supplies to him as surplus at a discount, so that he could recoup some of his estate by reselling them. Turning on him, as Smith had done, Brunton denounced him publicly.

Criminal charges were brought against Frederick for non-payment of debt to the War Office by the Supreme Consular Court of Istanbul in March, 1857. Due to difficulty in proving their case, it went on for months, being finally transferred to London,<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=89}}</ref> where Frederick joined it in February, 1858. In 1859 he served a prison term of ten weeks on one debt. Subsequently the Foreign Office stepped in to manage his appeal. The military had not understood how the interest system worked. He won his case before Parliament, with commendation and thanks, and payment of the several thousand plus backpay and interest, arriving home 2.5 years after he had left it, to rescue the estate.<ref group=note>Having demonstrated loyalty to the army, Smith was now head of the Commissary, but not for long. in 1858 a royal warrant had provided for the replacement of civilian agents with military officers, leading ultimately to the formation of the current [[Royal Logistic Corps]].</ref>

======The “Possidhon affair” and its aftermath======

During the 1860s Frederick Calvert's life and career were mainly consumed by a case of insurance fraud termed by the press the “Possidhon affair." An attempt was made to defraud [[Lloyd's of London]] of payments to an imaginary person claiming to own an imaginary ship, the Possidhon, that had gone to the bottom when its imaginary cargo burned, a claim made through Frederick. The perpetrators of the fraud, originally the witnesses of the fire, named Frederick as their ringleader. The trial was not a proper one, and Frederick was convicted on technicalities. He protested that he was the victim of an Ottoman frame-up, and was supported in that plea by his brother, Frank. There were a number of circumstances that remain historically unexplained. Modern historians who think he was guilty characterize him as a charismatic profiteer of shady ethics, while those who think he was innocent point to his patriotic motives in helping the British Army to the detriment of his own estate and his acquittal by Parliament.

Having returned from London in October, 1860, with enough money to restore the family estate, Frederick now turned his attention to the family avocation, archaeology, rejecting a lucrative job offer as a Consul in Syria.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1999|p=90}}. Allen, however, after emphasizing his restored wealth, takes the paradoxical view that economic hardship forced him to remain in the Dardanelles, when the hardship would not have existed had he gone to Syria. She also uses the hypothetical hardship to provide a motive for his assumed guilt.</ref> Frank, now age 32, had long been the master of the estate and of the business. By this time he was also a skilled and respected archaeologist. He spent all of his spare time investigating and excavating the numerous habitation and burial sites of the Troad. He was an invaluable consultant to specialists in many areas from plants to coins. Frederick joined him in this life by choice. For a few years he was able to work with Frank in expanding Lander’s library and collection, and in exploring and excavating ancient sites.

In 1846 Frederick married Eveline, an heiress of the wealthy Abbotts, owners of some mines in Turkey. They had at least five known children.

Frederick’s wife’s uncle, William Abbott, had gone with him to London, where they purchased a house for mutual residence. Frederick set him up in a few different businesses, the last being Abbott Brothers, dealers in firewood. His son, however, William George Abbott, a junior partner of Frederick in the consular business, remained in the Dardanelles to handle business there as acting consul.<ref group=note>Both William and his son were termed incorrectly Frederick’s son-in-law and brother-in-law subsequently by the British Press.</ref> In January, 1861, the consular office was approached by a Turkish merchant, Hussein Aga, requesting 12000 £. ($57,250<ref name="gbp2usd1861">{{cite web|last=Officer|first=Lawrence H.|title=Dollar-Pound Exchange Rate From 1791|date=2021|publisher=measuringworth.com|url=https://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/exchangepound/|access-date=15 March 2021}}</ref>) of insurance from Lloyd’s on the cargo of the Possidhon, which was olive oil. He claimed to be a broker marketing the oil produced by certain pashas and now wished to sell it in Britain.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Frederick requested William in London to borrow money as Abbot Brothers to finance the premiums.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Possidhon Affair | author=Clark, M.S. | year=2020 | url=http://www.mikesclark.com/genealogy/possidhon_affair.html | access-date=10 June 2020}} The details of this affair vary among the reports. It is not possible to reconcile all of them. Referring to Allen and some genealogical sites Clark attempts to disentangle the events. The account here is culled from the most plausible events of Clark, Allen, and other authors mentioned.</ref> The debt was to be paid when the cargo was sold. It isn't clear whether Abbott was to sell it, and if so, in whose name. The cargo, being insured by him, was consigned to him. A loan of 1500 £ ($7,150<ref name="gbp2usd1861"/>) was effected on April 11, and the premiums were paid.

The ship, cleared to sail from [[Edremit, Balıkesir|Edremit]] to Britain by Frederick’s office on April 4, sailed on the 6th. Frederick was to have inspected it before issuing the clearance, but he did not. On April 28 Frederick notified Lloyd’s by telegram that the vessel had been seen burning off [[Lemnos]] in a heavy wind on April 8, which is peculiar, because it ought to have been far from Lemnos by then. When it had not arrived months later the creditors for the premiums requested their money. Frederick submitted a claim through Abbott for a total loss. He suggested Greek pirates and collaboration of the crew as causes, implicating Hussein Aga, who had not been seen since then. Lloyd’s requested documents giving testimony of the loss, turning the case over to Lloyd's Salvage Association.

Frederick forwarded to Abbott in London four affidavits from British consular agents on [[Tenedos]] and [[Samos]] of visual sightings of the ship. Conspicuously absent were any Turkish documents that should have been examined before permission to sail was granted. An investigator from Lloyd’s Salvage working from Constantinople finding no record of either Aga or the ship concluded to a fraud. Simultaneously Frederick, conducting his own investigation, reached a similar conclusion. He had been duped by a person pretending to be a fictional Hussein Aga. The witnesses produced a confession, naming Frederick as mastermind of the scheme. The Salvage Association turned the matter over to the Foreign Office. M. Tolmides, consular agent at Tenedos, admitted to signing the affidavits. His defense was that he had given Frederick blank signed forms.

The [[Foreign Office]] issued a public statement questioning Frederick's credibility. He requested permission to leave his post to travel to London to defend himself. Permission was denied. On April 30 he issued a statement that he had been set up and was being framed by an unknown agent, for whom he was conducting an unsuccessful search at Smyrna. He found some support in the British ambassador, [[Henry Bulwer, 1st Baron Dalling and Bulwer]], a liberal and a [[freemason]], who accepted him as credible, and noted the hostility of Turkish officialdom against him. However, unless Frederick could produce some evidence of the conspiracy, he affirmed, he would officially have to side with the insurance company. The matter became international. Turkish harbor officials claimed, via Lloyd’s agents, that Frederick had submitted forged documents to them. The Ottoman Porte complained. The Prince of Wales scheduled a visit. Fredrick was going to be brought before a consular court, an agency with a reputation for corruption; in particular, bribability.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

=====Frank Calvert=====
Due to the publicity skills of Heinrich Schliemann and the public discreditation of Frederick as a convicted felon, the contributions mainly of Frank to the excavation of Troy remained unknown and unappreciated until the end of the 20th century, when the Calverts became an object of special study. A number of misunderstandings still cling to them. One is that Schliemann discovered Troy on land he had the foresight to purchase from the Calverts. To the contrary, it was Frank who convinced Frederick to purchase Hissarlik as the probable site of Troy, and Frank who convinced Schliemann that it was there, and to partner with him in its excavation.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1994|p=153}} "...by his generosity and constant assistance to Schliemann, enabled him to transform himself with such spectacular success from a businessman into an archaeologist."</ref> The Calverts did not hand anything over; they remained on site excavating with him and attempting to advise and manage him. Frank was often a sharp critic. Frank is sometimes called "self-taught." Educationally this was not true. He did not attend university, but there would have been no point, as archaeology was not yet taught there. Frank was the first modern (19th century) to excavate in the Troad.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1994|p=155}}</ref> He knew more than all the visitors he tutored.

In 1866, [[Frank Calvert]], the brother of the United States' [[Consul|consular agent]] in the region, made extensive surveys and published in scholarly journals his identification of the hill of New Ilium (which was on farmland owned by his family) on the same site. The hill, near the city of [[Çanakkale]], was known as Hisarlik.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1985|pp=42–44}}.</ref>

The [[United Kingdom|British]] diplomat, considered a pioneer for the contributions he made to the archaeology of Troy, spent more than 60 years in the Troad (modern day [[Biga, Çanakkale|Biga]] peninsula, Turkey) conducting field work.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=379}}.</ref> As Calvert was a principal authority on field archaeology in the region, his findings supplied evidence that Homeric Troy might have existed on the hill, and played a major role in convincing Heinrich Schliemann to dig at Hisarlik.<ref name=allen-1995-380/>

==== The Schliemanns ====
[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1878) b 713.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Heinrich Schliemann]]
In 1868, German archaeologist [[Heinrich Schliemann]] visited Calvert and secured permission to excavate [[Hisarlik]]. He sincerely believed that the literary events of the works of Homer could be verified archaeologically. A divorced man in his 40s who had acquired some wealth as a merchant in Russia, he decided to use the wealth to follow his boyhood interest in finding and verifying the city of Troy. Leaving his former life behind, he advertised for a wife whose skills and interest were on a par with his own, Sophia. She was 17 at the time but together they excavated Troy, sparing no expense.

[[File:Sophia schliemann.gif|thumb|Sophia Schliemann wearing the "Jewels of Helen," a famed piece in the Priam's Treasure collection.]]
Heinrich began by excavating a trench across the mound of Hisarlik to the depth of the settlements, today called "Schliemann's Trench." In 1871–73 and 1878–79, he discovered the ruins of a series of ancient cities dating from the [[Bronze Age]] to the Roman period. He declared one of these cities—at first Troy I, later Troy II—to be the city of Troy, and this identification was widely accepted at that time. Subsequent archaeologists at the site were to revise the date upward; nevertheless, the main identification of Troy as the city of the [[Iliad]], and the scheme of the layers, have been kept.

[[File:Priam's treasure.jpg|right|220px|thumb|[[Priam's Treasure]], which [[Heinrich Schliemann]] claimed to have found at Troy]]
Some of the most notable artifacts found by Schliemann are known as [[Priam's Treasure]]. Most of these pieces were crafted from gold and other precious metals. Schliemann put this assemblage together from his first excavation site, which he thought to be the remains of Homeric Troy. He gave them this name after King Priam, who is said in the ancient literature to have ruled during the Trojan War. However, the site that housed the treasure was later identified as Troy II, whereas Priam's Troy would most likely have been Troy VIIa (Blegen) or Troy VIi (Korfmann).<ref name=seven group=note/> One of the most famous photographs of Sophia made not long after the discovery depicts her wearing a golden headdress, which is known as the "Jewels of Helen" (see under Schliemann above).

Other pieces that are a part of this collection are:

* copper artifacts - a shield, cauldron, axeheads, lance heads, daggers, etc.
* silver artifacts - vases, goblets, knife blades, etc.
* gold artifacts - bottle, cups, rings, buttons, bracelets, etc.
* terra cotta goblets
* artifacts with a combination of precious metals

=== Modern excavations ===

==== Wilhelm Dörpfeld ====
[[File:Doerpfeld2.jpg|thumb|100px|Wilhelm Dörpfeld]]
[[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]] {{nowrap|(1893–94)}} joined the excavation at the request of Schliemann. After Schliemann left, he inherited the management of it. His chief contribution was the detailing of Troy VI. He published his findings separately.<ref>{{cite book | first=Wilhelm | last=Dörpfeld | title=Troja und Ilion | publisher=Beck & Barth | year=1902}}</ref>

====University of Cincinnati====
=====Carl Blegen=====
[[File:Carl Blegen in 1922.jpg|thumb|100px|Carl Blegen]]
[[Carl Blegen]], professor at the [[University of Cincinnati]], managed the site 1932–38. These archaeologists, though following Schliemann's lead, added a professional approach not available to Schliemann. He showed that there were at least nine cities. In his research, Blegen came to a conclusion that Troy's nine levels could be further divided into forty-six sublevels,<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=259}}.</ref> which he published in his main report.<ref>{{cite book | first=Carl W. | last=Blegen | title=Troy; excavations conducted by the University of Cincinnati, 1932–1938 | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1950}}</ref>

==== Korfmann ====
In 1988, excavations were resumed by a team from the University of Tübingen and the [[University of Cincinnati]] under the direction of Professor [[Manfred Korfmann]], with Professor [[C. Brian Rose|Brian Rose]] overseeing Post-Bronze Age (Greek, Roman, Byzantine) excavation along the coast of the Aegean Sea at the Bay of Troy. Possible evidence of a battle was found in the form of bronze arrowheads and fire-damaged human remains buried in layers dated to the early 12th century BC. The question of Troy's status in the Bronze-Age world has been the subject of a sometimes acerbic debate between Korfmann and the Tübingen historian [[Frank Kolb]] in 2001–2002.

Korfmann proposed that the location of the city (close to the [[Dardanelles]]) indicated a commercially oriented city that would have been at the center of a vibrant trade between the Black Sea, Aegean, Anatolian and Eastern Mediterranean regions. Kolb disputed this thesis, calling it "unfounded" in a 2004 paper. He argues that archaeological evidence shows that economic trade during the [[Late Bronze Age]] was quite limited in the Aegean region compared with later periods in antiquity. On the other hand, the Eastern Mediterranean economy was more active during this time, allowing for commercial cities to develop only in the [[Levant]]. Kolb also noted the lack of evidence for trade with the [[Hittite Empire]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kolb |first1= F.|date=2004 |title=Forum Article: Troy VI: A Trading Center and Commercial City? |journal= American Journal of Archaeology|volume=8 |issue=4 |pages= 577–613|doi= 10.3764/aja.108.4.577|jstor=40025731}}</ref>

In August 1993, following a magnetic imaging survey of the fields below the fort, a deep ditch was located and excavated among the ruins of a later Greek and Roman city. Remains found in the ditch were dated to the late Bronze Age, the alleged time of Homeric Troy. Among these remains are arrowheads and charred remains.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ten Discoveries That Rewrote History|last=Hunt|first=Patrick|publisher=Penguin Group|year=2007|chapter=Modern Excavations at Troy Continue to Show Its Importance}}</ref> It is claimed by Korfmann that the ditch may have once marked the outer defenses of a much larger city than had previously been suspected. In the olive groves surrounding the citadel, there are portions of land that were difficult to plow, suggesting that there are undiscovered portions of the city lying there. The latter city has been dated by his team to about 1250 BC, and it has been also suggested—based on recent archeological evidence uncovered by Professor Manfred Korfmann's team—that this was indeed the Homeric city of Troy.

==== Becker ====
[[Helmut Becker]] used magnetometry in the area surrounding Hisarlik. He was conducting an excavation in 1992 to locate outer walls of the ancient city. Becker used a caesium magnetometer. In his and his team's search, they discovered a "'burnt mudbrick wall' about {{convert|400|m|ft}} south of the Troy VI fortress wall."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery|last=Latacz|first=Joachim}}</ref> After dating their find, it was deemed to have been from the late Bronze Age, which would put it either in Troy VI or early Troy VII. This discovery of an outer wall away from the tell proves that Troy could have housed many more inhabitants than Schliemann originally thought.

==== Recent developments ====
In summer 2006, the excavations continued under the direction of Korfmann's colleague Ernst Pernicka, with a new digging permit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uni-tuebingen.de//uni/aft/|title=Project Troia|publisher=[[University of Tübingen]], [[University of Cincinnati]]|access-date=6 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140526125407/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/uni/aft/|archive-date=26 May 2014}}</ref>

In 2013, an international team made up of cross-disciplinary experts led by William Aylward, an archaeologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, was to carry out new excavations. This activity was to be conducted under the auspices of [[Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University]] and was to use the new technique of "molecular archaeology".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/21160 |title=UW-Madison archaeologists to mount new expedition to Troy}}</ref> A few days before the Wisconsin team was to leave, Turkey cancelled about 100 excavation permits, including Wisconsin's.<ref>{{cite news |last=Simmons |first=Dan |title=UW-Madison archaeology trip to Troy postponed until next summer |url=http://host.madison.com/news/local/education/university/uw-madison-archaeology-trip-to-troy-postponed-until-next-summer/article_2bf073da-cee6-53c9-9bc1-15fdc2905712.html |access-date=6 May 2014 |newspaper=Wisconsin State Journal |date=July 22, 2013}}</ref>

In March 2014, it was announced that a new excavation would take place to be sponsored by a private company and carried out by Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. This will be the first Turkish team to excavate and is planned as a 12-month excavation led by associate professor Rüstem Aslan. The University's rector stated that "Pieces unearthed in Troy will contribute to Çanakkale’s culture and tourism. Maybe it will become one of Turkey’s most important frequented historical places.”<ref>{{cite web|last1=Çanakkale – Dogan News Agency|title=New term excavations start at city of Troy with Turkish team|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/new-term-excavations-start-at-city-of-troy-with-turkish-team.aspx?pageID=238&nID=63540&NewsCatID=375|website=hurriyetdailynews.com|publisher=Hurriyet daily News|access-date=28 December 2014|date=13 March 2014}}</ref>

== Site conservation ==

=== Troy Historical National Park ===
[[File:Troy composite.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The west side of Troy Ridge. The road from Tevfikiye enters from the right.]]
The Turkish government created the Historical National Park at Troy on September 30, 1996. It contains {{convert|136|km2|sqmi}} to include Troy and its vicinity, centered on Troy.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Historical National Park Of Troy | url=https://www.troyexcavations.com/troia-tarihi-milli-parki/?l=en | publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism | access-date=1 February 2020}}</ref> The purpose of the park is to protect the historical sites and monuments within it, as well as the environment of the region. In 1998 the park was accepted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

In 2015 a Term Development Revision Plan was applied to the park. Its intent was to develop the park into a major tourist site.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Troy National Park to be renovated | journal=Daily Sabah | date=30 October 2015 | url=https://www.dailysabah.com/life/2015/10/30/troy-national-park-to-be-renovated}}</ref> Plans included marketing research to determine the features most of interest to the public, the training of park personnel in tourism management, and the construction of campsites and facilities for those making day trips. These latter were concentrated in the village of Tevfikiye, which shares Troy Ridge with Troy.

[[File:Troy (and a trojan horse) (8709942456).jpg|thumb|200px|Wooden Trojan Horse monument in the plaza before the modern gate to the ancient city]]
Public access to the ancient site is along the road from the vicinity of the museum in Tevfikiye to the east side of Hisarlik. Some parking is available. Typically visitors come by bus, which disembarks its passengers into a large plaza ornamented with flowers and trees and some objects from the excavation. In its square is a large wooden horse monument, with a ladder and internal chambers for use of the public. Bordering the square is the gate to the site. The public passes through turnstiles. Admission is usually not free. Within the site, the visitors tour the features on dirt roads or for access to more precipitous features on railed boardwalks. There are many overlooks with multilingual boards explaining the feature. Most are outdoors, but a permanent canopy covers the site of an early megaron and wall.

=== UNESCO World Heritage Site ===
The archaeological site of Troy was added to the [[UNESCO World Heritage]] list in 1998.

For a site to be named a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it must be claimed to have Outstanding Universal Value. This means that it must be historically, culturally, or scientifically significant to all peoples of the world in some manner. According to the UNESCO site on Troy, its historical significance was gained because the site displays some of the "first contact between...Anatolia and the Mediterranean world".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849/|title=Archaeological Site of Troy|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-12-13}}</ref> The site's cultural significance is gained from the multitudes of literature regarding the famed city and history over centuries. Many of the structures dating to the Bronze Age and the Roman and Greek periods are still standing at Hisarlik. These give archeological significance to the site as well.

=== Troy Museum ===
{{main|Troy Museum}}
[[File:Troy_Museum_9919.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Troy Museum subterranean interior.]]
[[File:Troy Museum 9913.jpg|thumb|220px|Troy Museum aboveground. Most of the entire field in which it sits roofs the underground galleries, work, and storage spaces. These are accessed via ramps not shown. There are also outdoor display spaces.]]
In 2018 the [[Troy Museum]] (Turkish Troya Müzesi) was opened at Tevfikiye village {{convert|800|m|yards}} east of the excavation. A design contest for the architecture had been won by Yalin Mimarlik in 2011. The cube-shaped building with extensive underground galleries holds more than 40,000 portable artifacts, 2000 of which are on display. Artifacts were moved here from a few other former museums in the region. The range is the entire prehistoric Troad. Displays are multi-lingual. In many cases the original contexts are reproduced.

== Fortifications of the city ==
[[File:Troy (Ilion), Turkey (7446656654).jpg|thumb|left|300px|Artist's representation of House VI M, part of the palatial complex]]
Literary Troy was characterized by high walls and towers, summarized by the epithet "lofty Ilium."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Ilium | editor=William Smith | encyclopedia=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography | publisher=Perseus Digital Library | year=2020 | orig-year=1854 | url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0064%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DI%3Aentry+group%3D3%3Aentry%3Dilium-geo}}</ref> Some other epithets were "well-walled," "with lofty gates," "with fine towers."<ref>Blegen's study of the Homeric epithets bearing on the architecture of Troy may be found at {{harvnb|Blegen|1995|p=16}}</ref> Any archaeological candidate for being the literary city would therefore have to show evidence for the walls and towers. Schliemann's Troy fits this qualification very well. High walls and towers are in evidence at every hand. Hisarlik, the name of the hill on which Troy is situated, is a Turkish word meaning "the fortress."<ref>{{harvnb|Blegen|1995|p=23}}</ref>

The walls of Troy, first erected in the Bronze Age between at least 3000 and 2600 BC, were its main defense, as is true of almost any ancient city of urban size. Whether Troy Zero featured walls is not yet known. Some of the known walls were placed on virgin soil (see the archaeology section below). The early date of the walls suggests that defense was important and warfare was a looming possibility right from the beginning.

The walls surround the citadel, extending for several hundred meters, and at the time they were built were over {{convert|17|feet|m|order=flip}} tall.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Troy-ancient-city-Turkey|title=Troy|last=the Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica|date=November 22, 2016}}</ref> They were made of limestone, with watchtowers and brick ramparts, or elevated mounds that served as protective barriers.<ref name=":0" />

The second run of excavations, under Korfmann, revealed that the walls of the first run were not the entire suite of walls for the city, and only partially represent the citadel. According to Korfmann, "There was also a lower city that went with the Late Bronze Age Troja,...1750–1200 BC."<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2003|p=29}}</ref> This city had a perimeter of {{convert|2.5|km|mi}} and enclosed an area 16 times that of the citadel. It was protected by a ditch surmounted by a wall of [[mudbrick]] and wood.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2003|p=30}}</ref> Moreover, the citadel walls were surmounted by structures of mudbrick. The stone part of the walls currently in evidence were "...{{convert|5|m|ft|spell=in}} thick and at least {{convert|8|m|ft|spell=in}} high - and over that a mudbrick superstructure several meters high...," which totals to about {{convert|15|m|ft}} for the citadel walls at about the time of the Trojan War. The present-day walls of Troy, then, portray little of the ancient city's appearance, any more than bare foundations characterize a building.
{{Gallery
| title =Foundations of the citadel fortifications
| align =left
| footer =
| style =
| state =
| height =
| width =
| captionstyle =
| File:Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Truva, 1962) - BEIC 6339269.jpg
| alt1=
| Troy I tower and wall
| File:Turkey-2941 (2216425111).jpg
| alt2=
| South gate wall and tower, Early Troy I through Middle Troy II<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2013|p=48}}</ref>
| File:Troy Walls.jpg
| alt3=
| Troy IV wall
| File:Troja mury obronne RB.jpg
| alt4=
| Troy VI east tower
| File:Troja03.jpg
| alt5=
| Troy VI cul-de-sac at east gate
| East Gate Complex of Troy VI, 2012.jpg
| alt6=
| Troy VI east tower and wall of cul-de-sac
| File:Troy walls VII and IX.jpg
| alt7=
| Troy VI wall on the left, Troy IX wall on right. It extends the east gate Troy VI wall on right
| File:TROY2703 KT050911.jpg
| alt8=
| Troy VI cul-de-sac
}}
{{clear}}

== Prehistory of Troy ==
{{side box | above='''Illustration by Bibi Saint-Pol'''<ref>This "Archeological plan of the Hisarlik citadel" was created by user Bibi Saint-Pol and contributed to Commons in 2007.</ref> | image=[[Image:Plan Troy-Hisarlik-en.svg|thumb|350px|center|A diachronic plan superposing several of the citadels placed successively on the hill of Hisarlik, each termed by Schliemann a "city." The layers and therefore the relative time periods are shown in different colors.

The author provides a second legend identifying the features marked by the small numbers on the overlay:

1: Gate
2: City Wall
3: Megarons
4: FN Gate
5: FO Gate
6: FM Gate and Ramp
7: FJ Gate
8: City Wall
9: Megarons
10: City Wall
11: VI. S Gate
12: VI. H Tower
13: VI. R Gate
14: VI. G Tower
15: Well-Cistern
16: VI. T Dardanos Gate
17: VI. I Tower
18: VI. U Gate
19: VI. A House
20: VI. M Palace-Storage House
21: Pillar House
22: VI. F House with columns
23: VI. C House
24: VI. E House
25: VII. Storage
26: Temple of Athena
27: Entrance to the Temple (Propylaeum)
28: Outer Court Wall
29: Inner Court Wall
30: Holy Place
31: Water Work
32: Parliament (Bouleuterion)
33: Odeon
34: Roman Bath]]}}

What Schliemann actually found as he excavated the hill of Hisarlik somewhat haphazardly were contexts in the soil parallel to the contexts of geologic layers in rock. Exposed rock displays layers of a similar composition and fossil content within a layer discontinuous with other layers above and below it. The layer represents an accumulation of detritus over a continuous time, different from the times of the other layers.

Similarly Schliemann found layers of distinctive soil each containing more or less distinctive artifacts differing often markedly from other layers. He had no ready explanation for the discontinuity between layers, such as "destruction," although this interpretation has sometimes been applied. Presumably "destruction" is to be interpreted to mean some sort of malicious event perpetrated by humans or a natural disaster, such as an earthquake. In most cases no such disaster can be proved. On the contrary, the "many layers illustrate the gradual development of civilization in northwestern Asia Minor."<ref name=":0" /><ref group=note>The view presented by Encyclopædia Britannica is self-contradictory, the reason being that different sources place different interpretations on archaeological layering. To some, layers represent new peoples sweeping in and destroying the old population centers, to place their own settlements there. Such dramatic events do sometimes happen. Archaeologists of the late 19th and early 20th century tended to adopt this "invasion" view, but later it became evident that in most cases invasions were mainly speculative. The evidence usually supported no such thing. The tendency today is to look for slow transitions from one culture to another in the same region. Other statements in the Britannica article support this view. The best example is "the search for Troy;" that is, the long effort to identify any evidence of the historical destruction of Troy. If this most obvious question cannot be settled, then destructions for every layer are less likely.</ref>

The discontinuities of culture in different layers might be explained in a number of ways. A settlement might have been abandoned for peaceful reasons, or it might have undergone a renovation phase. These are hypotheses that must be ruled in or ruled out by evidence, or simply be left unruled until evidence should be discovered.

What Schliemann found is that the area now called "the citadel" or "the upper city" was apparently placed on virgin soil. It was protected by fortifications right from the start. The layering effect was caused in part by the placement of new fortifications and new houses over the old. Schliemann called these fortified enclosures "cities" (rightly or wrongly). In his mind the site was composed of successive cities. Like everyone else, he speculated whether a new city represented a different population, and what its relationship to the old was. He numbered the cities I, II, etc., I being on the bottom. Subsequent archaeologists turned the "cities" into layers (rightly or wrongly), named according to the new archaeological naming conventions then being developed.
The layers of ruins in the citadel at [[Hisarlik]] are numbered Troy I{{spaced ndash}}Troy IX, with various subdivisions.

{{side box | above='''The Layers of Troy''' | image=[[File:Layers of Troy.JPG|thumb|350px|center|In this photograph, depicting "the Schliemann trench," different layers have been identified by sign for the convenience of the visitors.]]}}

Until the late 20th century, these layers represented only the layers on the hill of Hisarlik. Archaeologists following Schliemann picked up the trail of his researches adopting the same fundamental assumptions, culminating in the work and writings of [[Carl Blegen]] in the mid-20th century. In a definitive work, ''Troy and the Trojans'', he summarized the layers names and the dates he had adopted for them.<ref name=bleg174>{{harvnb|Blegen|1995|p=174}}</ref> Without further excavation, Blegen's was the last word. There were, however, some persistent criticisms not answered to general satisfaction. Hisarlik, about the size of a football field, was not large enough to have been the mighty city of history. It was also far inland, yet the general historical tradition suggested it must have been close to the sea.

The issues finally devolved on the necessity for further excavation, which was undertaken by Korfmann starting 1988. He concentrated on the Roman city, which was not suspected as being over Bronze Age remains. A Bronze Age city, at low elevations, was discovered beneath it. As it is unlikely that there were two Troys side by side, the lower city must have been the main seat of residence, to which the upper city served as citadel. Korfman now referred to the layers of the lower city as associated with the layers of the citadel. The same layering scheme was applicable. The lower city was many times the size of the citadel, answering the size objection.

[[File:Troja-Blick-Schliemanngraben.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The view from Schliemann's Trench at Hisarlık across the modern plain of Ilium to the [[Aegean Sea]]. The suburbs of Çanakkale are visible in the distance. The foreground shows foundations of Troy I houses. During the early Troy periods, nearly the entire plain was an inlet of the sea.]]
Meanwhile, independent geoarchaeological research conducted by taking ground cores over a wide area of the Troad were demonstrating that, in the time of Troy I, "... the sea was right at the foot of 'Schliemann's Trench' during the earliest periods of Troja."<ref>{{harvnb|Kayan|2003|p=394}}</ref> A few thousand years earlier the ridge of Troy was partly surrounded by an inlet of the sea occupying the now agricultural area of the lower Scamander River. Troy was founded as an apparently maritime city on the shore of this inlet, which persisted throughout the early layers and was present to a lesser degree, farther away, subsequently. The harbor at Troy, however, was always small, shallow, and partially blocked by wetlands. It was never a "great harbor" able to collect maritime traffic through the Dardanelles.<ref>{{harvnb|Kayan|2003|pp=400–401}}</ref> The current water table depends on the degree of irrigation of the now agricultural lands. Trench flooding has slowed investigation of the lower levels in the lower city.

The whole course of archaeological investigation at Troy has resulted in no single chronological table of layers. Moreover, due to limitations on the accuracy of C14 dating, the tables remain relative; i.e., absolute, or calendar dates, cannot be precisely assigned. In regions of the Earth where both history and C14 dating are available, there is often a gap between them, termed by Renfrew a chronological or archaeological "fault line." The two models, historical and archaeological, do not correspond, just as the contexts on either side of a geologic fault line do not correspond. "This line divides all Europe except the Aegean from the Near East."<ref>{{cite journal | first=Jak | last=Yakar | title=Troy and Anatolia Early Bronze Age Chronology | journal=Anatolian Studies | volume=29 | year=1979 | page=52| doi=10.2307/3642730 | jstor=3642730 }}</ref>

=== Table of layers ===
[[File:Section Troy-Hisarlik-de.svg|thumb|300px|left|Representation of a cross-section of the mound of Hisarlik showing the relationship between the fortifications and the layers.]]
The table below concentrates on two systems of dates: Blegen's from ''Troy and the Trojans'',<ref name=bleg174/><ref group=note>The table only covers the Bronze Age. Elsewhere Blegen had much to say concerning the Iron Age, but his views are omitted for simplicity.</ref> representing the last of the trend from Schliemann to the mid-20th century, and Korfmann's, from ''Troia in Light of New Research'' in the early years of the 21st century, after he had had a chance to establish a new trend and new excavations.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2003|pp=32–33}}. Korfmann reproduces a table by Justus Cobet in ''[[Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft|Neuer Pauly]]'' purporting to compare the chronologies of Schliemann, Dőrpfeld, Blegen and himself, with a statement of the general periods. One limitation of the table is that its dates do not recognize the changing views of those archaeologists; Korfmann himself in the text presents additional material. This article only relies on the Korfmann column of Cobet's table; Blegen's latest chronology is from another source.</ref>

Prior to Korfmann's excavations, the nine-layer model was considered comprehensive of all the material at Troy. Korfmann discovered that the city was not placed on virgin soil, as Schliemann had concluded. There is no reason not to think that, in the areas he tested, Schliemann did find that Troy I was on virgin soil. Korfmann discovered a layer previous to Troy I under a gate to Troy II. He dated it 3500 BC to 2920 BC, but did not assign a name. The current director of excavation at Troy, Rüstem Aslan, is calling it Troy 0 (zero).<ref>{{cite web | title=Ancient city of Troy likely founded 600 years earlier than thought | website=Daily Sabah History | location=Istanbul | date=9 January 2019 | url=https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2019/08/21/ancient-city-of-troy-likely-founded-600-years-earlier-than-thought}}</ref> Roman numerals have no zero, but zero is one number less than I.

Troy 0 has been omitted from the table below, due to the uncertainty of its general status. Archaeologists at the site before Korfmann had thought that Troy I began with the Bronze Age at 3000 BC. Troy zero is before this date. The remains of the layer are not very substantial. Whether the layer is to be counted as part of the preceding Chalcolithic, or whether the dates of the Bronze Age are to be changed, has not been decided through the regular channel of journal articles. One 2016 PhD Thesis complained: "... the stratigraphic sequence of the renewed excavations is presented differently by different collaborators of Korfmann ... So, until an agreed stratigraphy of Korfmann’s cycle is published, the employment of Troy as a yardstick for the whole of the Anatolian EBA remains problematic."<ref>{{cite thesis | last=Massa |first=Michele | year=2016 |title=Networks before Empires: cultural transfers in west and central Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age |type=PhD | location=London| publisher=Institute of Archaeology University College |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1478344/43/Massa_Thesis_combined.pdf |access-date=23 January 2020 | page=37 }}</ref><ref group=note>Not long after the beginning of the new excavations, Rose, anticipating that the dates were going to change, published some new chronological boundaries for Troy VIII-IX: {{cite book | first=C.B. | last=Rose | chapter=The 1991 Post-Bronze Age excavations at Troia | title=Studia Troica | volume=2 | year=1992 | page=44 n. 16}} This article prefers the dates published by Korfmann after his excavations had had more of a chance to mature. Unforunately a final solidification and publication was prevented by his untimely death of natural causes.</ref>

For example, in {{harvnb|Korfmann|2003|p=31}} Korfmann elaborates beyond the chronology of Cobet's table to make new proposals regarding the layer, Troy VIIa (which he also presents in the ''Guidebook''): "Troia VIIa should be assigned culturally to
Troia VI," asserting that "there were no substantial differences in the material culture between the two periods." He suggests that Dőrpfeld's classification of the material subsequently in VIIa as VIi should be restored, claiming that, regarding the details, Blegen had been "entirely in agreement" even though his chronology featured Troy VIIa.<ref name=seven group=note>Korfmann's interpreation of the archaeological events is "At the
end of VIi there is a break, probably caused by war, followed by VIj – a brief phase
in ruins. Then again a break shows up, this time a more pronounced one, with
VIIb2, caused by people who evidently came from the north-eastern Balkans." This view implicitly leaves room for the 10th year of the Trojan War and the arrival of the Phrygians, or proto-Armenians, who were shortly to overrun Anatolia, displacing the Hittites.</ref> He then laments "the old terminology has, unfortunately, been retained. Confusion is to be avoided at all costs." As this view has not yet been tested in the journals and is not universal, it is mainly omitted from the table (Cobet's chart, however, includes Korfmann's VIIb 3.) This new and yet unresolved material, including Troy Zero, may, however, be included in the sections and links below reporting on specific layers

Korfmann also found that Troy IX was not the end of the settlements. Regardless of whether the city was abandoned at 450 AD, a population was back for the Middle Ages, which, for those times, was under the Byzantine Empire. As with Troy Zero, no conventional scholarly classification has been tested in the journals. The literature mentions Troy X, and even Troy XI, without solid definition. The table below therefore omits them.

The sequence of archaeological layering at one site evidences the relative positions of the corresponding periods at that site; however, these layers often have a position relative to periods at other sites. It is possible to define relative periods over a wide region of sites and for a larger slice of time. Determining wider correspondences is a major objective of archaeology. The establishment of a "yardstick," or reliable sequence, such as the elusive one mentioned above, is a desirable outcome of archaeological analysis.

The table below states the broader connections under "General Period." It references primarily the chronologies presented in the educational site created and maintained by Jeremy Rutter and team and published by [[Dartmouth College]], entitled ''Aegean Prehistoric Archaeology''.<ref>{{cite web | last=Rutter | first=Jeremy | title=The Chronology and Terminology of Aegean Prehistory | website=Chronology Overview | url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=67 | access-date=3 February 2020}}</ref><ref group=note>The term "Aegean" has been used in recent times to mean the set of correlatable sites found in the Eastern and Central Mediterranean regions, which influenced each other through contacts established in and around the [[Aegean Sea]]. These sites are not necessarily on or in the Aegean, nor does "Aegean" have a well-defined, standard meaning. "Aegean" sites might be found in the [[Adriatic Sea]] or on the shores of Sicily or North Africa. This usage differs from an earlier usage, which confined Aegean sites to the Aegean Sea. Currently the term is typically defined by the author of a work referencing the topic.</ref> The time period is generally "the [[Bronze Age]]," which has an early (EB or EBA), a middle (MB or MBA), and a late (LB or LBA). The sites are distributed over [[Crete]] ("[[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]," or M), the [[Cyclades]] ("[[Cycladic culture|Cycladic]]," or C), the Greek mainland ("[[Helladic chronology|Helladic]]," or H), and Western Turkey ("Western Anatolian," no abbreviation).

{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Layer || Start (Blegen) || Start (Korfmann) || End (Blegen) || End (Korfmann) || General Period
|-
| Troy I || 3000 BC || 2920 BC || 2500 BC || 2550 BC || Western Anatolian [[Early Bronze Age|EB]] 1 late
|-
| Troy II || 2500 BC || 2550 BC || 2200 BC || 2250 BC || Western Anatolian EB 2
|-
| Troy III || 2200 BC || 2250 BC || 2050 BC || 2100 BC || Western Anatolian EB 3 early
|-
| Troy IV || 2050 BC || 2100 BC || 1900 BC || 1900 BC || Western Anatolian EB 3 middle
|-
| Troy V || 1900 BC || 1900 BC || 1800 BC || 1700 BC || Western Anatolian EB 3 late
|-
| Troy VI || 1800 BC || 1700 BC || 1300 BC || 1300 BC || West. Anat. MBA (Troy VI early) West. Anat. LBA (Troy VI middle and late)
|-
| [[Troy VII]]a || 1300 BC || 1300 BC || 1260 BC || 1190 BC || Western Anatolian LBA
|-
| Troy VIIb 1 || 1260 BC || 1190 BC || 1190 BC || 1120 BC || Western Anatolian LBA
|-
| Troy VIIb 2 || 1190 BC || 1120 BC || 1100 BC || 1020 BC || Western Anatolian LBA
|-
| Troy VIIb 3 || || 1020 BC || || 950 BC || Iron Age – Dark Age Troy
|-
| Troy VIII || 700 BC || 750 BC || || 85 BC || Iron Age – Classical and Hellenistic Troy
|-
| Troy IX || || 85 BC || || 450 AD || Iron Age – Roman Troy
|}

=== Troy I–V ===
The first city on the site was founded in the 3rd millennium BC. During the [[Bronze Age]], the site seems to have been a flourishing mercantile city, since its location allowed for complete control of the [[Dardanelles]], through which every merchant ship from the [[Aegean Sea]] heading for the [[Black Sea]] had to pass. Cities to the east of Troy were destroyed, and although Troy was not burned, the next period shows a change of culture indicating a new people had taken over Troy.<ref name="Mellaart">{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/500459 |last=Mellaart |first=James |date=January 1958 |title=The end of the early Bronze Age in Anatolia and the Aegean |journal=[[American Journal of Archaeology]] |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=9–33 |jstor=500459 }}</ref> The first phase of the city is characterized by a smaller citadel, around {{cvt|300|ft|m|order=flip}} in diameter, with 20 rectangular houses surrounded by massive walls, towers, and gateways.<ref name=":0" /> Troy II doubled in size and had a lower town and the upper citadel, with the walls protecting the upper acropolis which housed the [[megaron]]-style palace for the king.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Greek Art and Archaeology|last=Neer|first=Richard T.|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2012|isbn=9780500288771|location=New York|pages=21}}</ref> The second phase was destroyed by a large fire, but the Trojans rebuilt, creating a fortified citadel larger than Troy II, but which had smaller and more condensed houses, suggesting an economic decline.<ref name=":0" /> This trend of making a larger circuit, or extent of the walls, continued with each rebuild, for Troy III, IV, and V. Therefore, even in the face of economic troubles, the walls remained as elaborate as before, indicating their focus on defense and protection.

==== Schliemann's Troy II ====
When Schliemann came across Troy II, in 1871, he believed he had found Homer's city. Schliemann and his team unearthed a large feature he dubbed the Scaean Gate, a western gate unlike the three previously found leading to the Pergamos.<ref>{{harvnb|Schliemann|1881|p=75}}</ref> This gate, as he describes, was the gate that Homer had featured. As Schliemann states in his publication ''Troja'':
"I have proved that in a remote antiquity there was in the plain of Troy a large city, destroyed of old by a fearful catastrophe, which had on the hill of Hisarlık only its Acropolis with its temples and a few other large edifices, southerly, and westerly direction on the site of the later Ilium; and that, consequently, this city answers perfectly to the Homeric description of the sacred site of Ilios."<ref>{{harvnb|Schliemann|1881|p=277}}</ref> Also, he uncovered what he referred to as The Palace of Priam, after the king during the Trojan War.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Troy and Its Remains|last=Schliemann|first=Heinrich|publisher=Benjamin Blom, Inc.|year=1968}}</ref> This reference is incorrect because Priam lived nearly a thousand years after Troy II.

=== Troy VI and VII ===
{{Main|Troy VII}}

[[File:Ajax suicide BM F480.jpg|thumb|The suicide of Ajax (from a [[krater|calyx-krater]], 400–350 BC, [[Vulci]])]]

Troy VI and VII date to the Late Bronze Age, and are thus considered likely candidates for the Troy of Homer. Troy VI was a large and significant city, home to at least 5,000 people with foreign contacts in Anatolia and the Aegean.<ref name="Korfmann 1998 369"/> Troy VI can be characterized by the construction of enormous pillars at the south gate, which serve no structural purpose. These pillars have been interpreted as symbols for the religious cults of the city.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Knight|first=W. F. J.|date=1934|title=The Pillars at the South Gate of Troy VI|journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=54|issue=2|pages=210|doi=10.2307/626868|issn=0075-4269|jstor=626868}}</ref> Another characterizing feature of Troy VI are the tightly packed houses near the Citadel and construction of many cobble streets. Although only few homes could be uncovered, this is due to reconstruction of Troy VIIa over the tops of them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jablonka|first1=Peter|last2=Rose|first2=C. Brian|date=October 2004|title=Late Bronze Age Troy: A Response to Frank Kolb|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=108|issue=4|pages=615–630|doi=10.3764/aja.108.4.615|issn=0002-9114|url=https://www.ajaonline.org/sites/default/files/1084_Jablonka.pdf}}</ref>

Researchers have debated the extent to which Troy VI was a major player in Bronze Age international trade. On one hand, hundreds of contemporary shipwrecks have been found off the coast of Turkey. Goods discovered in these wrecks included copper and tin ingots, bronze tools and weapons, ebony, ivory, ostrich egg shells, jewelry, and pottery from across the Mediterranean.<ref name="Kolb 577–613">{{Cite journal|last=Kolb|first=Frank|date=October 2004|title=Troy VI: A Trading Center and Commercial City?|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|volume=108|issue=4|pages=577–613|doi=10.3764/aja.108.4.577|issn=0002-9114|url=https://www.ajaonline.org/sites/default/files/1084_Kolb.pdf}}</ref>   However, Troy is just north of most major long-distance trade routes and there is little direct evidence at the site itself.<ref name="Kolb 577–613"/> Researchers have also debated the extent to which Troy VI was Anatolian-oriented or Aegean-oriented. Evidence for an Anatolian orientation includes pottery styles, architectural designs, and burial practices which was not standard in the Mycenaean world. Moreover, the only Bronze Age writing found at the site is written in hieroglyphic Luwian.<ref name="Korfmann 1998 369">{{Cite journal|last=Korfmann|first=Manfred|date=1998|title=Troia, an Ancient Anatolian Palatial and Trading Center: Archaeological Evidence for the Period of Troia VI/VII|journal=The Classical World|volume=91|issue=5|pages=369–385|doi=10.2307/4352105|issn=0009-8418|jstor=4352105}}</ref> However, Mycenaean pottery has been found at Troy VI, showing that it did trade with the Greeks and the Aegean. Furthermore, there were cremation burials discovered 400m south of the citadel wall.{{Relevance inline|talk=How is this evidence for Greek/Aegean connections?|date=October 2020}} This provided evidence of a small lower city south of the Hellenistic city walls. Although the size of this city is unknown due to erosion and regular building activities, there is significant evidence that was uncovered by Blegen in 1953 during an excavation of the site. This evidence included settlements just above bedrock and a ditch thought to be used for defense. Furthermore, the small settlement itself, south of the wall, could have also been used as an obstacle to defend the main city walls and the citadel.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Easton|first1=D.F.|last2=Hawkins|first2=J.D.|last3=Sherratt|first3=A.G.|last4=Sherratt|first4=E.S.|date=December 2002|title=Troy in recent perspective|journal=Anatolian Studies|volume=52|pages=75–109|doi=10.2307/3643078|issn=0066-1546|jstor=3643078|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Troy VI was destroyed around 1250 BC, probably by an [[earthquake]]. Only a single arrowhead was found in this layer, and no remains of bodies.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} However, the town quickly recovered and was rebuilt in a layout that was more orderly.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} This rebuild continued the trend of having a heavily fortified citadel to preserve the outer rim of the city in the face of earthquakes and sieges of the central city.<ref name=":1" /> The city was rebuilt as Troy VIIa, with most of the population moving within the walls of the citadel. Archaeologists have interpreted this as a reaction to external threats such as the Mycenaeans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rose|first=Charles Brian|date=1998|title=Troy and the Historical Imagination|journal=The Classical World|volume=91|issue=5|pages=405–413|doi=10.2307/4352107|issn=0009-8418|jstor=4352107}}</ref> Excavating and periodizing these layers has proved difficult since Troy VII was built directly over Troy VI, often incorporating the foundations of it buildings.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Page|first=Denys|date=September 1953|title=The City of Troy|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|volume=8|issue=31|pages=85–86|doi=10.2307/3887022|issn=0038-1969|jstor=3887022}}</ref> Troy VIIa is an often cited candidate for the Troy of Homer, since there is evidence that it was destroyed deliberately in an act of war.<ref>{{harvnb|Bauer|2007|pp=253–58}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849 |title=Archaeological Site of Troy – UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher=Whc.unesco.org |date=1998-12-02 |access-date=2012-08-15}}</ref>

==== Calvert's Thousand-Year Gap ====
Initially, the layers of Troy VI and VII were overlooked entirely, because Schliemann favoured the burnt city of Troy II. It was not until the need to close "Calvert's Thousand Year Gap" arose—from Dörpfeld's discovery of Troy VI—that archaeology turned away from Schliemann's Troy and began working towards finding Homeric Troy once more.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=142}}.</ref>

"Calvert's Thousand Year Gap" (1800–800 BC) was a period not accounted for by Schliemann's archaeology and thus constituted a hole in the Trojan timeline. In Homer's description of the city, a section of one side of the wall is said to be weaker than the rest.<ref>Homer. "Iliad". XVI,</ref> During his excavation of more than three hundred yards of the wall, Dörpfeld came across a section very closely resembling the Homeric description of the weaker section.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1985|p=89}}.</ref> Dörpfeld was convinced he had found the walls of Homer's city, and now he would excavate the city itself. Within the walls of this stratum (Troy VI), much [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] pottery dating from [[Late Helladic]] (LH) periods III A and III B (c. 1400 – c. 1200 BC) was uncovered, suggesting a relation between the Trojans and Mycenaeans. The great tower along the walls seemed likely to be the "Great Tower of Ilios".<ref>Homer. "Iliad". VI, 386</ref>

The evidence seemed to indicate that Dörpfeld had stumbled upon Ilios, the city of Homer's epics. Schliemann himself had conceded that Troy VI was more likely to be the Homeric city, but he never published anything stating so.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=143}}.</ref> The only counter-argument, confirmed initially by Dörpfeld (who was as passionate as Schliemann about finding Troy), was that the city appeared to have been destroyed by an earthquake, not by men.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1985|p=228}}.</ref> There was little doubt that this was the Troy of which the Mycenaeans would have known.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1985|p=223}}.</ref>

== Historical Troy ==
{{Tone|section|date=December 2020}}
The archaeologists of Troy concerned themselves mainly with [[prehistory]]; however, not all the archaeology performed there falls into the category of [[prehistoric archaeology]]. Troy VIII and Troy IX are dated to historical periods. [[Historical archaeology]] illuminates [[history]]. In the Late Bronze Age, records mentioning Troy begin to appear in other cultures. This type of evidence is termed [[protohistory]]. The literary characters and events must be classified as [[legend]]ary. Prehistoric Troy is also legendary Troy. The legends are not history or protohistory, as they are not records. It was the question of their historicity that attracted the interest of such archaeologists as Calvert and Schliemann. After many decades of archaeology, there are still no answers. There is still a "fault line" between history or legend and archaeology.

=== Troy in Late Bronze Age Hittite and Egyptian records ===
If Homeric Troy is not a fantasy woven in the 8th century by Greek oral poets passing on a tradition of innovating new poems at festivals, as most archaeologists hoped it was not, then the question must be asked, “what archaeological level represents Homeric Troy?” Only two credible answers are available, which are the same answer: Troy VIIa in the Blegen scheme,<ref>{{harvnb|Blegen|1995|p=164}}</ref> identical to Troy VIi in the scheme suggested by Korfmann.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2013|p=110}}</ref> After an earthquake brought down the walls of the city at its floruit about 1300 BC, the same people rebuilt the city even more magnificently than before. This event is considered the start of Late Bronze Age Troy, and Homeric Troy is considered to be Late Bronze Age Troy.

Both Blegen and Korfmann endorse a starting date of about 1300 BC. Blegen has it ending early at 1260 BC,<ref group=note>Before Korfmann began excavation again at Troy there was a movement to bring the date of the war up to 1100 BC by postulating that it happened at the end of Troy VIIb2: {{harvnb|Carter|Morris|1995|pp=25–26|loc=Sinclair Hood, "The Bronze Age Context of Homer"}}. As justification, correlations were made to LHIIIC pottery at Pylos, rather than to the LHIIIB pottery Blegen had assumed was synchronous. Korfmann, however, found Balkan-type pottery in VIIb, suggesting an occupation by people from the Balkans. He changed the end date of VIIa to the end of the century and then decided to go back to Dörpfeld's late Troy VI.</ref> but Korfmann runs it up to 1190 BC (or 1180 BC elsewhere). He abolishes VIIa, and substitutes for it VIi, more in keeping with the splendor of VI; after all, they were the same people. He estimates the population at 10,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2013|pp=59–60}}</ref> The end of the period is marked by weapons left laying around, skeletons, and burnt objects, considered the result of the Trojan War. Coincidentally this is the very period referenced by [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Hittites|Hittite]] records of Troy. They hold out some hope of a protohistorical connection.

In the 1920s, the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] scholar [[Emil Forrer]] proposed that the placenames Wilusa and Taruisa found in [[Hittite language|Hittite]] texts should be identified with Ilion and Troia, respectively.<ref>{{harvnb|Carter|Morris|1995|pp=34–35|loc=Mellink, "Homer, Lycia, and Lukka"}}</ref> He further noted that the name of [[Alaksandu]], a king of Wilusa mentioned in a Hittite treaty, is quite similar to Homer's [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], whose birthname was Alexandros. These identifications were rejected by many scholars as being improbable or at least unprovable. However, [[Trevor Bryce]] championed them in his 1998 book ''The Kingdom of the Hittites'', citing a piece of the [[Manapa-Tarhunda letter]] referring to the kingdom of Wilusa as beyond the land of the Seha River (the classical [[Caicus]] and modern [[Bakırçay]]) and near the land of "Lazpa" ([[Lesbos]]).

The excavation of the lower city uncovered a water distribution system containing {{convert|160|m|ft}} of tunnels tapping sources higher up on the ridge. Dates from the floor deposits obtained by the [[Uranium-thorium dating]] method indicate that water was flowing through the tunnels "as early as the third millenium BC;" thus the early city made sure that it had an internal water supply.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2013|p=112}}</ref> In 1280 BC a treaty between the reigning monarchs of the Hittite and Trojan states, Muwatalli II and Alaksandu of Wilusa respectively, invoked the water god, KASKAL_KUR, who was associated with an underground tunnel, adding weight to the theory that Wilusa is identical to archaeological Troy.

Among the documents mentioning Troy is the [[Tawagalawa letter]] ([[Catalogue des Textes Hittites|CTH]] 181), which was found to document an unnamed Hittite king's correspondence to the king of the [[Ahhiyawa]], referring to an earlier "Wilusa episode" involving hostility on the part of the Ahhiyawa. The Hittite king was long held to be [[Mursili II]] (c. 1321–1296), but, since the 1980s, his son [[Hattusili III]] (1265–1240) is commonly preferred, although his other son [[Muwatalli II|Muwatalli]] (c. 1296–1272) remains a possibility.

Inscriptions of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] also record a nation T-R-S as one of the [[Sea Peoples]] who attacked [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] during the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|XIX]] and [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|XX Dynasties]]. An inscription at [[Deir el-Medina]] records a victory of [[Ramesses III]] over the Sea Peoples, including one named "Tursha" (Egyptian: [''twrš3'']). It is probably the same as the earlier "Teresh" (Egyptian: [''trš.w'']) on the [[Merneptah Stele|stele]] commemorating [[Merneptah]]'s victory in a [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] campaign around 1220 BC.

The identifications of Wilusa with Troy and of the Ahhiyawa with Homer's [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] remain somewhat controversial but gained enough popularity during the 1990s to be considered majority opinion. That agrees with [[Metrical foot|metrical]] evidence in the ''[[Iliad]]'' that the name ᾽Ιλιον (Ilion) for Troy was formerly Ϝιλιον (Wilion) with a [[digamma]].<ref name=met group=note>"Metrical evidence" is a specialized term from the study of Greek poetry. Where English poetry constructs its metric feet from emphasized and unemphasized syllables:"Listen my children and you shall hear ...," ancient Greek uses long and short syllables, the length being determined according to the sequence of long and short vowels and clusters of consonants. Homer wrote his poetry in dactylic hexameter: "Menin aeide thea ...." From the fact that some syllables are treated as long when they should be short leads the linguists to conclude that an initial "w" was dropped at some time after composition: Ilion for former Wilion.</ref>

=== The Trojan language question ===
From the time Troy was identified, the question of what language was spoken by the Trojans was prominent. Various proposals were made, but they remained pure speculation. No evidence of the [[Trojan language]] seems to have survived. That they might have been Greek was considered. However, if they were, the question of why they were not in the Achaean domain, but were opposed to the Achaeans, was an even greater mystery. Passages from the ''Iliad'' suggested that, not only were the Trojans not Greek, but the army defending Troy was composed of different language speakers arrayed by nationality.<ref>{{harvnb|Watkins|1986|pp=51–52}}. They did not speak the same language, based on ''Iliad'' II 803-804 and IV 437-438. In IV 433-435 they seem to the Greeks like a flock of bleating sheep. Hektor's battle cry was "Trojans, Lykians, and Dardanians!" Watkins adds, "The epic convention is, of course, that the Trojans spoke Greek...."</ref>

In the middle of the 20th century, [[Linear B]] was deciphered and a large number of documentary tablets could be read. The language was an [[Mycenaean Greek|early dialect of Greek]], even earlier than the [[Ancient Greek|Homeric dialect]]. Many Greek words were in the early stage of formation. [[Digamma]] was used much more. Linear B tablets have been found at the major centers of the Achaean domain. None, however, come from Troy.

The documents in Linear B basically inventory the assets of [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] palace-states: food, textiles, ceramics, weapons, land, and above all manpower, especially people held in some sort of servitude. Civilizations of the time were slave societies. The terms of servitude, however, varied widely. A study by Kalliope Efkleidou in 2004 detailed the types of servitude mentioned in the Linear B tablets. According to her, the main elements of servitude were that servants were outsiders, not part of the customary social structure, and that they were coerced into their positions. Someone had authority over them, whom she calls a "superior," designated in Greek by the genitive case: "servant of ...." One of the categories of Mycenaean servant is the do-er-o (masc) and do-er-a (fem), Greek doulos, pl douloi, and doula, pl doulai.<ref>{{harvnb|Efkleidou|2004|pp=59–62}}</ref> A specific type of doulos was the te-o-jo do-er-o, theoio doulos, "servant of God," a temple assistant of some sort, whose superior was the deity. These two categories were not badly off, being palace artisans, and receiving land for their services. In addition were the ra-wi-ja-ja, the lawiaiai, "captives." These were kept in groups and performed what would be termed today "factory work." The tablets, being ephemeral in nature, do not always classify these types, but they are detectable from the naming conventions, or lack of them, and the type of work. Efkleidou uses the term "dependent." In all she tallied 5,233 dependents in the tablets.

Perhaps most relevant to the time are named groups of women, the group name being an ethnic or a craft name. One such group called just "captives" gives a hint to their class of servitude. The ethnic names show that western Anatolia and the islands off it were favored.<ref group=note>The relevant groups are: 7 women from [[Lemnos]] (ra-mi-ni-ja), 6 or 7 from Chios (ki-si-wi-je), 35 from Asia (a-*64-ja), 26 from the vicinity of [[Halicarnassus]] (ze-ru2-ra3), 70 from Miletus (mi-ra-ti-ja).</ref> Other groups implicitly from the region were named after the type of work they do, especially the textile workers: finishers, spinners, and a group of flax handlers (ri-ne-ja, or lineiai) composed of 82 women with 61 female children and 56 male. Other groups were male bronzesmiths, house and ship builders.<ref>{{harvnb|Efkleidou|2004|pp=104–119}}</ref> The majority of the females were textile workers, a development foreshadowed in the initial scene of the ''Iliad'', in which the priest [[Chryses of Troy|Chryses]] entreats Agamemnon to ransom his daughter [[Chryseis]], only to be refused with the statement that she would be frequenting his bed and working his loom far away in Argos.

Trojan names began turning up in the archives of ancient [[Pylos]]. They were of persons kept in a servile capacity, from which the universal conclusion was that they were descended from slaves taken at Troy. Etymological analysis by linguists revealed that they were not native Greek names, suggesting that the Trojans were not Greek.

In the Linear B tablets, the coasts of Anatolia and Greece were under attack by Mycenaean centers of the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]], especially the center at [[Pylos]] (pu-ro). Since the tablets, which were manufactured ad hoc of fresh clay and immediately engraved with writing, only survived by being baked in the [[Late Bronze Age collapse|fires that destroyed the palaces]], their dates depend on the dates of destruction. The Pylos tablets record the dispatch of a fleet of rowers and soldiers under a commander to the [[Gulf of Corinth]], and then the palace is gone, burned in its own oil. If pu-ro is the Homeric Pylos, then the date is after the Trojan War, as the legendary Pylos survived it intact.

This time between the Trojan War and the burning of the palaces fits into another historical period, the time of the [[Sea Peoples]]. These were ethnicities from [[Achaea]], Dardania, [[Etruria]], [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], and elsewhere who took to a life of marauding and piracy, disrupting trade, transportation, peace, and security. They placed colonies as bases.<ref group=note>The earliest historical view is that these people were transitioning from somewhere else to their classical locations, pushed by the southward movement of Balkan peoples. The main problem with the theory is that the other locations could not be located. The classification of many of them as archaeologically indigenous to their known native lands reduced their appearances in the Mediterranean to mere opportunistic expeditions.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}</ref> The eastern Mediterranean became a wilderness. Cities withdrew from the coast. Isolation set in.

Previously unknown scripts were found to be in [[Anatolian languages]]. The dominant one on the coast was [[Luwian]]. The range of the Luwian language was west of [[Hattusa]], the Hittite capital.

The 1995 discovery of a [[Luwian]] biconvex seal at Troy sparked heated debate over the [[Trojan language|language that was spoken in Homeric Troy]]. Frank Starke of the [[University of Tübingen]] argued that the name of [[Priam]], king of Troy at the time of the [[Trojan War]], is related to the Luwian compound ''Priimuua'', which means "exceptionally courageous".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Starke |first=Frank |title=Troia im Kontext des historisch-politischen und sprachlichen Umfeldes Kleinasiens im 2. Jahrtausend |journal=Studia Troica |year=1997 |volume=7 |pages=447–87}}</ref> Starke adds: "The certainty is growing that Wilusa/Troy belonged to the greater Luwian-speaking community," although it is not entirely clear whether Luwian was primarily the official language or in daily colloquial use.<ref>{{harvnb|Latacz|2004|p=116}}</ref> The tablet was discovered in the lower city, archaeologically out of the way until now, but undoubtedly more populous and frequented than the citadel.

=== Dark Age Troy ===
[[File:Troy (Ilion), Turkey (7446237818).jpg|thumb|300px|Anatolian Grey Ware]]
B.W. Fortson, IV, defines the [[Greek Dark Ages]] as "The period from the demise of Mycenaean civilization to the earliest appearance of alphabetic Greek in the eighth century ...."<ref>{{cite book | title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction | first=Benjamin W., IV | last=Fortson | edition=Second | location=Chichester, UK | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | year=2010 | page=249}}</ref> Fortson contends that the Mycenaean kingdoms suffered a breakdown of peace and stability, and subsequently entered a period of fear, isolation, and economic depression which led to a loss of writing and a deficit of written records. Historians have interpreted this as "darkness," though this is not the general consensus.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

While it is true that the palaces were destroyed by fire, it is untrue that they were all burned in the same year or even the same decade by a single wave of [[Dorian invasion|Dorian tribes]] from the region later known as [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]]. The dates of the destructions differ by as much as a generation. Chadwick asks, "... where were all the Dorians during the Mycenaean period? And why were they content to wait in the wings until the time was right for this intrusion?"<ref>{{harvnb|Chadwick|1976|pp=192–193}}</ref> His own theory was that the Mycenaeans were incendiary to each other's palaces in a rash of infradynastic conflicts. These would have occupied the entire 11th century BC. There was no sudden influx of all the Dorians in one great invasion, but rather an insistent occupation of the Peloponnesus over a century or more. It has to be counted as Dorian from the 10th century BC on. Most of the former Achaean inhabitants escaped to the now depopulated coast of Anatolia as [[Ionians]] and [[Aeolians]]. Athens remained firm.

While writing declined in use among the Mycenaeans, it remained in vibrant use among the Achaeans of [[Cyprus]] on the edge of the Greek world. They continued to write their own conservative dialect, [[Arcadocypriot Greek]], in a few scripts of [[Cypriote syllabary]], which they had innovated on the model of Linear A and Linear B. They were fairly isolated from their former homeland by the spread of Dorians to Crete, the southern Cyclades, and southern Anatolia. When the concept of a Greek alphabet arrived, they innovated with the Phoenician alphabet to make it fit their language, and the two systems continued side-by-side until Hellenistic times, when Attic became the common dialect. Meanwhile, their dialect continued to be spoken in the hills of [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]], but it had no writing system there. This Dark Age interlude in Greece is not generally interpreted as a return to prehistoric times. It is a historic age with gaps in its history, which is how the archaeologists treat it.

In both Blegen and Korfmann, Homeric Troy ends at the end of Blegen's Troy VIIa, Korfmann's VIi, with the burning of the city, presumably by Achaeans. Legend has the Trojans vanishing away, either escaping, as did Aeneas and his very large band, being slaughtered, as were Priam and his wife, or being carted off into slavery, as were the literary Trojan women. Apparently, no Trojans seem to have been left. Their enemies would have cleared them entirely away, leaving the ruined city vacant and non-dangerous.

The archaeology suggests that the literary implication of a deserted city is probably not true. After a suitable interval of hiding somewhere else in the region, perhaps with the Dardanians, who were not defeated, but appeared as marauders among the sea peoples, or further inland with the Hittites, the Trojan remnants returned to Troy to rebuild Troy VIIb, which, according to Blegen, "... obviously represents a direct survival of the culture that prevailed in Troy VIIa."<ref>{{harvnb|Blegen|1995|p=165}}</ref> The initial VIIb period is VIIb1, which Korfmann suggests should be VIj.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2013|p=60}}</ref> and regards as "transitional to the Early Iron Age." As yet, however, it is contemporary with LHIIIC (LBA) pottery on the mainland. The reconstruction does not appear to have been opposed by the palaces, such as at Pylos, which were still standing. The return to a simpler pottery causes Korfmann to hypothesize a "humble folk" investment of the ruins.

Troy VIIb2 begins contemporaneously with LHIIIC, but at about 1050 BC the last of IIIC disappears. This was replaced by [[Sub-Mycenaean pottery]], a short-lived Mycenaean-like pottery with geometric motifs, considered transitional to [[Geometric art|Geometric pottery]], the ware characteristic everywhere in the Greek world of the [[Greek Dark Ages|Dark Age]]. The palaces can be counted as vanished, as the last pottery at Pylos was LH IIIC. Apparently, the city of the "humble Trojans" could not maintain itself, but was overrun or replaced. The latter part of Troy IIIb2 sees the replacement of their pottery with wares, such as "Knobbed Ware," characteristic of the Balkan-Black Sea region. The Luwian seal presents a problem, as it is dated Troy VIIb2. Luwian speakers would not have been as far away as the northern Black Sea. If the seal is from early VIIb2, however, it can represent the last of the Luwian speakers at Troy. A mixed culture was certainly possible. Priam's wife, Hecuba, had been a Phrygian.

Blegen ends his tale of Troy VII with VIIb2 around 1100 BC. The city was burned one last time, an event contemporaneous with the general destruction of the Mycenaean palaces. This would be the ethnical end of the Trojans at Troy by abandonment, but Blegen has a final suggestion. Troy VI was characterized by what Blegen calls "Grey Minyan Ware," now Anatolian [[Minyan ware]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Pavúk|first=Peter|title=Grey Wares as a Phenomenon|publisher=Aegeo-Balkan Prehistory|date=12 June 2007|url=http://www.aegeobalkanprehistory.net/article.php?id_art=5|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225120242/http://www.aegeobalkanprehistory.net/article.php?id_art=5|archive-date=25 December 2008}}</ref><ref group=note>The term Minyan Ware refers to any grey-to-black, burnished, undecorated pottery of simple shapes, such as bowls, of any time or location. Now that the non-destructive scientific ability exists to analyze the clay and identify the clay beds by the composition of the pots, "Minyan Ware" is further qualified by an adjective stating its provenience; hence "Anatolian Minyan Ware," which can only have been made in Anatolia.</ref> or Anatolian Grey Ware. After the abandonment of the city, the ware appears in the highlands, leading Blegen to conjecture that the Trojans gradually withdrew in that direction.

The more recent excavations turned up additional information. In the lower city was pottery from the early and middle [[Protogeometric style|Proto-geometric period]], characteristic of the Dark Age. The Trojans may have escaped to the hills, but their burned city was occupied by their incendiary opponents, whoever they were. These unknown invaders relied on the superior strength of iron weapons for their victory. Korfmann created a new period for this event, Troy VIIb3, 1020-950 BC.

For reasons unknown, the Iron-age people left their settlement about 950 BC, leaving it abandoned. Korfmann calls this interval a hiatus, meaning of residential occupation. A Greek colony arrived there to plant a new city about 750 BC, archaeological Troy VIII. They leveled the top of the mound to construct a temple to Athena, thus identifying themselves as being in the Attic-Ionic culture, as opposed to the Aeolic Greeks (Boeotia) who had previously been settling the north coast of Anatolia. The leveling process destroyed the previous structures at the center of the citadel. As Homeric Troy had been called "sacred Ilium," Korfmann asserts that a temple district may have been maintained there during the apparent abandonment period, but whose is not known.

=== Classical and Hellenistic Troy (Troy VIII) ===
In 480 BC, the Persian king [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] sacrificed 1,000 cattle at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias while marching through the Hellespontine region towards Greece.<ref>[[Herodotus]] 7.43.</ref> Following the Persian defeat in 480–479, Ilion and its territory became part of the continental possessions of [[Mytilene]] and remained under Mytilenaean control until the unsuccessful [[Mytilenean revolt]] in 428–427. Athens liberated the so-called Actaean cities including Ilion and enrolled these communities in the [[Delian League]]. Athenian influence in the Hellespont waned following the oligarchic coup of 411, and in that year the Spartan general Mindaros emulated Xerxes by likewise sacrificing to Athena Ilias. From c. 410–399, Ilion was within the sphere of influence of the local dynasts at [[Lampsacus]] (Zenis, his wife Mania, and the usurper Meidias) who administered the region on behalf of the Persian satrap [[Pharnabazos II, Satrap of Phrygia|Pharnabazus]].

In 399, the Spartan general [[Dercylidas]] expelled the Greek garrison at Ilion who were controlling the city on behalf of the Lampsacene dynasts during a campaign which rolled back Persian influence throughout the Troad. Ilion remained outside the control of the Persian satrapal administration at [[Dascylium]] until the [[Peace of Antalcidas]] in 387–386. In this period of renewed Persian control c. 387–367, a statue of [[Ariobarzanes of Phrygia|Ariobarzanes]], the satrap of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]], was erected in front of the temple of Athena Ilias.<ref>Diodorus 17.17.6.</ref> In 360–359 the city was briefly controlled by [[Charidemus]] of [[Oreus]], a Euboean mercenary leader who occasionally worked for the Athenians.<ref>Demosthenes 23.154–157; Aeneas Tacticus 24.3–14.</ref> In 359, he was expelled by the Athenian Menelaos son of Arrabaios, whom the Ilians honoured with a grant of [[proxeny]]—this is recorded in the earliest civic decree to survive from Ilion.<ref>Inschriften von Ilion 23.</ref> In May 334 [[Alexander the Great]] crossed the Hellespont and came to the city, where he visited the temple of Athena Ilias, made sacrifices at the tombs of the Homeric heroes, and made the city free and exempt from taxes.<ref>Arrian, ''Anabasis'' 1.11–12, Diodorus Siculus 17.17–18, Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander'' 15, Justin 9.5.12, Strabo 13.1.26, 32.</ref> According to the so-called 'Last Plans' of Alexander which became known after his death in June 323, he had planned to rebuild the temple of Athena Ilias on a scale that would have surpassed every other temple in the known world.<ref>Diodorus 18.4.5.</ref>

[[Antigonus Monophthalmus]] took control of the Troad in 311 and created the new city of [[Alexandria Troas|Antigoneia Troas]] which was a [[synoikism]] of the cities of [[Skepsis]], [[Cebren|Kebren]], [[Neandreia]], [[Hamaxitus|Hamaxitos]], [[Larisa (Troad)|Larisa]], and [[Kolonai]]. In c. 311–306 the ''[[koinon]] ''of Athena Ilias was founded from the remaining cities in the Troad and along the Asian coast of the [[Dardanelles]] and soon after succeeded in securing a guarantee from Antigonus that he would respect their autonomy and freedom (he had not respected the autonomy of the cities which were synoikized to create Antigoneia).<ref>Inschriften von Ilion 1.</ref> The ''koinon ''continued to function until at least the 1st century AD and primarily consisted of cities from the Troad, although for a time in the second half of the 3rd century it also included [[Myrlea]] and [[Chalcedon]] from the eastern [[Propontis]].<ref>Myrlea and Calchedon: Inschriften von Ilion 5–6.</ref> The governing body of the ''koinon ''was the ''synedrion'' on which each city was represented by two delegates. The day-to-day running of the ''synedrion'', especially in relation to its finances, was left to a college of five ''agonothetai'', on which no city ever had more than one representative. This system of equal (rather than proportional) representation ensured that no one city could politically dominate the ''koinon''.<ref>D. Knoepfler, ‘Les agonothètes de la Confédération d’Athéna Ilias: une interpretation nouvelle des données épigraphiques et ses conséquences pour la chronologie des émissions monétaires du Koinon’ ''Studi Ellenistici'' 24 (2010) 33–62.</ref> The primary purpose of the ''koinon ''was to organize the annual Panathenaia festival which was held at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias. The festival brought huge numbers of pilgrims to Ilion for the duration of the festival as well as creating an enormous market (the ''panegyris'') which attracted traders from across the region.<ref>''Panegyris'': L. Robert, Monnaies antiques en Troade (Paris 1966) 18–46.</ref> In addition, the ''koinon ''financed new building projects at Ilion, for example a new theatre c. 306 and the expansion of the sanctuary and temple of Athena Ilias in the 3rd century, in order to make the city a suitable venue for such a large festival.<ref>Theatre: Inschriften von Ilion 1. Temple: C. B. Rose, ‘The Temple of Athena at Ilion’ ''Studia Troica'' 13 (2003) 27–88 and contra D. Hertel, ‘Zum Heiligtum der Athena Ilias von Troia IX und zur frühhellenistischen Stadtanlage von Ilion’ ''ArchAnz ''(2004) 177–205.</ref>

In the period 302–281, Ilion and the Troad were part of the kingdom of [[Lysimachus]], who during this time helped Ilion synoikize several nearby communities, thus expanding the city's population and territory.<ref group=note>Strabo 13.1.26: [Λυσίμαχος] συνῴκισέ τε εἰς αὐτὴν τὰς κύκλῳ πόλεις ἀρχαίας ἤδη κεκακωμένας. These probably included [[Birytis]], [[Gentinos]], and Sigeion: J. M. Cook, ''The Troad ''(Oxford 1973) 364. Birytis and Gentinos are not securely located, but recent excavations at Sigeion appear to independently confirm Strabo’s account by indicating an abandonment date soon after c. 300: Th. Schäfer, ''Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı'' 32.2 (2009) 410–412, 33.2 (2012) 248–249. This may have been punishment for Sigeion resisting Lysimachus in 302: Diodorus 20.107.4.</ref> Lysimachus was defeated at the [[Battle of Corupedium]] in February 281 by [[Seleucus I Nikator]], thus handing the Seleucid kingdom control of [[Asia Minor]], and in August or September 281 when Seleucus passed through the Troad on his way to [[Lysimachia (Thrace)|Lysimachia]] in the nearby Thracian Chersonese Ilion passed a decree in honour of him, indicating the city's new loyalties.<ref>Inschriften von Ilion 31.</ref> In September Seleucus was assassinated at Lysimachia by [[Ptolemy Keraunos]], making his successor, [[Antiochus I Soter]], the new king. In 280 or soon after Ilion passed a long decree lavishly honouring Antiochus in order to cement their relationship with him.<ref group=note>Inschriften von Ilion 32. A minority of scholars instead attempt to date this inscription to the reign of Antiochus III (222–187 BC).</ref> During this period Ilion still lacked proper city walls except for the crumbling Troy VI fortifications around the citadel, and in 278 during the [[Gallic invasion of the Balkans|Gallic invasion]] the city was easily sacked.<ref>Strabo 13.1.27.</ref> Ilion enjoyed a close relationship with Antiochus for the rest of his reign: for example, in 274 Antiochus granted land to his friend Aristodikides of Assos which for tax purposes was to be attached to the territory of Ilion, and c. 275–269 Ilion passed a decree in honour of Metrodoros of Amphipolis who had successfully treated the king for a wound he received in battle.<ref>Inschriften von Ilion 33 (Aristodikides), 34 (Metrodoros).</ref>

=== Roman Troy (Troy IX) ===
A new city called '''Ilium''' (from Greek Ilion) was founded on the site in the reign of the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Augustus]]. It flourished until the establishment of [[Constantinople]], which became a bishopric in the [[Roman province]] [[Hellespontus (province)|Hellespontus]] (civil [[Diocese of Asia]]), but declined gradually in the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine era]].

The city was destroyed by [[Sulla]]'s rival, the Roman general [[Gaius Flavius Fimbria|Fimbria]], in 85 BC following an eleven-day siege.<ref>Strabo 13.1.27, Livy, ''Periochae'' 83.</ref> Later that year when Sulla had defeated Fimbria, he bestowed benefactions on Ilion for its loyalty which helped with to rebuild the city. Ilion reciprocated this act of generosity by instituting a new civic calendar which took 85 BC as its first year.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 10.2–3.</ref> However, the city remained in financial distress for several decades despite its favoured status with Rome. In the 80s BC, Roman ''publicani'' illegally levied taxes on the sacred estates of Athena Ilias, and the city was required to call on [[Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 64 BC)|L. Julius Caesar]] for restitution; while in 80 BC, the city suffered an attack by pirates.<ref>''Inchriften von Ilion'' 71 (''publicani''), 73 (pirates).</ref> In 77 BC the costs of running the annual festival of the ''koinon'' of Athena Ilias became too pressing for both Ilion and the other members of the ''koinon'' and L. Julius Caesar was once again required to arbitrate, this time reforming the festival so that it would be less of a financial burden.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 10.</ref> In 74 BC the Ilians once again demonstrated their loyalty to Rome by siding with the Roman general [[Lucullus]] against Mithridates VI.<ref>Plutarch, ''Lucullus'' 10.3, 12.2.</ref> Following the final defeat of Mithridates in 63–62, [[Pompey]] rewarded the city's loyalty by becoming the benefactor of Ilion and patron of Athena Ilias.<ref>''Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum'' 46.1565.</ref> In 48 BC, [[Julius Caesar]] likewise bestowed benefactions on the city, recalling the city's loyalty during the Mithridatic Wars, the city's connection with his cousin L. Julius Caesar, and the family's claim that they were ultimately descended from Venus through the Trojan prince [[Aeneas]] and therefore shared kinship with the Ilians.<ref>Lucan, ''Pharsalia'' 9.964–999, Suetonius, ''Divus Julius'' 79.3.</ref>

In 20 BC, the Emperor [[Augustus]] visited Ilion and stayed in the house of a leading citizen, Melanippides son of Euthydikos.<ref>Dio Cassius 54.7, ''Inschriften von Ilion'' 83.</ref> As a result of his visit, he also financed the restoration and rebuilding of the sanctuary of Athena Ilias, the [[bouleuterion]] (council house) and the theatre. Soon after work on the theatre was completed in 12–11 BC, Melanippides dedicated a statue Augustus in the theatre to record this benefaction.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 83.</ref>

=== Ecclesiastical Troy in late antiquity ===
No later than the 4th century, it was a [[suffragan]] of the provincial capital's Metropolitan [[Archdiocese of Cyzicus]], in the sway of the [[Patriarchate of Constantinople]].
Several bishops are historically documented:
* Orion attended the [[First Ecumenical Council]] at [[Nicaea]] in 325
* Leucadius was among the schismatic group of [[Arian]] heretical bishops abandoning the [[Council of Sardica]] and [[Council of Philippopolis]] in 344 to convene their alternative 'synod'.
* Theosebius partook in the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451.
* Johannes participated in the [[second Council of Constantinople]] in 553.
* Nicetas attended the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in 787.
* Georgius participated in the [[Council of Constantinople (869-870)|Council of Constantinople]] of 869–870 which condemned Patriarch [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photios of Constantinople]].

=== Modern ecclesiastical Troy ===
The diocese was nominally restored no later than 1926 as Latin [[Titular bishopric]] of Ilium (Latin) / Ilio (Curiate Italian) / Ilien(sis) (Latin adjective).

It has been vacant for decades, having had the following incumbents, so far of the fitting Episcopal (lowest) rank:
* [[Michel d'Herbigny]] [[Jesuit Order|S.J.]] (1926.02.11 – 1937.07)
* James Maguire (1939.10.05 – 1944.10.10)
* Eugene Joseph McGuinness (1944.11.11 – 1948.02.01)
* Leo John Steck (1948.03.13 – 1950.06.19)
* Francesco Maria Franco (1950.07.10 – 1968.02.07)

== Alternative views ==

=== Unusual locations ===
A small minority of contemporary writers argue that Homeric Troy was not at the Hisarlik site, but elsewhere in Anatolia or outside it—e.g. in England,<ref>{{cite book | first=Iman Jacobs | last=Wilkens | title=Where Troy Once Stood: The Mystery of Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' revealed | location=[[Groningen]] | publisher= Rider & Co | year=1990 | page=68 | isbn=978-0-7126-2463-3| title-link=Where Troy Once Stood }}</ref> [[Pergamum]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lascelles|first1=John|title=Troy: The World Deceived. Homer's Guide to Pergamum| location=[[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria, B.C.]]| publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]] (self-published)| year=2005| isbn=978-1-4120-5829-2|page=34}}</ref> Scandinavia,<ref>{{cite book | first=Felice | last=Vinci | title=The Baltic Origins of Homer's Epic Tales: The Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Migration of Myth | year=2005 | location=[[Rochester, Vermont|Rochester, Vt.]] | publisher=[[Inner Traditions – Bear & Company]] | isbn=978-1-5947-7052-4 }}</ref> or [[Herzegovina]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Roberto Salinas | last=Price | title=Homeric Whispers: Intimations of Orthodoxy in the Iliad and Odyssey | year=2006 | location=[[San Antonio, Texas]] | publisher=Scylax Press | page=19 | isbn=978-0-9108-6511-1}}</ref> These proposals have not been accepted by mainstream scholarship.

=== Medieval legends ===
Such was the fame of the [[Epic Cycle]] in Roman and Medieval times that it was built upon to provide a starting point for various [[founding myth]]s of national origins. The most influential, [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'', traces the journeys of the Trojan prince [[Aeneas]], supposed ancestor of the [[Romulus and Remus|founders of Rome]] and the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]. In a later era, the heroes of Troy, both those noted in Homer and those invented for the purpose, often continued to appear in the origin stories of the nations of Early Medieval Europe.<ref name=huppert>{{cite journal | last=Huppert | first=George | title=The Trojan Franks and their Critics | journal=Studies in the Renaissance | volume=12 | year=1965 | pages=227–41 | doi=10.2307/2857076| jstor=2857076 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Hay | first=Denys | title=Europe: The Emergence of an Idea | year=1968 | location=Edinburgh | publisher=Edinburgh U.P. | pages=49–50}}</ref> The ''[[Roman de Troie]]'' was common cultural ground for European dynasties,<ref>A. Joly first traced the career of the ''Roman de Troie'' in ''Benoit de Sainte-More et le Roman de Troie'' (Paris 1871).</ref> as a Trojan pedigree was both gloriously ancient and established an equality with the ruling class of Rome. A Trojan pedigree could justify the occupation of parts of Rome's former territories.<ref name=huppert/>

[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] writes that the Trojans were Greek people who were originally from the [[Peloponnese]].<ref>[ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.60.3-1.61.1]</ref>

On that basis, the Franks filled the lacunae of their legendary origins with Trojan and pseudo-Trojan names. In [[Fredegar]]'s 7th-century chronicle of Frankish history, Priam appears as the first king of the Franks.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Thomas J MacMaster |title=The Trojan Origins of the Turks and the Turkish Origins of the Trojans in the Medieval West |journal=Atlantide |date=2014 |page=3 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2284446 |issn=2276-3457 |quote=When Jerome mentions the fall of Troy, Fredegar adds: 'The origin of the Franks is due to these events. They had Priam as their first king.'}}</ref> The Trojan origin of France was such an established article of faith that in 1714, the learned [[Nicolas Fréret]] was [[Bastille]]d for showing through historical criticism that the Franks had been Germanic, a sore point counter to [[Valois dynasty|Valois]] and [[Bourbon dynasty|Bourbon]] propaganda.<ref>''Larousse du XIXe siècle'' sub "Fréret", noted by Huppert 1965.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2013}}

In a similar manner, [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] reworked earlier material such as the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'' to trace the [[List of legendary kings of Britain|legendary kings of the Britons]] from a supposed descendant of [[Aeneas]] called [[Brutus of Troy|Brutus]].

Likewise, [[Snorri Sturluson]], in the prologue to his Icelandic ''[[Prose Edda]]'', traced the genealogy of the ancestral figures in [[Norse mythology]] to characters appearing at Troy in Homer's epic, notably making [[Thor]] to be the son of [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]]. Sturluson referred to these figures as having made a journey across Europe towards [[Scandinavia]], setting up kingdoms as they went.

== See also ==
{{div col | colwidth=25em | small=yes}}

* [[Troy Museum]]
* [[Trojan War in popular culture]]
* [[Ancient settlements in Turkey]]
* [[Cities of the ancient Near East]]
* [[Dardanians (Trojan)]]
* [[Historicity of the Iliad]]
* [[The Golden Bough (mythology)]]
* [[Trojan language]]
* [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|25em|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==Reference bibliography==
{{div col | colwidth=25em | small=yes}}

* {{cite journal | last=Allen |first=Susan Heuck | title=Finding the Walls of Troy': Frank Calvert, Excavator |journal=American Journal of Archaeology | volume=99 | number=3 | date=July 1995 | pages=379–407 |doi=10.2307/506941 | jstor=506941}}
* {{cite book | last=Allen | first=Susan Heuck | title=Finding the Walls of Troy: Frank Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik | year=1999 | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20868-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Bauer |first=Susan Wise |title=The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmShg3dnLSMC&pg=PA253 |year=2007 |publisher=Norton |isbn=9780393070897 |pages=253–58 |chapter=The Battle for Troy }}
* {{cite book | first=C.W. | last=Blegen | title=Troy and the Trojans | location=New York | publisher=Barnes & Noble Books | year=1995 | orig-year=1963}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Carter |editor-first1=Jane Burr |editor-last2=Morris |editor-first2=Sarah P. |title=The Ages of Homer |location=Austin |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-292-71208-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/agesofhomertribu00jane }}
* {{cite thesis | first=Kalliope | last=Efkleidou | type=MA | title=Slavery and Dependent Personnel in the Linear B Archives of Mainland Greece | year=2004 | location=Cincinnati, Ohio | publisher=University of Cincinnati | url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=ucin1099923171&disposition=inline}}
* {{cite thesis | first=Paul H. | last=Harpin | type=MA | title=The British War Office: from the Crimean War to Cardwell, 1855-1868 | year=1976 | publisher=University of Massachusetts | url=https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2728&context=theses}}
* {{cite book | title=Reports from Committees | volume=9, Part 2 | location=London | publisher=Great Britain. Parliament | author=House of Commons | year=1855 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KqFbAAAAQAAJ}}
* {{cite book | editor1=Günther A. Wagner | editor2=Ernst Pernicka | editor3=Hans-Peter Uerpmann | first=İlhan | last=Kayan | chapter=Chapter 25 Geoarchaeological lnterpretations of the 'Troian Bay' | title=Troia and the Troad-Scientific Approaches | series=Natural Science in Archaeology | location=Berlin | publisher=Springer | year=2003 | isbn=9783642078323}}
* {{cite book | first=Manfred | last=Korfmann | title=Troia in Light of New Research | series=Reden an Der Universität Trier, Dies academicus 2003 | location=Tübingen | publisher=Institute for Pre- and Protohistory and Archaeology of the Middle Ages, Tübingen University | year=2003 | url=https://www.uni-trier.de/fileadmin/organisation/Presse/andere_Publikationen/rede_troia_korfmann-english.pdf| edition=English }}
* {{cite book | first=Manfred | last=Korfmann | title=Troia/Wilusa Guidebook | location=Istanbul | publisher=Biltur Basim Yayin ve Hizmet A.Ș | year=2013 | edition=Enlarged and revised | series=Çanakkale-Tübingen Troia Vakh (Foundation) Publication Series 1}}
* {{cite book |last=Latacz |first=Joachim |author-link=Joachim Latacz |title=Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-926308-0 |postscript=none }}
* {{cite web | title=Collaborative Online Research Project: Consuls Of "The Dardanelles" And "Gallipoli" | date=February 2013 | author=Levantine Heritage Foundation | url=http://www.levantineheritage.com/pdf/Consuls_of_the_Dardanelles.pdf}}
* {{cite journal | first=Marcelle | last=Robinson | title=Pioneer, Scholar, and Victim: An Appreciation of Frank Calvert (1828-1908) | journal=Anatolian Studies | volume=44 | year=1994 | pages=153–168 | doi=10.2307/3642989 | jstor=3642989 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0066154600006025}}
* {{cite book | first=Heinrich |last=Schliemann |title=Ilios. The city and country of the Trojans | year=1881 | location=New York | publisher=Harper & Brothers | url=https://archive.org/details/ilioscityandcou02schlgoog/page/n9/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book | title=The Crimean Commission and the Chelsea Board | first=Alexander | last=Tulloch | location=London | publisher=Harrison | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJBBAAAAcAAJ | year=1857}}
* {{cite book | first=Calvert | last=Watkins | chapter=The Language of the Trojans | title=Troy and the Trojan War: A Symposium Held at Bryn Mawr College, October 1984 | editor-first=Machteld J. | editor-last=Mellink | location=Bryn Mawr Pa | publisher=Bryn Mawr College | year=1986 | chapter-url=https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=bmc_books}}
* {{cite book | last=Wood |first=Michael |title=In Search of the Trojan War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N5HDjtGwYjsC&pg=PA4|year=1985 |publisher=BBC Books; First Thus edition |isbn=978-0563201618 }}Ș
{{div col end}}

==Additional sources==
===General===
*{{cite web |url=http://www.cerhas.uc.edu/troy/ |title=Welcome to Troy |author=Troia Projekt and CERHAS |year=2013 |website=Troy |publisher=University of Cincinnati |access-date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514131308/http://cerhas.uc.edu/troy/ |archive-date=14 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Easton |first1=D.F. |last2=Hawkins |first2=J.D. |last3=Sherratt |first3=A.G. |last4=Sherratt |first4=E.S. |title=Troy in Recent Perspective |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume=52 |year=2002 |pages=75–109 |doi=10.2307/3643078|jstor=3643078 |doi-access=free }}

===Archaeological===
*{{cite web |url=http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/troia/eng/index.html |title=Troia and the Troad – Archaeology of a Region: The new excavations at Troy |author=Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte und Archäologie des Mittelalters, Universität Tübingen, and Department of Classics, University of Cincinnati, Ohio |year=2010 |website=Project Troia |publisher=Institut für Ur- u. Frühgeschichte |access-date=8 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050519022321/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/troia/eng/index.html |archive-date=19 May 2005 }}
**{{cite web |url=http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/troia/vr/vr0201_en.html |title=Reconstructions |author=Troia Project |year=2004 |website=Troia VR |publisher=University of Tübingen |access-date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830115303/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/troia/vr/vr0201_en.html |archive-date=30 August 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}
**{{cite web |editor-first1=Sebastian |editor-last1=Heath |editor-first2=Billur |editor-last2=Tekkök |url=http://classics.uc.edu/troy/grbpottery/ |title=Greek, Roman and Byzantine Pottery at Ilion (Troia) |date=2007–2009 |publisher=Classics Department, University of Cincinnati |access-date=10 August 2013}}
**{{cite web |first1=Sebastian |last1=Heath |first2=Dietrich |last2=Mannsperger |first3=C. Brian |last3=Rose |first4=John |last4=Wallrodt |url=http://classics.uc.edu/troy/coins/ |title=Coins from Ilion (Troia) |year=2013 |publisher=Classics Department, University of Cincinnati |access-date=10 August 2013}}
*{{cite web |first=Jeremy B. |last=Rutter |title=Welcome |website=Aegean Prehistoric Archaeology |publisher=Dartmouth College |year=2013 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/ |access-date=10 August 2013}}
**{{cite web |title=Lesson 23: Troy VI |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=737}}
**{{cite web |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=630 |title=Lesson 27: Troy VII and the Historicity of the Trojan War}}

===Geographical===
*{{cite web |first=Neil |last=Thomas |url=http://www.udel.edu/PR/UDaily/2003/troy030303.html |title=Geology corresponds with Homer's description of ancient Troy |year=2003 |website=UDaily Archive |publisher=University of Delaware |access-date=10 August 2013}}

===Concerning ecclesiastical history===
* Pius Bonifacius Gams, ''Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae'', Leipzig 1931, p. 445
* Michel Lequien, ''Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus'', Paris 1740, vol. I, coll. 775–778

===Concerning legend===
* {{cite book |title=Fantasies of Troy: Classical Tales and the Social Imaginary in Medieval and Early Modern Europe |editor-first1=Alan |editor-last1=Shepard |editor-first2=Stephen D. |editor-last2=Powell |location=Toronto | publisher=Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies |year=2004 }}

==External links==
{{Sister project links | wikt=Troy | commons=Category:Troy | b=no | n=no | q=no | s=The Iliad | v=no | voy=Troy (Turkey) | species=no | d=Q22647 | mw=no}}
* {{cite web | title=Uncovering Troy | url=https://www.archaeology.org/travel/interactivemap-troy/ | publisher=Archaeological Institute of America | access-date=24 January 2020}}
* {{cite web | author=Miszczak, Izabela | title=Troy | date=23 March 2016 | publisher=Turkish Archaeological News | url=https://turkisharchaeonews.net/site/troy}}
* {{cite web | author=Miszczak, Izabela | title=Troy Museum | date=13 December 2019 | publisher=Turkish Archaeological News | url=https://turkisharchaeonews.net/museum/troy-museum}}

{{History of Anatolia}}
{{Ancient Near East}}
{{Epic Cycle}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Turkey}}
{{National parks of Turkey}}
{{Ancient kingdoms in Anatolia}}
{{Former settlements in Turkey}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Troy| ]]
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