Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Genitive construction

2024-10-02T13:54:44Z

Madler: Japanese sentences are written without spaces between words so it's incorrect to say "no" is written separately or together.

{{Short description|Type of grammatical construction}}
{{Refimprove|date=September 2011}}
{{Grammatical categories}}
In [[grammar]], a '''genitive construction''' or '''genitival construction''' is a type of [[grammatical construction]] used to express a relation between two nouns such as the [[possession (linguistics)|possession]] of one by another (e.g. "John's jacket"), or some other type of connection (e.g. "John's father" or "the father of John"). A genitive construction involves two nouns, the ''[[head (linguistics)|head]]'' (or ''modified noun'') and the ''dependent'' (or ''modifier noun''). In [[Dependent-marking language|dependent-marking]] languages, a dependent genitive noun ''[[grammatical modifier|modifies]]'' the head by expressing some property of it. For example, in the construction "John's jacket", "jacket" is the head and "John's" is the modifier, expressing a property of the jacket (it is owned by John). The analogous relationship in [[Head-marking language|head-marking]] languages is [[pertensive]].

[[Arabic|Arabs]] and [[Persian language|Iranians]] call the [[Head (linguistics)|head]] or modified noun in genitive construction "مضاف /muzaf/" and the dependent or modifier noun in genitive construction "مضاف‌الیه /muzafun-ilayh/".

==Methods of construction==
Genitive constructions can be expressed in various ways:

===By placing the dependent noun in the genitive case===
This is common in languages with [[grammatical case]], e.g. [[Latin]]. For example, "[[Cicero]]'s father" is expressed by ''pater Cicerōnis'' or ''Cicerōnis pater'', where the dependent noun "Cicero" (Latin ''Cicerō'') is placed in the genitive case (Latin ''Cicerōnis'') and then placed either before or after the head noun (''pater'' "father"). A similar construction occurs in formal [[German language|German]]: ''das Buch des Mannes'' "the man's book", where ''das Buch'' means "the book" and ''des Mannes'' is the genitive case of ''der Mann'' "the man".

===Using an adposition or other linking word===
This is common in languages without grammatical case, as well as in some languages with vestigial case systems.

# [[English language|English]] uses the preposition "''of"'' to express many genitival constructions, e.g. "the father of John" or "the capital of the nation".
# Informal [[German language|German]] also prefers a preposition, except with proper names, e.g. ''der Vater von meinem Freund'' "My friend's father" (lit. "the father of my friend") but ''Johanns Vater'' "John's father".
# [[Mandarin Chinese]] uses a linking word ''de'' 的, e.g. ''Yuēhàn de fùqīn'' 约翰的父亲 "John's father", where ''Yuēhàn'' means "John" and ''fùqīn'' means "father". The word ''de'' in Chinese is not a preposition (for example, Chinese prepositions precede their dependent nouns, just as in English), but rather a special particle with its own syntax (a bit like the "'s" modifier in English).
# [[Japanese language|Japanese]] similarly uses ''no'' の, e.g. ''Jon no chichi'' ジョンの父 "John's father".
# [[Turkish language|Turkish]] uses ''-in/-ın/-ün'', e.g. ''Ayşe''''nin''' kedisi'' "Ayşe's cat".

In some languages, the linking word agrees in gender and number with the head (sometimes with the dependent, or occasionally with both). In such cases it shades into the "[[his genitive]]" (see below).

# In [[Egyptian Arabic]], for example, the word ''bitāʕ'' "of" agrees with the head noun (masculine ''bitāʕ'', feminine ''bitāʕit'', plural ''bitūʕ''), e.g.
#* ''il-wālid bitāʕ Yaḥyā'' "John's father" (''Yaḥyā'' is Arabic for "John")
#* ''il-wālida b(i)tāʕit Yaḥyā'' "John's mother"
#* ''il-wālidēn bitūʕ Yaḥyā'' "John's parents".
# [[Hindi]] is similar, using the postpositions ''kā/kē/kī'' (का / के / की), which agree in case, gender and number with the head noun, e.g.
#* ''Jôn kā bēṭā'' — जॉन का बेटा — John's son (nom. sg.)
#* ''Jôn kē bēṭē'' — जॉन के बेटे — John's sons / John's son (nom. pl. / obl. sg.)
#* ''Jôn kē bēṭō̃'' — जॉन के बेटों — John's sons (obl. pl.)
#* ''Jôn kī bēṭī'' — जॉन की बेटी — John's daughter (nom. sg. / obl. sg.)
#* ''Jôn kī bēṭiyā̃ —'' जॉन की बेटियाँ — John's daughter (nom. pl.)
#* ''Jôn kī bēṭiyō̃'' — जॉन की बेटियों — John's daughters (obl. pl.)

===Using a clitic===
For example, the English so-called "[[Saxon genitive]]" (the "{{-'}}s" modifier, as in "John's father" or "the King of Spain's house"). The two genitive constructions in English (using "of" and "'s") are not synonymous. In some cases, both can be used ("John's father", "the father of John"; "the capital of the nation", "the nation's capital"), but some constructions feel natural one way, but expressed the other way will feel awkward or ungrammatical, or may even have a different meaning ("I found John's coat" but not ''I found the coat of John''; "We need to encourage the love of music" but not ''We need to encourage music's love'').

Sometimes the seemingly discordant construction may be the right one, such as in the idiom ''will be the death of'' (e.g. "She'll be the death of me", meaning something close to "She'll be my downfall"—even though the latter sentence uses a possessive pronoun, the former uses a prepositional genitive).

A construction called the [[Genitive case#Double genitive|double genitive]] is also used to precisely denote possession and resolve ambiguity in some cases. For example, the phrase ''"this is a picture of John's"'' denotes that the ''picture'' is owned by John, but does not necessarily feature John. By comparison, ''"this is a picture of John"'' indicates that the picture features John, and ''"this is John's picture"'' ambiguously indicates that either John owns the picture or that the picture features John. However, this construction is also considered to be either informal or not part of [[Standard English]].

The distinction between the use of a clitic and a preposition/linking word is not always clear. For example, the [[Japanese particles|Japanese particle]] ''no'' の "of" is sometimes analyzed as a [[clitic]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Are Japanese Particles Clitics? |first=Timothy J. |last=Vance |journal=[[Japanese Language and Literature|Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese]] |volume=27 |number=1 |date=April 1993 |pages=3–33 |doi=10.2307/489122 |jstor=489122}}</ref> The particle ''no'' could alternatively be considered as either a particle, or as a suffix.

===Using the "his genitive"===
{{Main|His genitive}}
In the 1600s this construction sometimes occurred in English, e.g. [[Ben Jonson]]'s play ''[[Sejanus His Fall]]'' (i.e. "Sejanus's Fall"). It is common in spoken [[German language|German]], e.g. ''dem Mann sein Haus'' "the man's house" (literally "to the man, his house"). This construction can be seen as a variation of the above use of a linking word that agrees with the dependent. In some languages, this construction has shifted to the more normal situation for agreeing linking words where agreement is with the head, as in colloquial Norwegian ''Hilde sitt hus'' "Hilde's house" (lit. "Hilde her[REFLEXIVE] house", where the possessive pronoun agrees with the head rather than the modifier—in this case ''hus'' "house" is neuter). In this case the reflexive form of the possessive pronoun is used to refer to the immediate possessor (Hilde) and not necessarily the subject of the sentence as otherwise would be the case.

A variant of this construction appears in the Hungarian language, which has suffixes instead of Germanic languages' possessive pronouns. This results in constructions like ''a ház ablak'''a''''' "the house's window", literally "the house window-its". A similar, although more dated, form may occur in Norwegian as well, where the above example may be expressed as ''huset hennes Hilde'' (lit. "house-the her Hilde", with the non-reflexive possessive pronoun and reversed word order) with the same meaning as before. However, that variant is restricted to where the possessor is a personal name or a familiar relation such as "father", and the equivalent of the Hungarian example would become ungrammatical: *''vinduet dets hus'' (lit. "window-the its house").

In the [[Pirahã language]] spoken in the Amazonas region of Brazil, pronouns do not inflect for possession, and they are used in a way similar to English -s:

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|paitá hi kaiíi
|Paita (s)he house
|"Paita's house"}}

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|ti kahaí
|I arrow
|"my arrow"}}

===Using a possessive adjective===
'''NOTE''': In this context, this is ''not'' the same as a possessive determiner such as "my" or "his".

In [[Russian language|Russian]], for example, most nouns have a corresponding adjective that is declined as a normal adjective (agreeing with its head noun) but has the meaning of a genitival modifier. For example, in place of a normal construction using a noun in the genitive case:

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|детство Иван-а
|childhood(NEUT).NOM Ivan-GEN
|"Ivan's childhood"}}

It is also possible to use a possessive adjective, which agrees with the head in number, gender and case:

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|Иван-ов-о детство
|Ivan-POS.ADJ-NEUT.NOM childhood(NEUT).NOM
|"Ivan's childhood"}}

[[Latin]] also had possessive adjectives of this sort. Sometimes these are called ''relational adjectives'' (although that term is also used for a slightly different type of adjective in Russian).

===Using suffixaufnahme===
[[Suffixaufnahme]] is used in some languages, and is conceptually similar to the use of possessive adjectives. Basically, a modifying noun is marked in the genitive case, but ''also'' agrees in case, number and gender with the head—essentially, it has two case markings. This occurs in some modern languages (e.g. [[Dyirbal language|Dyirbal]]), and also in [[Old Georgian]]:

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|perx-ni k'ac-isa-ni
|foot-NOM.PL man-GEN-NOM.PL
|"the man's feet"}}

===By placing the head noun in a special case===
This is the opposite, in some sense, to the normal usage of the [[genitive case]], since it is the head noun, rather than the dependent, that is [[Markedness|marked]]. This is common in the [[Semitic languages]], where the head noun is placed in the so-called ''[[construct state]]'' and forms a close syntactic construction with a following dependent noun. For example, in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the noun ''bayit'' "house" assumes the special form ''bet'' in the construct state, as in ''bet ha-yeled'' "the child's house" (where ''ha-yeled'' means "the child"). Typically, the special form is shorter than the original, and no other modifier (e.g. adjective) can intervene between head and dependent. (In [[Biblical Hebrew]], the entire construct was pronounced phonologically as a single word, with no stress on the construct-state noun; this triggered sound changes associated with unstressed syllables, which typically shortened the construct-state noun.)

[[Classical Arabic]] has a similar construction, but the dependent noun is ''also'' placed in the [[genitive case]]:

{{interlinear|number=ex:
|muʿallim-ū l-walad-i
|teacher-NOM.PL.{{gcl|CONSTRUCT|construct state}} the-child-GEN
|"the child's teachers"}}

In this case, the word ''{{transl|ar|muʿallimūna}}'' "teachers" assumes the construct-state form ''{{transl|ar|muʿallimū}}'', and ''{{transl|ar|(a)l-waladu}}'' "the child" assumes the genitive case ''{{transl|ar|(a)l-waladi}}''. No adjective can intervene between head and dependent. Instead, an adjective such as "good" must follow the entire construction, regardless of whether the intended meaning is "the good child's teachers" or "the child's good teachers". (Gender, number and case agreement on the adjective often distinguishes the two possibilities.)

==See also==
*[[Genitive case]]
*[[Construct state]]
*[[Suffixaufnahme]]
*[[His genitive]]
*[[Saxon genitive]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Genitive construction| ]]

Crossword

2024-07-22T04:28:12Z

Madler: added that the crossword puzzle in the picture is in Russian #article-section-source-editor

{{short description|Grid-based word puzzle}}
{{other uses}}
{{more citations needed|date=November 2020}}
[[File:CrosswordUSA.svg|thumb|An American-style crossword grid layout]]

A '''crossword''' (or '''crossword puzzle''') is a [[word game]] consisting of a grid of black and white squares, into which solvers enter words or phrases ("entries") crossing each other horizontally ("across") and vertically ("down") according to a set of clues. Each white square is typically filled with one letter, while the black squares are used to separate entries. The first white square in each entry is typically numbered to correspond to its clue.

Crosswords commonly appear in [[newspaper]]s and [[magazine]]s. The earliest crosswords that resemble their modern form were popularized by the ''[[New York World]]'' in the 1910s. Many variants of crosswords are popular around the world, including [[cryptic crossword]]s and many language-specific variants.

Crossword construction in modern times usually involves the use of software. Constructors choose a theme (except for themeless puzzles), place the theme answers in a grid which is usually symmetric, fill in the rest of the grid, and then write clues.

==American-style crosswords==
{{One source|section|date=March 2018}}
[[File:A person works on a crossword puzzle in the subway 2008.tif|thumb|A person works on a Russian-language crossword puzzle in the [[New York City Subway]], 2008]]

Crossword grids such as those appearing in most North American newspapers and [[magazine]]s consist mainly of solid regions of uninterrupted white squares, separated more sparsely by shaded squares. Every letter is "checked" (i.e. is part of both an "across" word and a "down" word) and usually each answer must contain at least three letters. In such puzzles shaded squares are typically limited to about one-sixth of the total. Crossword grids elsewhere, such as in Britain, [[South Africa]], [[India]] and Australia, have a [[Latticework|lattice]]-like structure, with a higher percentage of shaded squares (around 25%), leaving about half the letters in an answer unchecked. For example, if the top row has an answer running all the way across, there will often be no across answers in the second row.

Another tradition in puzzle design (in North America, India, and Britain particularly) is that the grid should have 180-degree [[rotational symmetry]], so that its pattern appears the same if the paper is turned upside down. Most puzzle designs also require that all white cells be orthogonally contiguous (that is, connected in one mass through shared sides, to form a single [[polyomino]]).

Substantial variants from the usual forms exist. Two of the common ones are barred crosswords, which use bold lines between squares (instead of shaded squares) to separate answers, and circular designs, with answers entered either radially or in concentric circles. "Free form" crosswords ("criss-cross" puzzles), which have simple, asymmetric designs, are often seen on school worksheets, children's menus, and other entertainment for children. Grids forming shapes other than squares are also occasionally used.

[[Puzzle]]s are often one of several standard sizes. For example, many weekday newspaper puzzles (such as the American [[New York Times crossword puzzle|''New York Times'' crossword puzzle]]) are 15×15 squares, while weekend puzzles may be 21×21, 23×23, or 25×25. The ''[[New York Times]]'' puzzles also set a common pattern for American crosswords by increasing in difficulty throughout the week: their Monday puzzles are the easiest and the puzzles get harder each day until Saturday. Their larger Sunday puzzle is about the same level of difficulty as a weekday-size Thursday puzzle.<ref>Shortz, Will (April 8, 2001). [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/04/08/magazine/08PUZZLE.html?ex=1236830400&en=5e6b94bdf1884b70&ei=5070 "Endpaper: How to; Solve The New York Times Crossword Puzzle"]. ''The New York Times''.</ref> This has led U.S. solvers to use the day of the week as a shorthand when describing how hard a puzzle is: e.g. an easy puzzle may be referred to as a "Monday" or a "Tuesday", a medium-difficulty puzzle as a "Wednesday", and a truly difficult puzzle as a "Saturday".

Typically clues appear outside the grid, divided into an across list and a down list; the first cell of each entry contains a number referenced by the clue lists. For example, the answer to a clue labeled "17 Down" is entered with the first letter in the cell numbered "17", proceeding down from there. Numbers are almost never repeated; numbered cells are numbered consecutively, usually from left to right across each row, starting with the top row and proceeding downward. Some Japanese crosswords are numbered from top to bottom down each column, starting with the leftmost column and proceeding right.

=== Clues: conventions and types ===

American-style crossword clues, called ''straight'' or ''quick clues'' by those more familiar with cryptic puzzles, are often simple definitions of the answers. Often, a straight clue is not in itself sufficient to distinguish between several possible answers, either because multiple synonymous answers may fit or because the clue itself is a homonym (e.g., "Lead" as in to be ahead in a contest or "Lead" as in the element), so the solver must make use of ''checks'' to establish the correct answer with certainty. For example, the answer to the clue "PC key" for a three-letter answer could be ''ESC'', ''ALT'', ''TAB'', ''DEL'', or ''INS'', so until a ''check'' is filled in, giving at least one of the letters, the correct answer cannot be determined.

In most American-style crosswords,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/crosswords/series/american-style/|title= American-style crosswords|publisher=Theguardian}}</ref> the majority of the clues in the puzzle are straight clues,<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://aframegames.com/store/?download=21|title=Crossword Constructor's Handbook|last=Berry|first=Patrick|year=2015|pages=62–80}}</ref> with the remainder being one of the other types described below.

Crossword clues are generally consistent with the solutions. For instance, clues and their solutions should always agree in tense, number, and degree.<ref>D. S. MacNutt with A. Robins, ''Ximenes on the art of the crossword'', Methuen & Co Ltd, London (1966) p. 49.</ref> If a clue is in the past tense, so is the answer: thus "Traveled on horseback" would be a valid clue for the solution ''RODE'', but not for ''RIDE''. Similarly, "Family members" would be a valid clue for ''AUNTS'' but not ''UNCLE'', while "More joyful" could clue ''HAPPIER'' but not ''HAPPIEST''.

==== Capitalization ====
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2020}}
Capitalization of answer letters is conventionally ignored; crossword puzzles are typically filled in, and their answer sheets published, in [[all caps]]. This ensures a [[proper name]] can have its initial [[capitalization|capital]] letter checked with a non-capitalizable letter in the intersecting clue.

Some clue examples:
* Fill-in-the-blank clues are often the easiest in a puzzle and a good place to start solving, e.g., "_____ [[Anne Boleyn|Boleyn]]" = ''ANNE''.
* A question mark at the end of clue usually signals that the clue/answer combination involves some sort of pun or wordplay, e.g., "Grateful?" = ''ASHES'', since a grate might be full of them.
* Most widely distributed American crosswords today (e.g., ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'', ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', ''[[USA Today]]'', etc.) also contain colloquial answers, i.e., entries in the puzzle grid that try to replicate everyday colloquial language. In such a puzzle one might see phrases such as ''WHAT'S UP'', ''AS IF'', or ''WHADDYA WANT''.

====Abbreviations====
{{Main|Crossword abbreviations}}
The constraints of the American-style grid (in which every letter is checked) often require a fair number of answers not to be dictionary words. As a result, the following ways to clue abbreviations and other non-words, although they can be found in "straight" British crosswords, are much more common in American ones:
* Abbreviations, the use of a foreign language, variant spellings, or other unusual word tricks are indicated in the clue. A crossword creator might choose to clue the answer ''SEN'' (as in the abbreviation for "senator") as "Washington bigwig: Abbr." or "Member of Cong.", with the abbreviation in the clue indicating that the answer is to be similarly abbreviated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crosswordhobbyist.com/how-to-make-a-crossword-puzzle|title=How to Make a Crossword Puzzle|website=crosswordhobbyist.com}}</ref> The use of "Var." indicates the answer is a variant spelling (e.g., ''EMEER'' instead of ''EMIR''), while the use of foreign language or a foreign place name within the clue indicates that the answer is also in a foreign language. For example, ''ETE'' (''[[wikt:été|été]]'', French for "summer") might be clued as "Summer, in the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]". ''[[Rome|ROMA]]'' could be clued as "Italia's capital", whereas the clue "[[Italy]]'s capital" would indicate the English spelling ''[[Rome]]''.
* The eight possible abbreviations for a [[points of the compass|position on a compass]], e.g., ''NNW'' (north-northwest) or ''ESE'' (east-southeast), occur with some frequency. They can be clued as simply "Compass point", where the desired answer is determined by a combination of [[logic]]—since the third letter can be only E or W, and the second letter can be only N or S—and a process of elimination using checks. Alternatively, compass point answers are more frequently clued as "XXX to YYY direction", where XXX and YYY are two place names. For example, ''SSW'' might be clued as "New York to Washington DC dir". Similarly, a clue such as "Right on the map" means ''EAST''. A clue could also consist of objects that point a direction, e.g., "[[weather vane|vane]] dir." or "[[windsock]] dir.".
* [[Roman numerals]], and arithmetic involving them, frequently appear as well; the clue "IV times III" (4×3) would yield ''XII'' (12).
* In addition, partial answers are allowed in American-style crosswords, where the answer represents part of a longer phrase. For example, the clue "Mind your _____ Qs" gives the answer ''PSAND'' (Ps and).
* Non-dictionary phrases are also allowed in answers. Thus, the clue "Mocked" could result in the grid entry ''LAUGHED AT''.

==== Themes ====
Many American crossword puzzles feature a "theme" consisting of a number of long entries (generally three to five in a standard 15×15-square "weekday-size" puzzle) that share some relationship, type of pun, or other element in common. As an example, the ''New York Times'' crossword of April 26, 2005 by Sarah Keller, edited by [[Will Shortz]], featured five themed entries ending in the different parts of a tree: ''SQUAREROOT'', ''TABLELEAF'', ''WARDROBETRUNK'', ''BRAINSTEM'', and ''BANKBRANCH''.

The above is an example of a category theme, where the theme elements are all members of the same set. Other types of themes include:
* Quote themes, featuring a famous quote broken up into parts to fit in the grid (and usually clued as "Quote, part 1", "Quote, part 2", etc.)
* Rebus themes, where multiple letters or even symbols occupy a single square in the puzzle (e.g., ''BERMUDA''Δ)
* Addition themes, where theme entries are created by adding a letter, letters, or word(s) to an existing word or phrase. For example, "Crucial pool shot?" = ''CRITICAL MASSE'' (formed by taking the phrase "[[critical mass]]" and adding an "e" on the end. All the theme entries in a given puzzle must be formed by the same process (so another entry might be "Greco-Roman buddy?" = ''WRESTLING MATE''—"wrestling mat" with an "e" added on). An example of a multiple-letter addition (and one that does not occur at the end of the entry) might be "Crazy about kitchen storage?" = ''CABINET FEVER'' (derived from "[[cabin fever]]").<ref name=Themes>{{cite web|title=Identified theme. types|url=http://www.cruciverb.com/index.php?action=ezportal;sa=page;p=70|publisher=Cruciverb.com|access-date=5 March 2013}}</ref>
* Subtraction themes, the reverse of the above, where letters are removed to make a new word or phrase.<ref name=Themes />
* Compound themes, where the starts or ends of the theme entries can all precede or follow another word, which is given elsewhere in the puzzle. For example, a puzzle with theme entries that begin with ''PAPER'', ''BALL'', and ''WATER'' and elsewhere in the puzzle, the word ''BOY'' clued as "Word that can follow the start of [theme entries]".<ref name=Themes />
* Anniversary or tribute themes, commemorating a specific person, place, or event. For example, on October 7, 2011 ''The New York Times'' crossword commemorated the life of Apple CEO [[Steve Jobs]] who had died on October 5. Theme entries related to Jobs' life included ''[[Macintosh|MACINTOSH]]'', ''[[Pixar|PIXAR]]'', ''[[Think Different|THINK DIFFERENT]]'', ''CREATIVE GENIUS'', ''STEVE JOBS'', and ''[[Apple Inc.|APPLE]]''.<ref name=Themes /><ref>{{cite web|last=Der|first=Kevin G|title=New York Times crossword of October 7, 2011|url=http://www.xwordinfo.com/Crossword?date=10/7/2011|publisher=XWordInfo.com|access-date=5 March 2013}}</ref>
* Synonym themes, where the theme entries all contain synonyms, e.g., a ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' puzzle featuring a set of theme entries that contain the words ''RAVEN'', ''[[wikt:jet|JET]]'', ''[[wikt:ebony|EBONY]]'', and ''[[wikt:sable|SABLE]]'', all synonyms for "black"<ref name=Themes />
* Numerous other types have been identified, including [[spoonerism]]s, poems, shifted letters, rhyming phrases, puns, homophones, and combinations of two or more of other types of themes.<ref name=Themes />

The [[Simon & Schuster]] Crossword Puzzle Series has published many unusual themed crosswords. "Rosetta Stone", by Sam Bellotto Jr., incorporates a [[Caesar cipher]] cryptogram as the theme; the key to breaking the cipher is the answer to 1 across. Another unusual theme requires the solver to use the answer to a clue as another clue. The answer to ''that'' clue is the real solution.

==== Indirect clues ====
{{original research section|date=March 2021}}
Many puzzles feature clues involving wordplay which are to be taken metaphorically or in some sense other than their literal meaning, requiring some form of [[lateral thinking]]. Depending on the puzzle creator or the editor, this might be represented either with a question mark at the end of the clue or with a modifier such as "maybe" or "perhaps". In more difficult puzzles, the indicator may be omitted, increasing ambiguity between a literal meaning and a wordplay meaning. Examples:
* "Half a dance" could clue ''CAN'' (half of ''CANCAN'') or ''CHA'' (half of ''CHACHA'').
* If taken literally, "Start of spring" could clue ''MAR'' (for March), but it could also clue ''ESS'', the spelled-out form of the starting letter ''S''.
* "Nice summer?" clues ''ETE'', summer in [[Nice, France]] (''[[wikt:été|été]]'' being French for "summer"), rather than a nice (pleasant) summer. This clue also takes advantage of the fact that in American-style crosswords, the initial letter of a clue is always capitalized, whether or not it is a proper noun. In this clue, the initial capitalization further obscures whether the clue is referring to "nice" as in "pleasant" or "Nice" as in the French city.
* "Pay addition", taken literally, clues ''BONUS''. When taken as an indirect clue, however, it could also clue ''OLA'' (the ''addition'' of ''-ola'' to ''pay-'' results in ''PAYOLA'').

==== Other clue variations ====
Any type of puzzle may contain ''cross-references'', where the answer to one clue forms part of another clue, in which it is referred to by number and direction. E.g., a puzzle might have 1-across clued as "Central character in The Lord of the Rings" = ''FRODO'', with 17-down clued as "Precious object for 1-Across" = ''RING''.

When an answer is composed of multiple or hyphenated words, some crosswords (especially in Britain) indicate the structure of the answer. For example, "(3,5)" after a clue indicates that the answer is composed of a three-letter word followed by a five-letter word. Most American-style crosswords do not provide this information.

=== Metapuzzles ===
Some crossword designers have started including a metapuzzle, or "meta" for short, a second puzzle within the completed puzzle.<ref>{{cite web|title=Matt Gaffney's Weekly Crossword Contest Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://xwordcontest.com/faq|last=Gaffney|first=Matt|access-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> After the player has correctly solved the crossword puzzle in the usual fashion, the solution forms the basis of a second puzzle. The designer usually includes a hint to the metapuzzle. For instance, the puzzle ''Eight Isn't Enough'' by Matt Gaffney gives the clue "This week's contest answer is a three-word phrase whose second word is 'or'."<ref>{{cite web |title=Eight Isn't Enough |url=http://xwordcontest.com/2015/08/mgwcc-376-friday-august-14th-2015-eight-isnt-enough.html |first=Matt |last=Gaffney |date=14 August 2015 |access-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> The crossword solution includes the entries "BROUGHT TO NAUGHT", "MIGHT MAKES RIGHT", "CAUGHT A STRAIGHT", and "HEIGHT AND WEIGHT", which are all three-word phrases with two words ending in -ght. The solution to the meta is a similar phrase in which the middle word is "or": "FIGHT OR FLIGHT".

Since September 2015, the [[Wall Street Journal]] Friday crossword has featured a crossword contest metapuzzle, with the prize of a WSJ mug going to a reader randomly chosen from among those submitting the correct answer.<ref name="WSJContestCrosswords101">{{cite web |last1=Gaffney |first1=Matt |title=Contest Crosswords 101 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/contest-crosswords-101-how-to-solve-puzzles-11625757841 |website=The Wall Street Journal |publisher=Dow Jones & Company, Inc. |access-date=18 Feb 2024}}</ref><ref name="XWordMugglesForum_Past">{{cite web |last1=PastWSJCCsolutions |title=Past WSJ Crossword Contests & Solutions |url=https://www.xword-muggles.com/viewtopic.php?t=277 |website=XWord Muggles Forum |access-date=18 Feb 2024}}</ref>

=== Schrödinger or quantum puzzles ===
Some puzzle grids contain more than one correct answer for the same set of clues. These are called Schrödinger or quantum puzzles, alluding to the [[Schrödinger's Cat]] [[thought experiment]] in [[quantum physics]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://crosswordfiend.com/2012/05/09/thursday-51012/#comment-147469|title=Comment, Thursday, May 9, 2012|last=Pahk|first=Joon|date=2012-05-09|website=Diary of a Crossword Fiend|access-date=2019-11-25}}</ref> Schrödinger puzzles have frequently been published in venues including ''Fireball Crosswords'' and ''The American Values Club Crosswords'', and at least ten have appeared in ''The New York Times'' since the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Quantum|url=http://www.xwordinfo.com/Quantum|website=xwordinfo.com}}</ref> [[File:The New York Times crossword Clinton-Bob Dole puzzle 1996.gif|thumb|right|550px|Clinton/Bob Dole puzzle from 1996]] The daily ''New York Times'' puzzle for November 5, 1996, by [[Jeremiah Farrell]], had a clue for 39 across that read "Lead story in tomorrow's newspaper, with 43 Across (!)."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Farrell|first1=Jeremiah|title=New York Times puzzle of Tuesday, November 5, 1996|url=http://www.xwordinfo.com/Crossword?date=11/5/1996|website=xwordinfo.com|access-date=16 January 2017}}</ref> The answer for 43 across was ELECTED; depending on the outcome of that day's [[1996 United States presidential election|Presidential Election]], the answer for 39 across would have been correct with either [[Bill Clinton|CLINTON]] or [[Bob Dole|BOBDOLE]], as would each of the corresponding down answers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Amende|first1=Coral|title=The Crossword Obsession|url=https://archive.org/details/crosswordobsessi00amen|url-access=registration|date=2001|publisher=Berkley Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0756790868}}</ref> On September 1, 2016, the daily ''New York Times'' puzzle by Ben Tausig had four squares which led to correct answers reading both across and down if solvers entered either "M" or "F".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tausig|first1=Ben|title=New York Times puzzle of Thursday, September 1, 2016|url=http://www.xwordinfo.com/Crossword?date=9/1/2016|website=xwordinfo.com|access-date=16 January 2017}}</ref> The puzzle's theme, [[Gender fluid|GENDERFLUID]], was revealed at 37 across in the center of the puzzle: "Having a variable identity, as suggested by four squares in this puzzle."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Roeder|first1=Oliver|title=One of the Most Important Crosswords in New York Times History|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/gaming/2016/09/ben_tausig_s_new_york_times_puzzle_is_one_of_history_s_most_important_crosswords.html|website=Slate|date=September 2016 |access-date=16 January 2017}}</ref>

== Cryptic crosswords ==
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2020}}
{{Main|Cryptic crossword}}
[[Image:CrosswordUK.svg|thumb|A lattice-style grid common for cryptic crosswords]]
In cryptic crosswords, the clues are puzzles in themselves. A typical clue contains both a definition at the beginning or end of the clue and wordplay, which provides a way to manufacture the word indicated by the definition, and which may not parse logically. Cryptics usually give the length of their answers in parentheses after the clue, which is especially useful with multi-word answers. Certain signs indicate different forms of wordplay. Solving cryptics is harder to learn than standard crosswords, as learning to interpret the different types of cryptic clues can take some practice. In [[Great Britain]] and throughout much of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], cryptics of varying degrees of difficulty are featured in many newspapers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Crosswords |url=https://www.thetimes.com/puzzles/crossword |website= [[The Times]] |publisher=Times Media Limited |access-date=11 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Crosswords |url=https://www.theguardian.com/crosswords |website=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=Guardian News & Media Limited |access-date=11 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Daily Games |url=https://games.dailymail.co.uk/category/daily |website=[[Daily Mail]] |access-date=11 July 2024}}</ref>

The first crosswords with strictly cryptic clues appeared in the 1920s, pioneered by Edward Powys Mathers. He established the principle of cryptic crossword clues.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cryptic crosswords: A puzzling British obsession|url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20210302-cryptic-crosswords-a-puzzling-british-obsession|access-date=2021-10-31|website=www.bbc.com|language=en}}</ref> Cryptic crossword clues consist typically of a definition and some type of word play. Cryptic crossword clues need to be viewed two ways. One is a surface reading and one a hidden meaning.<ref name=":3">Hardcastle, D. (n.d.). ''Cryptic crossword clues: Generating text with hidden meaning''.</ref> The surface reading is the basic reading of the clue to look for key words and how those words are constructed in the clue. The second way is the hidden meaning. This can be a double definition, an anagram, homophone, or words backwards. There are eight main types of clues in cryptic crosswords.<ref name=":3" />

=== Types of cryptic clues ===
There are several types of wordplay used in cryptics. One is straightforward definition substitution using parts of a word. For example, in one puzzle by Mel Taub, the answer ''IMPORTANT'' is given the clue "To bring worker into the country may prove significant". The explanation is that to ''import'' means "to bring into the country", the "worker" is a worker ''ant'', and "significant" means ''important''. Here, "significant" is the straight definition (appearing here at the end of the clue), "to bring worker into the country" is the wordplay definition, and "may prove" serves to link the two. Note that in a cryptic clue, there is almost always only one answer that fits both the definition and the wordplay, so that when one sees the answer, one knows that it is the right answer—although it can sometimes be a challenge to figure out ''why'' it is the right answer. A good cryptic clue should provide a fair and exact definition of the answer, while at the same time being deliberately misleading.

Another type of wordplay used in cryptics is the use of [[homophone]]s. For example, the clue "A few, we hear, add up (3)" is the clue for ''SUM''. The straight definition is "add up", meaning "totalize". The solver must guess that "we hear" indicates a [[homophone]], and so a homophone of a synonym of "A few" ("some") is the answer. Other words relating to sound or hearing can be used to signal the presence of a homophone clue (e.g., "aloud", "audibly", "in conversation", etc.).

The double meaning is commonly used as another form of wordplay. For example, "Cat's tongue (7)" is solved by ''PERSIAN'', since this is a type of cat, as well as a tongue, or language. This is the only type of cryptic clue without wordplay—both parts of the clue are a straight definition.

Cryptics often include [[anagram]]s, as well. For example, in "Slipped a disc – it's cruel (8)" an anagram is indicated by "slipped", with the definition to aim for being "cruel". Ignoring all punctuation, "a disc – it's" produces "SADISTIC". [[Colin Dexter]] advised that "Usually the indicator will be an adjective (drunk, fancy, unusual, and so on); an adverb (badly, excitedly, unexpectedly); a past participle (altered, broken, jumbled) or indeed any phrase giving a similar meaning."<ref name="Dexter how to - Anagrams">{{cite news |last1=Dexter |first1=Colin |author1-link=Colin Dexter |title=How to solve crosswords |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2005/sep/19/features11.g21 |access-date=11 July 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=19 Sep 2005}}</ref>

Embedded words are another common trick in cryptics. The clue "Bigotry aside, I'd take him (9)" is solved by ''APARTHEID''. The straight definition is "bigotry", and the wordplay explains itself, indicated by the word "take" (since one word "takes" another): "aside" means APART and I'd is simply ID, so APART and ID "take" HE (which is, in cryptic crossword usage, a perfectly good synonym for "him"). The answer could be elucidated as APART(HE)ID.

Another common clue type is the "hidden clue" or "container", where the answer is hidden in the text of the clue itself. For example, "Made a dug-out, buried, and passed away (4)" is solved by ''DEAD''. The answer is written in the clue: "maDE A Dug-out". "Buried" indicates that the answer is embedded within the clue.

There are numerous other forms of wordplay found in cryptic clues. Backwards words can be indicated by words like "climbing", "retreating", or "ascending" (depending on whether it is an across clue or a down clue) or by directional indicators such as "going North" (meaning upwards) or "West" (right-to-left); letters can be replaced or removed with indicators such as "nothing rather than excellence" (meaning replace E in a word with O); the letter ''I'' can be indicated by "me" or "one;" the letter ''O'' can be indicated by "nought", "nothing", "zero", or "a ring" (since it visually resembles one); the letter ''X'' might be clued as "a cross", or "ten" (as in the [[Roman numeral]]), or "an illiterate's signature", or "sounds like your old flame" (homophone for "ex"). "Senselessness" is solved by "e", because "e" is what remains after removing (less) "ness" from "sense".

With the different types of wordplay and definition possibilities, the composer of a cryptic puzzle is presented with many different possible ways to clue a given answer. Most desirable are clues that are clean but deceptive, with a smooth ''surface reading'' (that is, the resulting clue looks as natural a phrase as possible). The [[Usenet]] newsgroup ''rec.puzzles.crosswords'' has a number of clueing competitions where contestants all submit clues for the same word and a judge picks the best one.

In principle, each cryptic clue is usually sufficient to define its answer uniquely, so it should be possible to answer each clue without use of the grid. In practice, the use of checks is an important aid to the solver.

== Other variants ==
These are common crossword variants that vary more from a regular crossword than just an unusual grid shape or unusual clues; these crossword variants may be based on different solving principles and require a different solving skill set.

=== Cipher crosswords ===
Cipher crosswords were invented in Germany in the 19th century. Published under various trade names (including Code Breakers, Code Crackers, and Kaidoku), and not to be confused with cryptic crosswords (ciphertext puzzles are commonly known as [[cryptogram]]s), a cipher crossword replaces the clues for each entry with clues for each white cell of the grid—an integer from 1 to 26 inclusive is printed in the corner of each. The objective, as any other crossword, is to determine the proper letter for each cell; in a cipher crossword, the 26 numbers serve as a [[cipher]] for those letters: cells that share matching numbers are filled with matching letters, and no two numbers stand for the same letter. All resultant entries must be valid words. Usually, at least one number's letter is given at the outset. English-language cipher crosswords are nearly always [[pangram]]matic (all letters of the alphabet appear in the solution). As these puzzles are closer to codes than quizzes, they require a different skillset; many basic cryptographic techniques, such as determining likely vowels, are key to solving these. Given their pangrammaticity, a frequent start point is locating where 'Q' and 'U' must appear.

=== Diagramless crosswords ===
In a diagramless crossword, often called a diagramless for short or, in the UK, a skeleton crossword or carte blanche, the grid offers overall dimensions, but the locations of most of the clue numbers and shaded squares are unspecified. A solver must deduce not only the answers to individual clues, but how to fit together partially built-up clumps of answers into larger clumps with properly set shaded squares. Some of these puzzles follow the traditional symmetry rule, others have left-right mirror symmetry, and others have greater levels of symmetry or outlines suggesting other shapes. If the symmetry of the grid is given, the solver can use it to his/her advantage.

=== Fill-in crosswords ===
{{Main|Fill-In (puzzle)}}

A fill-in crossword (also known as crusadex or cruzadex) features a grid and the full list of words to be entered in that grid, but does not give explicit clues for where each word goes. The challenge is figuring out how to integrate the list of words together within the grid so that all intersections of words are valid. Fill-in crosswords may often have longer word length than regular crosswords to make the crossword easier to solve, and symmetry is often disregarded. Fitting together several long words is easier than fitting together several short words because there are fewer possibilities for how the long words intersect together. These types of crosswords are also used to demonstrate [[artificial intelligence]] abilities, such as finding solutions to the puzzle based on a set of determined [[constraint satisfaction problem|constraints]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Poole|first1=David L.|last2=Mackworth|first2=Alan K.|date=2010|title=Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents|location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-51900-7}}</ref>

=== Cross-figures ===
{{Main|Cross-figure}}
A cross-figure or crossnumber is the numerical analogy of a crossword, in which the solutions to the clues are numbers instead of words. Clues are usually [[arithmetic]]al expressions, but can also be [[general knowledge]] clues to which the answer is a number or year. There are also numerical fill-in crosswords.

=== Acrostic puzzles ===
{{Main|Acrostic (puzzle)}}

An acrostic is a type of word puzzle, in eponymous [[acrostic]] form, that typically consists of two parts. The first is a set of lettered clues, each of which has numbered blanks representing the letters of the answer. The second part is a long series of numbered blanks and spaces, representing a quotation or other text, into which the answers for the clues fit. In most forms of the puzzle, the first letters of each correct clue answer, read in order from clue A on down the list, will spell out the author of the quote and the title of the work it is taken from; this can be used as an additional solving aid.

===Arroword===

The arroword is a variant of a crossword that does not have as many black squares as a true crossword, but has arrows inside the grid, with clues preceding the arrows. It has been called the most popular word puzzle in many [[European countries]], and is often called the Scandinavian crossword, as it is believed to have originated in Sweden.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puzzler.com/Puzzles-encyclopedia/Arroword.htm |title=Arroword |publisher=puzzler.com |access-date=May 17, 2011 }}</ref>

== History ==
[[Image:First crossword.png|thumb|upright|Recreation of [[Arthur Wynne]]'s original crossword puzzle from December 21, 1913]]
The phrase "cross word puzzle" was first written in 1862 by ''[[Our Young Folks]]'' in the United States. Crossword-like puzzles, for example Double Diamond Puzzles, appeared in the magazine ''[[St. Nicholas (magazine)|St. Nicholas]]'', published since 1873.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.childrenslibrary.org/library/books/d/dodstni_00362329/book/page0066.html |title=St. Nicholas. September 1875, page 66. |publisher=Childrenslibrary.org |access-date=2013-11-26}}</ref> Another crossword puzzle appeared on September 14, 1890, in the Italian magazine ''Il Secolo Illustrato della Domenica''. It was designed by Giuseppe Airoldi and titled "''Per passare il tempo''" ("To pass the time"). Airoldi's puzzle was a four-by-four grid with no shaded squares; it included horizontal and vertical clues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crucienigmi.it/Storia_delle_parole_crociate.htm |title=Storia delle parole crociate e del cruciverba |language=it |publisher=Crucienigmi |access-date=August 28, 2009 }}</ref>

Crosswords in England during the 19th century were of an elementary kind, apparently derived from the [[word square]], a group of words arranged so the letters read alike vertically and horizontally, and printed in children's puzzle books and various periodicals.

On December 21, 1913, [[Arthur Wynne]], a [[journalist]] born in [[Liverpool]], England, published a "word-cross" puzzle in the ''[[New York World]]'' that embodied most of the features of the modern genre. This puzzle is frequently cited as the first crossword puzzle, and Wynne as the inventor. An illustrator later reversed the "word-cross" name to "cross-word".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/crosswordhome.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030302082052/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/crosswordhome.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=2003-03-02 | title=The Crossword Puzzle | publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] | date=August 1997 | access-date=2010-12-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/a/crossword.htm | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717035047/http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/a/crossword.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=July 17, 2012 | title=The History of Crossword Puzzles | first=Mary | last=Bellis | publisher=[[About.com]] | access-date=2010-12-18 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/crossword-became-american-pastime-180973558/|title=How the Crossword Became an American Pastime|last=Amlen|first=Deb|website=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |language=en|access-date=2020-01-06}}</ref>

Crossword puzzles became a regular weekly feature in the ''New York World'', and spread to other newspapers; the ''[[Pittsburgh Press]]'', for example, was publishing them at least as early as 1916<ref>{{cite news |title=Cross-Word Puzzle|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=djft3U1LymYC&dat=19160611&printsec=frontpage&hl=en|newspaper=[[The Pittsburgh Press]] |date=June 11, 1916}} Comic section's fifth page.</ref> and ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' by 1917.<ref>''The Boston Globe'', April 8, 1917, p. 43 contains a puzzle and a solution to a previous week's puzzle.</ref>

[[File:A crossword fanatic ringing up a doctor in the middle of the Wellcome V0011518.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1925 ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' cartoon about "The Cross-Word Mania". A man phones his doctor in the middle of the night, asking for "the name of a bodily disorder of seven letters, of which the second letter must be 'N'".]]
By the 1920s, the crossword phenomenon was starting to attract notice. In October 1922, newspapers published a comic strip by [[Clare Briggs]] entitled "Movie of a Man Doing the Cross-Word Puzzle", with an enthusiast muttering "87 across 'Northern Sea Bird'!!??!?!!? Hm-m-m starts with an 'M', second letter is 'U' ... I'll look up all the words starting with an 'M-U ...' mus-musi-mur-murd—Hot Dog! Here 'tis! Murre!"<ref>"Movie of a Man Doing the Cross-Word Puzzle", by "Briggs", ''Morning Oregonian'', October 3, 1922, p. 14; also published in several other newspapers.</ref> In 1923 a humorous squib in ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' has a wife ordering her husband to run out and "rescue the papers ... the part I want is blowing down the street." "What is it you're so keen about?" "The Cross-Word Puzzle. Hurry, please, that's a good boy."<ref>"There Goes My Crossword Puzzle, Get Up Please". ''The Boston Daily Globe'', October 1, 1923, p. 7.</ref> In ''[[The New Yorker]]''{{'s}} inaugural issue, from 1925, the "Jottings About Town" section observed, "Judging from the number of solvers in the subway and 'L' trains, the crossword puzzle bids fair to become a fad with New Yorkers."<ref>"Jottings About Town". ''The New Yorker'', February 21, 1925, p. 30.</ref> Also in 1925, the [[New York Public Library]] reported that "The latest craze to strike libraries is the crossword puzzle", and complained that when "the puzzle 'fans' swarm to the dictionaries and encyclopedias so as to drive away readers and students who need these books in their daily work, can there be any doubt of the Library's duty to protect its legitimate readers?"<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=P_4aAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA24 ''Report of the New York Public Library for 1924'']; published by The Library, 1925</ref>

The first book of crossword puzzles was published by [[Simon & Schuster]] in 1924, after a suggestion from co-founder [[Richard L. Simon|Richard Simon's]] aunt. The publisher was initially skeptical that the book would succeed, and only printed a small run at first. The book was promoted with an included pencil, and "This odd-looking book with a pencil attached to it"<ref>{{cite book|title=Only Yesterday|url=https://archive.org/details/onlyyesterdayinf00alle|url-access=registration|author=Frederick Lewis Allen|year=1931|publisher=Harper and Row}}, p. 159 of 1964 Perennial Library paperback reprint</ref> was an instant hit, leading crossword puzzles to become a craze of 1924. To help promote its books, Simon & Schuster also founded the Amateur Cross Word Puzzle League of America, which began the process of developing standards for puzzle design.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web| url=https://crosswordanswers911.net/meet-the-faces-behind-your-favorite-crossword-puzzles-worlds-best-crossword-writers/ |title= Best crossword puzzles Writers }} Sunday, 22 August 2021</ref>

Not all of the attention drawn to the crossword puzzle fad was positive: A 1924 editorial in ''[[The New York Times]]'' complained of the "sinful waste in the utterly futile finding of words the letters of which will fit into a prearranged pattern, more or less complex. This is not a game at all, and it hardly can be called a sport ... [solvers] get nothing out of it except a primitive form of mental exercise, and success or failure in any given attempt is equally irrelevant to mental development."<ref>"Topics of the Times". ''The New York Times'', November 17, 1924, p. 18</ref> A clergyman called the working of crossword puzzles "the mark of a childish mentality" and said, "There is no use for persons to pretend that working one of the puzzles carries any intellectual value with it."<ref>"Condemns Cross-Word Fad". ''The New York Times'', December 23, 1924, p. 17</ref> However, another wrote a complete ''Bible Cross-Word Puzzle Book''. Also in 1925, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine noted that nine Manhattan dailies and fourteen other big newspapers were carrying crosswords, and quoted opposing views as to whether "This crossword craze will positively end by June!" or "The crossword puzzle is here to stay!"<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,719730,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122234751/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,719730,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 22, 2009|title=Barometer|date=January 5, 1925|access-date=2008-08-05|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> In 1925, ''The New York Times'' noted, with approval, a scathing critique of crosswords by ''[[The New Republic]]''; but concluded that "Fortunately, the question of whether the puzzles are beneficial or harmful is in no urgent need of an answer. The craze evidently is dying out fast and in a few months it will be forgotten."<ref>Topics of the Times: Sees Harm, Not Education" ''The New York Times'', March 10, 1925, p. 20,</ref> and in 1929 declared, "The cross-word puzzle, it seems, has gone the way of all fads."<ref>"All About the Insidious Game of Anagrams", ''The New York Times'', December 29, 1929, p. BR3</ref> In 1930, a correspondent noted that "Together with ''[[The Times]]'' of London, yours is the only journal of prominence that has never succumbed to the lure of the cross-word puzzle" and said that "The craze—the fad—stage has passed, but there are still people numbering it to the millions who look for their daily cross-word puzzle as regularly as for the weather predictions."<ref>Richard H. (1930), "The Lure of the Puzzle". ''The New York Times'', February 4, 1930, p. 20</ref>

The term "crossword" first appeared in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' in 1933.<ref>[http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/44952?redirectedFrom=crossword& "crossword"]. ''OED Online''. March 2017. Oxford University Press. (accessed April 28, 2017).</ref>

''The New York Times'' finally began to publish a crossword puzzle on 15 February 1942, spurred on by the idea that the puzzle could be a welcome distraction from the harsh news of [[World War II]]. ''The New York Times''{{'s}} first puzzle editor was [[Margaret Farrar|Margaret Petherbridge Farrar]], who was editor from 1942 to 1969.<ref name=":2" /> She was succeeded by [[Will Weng]], who was succeeded by [[Eugene T. Maleska]]. Since 1993, they have been edited by [[Will Shortz]], the ''Times''{{'}} fourth crossword editor.

[[Simon & Schuster]] continues to publish the ''Crossword Puzzle Book Series'' books that it began in 1924, currently under the editorship of John M. Samson. The original series ended in 2007 after 258 volumes. Since 2008, these books are now in the Mega series, appearing three times per year and each featuring 300 puzzles.

The [[cryptic crossword]] variation originated in Britain in the mid-1920s. [[Edward Powys Mathers]] set the first crossword to use entirely cryptic clues, originally just for the enjoyment of his friends, one of whom, without permission, submitted it to the Saturday ''[[The Westminster Gazette|Westminster Gazette]]''. The editors approached Mathers for more puzzles, and published eleven more of these novel cryptic crosswords. Upon the demise of the Saturday ''Westminster'', Mathers began setting puzzles for ''[[The Observer]]'', beginning a series of 670 cryptic crosswords, which ended only with Mathers' death in 1939.<ref name=StrangeWorld>{{cite web|last1=Millington|first1=Roger|title=The Strange World of the Crossword (excerpt)|access-date=18 Feb 2024|url=http://www.crossword.org.uk/mathers.htm}}</ref> Mathers set his puzzles under the pen name of [[Tomas de Torquemada|Torquemada]], after the first [[Grand Inquisitor]] of the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. His successors as ''The Observer'' cryptic crossword setter followed his example. [[Derrick Somerset Macnutt]], who took over at Mather's death, chose the pen name "Ximenes," an Anglicization of the surname of [[Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros]], a Grand Inquisitor in Castile. The current ''Observer'' cryptic compiler, [[Jonathan Crowther]] sets under the name "[[Azed]]," a reversal of [[Diego de Deza|Deva]], another Grand Inquisitor. Cryptic crosswords are popular in Britain, some British Commonwealth nations, and in a few other countries. Many British newspapers publish both standard and cryptic crosswords.

The cryptic crossword was imported to the US in 1968 by composer and lyricist [[Stephen Sondheim]] in the [[New York (magazine)|''New York'' magazine]], but never became widespread. From 1977 to 2006, ''[[The Atlantic]]'' regularly featured a cryptic crossword "Puzzler" by the husband and wife team of [[Emily Cox and Henry Rathvon]]. From 2006 to 2009, ''The Atlantic'' puzzler appeared only online. In 2010, Cox and Rathvon's efforts began to appear monthly in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''.<ref name="coxrathvon.com">{{cite web |last1=Cox |first1=Emily |last2=Rathvon |first2=Henry |title=Cryptic Puzzles by Emily Cox & Henry Rathvon |url=https://coxrathvon.com |website=Cox Rathvon (Hex) |access-date=17 Feb 2024}}</ref> The pair retired at the end of 2023, but the WSJ continues to offer a cryptic crossword each month.

In the [[United Kingdom]], the ''[[Sunday Express]]'' was the first newspaper to publish a crossword on November 2, 1924, a Wynne puzzle adapted for the UK. The first crossword in Britain, according to Tony Augarde in his ''Oxford Guide to Word Games'' (1984), was in ''[[Pearson's Magazine]]'' for February 1922.
[[File:Bryant Park Coffee and Crosswords (73780).jpg|thumb|Finalists competing in a crossword competition in New York City in 2019]]

The 2006 documentary ''[[Wordplay (film)|Wordplay]]'', about enthusiasts of ''The New York Times''{{'s}} puzzle, increased public interest in crosswords. It highlighted attendees of Will Shortz's American Crossword Puzzle Tournament and other notable crossword enthusiasts, including former US president [[Bill Clinton]] and comedian [[Jon Stewart]].<ref name=":2" />

=== World War II ===
{{main|D-Day Daily Telegraph crossword security alarm}}
In 1944, Allied security officers were disturbed by the appearance, in a series of crosswords in ''The Daily Telegraph'', of words that were secret code names for military operations planned as part of [[Operation Overlord]].

Some cryptologists for [[Bletchley Park]] were selected after doing well in a crossword-solving competition.<ref>''The Daily Telegraph – 80 Years of Cryptic Crosswords'', p. 44.</ref>

=== Records ===
According to ''[[Guinness World Records]]'', May 15, 2007, the most prolific crossword compiler is [[Roger Squires]] of [[Ironbridge]], [[Shropshire]], UK. On May 14, 2007, he published his 66,666th crossword,<ref>(Pat-Ella) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070516041322/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/05/14/nclue14.xml "Crossword setter hits puzzling landmark"], Richard Savill, ''The Daily Telegraph'', May 15, 2007</ref> equivalent to 2 million clues. He is one of only four setters to have provided cryptic puzzles to ''[[The Times]]'', ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'', the ''[[Financial Times]]'' and ''[[The Independent]]''. He also holds the record for the longest word ever used in a published crossword—the 58-letter Welsh town [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]] clued as an anagram.

Enthusiasts have compiled a number of record-setting achievements in ''[[New York Times]]'' and other venues.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.xwordinfo.com/ |title=XWord Info |access-date=2020-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101085646/https://www.xwordinfo.com/ |archive-date=2020-01-01}}</ref>
* The lowest word count in a published weekday-size 15x15 puzzle is the June 29, 2013 ''The New York Times'' crossword by Joe Krozel, with just 50 words.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.xwordinfo.com/Crossword?date=6/29/2013|title=New York Times, Saturday, June 29, 2013|publisher=Xwordinfo.com |access-date=2022-04-29}}</ref>
* The fewest shaded squares in a 15x15 American crossword is 17 (leaving 208 white spaces), set by the July 27, 2012 ''Times'' crossword by Joe Krozel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xwordinfo.com/Crossword?date=7/27/2012 |title=Friday, July 27, 2012 crossword by Joe Krozel |publisher=Xwordinfo.com |date=2012-07-27 |access-date=2013-11-26}}</ref>
* The record for most crosswords published in ''The New York Times'' is held by [[Manny Nosowsky]], who has had 241 puzzles in that outlet.
* A N Prahlada Rao, crossword constructor from India, has recorded in the ''[[Limca Book of Records]]'' in 2016 for constructing highest number of crosswords in Indian regional languages. In 2019 his name has mentioned in the ''Kalam Book of World Records''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Most Crosswords Created (Regional Language)|url=https://www.coca-colaindia.com/stories/most-crosswords-created--regional-language-|access-date=2021-06-28|website=The Coca-Cola Company|language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kalamsworldrecords.com/world-records-2019/|title=World Records 2019 | Kalams World Records}}</ref>

=== Female crossword constructors ===
Women editors such as [[Margaret Farrar]] were influential in the first few decades of puzzle-making, and women constructors such as [[Bernice Gordon]] and [[Elizabeth Gorski]] have each contributed hundreds of puzzles to ''The New York Times''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xwordinfo.com/Thumbs?author=Elizabeth+C.+Gorski|title=Elizabeth C. Gorski|website=xwordinfo.com|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref> However, in recent years the number of women constructors has declined. During the years that [[Will Weng]] and [[Eugene Thomas Maleska|Eugene Maleska]] edited the [[The New York Times crossword puzzle|New York Times crossword]] (1969–1993), women constructors accounted for 35% of puzzles,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://theamericanreader.com/puzzle-trouble-women-and-crosswords-in-the-age-of-autofill/|title=Puzzle Trouble: Women and Crosswords in the Age of Autofill|last=Shechtman|first=Anna|date=2014|website=The American Reader|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.preshortzianpuzzleproject.com/|title=The Pre-Shortzian Puzzle Project|last=Steinberg|first=David|access-date=17 January 2014}}</ref> while during the editorship of [[Will Shortz]] (1993–present), this percentage has gone down, with women constructors (including collaborations) accounting for only 15% of puzzles in both 2014 and 2015, 17% of puzzles published in 2016, 13%—the lowest in the "Shortz Era"—in 2017, and 16% in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.xwordinfo.com/Women|title=Women constructors in the Shortz Era|website=xwordinfo.com|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/puzzling-women/|title=Puzzling Women: Where are the female constructors?|last1=Kosman|first1=Joshua|last2=Picciotto|first2=Henry|date=2014|website=thenation.com|access-date=18 January 2017|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202074502/https://www.thenation.com/article/puzzling-women/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Several reasons have been given for the decline in women constructors. One explanation is that the gender imbalance in crossword construction is similar to that in related fields, such as [[Women in journalism|journalism]], and that more [[Freelancer|freelance]] male constructors than females submit puzzles on spec to ''The New York Times'' and other outlets.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tausig |first=Ben |date=21 August 2013 |title=The Crossword Puzzle: Where'd the Women Go? |url=https://thehairpin.com/the-crossword-puzzle-whered-the-women-go-c25dee229b3f |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422010202/https://thehairpin.com/the-crossword-puzzle-whered-the-women-go-c25dee229b3f#.ufszwy6ib |archive-date=22 April 2017 |access-date=17 January 2017 |website=[[The Hairpin]]}}</ref> Another explanation is that computer-assisted construction and the increased influence of computational approaches in generating word lists may be making crossword construction more like [[Women in STEM fields|STEM fields in which women are underrepresented for a number of factors]].<ref name=":0" /> However, it has also been argued that this explanation risks propagating myths about gender and technology.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ravishly.com/ladies-we-love/elizabeth-gorski-new-york-times-crossword-creator|title=Elizabeth Gorski: New York Times Crossword Creator|date=2014|website=Ravishly.com|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref> Some have argued that the relative absence of women constructors and editors has had an influence on the content of the puzzles themselves, and that clues and entries can be insensitive regarding language related to gender and race.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2016/06/28/the_new_york_times_crossword_can_be_clueless_about_race_and_gender.html|title=Why Is the New York Times Crossword So Clueless About Race and Gender?|last=Graham|first=Ruth|date=2016|website=Slate.com|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theoutline.com/post/1651/the-nyt-crossword-is-old-and-kind-of-racist|title=The NYT Crossword Is Old and Kind Of Racist|last=Jeffries|first=Adrianne|date=2017|website=The Outline|access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref> [[Margaret Irvine]] suggested that lack of confidence was a barrier.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Alan Connor |author1-link=Alan Connor |title=Crossword blog: meet the setter – Nutmeg |url=https://www.theguardian.com/crosswords/crossword-blog/2017/apr/10/crossword-blog-meet-the-setter-nutmeg |website=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=18 July 2023 |date=10 April 2017}}</ref> Several approaches have been suggested to develop more women in the field, including mentoring novice women constructors and encouraging women constructors to publish their puzzles independently.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://crosswordfiend.com/2014/03/06/women-and-crossword-construction-part-1-why-the-underrepresentation/|title=Women and Crossword Construction, Part 1: Why the underrepresentation?|last=Reynaldo|first=Amy|date=2014|website=Diary of a Crossword Fiend|access-date=17 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

Crossword venues other than ''[[New York Times]]'' have recently published higher percentages of women than that puzzle. In the spring of 2018, Patti Varol and Amy Reynaldo organized and edited a pack of 18 puzzles constructed by women called "Women of Letters".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pattivarol.com/women-of-letters|title=Women of Letters|website=Patti Varol}}</ref> Inspired by this, Laura Braunstein and Tracy Bennett launched ''The Inkubator'', a "twice-monthly subscription service that will publish crosswords constructed by cis women, trans women, and woman-aligned constructors."<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Gavin |first1=Hailey |title=The Inkubator Is on a Mission to Publish More Female Crossword Puzzle Constructors |url=https://slate.com/culture/2018/10/inkubator-aims-to-publish-more-female-crossword-constructors.html |website=Slate.com |date=23 October 2018 |publisher=Slate |access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref> ''The Inkubator'' raised over $30,000 in its initial Kickstarter campaign,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Inkubator – Kickstarter |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/laurabrarian/the-inkubator/description |access-date=16 January 2019}}</ref> and began publishing puzzles on January 17, 2019. A book of 100 puzzles, ''Inkubator Crosswords: 100 Audacious Puzzles by Women and Nonbinary Creators,'' was published in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inkubator Crosswords |url=https://publishing.andrewsmcmeel.com/book/inkubator-crosswords-tracy-bennett/ |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=Andrews McMeel Publishing |language=en-US}}</ref> On February 8, 2023, they announced to subscribers that 2023 would be their final year as a subscription service.<ref>{{Cite web |title=the following announcement recently went to our subscribers: After much careful thought, the Inkubator team has made the decision that 2023 will be our last year as a subscription service + |url=https://twitter.com/InkubatorXWords/status/1625260056475320326 |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=Twitter |language=en}}</ref>

== Non-English languages ==
{{Original research section|date=July 2021}}
Owing to the large number of words ending with a vowel, Italian crossword-makers have perhaps the most difficult task. The right margin and the bottom can be particularly difficult to put together. From such a perspective, Swedish crossword-makers have a far easier task. Especially in the large picture crosswords, both conjugation of verbs and declension of adjectives and nouns are allowed. A Swedish clue like ''"kan sättas i munnen" = "sked"'' ("can be put in the mouth" = "spoon") can be grammatically changed; ''"den kan sättas i munnen" = "skeden"'' ("it can be put in the mouth" = "the spoon"), as the definite form of a noun includes declension.

=== Orthography ===
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2020}}
From their origin in New York, crosswords have spread to many countries and languages. In languages other than English, the status of diacritics varies according to the orthography of the particular language, thus:
* in [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] all diacritical markings are ignored. Words such as ''TEË'' (meaning opposed) and ''TEE'' (meaning tea) are both simply written ''TEE''. The same goes for ''SÊ'' (say) and ''SE'' (belonging to) and many others.
* in [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]], diacritics are respected and ''[[Ch (digraph)|ch]]'', being considered one letter, occupies one square.
* in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] crosswords, the ''[[IJ (letter)|ij]]'' [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] is considered one letter, filling one square, and the ''IJ'' and the ''Y'' (see [[Dutch alphabet]]) are considered distinct. Rules may vary in other word games.
* in [[Esperanto language|Esperanto]] crosswords, diacritics are respected, as they form separate letters (graphemes).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.semajnodeenigmoj.com/|title=Home|website=www.semajnodeenigmoj.com|access-date=25 March 2018|archive-date=20 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420015740/http://www.semajnodeenigmoj.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* in [[French language|French]], in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and in [[Italian language|Italian]], accent marks and most other diacritical markings are ignored, except the [[tilde]] in Spanish: for instance, in French, the final ''E'' of answer ''ÊTRE'' can double as the final ''É'' of ''CONGÉ'' when written ''ETRE'' and ''CONGE''; but in Spanish, N and [[Ñ]] are distinct letters.
* In [[West Frisian language|Frisian]] diacritics are fully respected.
* in [[German language]] crosswords, the [[Germanic umlaut|umlauts]] ''ä'', ''ö'', and ''ü'' are dissolved into ''ae'', ''oe'', and ''ue'', and ''[[ß]]'' is dissolved into ''ss''.
* in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], diacritics are either fully respected, or not respected where they denote length: that is ''I/Í'', ''O/Ó'', ''Ö/Ő'', ''U/Ú'', ''Ü/Ű'' are considered the same, but not ''A/Á'' and ''E/É'' which mark different sounds; although the difference between the short/long pairs of letters is a distinctive feature in Hungarian. Digraphs fill two squares.
* in [[Irish language|Irish]] crosswords, the accents on ''Á É Í Ó Ú'' are all respected, so (for example) the ''Í'' in ''SÍB'' cannot double as the ''I'' in ''SLIABH''.
* in [[Latin language|Latin]], diacritics are ignored. Therefore, ''A'' is considered the same as ''Ă'' or ''Ā''. [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] is normally used. See the monthly magazine of Latin crosswords ''[[Hebdomada Aenigmatum]]'' as a reference.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latincrosswords.com/|title=Latin crosswords – Cruciverba in latino – Aenigmata latina|website=Latincrosswords.com}}</ref>
* in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], diacritics are ignored with the exception of ''Ç''. Therefore, ''A'' could be checked with ''Ã'' or ''Á''.
* in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], diacritics are ignored.
* in [[Russian language|Russian]], ''Ё'' doubles as ''Е'' but ''Й'' is considered different from ''И''; the soft sign ''Ь'' and the hard sign ''Ъ'' occupy a separate square, different from that of the previous letter.
* in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] crosswords, the digraphs ''[[Ch (digraph)|ch]]'' and ''[[ll]]'' fill two squares, although in some old crosswords (from prior to the 1996 spelling reform) they filled one square.

{{See also|Digraph (orthography)#Digraphs versus letters||Diacritic}}

=== Grid design, clues, and conventions ===
<gallery>
Image:CrosswordJPN.svg|Japanese-style
Image:Schwedenrätsel.jpg|Swedish-style
Image:BarredGridCrossword.jpg|Barred grid where bold bars are used instead of shaded blocks to separate the words
File:Bengalicrossword.jpg|A [[Bengali language|Bengali]] crossword grid
File:Ristikontekoa.jpg|Person solving a Finnish crossword puzzle
</gallery>

French-language crosswords are smaller than English-language ones, and not necessarily square: there are usually 8–13 rows and columns, totaling 81–130 squares. They need not be symmetric and two-letter words are allowed, unlike in most English-language puzzles. Compilers strive to minimize use of shaded squares. A black-square usage of 10% is typical; [[Georges Perec]] compiled many 9×9 grids for [[Le Point]] with four or even three black squares.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://homepage.urbanet.ch/cruci.com/textes/histoire6.htm |title=Histoire des mots croisés. Chapitre VI |publisher=Homepage.urbanet.ch |access-date=2013-11-26 |archive-date=2014-04-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424053129/http://homepage.urbanet.ch/cruci.com/textes/histoire6.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Rather than numbering the individual clues, the rows and columns are numbered as on a [[chessboard]]. All clues for a given row or column are listed, against its number, as separate sentences.

In [[Italy]], crosswords are usually oblong and larger than French ones, 13×21 being a common size. As in France, they usually are not symmetrical; two-letter words are allowed; and the number of shaded squares is minimized. Nouns (including surnames) and the infinitive or past participle of verbs are allowed, as are abbreviations; in larger crosswords, it is customary to put at the center of the grid phrases made of two to four words, or forenames and surnames. A variant of Italian crosswords does not use shaded squares: words are delimited by thickening the grid. Another variant starts with a blank grid: the solver must insert both the answers and the shaded squares, and across and down clues are either ordered by row and column or not ordered at all.

Modern [[Modern Hebrew|Hebrew]] is normally written with only the consonants; vowels are either understood, or entered as diacritical marks. This can lead to ambiguities in the entry of some words, and compilers generally specify that answers are to be entered in [[ktiv male]] (with some vowels) or [[ktiv haser]] (without vowels). Further, since Hebrew is written from right to left, but Roman numerals are used and written from left to right, there can be an ambiguity in the description of lengths of entries, particularly for multi-word phrases. Different compilers and publications use differing conventions for both of these issues.

In the [[Japanese language]] crossword; because of the writing system, one syllable (typically [[katakana]]) is entered into each white cell of the grid rather than one letter, resulting in the typical solving grid seeming small in comparison to those of other languages. Any second [[Yōon]] character is treated as a full syllable and is rarely written with a smaller character. Even cipher crosswords have a Japanese equivalent, although pangrammaticity does not apply. Crosswords with [[kanji]] to fill in are also produced, but in far smaller number as it takes far more effort to construct one. Despite Japanese having three writing forms - [[hiragana]], [[katakana]], and [[kanji]] - they are rarely mixed in a single crossword puzzle. The design of Japanese crossword grids often follows two additional rules: that shaded cells may not share a side (i.e. they may not be orthogonally contiguous) and that the corner squares must be white.

[[A. N. Prahlada Rao]], based in [[Bangalore]], has composed/ constructed some 35,000 crossword puzzles in the language [[Kannada language|Kannada]], including 7,500 crosswords based on films made in Kannada, with a total of 10,00,000 (ten lakhs, or one million) clues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2001/05/14/stories/101444g3.htm |title=Making clues |publisher=Thehindubusinessline.in |date=2001-05-14 |access-date=2013-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vijaykarnatakaepaper.com/Details.aspx?id=6041&boxid=1222762|title=Details|website=www.vijaykarnatakaepaper.com}}</ref> His name was recorded in the Limca Book Of Records in 2015 for creating the highest number of crosswords in any Indian Regional Language. He continued to hold this title through 2016 and 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.coca-colaindia.com/stories/most-crosswords-created--regional-language-|title=Limca Book of Records|website=www.limcabookofrecords.in}}</ref> In 2008, a five volume set of his puzzles was released, followed by 7 more volumes in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/17/stories/2008021753500400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724083952/http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/17/stories/2008021753500400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-07-24 |title=Karnataka / Bangalore News : Kannada crossword puzzles launched |date=2008-02-17 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=2013-11-26}}</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]] is also well known for its crossword puzzles. Crosswords are published regularly in most [[Bengali language|Bengali]] dailies and periodicals. The grid system is similar to the British style and two-letter words are usually not allowed.

In [[Poland]], crosswords typically use British-style grids, but some do not have shaded cells. Shaded cells are often replaced by boxes with clues—such crosswords are called Swedish puzzles or Swedish-style crosswords. In a vast majority of Polish crosswords, nouns are the only allowed words.

Swedish crosswords are mainly in the illustrated (photos or drawings), in-line clue style typical of the "Swedish-style grid". The "Swedish-style" grid (picture crosswords) uses no clue numbers. Instead, clues are contained in the cells which do not contain answers, with arrows indicating where and in what direction to fill in answers. Arrows can be omitted from clue cells, in which case the convention is for the answer to go horizontally to the right of the clue cell, or – if the clue cell is split vertically and contains two clues – for the answer to go horizontally to the right for the top clue and vertically below for the bottom clue. This style of grid is also used in several countries other than Sweden, often in magazines, but also in daily newspapers. The grid often has one or more photos replacing a block of squares as a clue to one or several answers; for example, the name of a pop star, or some kind of rhyme or phrase that can be associated with the photo. These puzzles usually have no symmetry in the grid but instead often have a common theme (literature, music, nature, geography, events of a special year, etc.) This tradition prospered already in the mid-1900s, in family magazines and sections of newspapers. Then the specialised magazines took off. Around the turn of the millennium, approximately half a dozen Swedish magazine publishers produced specialised crossword magazines, totaling more than twenty titles, often published on a monthly basis. The oldest extant crossword magazine published in Swedish is ''Krysset''<ref>[http://krysset.se/Corpbiz/1164/ "Krysset – klassikern med kvalitet och kunskap"]. Krysset.se. Retrieved 2012-01-04. {{in lang|sv}}</ref> (from [[Bonnier Group|Bonnier]]), founded in 1957. Additionally, nearly all newspapers publish crosswords of some kind, and at weekends often devote specialised sections in the paper to crosswords and similar type of pastime material. Both major evening dailies (''[[Aftonbladet]]'' and ''[[Expressen]]'') publish a weekly crossword supplement, named ''Kryss & Quiz'' and ''Korsord''<ref>[http://www.expressen.se/omexpressen/1.2460276/dagens-bilaga-med-expressen-korsord "Dagens bilaga med Expressen – Korsord"]. Expressen.se. Retrieved 2012-01-04. {{in lang|sv}}</ref> respectively. Both are available as paid supplements on Mondays and Tuesdays, as part of the ongoing competition between the two newspapers.

== Construction ==

=== American-style crosswords ===
In typical themed American-style crosswords, the theme is created first, as a set of symmetric long across answers will be needed around which the grid can be created.<ref name=Salomon>{{cite web |last=Salomon |first=Nancy |title=Notes from a Mentor |url=http://www.cruciverb.com/index.php?action=ezportal;sa=page;p=22 | publisher=cruciverb.com |access-date=25 February 2013}}</ref><ref name=Rosen>{{cite book |last=Rosen|first=Mel |title=Random House Puzzlemaker's Handbook |year=1995|publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=9780812925449 }}</ref> Since the grid will typically have 180-degree rotational symmetry, the answers will need to be also: thus a typical 15×15 square American puzzle might have two 15-letter entries and two 13-letter entries that could be arranged appropriately in the grid (e.g., one 15-letter entry in the third row, and the other symmetrically in the 13th row; one 13-letter entry starting in the first square of the 6th row and the other ending in the last square of the 10th row).<ref name=Rosen /><ref name=Kurzban>{{cite book |last=Kurzban |first=Stanley A. |title=The Compleat Cruciverbalist: Or How to Solve and Compose Crossword Puzzles for Fun and Profit |year=1981 |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |isbn=978-0442257385 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/compleatcruciver00kurz }}</ref> The theme must not only be funny or interesting, but also internally consistent. In the April 26, 2005 by Sarah Keller mentioned above, the five themed entries contained in the different parts of a tree: SQUAREROOT, TABLELEAF, WARDROBETRUNK, BRAINSTEM, and BANKBRANCH. In this puzzle, CHARTER OAK would ''not'' be an appropriate entry, as all the other entries contain different parts of a tree, not the name of a kind of tree. Similarly, FAMILY TREE would not be appropriate unless it were used as a ''revealer'' for the theme (frequently clued with a phrase along the lines "''... and a hint to ...''"). Given the existing entries, SEED MONEY would also be unacceptable, as all the other theme entries ''end'' in the part of a tree as opposed to beginning with it, though the puzzle could certainly be changed to have a mix of words in different positions.<ref name=Salomon />

Once a consistent, appropriate theme has been chosen, a grid is designed around that theme, following a set of basic principles:
* Generally, most American puzzles are 15×15 squares; if another size, they typically have an odd number of rows and columns: e.g., 21×21 for "Sunday-size" puzzles; ''Games'' magazine will accept 17×17 puzzles, [[Simon & Schuster]] accepts both 17×17 and 19×19 puzzles, and ''The New York Times'' requires diagramless puzzles to be 17×17.<ref>{{cite web| title=Publisher Specifications |url=http://www.cruciverb.com/index.php?action=ezportal;sa=page;p=9| publisher=cruciverb.com |access-date=25 February 2013}}</ref> The odd number of squares on a side ensures that achieving symmetry is easier; with even-numbered puzzles the central block of four squares makes constructing a symmetrical puzzle considerably more difficult.<ref name=Gore>{{cite news |last=Gore|first=Molly |title=Math professor and crossword constructor gives puzzle advice |url=http://www.thesantaclara.com/2.14532/math-professor-and-crossword-constructor-gives-puzzle-advice-1.1870291?pagereq=1#.USwF4xnDN_0|access-date=25 February 2013|newspaper=The Santa Clara|date=15 November 2007|location=Santa Clara, California}}</ref>
* The black squares must be arranged so as to (1) ensure there are no two-letter words; (2) form 180-degree rotational symmetry (so that if the grid is turned upside-down, the pattern of black squares remains the same); (3) ensure that every letter is checked (appears in both an across and a down word); (4) not occupy too much of the puzzle (generally speaking, 16% of the puzzle is considered a rough limit for the percentage of black squares); (5) ensure that the entire puzzle has "all-over interlock"—that is, that the black squares do not "cut" the puzzle into separate sections; and (6) ensure that (generally) no non-theme entry is longer than any of the theme entries. In addition, it is considered advisable to minimize the number of so-called "cheater" black squares, i.e., black squares whose removal would not change the word count of the puzzle but which make it easier to fill by shortening the length of the words therein.<ref name=Rosen /><ref name= Kurzban /><ref name="Basic Rules">{{cite web|title=Basic Rules |url=http://www.cruciverb.com/index.php?action=ezportal;sa=page;p=21| publisher=cruciverb.com |access-date=25 February 2013}}</ref>
* The grid is then filled with suitable words, keeping in mind that (1) no word can be repeated in the grid (with the exception of prepositions or articles); (2) profanity or graphic or "unpleasant" words are generally not allowed;<ref name="NYT How To">{{cite web |last1=Der |first1=Kevin |last2=Pasco |first2=Paolo |title=How to Make a Crossword Puzzle |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/13/crosswords/how-to-make-a-crossword-fill.html |website=[[New York Times]] |access-date=17 July 2024 |quote=the “Sunday Morning Breakfast Test,” which means that every entry in a crossword should be sufficiently family-friendly. The first New York Times crossword editor, Margaret Farrar, went further and once wrote that crosswords should avoid “death, disease, war and taxes.”}}</ref> (3) obscurity is strongly discouraged in easy puzzles and should be kept to a minimum in more difficult puzzles, where two obscure words should never be allowed to cross (known in crossword jargon as a "Natick"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schechtman |first1=Anna |title=Escaping Into the Crossword Puzzle |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/12/27/escaping-into-the-crossword-puzzle |website=[[The New Yorker]] |publisher=Condé Nast |access-date=17 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705004907/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/12/27/escaping-into-the-crossword-puzzle |archive-date=5 July 2024 |date=20 December 2021 |quote=I had created what in crossword jargon is called a Natick, an unjustified intersection of two obscure answers, leaving the solver with no hope but to guess at the solution}}</ref>)(and, ideally, where the obscure word would be of interest to most solvers—a genus of little-known water bugs would not be a good choice); (4) uncommon abbreviations and variant foreign spellings should be avoided, as well as the use of [[crosswordese]] (those words that no longer appear in common speech but that occur frequently in crosswords due to their favorable letter combinations, such as the Asian buffalo ''ANOA''); (5) in modern puzzles, pop figures and corporate and brand names are generally considered acceptable; (6) no made-up words are permitted—there should be a dictionary or other reference that can cite each entry if asked.<ref name=Rosen /><ref name="Basic Rules" />
* Modern constructors frequently (although not always) use software to speed up the task. Several programs are available, of which the most widely accepted is Crossword Compiler.<ref name=Salomon /> These programs, although they cannot create themes and cannot distinguish between "good" fill (fun, interesting words vs. dull obscurity), do speed up the process and will allow the constructor to realize if they have hit a dead end.<ref name=Holmes>{{cite news |last=Holmes |first=Kristin E. |title=A passion to fit words together |url=http://www.crosswordtournament.com/articles/inq042907.htm |access-date=25 February 2013 |newspaper=The Philadelphia Inquirer (archived at crosswordtournament.com) |date=29 April 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420160823/http://www.crosswordtournament.com/articles/inq042907.htm |archive-date=20 April 2013 }}</ref>

Crossword puzzle payments for standard 15×15 puzzles from the major outlets range from $50 (''Games'') to $500 (''The New York Times'') while payments for 21×21 puzzles range from $250 (''Newsday'') to $1,500 (''The New York Times'').<ref>{{cite web|title=Publisher chart |url=http://www.cruciverb.com/index.php?action=ezportal;sa=page;p=19| publisher=cruciverb.com |access-date=25 February 2013}}</ref>

The compensation structure of crosswords generally entails authors selling all rights to their puzzles upon publication, and as a result receiving no royalties from republication of their work in books or other forms.

== Software ==

Software that aids in ''creating'' crossword puzzles has been written since at least 1976;<ref name="scifri">{{cite web| title="Dr.Fill" Vies for Crossword Solving Supremacy |url=https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/dr-fill-vies-for-crossword-solving-supremacy/ |date=19 Sep 2014}}</ref> one popular example was Crossword Magic for the [[Apple II]] in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apple2history.org/appendix/aha/aha80/|title=1980–84 Misc|date=9 July 2010}}</ref> The earliest software relied on people to input a list of fill words and clues, and automatically maps the answers onto a suitable grid. This is a [[search problem]] in computer science because there are many possible arrangements to be checked against the rules of construction. Any given set of answers might have zero, one, or multiple legal arrangements. Modern open source libraries exist that attempt to efficiently generate legal arrangements from a given set of answers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://projectboard.engineering.com/project/crossword-layout-generator---open-source|title=Crossword Layout Generator – Open Source|date=17 November 2019|access-date=17 November 2019|archive-date=17 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191117121039/https://projectboard.engineering.com/project/crossword-layout-generator---open-source|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the late 1990s, the transition began from mostly hand-created arrangements to computer-assisted, which creators generally say has allowed authors to produce more interesting and creative puzzles, reducing [[crosswordese]].<ref name="scifri2">{{cite web |title=Inside the Box: Crossword Puzzle Constructing in the Computer Age |url=https://www.sciencefriday.com/articles/inside-the-box-crossword-puzzle-constructing-in-the-computer-age/ |date=19 September 2014 |author=Julie Leibach}}</ref>

Modern software includes large databases of clues and answers, allowing the computer to randomly select words for the puzzle, potentially with guidance from the user as to the theme or a specific set of words to pick with greater probability. Many serious users add words to the database as an expression of personal creativity or for use in a desired theme. Software can also be used to assist the user in finding words for a specific spot in an arrangement by quickly searching through the dictionary for all words that fit.<ref name="scifri2"/>

In 1998 in Jakarta, publisher Elex Media Komputindo (Gramedia Group) published a crossword software entitled "Teka-Teki Silang Komputer" (Computerized Crossword Puzzle [Eng]) in diskette form. It is the first Crossword Puzzle software published in Indonesia. Created by Sukmono Bayu Adhi, the software is archived in the National Library of the Republic of Indonesia (Salemba Library, Jakarta).<ref>The catalog can be accessed online at http://opac.perpusnas.go.id/DetailOpac.aspx?id=62691</ref>

== Notation ==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
Originally Petherbridge called the two dimensions of the crossword puzzle "Horizontal" and "Vertical". Among various numbering schemes, the standard became that in which only the start squares of each word were numbered, from left to right and top to bottom. "1 Horizontal" and "1 Vertical" and the like were names for the clues, the cross words, or the grid locations, interchangeably.

Later in the ''Times'' these terms commonly became "across" and "down" and notations for clues could either use the words or the letters "A" and "D", with or without hyphens.

== See also ==

{{Portal|Games}}
* [[Bananagrams]]
* [[Cross Sums]]
* [[Crosswordese]]
* ''[[Merv Griffin's Crosswords]]'', a crossword-based game show that debuted in fall 2007
* ''[[People Puzzler]]'', a game show based on the pop-culture crossword puzzles in [[People Magazine]], currently airing on [[Game Show Network]]
* [[Scrabble]] (see also [[Scrabble variants]])
* [[Str8ts]]
* [[Sudoku]]
* [[The Cross-Wits]], a crossword-based game show that ran in the 1970s and 1980s
* [[Upwords]]
* ''[[Wheel of Fortune (American game show)|Wheel of Fortune]]'', a letter-based game show that incorporated crosswords in 2016
* [[Word search]]
* ''[[Wordplay (film)|Wordplay]]'', a 2006 documentary film about crossword puzzles

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''The Crossword Obsession'' by Coral Amende {{ISBN|0-425-18157-X}}
* ''Crossworld'' by Marc Romano {{ISBN|0-7679-1757-X}}
* {{cite book |title=The Crossword Century: 100 Years of Witty Wordplay, Ingenious Puzzles, and Linguistic Mischief |author=Alan Connor |isbn=978-1592409389 |publisher=Avery |year=2015}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.straightdope.com/21341628/why-are-crossword-puzzles-symmetrical Why are crossword puzzles symmetrical?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])

{{crosswords}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:British inventions]]
[[Category:1913 introductions]]
[[Category:Crosswords|*]]
[[Category:Italian inventions]]
[[Category:Puzzles]]

Talk:Name of the Father

2024-05-29T03:33:32Z

Madler: #talk-topic

{{WikiProject banner shell |class=Start|1=
{{WikiProject Psychology|importance=Low|needs-infobox=no}}
}}

== This article is a trip ==
It really needs some severe clarification. As is, it borders on the nonsensical. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/69.72.75.236|69.72.75.236]] ([[User talk:69.72.75.236|talk]]) 06:50, 25 December 2007 (UTC) 

== Problem ==
This article needs desperately to clearly situate the Name of the Father in the symbolic. [[User:Phil Sandifer|Phil Sandifer]] 21:46, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

== Problem, the second coming ==
This talk page desperately needs to avoid the use of split infinitives.
[[User:Smitty|Alex Smith]] 00:13, 7 August 2006

== Disbelief ==
The article desperately needs to clearly show that people are able to really take any of this seriously. It needs to actually convince the reader that this is for real. (Which of course it isn't.) [[User:131.111.8.96|131.111.8.96]] 00:26, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
:[http://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/psychoanalysis/definitions/nameofthefather.html You're right], the entire community at wikipedia is conspiring agianst you by creating false [[Lacanian]] terms. You should probably read some Lacan. I would then suggest that you go in for analysis on your [[paranoia]] problem. --[[User:Thaddius|Thaddius]] 18:56, 19 December 2006 (UTC)
::Thadius, I think what the user was trying to say was that this article makes little sense to people unfamiliar with the topic. That makes it a poor encyclopedic entry. Instead of encouraging us to "read some Lacan", perhaps you could add a better introduction for the layman? In fact, why don't I just as a <nowiki>{{context}}</nowiki> tag to the top! --[[User:Knulclunk|Knulclunk]] 05:29, 4 March 2007 (UTC)
:::There are many who find Freudian and Lacanian terms to be false, which is their prerogative, but the fact is that there is a lot of literature on this stuff. The random user here says that they believe the term doesn't exist as a quip against its supporters. There are a lot of such comments on the talk pages of other Freudian and Lacanian terms. --[[User:Thaddius|Thaddius]] 19:29, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

== No problem ==
Line 2 of this article clearly situates the Name of the Father in the Symbolic. Please read carefully before disputing.

== Okee dokee ==
[[User:Knulclunk|Knulclunk]], you said that there is a lot of things you do not understand on the article. Many of the complicated terms (that are VERY complicated) are linked. '''The Name of the Father''' is closely related to [[Semiotics]] and the language of [[sign (semiotics)|signs]] and [[code (semiotics)|codes]] and the [[signifier]] and [[signified]]. Again these are complicated terms and understanding this article requires understanding of semiotics. If after reading those articles you still have problems comprehending the terms please inform me which need to be explained in layman terms and I will do what I can (keep in mind that I am not a psychoanalytic psychologist). Because of the antagonism most in psychology have toward both Freud and Lacan, there are very few wikipedia users out there who are willing to devote time to making comprehensive articles on these terms so I can imagine that the linked articles are not as comprehensive as one would like, so I completely understand if, after reading all the linked articles, you do not understand the terms. But. since semiotics ''is'' linked in the article and the semiotics article is ''very'' comprehensive, there is absolutely no need for a context template. --[[User:Thaddius|Thaddius]] 20:01, 5 March 2007 (UTC)
:You are correct, the [[Semiotics]] page is very accessible, and helps me understand better. The [[signs]] page could use some gentle editing to keep us non-philosophers from running away. 
:I would start by rewriting the introduction to signs like this: 
::In [[semiotics]], a '''sign''' is <s>generally</s> defined as, "...something that stands for something else, to someone in some capacity." <s>(Marcel Danesi and Paul Perron, "Analyzing Cultures").</s> It may be understood as a discrete unit of [[meaning]], <s>whether denotative or connotative. Signs are not just words, but also</s> and include words, images, gestures, scents, tastes, textures, sounds — essentially all of the ways in which information can be <s>processed into a codified form and</s> communicated as a message by any sentient , reasoning mind to another. 
:The Name of the Father should be written more like this: 
::In [[semiotics]], the '''Name of the Father''' ''(or the Names of the Father)'' is the [[signifier]] associated with the <s>signified</s> [[concept]] of <s>the</s> father. Name of the Father is the [[sign]] that stands for the power and control that the concept “father” invokes in others. The Name of the Father is a [[symbolic]] {link helpful?} formation, and <s>as such</s> is a key part of the symbolic order {link unhelpful!}. In {the original?} French, ''Nom du père'', there is an intentional verbal pun in the - the 'no' or prohibitive Law of the Father.
:The [[Symbolic order]] page is a self-reffering dead end. --[[User:Knulclunk|Knulclunk]] 03:24, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
::I agree that the symbolic order page is nothing great. I'll throw that on a 'to do' list. Symbolic order should be explained a tad here and a lot on its own article, of course.As for the French bit at the end, Lacan was French so, yes, Nom du père is the original. --[[User:Thaddius|Thaddius]] 00:47, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

==Abba==
I noticed that in Judeo-Christian religion, the Name of the Father is Abba (see [[God the Father]]). The [[Gospel of Mark]] records that Jesus used the term Abba when praying to Jehovah God during His Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane shortly before His Crucifixion. This name could have some meaning in Lacan's language theory. [[User:ADM|ADM]] ([[User talk:ADM|talk]]) 12:26, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

== No definition of the term ==

It sounds like whoever wrote this page didn't actually know what the Name of the Father is supposed to be. [[User:Madler|Madler]] ([[User talk:Madler|talk]]) 03:33, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

Pass rush

2024-04-27T11:33:10Z

Madler: Fixed typo #article-section-source-editor

{{Short description|American football defensive maneuver}}
[[File:US Navy 081115-N-4565G-053 Navy quarterback Jarod Bryant (^2), from Hoover, Alabama, eludes Notre Dame defensive end Pat Kuntz (^96) during a first quarter pass attempt in the Saturday, Nov. 15, 2008 college football game.jpg|thumb|A quarterback eludes a rushing defender.]]

On defense in [[American football]], '''a pass rush''' is charging across the [[line of scrimmage]] towards the [[quarterback]] in an effort to stop or "[[QB sack|sack]]" them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usafootball.com/blogs/fundamentals-and-performance/post/12148/4-key-components-to-a-pass-rush-plan|title=4 key components to a pass rush plan|website=Youth Football|publisher=USA Football — Football's National Governing Body}}</ref> The purpose is [[tackle (football move)|tackling]], hurrying or flushing the quarterback out of his protective [[Passing pocket|pocket]] or the play's design.

"Pressures" and "hurries" are terms used to describe pass rushes which successfully alter a quarterback's performance on a play — forcing them to throw before they find their best target or scramble out of the pocket to elude being tackled — that fall short of completed sacks.

A related form of defensive rush is to disrupt or sack a kicker attempting to kick a field goal, extra point, or punt the ball. On offense, "rushing" is to run forward with the ball to gain yardage.

In both college and professional football, getting a strong pass rush is an important skill, as even an average quarterback can be productive if he has enough time to find an open receiver, even against a good secondary. To increase pressure, teams will sometimes use a pass-rushing specialist, who is usually a quick, strong [[defensive end]] or [[outside linebacker]] tasked with aggressively rushing the quarterback in obvious passing situations.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbduM8Jyc34C&pg=PA160|title=Football For Dummies|first1=Howie|last1=Long|first2=John|last2=Czarnecki|date=8 March 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781118051610|via=Google Books}}</ref>

==Methods==
One of the most effective methods of rushing the passer is by using a [[Stunt (gridiron football)|stunt or twist]], which is when defensive players quickly change positions at the snap of the ball and engage a different [[Blocking (American football)|blocker]] than the offense expected,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmbHwKOvNcIC&pg=PA231|title=Play Football The NFL Way: Position by Position Techniques and Drills for Offense and Special Teams|first=Tom|last=Bass|date=15 June 1991|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9780312059477|via=Google Books}}</ref> Defenses typically task three or four defensive lineman to rush the passer on most plays, but most will occasionally increase pressure by [[Blitz (American football)|blitzing]] one or more non-lineman at the quarterback when a pass play is anticipated.

A pass rush can be effective even if it does not sack the quarterback if it forces the passer to get rid of the ball before he wanted to, resulting in an incomplete pass or interception. To attack a strong pass rush, offenses can throw quicker short passes or run [[draw play]]s or [[screen pass]]es, which are design to lure defenders into the offensive backfield and then quickly get a ball carrier behind them.

==History==
A pass rush has gained increasing importance in the game as it has evolved from a run-only offense to one that relies ever more heavily on the forward pass for gaining yardage and scoring points. Exceptional pass rushers began to gain widespread media attention starting in the 1960s. Longtime Los Angeles Ram defensive end [[Deacon Jones]] is credited with coining the term "sack", and historically attributed with {{frac|173|1|2}} sacks, which would rank him #3 all-time behind all-time leader [[Bruce Smith]] (with 200) and [[Reggie White]] (198) had they been counted as an official statistic during his career.<ref name=branch>{{cite news |last=Branch |first=John |title=Unofficially, Sack Record Doesn't Add Up |date=November 4, 2006 |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/04/sports/football/04giants.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150901134522/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/04/sports/football/04giants.html?_r=0 |archivedate=September 1, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The single-season record is {{frac|22|1|2}}, held by [[Michael Strahan]] and [[T. J. Watt]].

Other formidable historic pass rushers include [[Lawrence Taylor]] (#14, {{frac|132|1|2}}), the highest ranking pure linebacker, and [[Jim Katcavage]], NFL leader in 1962 and 1963, a defensive tackle. The active leader (as of 2023) is outside linebacker/defensive end [[Von Miller]] with {{frac|123|1|2}}. Other notable active players include Defensive Player of the Year and 2022 season leader [[Nick Bosa]], a defensive end; and 2021 Defensive Player of the Year and three-time season leader T. J. Watt, an outside linebacker.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Gridiron football maneuvers}}

[[Category:American football strategy]]

Fukuinkan Shoten

2024-04-05T21:54:04Z

Madler:

{{Short description|Japanese publishing company}}
{{No sources|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Fukuinkan Shoten
| logo =
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| logo_caption =
| logo_padding =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| native_name = 株式会社福音館書店
| native_name_lang = ja
| former_name =
| type = [[Kabushiki kaisha]]
| industry = Book publishing
| founded = {{start date and age|1952|02|01}} in [[Bunkyō]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]
| founder =
| hq_location =
| hq_location_city = Bunkyō, Tokyo
| hq_location_country = Japan
| area_served = Japan
| key_people =
| products = Books, magazines
| brands =
| services =
| owner = 
| website = {{URL|www.fukuinkan.co.jp}}
}}

{{nihongo|'''Fukuinkan Shoten'''|福音館書店|}} is a Japanese [[publishing company]] headquartered in [[Bunkyō]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]. It was founded 1916 by Canadian Methodist missionaries<ref>https://www.fukuinkan.co.jp/company/ayumi.html</ref>. The "Fukuin" in the name is the Japanese word for "gospel" (福音).

They have published multiple best-selling series, including ''[[Guri and Gura]]'' and ''[[Iyaiyaen]]'' by [[Rieko Nakagawa]] and the ''[[Kiki's Delivery Service]]'' series by [[Eiko Kadono]]. They also publish in Japan the ''[[Peter Rabbit]]'' series by [[Beatrix Potter]], ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'' by [[Hergé]], various books featuring the character [[Miffy]], and the ''[[My Father's Dragon]]'' series by [[Ruth Stiles Gannett]], among others.
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Japanese companies established in 1952]]
[[Category:Book publishing companies in Tokyo]]
[[Category:Magazine publishing companies in Tokyo]]
[[Category:Publishing companies established in 1952]]

{{japan-company-stub}}

Ana-tsurushi

2024-01-06T02:17:53Z

Madler:

{{italic title}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2020}}
[[File:Tsurushi.jpg|thumb|Illustration of ''ana-tsurushi''.]]
[[File:Martyrdom-of-Paul-Miki-and-Companions-in-Nagasaki-(made-c1635).png|thumb|Martyrdom of Paul Miki and Companions in Nagasaki with hole hanging]]

{{nihongo||穴吊るし|'''Ana-tsurushi'''|lit. "hole hanging"}}, also known simply as {{nihongo||吊るし|'''tsurushi'''|lit. "hanging"}}, was a Japanese [[torture]] technique used in the 17th century to coerce Christians ("[[Hidden Christians of Japan|Kirishitan]]") to [[Recantation|recant]] their faith.<ref name="bbc1"/> The victim was hung head-down by the feet.<ref name="bbc1"/> Both Japanese and Western Christians are known to have been submitted to the torture.<ref name="bbc1"/> One of the victim's hands would be held tight with a rope, but the other would be left free so that he could signal his willingness to recant.

The technique was said to be unbearable for those submitted to it, though some particularly resilient martyrs like [[Lorenzo Ruiz]] never broke under torture. The body was often lowered into a hole, itself often filled with excrement at the bottom.<ref name="bbc1"/> Typically, a cut would be made in the forehead around their temples in order to let blood pressure decrease in the area around the head.<ref name="bbc1">{{cite web |title=The Japanese Christians forced to trample on Christ |date=24 November 2019 |author=Yvette Tan |website=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50414472 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708051102/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50414472 |archive-date=July 8, 2022}}</ref> The aim was to "break their resolve" to renounce their faith or they would eventually die.<ref name="bbc1"/> Sometimes there was a doctor to resuscitate them only to be tortured again.<ref name="bbc1"/> An estimated 2,000 Christians died as martyrs.<ref name="bbc1"/> Christians were let go after apostatizing, and in this way the Shogunate practically purged Christianity from Japan.<ref name="bbc1"/>

A notable victim of this method of torture was [[Lorenzo Ruiz|Saint Lorenzo Ruiz]], the first [[Filipino people|Filipino]] martyr to be [[canonization|canonized]] by the Roman Catholic Church.

''Ana-tsurushi'' was made famous in the novel ''[[Silence (Endō novel)|Silence]]'' by [[Shūsaku Endō|Shusaku Endo]], where it is referred to as "anazuri".<ref>{{Cite book|title = Silence|last = Endo|first = Shusako|publisher = Taplinger|year = 1969|isbn = 978-0-8008-7186-4|location = Marlbourough NJ|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/silence00endo}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Boxer, C.R. ''The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650''. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1951. {{ISBN|1-85754-035-2}} (1993 reprint edition).

[[Category:Asian instruments of torture]]
[[Category:History of Christianity in Japan]]
[[Category:17th century in Japan]]

Nativity (Campin)

2023-12-30T22:50:52Z

Madler: Fixed typo

{{italic title}}
[[File:The Nativity Robert Campin.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Robert Campin]], c. 1420, ''Nativity''. [[Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon]]]]
{{expand french|date=November 2019}}
'''''Nativity''''' is a [[panel painting]] of c. 1420 by the [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish]] painter [[Robert Campin]], now in the [[Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon]], France. As often, the moment shown is the [[Adoration of the Shepherds]]. Harshly realistic, the Child Jesus and his parents are shown in poverty, the figures crowded in a small structure, with broken-down walls, and a thatched roof with a hole, the single space shared with animals. In this Campin abandons the traditional narrative.<ref>Blum, 17</ref>

[[Mary (mother of Jesus)|The Virgin]] is presented as in her teens, [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] as a much older man. Four angels hover above them, holding gifts. Two of them hold a scroll with lettering addressed to one of the midwives in the lower portion of the panel. It reads "Tangue puerum et sanabaris" (''touch the child and you shall be healed''), depicting the pseudepigraphical story of [[Salome (Gospel of James)|Salome]], the doubting midwife, whose scroll here reads "I will believe only what I have touched." According to the [[Protevangelium of James]], Salome extended her hand to ascertain whether Mary was a virgin, and her hand withered. The angels tell her to hold the Christ child instead, and her hand is healed.

From the little record of Campin, he was a significant pioneer and innovator of painting, and here his appeal is to the poverty of the Holy Family. His skill with oil paint is reflected in the positioning of the central figures in the extreme foreground, giving the panel a very tight and focused feel, despite the highly detailed background details and landscape.<ref name="r24">Rothstein, 24</ref> The hut is slanted compared to the outline of the frame, a device later adopted by [[Rogier van der Weyden]] in his [[Bladelin Altarpiece]].<ref name="b18">Blum, 18</ref>

Campin places a landscape complete with a view of a lake beyond of the stable, just above the two midwives. Reinforcing the idea of redemption, [[Salome]] is given a prominent position, facing outwards towards the viewer in the mid foreground.<ref name="r24"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*Blum, Shirley Neilsen. "Early Netherlandish Triptychs: A Study in Patronage". ''Speculum'', Volume 47, No. 2, April 1972
*[[Lorne Campbell (Art historian)|Campbell, Lorne]]. ''Van der Weyden''. London: Chaucer Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-904449-24-7}}
*Rothstein, Bret. ''Sight and Spirituality in Early Netherlandish Painting''. Cambridge University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0-521-83278-6}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://mba-collections.dijon.fr/ow4/mba/voir.xsp?id=00101-12531&qid=sdx_q0&n=1&e= At the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon] (fr)

{{Robert Campin}}
{{ACArt}}
[[Category:1420s paintings]]
[[Category:Paintings by Robert Campin]]
[[Category:Nativity of Jesus in art|Campin]]
[[Category:Angels in art]]
[[Category:Cattle in art]]
[[Category:Adoration of the Shepherds in art|Campin]]

Nativity (Campin)

2023-12-30T22:04:49Z

Madler: added context about Salome the doubting midwife

{{italic title}}
[[File:The Nativity Robert Campin.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Robert Campin]], c. 1420, ''Nativity''. [[Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon]]]]
{{expand french|date=November 2019}}
'''''Nativity''''' is a [[panel painting]] of c. 1420 by the [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish]] painter [[Robert Campin]], now in the [[Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon]], France. As often, the moment shown is the [[Adoration of the Shepherds]]. Harshly realistic, the Child Jesus and his parents are shown in poverty, the figures crowded in a small structure, with broken-down walls, and a thatched roof with a hole, the single space shared with animals. In this Campin abandons the traditional narrative.<ref>Blum, 17</ref>

[[Mary (mother of Jesus)|The Virgin]] is presented as in her teens, [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] as a much older man. Four angels hover above them, holding gifts. Two of them hold a scroll with lettering addressed to one of the midwives in the lower portion of the panel. It reads "Tangue puerum et sanabaris" (''touch the child and you shall be healed''), depicting the pseudepigraphical story of [[Salome (Gospel of James)|Salome]], the doubting midwife, whose scroll here reads "I will believe only what I have touched." According to the [[Protevangelium of James]], Salome extended her hand to ascertain whether Mary was a virgin, and her hand withered. The angels tell her to hold the Christ child instead, and her hand is healed.
From the little record of Campin, he was a significant pioneer and innovator of painting, and here his appeal is to the poverty of the Holy Family. His skill with oil paint is reflected in the positioning of the central figures in the extreme foreground, giving the panel a very tight and focused feel, despite the highly detailed background details and landscape.<ref name="r24">Rothstein, 24</ref> The hut is slanted compared to the outline of the frame, a device later adopted by [[Rogier van der Weyden]] in his [[Bladelin Altarpiece]].<ref name="b18">Blum, 18</ref>

Campin places a landscape complete with a view of a lake beyond of the stable, just above the two midwives. Reinforcing the idea of redemption, [[Salome]] is given a prominent position, facing outwards towards the viewer in the mid foreground.<ref name="r24"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*Blum, Shirley Neilsen. "Early Netherlandish Triptychs: A Study in Patronage". ''Speculum'', Volume 47, No. 2, April 1972
*[[Lorne Campbell (Art historian)|Campbell, Lorne]]. ''Van der Weyden''. London: Chaucer Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-904449-24-7}}
*Rothstein, Bret. ''Sight and Spirituality in Early Netherlandish Painting''. Cambridge University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0-521-83278-6}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://mba-collections.dijon.fr/ow4/mba/voir.xsp?id=00101-12531&qid=sdx_q0&n=1&e= At the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon] (fr)

{{Robert Campin}}
{{ACArt}}
[[Category:1420s paintings]]
[[Category:Paintings by Robert Campin]]
[[Category:Nativity of Jesus in art|Campin]]
[[Category:Angels in art]]
[[Category:Cattle in art]]
[[Category:Adoration of the Shepherds in art|Campin]]

Liber de causis

2023-11-08T19:49:39Z

Madler: Added Arabic

{{italic title}}
[[File:Liber de causis, Venice, Lat. 288, fol. 2r.jpg|thumb|Manuscript copy of the ''Liber de causis'' from {{circa|1470}}. This copy once belonged to Cardinal [[Bessarion]] and is now in the [[Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana]] in Venice.]]
The '''{{lang|la|Liber de causis}}''' ("Book of Causes") is a philosophical work composed in [[Arabic]] in the 9th century. It was once attributed to [[Aristotle]] and became popular in West during the [[Middle Ages]], after it was translated into [[Latin]] by [[Gerard of Cremona]] between 1167 and 1187.<ref name=LS>Lydia Schumacher, "[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199642465.001.0001/acref-9780199642465-e-4222 ''Liber de Causis'']," in Andrew Louth (ed.), ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', 4th ed. (Oxford University Press, 2022), retrieved 12 September 2023.</ref> The original title was كتاب الإيضاح لأرسطوطاليس في الخير المحض {{transliteration|ar|Kitāb al-Īḍāḥ li-Arisṭūṭālis fī l-khayr al-maḥd}}, "The book of Aristotle's explanation of the pure good".<ref>This is the title given by {{harvnb|Bardenhewer|1882}}.</ref> Its Latin title, {{lang|la|Liber de causis}}, came into use following its translation. The work was also translated into [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Hebrew]].{{sfn|Dodds|1963|p=xxx}} Many Latin commentaries on the work are extant.<ref>Edited (some only partially) in {{harvnb|Calma|2016}}.</ref>

The real authorship of the ''Liber'' remains a mystery, but most of the content is taken from the ''[[Elements of Theology]]'' of the [[Neoplatonic]] philosopher [[Proclus]]. This was first noticed by [[Thomas Aquinas]], following [[William of Moerbeke]]'s translation of Proclus' work into Latin. As such its author is now known as [[pseudo-Aristotle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Helmig|Steel|2015}}.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Neoplatonism}}
===Text and translations===
====Arabic====
*{{cite book|last1=Badawī|first1=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān|author1-link=Abdel Rahman Badawi|date=1977|title=al-Iflāṭūniyya al-muḥdatha ʿinda al-ʿArab|edition=2nd|location=al-Kuwayt|publisher=Wakkālat al-Maṭbūʿāt|pages=1–33}} (edition of the Arabic)
*{{cite book|last1=Bardenhewer|first1=Otto|author1-link=Otto Bardenhewer|date=1882|title=Die pseudo-aristotelische Schrift ueber das reine Gute bekannt unter dem Namen Liber de Causis|location=Freiburg im Breisgau|publisher=Herder'sche Verlagschandlung|pages=58–118|oclc=6394425|url=https://archive.org/details/diepseudoaristot00frei}} (edition of the Arabic with German translation)

====Latin====
* [[Adriaan Pattin|Pattin, Adriaan]], ''Le Liber de Causis. Edition établie a l'aide de 90 manuscrits avec introduction et notes'', in ''Tijdschrift voor Filosofie'' 28 (1966) pp. 90–203

====Hebrew====
* Rothschild, Jean-Pierre: ''Les traductions hébraïques du Liber de causis latin''. Dissertation Paris 1985, Bd. 1, S. 172–243 (synoptic edition of parts of the Hebrew translations)

====Translations in modern languages====
* Albayrak, Mehmet Barış: Nedenler Kitabı (Liber de Causis), Notos Yayınları, 2014. (Türkçe çeviri)
* Baumgarten, Alexander. ''Pseudo-Aristotel, Liber de causis'', traducere, note şi comentariu de Alexander Baumgarten, Univers Enciclopedic, București, 2002 (Romanian translation)
* Brand, Dennis J. (ed.), tr. ''The Book of Causes: Liber de Causis'' (English translation): 1st ed. 1984 Marquette University Press, 2nd ed. 2001 Niagara University Press
* Magnard, Pierre; Boulnois, Olivier; Pinchard, Bruno; Solere, Jean-Luc. ''La demeure de l'être. Autour d'un anonyme. Etude et traduction du Liber de Causis'', Paris 1990, Vrin (French translation)
* Schönfeld, Andreas. ''Liber de causis: Das Buch von den Ursachen'', repr. 2005 Meiner Felix Verlag Gmbh {{ISBN|978-3-7873-1705-9}}: Latin text, German translation

===Commentaries===
* [[Albertus Magnus]], ''Liber de causis et processu universitatis a prima causa'' (Latin)
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Calma|editor1-first=Dragos|date=2016|title=Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages: New Commentaries on 'Liber de Causis' and 'Elementatio Theologica'|series=Studia Artistarum|volume=42|location=Turnhout|publisher=Brepols|isbn=978-2-503-55474-7|doi=10.1484/M.SA-EB.5.111556}} (in 2 volumes)
* D'Ancona, Cristina: ''Tommaso d'Aquino, Commento al Libro delle cause.'' Rusconi, Milano 1986: commentary by Thomas Aquinas
* [http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/cdc01.html Sancti Thomae de Aquino super librum De Causis expositio] (Latin)

===Secondary literature===
* Alonso, Manuel Alonso. ''Las fuentes literarias del Liber de causis''. Al-Andalus: revista de las escuelas de estudios árabes de Madrid y Granada, (10), 1945, pp. 345–382.
* Bächli-Hinz, Andreas. ''Monotheismus und neuplatonische Philosophie: Eine Untersuchung zum pseudo-aristotelischen Liber de causis und dessen Rezeption durch Albert den Großen'', Frankfurt, Academia Verlag, 2002.
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Calma|editor1-first=Dragos|date=2016|title=Neoplatonism in the Middle Ages: New Commentaries on 'Liber de Causis' and 'Elementatio Theologica'|series=Studia Artistarum|volume=42|location=Turnhout|publisher=Brepols|isbn=978-2-503-55474-7|doi=10.1484/M.SA-EB.5.111556|ref=none}} (in 2 volumes)
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Calma|editor1-first=Dragos|date=2019|title=Reading Proclus and the Book of Causes, Volume 1: Western Scholarly Networks and Debates|series=Studies in Platonism, Neoplatonism, and the Platonic Tradition|volume=22|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-34510-2|doi=10.1163/9789004395114|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Calma|editor1-first=Dragos|date=2020|title=Reading Proclus and the Book of Causes, Volume 2: Translations and Acculturations|series=Studies in Platonism, Neoplatonism, and the Platonic Tradition|volume=26|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-34511-9|doi=10.1163/9789004440685|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Calma|editor1-first=Dragos|date=2022|title=Reading Proclus and the Book of Causes, Volume 3: On Causes and the Noetic Triad|series=Studies in Platonism, Neoplatonism, and the Platonic Tradition|volume=28|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-50132-4|doi=10.1163/9789004501331|doi-access=free}}
* D'Ancona, Cristina. ''Recherches sur le Liber de causis.'' Vrin, Paris 1995, {{ISBN|2-7116-1225-2}}
* D'Ancona, Cristina; Taylor, Richard C. "Le Liber de causis", in: Richard Goulet and others (ed.): ''Dictionnaire des philosophes antiques'', CNRS, Paris 2003, {{ISBN|2-271-06175-X}}, S. 599–647
* {{cite book|last1=Dodds|first1=E. R.|author1-link=E. R. Dodds|date=1963|title=Proclus: The Elements of Theology. A Revised Text with Translation, Introduction, and Commentary|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-814097-5}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Helmig|first1=Christoph|last2=Steel|first2=Carlos|date=2015|title=Proclus|editor1-last=Zalta|editor1-first=Edward N.|editor1-link=Edward N. Zalta|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/proclus}}
* Megías, Paloma Llorente. ''Liber de Causis: Indice y Concordancia'', Florence, Olschki 2004.
* Ricklin, Thomas. ''Die 'Physica' und der 'Liber de causis' im 12. Jahrhundert. Zwei Studien.'' University press, Freiburg (Switzerland) 1995, {{ISBN|3-7278-0994-9}}
* Taylor, Richard C. "The Kalām fī maḥḍ al-khair (Liber de causis) in the Islamic Philosophical Milieu" in: Jill Kraye and others (eds.): ''Pseudo-Aristotle in the Middle Ages'', Warburg Institute, London 1986, {{ISBN|0-85481-065-X}}, S. 37–52

== See also ==
*''[[Theology of Aristotle]]'', another 9th-century Arabic adaptation of a Neoplatonic work (Plotinus' ''Enneads'') falsely attributed to Aristotle

==External links==
* [http://12koerbe.de/pan/causis.htm Latin]: critical text of Adriaan Pattin (1966) revised by Hans Zimmermann 2001
* [http://12koerbe.de/pan/caus-01.htm Arabic and German text]: Bardenhewer edition (1822)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090310041756/http://hiphi.ubbcluj.ro/fam/texte/liber_de_causis.htm Latin text] (UBB Cluj)
* [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0920/_INDEX.HTM Latin text] (Intratext)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080315071204/http://www2.fh-augsburg.de/~Harsch/Chronologia/Lspost12/DeCausis/cau_intr.html Editions] (Bibliotheca Augustana)
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Liber De Causis}}
[[Category:Neoplatonic texts]]
[[Category:Philosophical literature of the medieval Islamic world]]
[[Category:Pseudoaristotelian works]]

Ryugyong Hotel

2023-09-07T16:50:59Z

Madler: added hanja of name

{{Short description|Unfinished skyscraper in Pyongyang, North Korea}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Ryugyong Hotel
| native_name = {{lang|ko|류경호텔}}
| status = On hold
| image = Prázdné slnice a rozestavěný hotel Ryugyong - panoramio.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = The Ryugyong Hotel in May 2012
| location = Ryugyong-dong, [[Potonggang-guyok]], [[Pyongyang]], North Korea
| coordinates = {{coord|39|02|12|N|125|43|51|E|region:KP-01_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| start_date = 28 August 1987<ref name=IFES/><ref name=namu>[https://namu.wiki/w/류경%20호텔 류경 호텔] - [[Namuwiki]] {{in lang|ko}}</ref>
| architect = Baikdoosan Architects & Engineers<ref name=IFES/>
| architectural_style = [[Neo-futurism]]
| floor_area = {{convert|360000|m2|sqft|abbr=on}}<ref name=Emporis/>
| top_floor =
| floor_count = Above ground 105, underground 3<ref name=namu/><ref name=Emporis/>
| antenna_spire =
| roof = {{Convert|330.02|m|ft}}<ref name=Emporis/>
| topped_out_date = 1992<ref name=Emporis/>
| est_completion = Unknown (exterior construction completed: 14 July 2011<ref name=namu/>)
| developer = [[Orascom Construction|Orascom Group]]
| public_transit = [[File:Logo of the Pyongyang Metro.svg|22px|link=Pyongyang Metro]] {{color box|green}} [[Hyoksin Line|Hyǒksin]]: [[Konsol Station|Kŏnsŏl]]
}}

The '''Ryugyong Hotel''' ({{korean|류경호텔|hanja=|rr=|context=north}}; sometimes spelled as '''Ryu-Gyong Hotel'''), or '''Yu-Kyung Hotel''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/552/korea-north/pyongyang/105-building |title=105 Building, Pyongyang, Korea, North |publisher=Asian Historical Architecture |access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref> is an unfinished {{convert|330|m|ft|adj=mid|-tall}} [[pyramid]]-shaped skyscraper in [[Pyongyang]], North Korea. Its name ("capital of [[willow]]s," 柳京 in [[Hanja]]) is also one of the historical names for Pyongyang.<ref>{{cite book |last=Funabashi |first=Yoichi |title=The Peninsula Question: A Chronicle of the Second Northern Korean Nuclear Crisis |url=https://archive.org/details/peninsulaquestio00funa |url-access=limited |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |location=Washington, DC |year=2007 |page=[https://archive.org/details/peninsulaquestio00funa/page/n64 50] |isbn=978-0-8157-3010-1}}</ref> The building has been planned as a [[mixed-use development]], which would include a hotel.

Construction began in 1987 but was halted in 1992 as North Korea entered a period of [[North Korean famine|economic crisis]] after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. After 1992, the building stood topped out, but without any windows or interior fittings. In 2008, construction resumed, and the exterior was completed in 2011. The hotel was planned to open in 2012, the centenary of founding leader [[Kim Il Sung]]'s birth. A partial opening was announced for 2013, but this was cancelled.<ref name="Berg2016">{{cite web |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/02/14/north-korea-s-best-building-is-empty-the-mystery-of-the-ryugyong-hotel.html |title=North Korea's Best Building Is Empty: The Mystery of the Ryugyong Hotel |work=The Daily Beast |date=16 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214202302/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/02/14/north-korea-s-best-building-is-empty-the-mystery-of-the-ryugyong-hotel.html |archive-date=14 February 2016 |url-status=live |first=Nate |last=Berg }}</ref> In 2018, an [[LED display]] was fitted to one side, which is used to show propaganda animations and film scenes.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ryugyong, the world's tallest empty hotel, dazzles North Korean capital skyline with propaganda light shows |work=South China Morning Post |date=30 December 2018 |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/east-asia/article/2180004/ryugyong-worlds-tallest-empty-hotel-dazzles-north-korean-capital}}</ref>

==Architecture==
{{Comparison_of_pyramids.svg|rn}}

The Ryugyong Hotel is {{Convert|330|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall,<ref>{{cite news |title=North Korea's 'Hotel of Doom' to open 24 years after construction: by numbers |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=10 October 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/8817892/North-Koreas-Hotel-of-Doom-to-open-24-years-after-construction-by-numbers.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/8817892/North-Koreas-Hotel-of-Doom-to-open-24-years-after-construction-by-numbers.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref> making it the most prominent feature of Pyongyang's [[skyline]] and the [[List of tallest buildings in North Korea|tallest building in North Korea]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lakritz|first=Talia|title=North Korea's tallest building is an abandoned hotel that has never hosted a single guest – take a closer look at the 'Hotel of Doom'|url=https://www.insider.com/abandoned-hotel-north-korea-ryugyong-photos-2019-11|access-date=2020-10-23|website=Insider}}</ref> Construction of the Ryugyong Hotel was intended to be completed in time for the 80th birthday of [[General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea]] and President [[Kim Il Sung]] in 1992;<ref>{{cite book|last=Hwang|first=Kyung Moon|title=A History of Korea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITy7DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT316|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220314114409/https://books.google.com/books?id=ITy7DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT316|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 March 2022|edition=2nd|year=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=978-1-137-57358-2|page=316}}</ref> if this had been achieved, it would have held the title of [[world's tallest hotel]].<ref>{{Cite web|author=Jacopo Prisco|title=Ryugyong Hotel: The story of North Korea's 'Hotel of Doom'|url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/ryugyong-hotel-architecture-origins/index.html|access-date=2020-10-23|website=CNN|date=10 August 2019 |language=en}}</ref> Before [[Goldin Finance 117]] in China, it was considered the tallest unoccupied building in the world.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jacopo |last=Prisco |title=Ryugyong Hotel: The story of North Korea's 'Hotel of Doom' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/ryugyong-hotel-architecture-origins/index.html |publisher=CNN |date=10 August 2019 |access-date=10 January 2022 |quote=Still closed to this day, the Ryugyong Hotel is the world's tallest unoccupied building.}}</ref><ref name="Tallest building unoccupied">{{cite web |author1=Guinness World Records |author-link1=Guinness World Records |title=Tallest building unoccupied |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/tallest-building-unoccupied |website=Guinness World Records |date=September 2015 |access-date=10 January 2022 |quote=Tallest building unoccupied}}</ref>

The building consists of three wings, each measuring {{Convert|100|m|abbr=on}} long and {{Convert|18|m|abbr=on}} wide, lightly stepped once but otherwise sloping at 75 degrees to the floor,<ref name="Esquire"/> which converge at a common point to form a [[pinnacle]]. The building is topped by a truncated [[cone (geometry)|cone]] {{Convert|40|m|abbr=on}} wide, consisting of eight floors that are intended to rotate, topped by a further six static floors. The structure was originally intended to house five [[revolving restaurant]]s, and either 3,000 or 7,665 guest rooms, according to different sources.<ref name="revolving">{{cite book |last=Randl |first=Chad |title=Revolving Architecture: A History of Buildings That Rotate, Swivel, and Pivot |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |location=New York |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/revolvingarchite00rand/page/133 133] |isbn=978-1-56898-681-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/revolvingarchite00rand/page/133 }}</ref><ref name="Quinones2003">{{cite book |last1=Quinones |first1=C. Kenneth |first2=Joseph |last2=Taggert |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding North Korea |publisher=Alpha Books |location=Indianapolis |year=2003 |series=[[Complete Idiot's Guides]] |page=183 |chapter=The Economy: Supporting the Military |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWOSvlp9jwMC&pg=PA183 |isbn=978-1-59257-169-7 |lccn=2003113809 |oclc=54510387 |ol=8867625M}}</ref> According to Orascom's [[Khaled Bichara]] in 2009, the Ryugyong will not be just a hotel, but rather a mixed-use development, including "revolving restaurant" facilities along with a "mixture of hotel accommodation, apartments and business facilities".<ref name="doom"/>

==Construction==
===Beginning===
The plan for a large hotel was reportedly a [[Cold War]] response to the completion of the then world's tallest hotel, [[Swissôtel The Stamford|the Westin Stamford Hotel]] in Singapore, in 1986 by the South Korean company [[SsangYong Group]].<ref name="oversight"/> North Korean leadership envisioned the project as a channel for Western investors to step into the marketplace.<ref name="oversight"/> A firm, The Ryugyong Hotel Investment and Management, was established to attract a hoped-for $230 million in foreign investment.<ref name="oversight"/> A representative for the North Korean government promised relaxed oversight, allowing "foreign investors [to] operate [[casino]]s, [[nightclub]]s or Japanese lounges".<ref name="oversight">{{cite journal |last=Ngor |first=Oh Kwee |date=9 June 1990 |title=Western decadence hits N. Korea |journal=Japan Economic Journal |page=12}}</ref> North Korean construction firm Baikdoosan Architects & Engineers (also known as Baekdu Mountain Architects and Engineers) began construction on a pyramid‑shaped hotel in 1987.<ref name=IFES>{{cite web |url=http://ifes.kyungnam.ac.kr/eng/m05/s10/content.asp?nkbriefNO=207&GoP=1 |title=Orascom and DPRK to Complete Ryugyong Hotel Construction |publisher=The Institute for Far Eastern Studies |date=20 May 2008 |access-date=9 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703133311/http://ifes.kyungnam.ac.kr/eng/m05/s10/content.asp?nkbriefNO=207&GoP=1 |archive-date=3 July 2009 }}</ref><ref name="almanac">{{cite book |title=Almanac of Architecture & Design |editor1=Cramer, James P. |editor2=Jennifer Evans Yankopolus |publisher=Greenway Publications |location=Atlanta |year=2006 |edition=7th |page=368 |isbn=0-9755654-2-7}}</ref>

The hotel was scheduled to open in 1992 for the 80th birthday of Kim, but problems with building methods and materials delayed completion.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/6337040/North-Korean-hotel-dubbed-the-worst-building-in-the-world-may-finally-be-finished.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/6337040/North-Korean-hotel-dubbed-the-worst-building-in-the-world-may-finally-be-finished.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=North Korean hotel dubbed the 'worst building in the world' may finally be finished |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |date=16 October 2009 |access-date=25 August 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> If it had opened on schedule, it would have surpassed the Westin Stamford to become the world's tallest hotel,<ref name="ABC">{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Beckmann |title=Pyongyang: Home to the Tallest Hotel in the World That Could, but Will Never Be |url=https://abcnews.go.com/print?id=2590901 |publisher=ABC News |date=23 October 2006 |access-date=5 July 2009}}</ref> and would have been the [[List of tallest buildings in the world|seventh-tallest building in the world]].<ref name=Emporis/>

===Halt===
[[Image:Ryugyong Hotel - May 2005.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Construction of the [[Ryugyong Hotel]] in Pyongyang was on hold between 1992 and 2008. Had it been completed on schedule, it would have been the tallest hotel in the world at the time.]]

In 1992, after the building had reached its full architectural height,<ref name=Emporis>{{cite web |url=http://www.emporis.com/buildings/130967/ryugyong-hotel-pyongyang-north-korea |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512153724/http://www.emporis.com/buildings/130967/ryugyong-hotel-pyongyang-north-korea |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 May 2015 |title=Ryugyong Hotel |access-date=9 February 2010 |work=Emporis}}</ref> work was halted due to the [[North Korean famine|economic crisis]] in North Korea following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]].<ref name="doom"/> [[Japanese newspapers]] estimated the cost of construction was $750 million,<ref name="cost">{{cite journal |title=North Korea builds record-height hotel |date=15 November 1990 |journal=Engineering News-Record |page=41}}</ref> consuming 2 percent of North Korea's GDP.<ref name="Esquire"/> For over a decade, the unfinished building sat vacant and without windows, fixtures, or fittings, appearing as a massive concrete shell.<ref name=Emporis/> A rusting construction crane remained at the top, which the [[BBC]] called "a reminder of the [[totalitarian]] state's thwarted ambition".<ref name=doom/><ref name="Kirk2008">{{cite news |last=Kirk |first=Donald |publication-date=17 October 2008 |title=Grand Illusion |periodical=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/global/2008/1027/059.html |access-date=5 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225112051/http://www.forbes.com/global/2008/1027/059.html |archive-date=25 December 2015 }}</ref> According to Marcus Noland, in the late 1990s, the [[European Chamber of Commerce in Korea (ECCK)|European Chamber of Commerce in Korea]] inspected the building and concluded that the structure was irreparable.<ref>{{cite book |last=Noland |first=Marcus |title=Avoiding the Apocalypse: The Future of the Two Koreas |publisher=Institute for International Economics |location=Washington, DC |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/avoidingapocalyp00nola_0/page/82 82] |isbn=0-88132-278-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/avoidingapocalyp00nola_0/page/82 }}</ref> Questions were raised regarding the quality of the building's concrete and the alignment of its [[elevator]] shafts, which some sources said were "crooked".<ref name=doom/><ref name="Quinones2003"/>

In a 2006 article, [[ABC News]] questioned whether North Korea had sufficient [[raw materials]] or energy for such a massive project.<ref name="ABC"/> A North Korean government official told the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' in 2008 that construction was not completed "because [North Korea] ran out of money".<ref name="boom">{{cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/27/world/fg-boom27 |title=North Korea in the midst of mysterious building boom |date=27 September 2008 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=14 December 2008 |first=Barbara |last=Demick}}</ref>

Though mocked-up images of the completed hotel had appeared on North Korean stamps during the initial construction period, the [[Government of North Korea|North Korean government]] ignored the building's existence during the construction hiatus even though it dominated the Pyongyang skyline. The government [[Photo manipulation|manipulated]] official photographs in order to remove the unfinished structure from the skyline, and excluded it from printed maps of Pyongyang.<ref name="ABC"/><ref name=boom/><ref name=doom/>

The halt in construction, the rumours of problems and the mystery about its future led foreign media sources to dub it "the worst building in the world",<ref name="Esquire">{{cite web |publication-date=28 January 2008 |title=The Worst Building in the History of Mankind |periodical=Esquire |url=http://www.esquire.com/news-politics/a4184/hotel-of-doom-012808/ |access-date=5 July 2009 |first=Eva |last=Hagberg|date=28 January 2008 }}</ref><ref name="Independent">{{cite news |last=Herskovitz |first=Jon |publication-date=18 July 2008 |title=North Koreans revamp 'world's worst building' |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/north-koreans-revamp-worlds-worst-building-870858.html |access-date=5 July 2009 |location=London}}</ref> "Hotel of Doom" and "Phantom Hotel".<ref name="doom">{{cite news |title=Will 'Hotel of Doom' ever be finished? |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8306697.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=15 October 2009 |access-date=13 October 2009}}</ref>

===Resumption===
[[File:2008 - Top of the Ryugyong Hotel, Pyongyang (filter enhanced).jpg|thumb|left|upright|View of the top in September 2008, some time after construction resumed]]

In April 2008, after 16 years of inactivity, work on the building was restarted by the Egyptian construction firm [[Orascom Group]].<ref name="doom"/><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/11909 |title=Korea: N Korea Resumes Construction of Luxury Hotel |date=25 May 2008 |publisher=MySinchew |access-date=5 July 2009}}</ref> The firm, which had entered into a US$400 million deal with the North Korean government to build and run a [[Koryolink|cellular network]], said that their telecommunications deal was not directly related to the Ryugyong Hotel work.<ref name=doom/> In 2008, North Korean officials stated that the hotel would be completed by 2012, coinciding with the 100th anniversary of the birth of Kim.<ref name="Kirk2008"/> In 2009, Orascom's chief operating officer Bichara noted that they "had not had too many problems" resolving the reported structural issues of the building, and that a revolving restaurant would be located at the top of the building.<ref name=doom/>

In July 2011, it was reported that the exterior work was complete.<ref>{{cite web |title=Photos: 'Hotel of Doom' Exterior Completed |work=The Huffington Post |date=14 July 2011 |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/14/north-koreas-ryugyong-hot_n_892540.html}}</ref> Features that Orascom had installed include exterior glass panels and telecommunications antennas.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-hotel-idUSSEO9654020080717 |title=Lifestyle: North Korea's 'Hotel of Doom' wakes from its coma |work=Reuters |last=Herskovitz |first=Jon |date=17 July 2008 |access-date=5 July 2009}}</ref> In September 2012, photographs taken by [[Koryo Tours]] were released, showing the interior for the first time. There were few fixtures or furnishings.<ref>{{cite web |title=North Korea's Ryugyong 'Hotel of Doom' pictures released |publisher=BBC News |date=27 September 2012 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19741830}}</ref><ref name="Koryo">{{cite web |url=http://koryogroup.com/blog/?p=1156 |title=Ryugyong Hotel Special Report! |website=Koryo Tours |archive-date=10 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110072645/http://koryogroup.com/blog/?p=1156 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Opening announced, then cancelled===
In November 2012, international hotel operator [[Kempinski]] announced it would be running the hotel, which was expected to partially open in mid‑2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/01/north-koreas-ryugyong-hotel-will-probably-open_n_2056346.html |work=The Huffington Post |title=North Korea's Ryugyong Hotel Will 'Probably' Open Next Year, Be Managed By Kempinski |date=1 November 2012 |agency=Associated Press |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103174135/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/01/north-koreas-ryugyong-hotel-will-probably-open_n_2056346.html |archive-date=3 November 2012 }}</ref><ref name=bloom>{{cite news |last=Yoon |first=Sangwon |title=Kempinski to Operate World's Tallest Hotel in North Korea |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-11-01/north-korea-gets-world-s-tallest-hotel-as-kempinski-opens-tower |publisher=Bloomberg |date=1 November 2012}}</ref> In March 2013, plans to open the hotel were suspended.<ref name="Yonhap2013">{{cite web |url=http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2013/03/29/28/0401000000AEN20130329005600315F.HTML |title=Plan to open high-rise hotel in Pyongyang suspended due to 'market conditions' |date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604073030/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2013/03/29/28/0401000000AEN20130329005600315F.HTML |archive-date=4 June 2013 |url-status=live |publisher=Yonhap News Agency }}</ref> Kempinski clarified its earlier statements, saying that only "initial discussions" had ever occurred,<ref name="Strochlic2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/05/22/nobody-s-home-at-the-hermit-kingdom-s-ghost-hotel.html |title=Nobody's Home at the Hermit Kingdom's Ghost Hotel |work=The Daily Beast |date=22 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112011112/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/05/22/nobody-s-home-at-the-hermit-kingdom-s-ghost-hotel.html |archive-date=12 November 2015 |url-status=live |first=Nina |last=Strochlic |location=New York }}</ref> but that no agreement had been signed because "market entry is not currently possible".<ref name="O’Carroll2013">{{cite web |last=O’Carroll |first=Chad |title=Kempinski Freezes 'Hotel of Doom' Plans in North Korea |work=NK News |date=28 March 2013 |url=https://www.nknews.org/2013/03/kempinski-freezes-hotel-of-doom-plans-in-north-korea/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928023653/http://www.nknews.org/2013/03/kempinski-freezes-hotel-of-doom-plans-in-north-korea/ |archive-date=28 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Kempinski did not elaborate on its reasons, but commentators suggested that international tensions related to the [[2013 North Korean nuclear test]], economic risks, and delays in construction probably played a part.<ref name="Yonhap2013"/><ref name="O’Carroll2013"/><ref name="CNN2013">{{cite web |title=Travel: North Korea's vast Ryugyong Hotel not opening yet after all |url=http://travel.cnn.com/north-korea-ryugyong-hotel-kempinski-pyongrang-open-341481 |publisher=CNN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905225729/http://travel.cnn.com/north-korea-ryugyong-hotel-kempinski-pyongrang-open-341481 |archive-date=5 September 2015 |url-status=live |date=25 April 2013 |quote=Despite its flashy exterior, the hotel's interior showed no sign of being close to completion in December {{bracket|2012}}. }}</ref>

===Renewal===
In late 2016, there were indications of renewed activity, and a report that a representative of Orascom had visited North Korea.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nknews.org/2016/12/lights-on-at-north-koreas-ryugyong-hotel-of-doom/|title=Lights on at North Korea's Ryugyong 'hotel of doom'|first=Chad|last=O'Carroll|publisher=NK News|date=2 December 2016}}</ref> In 2017 and early 2018, there were signs of work at the site, with access roads being constructed.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/world/hotel-of-doom-takes-kims-illusion-building-sky-high-0txmm66fh|title='Hotel of Doom' takes Kim's illusion-building sky high|last=Sherwell|first=Philip|date=2017-08-06|work=The Times|access-date=2017-08-06|language=en|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nknews.org/2018/02/new-roads-connected-to-pyongyangs-unfinished-ryugyong-hotel/|title=New roads connected to Pyongyang's unfinished Ryugyong Hotel|first=Chad|last=O'Carroll|publisher=NK News|date=26 February 2018}}</ref>

In April 2018, it was reported that a large [[LED display]] featuring the [[Flag of North Korea|North Korean flag]] had been added to the top of the building.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nknews.org/2018/04/huge-led-display-added-to-top-of-pyongyangs-iconic-ryugyong-hotel-photos|title=Huge LED display added to top of Pyongyang's iconic Ryugyong Hotel: photo|first=Chad|last=O'Carroll|publisher=NK News|date=2 April 2018}}</ref> By May, an LED display had been added to one entire side of the structure,<ref>{{cite news|last=Talmadge|first=Eric|date=30 December 2018|title=World's tallest empty hotel lit up with N. Korean propaganda|url=https://apnews.com/8e6a3919627844a58aa5cfa095515956|access-date=31 October 2019}}</ref> and there were reports that the building was being readied for occupation.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nknews.org/2018/05/enormous-led-light-wall-added-to-side-of-pyongyangs-ryugyong-hotel |title= Enormous LED light wall added to side of Pyongyang's Ryugyong Hotel |first=Chad |last= O'Carroll |publisher=NK News |date= 21 May 2018}}</ref> By July, the LED display was showing animations and movie scenes.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nknews.org/2018/07/despite-sanctions-multiple-new-construction-projects-emerging-in-pyongyang|title=Despite sanctions, multiple new construction projects emerging in Pyongyang|first=Colin |last= Zwirko |publisher=NK News |date= 20 July 2018}}</ref> In June 2019, there was new signage bearing the hotel's name (in Korean and English) and its logo over the main entrance.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/jun/27/australian-student-alek-sigley-reportedly-arrested-in-north-korea|title=Australian student reportedly arrested in North Korea out of contact since Tuesday, family say|first=Michael|last=McGowan|work=The Guardian|date=27 June 2019}}</ref>
[[File:Ryugyŏng-Hotel LED Show.jpg|center|thumb|477x477px|Pictures of the LED-Nightshow (2019)]]

==Gallery==
<div align=center><gallery mode="packed" heights="200">
File:Ryugyong hotel 01.jpg|March 2004
File:Dprk pyongyang hotel rugen 05 s.jpg|April 2005
File:Ryugyong Hotel - May 2005.JPG|May 2005
File:Ryugyong Hotel - 29 april 2010.jpg|April 2010
File:North Korea - Ryugyong hotel (5015282991).jpg|September 2010
File:Ryugyong Hotel October 2010.jpg|October 2010
File:Ryugyong Hotel - August 27, 2011 (Cropped).jpg|August 2011
File:Ryugyong Hotel - Apr-12.jpg|April 2012
</gallery></div>

==See also==
{{Portal|Architecture|Hotels|North Korea}}
* [[Korean architecture]]
* [[List of buildings with 100 floors or more]]
* [[List of hotels in North Korea]]
* [[List of tallest buildings in North Korea]]
* [[List of tallest hotels]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ryugyong Hotel}}
* [https://ryugyonghotel.com/ Ryugyong Hotel Tower in Pyongyang]
* [https://maps.google.com/?cid=6742641001376678881 Ryugyong Hotel] – [[Google Maps]]
* {{Osmrelation-inline|6109167}}

{{Hotels in North Korea}}
{{Supertall skyscrapers | under-construction}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hotels in Pyongyang]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures under construction]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures with revolving restaurants]]
[[Category:Pyramids in Asia]]
[[Category:Skyscraper hotels]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers in North Korea]]
[[Category:Unfinished buildings and structures]]
[[Category:1992 establishments in North Korea]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture in North Korea]]

User:Madler/vector-2022.css

2023-06-07T22:35:03Z

Madler: ←Created page with 'body { background-color: #FDF5E6; }'

body {
background-color: #FDF5E6;
}

Damascus

2023-01-01T14:06:45Z

Madler: Fixed typo

{{Short description|Capital and largest city of Syria}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Damascus
| native_name = دمشق
| settlement_type = [[Capital city]] 
| image_skyline = Damascus coll.jpg
| imagesize = 275px
| image_caption = <div style="background:#fee8ab;"> [[Umayyad Mosque]] General view of Damascus • [[Mount Qasioun]] [[Maktab Anbar]] • [[Azm Palace]] [[Sulaymaniyya Takiyya]]</div>
| nicknames = City of [[Jasmine]]<ref name="worldatlas"/> ({{lang|ar|مَدِينَةُ الْيَاسْمِينِ}}) Al-Fayhaa<ref name="Damascus"/> ({{lang-ar|الْفَيْحَاء|al-Fayḥāʾ}}){{refn|group="note"|Al-Fayhaa ({{lang-ar|الفيحاء|links=no}}), is an adjective which means "spacious".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.almaany.com/ar/dict/ar-ar/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%A1/|title=معنى كلمة الفَيْحَاءُ في معجم المعاني الجامع والمعجم الوسيط – معجم عربي عربي – صفحة 1|author=Almaany Team|website=almaany.com|access-date=24 October 2017}}{{dead link|date=June 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>}}
| motto =
| image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
| image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
| seal_type = Seal
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Syria#Mediterranean east#Arab world#Asia
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_mapsize =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Damascus within Syria
| pushpin_relief = 1
| coordinates = {{coord|33|30|47|N|36|17|31|E|region:SY|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Syria}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Governorates of Syria|Governorate]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Damascus Governorate]], Capital City

| government_footnotes =
| government_type =
| leader_title = [[List of governors of Damascus|Governor]]
| leader_name = Mohammad Tariq Kreishati<ref name="gov">{{Cite news|url=https://sana.sy/en/?p=278311|title=President al-Assad issues decrees on appointing new governors for eight Syrian provinces|publisher=SANA|access-date=10 August 2022|date=20 July 2022}}</ref>
| parts_type = Municipalities
| parts = [[Municipalities of Damascus|16]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| area_footnotes = <ref>Albaath.news [http://www.albaath.news.sy/user/?act=print&id=811&a=73882 statement by the governor of Damascus, Syria] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516062342/http://www.albaath.news.sy/user/?act=print&id=811&a=73882 |date=16 May 2011 }} {{in lang|ar}}, April 2010</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 105
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent =
| area_urban_km2 = 77
| area_urban_sq_mi = 29.73
| elevation_m = 680
| population_total = 2,503,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/damascus-population|access-date=23 September 2022|title=Damascus population 2022|publisher=World Population Review}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2022 estimate
| population_metro =
| population_density_metro_km2 =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_note =
| population_demonyms = {{lang-en|Damascene}} {{lang-ar|دمشقي|links=no|Dimaşqiyy}}
| blank3_name = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2011)
| blank3_info = 0.714<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sub-national HDI |title=Area Database - Global Data Lab |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=hdi.globaldatalab.org |language=en |access-date=25 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923120638/https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> – high
| blank_name_sec2 = [[International airport]]
| blank_info_sec2 = [[Damascus International Airport]]
| timezone =
| utc_offset = +3
| timezone_DST =
| utc_offset_DST =
| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| area_code = Country code: 963, City code: 11
| geocode = C1001
| iso_code = SY-DI
| blank_name = [[Köppen climate classification|Climate]]
| blank_info = [[Desert climate#Cold desert climates|BWk]]
| website = {{URL|http://www.damascus.gov.sy/}}
| footnotes = {{designation list
| embed = yes
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_offname = [[Ancient City of Damascus]]
| designation1_date = 1979 {{small|(3rd [[World Heritage Committee|session]])}}
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/20 20]
| designation1_criteria = i, ii, iii, iv, vi
| designation1_type = Cultural
| designation1_free1name = Region
| designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Arab States|Arab States]]
}}
}}

'''Damascus''' ({{IPAc-en|d|ə|ˈ|m|æ|s|k|ə|s}} {{respell|də|MASS|kəs}}, {{IPAc-en|UKalso|d|ə|ˈ|m|ɑː|s|k|ə|s}} {{respell|də|MAH|skəs}}; [[Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|{{script|Arabic|دمشق}}}} {{transl|ar|Dimashq}}, {{IPA-ar|diˈmaʃq|IPA}}) is the [[Capital city|capital]] of [[Syria]], the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth [[Holiest sites in Islam|holiest city in Islam]].<ref name="DumperStanley2007-Damascus">{{cite encyclopedia|year=2007|title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|last1=Dumper|first1=Michael R. T.|last2=Stanley|first2=Bruce E.|pages=119–126|isbn=978-1-5760-7919-5|editor=Janet L. Abu-Lughod|chapter=Damascus|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&q=damascus+%22fourth+holiest%22&pg=PA121}}</ref><ref name="Birke2013">{{citation|author=Sarah Birke|title=Damascus: What's Left|date=2013-08-02|url=https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2013/08/02/damascus-whats-left/|publisher=[[New York Review Books|New York Review of Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Totah2009">{{cite journal|last=Totah|first=Faedah M.|year=2009|title=Return to the origin: negotiating the modern and unmodern in the old city of Damascus|journal=[[City & Society]]|volume=21|issue=1|pages=58–81|doi=10.1111/j.1548-744X.2009.01015.x}}</ref> Colloquially known in Syria as {{transl|ar|ALA|aš-Šām}} ({{lang|ar|{{script|Arabic|الشَّام}}}}) and titled the "City of [[Jasmine]]" ({{lang|ar|{{script|Arabic|مَدِينَةُ الْيَاسْمِينِ}}}} {{transl|ar|ALA|Madīnat al-Yāsmīn}}),<ref name="worldatlas">{{Cite web|title=Biggest Cities In Syria|date=25 April 2017|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/biggest-cities-in-syria.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025200105/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/biggest-cities-in-syria.html|archive-date=25 October 2019|access-date=25 October 2019}}</ref> Damascus is a major cultural center of the [[Levant]] and the [[Arab world]]. The city had an estimated population of 2,503,000 in 2022.

In southwestern Syria, Damascus is the center of a large metropolitan area. Its population in 2004 was estimated to be 2.7 million people.<ref>Central Bureau of Statistics Syria [http://www.cbssyr.org/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf Syria census 2004] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310211017/http://www.cbssyr.org/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf |date=10 March 2013 }}</ref> Embedded on the eastern foothills of the [[Anti-Lebanon]] mountain range {{convert|80|km|mi}} inland from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean on a plateau {{convert|680|m|ft}} [[above sea level]], Damascus experiences a dry climate because of the [[rain shadow effect]]. The [[Barada|Barada River]] flows through Damascus.

Damascus is one of the [[List of oldest continuously inhabited cities|oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Bowker|first=John|title=Damascus|date=2003-01-01|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-1793|work=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.013.1793|doi-broken-date=31 July 2022|isbn=978-0-19-280094-7|access-date=2021-01-15}}</ref> First settled in the 3rd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] from 661 to 750. After the victory of the [[Abbasid dynasty]], the seat of Islamic power was moved to [[Baghdad]]. Damascus saw its importance decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] and [[Mamluk]] periods. Today, it is the seat of the central government of Syria. {{As of|2019|September}}, eight years into the [[Syrian Civil War]], Damascus was named the least livable city out of 140 global cities in the [[Global Liveability Ranking]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-most-livable-cities-2019-trnd/index.html|title=World's most livable city revealed|last=Buckley|first=Julia|date=2019-09-04|website=CNN Travel|language=en|access-date=2019-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915055104/https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-most-livable-cities-2019-trnd/index.html|archive-date=15 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

=={{anchor|Names and etymology}}Names and etymology==
{{see also|Names of Damascus in different languages}}
{{hiero|ṯmsqw<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauthier |first1=Henri |title=Dictionnaire des Noms Géographiques Contenus dans les Textes Hiéroglyphiques Vol. 6 |date=1929 |page=42 |url=https://archive.org/details/Gauthier1929/page/n23/}}</ref>|<hiero>ti-ms-q-w-xAst</hiero> '''or''' <hiero>ti-ms-z:q-w</hiero>|era=nk|align=left}}
The name of Damascus first appeared in the geographical list of [[Thutmose III]] as {{transl|egy|ṯmśq}} ({{lang|egy|{{script|Egyp|{{huge|𓍘𓄟𓊃𓈎𓅱}}}}}}) in the 15th century BC.<ref>List I, 13 in J. Simons, ''[https://oi-idb-static.uchicago.edu/multimedia/2380/simons_topographical_lists_1937.pdf Handbook for the Study of Egyptian Topographical Lists relating to Western Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726072325/https://oi-idb-static.uchicago.edu/multimedia/2380/simons_topographical_lists_1937.pdf |date=26 July 2018 }}'', Leiden 1937. See also Y. AHARONI, ''The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography'', London 1967, p147, No. 13.</ref>
The [[etymology]] of the ancient name {{transl|egy|ṯmśq}} is uncertain. It is attested as {{transl|akk|Imerišú}} ({{lang|akk|𒀲𒋙}}) in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], {{transl|egy|ṯmśq}} ({{lang|egy|{{script|Egyp|{{huge|𓍘𓄟𓊃𓈎𓅱}}}}}}) in [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], {{transl|arc|Damašq}} ({{lang|arc|{{script|Armi|𐡃𐡌𐡔𐡒}}}}) in [[Aramaic language|Old Aramaic]] and {{transl|he|Damméseq}} ({{lang|he|דַּמֶּשֶׂק}}) in [[Biblical Hebrew language|Biblical Hebrew]]. A number of Akkadian spellings are found in the [[Amarna letters]], from the 14th century BC: {{transl|akk|Dimasqa}} ({{lang|akk|𒁲𒈦𒋡}}), {{transl|akk|Dimašqì}} ({{lang|akk|𒁲𒈦𒀸𒄀}}), and {{transl|akk|Dimašqa}} ({{lang|akk|𒁲𒈦𒀸𒋡}}).

Later [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] spellings of the name often include an intrusive ''[[resh]]'' (letter ''r''), perhaps influenced by the root {{transl|arc|dr}}, meaning "dwelling". Thus, the English and [[Latin]] name of the city is {{transl|la|Damascus}}, which was imported from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Δαμασκός}} and originated from the [[Qumran]]ic {{transl|he|Darmeśeq}} ({{lang|he|דרמשק}}), and {{transl|syr|Darmsûq}} ({{lang|syr|{{script|Syrc|ܕܪܡܣܘܩ}}}}) in [[Syriac language|Syriac]]",<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=1357008|title=''Ancient Damascus: A Historical Study of the Syrian City-State from Earliest Times Until Its Fall to the Assyrians in 732 BC.'', Wayne T. Pitard|author= Paul E. Dion|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|issue= 270|date=May 1988|page= 98}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|jstor=1356214 |title=The Stele Dedicated to Melcarth by Ben-Hadad of Damascus|author=Frank Moore Cross|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|issue= 205|date=Feb 1972|page= 40 |doi=10.2307/1356214|s2cid=163497507}}</ref> meaning "a well-watered land".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Catherine |last2=Al-Wer |first2=Enam |last3=Caubet |first3=Dominique|last4=Watson |first4=Janet C.E. |date=2007 |title=Arabic in the City: Issues in Dialect Contact and Language Variation |publisher=Routledge |page=189 |isbn=978-1135978761 }}</ref>

In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the city is called Dimashq ({{lang|ar|دمشق}} {{transl|ar|Dimašq}}).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kalmasoft - Phonetic Database of Syriac Words|url=http://www.kalmasoft.com/KLEX/dbsyriac.htm|access-date=2021-06-20|website=www.kalmasoft.com}}</ref> The city is also known as {{transl|ar|aš-Šām}} by the citizens of Damascus, of Syria and other Arab neighbors and Turkey ({{Transl|tr|eş-Şam}}). {{transl|ar|Aš-Šām}} is an Arabic term for "[[Levant]]" and for "Syria"; the latter, and particularly the historical [[region of Syria]], is called {{transl|ar|Bilād aš-Šām}} ({{lang|ar|بلاد الشام}}, {{lit|land of the Levant}}).{{refn|group="note"|Historically, ''[[Baalshamin]]'' ({{lang-arc|ܒܥܠ ܫܡܝܢ|Ba'al Šamem|lit=Lord of Heaven(s)}}),<ref>{{cite book|author=Teixidor, Javier|title=The Pagan God: Popular Religion in the Greco-Roman Near East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m5Z9BgAAQBAJ&q=Baalshamin%20'Lord%20of%20Heaven(s)'&pg=PA27|access-date=14 August 2017|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400871391|pages=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Beattie, Andrew |author2=Pepper, Timothy |title=The Rough Guide to Syria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9iCfkTe8v2EC&q=Baalshamin%20'Lord%20of%20Heaven(s)'&pg=RA2-PA290|access-date=14 August 2017|year=2001|publisher=Rough Guides|isbn=9781858287188|pages=290}}</ref> was a [[Ancient Semitic religion|Semitic sky-god]] in [[Canaan]]/[[Phoenicia]] and ancient [[Palmyra]].<ref name="Dirven1999">{{cite book|author=Dirven, Lucinda|title=The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: A Study of Religious Interaction in Roman Syria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA76|access-date=17 July 2012|year=1999|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-11589-7|pages=76|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216195727/https://books.google.com/books?id=_LfXg2r6FT0C&pg=PA76&lpg=PA76|archive-date=16 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J.F. Healey|title=The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbO9CwAAQBAJ&q=Baalshamin%20sky%20god&pg=PA126|access-date=14 August 2017|year=2001|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004301481|pages=126}}</ref> Hence, Sham refers to (''heaven'' or ''sky'').}} The latter term etymologically means "land of the left-hand side" or "the north", as someone in the [[Hijaz]] facing east, oriented to the sunrise, will find the north to the left. This is contrasted with the name of [[Yemen]] ({{lang|ar|اَلْيَمَن}} {{transl|ar|al-Yaman}}), correspondingly meaning "the right-hand side" or "the south". The variation {{lang|ar|ش ء م}} ({{transl|ar|š-ʾ-m}}'), of the more typical {{lang|ar|ش م ل}} ({{transl|ar|š-m-l}}), is also attested in [[Old South Arabian]], {{lang|xsa|{{script|Sarb|𐩦𐩱𐩣}}}} ({{transl|xsa|šʾm}}), with the same semantic development.<ref name="Volume 9 1997 page 261">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edomond |author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |title=AL-SHĀM |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |volume=9 |year=1997 |page=261}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Younger| first = K. Lawson Jr.| title = A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities (Archaeology and Biblical Studies)| publisher = SBL Press| date = 7 October 2016| location = Atlanta, GA| pages = 551| language = en| isbn =978-1589831285}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:Damascus SPOT 1363.jpg|thumb|left|Damascus in spring seen from [[Spot (satellites)|Spot satellite]]]]
[[File:Damascus-snow-ثلج-الشام.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mount Qasioun]] overlooking the city]]
Damascus was built in a strategic site on a plateau {{convert|680|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[above sea level]] and about {{convert|80|km|mi|abbr=on}} inland from the Mediterranean, sheltered by the [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains]], supplied with water by the [[Barada|Barada River]], and at a crossroads between trade routes: the north–south route connecting Egypt with [[Asia Minor]], and the east–west cross-desert route connecting [[Lebanon]] with the [[Euphrates]] river valley. The Anti-Lebanon Mountains mark the border between Syria and Lebanon. The range has peaks of over {{convert|10,000|ft|m|abbr=on}} and blocks precipitation from the Mediterranean sea, so that the region of Damascus is sometimes subject to droughts. However, in ancient times this was mitigated by the Barada River, which originates from mountain streams fed by melting snow. Damascus is surrounded by the [[Ghouta]], irrigated farmland where many vegetables, cereals and fruits have been farmed since ancient times. Maps of Roman Syria indicate that the Barada river emptied into a lake of some size east of Damascus. Today it is called Bahira Atayba, the hesitant lake, because in years of severe drought it does not even exist.<ref name="romeartlover"/>

The modern city has an area of {{convert|105|km2|abbr=on}}, out of which {{convert|77|km2|abbr=on}} is urban, while [[Jabal Qasioun]] occupies the rest.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Damascus Metropolitan Area Urban Planning and Development |url=http://dma-upd.org/PublicFiles/File/Discussion%20Papers/02_Strategy%20and%20Frameworks%20for%20the%20Damascus%20City%20Urbanization%20to%20Guide%20the%20City%20Master%20Plan%20Revision_R1.pdf?lang=en |title=DMA-UPD Discussion Paper Series No.2 |date=October 2009 |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028075616/http://dma-upd.org/PublicFiles/File/Discussion%20Papers/02_Strategy%20and%20Frameworks%20for%20the%20Damascus%20City%20Urbanization%20to%20Guide%20the%20City%20Master%20Plan%20Revision_R1.pdf?lang=en |archive-date=2012-10-28}}</ref>

[[File:Barada river in Damascus (April 2009).jpg|thumb|upright|One of the rare periods the [[Barada]] river is high, seen here next to the [[Four Seasons Hotel Damascus|Four Seasons]] hotel in downtown Damascus]]
The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river [[Barada]] which is almost dry ({{convert|3|cm|0|abbr=on}} left). To the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: [[Midan]] in the south-west, [[Sarouja]] and Imara in the north and north-west. These neighborhoods originally arose on roads leading out of the city, near the tombs of religious figures. In the 19th century outlying villages developed on the slopes of [[Jabal Qasioun]], overlooking the city, already the site of the al-Salihiyah neighborhood centered on the important shrine of medieval [[Andalusia|Andalusian]] Sheikh and philosopher [[Ibn Arabi]]. These new neighborhoods were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the [[Europe|European]] regions of the [[Ottoman Empire]] which had fallen under Christian rule. Thus they were known as ''al-Akrad'' ''(the Kurds)'' and ''al-Muhajirin'' ''(the migrants)''. They lay {{convert|2|-|3|km|abbr=on|0}} north of the old city.

From the late 19th century on, a modern administrative and commercial center began to spring up to the west of the old city, around the Barada, centered on the area known as [[Marjeh Square|al-Marjeh]] or "the meadow". Al-Marjeh soon became the name of what was initially the central square of modern Damascus, with the city hall in it. The courts of justice, post office and railway station stood on higher ground slightly to the south. A Europeanized residential quarter soon began to be built on the road leading between al-Marjeh and [[al-Salihiyah, Damascus|al-Salihiyah]]. The commercial and administrative center of the new city gradually shifted northwards slightly towards this area.

[[File:Districts of damascus english.svg|thumb|upright=0.95|[[Municipalities of Damascus]]]]In the 20th century, newer suburbs developed north of the Barada, and to some extent to the south, invading the [[Ghouta]] oasis.{{Citation needed|date=May 2014}} In 1956–1957, the new neighborhood of [[Yarmouk (camp)|Yarmouk]] became a second home to thousands of [[Palestinian refugees|Palestinian]] refugees.<ref>The Palestinian refugees in Syria. Their past, present and future. Dr. Hamad Said al-Mawed, 1999</ref> City planners preferred to preserve the Ghouta as far as possible, and in the later 20th century some of the main areas of development were to the north, in the western [[Mezzeh]] neighborhood and most recently along the Barada valley in [[Dummar]] in the north west and on the slopes of the mountains at [[Barzeh, Syria|Barzeh]] in the north-east. Poorer areas, often built without official approval, have mostly developed south of the main city.

Damascus used to be surrounded by an [[oasis]], the Ghouta region ({{lang-ar|الغوطة|''al-ġūṭä''}}), watered by the Barada river. The [[Ain al-Fijah|Fijeh spring]], west along the Barada valley, used to provide the city with drinking water and various sources to the west are tapped by water contractors. The flow of the Barada dropped with the rapid expansion of housing and industry in the city and it is almost dry. The lower aquifers are polluted by the city's runoff from heavily used roads, industry and sewage.

===Climate===
Damascus has a [[desert climate#Cold desert climates|cool arid climate]] (''BWk'') in the [[Köppen-Geiger climate classification system|Köppen-Geiger system]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=M. Kottek|author2=J. Grieser|author3=C. Beck|author4=B. Rudolf|author5=F. Rubel|title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated|journal=Meteorol. Z.|volume=15|issue=3|pages=259–263|url=http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif|doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130|access-date=1 August 2013|year=2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017125921/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif|archive-date=17 October 2011|url-status=live|bibcode=2006MetZe..15..259K}}</ref> due to the [[rain shadow effect]] of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.climates.com/ASIA/PDF/SYR02ASA.pdf
|title=SUNSHINE GUIDE TO THE DAMASCUS AREA, SYRIA
|last=Tyson
|first=Patrick J.
|year=2010
|publisher=climates.com
|access-date=26 November 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511211807/http://www.climates.com/ASIA/PDF/SYR02ASA.pdf
|archive-date=11 May 2011
|url-status=live
}}</ref> and the prevailing ocean currents. Summers are prolonged, dry and hot with less humidity. Winters are cool and somewhat rainy; snowfall is infrequent. Autumn is brief and mild, but has the most drastic temperature change, unlike spring where the transition to summer is more gradual and steady. Annual rainfall is around {{convert|130|mm|0|abbr=on}}, occurring from October to May.

{{Weather box
| width = auto
| location = Damascus ([[Damascus International Airport]]) 1991–2020
| metric first = Y
| single line = Y
| Jan record high C = 24.0
| Feb record high C = 29.0
| Mar record high C = 34.4
| Apr record high C = 38.4
| May record high C = 41.0
| Jun record high C = 44.8
| Jul record high C = 46.0
| Aug record high C = 44.6
| Sep record high C = 42.0
| Oct record high C = 37.8
| Nov record high C = 31.0
| Dec record high C = 25.1
| year record high C = 46.0
| Jan high C = 12.9
| Feb high C = 15.1
| Mar high C = 20.0
| Apr high C = 25.1
| May high C = 30.7
| Jun high C = 35.1
| Jul high C = 37.6
| Aug high C = 37.4
| Sep high C = 34.3
| Oct high C = 28.8
| Nov high C = 20.5
| Dec high C = 14.7

| Jan mean C = 6.5
| Feb mean C = 8.2
| Mar mean C = 12.1
| Apr mean C = 16.6
| May mean C = 21.7
| Jun mean C = 25.6
| Jul mean C = 27.8
| Aug mean C = 27.6
| Sep mean C = 24.7
| Oct mean C = 19.8
| Nov mean C = 12.5
| Dec mean C = 7.8

| Jan low C = 1.2
| Feb low C = 2.3
| Mar low C = 5.0
| Apr low C = 8.3
| May low C = 12.4
| Jun low C = 16.0
| Jul low C = 18.8
| Aug low C = 18.7
| Sep low C = 15.4
| Oct low C = 11.4
| Nov low C = 5.6
| Dec low C = 2.3

| Jan record low C = −12.2
| Feb record low C = −12.0
| Mar record low C = −8.0
| Apr record low C = −7.5
| May record low C = 0.6
| Jun record low C = 4.5
| Jul record low C = 9.0
| Aug record low C = 8.6
| Sep record low C = 2.1
| Oct record low C = -3.0
| Nov record low C = −8.0
| Dec record low C = −10.2
| year record low C = -12.2
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 25
| Feb precipitation mm = 26
| Mar precipitation mm = 20
| Apr precipitation mm = 7
| May precipitation mm = 4
| Jun precipitation mm = 1
| Jul precipitation mm = 0
| Aug precipitation mm = 0
| Sep precipitation mm = 0
| Oct precipitation mm = 6
| Nov precipitation mm = 21
| Dec precipitation mm = 21
| year precipitation mm =
| Jan precipitation days = 8
| Feb precipitation days = 8
| Mar precipitation days = 6
| Apr precipitation days = 3
| May precipitation days = 2
| Jun precipitation days = 0.1
| Jul precipitation days = 0.1
| Aug precipitation days = 0.1
| Sep precipitation days = 0.2
| Oct precipitation days = 3
| Nov precipitation days = 5
| Dec precipitation days = 7
| year precipitation days =
| Jan snow days = 1
| Feb snow days = 1
| Mar snow days = 0.1
| Apr snow days = 0
| May snow days = 0
| Jun snow days = 0
| Jul snow days = 0
| Aug snow days = 0
| Sep snow days = 0
| Oct snow days = 0
| Nov snow days = 0
| Dec snow days = 0.2
| year snow days =
| Jan humidity = 76
| Feb humidity = 69
| Mar humidity = 59
| Apr humidity = 50
| May humidity = 43
| Jun humidity = 41
| Jul humidity = 44
| Aug humidity = 48
| Sep humidity = 47
| Oct humidity = 52
| Nov humidity = 63
| Dec humidity = 75
| year humidity = 56
| Jan sun = 164.3
| Feb sun = 182.0
| Mar sun = 226.3
| Apr sun = 249.0
| May sun = 322.4
| Jun sun = 357.0
| Jul sun = 365.8
| Aug sun = 353.4
| Sep sun = 306.0
| Oct sun = 266.6
| Nov sun = 207.0
| Dec sun = 164.3
| year sun = 3164.1
| Jand sun = 5.3
| Febd sun = 6.5
| Mard sun = 7.3
| Aprd sun = 8.3
| Mayd sun = 10.4
| Jund sun = 11.9
| Juld sun = 11.8
| Augd sun = 11.4
| Sepd sun = 10.2
| Octd sun = 8.6
| Novd sun = 6.9
| Decd sun = 5.3
| yeard sun = 8.5
| source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net<ref name="pogoda">{{cite web
| url = http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate2/40080.htm
| title = The Climate of Damascus 1981–2010
| publisher = Weather and Climate (Погода и климат)
| access-date = 26 April 2017
| language = ru
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170517183934/http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/climate2/40080.htm
| archive-date = 17 May 2017
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
| source 2 = NOAA (sunshine hours, 1961–1990)<ref name = NOAA>
{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_VI/SY/40080.TXT
| title = Damascus INTL Climate Normals 1961–1990
| publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| access-date = 26 April 2017}}</ref>
| date = February 2014
| source =
}}

==History==
{{For timeline}}

===Early settlement===
[[Carbon-14]] dating at [[Tell Ramad]], on the outskirts of Damascus, suggests that the site may have been occupied since the second half of the seventh millennium BC, possibly around 6300 BC.<ref>Moore, A.M.T. ''The Neolithic of the Levant''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University, 1978. 192–198. Print.</ref> However, evidence of settlement in the wider Barada basin dating back to 9000 BC exists, although no large-scale settlement was present within Damascus' walls until the second millennium BC.<ref name="Burns2">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=2}}</ref>

Some of the earliest [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] records are from the 1350 BC [[Amarna letters]], when Damascus (called ''Dimasqu'') was ruled by king [[Biryawaza]]. The Damascus region, as well as the rest of Syria, became a battleground circa 1260 BC, between the [[Hittites]] from the north and the [[Ancient Egyptians|Egyptians]] from the south,<ref name="Burns5">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=5–6}}</ref> ending with a signed treaty between [[Hattusili III|Hattusili]] and [[Ramesses II]] where the former handed over control of the Damascus area to Ramesses II in 1259 BC.<ref name="Burns5" /> The arrival of the [[Sea Peoples]], around 1200 BC, marked the end of the [[Bronze Age]] in the region and brought about new development of warfare.<ref name="Burns7">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=7}}</ref> Damascus was only a peripheral part of this picture, which mostly affected the larger population centers of ancient Syria. However, these events contributed to the development of Damascus as a new influential center that emerged with the transition from the Bronze Age to the [[Iron Age]].<ref name="Burns7" />

Damascus is mentioned in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 14:15 as existing at the time of the [[Chedorlaomer|War of the Kings]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2014:15&version=NIV|title=Genesis 14:15 (New International Version)|publisher=Bible Gateway|access-date=25 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807050209/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2014:15&version=NIV|archive-date=7 August 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the 1st-century Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]] in his twenty-one volume ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', Damascus (along with [[Trachonitis]]), was founded by [[Uz (son of Aram)|Uz]], the son of [[Aram, son of Shem|Aram]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2848/2848-h/2848-h.htm#link2HCH0006 |title=The Antiquities of the Jews, by Flavius Josephus, Book 1, Ch. 6, Sect. 4 |publisher=Project Gutenberg |access-date=19 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613020910/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2848/2848-h/2848-h.htm#link2HCH0006 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Antiquities i. 7,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2848/2848-h/2848-h.htm#link2HCH0007 |title=The Antiquities of the Jews, by Flavius Josephus, Book 1, Ch. 7, Sect. 2 |publisher=Project Gutenberg |access-date=19 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613020910/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2848/2848-h/2848-h.htm#link2HCH0007 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Josephus reports:

<blockquote>[[Nicolaus of Damascus]], in the fourth book of his History, says thus: "[[Abraham]] reigned at Damascus, being a foreigner, who came with an army out of the land above [[Babylon]], called the land of the Chaldeans: but, after a long time, he got him up, and removed from that country also, with his people, and went into the land then called the land of [[Canaan]], but now the land of Judea, and this when his posterity were become a multitude; as to which posterity of his, we relate their history in another work. Now the name of Abraham is even still famous in the country of Damascus; and there is shown a village named from him, The Habitation of Abraham.</blockquote>

===Aram-Damascus===
{{Main|Aram-Damascus}}
[[File:ISS036-E-012047.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Annotated view of Damascus and surroundings from space.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=81629|title=Damascus, Syria : Image of the Day|website=nasa.gov|access-date=5 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511121729/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=81629|archive-date=11 May 2015|url-status=live|date=15 July 2013}}</ref>]]
Damascus is first documented as an important city during the arrival of the [[Aramaeans]], a [[Semitic people]], in the 11th century BC. By the start of the first millennium BC, several Aramaic kingdoms were formed, as Aramaeans abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and formed federated tribal states. One of these kingdoms was [[Aram-Damascus]], centered on its capital Damascus.<ref name="Burns9">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=9}}</ref> The Aramaeans who entered the city without battle, adopted the name "Dimashqu" for their new home. Noticing the agricultural potential of the still-undeveloped and sparsely populated area,<ref name="Burns10">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=10}}</ref> they established the water distribution system of Damascus by constructing canals and tunnels which maximized the efficiency of the river Barada. The same network was later improved by the Romans and the Umayyads, and still forms the basis of the water system of the old part of the city today.<ref name="Burns13">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=13–14}}</ref> The Aramaeans initially turned Damascus into an outpost of a loose federation of Aramaean tribes, known as [[Zobah|Aram-Zobah]], based in the [[Beqaa Valley]].<ref name="Burns10" />

The city would gain pre-eminence in southern Syria when [[Rezon the Syrian|Ezron]], the claimant to Aram-Zobah's throne who was denied kingship of the federation, fled Beqaa and captured Damascus by force in 965 BC. Ezron overthrew the city's tribal governor and founded the independent entity of Aram-Damascus. As this new state expanded south, it prevented the [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Kingdom of Israel]] from spreading north and the two kingdoms soon clashed as they both sought to dominate trading hegemony in the east.<ref name="Burns10" /> Under Ezron's grandson, [[Ben-Hadad I]] (880–841 BC), and his successor [[Hazael]], Damascus annexed [[Bashan]] (modern-day [[Hauran]] region), and went on the offensive with Israel. This conflict continued until the early 8th century BC when [[Ben-Hadad II]] was captured by Israel after unsuccessfully besieging [[Sebastia, Nablus|Samaria]]. As a result, he granted Israel trading rights in Damascus.<ref name="Burns11">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=11}}</ref>

Another possible reason for the treaty between Aram-Damascus and Israel was the common threat of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] which was attempting to expand into the Mediterranean coast. In 853 BC, King [[Hadadezer]] of Damascus led a [[Levant]]ine coalition, that included forces from the northern Aram-Hamath kingdom and troops supplied by [[King Ahab]] of Israel, in the [[Battle of Qarqar]] against the Neo-Assyrian army. Aram-Damascus came out victorious, temporarily preventing the Assyrians from encroaching into Syria. However, after Hadadzezer was killed by his successor, Hazael, the Levantine alliance collapsed. Aram-Damascus attempted to invade Israel, but was interrupted by the renewed Assyrian invasion. Hazael ordered a retreat to the walled part of Damascus while the Assyrians plundered the remainder of the kingdom. Unable to enter the city, they declared their supremacy in the Hauran and Beqa'a valleys.<ref name="Burns11" />

By the 8th century BC, Damascus was practically engulfed by the Assyrians and entered a Dark Age. Nonetheless, it remained the economic and cultural center of the Near East as well as the Arameaen resistance. In 727, a revolt took place in the city, but was put down by Assyrian forces. After Assyria led by [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] went on a wide-scale campaign of quelling revolts throughout Syria, Damascus became totally subjugated by their rule. A positive effect of this was stability for the city and benefits from the spice and incense trade with [[Arabia]]. In 694 BC, the town was called ''Šaʾimerišu'' (Akkadian: 𒐼𒄿𒈨𒊑𒋙𒌋) and its governor was named ''Ilu-issīya''.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://ccp.yale.edu/P237772?line=P237772.58&frag=P237772.54#P237772.54| title = Yale ORACC}}</ref> However, Assyrian authority was dwindling by 609–605 BC, and Syria-Palestine was falling into the orbit of Pharaoh [[Necho II]]'s Egypt. In 572 BC, all of Syria had been conquered by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] of the [[Neo-Babylonian]]s, but the status of Damascus under [[Babylon]] is relatively unknown.<ref name="Burns2123">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=21–23}}</ref>

===Greco-Roman period===
[[File:The Jupiter temple in Damascus.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Temple of Jupiter, Damascus|Jupiter Temple]] at the entrance of [[Al-Hamidiyah Souq]]]]

Damascus was conquered by [[Alexander the Great]]. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Damascus became the site of a struggle between the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] empires. The control of the city passed frequently from one empire to the other. [[Seleucus I Nicator]], one of Alexander's generals, made [[Antioch]] the capital of his vast empire, which led to the decline of Damascus' importance compared with new Seleucid cities such as [[Latakia]] in the north. Later, [[Demetrius III Eucaerus|Demetrius III]] Philopator rebuilt the city according to the Greek [[hippodamian]] system and renamed it "Demetrias".<ref>Cohen raises doubts about this claim in {{Citation | author1=Cohen, Getzel M | author2=EBSCOhost | title=The Hellenistic settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa | date=2006 | publisher=University of California Press | url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/32915052 | access-date=26 May 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140527214426/http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/32915052 | archive-date=27 May 2014 | url-status=live }} page 137 note 4 - suggeasting the ''received tradition'' of the renaming rests on a few writers following Mionnets writings in 1811</ref>

[[File:Bab Sharqi Street, Damascus.jpg|left|thumb|The Biblical [[Street called Straight]] of Damascus]]
In 64 BC, the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] general [[Pompey]] annexed the western part of Syria. The Romans occupied Damascus and subsequently incorporated it into the league of ten cities known as the [[Decapolis]]<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qQKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA181|title= Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|author= Warwick Ball|page= 181|year= 2002|isbn= 9781134823871|access-date= 15 August 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161124091527/https://books.google.com/books?id=qQKIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA181|archive-date= 24 November 2016|url-status= live}}</ref> which themselves were incorporated into the province of Syria and granted autonomy.<ref>Skolnik, Fred; Michael Berenbaum ( 2007) ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' Volume 5 Granite Hill Publishers pg 527</ref>

The city of Damascus was entirely redesigned by the Romans after [[Pompey]] conquered the region. Still today the Old Town of Damascus retains the rectangular shape of the Roman city, with its two main axes: the Decumanus Maximus (east-west; known today as the ''Via Recta'') and the Cardo (north-south), the Decumanus being about twice as long. The Romans built a monumental gate which still survives at the eastern end of Decumanus Maximus. The gate originally had three arches: the central arch was for chariots while the side arches were for pedestrians.<ref name="romeartlover">romeartlover, [http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Damasco1.html "Damascus: the ancient town"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008020818/http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Damasco1.html |date=8 October 2015 }}</ref>

[[File:Ancient City of Damascus-107623.jpg|thumb|Remnants of ancient Damascus]]
In 23 BC, [[Herod the Great]] was given lands controlled by [[Zenodorus son of Lysanias|Zenodorus]] by [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]]<ref>Knoblet, Jerry (2005) ''Herod the Great'' University Press of America.</ref> and some scholars believe that Herod was also granted control of Damascus as well.<ref>Burns, Ross (2007) ''Damascus: A History'' Routledge pg 52</ref> The control of Damascus reverted to Syria either upon the death of Herod the Great or was part of the lands given to Herod Philip which were given to Syria with his death in 33/34 AD.

It is speculated that control of Damascus was gained by [[Aretas IV Philopatris]] of [[Nabataean kingdom|Nabatea]] between the death of [[Herod Philip II.|Herod Philip]] in 33/34 AD and the death of Aretas in 40 AD but there is substantial evidence against Aretas controlling the city before 37 AD and many reasons why it could not have been a gift from [[Caligula]] between 37 and 40 AD.<ref>Riesner, Rainer (1998) ''Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing pg 73–89</ref><ref>Hengel, Martin (1997) ''Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years'' Westminster John Knox Press pg 130</ref> In fact, all these theories stem not from any actual evidence outside the New Testament but rather "a certain understanding of 2 Corinthians 11:32" and in reality "neither from archaeological evidence, secular-historical sources, nor New Testament texts can Nabatean sovereignty over Damascus in the first century AD be proven."<ref>Riesner, Rainer (1998) ''Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing pg 83–84, 89</ref> Roman emperor [[Trajan]] who annexed the Nabataean Kingdom, creating the province of [[Arabia Petraea]], had previously been in Damascus, as his father [[Marcus Ulpius Traianus (father of Trajan)|Marcus Ulpius Traianus]] served as governor of Syria from 73 to 74 AD, where he met the Nabatean architect and engineer, [[Apollodorus of Damascus]], who joined him in [[Rome]] when he was a [[consul]] in 91 AD, and later built several monuments during the 2nd century AD.{{sfn|Abdulkarim|2003|pp=35–37}}

Damascus became a metropolis by the beginning of the 2nd century and in 222 it was upgraded to a ''colonia'' by the Emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. During the ''[[Pax Romana]]'', Damascus and the Roman province of Syria in general began to prosper. Damascus's importance as a [[caravan city]] was evident with the trade routes from southern [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Palmyra]], [[Petra]], and the silk routes from China all converging on it. The city satisfied the Roman demands for eastern luxuries. Circa 125 AD the Roman emperor [[Hadrian]] promoted the city of Damascus to "Metropolis of [[Coele-Syria]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Butcher|first=Kevin|title=Coinage in Roman Syria: Northern Syria, 64 BC-AD 253|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FlmAAAAMAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Royal Numismatic Society|isbn=978-0-901405-58-6|page=220|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124092353/https://books.google.com/books?id=9FlmAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=24 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Barclay Vincent Head|title=Historia Numorum: A Manual of Greek Numismatics|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_oFBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA662|year=1887|page=662|chapter=VII. Coele-Syria|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124151745/https://books.google.com/books?id=_oFBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA662|archive-date=24 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

Little remains of the architecture of the Romans, but the town planning of the old city did have a lasting effect. The Roman architects brought together the Greek and Aramaean foundations of the city and fused them into a new layout measuring approximately {{convert|1500|by|750|m|ft|sp=us|abbr=on}}, surrounded by a city wall. The city wall contained seven gates, but only the eastern gate, [[Bab Sharqi]], remains from the Roman period. Roman Damascus lies mostly at depths of up to {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us|spell=in}} below the modern city.

The old borough of [[Bab Tuma]] was developed at the end of the Roman/Byzantine era by the local [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] community. According to the [[Acts of the Apostles]], Saint Paul and [[Thomas the Apostle|Saint Thomas]] both lived in that neighborhood. Roman Catholic historians also consider Bab Tuma to be the birthplace of several [[Popes]] such as [[Pope John V|John V]] and [[Pope Gregory III|Gregory III]]. Accordingly, there was a community of [[Jewish Christians]] who converted to Christianity with the advent of Saint Paul's proselytisation.

During the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]], the city was besieged and captured by [[Shahrbaraz]] in 613, along with a large number of Byzantine troops as prisoners,{{sfn|Kaegi|2003|pp=75–77}} and was in Sasanian hands until near the end of the war.{{sfn|Crawford|2013|pp=42–43}}

===Rashidun period===
Muhammad's first indirect interaction with the people of Damascus was when he sent a letter, through his companion Shiya ibn Wahab, to [[Harith ibn Abi Shamir]], the king of Damascus. In his letter, Muhammad stated: "Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Be informed that my religion shall prevail everywhere. You should accept Islam, and whatever under your command shall remain yours."<ref>Safiur-Rahman Mubarakpuri, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-ppPqzawIrIC&pg=PA227 The Sealed Nectar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512192332/https://books.google.com/books?id=-ppPqzawIrIC&pg=PA227 |date=12 May 2016 }}, p. 227</ref><ref name="history">Akbar Shāh Ḵẖān Najībābādī, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=L8VHVM-lPNT77Aaiw4CICw&id=Pi5tAAAAMAAJ&dq=kalbi History of Islam, Volume 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905215842/https://books.google.com/books?ei=L8VHVM-lPNT77Aaiw4CICw&id=Pi5tAAAAMAAJ&dq=kalbi |date=5 September 2015 }}, p. 194. Quote: "Again, the Holy Prophet "P sent Dihyah bin Khalifa Kalbi to the Byzantine king Heraclius, Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh to the king of Egypt and Alexandria; Allabn Al-Hazermi to Munzer bin Sawa the king of Bahrain; Amer bin Aas to the king of Oman. Salit bin Amri to Hozah bin Ali— the king of Yamama; Shiya bin Wahab to Haris bin Ghasanni to the king of Damascus"</ref>

[[File:Umayyad Mosque night.jpg|thumb|right|Courtyard of the [[Umayyad Mosque]]]]
After most of the Syrian countryside was conquered by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] during the reign of Caliph [[Umar]] ({{Reign|634|644}}), Damascus itself was [[Siege of Damascus (634)|conquered]] by the [[Arab Muslims|Arab Muslim]] general [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] in August-September 634 CE. His [[Rashidun army|army]] had previously attempted to capture the city in April 634, but without success.<ref name="Burns99">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=98–99}}</ref> With Damascus now in Muslim-Arab hands, the Byzantines, alarmed at the loss of their most prestigious city in the Near East, had decided to wrest back control of it. Under Emperor [[Heraclius]], the Byzantines fielded an army superior to that of the Rashidun in manpower. They advanced into southern Syria during the spring of 636 and consequently Khalid ibn al-Walid's forces withdrew from Damascus to prepare for renewed confrontation.<ref name="Burns100">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=100}}</ref> In August, the two sides met along the [[Yarmouk River]] where they fought a [[Battle of Yarmouk|major battle]] which ended in a decisive Muslim victory, solidifying Muslim rule in Syria and Palestine.<ref name="Burns104">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=103–104}}</ref> While the Muslims administered the city, the population of Damascus remained mostly Christian—[[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Monophysite]]—with a growing community of [[Muslims]] from [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], and the [[Syrian Desert]].<ref name="Burns105">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=105}}</ref> The governor assigned to the city which had been chosen as the capital of [[Bilad al-Sham|Islamic Syria]] was [[Mu'awiya I]].

=== Umayyad and Abbasid periods ===
[[File:Umayyad Mosque, Damascus.jpg|thumb|left|View of Damascus with the Umayyad Mosque in center]]

Following the fourth Rashidun caliph [[Ali]]'s death in 661, Mu'awiya was chosen as the caliph of the expanding Islamic empire. Because of the vast amounts of assets his clan, the [[Umayyad]]s, owned in the city and because of its traditional economic and social links with the [[Hijaz]] as well as the [[Christian Arab]] tribes of the region, Mu'awiya established Damascus as the capital of the entire [[Caliphate]].<ref name="Burns107">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=106–107}}</ref> With the ascension of Caliph [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]] in 685, an Islamic coinage system was introduced and all of the surplus revenue of the Caliphate's provinces were forwarded to the treasury of Damascus. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] was also established as the official language, giving the Muslim minority of the city an advantage over the Aramaic-speaking Christians in administrative affairs.<ref name="Burns110">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=110}}</ref>

[[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abd al-Malik]]'s successor, al-Walid initiated construction of the [[Grand Mosque of Damascus]] (known as the Umayyad Mosque) in 706. The site originally had been the Christian Cathedral of St. John and the Muslims maintained the building's dedication to [[John the Baptist]].<ref name="Burns113">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=113}}</ref> By 715, the mosque was complete. Al-Walid died that same year and he was succeeded at first by [[Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik]] and then by [[Umar II]], who each ruled for brief periods before the reign of [[Hisham]] in 724. With these successions, the status of Damascus was gradually weakening as Suleiman had chosen [[Ramla]] as his residence and later Hisham chose [[Resafa]]. Following the murder of the latter in 743, the Caliphate of the Umayyads—which by then stretched from Spain to India— was crumbling as a result of widespread revolts. During the reign of [[Marwan II]] in 744, the capital of the empire was relocated to [[Harran]] in the northern [[Al Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazira]] region.<ref name="Burns122">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=121–122}}</ref>

[[File:Umayyad Mosque-Dome of the Treasury211099.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Qubbat al-Khazna|dome of Damascus' treasury]] in the Umayyad Mosque]]

On 25 August 750, the [[Abbasid]]s, having already beaten the Umayyads in the [[Battle of the Zab]] in Iraq, conquered Damascus after facing little resistance. With the heralding of the Abbasid Caliphate, Damascus became eclipsed and subordinated by [[Baghdad]], the new Islamic capital. Within the first six months of Abbasid rule, revolts began erupting in the city, albeit too isolated and unfocused to present a viable threat. Nonetheless, the last of the prominent Umayyads were executed, the traditional officials of Damascus ostracised, and army generals from the city were dismissed. Afterwards, the Umayyad family cemetery was desecrated and the city walls were torn down, reducing Damascus into a provincial town of little importance. It roughly disappeared from written records for the next century and the only significant improvement of the city was the Abbasid-built treasury dome in the Umayyad Mosque in 789. In 811, distant remnants of the Umayyad dynasty staged a strong uprising in Damascus that was eventually put down.<ref name="Burns132">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=130–132}}</ref>

[[Ahmad ibn Tulun]], a dissenting Turkish governor appointed by the Abbasids, conquered Syria, including Damascus, from his overlords in 878–79. In an act of respect for the previous Umayyad rulers, he erected a shrine on the site of Mu'awiya's grave in the city. [[Tulunid]] rule of Damascus was brief, lasting only until 906 before being replaced by the [[Qarmatians]] who were adherents of [[Shia Islam]]. Due to their inability to control the vast amount of land they occupied, the Qarmatians withdrew from Damascus and a new dynasty, the [[Ikhshidid]]s, took control of the city. They maintained the independence of Damascus from the Arab [[Hamdanid]] dynasty of [[Aleppo]] and the [[Baghdad]]-based Abbasids until 967. A period of instability in the city followed, with a Qarmatian raid in 968, a Byzantine raid in 970, and increasing pressures from the [[Fatimid]]s in the south and the Hamdanids in the north.<ref name="Burns135">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=135–136}}</ref>

[[File:Califate 750.jpg|thumb|Damascus was the capital of the Umayyad caliphate, which extended from Portugal to India]]

The Shia Fatimids gained control in 970, inflaming hostilities between them and the Sunni Arabs of the city who frequently revolted. A Turk, [[Alptakin]] drove out the Fatimids five years later, and through diplomacy, prevented the Byzantines during the [[Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes]] from attempting to annex the city. However, by 977, the Fatimids under Caliph [[al-Aziz]], wrested back control of the city and tamed Sunni dissidents. The Arab geographer, [[al-Muqaddasi]], visited Damascus in 985, remarking that the architecture and infrastructure of the city was "magnificent", but living conditions were awful. Under al-Aziz, the city saw a brief period of stability that ended with the reign of [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]] (996–1021). In 998, hundreds of Damascus' citizens were rounded up and executed by him for incitement. Three years after al-Hakim's mysterious disappearance, the Arab tribes of southern Syria formed an alliance to stage a massive rebellion against the Fatimids, but they were crushed by the Fatimid Turkish governor of Syria and Palestine, [[Anushtakin al-Dizbari|Anushtakin al-Duzbari]], in 1029. This victory gave the latter mastery over Syria, displeasing his Fatimid overlords, but gaining the admiration of Damascus' citizens. He was exiled by Fatimid authorities to [[Aleppo]] where he died in 1041.<ref name="Burns138">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=137–138}}</ref> From that date to 1063, there are no known records of the city's history. By then, Damascus lacked a city administration, had an enfeebled economy, and a greatly reduced population.<ref name="Burns139">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=139}}</ref>

===Seljuq and Ayyubid periods===

With the arrival of the [[Seljuq Turks]] in the late 11th century, Damascus again became the capital of independent states. It was ruled by [[Tutush I|Abu Sa'id Taj ad-Dawla Tutush I]] starting in 1079 and he was succeeded by his son [[Duqaq (Seljuk ruler of Damascus)|Abu Nasr Duqaq]] in 1095. The Seljuqs established a court in Damascus and a systematic reversal of Shia inroads in the city. The city also saw an expansion of religious life through private endowments financing religious institutions (''[[madrasa]]s'') and hospitals (''maristans''). Damascus soon became one of the most important centers of propagating Islamic thought in the Muslim world. After Duqaq's death in 1104, his mentor (''[[atabeg]]''), [[Toghtekin]], took control of Damascus and the [[Burid Dynasty|Burid line]] of the Seljuq dynasty. Under Duqaq and Toghtekin, Damascus experienced stability, elevated status and a revived role in commerce. In addition, the city's Sunni majority enjoyed being a part of the larger Sunni framework effectively governed by various Turkic dynasties who in turn were under the [[moral authority]] of the Baghdad-based Abbasids.<ref name="Burns142">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=142}}</ref>

While the rulers of Damascus were preoccupied in conflict with their fellow Seljuqs in Aleppo and [[Diyarbakir]], the Crusaders, who arrived in the [[Levant]] in 1097, conquered [[Jerusalem]], [[Mount Lebanon]] and Palestine. Duqaq seemed to have been content with Crusader rule as a buffer between his dominion and the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt. Toghtekin, however, saw the Western invaders as a viable threat to Damascus which, at the time, nominally included [[Homs]], the Beqaa Valley, Hauran, and the Golan Heights as part of its territories. With military support from Sharaf al-Din [[Mawdud]] of [[Mosul]], Toghtekin managed to halt Crusader raids in the Golan and Hauran. Mawdud was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque in 1109, depriving Damascus of northern Muslim backing and forcing Toghtekin to agree to a truce with the Crusaders in 1110.<ref name="Burns147">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=147}}</ref> In 1126, the Crusader army led by [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem|Baldwin II]] fought Burid forces led by Toghtekin at [[Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1126)|Marj al-Saffar]] near Damascus; however, despite their tactical victory, the Crusaders failed in their objective to capture Damascus.

[[File:Kuppel Nur ad-Din Madrasa.JPG|thumb|The twin domes of the funerary-Medresa of [[Nur ad-Din (died 1174)|Nur ad-Din]] also Known as the Madrasah Nuriyya al-Kubra<ref name="madainkubra">{{cite web |title=Madrasa Nuriya al-Kubra |url=https://madainproject.com/madrasa_nuriyya_kubra |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507215612/https://madainproject.com/madrasa_nuriyya_kubra |archive-date=7 May 2020 |website=Madain Project |access-date=7 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="archnet-nuriya">{{cite web |title=Madrasa al-Nuriyya al-Kubra (Damascus) |url=https://archnet.org/sites/1840 |website=Archnet |access-date=7 May 2020}}</ref>]]
Following Toghtekin's death in 1128, his son, [[Taj al-Muluk Buri]], became the nominal ruler of Damascus. Coincidentally, the Seljuq prince of [[Mosul]], [[Imad ad-Din Zengi|Imad al-Din Zengi]], took power in Aleppo and gained a mandate from the Abbasids to extend his authority to Damascus. In 1129, around 6,000 [[Isma'ili|Isma'ili Muslims]] were killed in the city along with their leaders. The Sunnis were provoked by rumors alleging there was a plot by the Isma'ilis, who controlled the strategic fort at [[Banias]], to aid the Crusaders in capturing Damascus in return for control of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]. Soon after the massacre, the Crusaders aimed to take advantage of the unstable situation and launch an [[Crusade of 1129|assault]] against Damascus with nearly 2,000 knights and 10,000 infantry. However, Buri allied with Zengi and managed to prevent their army from reaching the city.<ref name="Burns148-9">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|pp=148–149}}</ref> Buri was assassinated by Isma'ili agents in 1132; he was succeeded by his son, [[Shams al-Mulk Isma'il]] who ruled tyrannically until he himself was murdered in 1135 on secret orders from his mother, [[Zumurrud Khatun| Safwat al-Mulk Zumurrud]]; Isma'il's brother, Shihab al-Din Mahmud, replaced him. Meanwhile, Zengi, intent on putting Damascus under his control, married Safwat al-Mulk in 1138. Mahmud's reign then ended in 1139 after he was killed for relatively unknown reasons by members of his family. [[Mu'in al-Din Unur]], his ''[[mamluk]]'' ("slave soldier") took effective power of the city, prompting Zengi—with Safwat al-Mulk's backing—to lay siege against Damascus the same year. In response, Damascus allied with the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] to resist Zengi's forces. Consequently, Zengi withdrew his army and focused on campaigns against northern Syria.<ref name="Burns151">{{Harvnb|Burns|2005|p=151}}</ref>

In 1144, Zengi [[Siege of Edessa (1144)|conquered Edessa]], a crusader stronghold, which led to [[Second Crusade|a new crusade]] from Europe in 1148. In the meantime Zengi was assassinated and his territory was divided among his sons, one of whom, [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur ad-Din]], emir of Aleppo, made an alliance with Damascus. When the European crusaders arrived, they and the nobles of Jerusalem agreed to attack Damascus. [[Siege of Damascus (1148)|Their siege]], however, was a complete failure. When the city seemed to be on the verge of collapse, the crusader army suddenly moved against another section of the walls, and were driven back. By 1154, Damascus was firmly under Nur ad-Din's control.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jonathan|last= Phillips|title=The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year= 2007|pages= 216–227}}</ref>

In 1164, King [[Amalric of Jerusalem]] [[Crusader invasions of Egypt|invaded Fatimid Egypt]], which requested help from Nur ad-Din. The Nur ad-Din sent his general [[Shirkuh]], and in 1166 Amalric was defeated at the [[Battle of al-Babein]]. When Shirkuh died in 1169, he was succeeded by his nephew Yusuf, better known as [[Saladin]], who defeated a joint crusader-Byzantine siege of [[Damietta]].<ref>Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades'' (Oxford University Press, 1965, trans. John Gillingham, 1972), pp. 118–120.</ref> Saladin eventually overthrew the Fatimid caliphs and established himself as Sultan of Egypt. He also began to assert his independence from Nur ad-Din, and with the death of both Amalric and Nur ad-Din in 1174, he was well-placed to begin exerting control over Damascus and Nur ad-Din's other Syrian possessions.<ref>{{cite book|first=Christopher |last=Tyerman|author-link = Christopher Tyerman|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|publisher=Penguin|year=2006|page=350}}</ref> In 1177 Saladin was defeated by the crusaders at the [[Battle of Montgisard]], despite his numerical superiority.<ref>{{cite book|first=Bernard|last= Hamilton|title=The Leper King and his Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 2000|pages=132–136}}</ref> Saladin also [[siege of Kerak|besieged Kerak]] in 1183, but was forced to withdraw. He finally launched a full invasion of Jerusalem in 1187, and annihilated the crusader army at the [[Battle of Hattin]] in July. [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] fell to Saladin soon after, and Jerusalem itself [[siege of Jerusalem (1187)|was captured]] in October. These events shocked Europe, resulting in the [[Third Crusade]] in 1189, led by [[Richard I of England]], [[Philip II of France]] and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]], though the last drowned en route.<ref>"The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted and Philip Augustus", in ''A History of the Crusades'', vol. II: The Later Crusades, 1189–1311, ed. R. L. Wolff and H. W. Hazard (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), pp. 45–49.</ref>

The surviving crusaders, joined by new arrivals from Europe, put Acre to a [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|lengthy siege]] which lasted until 1191. After re-capturing Acre, Richard defeated Saladin at the [[Battle of Arsuf]] in 1191 and the [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Battle of Jaffa]] in 1192, recovering most of the coast for the Christians, but could not recover Jerusalem or any of the inland territory of the kingdom. The crusade came to an end peacefully, with the [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]] in 1192. Saladin allowed pilgrimages to be made to Jerusalem, allowing the crusaders to fulfil their vows, after which they all returned home. Local crusader barons set about rebuilding their kingdom from Acre and the other coastal cities.<ref>Wolff and Hazard, pp. 67–85.</ref>

Saladin died in 1193, and there were frequent conflicts between different [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid sultans]] ruling in Damascus and Cairo. Damascus was the capital of independent Ayyubid rulers between 1193 and 1201, from 1218 to 1238, from 1239 to 1245, and from 1250 to 1260. At other times it was ruled by the Ayyubid rulers of Egypt.<ref>R. Stephen Humphreys, ''From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260'' (State University of New York Press, 1977), ''passim''.</ref> During the internecine wars fought by the Ayyubid rulers, Damascus was besieged repeatedly, as, e.g., [[Siege of Damascus (1229)|in 1229]].<ref>Kenneth M. Setton, Robert Lee Wolff, Harry W. Hazard (editors), ''A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades, 1189-1311'', p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2dsycrclykIC&pg=PA695 695], University of Wisconsin Press, series "History of the Crusades", 2006</ref>

The patterned Byzantine and Chinese silks available through Damascus, one of the Western termini of the [[Silk Road]], gave the English language "damask".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1s8K0_hCfoC&q=Damascus%2C++damask+silk+road&pg=PA149|title=All Things Medieval: An Encyclopedia of the Medieval World|last=Johnston|first=Ruth A.|date=2011-08-31|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313364624|language=en}}</ref>

===Mamluk period===
[[File:Schedel Damaskus 1497.jpg|thumb|Woodcut of 1497]]
Ayyubid rule (and independence) came to an end with the Mongol invasion of Syria in 1260, in which the Mongols led by [[Kitbuqa]] entered the city on 1 March 1260, along with the King of Armenia, [[Hethum I, King of Armenia|Hethum I]], and the Prince of Antioch, [[Bohemond VI of Antioch|Bohemond VI]]; hence, the citizens of Damascus saw for the first time for six centuries three Christian potentates ride in triumph through their streets.{{sfn|Runciman|1987|p=307}} However, following the Mongol defeat at [[Battle of Ain Jalut|Ain Jalut]] on 3 September 1260, Damascus was captured five days later and became the provincial capital of the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]], ruled from Egypt, following the Mongol withdrawal. Following their victory at the [[Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar]], the Mongols led by [[Ghazan]] besieged the city for ten days, which surrendered between December 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its Citadel resisted.{{sfn|Runciman|1987|p=439}} Ghazan then retreated with most of his forces in February, probably because the Mongol horses needed fodder, and left behind about 10,000 horsemen under the Mongol general [[Mulay]].{{sfn|Demurger|2007|p=146}} Around March 1300, Mulay returned with his horsemen to Damascus,{{sfn|Amitai|1987|p=247}} then followed Ghazan back across the [[Euphrates]]. In May 1300, the Egyptian Mamluks returned from Egypt and reclaimed the entire area{{sfn|Schein|1979|p=810}} without a battle.{{sfn|Amitai|1987|p=248}} In April 1303, the Mamluks managed to defeat the Mongol army led by [[Kutlushah]] and Mulay along with their Armenian allies at the [[Battle of Marj al-Saffar (1303)|Battle of Marj al-Saffar]], to put an end to [[Mongol invasions of the Levant]].{{sfn|Nicolle|2001|p=80}} Later on, the [[Black Death]] of 1348–1349 killed as much as half of the city's population.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus/25659/Islamic-city Islamic city] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081026021251/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus/25659/Islamic-city |date=26 October 2008 }}". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref>

In 1400, [[Timur]], the [[Turco-Mongol]] conqueror, [[Siege of Damascus (1400)|besieged Damascus]]. The Mamluk sultan dispatched a deputation from Cairo, including [[Ibn Khaldun]], who negotiated with him, but after their withdrawal Timur sacked the city on 17 March 1401.{{sfn|Ibn Khaldun|1952|p=97}} The [[Umayyad Mosque]] was burnt and men and women taken into slavery. A huge number of the city's artisans were taken to Timur's capital at [[Samarkand]]. These were the luckier citizens: many were slaughtered and their heads piled up in a field outside the north-east corner of the walls, where a city square still bears the name ''Burj al-Ru'us'' (between modern-day [[Al-Qassaa]] and [[Bab Tuma]]), originally "the tower of heads".

Rebuilt, Damascus continued to serve as a Mamluk provincial capital until 1516.

===Ottoman period===
{{see also|Damascus Eyalet|Syria Vilayet}}
[[File:Takiyya as-Süleimaniyya Mosque 02.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sulaymaniyya Takiyya]]]]
In early 1516, the [[Ottoman Empire]], wary of the danger of an alliance between the Mamluks and the Persian [[Safavids]], started a campaign of conquest against the Mamluk sultanate. On 21 September, the Mamluk governor of Damascus fled the city, and on 2 October the [[khutba]] in the Umayyad mosque was pronounced in the name of [[Selim I]]. The day after, the victorious sultan entered the city, staying for three months. On 15 December, he left Damascus by Bab al-Jabiya, intent on the conquest of Egypt. Little appeared to have changed in the city: one army had simply replaced another. However, on his return in October 1517, the sultan ordered the construction of a mosque, [[Khanqah|tekkiye]] and mausoleum at the shrine of Shaikh [[Ibn Arabi|Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi]] in [[Al-Salihiyah, Damascus|al-Salihiyah]]. This was to be the first of Damascus' great Ottoman monuments.
During this time, according to an Ottoman census, Damascus had 10,423 households.<ref>"Population and Revenue in the Towns of Palestine in the Sixteenth Century"</ref>

[[File:DamasChristianQuarter1860.jpg|thumb|left|Photograph of the Christian quarter of Damascus after its destruction in 1860]]
The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]] from 1832 to 1840. Because of its importance as the point of departure for one of the two great [[Hajj]] caravans to [[Mecca]], Damascus was treated with more attention by the [[Ottoman Porte|Porte]] than its size might have warranted—for most of this period, [[Aleppo]] was more populous and commercially more important. In 1559 the western building of [[Sulaymaniyya Takiyya]], comprising a mosque and [[caravanserai|khan]] for pilgrims on the road to Mecca, was completed to a design by the famous Ottoman architect [[Mimar Sinan]], and soon afterwards the [[Salimiyya Madrasa]] was built adjoining it.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Abd al-Qadir al-Rihawi and Émilie E. Ouéchek|year=1975|chapter=Les deux ''takiyya'' de Damas|title=Bulletin d'études orientales|volume=28 |pages=217–225 |publisher=Institut Francais du Proche-Orient |jstor=41604595 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41604595}}</ref>

Early in the nineteenth century, Damascus was noted for its shady cafes along the banks of the Barada. A depiction of these by [[William Henry Bartlett]] was published in 1836, along with a poetical illustration by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]], see {{ws|[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837/Cafes in Damascus|Cafes in Damascus]]}}. Under [[Ottoman rule]], Christians and [[Jews]] were considered [[dhimmi]]s and were allowed to practice their religious precepts. During the [[Damascus affair]] of 1840 the false accusation of [[ritual murder]] was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus. The [[1860 Druze-Christian conflict in Lebanon|massacre of Christians in 1860]] was also one of the most notorious incidents of these centuries, when fighting between [[Druze]] and [[Maronites]] in [[Mount Lebanon]] spilled over into the city. Several thousand Christians were killed in June 1860, with many more being saved through the intervention of the Algerian exile [[Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri|Abd al-Qadir]] and his soldiers (three days after the massacre started), who brought them to safety in Abd al-Qadir's residence and the [[Citadel of Damascus]]. The Christian quarter of the old city (mostly inhabited by Catholics), including a number of churches, was burnt down. The Christian inhabitants of the notoriously poor and refractory [[Midan]] district outside the walls (mostly Orthodox) were, however, protected by their Muslim neighbors.

American Missionary E.C. Miller records that in 1867 the population of the city was 'about' 140,000, of whom 30,000 were Christians, 10,000 Jews and 100,000 'Mohammedans' with fewer than 100 Protestant Christians.<ref>Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches – notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. page 90. quoting Eli Jones, a [[Quaker]] from [[New England]].</ref> In the meantime, American writer [[Mark Twain]] visited Damascus, then wrote about his travel in ''[[The Innocents Abroad]]'', in which he mentioned: "Though old as history itself, thou art fresh as the breath of spring, blooming as thine own rose-bud, and fragrant as thine own orange flower, O Damascus, pearl of the East!".<ref>{{Harvnb|Twain|1869|p=283}}</ref> In November 1898, German emperor [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] toured Damascus, during his trip to the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abdelraoufsinno.com/periodicals/docum_41.pdf|title=The Emperor's visit to the East: As reflected in contemporary Arabic journalism|author=Abdel-Raouf Sinno|pages=14–15|date=1998|access-date=10 June 2021|archive-date=23 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123135139/http://www.abdelraoufsinno.com/periodicals/docum_41.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Modern period===
====20th century====
{{see also|French Mandate of Syria and the Lebanon}}
[[File:4ALHinDamascus.jpg|thumb|The Turkish Hospital in Damascus on 1 October 1918, shortly after the entry of the Australian [[4th Light Horse Regiment (Australia)|4th Light Horse Regiment]]]]
In the early years of the 20th century, nationalist sentiment in Damascus, initially cultural in its interest, began to take a political coloring, largely in reaction to the [[turkicisation]] program of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] government established in Istanbul in 1908. The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by [[Jamal Pasha]], governor of Damascus, in Beirut and Damascus in 1915 and 1916 further stoked nationalist feeling, and in 1918, as the forces of the [[Arab Revolt]] and the British Imperial forces approached, residents fired on the retreating Turkish troops.
[[File:Emir Faisal; Lt. Colonel T.E. Lawrence - early 1918.jpg|thumb|left|[[Faisal I of Iraq|King Faisal of Syria]] and [[T.E. Lawrence]] in Damascus during [[World War I]], 1918.]]

On 1 October 1918, [[T.E. Lawrence]] [[Capture of Damascus|entered Damascus]], the third arrival of the day, the first being the Australian [[3rd Light Horse Brigade]], led by Major [[Arthur Charles Olden|A.C.N. 'Harry' Olden]].<ref>Barker, A. (1998) "The Allies Enter Damascus", ''History Today'', Volume 48</ref> Two days later, 3 October 1918, [[Sharifian Army|the forces of the Arab revolt led by]] [[Faisal I of Iraq|Prince Faisal]] also entered Damascus.<ref>Roberts, P.M., ''World War I, a Student Encyclopedia'', 2006, ABC-CLIO, p. 657</ref> A military government under [[Shukri Pasha Al-Ayyubi|Shukri Pasha]] was named and Faisal ibn Hussein was proclaimed [[Arab Kingdom of Syria|king of Syria]]. Political tension rose in November 1917, when the new [[Bolshevik]] government in Russia revealed the [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] whereby Britain and France had arranged to partition the Arab east between them. A new Franco-British proclamation on 17 November promised the "complete and definitive freeing of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks." The [[Syrian National Congress]] in March adopted a democratic constitution. However, the [[Versailles Conference]] had granted France a [[League of Nations mandate|mandate]] over Syria, and in 1920 a French army commanded by the General [[Mariano Goybet]] crossed the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, defeated a small Syrian defensive expedition at the [[Battle of Maysalun]] and [[Capture of Damascus (1920)|entered Damascus]]. The French made Damascus capital of their [[League of Nations]] [[French Mandate of Syria and the Lebanon|Mandate for Syria]].
[[File:Damascus Opera House.jpg|thumb|The [[Damascus Opera House]], opened in 2004]]
[[File:ISS013-E-82035.jpg|thumb|Damascus in 2006, taken from the International Space Station]]
When in 1925 the [[Great Syrian Revolt]] in the [[Hauran]] spread to Damascus, the French suppressed with heavy weaponry, bombing and shelling the city on 9 May 1926. As a result, the area of the old city between [[Al-Hamidiyah Souq]] and [[Medhat Pasha Souq]] was burned to the ground, with many deaths, and has since then been known as ''[[al-Hariqa]]'' ("the fire"). The old city was surrounded with barbed wire to prevent rebels infiltrating from the [[Ghouta]], and a new road was built outside the northern ramparts to facilitate the movement of armored cars.

On 21 June 1941, 3 weeks into the Allied [[Syria-Lebanon campaign]], [[Battle of Damascus (1941)|Damascus was captured]] from the [[Vichy French]] forces by a mixed British Indian and Free French force. The French agreed to withdraw in 1946, following the British intervention during the [[Levant Crisis]], thus leading to the full independence of Syria. Damascus remained the capital.

==== Civil war ====
<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: [[Syrian civil war]]</div>By January 2012, [[Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign|clashes]] between the regular army and rebels reached the outskirts of Damascus, reportedly preventing people from leaving or reaching their houses, especially when security operations there intensified from the end of January into February.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://syria-today.com/index.php/life/18976-dead-ends |title=Public transportation in Damascus is having an uphill go of it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321225005/http://syria-today.com/index.php/life/18976-dead-ends |archive-date=2012-03-21}}</ref>

By June 2012, bullets and shrapnel shells smashed into homes in Damascus overnight as troops battled the Free Syrian Army in the streets. At least three tank shells slammed into residential areas in the central Damascus neighborhood of Qaboun, according to activists. Intense exchanges of assault-rifle fire marked the clash, according to residents and amateur video posted online.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/heavy-gunfire-in-syria-s-capital-during-the-weekend-1.435372|title=Heavy gunfire in Syria's capital during the weekend|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|date=10 June 2012|access-date=10 June 2012}}</ref>

The Damascus suburb of [[Ghouta]] suffered heavy bombing in December 2017 and a further wave of bombing started in February 2018, also known as [[Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018)|Rif Dimashq Offensive]].

On 20 May 2018, Damascus and the entire Rif Dimashq Governorate came fully under government control for the first time in 7 years after the evacuation of [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|IS]] from [[Yarmouk Camp]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-military-in-full-control-of-damascus-for-first-time-in-years/ |title=Syrian military in full control of Damascus for first time in years |first=Leith |last=Aboufadel |date=20 May 2018 |access-date=20 May 2018 |newspaper=[[Al-Masdar News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520192808/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-military-in-full-control-of-damascus-for-first-time-in-years/ |archive-date=20 May 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2019, Damascus entered the ''[[Guinness World Records]]'' as the least liveable city, scoring 30.7 points on the [[Economist Intelligence Unit|Economist]]'s [[Global Liveability Ranking|Global Liveability Index]] in 2019, based on factors such as: stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education, and infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/100393-least-habitable-city |title=Least habitable city |website=Guinness World Records |date=September 2019 }}</ref> However, the trend of being the least liveable city on Earth started in 2017,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/liveable-cities-2017-economist-intelligence/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/liveable-cities-2017-economist-intelligence/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title= Revealed: The world's best (and worst) cities to live in |website=The Telegraph |date=16 August 2017 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> and continued as of 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/damascus-tripoli-algiers-least-liveable-cities-world-study |title=Damascus, Tripoli and Algiers are least liveable cities in the world, says study |website=Middle East Eye |date=23 June 2022 }}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:FourseasonshotelDamascus.JPG|thumb|upright|The [[Four Seasons Hotel Damascus|Four Seasons Hotel]]]]
The historical role that Damascus played as an important trade center has changed in recent years due to political development in the region as well as the development of modern trade.<ref name="Damascus">{{cite web |url= https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus |title= Damascus |website= Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date= 28 November 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091107233311/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus |archive-date= 7 November 2009 |url-status= live }}</ref> Most goods produced in Damascus, as well as in Syria, are distributed to countries of the Arabian peninsula.<ref name="Damascus" /> Damascus has also held an annual [[Damascus International Fair|international trade exposition]] every fall, since 1954.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peife.gov.sy|title=Damascus International Fair|access-date=28 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091112075549/http://www.peife.gov.sy/|archive-date=12 November 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

The tourism industry in Damascus has a lot of potential, however the civil war has hampered these prospects. The abundance of cultural wealth in Damascus has been modestly employed since the late 1980s with the development of many accommodation and transportation establishments and other related investments.<ref name="Damascus" /> Since the early 2000s, numerous boutique hotels and bustling cafes opened in the old city which attract plenty of European tourists and Damascenes alike.<ref name="The Wall Street Journal">{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125841487085151317|title=Damascus Revels in Its New Allure to Investors|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=28 November 2009|first=Chip|last=Cummins|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930214351/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125841487085151317|archive-date=30 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> 
In 2009 new office space was built and became available on the real estate market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cushwake.com/cwglobal/jsp/kcReportDetail.jsp?Country=GLOBAL&Language=EN&catId=100003&pId=c21200007p |title=Report: Office Space Across the World 2009 |publisher=Cushman & Wakefield |access-date=28 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511153330/http://www.cushwake.com/cwglobal/jsp/kcReportDetail.jsp?Country=GLOBAL&Language=EN&catId=100003&pId=c21200007p |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref>
[[File:BankSharqAndBlueTower.jpg|250px|thumb|Bank Al-Sharq and the [[Blue Tower Hotel]], a 4 star hotel in Hamra Street.]]

Damascus is home to a wide range of industrial activity, such as textile, [[food processing]], cement and various chemical industries.<ref name="Damascus" /> The majority of factories are run by the state, however limited [[privatization]] in addition to economic activities led by the [[private sector]], were permitted starting in the early 2000s with the liberalization of trade that took place.<ref name="Damascus" />
Traditional handcrafts and artisan copper engravings are still produced in the old city.<ref name="Damascus" />

The [[Damascus Securities Exchange|Damascus stock exchange]] formally opened for trade in March 2009, and the exchange is the only stock exchange in Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sebcsyria.com/web2008/art.php?art_id=1619|title=Inauguration of Damascus Stock Exchange|publisher=Syrian Enterprise and Business Center|access-date=28 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503210033/http://www.sebcsyria.com/web2008/art.php?art_id=1619|archive-date=3 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> It is located in the Barzeh district, within Syria's financial markets and securities commission. Its final home is to be located in the upmarket business district of Yaafur.<ref name="AP">{{cite web |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gPsB6CSsyXUgWdxEsC0B_O-jqV-w |title=AFP: Syria launches first stock exchange |date=10 March 2009 |access-date=20 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212075555/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gPsB6CSsyXUgWdxEsC0B_O-jqV-w |archive-date=12 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>



==Demographics==
[[File:Damascusfashion.jpg|thumb|upright|Three Damascene women, 1873: [[peasant]] (left), [[Druze]] in ''[[tantour]]'' headdress, and urban lady wearing ''qabqab'' (i.e. kabkab or [[platform shoes]])]]
The estimated population of Damascus in 2011 was 1,711,000. Damascus is the center of a crowded metropolitan area with an estimated population of 5 million. The metropolitan area of Damascus includes the cities of [[Douma, Syria|Douma]], [[Harasta]], [[Darayya]], [[Al-Tall (Syria)|Al-Tall]] and [[Jaramana]].

The city's growth rate is higher than Syria as a whole, primarily due to [[Urbanization|rural-urban migration]] and the influx of young Syrian migrants drawn by employment and educational opportunities.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web |url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Damascus |title= Damascus {{!}} National Capital, Syria |website= Britannica.com |access-date= 31 January 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180201221132/https://www.britannica.com/place/Damascus |archive-date= 1 February 2018 |url-status= live }}</ref> The migration of Syrian youths to Damascus has resulted in an average age within the city that is below the national average.<ref name=Britannica/> Nonetheless, the population of Damascus is thought to have decreased in recent years as a result of the ongoing [[Syrian Civil War]].

===Ethnicity===
The vast majority of Damascenes are Syrian [[Arabs]]. The [[Kurds in Syria|Kurds]] are the largest ethnic minority, with a population of approximately 300,000.<ref>{{Cite book |title= Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East |last= Chatty |first= Dawn |author-link= Dawn Chatty |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2010 |isbn= 978-0-521-52104-8 |pages= 267 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8OsgAwAAQBAJ |access-date= 29 October 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160520113218/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OsgAwAAQBAJ |archive-date= 20 May 2016 |url-status= live }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=October 2016}} They reside primarily in the neighborhoods of Wadi al-Mashari ("Zorava" or "Zore Afa" in Kurdish) and [[Rukneddine|Rukn al-Din]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/17762 |title= Kurds of Damascus: Trapped between Secession and Integration |access-date= 24 May 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160418022850/http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/17762 |archive-date= 18 April 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= May 2013 |url= http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/05042013 |title= As Fighting Rages in Damascus, Kurds Flee Their Neighborhoods |access-date= 24 May 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160813195654/http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/05042013 |archive-date= 13 August 2016 |url-status= live }}</ref> Other minorities include [[Syrian Turkmen]], Armenians, Assyrians, Circassians and a small Greek community.

Among the city's minorities is a small [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] community.<ref name="Britannica"/>

===Religion===
[[File:Mariamie-8-12-21032013-12-17-095100.jpg|thumb|Patriarch [[John X of Antioch|John the Tenth]] leading mass at the [[Mariamite Cathedral of Damascus]]]]
[[Islam]] is the dominant religion. The majority of Muslims are [[Sunni]] while [[Alawites]] and [[Twelver Shi'a]] comprise sizeable minorities. Alawites live primarily in the [[Mezzeh]] districts of Mezzeh 86 and Sumariyah. Twelvers primarily live near the Shia holy sites of [[Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque|Sayyidah Ruqayya]] and [[Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque|Sayyidah Zaynab]]. It is believed that there are more than 200 mosques in Damascus, the most well-known being the [[Umayyad Mosque]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Flood|first=Finbarr Barry|title=The Great Mosque of Damascus: studies on the makings of an Umayyad visual culture|publisher=BRILL|year=2001|volume=33|page=12|isbn=978-90-04-11638-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r5f8kxIyykQC|access-date=26 November 2009}}</ref>

Christians represent about 15%–20% of the population.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Several Eastern Christian rites have their headquarters in Damascus, including the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], the [[Syriac Catholic Church]], and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch]]. The Christian districts in the city are [[Bab Tuma]], [[Qassaa]] and Ghassani. Each have many churches, most notably the ancient [[Chapel of Saint Paul]] and [[Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus|St Georges Cathedral]] in Bab Tuma. At the suburb of [[Our Lady of Soufanieh|Soufanieh]] a series of [[apparitions of the Virgin Mary]] have reportedly been observed between 1982 and 2004.<ref>Sbalchiero in: Laurentin/ Sbalchiero (2007), p. 1093–1097.</ref> A smaller [[Druze]] minority inhabits the city, notably in the mixed Christian-Druze suburbs of [[Tadamon, Syria|Tadamon]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/01/alawites-syria-siege-sunni-druze.html|title=Syria's Alawites Under Siege|newspaper=Al-Monitor: Independent, Trusted Coverage of the Middle East |access-date=24 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624032029/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/01/alawites-syria-siege-sunni-druze.html|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=live|date=4 January 2013}}</ref> [[Jaramana]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://syriadirect.org/news/jaramana-despite-pressures-druze-remain-in-regime-camp|title=Despite pressure Druze remain in regime camp|date=5 March 2015|access-date=24 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624213228/http://syriadirect.org/news/jaramana-despite-pressures-druze-remain-in-regime-camp|archive-date=24 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Sahnaya]]. The Patriarchal See of the Syriac Orthodox is based in Damascus, Bab Toma. This church is independent of the Middle Eastern-based Syriac Orthodox Church in Damascus and has its own leadership and structure in India, although both practice the same or similar denomination of Christianity. There are 700,000 [[Antiochian Greeks|members]] of the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch]] in Syria, who are the bulk of the Christian population alongside 400,000 [[Assyrians in Syria|Assyrians/Syriacs]] and 30-100,000 [[Armenians in Syria|Armenians]] and 350,000 Catholics.

There was a small [[Syrian Jews|Jewish community]] namely in what is called ''Haret al-Yahud'' the Jewish quarter. They are the remnants of an ancient and much larger [[Syrian Jews|Jewish presence in Syria]], dating back at least to Roman times, if not before to the time of King David.<ref>Katz, Ketsi'ah (1981), Masoret ha-lashon ha-'Ibrit shel Yehude Aram-Tsoba (Ḥalab) bi-qri'at ha-Miqra ve-ha-Mishnah (The Hebrew Language Tradition of the Jews of Aleppo in the Reading of the Bible and Mishnah)</ref>

=== Gallery ===

<gallery>
Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Damascus, Syria.jpg|The [[Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady, Damascus|Greek-Melkite Patriarchal Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady]]
Syriac Catholic Church, Damascus 01.jpg|The [[Syriac Catholic Cathedral of Saint Paul]]
Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg|The [[Chapel of Saint Paul]]
Takiyya as-Süleimaniyya Mosque 01.jpg|The [[Sulaymaniyya Takiyya]]
File:Syria, Damascus, The Umayyad Mosque, The Great Mosque of Damascus.jpg|The [[Umayyad Mosque]]
Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque 03.jpg|The [[Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque]]
</gallery>

====Sufism====
[[Sufism]] throughout the second half of the 20th century has been an influential current in the Sunni religious practises, particularly in Damascus. The largest women-only and girls-only Muslim movement in the world happens to be Sufi-oriented and is based in Damascus, led by [[Munira al-Qubaysi]]. Syrian Sufism has its stronghold in urban regions such as Damascus, where it also established political movements such as Zayd, with the help of a series of [[mosque]]s, and clergy such as [[Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi]], [[Sa'id Hawwa]], [[Abd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri]] and [[Muhammad al-Yaqoubi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/10/syria-sufi-salafi-war-islam.html#|title=Syrian Sufis Divided As Salafist Influence Grows|date=3 October 2013|access-date=6 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006185556/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/10/syria-sufi-salafi-war-islam.html|archive-date=6 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Historical sites==
{{main|Ancient City of Damascus}}
[[File:Damasco via rectaHPIM3222.JPG|thumb|left|Typical historic Damascene street]]
[[File:Al-Hamidiyah Souq 02.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Hamidiyah Souq]], dating back to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman era]]]]
Damascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history. Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to {{convert|8|ft|m|order=flip|abbr=on}} below the modern level. {{citation needed|date=May 2014}} The [[Citadel of Damascus]] is in the northwest corner of the Old City. The ''[[Damascus Straight Street]]'' (referred to in the account of the [[Conversion of Saint Paul|conversion]] of [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 9:11), also known as the ''[[Via Recta]]'', was the [[Decumanus Maximus|decumanus]] (east–west main street) of Roman Damascus, and extended for over {{convert|1500|m|ft|sp=us|abbr=on}}. Today, it consists of the street of Bab Sharqi and the Souk Medhat Pasha, a covered market. The [[Bab Sharqi]] street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of [[Bab Tuma]] (St. Thomas's Gate), where [[Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus|St George’s Cathedral]], the seat of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], is notably located. [[Medhat Pasha Souq]] is also a main market in Damascus and was named after [[Midhat Pasha]], the Ottoman governor of Syria who renovated the Souk. At the end of the Bab Sharqi street, one reaches the [[House of Saint Ananias|House of Ananias]], an underground chapel that was the cellar of [[Ananias of Damascus|Ananias]]'s house. The [[Umayyad Mosque]], also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world and also one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam. A shrine in the mosque is said to contain the body of [[St. John the Baptist]]. The [[Mausoleum of Saladin|mausoleum]] where [[Saladin]] was buried is located in the gardens just outside the mosque. [[Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque]], the shrine of the youngest daughter of [[Husayn ibn Ali]], can also be found near the Umayyad Mosque. The ancient district of [[Amara District|Amara]] is also within a walking distance from these sites. Another heavily visited site is [[Sayyidah Zaynab Mosque]], where the tomb of [[Zaynab bint Ali]] is located.

Shias, Fatemids and Dawoodi Bohras believe that after the battle of Karbala (680 AD), in Iraq, the Umayyad Caliph Yezid brought Imam Husain's head to Damascus, where it was first kept in the courtyard of Yezid Mahal, now part of Umayyad Mosque complex. All other remaining members of Imam Husain's family (left alive after Karbala) along with heads of all other companions, who were killed at Karbala, were also brought to Damascus. These members were kept as prisoners on the outskirts of the city (near [[Bab al-Saghir]]), where the other heads were kept at the same location, now called Ru’ûs ash-Shuhadâ-e-Karbala or ganj-e-sarha-e-shuhada-e-Karbala.<ref>Linda Kay Davidson and David Martin Gitlitz, Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland, an Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara CA: ABC-CLIO, 2002), 141-42.
{{ISBN|9781576070048}} and https://www.al-islam.org/ziyarat/syria.htm#Damascus</ref> There is a qibla (place of worship) marked at the place, where devotees say [[Ali ibn Husayn|Imam Ali-Zain-ul-Abedin]] used to pray while in captivity.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

The Harat Al Yehud<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jpost.com/Magazine/Features/Jewish-Quarter-of-Damascus-blooms-again |title=Jewish Quarter of Damascus blooms again |access-date=16 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316205404/http://www.jpost.com/Magazine/Features/Jewish-Quarter-of-Damascus-blooms-again |archive-date=16 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> or Jewish Quarter is a recently restored historical tourist destination popular among Europeans before the outbreak of civil war.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

===Walls and gates of Damascus===
[[File:Bab Touma Gate Damascus.jpg|thumb|[[Bab Tuma]] gate]]
The Old City of Damascus with an approximate area of 86.12 hectares<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/20 |title=Ancient City of Damascus |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=31 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027161431/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/20/ |archive-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of the southern side. There are seven extant city gates, the oldest of which dates back to the Roman period. These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel:
* [[Bab al-Faradis]] ("the gate of the orchards", or "of the paradise")
* [[Bab al-Salam]] ("the gate of peace"), all on the north boundary of the Old City
* [[Bab Tuma]] ("Touma" or "Thomas's Gate") in the north-east corner, leading into the Christian quarter of the same name,
* [[Bab Sharqi]] ("eastern gate") in the east wall, the only one to retain its Roman plan
* [[Bab Kisan]] in the south-east, from which tradition holds that Saint Paul made his escape from Damascus, lowered from the ramparts in a basket; this gate has been closed and turned into [[Chapel of Saint Paul]] marking this event,
* [[Bab al-Saghir]] (The Small Gate)
* [[Bab al-Jabiya]] at the entrance to Souk Midhat Pasha, in the south-west.
Other areas outside the walled city also bear the name "gate": [[Bab al-Faraj (Damascus)|Bab al-Faraj]], [[Bab Mousalla]] and [[Bab Sreija]], both to the south-west of the walled city.

===Churches in the old city===
[[File:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg|thumb|[[Chapel of Saint Paul]]]]
* [[Chapel of Saint Paul]]
* [[House of Saint Ananias]]
* [[Mariamite Cathedral of Damascus]]
* [[Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady, Damascus|Cathedral of the Dormition of Our Lady]]
* Saint John the Damascene Church
* Saint Paul's Laura
* [[Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus|Saint George's Syriac Orthodox Cathedral]]

===Islamic sites in the old city===
[[File:Saladin mouselum tomb Damascus.jpg|thumb|Saladin mausoleum]]
[[File:Bilal-al-Habashi.jpg|thumb|Grave of [[Bilal ibn Rabah]] in [[Bab al-Saghir]] cemetery, Damascus]]
* [[Umayyad Mosque]], also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus
* [[Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque]]
* [[Bab Saghir]] Cemetery
* [[Mausoleum of Saladin]]
* [[Nabi Habeel Mosque]]

===Madrasas===
* [[Al-Adiliyah Madrasa]]
* [[Az-Zahiriyah Library]]
* [[Nur al-Din Madrasa]]

===Khans===
* [[Khan Jaqmaq]]
* [[Khan As'ad Pasha]]
* [[Khan Sulayman Pasha]]

===Old Damascene houses===
[[File:Damascusalley.JPG|thumb|upright|Narrow alley in old Damascus]]
* [[Azm Palace]], originally built in 1750 as the residence for the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] governor of Damascus [[As'ad Pasha al-Azm]], housing the Museum of Arts and Popular Traditions.
* [[Bayt al-Aqqad]].
* [[Maktab Anbar]], a mid-19th-century Jewish private mansion, restored by the [[Ministry of Culture (Syria)|Ministry of Culture]] in 1976 to serve as a library, exhibition center, museum and craft workshops.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archnet.org/sites/203/media_contents/20341 |title=Archnet, Maktab Anbar Restoration |access-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227013955/http://archnet.org/sites/203/media_contents/20341 |archive-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Beit al-Mamlouka Hotel|Beit al-Mamlouka]], a 17th-century Damascene house, serving as a luxury [[boutique hotel]] within the old city since 2005.

===Threats to the future of the old City===
Due to the rapid decline of the population of Old Damascus (between 1995 and 2009 about 30,000 people moved out of the old city for more modern accommodation),<ref name="Hendawi">{{cite news|last1=Hendawi|first1=Hamza|title=Old Damascus struggles to cope in the new Syria|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-ml-syria-saving-old-city-020109-2009feb01-story.html|access-date=13 August 2017|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=The San Diego Union-Tribune|date=2009-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813224640/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-ml-syria-saving-old-city-020109-2009feb01-story.html|archive-date=13 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> a growing number of buildings are being abandoned or are falling into disrepair. In March 2007, the local government announced that it would be demolishing Old City buildings along a {{convert|1400|m|ft|abbr=on}} stretch of rampart walls as part of a redevelopment scheme. These factors resulted in the Old City being placed by the [[World Monuments Fund]] on its 2008 Watch List of the 100 Most Endangered Sites in the world.<ref name=press_release>{{cite web|author1=World Monuments Fund|title=2008 World Monuments Watch List Of 100 Most Endangered Sites |url=http://www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/wmf_publication/Watch_2008_site_descriptions_0.pdf |website=World Monuments Fund |publisher=World Monuments Fund |access-date=27 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320161546/http://www.wmf.org/sites/default/files/wmf_publication/Watch_2008_site_descriptions_0.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2008 Panelists Bios |publisher=World Monuments Fund |url=http://www.wmf.org/pdf/Watch_2008_panel.pdf |access-date=3 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513042550/http://wmf.org/pdf/Watch_2008_panel.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2008 }}</ref> It is hoped that its inclusion on the list will draw more public awareness to these significant threats to the future of the historic Old City of Damascus.

====State of old Damascus====
In spite of the recommendations of the [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Center:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.britishsyriansociety.org/dam2020/recommendations.asp |title=The British Syrian Society |publisher=The British Syrian Society|access-date=29 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623050426/http://www.britishsyriansociety.org/dam2020/recommendations.asp |archive-date=2007-06-23}}</ref>
* [[Souq al-Atiq]], a protected buffer zone, was destroyed in three days in November 2006;
* [[King Faysal Street]], a traditional hand-craft region in a protected buffer zone near the walls of Old Damascus between the Citadel and ''Bab Touma'', is threatened by a proposed motorway.
* In 2007, the [[Ancient City of Damascus|Old City of Damascus]] and notably the district of [[Bab Tuma]] have been recognized by The World Monument Fund as one of the most endangered sites in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldmonuments.org/ |title=Worldmonuments.org |publisher=Worldmonuments.org |access-date=6 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020930193523/http://www.worldmonuments.org/ |archive-date=30 September 2002 }}</ref>

In October 2010, [[Global Heritage Fund]] named Damascus one of 12 [[Cultural heritage|cultural heritage sites]] most "on the verge" of irreparable loss and destruction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://globalheritagefund.org/vanishing |title=GHF |publisher=Global Heritage Fund |access-date=1 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515054040/http://globalheritagefund.org/vanishing |archive-date=15 May 2011}}</ref>

==Education==
[[File:Damascus university internal view.jpg|thumb|[[Damascus University]]]]
Damascus is the main center of education in Syria. It is home to [[Damascus University]], which is the oldest and largest university in Syria. After the enactment of legislation allowing private higher institutions, several new universities were established in the city and in the surrounding area, including:
* [[Syrian Virtual University]]
* [[International University for Science and Technology]]
* [[Syrian Private University]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://spu.edu.sy/index.php?&lang=2|title=Syrian Private University|access-date=2018-12-02|language=en-EN|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202155321/http://spu.edu.sy/index.php?&lang=2|archive-date=2 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Arab International University]]
* [[University of Kalamoon]]
* [[Yarmouk Private University]]
* [[Wadi International University]]
* [[Al-Jazeera University]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jude.edu.sy/|title=Aljazeera Private University|website=jude.edu.sy}}</ref>
* European University Damascus

The institutes play an important rule in the education, including:
* Higher Institute of Business Administration
* [[Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology]]
* [[Higher Institute for Dramatic Arts]]
* National Institute of Administration

* Additional:
**[[Syrian International Academy for Training and Development]]

==Transportation==
[[File:Damascus, Syria, Highway.jpg|right|thumb|A modern highway in Damascus]]
Damascus is linked with other major cities in Syria via a [[Transport in Syria|modern motorway network]]. The [[M5 Motorway (Syria)|M5]] connects Damascus with [[Homs]], [[Hama]], [[Aleppo]] and Turkey in the north and Jordan in the south. The M1 is going from Homs onto [[Latakia]] and [[Tartus]].
The [[M4 Motorway (Syria)|M4]] links the city with [[Al-Hasakah]] and Iraq. The M1 highway connects the city to the western Syria and [[Beirut]].

The main airport is [[Damascus International Airport]], approximately {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from the city, with connections to a few Middle Eastern cities. Before the beginning of the [[Syrian civil war]], the airport had connectivity to many Asian, European, African, and, South American cities.
Streets in Damascus are often narrow, especially in the older parts of the city, and speed bumps are widely used to limit the speed of vehicles. Many taxi companies operate in Damascus. Fares are regulated by law and taxi drivers are obliged to use a [[taximeter]].

[[Public transport]] in Damascus depends extensively on [[buses]] and [[minibuses]]. There are about one hundred lines that operate inside the city and some of them extend from the city center to nearby suburbs. There is no schedule for the lines, and due to the limited number of official bus stops, buses will usually stop wherever a passenger needs to get on or off. The number of buses serving the same line is relatively high, which minimizes the waiting time. Lines are not numbered, rather they are given captions mostly indicating the two end points and possibly an important station along the line. Between 2019 and 2022, more than 100 modern buses were delivered from [[China]] as part of the international agreement. These deliveries strengthened and modernized the public transport of Damascus.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sana.sy/en/?p=276570|title=Syria receives one hundred domestic traffic-buses offered by China|author=Mazen Eyon|publisher=SANA|date=29 June 2022|access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sana.sy/en/?p=168016|title=China grants 100 buses to Syria in contribution to enhancing transport sector|author=Ruaa al-Jazaeri|publisher=SANA|access-date=10 July 2022|date=20 June 2019}}</ref>
[[File:King Long KLQ 6118GQ bus in Damascus.JPG|[[King Long]] KLQ 6118GQ bus used for public transport in Damascus|250px|thumb]]

[[File:Damascus-Hejaz station.jpg|thumb|[[Hejaz Railway Station|Al-Hejaz Station]]]]

Served by [[Chemins de Fer Syriens]], the former main railway station of Damascus was [[Hejaz Railway|al-Hejaz railway station]], about {{convert|1|km|mi|frac=8|abbr=on}} west of the old city. The station is now defunct and the tracks have been removed, but there still is a ticket counter and a shuttle to Damacus [[Qadam]] station in the south of the city, which now functions as the main railway station.

In 2008, the government announced a plan to construct a Damascus Metro.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.damascus-metro.com |title=الخط الأخضر " أهلاً بكم في موقع الخط الأخضر |publisher=Damascus-metro.com |access-date=29 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911213856/http://www.damascus-metro.com/ |archive-date=11 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The green line will be an essential west–east axis for the future public transportation network, serving Moadamiyeh, Sumariyeh, Mezzeh, Damascus University, Hijaz, the Old City, Abbassiyeen and Qaboun Pullman bus station. A four-line metro network is expected be in operation by 2050.

==Culture==
[[File:Damascus National Museum Umayyad Castle Gate.jpg|thumb|[[National Museum of Damascus]]]]
Damascus was chosen as the [[2008 Arab Capital of Culture]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://damascus.org.sy/ |title=دمشق عاصمة الثقافة العربية 2008 |publisher=Damascus.org.sy |access-date=27 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805132907/http://damascus.org.sy/ |archive-date=5 August 2011 }}</ref> The preparation for the festivity began in February 2007 with the establishing of the Administrative Committee for "Damascus Arab Capital of Culture" by a presidential decree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://damascus.org.sy/?d=298 |title=مجلس الإدارة و المجلس الاستشاري |publisher=Damascus.org.sy |date=22 October 2007 |access-date=20 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511170247/http://damascus.org.sy/?d=298 |archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref>

===Museums===
* [[National Museum of Damascus]]
* [[Azem Palace]]
* Military Museum
* [[October War Panorama]] Museum
* Museum of Arabic Calligraphy
* [[Nur al-Din Bimaristan]]

===Sports and leisure===
[[File:Al-Fayhaa Stadium in Damascus, Syria as seen from Mount Qasioun.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Fayhaa Sports Complex]]]]
Popular sports include [[association football|football]], [[basketball]], swimming, tennis, table tennis, [[Equestrianism|equestrian]] and [[chess]]. Damascus is home to many football clubs that participate in the [[Syrian Premier League]] including [[Al-Jaish SC (Syria)|al-Jaish]], [[Al-Shorta SC (Syria)|al-Shorta]], [[Al-Wahda SC (Syria)|Al-Wahda]] and [[Al-Majd SC|Al-Majd]]. Many Other sport clubs are located in several districts of the city: [[Barada SC]], [[Al-Nidal SC]], [[Al-Muhafaza SC|Al-Muhafaza]], Qasioun SC, al-Thawra SC, Maysalun SC, al-Fayhaa SC, Dummar SC, al-Majd SC and al-Arin SC.

The [[1976 Pan Arab Games|fifth]] and the [[1992 Pan Arab Games|seventh]] [[Pan Arab Games]] were held in Damascus in 1976 and 1992 respectively.

The now modernized Al-Fayhaa Sports City features a basketball court and a hall that can accommodate up to 8,000 people. In late November 2021, [[Syria's national basketball team]] played there against [[Kazakhstan men's national basketball team|Kazakhstan]], making Damascus host of Syria's first international basketball tournament in almost two decades.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Albert Aji |title= Syria hosts first international basketball tourney in years|url=https://apnews.com/article/sports-middle-east-basketball-syria-damascus-44e346190adea0ad9381d1b217e03b42 |accessdate=14 December 2021 |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=29 November 2021 }}</ref>

The city also has a modern golf course located near the Ebla Cham Palace Hotel at the southeastern outskirts of Damascus.

Damascus has busy nightlife. [[Coffeehouse]]s offer [[Arabic coffee]], [[Arabic tea|tea]] and [[nargileh]] (water pipes). [[Card game]]s, [[Tables (board game)|tables]] ([[backgammon]] variants), and [[chess]] are activities frequented in cafés.<ref>Beatties and Pepper, 2001, p. 102.</ref> These coffeehouses have had in the past an international reputation, as indicated by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]]'s poetical illustration, ''Cafes in Damascus'', to a picture by [[William Henry Bartlett]] in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837.<ref> {{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=39BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA10|section=picture|year=1836|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}{{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=39BbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA12|section=poetical illustration|year=1836|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref> Current movies can be seen at Cinema City which was previously known as [[Cinema Dimashq]].
{{wikisource|Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837/Cafes in Damascus|Cafes in Damascus, a poetical illustration by L. E. L.}}

[[Tishreen Park]] is one of the largest parks in Damascus. It is home to the annual Damascus Flower Show. Other parks include: al-Jahiz, al-Sibbki, al-Tijara, al-Wahda, etc.. The city's famous [[Ghouta]] oasis is also a weekend-destination for recreation. Many recreation centers operate in the city including sport clubs, swimming pools and golf courses. The Syrian Arab Horse Association in Damascus offers a wide range of activities and services for horse breeders and riders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saha-sy.org/ |title=Syrian Arab Horse Association |publisher=Saha-sy.org |access-date=20 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712044901/http://www.saha-sy.org/ |archive-date=12 July 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Nearby attractions===
[[File:Alzabadani.JPG|thumb|Zabadani resort near Damascus]]
[[File:Bakdash ice-cream shop in the old souk in Damascus.jpg|thumb|[[Booza]] being sold in the [[Bakdash (ice cream parlor)|Bakdash]] ice cream shop in the Damascus market]]
* [[Madaya, Syria|Madaya]]: a small mountainous town well known holiday resort.
* [[Bloudan]]: a town located {{convert|51|km|abbr=on}} north-west of the Damascus, its moderate temperature and low humidity in summer attracts many visitors from Damascus and throughout Syria, Lebanon and the [[Persian Gulf]].
* [[Zabadani]]: a city in close to the border with Lebanon. Its mild weather along with the scenic views, made the town a popular resort both for tourists and for visitors from other Syrian cities.
* [[Maaloula]]: a town dominated by speakers of [[Western Neo-Aramaic]].
* [[Saidnaya]]: a city located in the mountains, {{convert|1500|m|0}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]], it was one of the episcopal cities of the ancient [[Patriarchate of Antioch]].

==Twin towns – sister cities==
{{see also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Asia#Syria}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Ankara]], Turkey<ref>{{cite web |title=Ankaranın Kardeş Şehirleri|url=https://www.ankara.bel.tr/genel-sekreter/genel-sekreter-yardimcisi-faruk-cinki/dis-liskiler-daire-baskanligi/ankaranin-kardes-sehirleri/|website=ankara.bel.tr|publisher=Ankara|language=tr|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Astana]], Kazakhstan{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}
*{{flagicon|ROU}} [[Bucharest]], Romania<ref>{{cite web |title=Care-i cel mai… înfrățit oraș din România? Care-i cu americanii, care-i cu rușii? Și care-i înfrățit cu Timișoara…|url=https://www.banatulazi.ro/care-i-cel-mai-infratit-oras-din-romania-care-i-cu-americanii-care-i-cu-rusii-si-care-i-infratit-cu-timisoara/|website=banatulazi.ro|publisher=Banatul Azi|language=ro|date=2016-08-06|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|ARG}} [[Buenos Aires]], Argentina<ref>{{cite web |title=Convenios Internacionales|url=https://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/internacionalesycooperacion/relacionesbilaterales/convenios|website=buenosaires.gob.ar|publisher=Buenos Aires|language=es|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], Spain<ref>{{cite web |title=Las 12 hermanas de Córdoba|url=https://www.diariocordoba.com/noticias/cordobalocal/12-ciudades-hermanadas-cordoba_1353134.html|website=diariocordoba.com|publisher=Diario Córdoba|language=es|date=2020-02-10|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|UAE}} [[Dubai]], United Arab Emirates<ref>{{cite web |title=Internationale samenwerking|url=https://www.ajmannews.ae/news.php?id=39961&cat_id=2|website=ajmannews.ae|publisher=Ajman News|language=ar|date=2019-12-16|access-date=2020-07-03}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|TUR}} [[Istanbul]], Turkey<ref>{{cite web|title=Sister Cities of Istanbul|url=http://www.greatistanbul.com/sister_cities.html|website=greatistanbul.com|publisher=Istanbul|access-date=2020-09-16|archive-date=28 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028163059/http://www.greatistanbul.com/sister_cities.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], Spain<ref>{{cite web |title=Toledo's sister cities|url=https://www.destinotoledo.com/en/toledos-sister-cities/|website=destinotoledo.com|publisher=Destino Toledo|date=2016-05-17|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|ARM}} [[Yerevan]], Armenia<ref>{{cite web |title=Sister cities|url=https://www.yerevan.am/en/partner/sister-cities/|website=yerevan.am|publisher=Yerevan|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref>
{{div col end}}

==Notable people from Damascus==
{{main|List of people from Damascus}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Asia}}
*[[Damascus Document]]
*[[List of World Heritage in Danger]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="note"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{See also|Timeline of Damascus#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Damascus}}
* {{Cite book|title=Apollodorus of Damascus and Trajan's Column|first1=Maamoun|last1=Abdulkarim|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider|year=2003|isbn=978-8-8826-5233-3 }}
* {{Cite book|title=The MacMillan Bible Atlas|first1=Yohanan|last1=Aharoni|first2=Michael|last2=Avi-Yonah|publisher=Carta Ltd.|year=1977|isbn=978-0-7318-1071-0}}
* {{cite journal|last=Amitai|first=Reuven|author-link=Reuven Amitai|title=Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)|journal=[[Royal Asiatic Society|Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]]|year=1987|pages=236–255}}
* {{Cite book|title=Damascus: A History|first1=Ross|last1=Burns|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_bQTrpf62cC|isbn=978-0-415-27105-9 }}
* {{Cite journal|title=Il Minareto di Gesù|first1=Stefano|last1=Cammelli|publisher=Il Mulino|year=2006}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Crawford |first1=Peter |title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=9781473828650 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Demurger|first=Alain|title=Jacques de Molay|language=fr|publisher=Editions Payot&Rivages|year=2007|isbn=978-2-228-90235-9}}
* {{Cite book|title=First to Damascus: The story of the Australian Light Horse and Lawrence of Arabia|last1=Hamilton|first1=Jill, Duchess of |year=2002|isbn=978-0-7318-1071-0}}
* {{cite book|title=Ibn Khaldūn and Tamerlane: Their Historic Meeting in Damascus, 1401 A.d. (803 A. H.) A Study Based on Arabic Manuscripts of Ibn Khaldūn's "Autobiography," | last=[[Ibn Khaldun]] |translator=Walter Joseph Fischel |publisher= University of California Press |year=1952 }}
* {{Cite book| last = Kaegi| first =Walter Emil | author-link=Walter Kaegi | title =Heraclius: Emperor of Byzantium| publisher =Cambridge University Press| year =2003|isbn = 0-521-81459-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC}}
* {{cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|title=The Crusades|series=Essential Histories|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2001|isbn=978-1-84176-179-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/crusades00nico}}
* {{Cite book|last=Runciman|first=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades: Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1987|isbn=9780521347723}}
* {{cite journal|title=Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Non-Event|last=Schein|first=Sylvia|journal=The English Historical Review|volume=94|issue=373|date=October 1979|pages=805–819|doi=10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXIII.805|jstor=565554}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Innocents Abroad |last=Twain |first=Mark |publisher=American Publishing Company |year=1869 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Damascus}}
{{Wikivoyage|Damascus}}
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Damascus|first=R. A. Stewart |last=Macalister |authorlink=R. A. Stewart Macalister |short=x}}
* [http://aleph.nli.org.il:80/F/?func=direct&doc_number=002370090&local_base=NNLMAP Map of Damascus, 1929], Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel, [http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/syria/damascus/maps/tfl_1929_damascus.html Historic Cities Research Project].

{{Damascus|state=collapsed}}
{{Cities of Syria}}
{{List of Asian capitals by region}}
{{Decapolis cities}}
{{Capitals of Arab countries}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Syria}}
{{Arab Capital of Culture}}
{{Roman colonies in ancient Levant}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Damascus| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Syria]]
[[Category:Levant]]
[[Category:Sufi Muslim communities in Syria]]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Amarna letters locations]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Rif Dimashq Governorate]]
[[Category:Capitals of caliphates]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 7th millennium BC]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Danger]]
[[Category:New Testament cities]]

Felix Svetov

2022-10-26T18:48:37Z

Madler: corrected mistranslation

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Short description|Russian writer and journalist (1927–2002)}}
{{Family name hatnote|Grigoryevich|Svetov|lang=Eastern Slavic}}
{{Infobox person/Wikidata|fetchwikidata=ALL}}

'''Felix Grigoryevich Svetov''' ({{Lang-ru|Феликс Григорьевич Светов}}; 28 November 1927 – 2 September 2002) was a Russian writer, journalist, human rights activist and dissident. He received wide recognition for his novels and short stories, published exclusively in [[samizdat]] and [[tamizdat]]. He was also included in the Literary Collection of [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://www.livelib.ru/book/1000476829-chizhikpyzhik-sbornik-feliks-svetov|title=Книга «Чижик-пыжик (сборник)»|isbn=978-5-04-009251-2|language=ru|trans-title=The book "Chizhik-Pyzhik (collection)"|last1=Svetov|first1=Feliks|year=2002}}</ref> Svetov was persecuted for his human rights activities in the USSR.

== Biography ==

Felix Grigoryevich Fridlyand was born on 28 November 1927 in Moscow, USSR to Soviet historian {{Interlanguage link|Grigory Fridlyand|ru|Фридлянд, Григорий Самойлович}} and his wife, Nekhama (Nadezhda) Lvovna Fridlyand ({{Lang-ru|Нехама (Надежда) Львовна Фридлянд}}). In 1937, when Felix was nine years old, his father was murdered by the Soviet authorities during the [[Great Purge]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|last=Hoffman|first=David|author-link=David E. Hoffman|date=2000-01-30|title=Putin's Career Rooted in Russia's KGB|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/russiagov/putin.htm|access-date=2022-02-20|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Dresden}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2017-03-01|title=И вот стоят лицом к лицу, их судьбы - в поколениях|trans-title=And now they stand face to face, their fate is in the generations|url=https://memohrc.org/en/node/6200|access-date=2022-02-20|website=[[Memorial (society)|Memorial]]|language=ru}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2002-11-28|title=Вечер памяти писателя Феликса Светова|trans-title=Evening in memory of the writer Felix Svetov|url=http://www.museum.ru/n10988|access-date=2022-02-20|website=museum.ru|language=ru}}</ref> His mother was sentenced to eight years in a work camp in [[Potma, Zubovo-Polyansky District, Republic of Mordovia]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Красухин|first=Геннадий|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoD-DAAAQBAJ|title=Круглый год с литературой. Квартал третий|date=2018-01-21|publisher=Litres|year=2018|isbn=978-5-04-022907-9|language=ru|trans-title=Literature all year round. Quarter three}}</ref> In 1951, having changed his surname to Svetov, he graduated from the {{Interlanguage link|Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University|ru|Филологический факультет МГУ|cv|МПУ филологи факультечĕ|sl|Filološka fakulteta v Moskvi}}.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" />

From 1952 to 1954 he worked as a journalist on [[Sakhalin]] Island, USSR. Then he returned to Moscow and started publishing literary critical articles and reviews in Moscow newspapers and magazines, most often in the [[Novy Mir]] literary journal. Between 1950 and 1960, Svetov published hundreds of articles and reviews, as well as four scientific papers, including the monograph Mikhail Svetov ({{Lang-ru|Михаил Светов|label=none}}; 1967). He spoke in defence of [[Andrei Sinyavsky]], [[Yuli Daniel]] and [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]].<ref name=":0" /> In 1974, Solzhenitsyn's collection {{Interlanguage link|From Under the Rocks|ru|Из-под глыб}} was published in France, in which Svetov published the Russian Fates ({{Lang-ru|Русские судьбы|label=none}}) article under the pseudonym '''F. Korsakov''' ({{Lang-ru|Ф. Корсаков|label=none}}).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Светов Феликс Григорьевич|url=https://museum.memo.ru/author/185/|access-date=2022-02-20|website=museum.memo.ru}}</ref> Svetov was married to writer [[Zoya Krakhmalnikova]].<ref name=":2" />

In 1978, Svetov's novel "Open the Doors to Me" ({{Lang-ru|Отверзи ми двери|label=none}}) was published in Paris. At that time, he and his wife were no longer published in official Soviet publications, they were subjected to pressure from the authorities. In 1982, he was expelled from [[Union of Soviet Writers]],<ref name=":5" /> and, on 23 January 1985, he was arrested after a search of his apartment. He was convicted for his "defamatory" allegations that "innocent people [were] thrown into prison" in the USSR. The government perceived it as anti-Soviet propaganda.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nemtsova|first=Anna|date=2012-05-14|title=Russia's Dzyadko Brothers Lead the Opposition|url=https://www.newsweek.com/russias-dzyadko-brothers-lead-opposition-65033|access-date=2022-02-20|website=[[Newsweek]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Felix Svetov|url=https://therussianreader.com/tag/felix-svetov/|access-date=2022-02-20|website=therussianreader.com|language=en}}</ref>

After a year in the [[Matrosskaya Tishina]] prison, he was sentenced to 5 years of exile and sent to [[Altai Republic|Altai]] to his wife.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1997-11-24|title=Из беседы Феликса Светова с Валерием Абрамкиным|trans-title=From a conversation between Felix Svetov and Valery Abramkin|url=http://old.prison.org/personal/svetov2.htm|access-date=2022-02-20|website=old.prison.org|language=ru}}</ref> While being exiled they were asked to write a "statement requesting a pardon", but they refused to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-04-20|title=The release of a large group of political prisoners (February 1987)|url=https://vesti-iz-sssr.com/2019/04/20/the-release-of-a-large-group-of-political-prisoners/|access-date=2022-02-20|website=vesti-iz-sssr.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 1987, Svetov and Krakhmalnikova were released and returned to Moscow as part of [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]]'s democratic campaign to free [[political prisoners]]. In 1990, Svetov was reinstated in Union of Soviet Writers. Many of his works have been published in the West. In Russia, he was published in the magazines ''Frontiers'', ''Syntax'', and ''Nadezhda''.<ref name=":6" />

Svetov was a member of the Russian [[PEN Club]]. Since 2000 he also was a member of the pardon commission under the [[president of Russia]], but in 2001 [[Vladimir Putin]] closed the commission.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Феликс Светов в библиотеке А. Белоусенко|trans-title=Felix Svetov in the library of A. Belousenko|url=http://www.belousenko.com/wr_Svetov.htm|access-date=2022-02-20|website=belousenko.com|language=ru}}</ref> Svetov said that "Putin is a typical [[KGB]] type. If the snow is falling, they will calmly tell you, the sun is shining."<ref name=":4" />

Svetov died on 2 September 2002, aged 74, in Moscow due to a [[myocardial infarction]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Felix Svetov|url=http://heavenslie.com/My%20Obits/Felix%20Svetov.htm|access-date=2022-02-20|website=heavenslie.com}}</ref> and was buried in Moscow at the [[Troyekurovskoye Cemetery]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Scott|first=Brenda|date=2002-09-02|title=Obituaries in the News|url=https://www.theintelligencer.com/news/article/Obituaries-in-the-News-10500927.php|access-date=2022-02-20|website=[[Edwardsville Intelligencer]]|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2002-09-02|title=На 75-м году жизни скончался известный писатель и правозащитник Феликс Светов|trans-title=Famous writer and human rights activist Felix Svetov died at the age of 75|url=https://txt.newsru.com/russia/02sep2002/svetov.html|access-date=2022-02-20|website=[[NEWSru]]|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Светов Феликс Григорьевич|trans-title=Svetov Felix Grigoryevich|url=https://museum.memo.ru/author/185/|access-date=2022-02-20|website=[[Memorial (society)]]|language=ru}}</ref> Sergei Chuprinin, the editor-in-chief of ''[[Znamya]]'', said Svetov "thought first of all about making people freer".<ref name=":3" />

== Awards and nominations ==
In 1985, Svetov received the literary {{Interlanguage link|Dal Prize|ru|Премия имени Даля}} for his book An Experiment in Biography ({{Lang-ru|Опыт Биографии}}; 1985).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Феликс Светов|trans-title=Felix Svetov|url=https://www.livelib.ru/author/154264-feliks-svetov|access-date=2022-02-20|website=livelib.ru|language=ru}}</ref>

On 7 January 2002, Svetov received gratitude from the [[president of Russia]] for his active participation in the work of the pardon commission under the president of Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2002-01-07|title=Распоряжение Президента Российской Федерации от 07.01.2002 г. № 4-рп|trans-title=Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 07.01.2002 No. 4-rp|url=http://kremlin.ru/acts/bank/17710|access-date=2022-02-20|website=[[kremlin.ru]]|language=ru}}</ref>

In 2002, Svetov's novel Chizhik-Pyzhik (reference to the original [[Chizhik-Pyzhik]]) was nominated for the {{Interlanguage link|Ivan Petrovich Belkin Prize|ru|Премия Ивана Петровича Белкина}}.<ref name=":1" />

== Legacy and bibliography ==
2006 The Special Jury Award, Prize for Human Rights at the International Human Rights Film Festival "Stalker" was named after Svetov.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Anthropological Film Festival|url=http://rfaf.ru/eng/video/243/|access-date=2022-02-20|website=rfaf.ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Movies|url=https://2010s.rusdocfilmfest.org/2019-movies-en/|access-date=2022-02-20|website=2010s.rusdocfilmfest.org|language=en}}</ref> Russian journalist [[Zoya Svetova]] is a daughter of Svetov.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Carroll|first=Oliver|date=2017-03-01|title=Then They Came for Svetova|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2017/03/01/then-they-came-for-svetova-a57306|access-date=2022-02-20|website=[[The Moscow Times]]|language=en}}</ref>

* {{Cite book|title=Ушла ли романтика? Критические размышления|publisher=[[Sovetsky Pisatel]]|year=1963}}
* {{Cite book|title=Поиски и свершения. Заметки о современности искусства|publisher=Искусство|year=1965}}
* {{Cite book|title=Михаил Светов|publisher=Худ. лит.|year=1967}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Svetov, Felix}}
[[Category:Russian writers]]
[[Category:Burials in Troyekurovskoye Cemetery]]
[[Category:1927 births]]
[[Category:2002 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Russian writers]]
[[Category:Soviet human rights activists]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents]]
[[Category:Russian journalists]]

Kugyō (priest)

2021-08-25T02:43:15Z

Madler:

{{Other uses|Kugyō}}
[[File:Tsurugaoka.jpg|thumb|275 px|The scene of the murder. Visible the shrine, the stairs and the giant ginkgo]]
{{Nihongo|'''Kugyō'''|公暁||extra=1200–February 13, 1219}}, also known as {{nihongo|[[Minamoto clan|Minamoto]] no Zensai|源善哉}} or {{nihongo|Saemon Hokkyō Yoriaki|左衛門法橋頼暁}}, was the second son of the second [[Kamakura shogunate|Kamakura shōgun]] of Japan, [[Minamoto no Yoriie]].<ref name="yasuda156">Yasuda (1990-156)</ref> At the age of six, after his father was killed in Shuzenji in Izu, he became his uncle [[Minamoto no Sanetomo|Sanetomo]]'s adopted son and, thanks to his grandmother [[Hōjō Masako]]'s intercession, a disciple of Songyō, [[Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū]]'s ''[[bettō]]'' (head priest).<ref name="yasuda156"/> After his [[tonsure]] he was given the Buddhist name "Kugyō" replacing his childhood name Yoshinari.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref>At the time in Japan a child received a temporary name ({{nihongo|''osanana'', ''yōmei'' or ''yōmyō''|幼名}}), which would be replaced by a definitive one at 15 or 17.</ref> He then went to Kyōto to take his vows, coming back at age 18 to become Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū's new ''bettō'',<ref name="yasuda156"/> the shrine's fourth.<ref name="kamiya22">Kamiya Vol. 1 (2006:22)</ref> In 1219 he murdered his uncle Sanetomo on the stone stairs at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in the shogunal capital of [[Kamakura]], an act for which he was himself slain on the same day.<ref name="kusu">Kusumoto (2002: 70-73)</ref>

==Shōgun Sanetomo's assassination==

=== Assassination===
The assassination is chronicled in the ''[[Azuma Kagami]]''<ref>[http://www.nijl.ac.jp/databases/db-room/genpon/azumatop2.htm 吾妻鏡本文データ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521181327/http://www.nijl.ac.jp/databases/db-room/genpon/azumatop2.htm |date=2009-05-21 }} (''Azuma Kagami Honbun Data''), retrieved on October 1, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~hd1t-situ/azuma/121901.html 吾妻鏡建保７年１月] (''Azuma Kagami [[Kempo (era)|Kempō]] 7 First Month''), retrieved on October 1, 2008.</ref> and in the ''[[Gukanshō]]''. What follows is the ''Azuma Kagami'''s version of events.

At about six in the evening of February 12, 1219 ([[Jōkyū]]-1, 26th day of the 1st month),<ref>Gregorian date obtained directly from the original Nengō using [https://uni-tuebingen.de/geschichte-japans/nengo_calc.htm Nengocalc] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930014735/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/geschichte-japans/nengo_calc.htm |date=2007-09-30 }}</ref> the Buddhist New Year, Sanetomo had just finished the Ceremony of Celebration for his nomination to [[Udaijin]].<ref name="kusu"/> It had been snowing the whole day and there was more than 60 cm of snow on the ground.<ref name="kamiya"/> The shōgun left the temple's gate and started descending the stone stairs accompanied only by the sword-bearer, a man called Nakaakira.<ref name="kusu"/> Hōjō Yoshitoki, son of former [[Shikken|Regent]] [[Hōjō Tokimasa]] and regent himself since 1205, should have been the sword-bearer, but had gone back to his mansion in [[Komachi (Kanagawa)|Komachi]] early because he was not feeling well.<ref name="kamiya"/> Unexpectedly Kugyō came up from near the stone stairs, yelled: {{nihongo|"This is for killing my father!"|父の敵を討つ}}, and struck him with a sword, cutting off his head.<ref name="kamiya"/> The assassin then killed Nakaakira, and according to the ''Gukanshō'', he did this thinking he was Hōjō Yoshitoki, as he should have been.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya">Kamiya Vol. 1 (2006:116-117)</ref>

Sources do not always agree. Kugyō is for example described as wearing either woman's clothes (in the ''Azuma Kagami'') or his monastic uniform.<ref name="kusu"/> It is often said that he was hiding behind the great [[Ginkgo biloba|ginkgo]] tree, but the ''Azuma Kagami'' simply says he came {{nihongo|"from the side of the stone stairs"|石段の際}}.<ref name="kamiya"/> The detail of the ginkgo first appears in the ''[[Shinpen Kamakurashi]]'', and is therefore considered an Edo period invention.<ref>Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008:152)</ref>

=== Kugyō's death ===
Having killed his uncle, Kugyō took his head, left the temple and went to hide temporarily at the home of its guardian in Yukinoshita.<ref name="kamiya22"/> From there he sent a messenger to [[Miura clan|Miura Yoshimura]]'s home in [[Nishi Mikado]], explaining that he was now the new shōgun and wanted to talk to him as soon as possible about what was to be done.<ref name="kamiya"/> Yoshimura and his family had an extremely close relationship with Kugyō, whose [[wetnurse]] had been a [[Miura clan|Miura]].<ref name="kamiya"/> To buy time, Yoshimura sent back a message in which he asked Kugyō to stay where he was because he would send some soldiers to pick him up.<ref name="kamiya"/> While Kugyō waited, Yoshimura sent a messenger to Yoshitoki's residence in Komachi.<ref name="kamiya"/> Yoshitoki immediately sent back the order to execute the assassin.<ref name="kamiya"/> Yoshimura gathered the family council to decide how to do that.<ref name="kamiya"/> Nagao Sadakage, a samurai known for his strength and reliability, was then entrusted with the task.<ref name="kamiya"/> He left with a group of five men, and on the way they met Kugyō himself who, unable to contain himself and wait for Yoshimura's escort, had left his refuge and was already in Nishi Mikado on his way to Yoshimura's mansion.<ref name="kamiya"/> While one of the five men engaged him, Nagao Sadakage beheaded him.<ref name="kamiya"/> His head was then brought to the Regent's residence in Komachi for identification.<ref name="kamiya"/>

== Debate about Kugyō's motives ==
According to the traditional interpretation of events, Kugyō's act had been instigated by Yoshitoki and the Hōjō, who wanted to get rid at one stroke of the last two male members of the [[Seiwa Genji]] line.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya"/> Historians however now see the theory as unsupported by evidence and probably untrue.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya"/> Although the assassination undoubtedly served Yoshitoki's interests, it is unclear why Kugyō would have willingly helped the Hōjō family, who was responsible not only for his father's death, but also for that of his brother [[Minamoto no Ichiman|Ichiman]] and of the entire [[Hiki Yoshikazu|Hiki clan]].<ref name="kusu"/> The death of Nakaakira the sword-bearer makes it likely that Kugyō meant to kill Yoshitoki too.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kusu"/> His relationship with Yoshimura was extremely close (Yoshimura's wife had been Kugyō's wet nurse), and it seems more plausible that the two had planned together the assassination of both Sanetomo and Yoshitoki.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kusu"/><ref name="kamiya"/> Sanetomo's wet nurse had been Masako's younger sister, making the shōgun emotionally close to the Hōjō, and this failed ''coup d'état'' was probably just an episode in the ongoing war between Hōjō and Miura, which continued until the Miura's defeat in 1247.<ref name="kamiya"/> Realizing that Yoshitoki had avoided death out of sheer luck and that their plan was doomed, Yoshimura could very well have decided that he had to betray Kugyō to save himself and his family.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya"/>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

==General references ==
* {{cite book
| last = Yasuda
| first = Motohisa (editor)
| title = Kamakura, Muromachi Jinmei Jiten
| publisher = Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha
| year = 1990
| location = Tokyo
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 978-4-404-01757-4
| author =
| oclc = 24654085
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Jeffrey
|first=Mass
|title=Court and Bakufu in Japan: Essays in Kamakura
|publisher=Stanford University Press
|year=1995
|isbn=978-0-8047-2473-9
|language=
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo
| first =
| title = Kamakura Kankō Bunka Kentei Kōshiki Tekisutobukku
| publisher = Kamakura Shunshūsha
| year = 2008
| location = Kamakura
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 978-4-7740-0386-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kusumoto
| first = Katsuji
| title = Kamakura Naruhodo Jiten
| publisher = Jitsugyō no Nihonsha
| date = July 2002
| location = Tokyo
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 978-4-408-00779-3
}}
* Mutsu, Iso. (2006). ''Kamakura: Fact and Legend.'' Tokyo: [[Tuttle Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-8048-1968-8}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kamiya
| first = Michinori
| title = Fukaku Aruku - Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol. 1 & 2
| publisher = Kamakura Shunshūsha
| year = 2008
| location = Kamakura
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 4-7740-0340-9
}}
* [http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~hd1t-situ/azuma/121901.html ''Azuma Kagami''], accessed on September 4, 2008; [http://www.archives.go.jp/english/ourholdings/popup/12.html National Archives of Japan 特103-0001, digitized image of the ''Azumakagami''] {{in lang|ja}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kugyo}}
[[Category:Japanese assassins]]
[[Category:Minamoto clan]]
[[Category:Executed Japanese people]]
[[Category:People executed for murder]]
[[Category:People executed by Japan by decapitation]]
[[Category:Kamakura period Buddhist monks]]

Kugyō (priest)

2021-08-25T02:40:21Z

Madler: 敵を打つ here is read かたきをうつ and it means to avenge. Literally here “I avenge my father.” More naturally “This is for killing my father!”

{{Other uses|Kugyō}}
[[File:Tsurugaoka.jpg|thumb|275 px|The scene of the murder. Visible the shrine, the stairs and the giant ginkgo]]
{{Nihongo|'''Kugyō'''|公暁||extra=1200–February 13, 1219}}, also known as {{nihongo|[[Minamoto clan|Minamoto]] no Zensai|源善哉}} or {{nihongo|Saemon Hokkyō Yoriaki|左衛門法橋頼暁}}, was the second son of the second [[Kamakura shogunate|Kamakura shōgun]] of Japan, [[Minamoto no Yoriie]].<ref name="yasuda156">Yasuda (1990-156)</ref> At the age of six, after his father was killed in Shuzenji in Izu, he became his uncle [[Minamoto no Sanetomo|Sanetomo]]'s adopted son and, thanks to his grandmother [[Hōjō Masako]]'s intercession, a disciple of Songyō, [[Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū]]'s ''[[bettō]]'' (head priest).<ref name="yasuda156"/> After his [[tonsure]] he was given the Buddhist name "Kugyō" replacing his childhood name Yoshinari.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref>At the time in Japan a child received a temporary name ({{nihongo|''osanana'', ''yōmei'' or ''yōmyō''|幼名}}), which would be replaced by a definitive one at 15 or 17.</ref> He then went to Kyōto to take his vows, coming back at age 18 to become Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū's new ''bettō'',<ref name="yasuda156"/> the shrine's fourth.<ref name="kamiya22">Kamiya Vol. 1 (2006:22)</ref> In 1219 he murdered his uncle Sanetomo on the stone stairs at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in the shogunal capital of [[Kamakura]], an act for which he was himself slain on the same day.<ref name="kusu">Kusumoto (2002: 70-73)</ref>

==Shōgun Sanetomo's assassination==

=== Assassination===
The assassination is chronicled in the ''[[Azuma Kagami]]''<ref>[http://www.nijl.ac.jp/databases/db-room/genpon/azumatop2.htm 吾妻鏡本文データ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521181327/http://www.nijl.ac.jp/databases/db-room/genpon/azumatop2.htm |date=2009-05-21 }} (''Azuma Kagami Honbun Data''), retrieved on October 1, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~hd1t-situ/azuma/121901.html 吾妻鏡建保７年１月] (''Azuma Kagami [[Kempo (era)|Kempō]] 7 First Month''), retrieved on October 1, 2008.</ref> and in the ''[[Gukanshō]]''. What follows is the ''Azuma Kagami'''s version of events.

At about six in the evening of February 12, 1219 ([[Jōkyū]]-1, 26th day of the 1st month),<ref>Gregorian date obtained directly from the original Nengō using [https://uni-tuebingen.de/geschichte-japans/nengo_calc.htm Nengocalc] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930014735/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/geschichte-japans/nengo_calc.htm |date=2007-09-30 }}</ref> the Buddhist New Year, Sanetomo had just finished the Ceremony of Celebration for his nomination to [[Udaijin]].<ref name="kusu"/> It had been snowing the whole day and there was more than 60 cm of snow on the ground.<ref name="kamiya"/> The shōgun left the temple's gate and started descending the stone stairs accompanied only by the sword-bearer, a man called Nakaakira.<ref name="kusu"/> Hōjō Yoshitoki, son of former [[Shikken|Regent]] [[Hōjō Tokimasa]] and regent himself since 1205, should have been the sword-bearer, but had gone back to his mansion in [[Komachi (Kanagawa)|Komachi]] early because he was not feeling well.<ref name="kamiya"/> Unexpectedly Kugyō came up from near the stone stairs, yelled: {{nihongo|"This is for killing my father!"|父の敵を討つ}}, and struck him with a sword, cutting off his head.<ref name="kamiya"/> The assassin then killed Nakaakira, and according to the ''Gukanshō'', he did this thinking he was Hōjō Yoshitoki, as he should have been.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya">Kamiya Vol. 1 (2006:116-117)</ref>

Sources do not always agree. Kugyō is for example described as wearing either woman's clothes (in the ''Azuma Kagami'') or his monastic uniform.<ref name="kusu"/> It is often said that he was hiding behind the great [[Ginkgo biloba|ginkgo]] tree, but the ''Azuma Kagami'' simply says he came {{nihongo|"from the side of the stone stairs"|石段の際}}.<ref name="kamiya"/> The detail of the ginkgo first appears in the ''[[Shinpen Kamakurashi]]'', and is therefore considered an Edo period invention.<ref>Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo (2008:152)</ref>

=== Kugyō's death ===
Having killed his uncle, Kugyō took his head, left the temple and went to hide temporarily at the home of its guardian in Yukinoshita.<ref name="kamiya22"/> From there he sent a messenger to [[Miura clan|Miura Yoshimura]]'s home in [[Nishi Mikado]], explaining that he was now the new shōgun and wanted to talk to him as soon as possible about what was to be done.<ref name="kamiya"/> Yoshimura and his family had an extremely close relationship with Kugyō, whose [[wetnurse]] had been a [[Miura clan|Miura]].<ref name="kamiya"/> To buy time, Yoshimura sent back a message in which he asked Kugyō to stay where he was because he would send some soldiers to pick him up.<ref name="kamiya"/> While Kugyō waited, Yoshimura sent a messenger to Yoshitoki's residence in Komachi.<ref name="kamiya"/> Yoshitoki immediately sent back the order to execute the assassin.<ref name="kamiya"/> Yoshimura gathered the family council to decide how to do that.<ref name="kamiya"/> Nagao Sadakage, a samurai known for his strength and reliability, was then entrusted with the task.<ref name="kamiya"/> He left with a group of five men, and on the way they met Kugyō himself who, unable to contain himself and wait for Yoshimura's escort, had left his refuge and was already in Nishi Mikado on his way to Yoshimura's mansion.<ref name="kamiya"/> While one of the five men engaged him, Nagao Sadakage beheaded him.<ref name="kamiya"/> His head was then brought to the Regent's residence in Komachi for identification.<ref name="kamiya"/>

== Debate about Kugyōs motives ==
According to the traditional interpretation of events, Kugyō's act had been instigated by Yoshitoki and the Hōjō, who wanted to get rid at one stroke of the last two male members of the [[Seiwa Genji]] line.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya"/> Historians however now see the theory as unsupported by evidence and probably untrue.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya"/> Although the assassination undoubtedly served Yoshitoki's interests, it is unclear why Kugyō would have willingly helped the Hōjō family, who was responsible not only for his father's death, but also for that of his brother [[Minamoto no Ichiman|Ichiman]] and of the entire [[Hiki Yoshikazu|Hiki clan]].<ref name="kusu"/> The death of Nakaakira the sword-bearer makes it likely that Kugyō meant to kill Yoshitoki too.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kusu"/> His relationship with Yoshimura was extremely close (Yoshimura's wife had been Kugyō's wet nurse), and it seems more plausible that the two had planned together the assassination of both Sanetomo and Yoshitoki.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kusu"/><ref name="kamiya"/> Sanetomo's wet nurse had been Masako's younger sister, making the shōgun emotionally close to the Hōjō, and this failed ''coup d'état'' was probably just an episode in the ongoing war between Hōjō and Miura, which continued until the Miura's defeat in 1247.<ref name="kamiya"/> Realizing that Yoshitoki had avoided death out of sheer luck and that their plan was doomed, Yoshimura could very well have decided that he had to betray Kugyō to save himself and his family.<ref name="yasuda156"/><ref name="kamiya"/>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

==General references ==
* {{cite book
| last = Yasuda
| first = Motohisa (editor)
| title = Kamakura, Muromachi Jinmei Jiten
| publisher = Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha
| year = 1990
| location = Tokyo
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 978-4-404-01757-4
| author =
| oclc = 24654085
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Jeffrey
|first=Mass
|title=Court and Bakufu in Japan: Essays in Kamakura
|publisher=Stanford University Press
|year=1995
|isbn=978-0-8047-2473-9
|language=
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kamakura Shōkō Kaigijo
| first =
| title = Kamakura Kankō Bunka Kentei Kōshiki Tekisutobukku
| publisher = Kamakura Shunshūsha
| year = 2008
| location = Kamakura
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 978-4-7740-0386-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kusumoto
| first = Katsuji
| title = Kamakura Naruhodo Jiten
| publisher = Jitsugyō no Nihonsha
| date = July 2002
| location = Tokyo
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 978-4-408-00779-3
}}
* Mutsu, Iso. (2006). ''Kamakura: Fact and Legend.'' Tokyo: [[Tuttle Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-8048-1968-8}}
* {{cite book
| last = Kamiya
| first = Michinori
| title = Fukaku Aruku - Kamakura Shiseki Sansaku Vol. 1 & 2
| publisher = Kamakura Shunshūsha
| year = 2008
| location = Kamakura
| language = Japanese
| isbn = 4-7740-0340-9
}}
* [http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~hd1t-situ/azuma/121901.html ''Azuma Kagami''], accessed on September 4, 2008; [http://www.archives.go.jp/english/ourholdings/popup/12.html National Archives of Japan 特103-0001, digitized image of the ''Azumakagami''] {{in lang|ja}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kugyo}}
[[Category:Japanese assassins]]
[[Category:Minamoto clan]]
[[Category:Executed Japanese people]]
[[Category:People executed for murder]]
[[Category:People executed by Japan by decapitation]]
[[Category:Kamakura period Buddhist monks]]

Film editing

2021-06-17T23:51:32Z

Madler: Added Japanese original and poet name of quoted haiku

{{short description|Creative and technical part of the post-production process of filmmaking}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Fotothek df pk 0000165 012.jpg|thumb|A film editor at work in 1946.]]
{{Filmmaking sidebar}}

'''Film editing''' is both a creative and a technical part of the [[post-production]] process of [[filmmaking]]. The term is derived from the traditional process of working with [[film stock|film]] which increasingly involves the use [[Digital cinema|of digital technology]].

The '''film editor''' works with the raw [[footage]], selecting [[Shot (filming)|shots]] and combining them into [[Sequence (filmmaking)|sequences]] which create a finished [[Film|motion picture]]. Film editing is described as an art or skill, the only art that is unique to cinema, separating filmmaking from other art forms that preceded it, although there are close parallels to the editing process in other art forms such as poetry and novel writing. Film editing is often referred to as the "invisible art"<ref>Harris, Mark. [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/movies/awardsseason/06harr.html "Which Editing is a Cut Above?"] ''[[The New York Times]]'' (January 6, 2008)</ref> because when it is well-practiced, the viewer can become so engaged that they are not aware of the editor's work.

On its most fundamental level, film editing is the [[art]], technique and practice of assembling shots into a coherent sequence. The job of an editor is not simply to mechanically put pieces of a film together, cut off film [[clapperboard|slates]] or edit dialogue scenes. A film editor must creatively work with the layers of images, story, dialogue, music, pacing, as well as the actors' performances to effectively "re-imagine" and even rewrite the film to craft a cohesive whole. Editors usually play a dynamic role in the making of a film. Sometimes, auteurist [[film director]]s edit their own films, for example, [[Akira Kurosawa]], [[Bahram Beyzai]], [[Steven Soderbergh]], and the [[Coen brothers]].

With the advent of digital editing in [[non-linear editing system]]s, film editors and their assistants have become responsible for many areas of filmmaking that used to be the responsibility of others. For instance, in past years, picture editors dealt only with just that—picture. Sound, music, and (more recently) visual effects editors dealt with the practicalities of other aspects of the editing process, usually under the direction of the picture editor and director. However, digital systems have increasingly put these responsibilities on the picture editor. It is common, especially on lower budget films, for the editor to sometimes cut in temporary music, mock up visual effects and add temporary sound effects or other sound replacements. These temporary elements are usually replaced with more refined final elements produced by the sound, music and visual effects teams hired to complete the picture.

==History==
Early films were short films that were one long, static, and locked-down shot. Motion in the shot was all that was necessary to amuse an audience, so the first films simply showed activity such as traffic moving along a city street. There was no story and no editing. Each film ran as long as there was film in the camera.

[[File:Méliès, Un homme de têtes (Star Film 167 1898).jpg|thumb|250px|Screenshot from ''[[The Four Troublesome Heads]]'', one of the first films to feature [[multiple exposure]]s.]]

The use of film editing to establish continuity, involving action moving from one sequence into another, is attributed to British film pioneer [[Robert W. Paul]]'s ''[[Come Along, Do!]]'', made in 1898 and one of the first films to feature more than one shot.<ref name="BFIso01">{{cite web |title=Come Along, Do! |first=Michael |last=Brooke |url=http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/444430/ |work=BFI Screenonline Database |access-date=2011-04-24 }}</ref> In the first shot, an elderly couple is outside an [[art exhibition]] having lunch and then follow other people inside through the door. The second shot shows what they do inside. Paul's 'Cinematograph Camera No. 1' of 1896 was the first camera to feature reverse-cranking, which allowed the same film footage to be exposed several times and thereby to create super-positions and [[multiple exposure]]s. One of the first films to use this technique, [[Georges Méliès]]'s ''[[The Four Troublesome Heads]]'' from 1898, was produced with Paul's camera.

The further development of action continuity in multi-shot films continued in 1899-1900 at the [[Brighton|Brighton School]] in England, where it was definitively established by [[George Albert Smith (film pioneer)|George Albert Smith]] and [[James Williamson (film pioneer)|James Williamson]]. In that year, Smith made ''[[As Seen Through a Telescope]]'', in which the main shot shows street scene with a young man tying the shoelace and then caressing the foot of his girlfriend, while an old man observes this through a telescope. There is then a cut to close shot of the hands on the girl's foot shown inside a black circular mask, and then a cut back to the continuation of the original scene.

[[File:Williamson Fire.ogv|thumb|left|250px|Excerpt from the movie ''Fire!'' directed by [[James Williamson (film pioneer)|James Williamson]]]]

Even more remarkable was [[James Williamson (film pioneer)|James Williamson]]'s ''Attack on a China Mission Station'', made around the same time in 1900. The first shot shows the gate to the mission station from the outside being attacked and broken open by Chinese [[Boxer rebellion|Boxer rebels]], then there is a cut to the garden of the [[Siege of the International Legations|mission station]] where a pitched battle ensues. An armed party of British sailors arrived to defeat the Boxers and rescue the missionary's family. The film used the first "[[reverse angle]]" cut in film history.

James Williamson concentrated on making films taking action from one place shown in one shot to the next shown in another shot in films like ''Stop Thief!'' and ''Fire!'', made in 1901, and many others. He also experimented with the close-up, and made perhaps the most extreme one of all in ''[[The Big Swallow]]'', when his character approaches the camera and appears to swallow it. These two filmmakers of the Brighton School also pioneered the editing of the film; they tinted their work with color and used trick photography to enhance the narrative. By 1900, their films were extended scenes of up to 5 minutes long.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bampfa.berkeley.edu/film/FN0552|title=The Brighton School|access-date=2012-12-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224113027/http://www.bampfa.berkeley.edu/film/FN0552|archive-date=2013-12-24}}</ref>

[[File:The Great Train Robbery 0018.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Scene from ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'' (1903), directed by [[Edwin Stanton Porter]]]]
Other filmmakers then took up all these ideas including the American [[Edwin Stanton Porter|Edwin S. Porter]], who started making films for the Edison Company in 1901. Porter worked on a number of minor films before making ''[[Life of an American Fireman]]'' in 1903. The film was the first American film with a plot, featuring action, and even a closeup of a hand pulling a fire alarm. The film comprised a continuous narrative over seven scenes, rendered in a total of nine shots.<ref name="musser">Originally in ''Edison Films'' catalog, February 1903, 2–3; reproduced in Charles Musser, ''Before the Nickelodeon: Edwin S. Porter and the Edison Manufacturing Company'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 216–18.</ref> He put a dissolve between every shot, just as [[Georges Méliès]] was already doing, and he frequently had the same action repeated across the dissolves. His film, ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'' (1903), had a running time of twelve minutes, with twenty separate shots and ten different indoor and outdoor locations. He used [[cross-cutting]] editing method to show simultaneous action in different places.

These early film directors discovered important aspects of motion picture language: that the screen image does not need to show a complete person from head to toe and that splicing together two shots creates in the viewer's mind a contextual relationship. These were the key discoveries that made all non-live or non live-on-videotape narrative motion pictures and television possible—that shots (in this case, whole scenes since each shot is a complete scene) can be photographed at widely different locations over a period of time (hours, days or even months) and combined into a narrative whole.<ref>[[Arthur Knight (film critic)|Arthur Knight]] (1957). p. 25.</ref> That is, ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'' contains scenes shot on sets of a telegraph station, a railroad car interior, and a dance hall, with outdoor scenes at a railroad water tower, on the train itself, at a point along the track, and in the woods. But when the robbers leave the telegraph station interior (set) and emerge at the water tower, the audience believes they went immediately from one to the other. Or that when they climb on the train in one shot and enter the baggage car (a set) in the next, the audience believes they are on the same train.

Sometime around 1918, [[Russians|Russian]] director [[Lev Kuleshov]] did an experiment that proves this point. (See [[Kuleshov Experiment]]) He took an old film clip of a headshot of a noted Russian actor and intercut the shot with a shot of a bowl of soup, then with a child playing with a teddy bear, then with a shot an elderly woman in a casket. When he showed the film to people they praised the actor's acting—the hunger in his face when he saw the soup, the delight in the child, and the grief when looking at the dead woman.<ref>[[Arthur Knight (film critic)|Arthur Knight]] (1957). pp. 72–73.</ref> Of course, the shot of the actor was years before the other shots and he never "saw" any of the items. The simple act of juxtaposing the shots in a sequence made the relationship.

[[Image:FirstMoviola.jpg|thumb|237px|The original editing machine: an upright [[Moviola]].]]

===Film editing technology===
Before the widespread use of digital [[non-linear editing system]]s, the initial editing of all films was done with a positive copy of the film negative called a film [[workprint]] (cutting copy in UK) by physically cutting and splicing together pieces of film.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.adapttvhistory.org.uk/stories/objects/cutting-room-practice-and-procedure/|title=Cutting Room Practice and Procedure (BBC Film Training Text no. 58) – How television used to be made|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref> Strips of footage would be hand cut and attached together with tape and then later in time, glue. Editors were very precise; if they made a wrong cut or needed a fresh positive print, it cost the production money and time for the lab to reprint the footage. Additionally, each reprint put the negative at risk of damage. With the invention of a splicer and threading the machine with a viewer such as a [[Moviola]], or [[Flatbed editor|"flatbed" machine]] such as a K.-E.-M. or [[Steenbeck]], the editing process sped up a little bit and cuts came out cleaner and more precise. The Moviola editing practice is non-linear, allowing the editor to make choices faster, a great advantage to editing episodic films for television which have very short timelines to complete the work. All film studios and production companies who produced films for television provided this tool for their editors. Flatbed editing machines were used for playback and refinement of cuts, particularly in feature films and films made for television because they were less noisy and cleaner to work with.
They were used extensively for documentary and drama production within the BBC's Film Department. Operated by a team of two, an editor and assistant editor, this tactile process required significant skill but allowed for editors to work extremely efficiently.<ref>Ellis, John; Hall, Nick (2017): ADAPT. figshare. Collection.https://doi.org/10.17637/rh.c.3925603.v1</ref>

[[File:16mm editing synchroniser 1980's 1.jpg|thumbnail|Acmade Picsynch for sound and picture coordination]]
Today, most films are edited digitally (on systems such as [[Media Composer]], [[Final Cut Pro X]] or [[Premiere Pro]]) and bypass the film positive workprint altogether. In the past, the use of a film positive (not the original negative) allowed the editor to do as much experimenting as he or she wished, without the risk of damaging the original. With digital editing, editors can experiment just as much as before except with the footage completely transferred to a computer hard drive.

When the film workprint had been cut to a satisfactory state, it was then used to make an edit decision list (EDL). The negative cutter referred to this list while processing the negative, splitting the shots into rolls, which were then contact printed to produce the final film print or [[answer print]]. Today, production companies have the option of bypassing negative cutting altogether. With the advent of digital intermediate ("DI"), the physical negative does not necessarily need to be physically cut and hot spliced together; rather the negative is optically scanned into the computer(s) and a cut list is confirmed by a DI editor.

=== Women in film editing ===
In the early years of film, editing was considered a technical job; editors were expected to "cut out the bad bits" and string the film together. Indeed, when the [[Motion Picture Editors Guild]] was formed, they chose to be "below the line", that is, not a creative guild, but a technical one. Women were not usually able to break into the "creative" positions; directors, cinematographers, producers, and executives were almost always men. Editing afforded creative women a place to assert their mark on the filmmaking process. The [[history of film]] has included many women editors such as [[Dede Allen]], [[Anne Bauchens]], [[Margaret Booth]], [[Barbara McLean]], [[Anne V. Coates]], [[Adrienne Fazan]], [[Verna Fields]], [[Blanche Sewell]] and [[Eda Warren]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://via.hypothes.is/http://critics-associated.com/a-tedious-job-women-and-film-editing/|title="A Tedious Job" – Women and Film Editing|last=Galvão|first=Sara|date=March 15, 2015|website=Critics Associated via.hypothes.is|language=en-US|access-date=2018-01-15}}</ref>

== Post-production ==
{{main|Post-production}}
{{see also|Rough cut|Offline editing|Online editing}}

Post-production editing may be summarized by three distinct phases commonly referred to as the [[editor's cut]], the [[director's cut]], and the [[final cut privilege|final cut]].

There are several editing stages and the editor's cut is the first. An editor's cut (sometimes referred to as the "Assembly edit" or "Rough cut") is normally the first pass of what the final film will be when it reaches [[picture lock]]. The film editor usually starts working while principal photography starts. Sometimes, prior to cutting, the editor and director will have seen and discussed "[[dailies]]" (raw footage shot each day) as shooting progresses. As production schedules have shortened over the years, this co-viewing happens less often. Screening dailies give the editor a general idea of the director's intentions. Because it is the first pass, the editor's cut might be longer than the final film. The editor continues to refine the cut while shooting continues, and often the entire editing process goes on for many months and sometimes more than a year, depending on the film.

When shooting is finished, the [[Film director|director]] can then turn his or her full attention to collaborating with the editor and further refining the cut of the film. This is the time that is set aside where the film editor's first cut is molded to fit the director's vision. In the United States, under the rules of the [[Directors Guild of America]], directors receive a minimum of ten weeks after completion of principal photography to prepare their first cut. While collaborating on what is referred to as the "director's cut", the director and the editor go over the entire movie in great detail; scenes and shots are re-ordered, removed, shortened and otherwise tweaked. Often it is discovered that there are [[plot hole]]s, missing shots or even missing segments which might require that new scenes be filmed. Because of this time working closely and collaborating – a period that is normally far longer and more intricately detailed than the entire preceding film production – many directors and editors form a unique artistic bond.

Often after the director has had their chance to oversee a cut, the subsequent cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company or [[movie studio]]. There have been several conflicts in the past between the director and the studio, sometimes leading to the use of the "[[Alan Smithee]]" credit signifying when a director no longer wants to be associated with the final release.

== Methods of montage ==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| header = Two Editing Tables
| width = 287
| image1 = Film editing table (5201101743).jpg
| image2 = Film editing table (5201693172).jpg
}}

{{main|Montage (filmmaking)}}
In [[motion picture terminology]], a [[Montage (filmmaking)|montage]] (from the French for "putting together" or "assembly") is a film editing technique.

There are at least three senses of the term:
# In [[French film]] practice, "montage" has its literal French meaning (assembly, installation) and simply identifies editing.
# In [[Soviet film]]making of the 1920s, "montage" was a method of juxtaposing shots to derive new meaning that did not exist in either shot alone.
# In [[classical Hollywood cinema]], a "[[montage sequence]]" is a short segment in a film in which narrative information is presented in a condensed fashion.

Although film director [[David Wark Griffith|D.W. Griffith]] was not part of the montage school, he was one of the early proponents of the power of editing — mastering [[cross-cutting]] to show parallel action in different locations, and codifying film grammar in other ways as well. Griffith's work in the teens was highly regarded by [[Lev Kuleshov]] and other Soviet filmmakers and greatly influenced their understanding of editing.

Kuleshov was among the first to [[Soviet montage theory|theorize about the relatively young medium of the cinema]] in the 1920s. For him, the unique essence of the cinema — that which could be duplicated in no other medium — is editing. He argues that editing a film is like constructing a building. Brick-by-brick (shot-by-shot) the building (film) is erected. His often-cited [[Kuleshov Experiment]] established that montage can lead the viewer to reach certain conclusions about the action in a film. Montage works because viewers infer meaning based on context. [[Sergei Eisenstein]] was briefly a student of Kuleshov's, but the two parted ways because they had different ideas of montage. Eisenstein regarded montage as a [[dialectic]]al means of creating meaning. By contrasting unrelated shots he tried to provoke associations in the viewer, which were induced by shocks. But Eisenstein did not always do his own editing, and some of his most important films were edited by Esfir Tobak.<ref name = edited>{{cite web |title=Esfir Tobak |url= http://womenfilmeditors.princeton.edu/tobak-esfir-esther/ |work=Edited by}}</ref>

A [[montage sequence]] consists of a series of short shots that are edited into a sequence to condense narrative. It is usually used to advance the story as a whole (often to suggest the passage of time), rather than to create symbolic meaning. In many cases, a song plays in the background to enhance the mood or reinforce the message being conveyed. One famous example of montage was seen in the 1968 film ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', depicting the start of man's first development from apes to humans. Another example that is employed in many films is the sports montage. The sports montage shows the star athlete training over a period of time, each shot having more improvement than the last. Classic examples include Rocky and the Karate Kid.

The word's association with Sergei Eisenstein is often condensed—too simply—into the idea of "juxtaposition" or into two words: "collision montage," whereby two adjacent shots that oppose each other on formal parameters or on the content of their images are cut against each other to create a new meaning not contained in the respective shots: Shot a + Shot b = New Meaning c.

The association of collision montage with Eisenstein is not surprising. He consistently maintained that the mind functions dialectically, in the [[Hegelian]] sense, that the contradiction between opposing ideas (thesis versus antithesis) is resolved by a higher truth, synthesis. He argued that conflict was the basis of ''all'' art, and never failed to see montage in other cultures. For example, he saw montage as a guiding principle in the construction of "[[Japanese writing system|Japanese hieroglyphics]] in which two independent ideographic characters ('shots') are juxtaposed and ''explode'' into a concept. Thus:
<blockquote>
Eye + Water = Crying

Door + Ear = Eavesdropping

Child + Mouth = Screaming

Mouth + Dog = Barking.

Mouth + Bird = Singing."<ref name="Eisenstein">S. M. Eisenstein and Richard Taylor, Selected works Volume 1, (Bloomington: BFI/Indiana University Press, 1988), 164.</ref></blockquote>

He also found montage in Japanese [[haiku]], where short sense perceptions are juxtaposed, and synthesized into a new meaning, as in this example:

:A lonely crow
::On a leafless bough
:::One autumn eve.
(枯朶に烏のとまりけり秋の暮)

-- [[Matsuo Basho]]

As Dudley Andrew notes, "The collision of attractions from line to line produces the unified psychological effect which is the hallmark of haiku and montage."<ref name="Andrew">Dudley Andrew, ''The major film theories: an introduction'' (London: Oxford University Press, 1976), 52.</ref>

== Continuity editing and alternatives ==
{{main|Continuity editing}}

Continuity is a term for the consistency of on-screen elements over the course of a scene or film, such as whether an actor's costume remains the same from one scene to the next, or whether a glass of milk held by a character is full or empty throughout the scene. Because films are typically shot out of sequence, the [[script supervisor]] will keep a record of continuity and provide that to the film editor for reference. The editor may try to maintain continuity of elements, or may intentionally create a discontinuous sequence for stylistic or narrative effect.

The technique of continuity editing, part of the [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classical Hollywood]] style, was developed by early European and American directors, in particular, [[David Wark Griffith|D.W. Griffith]] in his films such as ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' and ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]''. The classical style embraces temporal and spatial continuity as a way of advancing the narrative, using such techniques as the [[180 degree rule]], [[Establishing shot]], and [[Shot reverse shot]]. Often, continuity editing means finding a balance between literal continuity and perceived continuity. For instance, editors may condense action across cuts in a non-distracting way. A character walking from one place to another may "skip" a section of floor from one side of a cut to the other, but the cut is constructed to appear continuous so as not to distract the viewer.

Early Russian filmmakers such as Lev Kuleshov (already mentioned) further explored and theorized about editing and its ideological nature. [[Sergei Eisenstein]] developed a system of editing that was unconcerned with the rules of the continuity system of classical Hollywood that he called [[Intellectual montage]].

Alternatives to traditional editing were also explored by early [[surrealist]] and [[Dada]] filmmakers such as [[Luis Buñuel]] (director of the 1929 ''Un Chien Andalou'') and [[René Clair]] (director of 1924's ''Entr'acte'' which starred famous Dada artists [[Marcel Duchamp]] and [[Man Ray]]).

The [[French New Wave]] filmmakers such as [[Jean-Luc Godard]] and [[François Truffaut]] and their American counterparts such as [[Andy Warhol]] and [[John Cassavetes]] also pushed the limits of editing technique during the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s. French New Wave films and the [[non-narrative film]]s of the 1960s used a carefree editing style and did not conform to the traditional editing etiquette of Hollywood films. Like its Dada and surrealist predecessors, [[French New Wave]] editing often drew attention to itself by its lack of continuity, its demystifying self-reflexive nature (reminding the audience that they were watching a film), and by the overt use of [[jump cut]]s or the insertion of material not often related to any narrative. Three of the most influential editors of French New Wave films were the women who (in combination) edited 15 of Godard's films: Francoise Collin, Agnes Guillemot, and Cecile Decugis, and another notable editor is [[Marie-Josèphe Yoyotte]], the first black woman editor in French cinema and editor of ''[[The 400 Blows]]''.<ref name= edited/>

Since the late 20th century [[Post-classical editing]] has seen faster editing styles with nonlinear, discontinuous action.

== Significance ==
[[Vsevolod Pudovkin]] noted that the editing process is the one phase of production that is truly unique to motion pictures. Every other aspect of filmmaking originated in a different medium than film (photography, art direction, writing, sound recording), but editing is the one process that is unique to film.<ref>{{cite book|contributor-last=Jacobs|contributor-first=Lewis|contribution=Introduction|last=Pudovkin|first=Vsevolod Illarionovich|title=Film technique ; and Film acting : the cinema writings of V.I. Pudovkin|publisher=Vision|year=1954|page=ix|oclc=982196683|url=https://archive.org/details/filmtechniqueact00pudo/|via=[[Internet Archive]]|access-date=March 30, 2019}}</ref> Filmmaker [[Stanley Kubrick]] was quoted as saying: "I love editing. I think I like it more than any other phase of filmmaking. If I wanted to be frivolous, I might say that everything that precedes editing is merely a way of producing a film to edit."<ref>{{cite book|last=Walker|first=Alexander|title=Stanley Kubrick Directs|publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich|location=New York|year=1972|isbn=0156848929|page=46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aBZAAAAMAAJ&q=frivolous|via=GoogleBooks|access-date=March 30, 2019}}</ref>

According to writer-director [[Preston Sturges]]: <blockquote>[T]here is a law of natural cutting and that this replicates what an audience in a legitimate theater does for itself. The more nearly the film cutter approaches this law of natural interest, the more invisible will be his cutting. If the camera moves from one person to another at the exact moment that one in the legitimate theatre would have turned his head, one will not be conscious of a cut. If the camera misses by a quarter of a second, one will get a jolt. There is one other requirement: the two shots must be approximate of the same tone value. If one cuts from black to white, it is jarring. At any given moment, the camera must point at the exact spot the audience wishes to look at. To find that spot is absurdly easy: one has only to remember where one was looking at the time the scene was made.<ref>{{cite sturges}}, p. 275</ref></blockquote>

== Assistant editors ==
Assistant editors aid the editor and director in collecting and organizing all the elements needed to edit the film. The [[Motion Picture Editors Guild]] defines an assistant editor as "a person who is assigned to assist an Editor. His [or her] duties shall be such as are assigned and performed under the immediate direction, supervision, and responsibility of the editor."<ref>{{cite book|last=Hollyn|first=Norman|title=The Film Editing Room Handbook: How to Tame the Chaos of the Editing Room|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXOxnJa7vLAC&q=%22assistant+editor%22|date=2009|publisher=Peachpit Press|page=xv|via=GoogleBooks|access-date=March 29, 2019|isbn=978-0321702937}}</ref> When editing is finished, they oversee the various lists and instructions necessary to put the film into its final form. Editors of large budget features will usually have a team of assistants working for them. The first assistant editor is in charge of this team and may do a small bit of picture editing as well, if necessary. Often assistant editors will perform temporary sound, music, and visual effects work. The other assistants will have set tasks, usually helping each other when necessary to complete the many time-sensitive tasks at hand. In addition, an apprentice editor may be on hand to help the assistants. An apprentice is usually someone who is learning the ropes of assisting.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wales|first=Lorene|title=Complete Guide to Film and Digital Production: The People and The Process|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DvQoCgAAQBAJ&q=%22assistant+editor%22&pg=PA209|date=2015|publisher=CRC Press|page=209|isbn=978-1317349310|via=GoogleBooks|access-date=March 29, 2019}}</ref>

Television shows typically have one assistant per editor. This assistant is responsible for every task required to bring the show to the final form. Lower budget features and documentaries will also commonly have only one assistant.

The organizational aspects job could best be compared to database management. When a film is shot, every piece of picture or sound is coded with numbers and [[timecode]]. It is the assistant's job to keep track of these numbers in a database, which, in non-linear editing, is linked to the computer program.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} The editor and director cut the film using digital copies of the original film and sound, commonly referred to as an "offline" edit. When the cut is finished, it is the assistant's job to bring the film or television show "online". They create lists and instructions that tell the picture and sound finishers how to put the edit back together with the high-quality original elements. Assistant editing can be seen as a career path to eventually becoming an editor. Many assistants, however, do not choose to pursue advancement to the editor, and are very happy at the assistant level, working long and rewarding careers on many films and television shows.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jones|first1=Chris|last2=Jolliffe|first2=Genevieve|title=The Guerilla Film Makers Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pap7NL-Y1SgC&q=%22assistant+editor%22+film&pg=PA363|publisher=A&C Black|date=2006|page=363|via=GoogleBooks|access-date=March 29, 2019|isbn=082647988X}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[180-degree rule]]
* [[30-degree rule]]
* [[Footage]] (A Roll)
* [[B-roll]]
* [[Cinematic techniques]]
*[[Clapperboard]]
* [[Compositing]] (keying)
* [[Cut (transition)]], for the director's call ''Cut!'' or stop
** [[Axial cut]]
** [[Cross-cutting]]
** [[Fast cutting]]
** [[Jump cut]]
** [[Long take]]
** [[Match cut]]
** [[Slow cutting]]
* [[Cutaway (filmmaking)|Cutaway]]
* ''[[The Cutting Edge: The Magic of Movie Editing]]''
* [[Edit decision list]] (EDL)
* '''[[Film transition]]'''
** [[Dissolve (filmmaking)|Dissolve]]
** [[L cut]] (split edit)
** [[Wipe (transition)|Wipe]]
* [[Filmmaking]]
* [[Index of articles related to motion pictures]]
* [[Kuleshov effect]]
* [[Motion Picture Editors Guild]] (MPEG)
* [[Moviola]]
* [[Negative cutting]]
* [[Outline of film]]
* [[Re-edited film]]
* [[Scene (filmmaking)|Scene]]
* [[Sequence (filmmaking)|Sequence]]
* '''[[Shot (filmmaking)|Shot]]'''
** [[Crane shot]]
** [[Establishing shot]]
** [[Insert (filmmaking)|Insert]]
** [[Master shot]]
** [[Point-of-view shot]]
** [[Shot reverse shot]]
* [[Video editing]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist}}

'''Bibliography'''
* Dmytryk, Edward (1984). ''On Film Editing: An Introduction to the Art of Film Construction''. Focal Press, Boston. {{ISBN|0-240-51738-5}}
*{{cite book |first=Sergei |last=Eisenstein |author-link=Sergei Eisenstein |others=Michael Glenny (translation) |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last=Glenny |editor2-first=Richard |editor2-last=Taylor |date=2010 |title=Towards a Theory of Montage |publisher=Tauris |location=London |isbn=978-1-84885-356-0}} Translation of Russian language works by Eisenstein, who died in 1948.
*[[Arthur Knight (film critic)|Knight, Arthur]] (1957). ''The Liveliest Art''. Mentor Books. New American Library. {{ISBN|0-02-564210-3}}

'''Further reading'''
* Morales, Morante, Luis Fernando (2017). 'Editing and Montage in International Film and Video: Theory and Technique, Focal Press, Taylor & Francis {{ISBN|1-138-24408-2}}
* Murch, Walter (2001). ''In the Blink of an Eye: a Perspective on Film Editing''. Silman-James Press. 2d rev. ed.. {{ISBN|1-879505-62-2}}

==External links==
* [https://doi.org/10.17637/rh.5987596.v1 Demonstration of Picsync machine by former BBC film editors]
* [https://doi.org/10.17637/rh.5987560.v1 Demonstration of editing 16mm film using a Steenbeck editing table]
* [https://doi.org/10.17637/rh.5987566.v1 Discussion and demonstration of a 16mm edit suite and the working environment within it]
{{commons category|Film editing}}
'''Wikibooks'''
* [[wikibooks:Mewa Film User's Guide|Mewa Film User's Guide]]
* [[wikibooks:Movie Making Manual|Movie Making Manual]]

'''Wikiversity'''
* [[v:filmmaking|Portal:Filmmaking]]



{{Film editing}}
{{Filmmaking}}
{{Cinematic techniques}}
{{Film crew}}

[[Category:Film editing| ]]
[[Category:Film theory]]
[[Category:Film and video technology]]
[[Category:Filmmaking]]
[[Category:Film production]]
[[Category:Cinematic techniques]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

The Faerie Queene

2020-09-01T12:04:21Z

Madler: Fixed grammar

{{other uses|Fairy Queen (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox book
| name = The Faerie Queene
| image = The Faerie Queene frontispiece.jpg
| author = [[Edmund Spenser]]
| language = [[Early Modern English]]
| country = [[Kingdom of England]]
| genre = [[Epic poem]]
| translator =
| caption = Title page of ''The Faerie Queene'', circa 1590
| cover_artist =
| series =
| release_date = 1590
}}
'''''The Faerie Queene''''' is an English [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] by [[Edmund Spenser]]. Books I{{endash}}III were first published in 1590, and then republished in 1596 together with books IV{{endash}}VI. ''The Faerie Queene'' is notable for its form: it is one of the longest poems in the English language as well as the work in which Spenser invented the verse form known as the [[Spenserian stanza]].{{sfn|Loewenstein|Mueller|2003|p=369}} On a literal level, the poem follows several [[knight]]s as a means to examine different virtues, and though the text is primarily an [[allegory|allegorical]] work, it can be read on several levels of allegory, including as praise (or, later, criticism) of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]. In Spenser's "Letter of the Authors", he states that the entire epic poem is "cloudily enwrapped in Allegorical devices", and the aim of publishing ''The Faerie Queene'' was to "fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline".{{sfn|Spenser|1984|pp=15–16}}

Spenser presented the first three books of ''The Faerie Queene'' to Elizabeth I in 1589, probably sponsored by [[Sir Walter Raleigh]]. The poem was a clear effort to gain court favour, and as a reward Elizabeth granted Spenser a pension for life amounting to £50 a year,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Spenser's The Faerie Queene Book One|url=https://archive.org/details/faeriequeenebook00spen_957|url-access=limited|editor-last=Kaske|editor-first=Carol V.|publisher=Hackett|year=2006|isbn=978-0-87220-808-7|location=Indianapolis|page=[https://archive.org/details/faeriequeenebook00spen_957/page/n240 210]}}</ref> though there is no further evidence that Elizabeth I ever read any of the poem. This royal patronage elevated the poem to a level of success that made it Spenser's defining work.{{sfn|Roche|1984|p=11}}

==Summary==
[[File:Holiness defeats Error (Crane 1895-1897).jpg|thumb|''Holiness defeats Error'': an illustration from Book I, Part l of an 1895–1897 edition]]

'''Book I''' is centred on the virtue of holiness as embodied in the Redcrosse Knight. Largely self-contained, Book I can be understood to be its own miniature epic. The Redcrosse Knight and his lady Una travel together as he fights the monster Errour, then separately after the wizard [[Archimago]] tricks the Redcrosse Knight into thinking that Una is unchaste using a false dream. After he leaves, the Redcrosse Knight meets Duessa, who feigns distress in order to entrap him. Duessa leads the Redcrosse Knight to captivity by the giant [[Orgoglio]]. Meanwhile, Una overcomes peril, meets Arthur, and finally finds the Redcrosse Knight and rescues him from his capture, from Duessa, and from Despair. Una and Arthur help the Redcrosse Knight recover in the House of Holiness, with the House's ruler [[Caelia]] and her three daughters joining them; there the Redcrosse Knight sees a vision of his future. He then returns Una to her parents' castle and rescues them from a dragon, and the two are betrothed after resisting Archimago one last time.

'''Book II''' is centred on the virtue of Temperance as embodied in [[Guiomar (Arthurian legend)|Sir Guyon]], who is tempted by the fleeing Archimago into nearly attacking the Redcrosse Knight. Guyon discovers a woman killing herself out of grief for having her lover tempted and bewitched by the witch Acrasia and killed. Guyon swears a vow to avenge them and protect their child. Guyon on his quest starts and stops fighting several evil, rash, or tricked knights and meets Arthur. Finally, they come to Acrasia's Island and the Bower of Bliss, where Guyon resists temptations to violence, idleness, and lust. Guyon captures Acrasia in a net, destroys the Bower, and rescues those imprisoned there.

'''Book III''' is centred on the virtue of Chastity as embodied in [[Britomartis|Britomart]], a lady knight. Resting after the events of Book II, Guyon and Arthur meet Britomart, who wins a joust with Guyon. They separate as Arthur and Guyon leave to rescue Florimell, while Britomart rescues the Redcrosse Knight. Britomart reveals to the Redcrosse Knight that she is pursuing Sir Artegall because she is destined to marry him. The Redcrosse Knight defends Artegall and they meet Merlin, who explains more carefully Britomart's destiny to found the English monarchy. Britomart leaves and fights Sir Marinell. Arthur looks for Florimell, joined later by Sir Satyrane and Britomart, and they witness and resist sexual temptation. Britomart separates from them and meets Sir Scudamore, looking for his captured lady Amoret. Britomart alone is able to rescue Amoret from the wizard Busirane. Unfortunately, when they emerge from the castle Scudamore is gone. (The 1590 version with Books I–III depicts the lovers' happy reunion, but this was changed in the 1596 version which contained all six books.)

'''Book IV''', despite its title "The Legend of Cambell and Telamond or Of Friendship", Cambell's companion in Book IV is actually named Triamond, and the plot does not center on their friendship; the two men appear only briefly in the story. The book is largely a continuation of events begun in Book III. First, Scudamore is convinced by the hag Ate (discord) that Britomart has run off with Amoret and becomes jealous. A three-day tournament is then held by Satyrane, where Britomart beats Arthegal (both in disguise). Scudamore and Arthegal unite against Britomart, but when her helmet comes off in battle Arthegal falls in love with her. He surrenders, removes his helmet, and Britomart recognizes him as the man in the enchanted mirror. Arthegal pledges his love to her but must first leave and complete his quest. Scudamore, upon discovering Britomart's gender, realizes his mistake and asks after his lady, but by this time Britomart has lost Amoret, and she and Scudamore embark together on a search for her. The reader discovers that Amoret was abducted by a savage man and is imprisoned in his cave. One day Amoret darts out past the savage and is rescued from him by the squire Timias and Belphoebe. Arthur then appears, offering his service as a knight to the lost woman. She accepts, and after a couple of trials on the way, Arthur and Amoret finally happen across Scudamore and Britomart. The two lovers are reunited. Wrapping up a different plotline from Book III, the recently recovered Marinel discovers Florimell suffering in Proteus' dungeon. He returns home and becomes sick with love and pity. Eventually he confesses his feelings to his mother, and she pleads with Neptune to have the girl released, which the god grants.

'''Book V''' is centred on the virtue of Justice as embodied in Sir Artegall.

'''Book VI''' is centred on the virtue of Courtesy as embodied in Sir Calidore.

==Major characters==
[[Image:Etty Britomart 1833.jpg|right|upright|thumb|''[[Britomart Redeems Faire Amoret]]'' by [[William Etty]], 1833. [[Tate Britain]], London.|alt=Heavily armed woman in armour, rescuing a semi-nude woman from a wild-eyed man and trampling on a blood-stained book]]
* '''Acrasia''', seductress of knights. Guyon destroys her Bower of Bliss at the end of Book 2. Similar characters in other epics: [[Circe]] ([[Homer]]'s ''Odyssey''), [[Alcina]] (Ariosto), [[Armida]] (Tasso), or the fairy woman from [[John Keats|Keats]]' poem "[[La Belle Dame sans Merci]]".
* '''Amoret(ta)''', the betrothed of Scudamour, kidnapped by Busirane on her wedding night, saved by Britomart. She represents the virtue of married love, and her marriage to Scudamour serves as the example that Britomart and Artegall seek to copy. Amoret and Scudamor are separated for a time by circumstances, but remain loyal to each other until they (presumably) are reunited.
* '''[[Archimago]]''', an evil sorcerer who is sent to stop the knights in the service of the Faerie Queene. Of the knights, Archimago hates Redcrosse most of all, hence he is symbolically the nemesis of England.
* '''Artegall''' (or Artegal or Arthegal or Arthegall), a knight who is the embodiment and champion of [[Justice]]. He meets Britomart after defeating her in a sword fight (she had been dressed as a knight) and removing her helmet, revealing her beauty. Artegall quickly falls in love with Britomart. Artegall has a companion in Talus, a metal man who wields a flail and never sleeps or tires but will mercilessly pursue and kill any number of villains. Talus obeys Artegall's command, and serves to represent justice without mercy (hence, Artegall is the more human face of justice). Later, Talus does not rescue Artegall from enslavement by the wicked slave-mistress Radigund, because Artegall is bound by a legal contract to serve her. Only her death, at Britomart's hands, liberates him. Chrysaor was the golden [[sword]] of Sir Artegall. This sword was also the favorite weapon of [[Demeter]], the Greek goddess of the [[harvest]]. Because it was "Tempred with [[Adamant]]", it could cleave through anything.
* '''Arthur''' of the Round Table, but playing a different role here. He is madly in love with the Faerie Queene and spends his time in pursuit of her when not helping the other knights out of their sundry predicaments. Prince Arthur is the Knight of Magnificence, the perfection of all virtues.
* '''Ate''', a fiend from Hell disguised as a beautiful maiden. Ate opposes Book IV's virtue of friendship through spreading discord. She is aided in her task by Duessa, the female deceiver of Book I, whom Ate summoned from Hell. Ate and Duessa have fooled the false knights Blandamour and Paridell into taking them as lovers. Her name is possibly inspired by the [[ancient Greek religion|Greek goddess]] of misfortune [[Atë]], said to have been thrown from Heaven by Zeus, similar to the fallen angels.
* '''[[Belphoebe]]''', the beautiful sister of Amoret who spends her time in the woods hunting and avoiding the numerous amorous men who chase her. Timias, the squire of Arthur, eventually wins her love after she tends to the injuries he sustained in battle; however, Timias must endure much suffering to prove his love when Belphoebe sees him tending to a wounded woman and, misinterpreting his actions, flies off hastily. She is only drawn back to him after seeing how he has wasted away without her.
[[File:Britomart viewing Artegal (Crane, 1895-1897).jpg|thumb|''Britomart viewing Artegall'' by [[Walter Crane]] from Book III, Part VII of an 1895–1897 edition]]
* '''[[Britomartis|Britomart]]''', a female knight, the embodiment and champion of [[Chastity]]. She is young and beautiful, and falls in love with Artegall upon first seeing his face in her father's magic mirror. Though there is no interaction between them, she travels to find him again, dressed as a knight and accompanied by her nurse, Glauce. Britomart carries an enchanted spear that allows her to defeat every knight she encounters, until she loses to a knight who turns out to be her beloved Artegall. (Parallel figure in Ariosto: [[Bradamante]].) Britomart is one of the most important knights in the story. She searches the world, including a pilgrimage to the shrine of Isis, and a visit with Merlin the magician. She rescues Artegall, and several other knights, from the evil slave-mistress Radigund. Furthermore, Britomart accepts Amoret at a tournament, refusing the false Florimell.
* '''Busirane''', the evil sorcerer who captures Amoret on her wedding night. When Britomart enters his castle to defeat him, she finds him holding Amoret captive. She is bound to a pillar and Busirane is torturing her. The clever Britomart handily defeats him and returns Amoret to her husband.
* '''[[Caelia]]''', the ruler of the House of Holiness.
* '''Calidore''', the Knight of Courtesy, hero of Book VI. He is on a quest from the Faerie Queene to slay the Blatant Beast.
* '''Cambell''', one of the Knights of Friendship, hero of Book IV. Brother of Canacee and friend of Triamond.
* '''Cambina''', daughter of Agape and sister to Priamond, Diamond, and Triamond. Cambina is depicted holding a caduceus and a cup of nepenthe, signifying her role as a figure of concord. She marries Cambell after bringing an end to his fight with Triamond.
* '''Colin Clout''', a shepherd noted for his songs and bagpipe playing, briefly appearing in Book VI. He is the same Colin Clout as in [[The Shepheardes Calender|Spenser's pastoral poetry]], which is fitting because Calidore is taking a sojourn into a world of pastoral delight, ignoring his duty to hunt the Blatant Beast, which is why he set out to Ireland to begin with. Colin Clout may also be said to be Spenser himself.
* '''Cymochles''', a knight in Book II who is defined by indecision and fluctuations of the will. He and his fiery brother Pyrochles represent emotional maladies that threaten temperance. The two brothers are both slain by Prince Arthur in Canto VIII.
* '''Chrysogonee''', mother of Belphoebe and her twin Amoretta. She hides in the forest and, becoming tired, falls asleep on a bank, where she is impregnated by sunbeams and gives birth to twins. The goddesses [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] find the newborn twins and take them: Venus takes Amoretta and raises her in the Garden of Adonis, and Diana takes Belphoebe.
* '''Despair''', a distraught man in a cave, his name coming from his mood. Using just rhetoric, he nearly persuades Redcrosse Knight to commit suicide, before Una steps in.
* '''Duessa''', a lady who personifies Falsehood in Book I, known to Redcrosse as "Fidessa". As the opposite of Una, she represents the "false" religion of the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]]. She is also initially an assistant, or at least a servant, to Archimago.
[[File:Washington Allston 002.jpg|right|thumb|''Florimell's Flight'' by [[Washington Allston]]]]
* '''Florimell''', a lady in love with the knight Marinell, who initially rejects her. Hearing that he has been wounded, she sets out to find him and faces various perils, culminating in her capture by the sea god [[Proteus]]. She is reunited with Marinell at the end of Book IV, and is married to him in Book V.
* '''[[Guiomar (Arthurian legend)|Guyon]]''', the Knight of Temperance, the hero of Book II. He is the leader of the Knights of Maidenhead and carries the image of Gloriana on his shield. According to the ''[[Golden Legend]]'', St. George's name shares etymology with Guyon, which specifically means "the holy wrestler".
[[File:Houghton 63-2196 - Faerie Queene, Kent.jpg|thumb|''Prince Arthur, the Redcrosse Knight, and Una'', illustrated by William Kent, 1751]]
* '''Marinell''', "the knight of the sea"; son of a water nymph, he avoided all love because his mother had learnt that a maiden was destined to do him harm; this prophecy was fulfilled when he was stricken down in battle by Britomart, though he was not mortally wounded.
* '''[[Orgoglio]]''', an evil giant. [[wikt:orgoglio|His name]] means "pride" in Italian.
* '''The Redcrosse Knight''', hero of Book I. Introduced in the first canto of the poem, he bears the emblem of [[Saint George]], patron saint of England; a red cross on a white background that is still the [[flag of England]]. The Redcrosse Knight is declared the real Saint George in Canto X. He also learns that he is of English ancestry, having been stolen by a Fay and raised in Faerieland. In the climactic battle of Book I, Redcrosse slays the dragon that has laid waste to Eden. He marries Una at the end of Book I, but brief appearances in Books II and III show him still questing through the world.
* '''Satyrane''', a wild half-satyr man raised in the wild and the epitome of natural human potential. Tamed by Una, he protects her, but ends up locked in a battle against the chaotic Sansloy, which remains unconcluded. Satyrane finds Florimell's girdle, which she drops while flying from a beast. He holds a three-day tournament for the right to possess the girdle. His Knights of Maidenhead win the day with Britomart's help.
* '''Scudamour''', the lover of Amoret. His name means "shield of love". This character is based on [[James Scudamore (courtier)|Sir James Scudamore]], a jousting champion and courtier to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]. Scudamour loses his love Amoret to the sorcerer Busirane. Though the 1590 edition of ''The Faerie Queene'' has Scudamour united with Amoret through Britomart's assistance, the continuation in Book IV has them separated, never to be reunited.
* '''Talus''', an "iron man" who helps Arthegall to dispense justice in Book V. The name is likely from Latin "talus" (ankle) with reference to that which justice "stands on," and perhaps also to the ankle of Achilles, who was otherwise invincible, or the mythological bronze man [[Talos]].
* '''Triamond''', one of the Knights of Friendship, a hero of Book IV. Friend of Cambell. One of three brothers; when Priamond and Diamond died, their souls joined with his body. After battling Cambell, Triamond marries Cambell's sister, Canacee.
* '''Una''', the personification of the "True Church". She travels with the Redcrosse Knight (who represents England), whom she has recruited to save her parents' castle from a dragon. She also defeats Duessa, who represents the "false" (Catholic) church and the person of Mary, Queen of Scots, in a trial reminiscent of that which ended in Mary's beheading. Una is also representative of Truth.

==Themes==

===Allegory of virtue===
[[File:Johann Heinrich Füssli 058.jpg|right|thumb|''Prince Arthur and the Faerie Queen'' by [[Henry Fuseli]], circa 1788.]]
A letter written by Spenser to [[Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter Raleigh]] in 1590{{sfn|Roche|1984|p=1070|ps=: "The date of the letter—23 January 1589—is actually 1590, since England did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1752 and the dating of the new year began on 25 March, Lady Day"}} contains a preface for ''The Faerie Queene'', in which Spenser describes the allegorical presentation of virtues through [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] knights in the mythical "Faerieland". Presented as a preface to the epic in most published editions, this letter outlines plans for twenty-four books: twelve based each on a different knight who exemplified one of twelve "private virtues", and a possible twelve more centred on King Arthur displaying twelve "public virtues". Spenser names [[Aristotle]] as his source for these virtues, though the influences of [[Thomas Aquinas]] and the traditions of medieval allegory can be observed as well.{{sfn|Tuve|1966}} It is impossible to predict how the work would have looked had Spenser lived to complete it, since the reliability of the predictions made in his letter to Raleigh is not absolute, as numerous divergences from that scheme emerged as early as 1590 in the first ''Faerie Queene'' publication.

In addition to the six virtues [[Sacred|Holiness]], [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]], [[Chastity]], [[Friendship]], [[Justice]], and [[Courtesy]], the Letter to Raleigh suggests that Arthur represents the virtue of [[Magnanimity|Magnificence]], which ("according to Aristotle and the rest") is "the perfection of all the rest, and containeth in it them all"; and that the Faerie Queene herself represents Glory (hence her name, Gloriana). The unfinished seventh book (the Cantos of Mutability) appears to have represented the virtue of "constancy."

===Religion===
[[File:Briton Rivière - Una and the Lion.jpg|thumb|250px|''Una and the Lion'' by [[Briton Rivière]] (1840–1920).]]
''The Faerie Queene'' was written during the Reformation, a time of religious and political controversy. After taking the throne following the death of her half-sister Mary, Elizabeth changed the official religion of the nation to Protestantism.{{sfn|Greenblatt|2006|p=687}} The plot of book one is similar to ''[[Foxe's Book of Martyrs]]'', which was about the persecution of the Protestants and how Catholic rule was unjust.{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=41}} Spenser includes the controversy of Elizabethan church reform within the epic. Gloriana has godly English knights destroy Catholic continental power in Books I and V.{{sfn|Heale|1999|p=8}} Spenser also endows many of his villains with "the worst of what Protestants considered a superstitious Catholic reliance on deceptive images".{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=39}}

===Politics===
The poem celebrates, memorializes, and critiques the [[House of Tudor]] (of which Elizabeth was a part), much as [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'' celebrates [[Augustus]]' Rome. The ''Aeneid'' states that Augustus descended from the noble sons of [[Troy]]; similarly, ''The Faerie Queene'' suggests that the Tudor lineage can be connected to King Arthur. The poem is deeply [[allegory|allegorical]] and [[allusion|allusive]]; many prominent Elizabethans could have found themselves partially represented by one or more of Spenser's figures. Elizabeth herself is the most prominent example. She appears in the guise of Gloriana, the [[Fairy Queen#In literature and media|Faerie Queen]], but also in Books III and IV as the virgin [[Belphoebe]], daughter of Chrysogonee and twin to Amoret, the embodiment of womanly married love. Perhaps also, more critically, Elizabeth is seen in Book I as Lucifera, the "maiden queen" whose brightly lit Court of Pride masks a [[dungeon]] full of prisoners.{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}}

The poem also displays Spenser's thorough familiarity with literary history. The world of ''The Faerie Queene'' is based on English [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian legend]], but much of the language, spirit, and style of the piece draw more on Italian epic, particularly [[Ludovico Ariosto]]'s ''[[Orlando Furioso]]'' and [[Torquato Tasso]]'s ''[[Jerusalem Delivered]]''.{{Sfn|Abrams|2000|p=623}}
Book V of ''The Faerie Queene'', the Book of Justice, is Spenser's most direct discussion of political theory. In it, Spenser attempts to tackle the problem of policy toward Ireland and recreates the trial of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCabe|first=Richard|date=Spring 1987|title=The Masks of Duessa: Spenser, Mary Queen of Scots, and James VI|url=|journal=English Literary Renaissance|volume=17|issue=2|pages=224–242|via=JSTOR|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6757.1987.tb00934.x}}</ref>

===Archetypes===
Some literary works sacrifice historical context to archetypal myth, reducing poetry to Biblical quests, whereas Spenser reinforces the actuality of his story by adhering to archetypal patterns.{{sfn|Gottfried|1968|p=1363}} Throughout ''The Faerie Queene,'' Spenser does not concentrate on a pattern "which transcends time" but "uses such a pattern to focus the meaning of the past on the present".{{sfn|Gottfried|1968|p=1363}} By reflecting on the past, Spenser achieves ways of stressing the importance of Elizabeth's reign. In turn, he does not "convert event into myth" but "myth into event".{{sfn|Gottfried|1968|p=1363}} Within ''The Faerie Queene,'' Spenser blurs the distinction between archetypal and historical elements deliberately. For example, Spenser probably does not believe in the complete truth of the British Chronicle, which Arthur reads in the House of Alma.{{sfn|Gottfried|1968|p=1363}} In this instance, the Chronicle serves as a poetical equivalent for factual history. Even so, poetical history of this kind is not myth; rather, it "consists of unique, if partially imaginary, events recorded in chronological order".{{sfn|Gottfried|1968|p=1363}} The same distinction resurfaces in the political allegory of Books I and V. However, the reality to interpreted events becomes more apparent when the events occurred nearer to the time when the poem was written.{{sfn|Gottfried|1968|p=1363}}

===Symbolism and allusion===
Throughout ''The Faerie Queene'', Spenser creates "a network of allusions to events, issues, and particular persons in England and Ireland" including Mary, Queen of Scots, the Spanish Armada, the English Reformation, and even the Queen herself.{{sfn|Greenblatt|2012|p=775}} It is also known that James VI of Scotland read the poem, and was very insulted by Duessa – a very negative depiction of his mother, Mary, Queen of Scots.{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=48}} ''The Faerie Queene'' was then banned in Scotland. This led to a significant decrease in Elizabeth's support for the poem.{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=48}} Within the text, both the Faerie Queene and Belphoebe serve as two of the many personifications of Queen Elizabeth, some of which are "far from complimentary".{{sfn|Greenblatt|2012|p=775}}

Though it praises her in some ways, ''The Faerie Queene'' questions Elizabeth's ability to rule so effectively because of her gender, and also inscribes the "shortcomings" of her rule.{{sfn|Heale|1999|p=11}} There is a character named Britomart who represents married chastity. This character is told that her destiny is to be an "immortal womb" – to have children.{{sfn|Heale|1999|p=11}} Here, Spenser is referring to Elizabeth's unmarried state and is touching on anxieties of the 1590s about what would happen after her death since the kingdom had no heir.{{sfn|Heale|1999|p=11}}

''The Faerie Queene's'' original audience would have been able to identify many of the poem's characters by analyzing the symbols and attributes that spot Spenser's text. For example, readers would immediately know that "a woman who wears scarlet clothes and resides along the Tiber River represents the Roman Catholic Church".{{sfn|Greenblatt|2012|p=775}} However, marginal notes jotted in early copies of ''The Faerie Queene'' suggest that Spenser's contemporaries were unable to come to a consensus about the precise historical referents of the poem's "myriad figures".{{sfn|Greenblatt|2012|p=775}} In fact, Sir Walter Raleigh's wife identified many of the poem's female characters as "allegorical representations of herself".{{sfn|Greenblatt|2012|p=775}}
Other symbols prevalent in ''The Faerie Queene'' are the numerous animal characters present in the poem. They take the role of "visual figures in the allegory and in illustrative similes and metaphors".{{sfn|Marotti|1965|p=69}} Specific examples include the swine present in Lucifera's castle who embodied gluttony, and Duessa, the deceitful crocodile who may represent Mary, Queen of Scots, in a negative light.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The House of Busirane episode in Book III in ''The Faerie Queene'' is partially based on an early modern English folktale called "Mr. Fox's Mottos". In the tale, a young woman named Lady Mary has been enticed by Mr. Fox, who resembles Bluebeard in his manner of killing his wives. She defeats Mr. Fox and tells about his deeds. Notably, Spenser quotes the story as Britomart makes her way through the House, with warning mottos above each doorway "Be bold, be bold, but not too bold".{{sfn|Micros|2008}}

==Composition==

===Spenser's intentions===
While writing his poem, Spenser strove to avoid "gealous opinions and misconstructions" because he thought it would place his story in a "better light" for his readers.{{sfn|Spenser|1984|p=15}} Spenser stated in his letter to Raleigh, published with the first three books,{{sfn|Heale|1999|p=11}} that "the general end of the book is to fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline".{{sfn|Spenser|1984|p=15}} Spenser considered his work "a historical fiction" which men should read for "delight" rather than "the profit of the ensample".{{sfn|Spenser|1984|p=15}} ''The Faerie Queene'' was written for Elizabeth to read and was dedicated to her. However, there are dedicatory sonnets in the first edition to many powerful Elizabethan figures.{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=50}}

Spenser addresses "lodwick" in ''[[Amoretti]]'' 33, when talking about ''The Faerie Queene'' still being incomplete. This could be either his friend [[Lodowick Bryskett]] or his long deceased Italian model Ludovico Ariosto, whom he praises in "Letter to Raleigh".{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=273}}

=== Dedication ===

[[File:Faerie Queene Dedication Page.jpg|thumb|The dedicatory page of the 1590 edition of Spenser's ''Faerie Queene'', reading: "To the most mightie and magnificent Empresse Elizabeth, by the grace of god, Queene of England, France and Ireland Defender of the Faith &c."]]

The poem is dedicated to [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] who is represented in the poem as the Faerie Queene Gloriana, as well as the character Belphoebe.{{sfn|Spenser|1984|p=16|ps=: "In that Faery Queene I meane glory in my generall person of our soueraine the Queene, and her kingdome in Faery land ... For considering she beareth two persons, the one of a most royall Queene or Empresse, the other of a most vertuous and beautifull Lady, this latter part in some places I doe expresse in Belphoebe"}} Spenser prefaces the poem with sonnets additionally dedicated to [[Christopher Hatton|Sir Christopher Hatton]], [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Lord Burleigh]], the [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford|Earl of Oxford]], the [[Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]], the [[George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland|Earl of Cumberland]], the [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Earl of Essex]], the [[Walter Butler, 11th Earl of Ormond|Earl of Ormond and Ossory]], [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|High Admiral Charles Howard]], [[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon|Lord Hunsdon]], [[Arthur Grey, 14th Baron Grey de Wilton|Lord Grey of Wilton]], [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset|Lord Buckhurst]], [[Francis Walsingham|Sir Francis Walsingham]], [[John Norreys|Sir John Norris]], [[Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter Raleigh]], the [[Mary Sidney|Countess of Pembroke]] (on the subject of her brother [[Philip Sidney|Sir Philip Sidney]]), and [[Elizabeth Spencer, Baroness Hunsdon|Lady Carew]].

===Social commentary===
In October 1589, after nine years in Ireland,<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 4174771|title = Spenser's Audiences, 1589–91|journal = Studies in Philology|volume = 100|issue = 4|pages = 514–533|last1 = Oram|first1 = William A.|year = 2003|doi = 10.1353/sip.2003.0019}}</ref> Spenser voyaged to England and saw the Queen. It is possible that he read to her from his manuscript at this time. On 25 February 1591, the Queen gave him a pension of fifty pounds per year.{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=112}} He was paid in four instalments on 25 March, 24 June, 29 September, and 25 December.{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=24}}
After the first three books of ''The Faerie Queene'' were published in 1590, Spenser found himself disappointed in the monarchy; among other things, "his annual pension from the Queen was smaller than he would have liked" and his humanist perception of Elizabeth's court "was shattered by what he saw there".{{sfn|Green|1974|p=389}} Despite these frustrations, however, Spenser "kept his aristocratic prejudices and predispositions".{{sfn|Green|1974|p=389}} Book VI stresses that there is "almost no correlation between noble deeds and low birth" and reveals that to be a "noble person," one must be a "gentleman of choice stock".{{sfn|Green|1974|p=389}}

Throughout ''The Faerie Queene'', virtue is seen as "a feature for the nobly born" and within Book VI, readers encounter worthy deeds that indicate aristocratic lineage.{{sfn|Green|1974|p=389}} An example of this is the hermit to whom Arthur brings Timias and Serena. Initially, the man is considered a "goodly knight of a gentle race" who "withdrew from public service to religious life when he grew too old to fight".{{sfn|Green|1974|p=389}} Here, we note the hermit's noble blood seems to have influenced his gentle, selfless behaviour. Likewise, audiences acknowledge that young Tristram "speaks so well and acts so heroically" that Calidore "frequently contributes him with noble birth" even before learning his background; in fact, it is no surprise that Tristram turns out to be the son of a king, explaining his profound intellect.{{sfn|Green|1974|p=390}} However, Spenser's most peculiar example of noble birth is demonstrated through the characterization of the Salvage Man. Using the Salvage Man as an example, Spenser demonstrated that "ungainly appearances do not disqualify one from noble birth".{{sfn|Green|1974|p=390}} By giving the Salvage Man a "frightening exterior," Spenser stresses that "virtuous deeds are a more accurate indication of gentle blood than physical appearance.{{sfn|Green|1974|p=390}}

On the opposite side of the spectrum, ''The Faerie Queene'' indicates qualities such as cowardice and discourtesy that signify low birth. During his initial encounter with Arthur, Turpine "hides behind his retainers, chooses ambush from behind instead of direct combat, and cowers to his wife, who covers him with her voluminous skirt".{{sfn|Green|1974|p=392}} These actions demonstrate that Turpine is "morally emasculated by fear" and furthermore, "the usual social roles are reversed as the lady protects the knight from danger.{{sfn|Green|1974|p=392}} Scholars believe that this characterization serves as "a negative example of knighthood" and strives to teach Elizabethan aristocrats how to "identify a commoner with political ambitions inappropriate to his rank".{{sfn|Green|1974|p=392}}

===Poetic structure===
''The Faerie Queene'' was written in [[Spenserian stanza]], which Spenser created specifically for ''The Faerie Queene''. Spenser varied existing epic stanza forms, the [[rhyme royal]] used by Chaucer, with the rhyme pattern ABABBCC, and the ''[[ottava rima]]'', which originated in Italy, with the rhyme pattern ABABABCC. Spenser's stanza is the longest of the three, with nine iambic lines – the first eight of them five footed, that is, pentameters, and the ninth six footed, that is, a hexameter, or Alexandrine – which form "interlocking quatrains and a final couplet".{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=213}} The rhyme pattern is ABABBCBCC. Over two thousand stanzas were written for the 1590 ''Faerie Queene''.{{sfn|McCabe|2010|p=213}} Many see Spenser's purposeful use of archaic language as an intentional means of aligning himself with Chaucer and placing himself within a trajectory of building English national literary history.

===Theological structure===
[[File:Florimell saved by Proteus (Crane, 1895-1897).jpg|thumb|''Florimell saved by Proteus'' by [[Walter Crane]], from book III, Part VII of an 1895–1897 edition.]]

In Elizabethan England, no subject was more familiar to writers than theology. Elizabethans learned to embrace religious studies in petty school, where they "read from selections from the Book of Common Prayer and memorized Catechisms from the Scriptures".{{sfn|Whitaker|1952|p=151}} This influence is evident in Spenser's text, as demonstrated in the moral allegory of Book I. Here, allegory is organized in the traditional arrangement of Renaissance theological treatises and confessionals. While reading Book I, audiences first encounter original sin, justification and the nature of sin before analysing the church and the sacraments.{{sfn|Whitaker|1952|p=153}} Despite this pattern, Book I is not a theological treatise; within the text, "moral and historical allegories intermingle" and the reader encounters elements of romance.{{sfn|Whitaker|1952|p=154}} However, Spenser's method is not "a rigorous and unyielding allegory," but "a compromise among conflicting elements".{{sfn|Whitaker|1952|p=154}} In Book I of ''The Faerie Queene'' the discussion of the path to salvation begins with original sin and justification, skipping past initial matters of God, the Creeds, and Adam's fall from grace.{{sfn|Whitaker|1952|p=154}} This literary decision is pivotal because these doctrines "center the fundamental theological controversies of the Reformation".{{sfn|Whitaker|1952|p=154}}

===Sources===

====Myth and history====
During ''The Faerie Queene's'' inception, Spenser worked as a civil servant, in "relative seclusion from the political and literary events of his day".{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=520}} As Spenser laboured in solitude, ''The Faerie Queene'' manifested within his mind, blending his experiences into the content of his craft. Within his poem, Spenser explores human consciousness and conflict, relating to a variety of genres including sixteenth century Arthurian literature.{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=522}} ''The Faerie Queene'' was influenced strongly by Italian works, as were many other works in England at that time. ''The Faerie Queene'' draws heavily on Ariosto and Tasso.{{sfn|Healy|1999|p=95}}

The first three books of ''The Faerie Queene'' operate as a unit, representing the entire cycle from the fall of Troy to the reign of Elizabeth.{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=522}} Using ''[[in medias res]]'', Spenser introduces his historical narrative at three different intervals, using chronicle, civil conversation, and prophecy as its occasions.{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=522}}

Despite the historical elements of his text, Spenser is careful to label himself a historical poet as opposed to a historiographer. Spenser notes this differentiation in his letter to Raleigh, noting "a Historiographer discourseth of affairs orderly as they were done…but a Poet thrusteth into the midst…and maketh a pleasing Analysis of all".{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=523}}

Spenser's characters embody Elizabethan values, highlighting political and aesthetic associations of Tudor Arthurian tradition in order to bring his work to life. While Spenser respected British history and "contemporary culture confirmed his attitude",{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=523}} his literary freedom demonstrates that he was "working in the realm of mythopoeic imagination rather than that of historical fact".{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=523}} In fact, Spenser's Arthurian material serves as a subject of debate, intermediate between "legendary history and historical myth" offering him a range of "evocative tradition and freedom that historian's responsibilities preclude".{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=524}} Concurrently, Spenser adopts the role of a sceptic, reflected in the way in which he handles the British history, which "extends to the verge of self-satire".{{sfn|Craig|1972|p=555}}

====Medieval subject matter====
''The Faerie Queene'' owes, in part, its central figure, Arthur, to a medieval writer, [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]. In his ''[[Prophetiae Merlini]]'' ("Prophecies of Merlin"), Geoffrey's Merlin proclaims that the [[Saxons]] will rule over the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] until the "Boar of Cornwall" (Arthur) again restores them to their rightful place as rulers.{{sfn|Geoffrey of Monmouth}} The prophecy was adopted by the Welsh and eventually used by the Tudors. Through their ancestor, [[Owen Tudor]], the Tudors had Welsh blood, through which they claimed to be descendants of Arthur and rightful rulers of Britain.{{sfn|Millican|1932}} The tradition begun by Geoffrey of Monmouth set the perfect atmosphere for Spenser's choice of Arthur as the central figure and natural bridegroom of Gloriana.

==Reception==

===Diction===
Since its inception four centuries ago, Spenser's [[diction]] has been scrutinized by scholars. Despite the enthusiasm the poet and his work received, Spenser's experimental diction was "largely condemned" before it received the acclaim it has today.{{Sfn | Pope | 1926 | p = 575}} Seventeenth-century philologists such as [[William Davenant|Davenant]] considered Spenser's use of "obsolete language" as the "most vulgar accusation that is laid to his charge".{{Sfn | Pope | 1926 | p = 576}} Scholars have recently observed that the classical tradition tucked within ''The Faerie Queene'' is related to the problem of his diction because it "involves the principles of imitation and decorum".{{Sfn | Pope | 1926 | p = 580}} Despite these initial criticisms, Spenser is "now recognized as a conscious literary artist" and his language is deemed "the only fitting vehicle for his tone of thought and feelings".{{Sfn | Pope | 1926 | p = 580}} Spenser's use of language was widely contrasted to that of "free and unregulated" sixteenth-century Shakespearian grammar.{{Sfn | Cumming | 1937 | p = 6}} Spenser's style is standardized, lyrically sophisticated, and full of archaisms that give the poem an original taste. Sugden argues in ''The Grammar of Spenser's Faerie Queene'' that the archaisms reside "chiefly in vocabulary, to a high degree in spelling, to some extent in the inflexions, and only slightly in the syntax".{{Sfn | Cumming | 1937 | p = 6}}

[[Samuel Johnson]] also commented critically on Spenser's diction, with which he became intimately acquainted during his work on ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'', and "found it a useful source for obsolete and archaic words"; Johnson, however, mainly considered Spenser's (early) pastoral poems, a genre of which he was not particularly fond.{{sfn|Turnage|1970|p=567}}

The diction and atmosphere of ''The Faerie Queene'' relied on much more than just [[Middle English]]; for instance, classical allusions and classical proper names abound—especially in the later books—and he coined some names based on [[Greek language|Greek]], such as "Poris" and "Phao lilly white."{{sfn|Draper|1932|p=97}} Classical material is also alluded to or reworked by Spenser, such as the rape of [[Lucretia]], which was reworked into the story of the character Amavia in Book Two.{{sfn|Cañadas|2007|p=386}}

===Language===
Spenser's language in ''The Faerie Queene'', as in ''[[The Shepheardes Calender]]'', is deliberately archaic, though the extent of this has been exaggerated by critics who follow [[Ben Jonson]]'s dictum, that "in affecting the ancients Spenser writ no language."{{Sfn | McElderry | 1932 | p = 144}} Allowing that Jonson's remark may only apply to the ''Calendar'', Bruce Robert McElderry Jr. states, after a detailed investigation of the ''FQ''{{'}}s [[diction]], that Jonson's statement "is a skillful epigram; but it seriously misrepresents the truth if taken at anything like its face value".{{Sfn | McElderry | 1932 | p = 170}} The number of archaisms used in the poem is not overwhelming—one source reports thirty-four in Canto I of Book I, that is, thirty-four words out of a total forty-two hundred words, less than one percent.{{Sfn | Parker | 1925 | p = 85}} According to McElderry, language does not account for the poem's archaic tone: "The subject-matter of ''The Faerie Queene'' is itself the most powerful factor in creating the impression of archaism."{{Sfn | McElderry | 1932 | p = 159}}

Examples of medieval archaisms (in [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and diction) include:
* Infinitive in ''-en'': ''vewen'' 1. 201, 'to view';
* Prefix ''y-'' retained in participle: ''yclad'', 1. 58, 254, 'clad, clothed';
* Adjective: ''combrous'', 1. 203, 'harassing, troublesome';
* Verb: ''keepe'', 1. 360, 'heed, give attention to'.{{Sfn | Parker | 1925 | p = 85}}

==Adaptation and derivative works==
Numerous adaptations in the form of [[children's literature]] have been made – the work was a popular choice in the 19th and early 20th century with over 20 different versions written, with the earliest being E. W. Bradburn's ''Legends from Spencer's Fairy Queen, for Children'' (1829), written in the form of a [[dialogue]] between mother and children – the 19th-century versions oft concentrated on the moral aspect of the tale.<ref>{{citation| url = | encyclopedia = The Spenser Encyclopedia | editor-first = Albert Charles| editor-last = Hamilton | title = The Faerie Queene, children's versions| pages = 289– | publisher = University of Toronto Press | year = 1990}}</ref> In terms of the [[English-speaking world]] adaptions of the work were relatively more popular in the [[United Kingdom]] than in the [[United States]] compared to contemporary works like [[John Bunyan|Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'', presumably due to the differences in appeal of the intended audiences (Royal court vs Ordinary people) and their relative appeal to the general American readership.<ref name="child1">{{citation| url = | title = The Faerie Queene as Children's Literature: Victorian and Edwardian Retellings in Words and Pictures| first = Velma | last = Bourgeois Richmond | publisher = McFarland and Company| year = 2016| at= Preface, p.1-4}}</ref>

The [[Edwardian era]] was particularly rich in adaptation for children, and the works richly illustrated, with contributing artists including [[Arthur George Walker|A. G. Walker]], [[Gertrude Demain Hammond]], [[Thomas Heath Robinson|T. H. Robinson]], [[Frank C. Papé]], [[Brinsley Le Fanu]] and [[Henry Justice Ford|H. J. Ford]].<ref name="child1"/> Additionally, [[Walter Crane]] illustrated a six-volume collection of the complete work, published 1897, considered a great example of the [[Arts and Crafts]] movement.<ref>{{citation| url = https://exhibits.library.unt.edu/spring-exhibit/walter-cranes-faerie-queene-1897| title = THE CAT'S OUT OF THE BAG : WALTER CRANE'S FAERIE QUEENE, 1897 | work = www.library.unt.edu }}</ref><ref>{{citation| url =http://blog.courtauld.ac.uk/booklibrary/tag/arts-crafts/| title = Featured Book: Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene | date = 24 Apr 2013 | first = Eleanor | last = Keane | work = The Courtauld Institute of Art (Book Library Blog) }}</ref>

In "[[The Mathematics of Magic]]", the second of [[Fletcher Pratt]] and [[L. Sprague de Camp]]'s [[The Complete Compleat Enchanter|Harold Shea stories]], the modern American adventurers Harold Shea and Reed Chalmers visit the world of The Faerie Queene, where they discover that the greater difficulties faced by Spenser's knights in the later portions of the poem are explained by the evil enchanters of the piece having organized a guild to more effectively oppose them. Shea and Chalmers reveal this conspiracy to the knights and assist in its overthrow. In the process, Belphebe and Florimel of Faerie become respectively the wives of Shea and Chalmers and accompany them on further adventures in other worlds of myth and fantasy.

A considerable part of [[Elizabeth Bear]]'s "Promethean Age" series <ref>{{cite web|last=Monette|first=Sarah|title=An Interview with Elizabeth Bear, conducted by Sarah Monette|url=https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=Elizabeth+Bear%27s+%22Promethean+Age%22&hl=en&btnG=Google+Search&sourceid=Mozilla-search&start=0#hl=en&sugexp=les%3B&gs_nf=1&tok=fGCbg3M4XX5PLux3JCZiJA&pq=elizabeth%20bear%27s%20%22promethean%20age%22%20%22secret%20history%22%20review&cp=51&gs_id=iw&xhr=t&q=Elizabeth+Bear%27s+%22Promethean+Age%22+%22secret+history%22&pf=p&safe=off&sclient=psy-ab&oq=Elizabeth+Bear%27s+%22Promethean+Age%22+%22secret+history%22+&gs_l=&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.&fp=22adff2dc2288598&biw=840&bih=359&bs=1|publisher=Subterranean Press|accessdate=4 October 2012}}</ref> takes place in a Kingdom of Faerie which is loosely based on the one described by Spenser. As depicted by Bear, Spenser was aware of this Kingdom's existence and his work was actually a description of fact rather than invented fantasy; Queen [[Elizabeth I]] had a secret pact of mutual help with the Queen of Faerie; and such historical characters as [[Christopher Marlowe]] and [[William Shakespeare]] visited Faerie and had adventures there.

According to Richard Simon Keller, [[George Lucas]]'s ''[[Star Wars]]'' film also contains elements of a loose adaptation, as well as being influenced by other works, with parallels including the story of the Red Cross Knight championing Una against the evil Archimago in the original compared with Lucas's Luke Skywalker, Princess Leia, and Darth Vader. Keller sees extensive parallels between the film and book one of Spenser's work, stating "[A]lmost everything of importance that we see in the ''Star Wars'' movie has its origin in ''The Faerie Queene'', from small details of weaponry and dress to large issues of chivalry and spirituality".<ref>{{citation| title= Trash Culture : Popular Culture and the Great Tradition| first = Richard | last = Keller Simon| pages = 29–37 | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1999 |chapter =4. Star Wars and the Faerie Queen }}</ref>

==References in popular culture==
The Netflix series ''[[The Crown (TV series)|The Crown]]'' references ''The Faerie Queene'' and Gloriana in season 1 episode 10, entitled "Gloriana". In the final scene, Queen Elizabeth II, portrayed by [[Claire Foy]], is being photographed. Prompting Her Majesty's poses, [[Cecil Beaton]] says:<blockquote>"All hail sage Lady, whom a grateful Isle hath blessed."<ref>William Wordsworth, ''Ecclesiastical Sonnets'', XXXVIII.</ref> Not moving, not breathing. Our very own goddess. ''Glorious Gloriana''. Forgetting Elizabeth Windsor now. Now only Elizabeth Regina. Yes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tv-show=the-crown-2016&episode=s01e10|title=The Crown (2016) s01e10 Episode Script {{!}} SS|website=Springfield! Springfield!|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref></blockquote>

Near the end of the 1995 adaptation of ''[[Sense and Sensibility (movie)|Sense and Sensibility]]'', [[Colonel Brandon]] reads ''The Faerie Queene'' aloud to [[Marianne Dashwood]].

==See also==
*[[House of Pride (Faerie Queene)]]

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Citation | editor-last = Abrams | editor-first= M. H. | title= Norton Anthology of English Literature | edition= 7th | place = New York | publisher = Norton | year = 2000}}
* {{Citation | editor-last = Black | editor-first = Joseph | title = The Broadview Anthology of British Literature | edition = concise | volume = A | publisher = Broadview Press | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-1-55111-868-0}}
* {{Citation
| last = Cañadas
| first = Ivan
| title = ''The Faerie Queene'', II.i-ii: Amavia, Medina, and the Myth of Lucretia
| journal = Medieval and Early Modern English Studies
| volume = 15
| issue = 2
| pages = 383–94
| year = 2007
| url = http://hompi.sogang.ac.kr/anthony/mesak/mes152/Canadas.pdf
| accessdate = 2016-03-15| doi = 10.17054/memes.2007.15.2.383
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Craig
| first = Joanne
| title = The Image of Mortality: Myth and History in the ''Faerie Queene''
| journal = ELH
| volume = 39
| issue = 4
| pages = 520–544
| year = 1972
| jstor = 2872698| doi = 10.2307/2872698
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Cumming
| first = William Paterson
| title = The Grammar of Spenser's ''Faerie Queene'' by Herbert W. Sugden
| journal = South Atlantic Bulletin
| volume = 3
| issue = 1
| page = 6
| year = 1937
| jstor = 3197672| doi = 10.2307/3197672
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Davis
| first = Walter
| title = Spenser and the History of Allegory
| journal = English Literary Renaissance
| volume = 32
| issue = 1
| pages = 152–167
| year = 2002
| doi = 10.1111/1475-6757.00006}}
* {{Citation
| last = Draper
| first = John W.
| title = Classical Coinage in the ''Faerie Queene''
| journal = [[Publications of the Modern Language Association|PMLA]]
| volume = 47
| issue = 1
| pages = 97–108
| date = 1932
| doi=10.2307/458021
| jstor=458021}}
* {{Citation
| last = Glazier
| first = Lyle
| title = The Struggle between Good and Evil in the First Book of ''The Faerie Queene''
| journal = College English
| volume = 11
| issue = 7
| pages = 382–387
| year = 1950
| jstor = 586023| doi = 10.2307/586023
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Gottfried
| first = Rudolf B.
| title = Our New Poet: Archetypal Criticism and ''The Faerie Queene''
| journal = PMLA
| volume = 83
| issue = 5
| pages = 1362–1377
| year = 1968
| jstor = 1261309| doi = 10.2307/1261309
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Green
| first = Paul D.
| title = Spenser and the Masses: Social Commentary in ''The Faerie Queene''
| journal = Journal of the History of Ideas
| volume = 35
| issue = 3
| pages = 389–406
| year = 1974
| jstor = 2708790| doi = 10.2307/2708790
}}
* {{Citation
| section = ''The Faerie Queene'', Introduction
| title = The Norton Anthology of English Literature
| editor-last = Greenblatt
| editor-first = Stephen
| place = London
| publisher = Norton
| date = 2012
| edition = 9th
| page = 775}}
* {{Citation
| section = Mary I (Mary Tudor)
| title = The Norton Anthology of English Literature
| editor-last = Greenblatt
| editor-first = Stephen
| place = New York
| publisher = Norton
| year = 2006
| edition = 8th
| pages = 663–687}}
* {{Citation | title=Historia Regum Brittaniae | publisher = Caerleon Net | chapter-url = http://www.caerleon.net/history/geoffrey/prophecy1.htm | author = Geoffrey of Monmouth | chapter = Book VII Chapter III: The Prophecy of Merlin}}
* {{Citation
| last = Heale
| first = Elizabeth
| title = ''The Faerie Queene'': A Reader's Guide
| place = Cambridge
| publisher = Cambridge UP
| year = 1999
| pages = 8–11}}
* {{Citation
| last = Healy
| first = Thomas
| chapter = Elizabeth I at Tilbury and Popular Culture
| title = Literature and Popular Culture in Early Modern England
| place = London
| publisher = Ashgate
| year = 2009
| pages = 166–177}}
* {{Citation
| last = Levin
| first = Richard A.
| title = The Legende of the Redcrosse Knight and Una, or of the Love of a Good Woman
| journal = SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900
| volume = 31
| issue = 1
| pages = 1–24
| year = 1991
| jstor = 450441| doi = 10.2307/450441
}}
* {{citation
| title = The Cambridge history of early modern English Literature
| first1 = David
| last1 = Loewenstein
| first2 = Janel M
| last2 = Mueller
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-521-63156-4}}
* {{Citation
| last = Marotti
| first = Arthur F.
| title = Animal Symbolism in the ''Faerie Queene'': Tradition and the Poetic Context
| journal = SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900
| volume = 5
| issue = 1
| pages = 69–86
| year = 1965
| jstor = 449571| doi = 10.2307/449571
}}
* {{Citation
| last = McCabe
| first = Richard A.
| title = The Oxford Handbook of Edmund Spenser
| place = Oxford
| publisher = Oxford UP
| date = 2010
| pages = 48–273}}
* {{Citation
| last = McElderry, Jr
| first = Bruce Robert
| title = Archaism and Innovation in Spenser's Poetic Diction
| journal = [[Publications of the Modern Language Association|PMLA]]
| volume = 47
| issue = 1
| pages = 144–70
| date=March 1932
| doi=10.2307/458025| jstor = 458025
}}
* {{Citation |last=Micros |first=Marianne |chapter=Robber Bridegrooms and Devoured Brides |editor-first1=Mary Ellen |editor-last1=Lamb |editor-first2=Karen |editor-last2=Bamford |title=Oral Traditions and Gender in Early Modern Literary Texts |publisher=Ashgate |location=London |date=2008}}
* {{Citation | last = Millican | first = Charles Bowie | title = Spenser and the Table Round | place = New York | publisher = Octagon | year = 1932}}
* {{Citation
| last = Parker
| first = Roscoe
| title = Spenser's Language and the Pastoral Tradition
| journal = [[Language (journal)|Language]]
| volume = 1
| issue = 3
| pages = 80–87
| publisher = [[Linguistic Society of America]]
| year = 1925
| jstor = 409365| doi = 10.2307/409365
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Pope
| first = Emma Field
| title = Renaissance Criticism and the Diction of the ''Faerie Queene''
| journal = [[Publications of the Modern Language Association|PMLA]]
| volume = 41
| issue = 3
| pages = 575–580
| year = 1926
| jstor = 457619| doi = 10.2307/457619
}}
* {{citation |contribution=Editorial Apparatus |title= The Faerie Queene | contributor-first = Thomas P., Jr |contributor-last=Roche |last=Spenser |first=Edmund |year=1984 | publisher =[[Penguin Books]] |isbn = 0-14-042207-2}}
* {{Citation
| last = Spenser
| first = Edmund
| section = A Letter of the Authors Expounding His Whole Intention in the Course of the Worke: Which for That It Giueth Great Light to the Reader, for the Better Vnderstanding Is Hereunto Annexed
| title = The Fairy Queene
| editor-last = Roche
| editor-first = Thomas P., Jr
| place = New York
| publisher = Penguin
| date = 1984
| pages = 15–18}}
* {{Cite journal
| ref = harv
| last = Turnage
| first = Maxine
| title = Samuel Johnson's Criticism of the Works of Edmund Spenser
| journal = [[SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900]]
| volume = 10
| issue = 3
| pages = 557–567
| year = 1970
| issn = 0039-3657
| doi=10.2307/449795
| jstor=449795}}
* {{citation |last=Tuve|first=Rosemond|title=Allegorical Imagery: Some Medieval Books and Their Posterity|date=1966|publisher=Princeton UP|location=Princeton}}
* {{Citation
| last = Whitaker
| first = Virgil K.
| title = The Theological Structure of the ''Faerie Queene'', Book I
| journal = [[ELH]]
| volume = 19
| issue = 3
| pages = 151–155
| year = 1952
| jstor = 2871935| doi = 10.2307/2871935
}}
* {{citation
| title = A Textual Companion to The Faerie Qveene 1590
| first1 = Hiroshi
| last1 = Yamashita
| first2 = Toshiyuki
| last2 = Suzuki
| publisher = Kenyusha, Tokyo
| year = 1993
| isbn = 4-905888-05-0}}
* {{citation
| title = A Comprehensive Concordance to The Faerie Qveene 1590
| first1 = Hiroshi
| last1 = Yamashita
| first2 = Toshiyuki
| last2 = Suzuki
| publisher = Kenyusha, Tokyo
| year = 1990
| isbn = 4-905888-03-4}}

==Online editions==
{{Wikisource|The Faerie Queene|''The Faerie Queene''}}
* {{librivox book | title=The Faerie Queene | author=Edmund SPENSER}}
* {{Citation | url = http://www.luminarium.org/renascence-editions/fqintro.html | title =The Complete Works in Verse and Prose of Edmund Spenser | publisher = Grosart, London| origyear = 1882| year = 1993–96 | editor-first = Risa S.|editor-last = Bear| edition = HTML etext version |work = www.luminarium.org }}
*{{citation| title = Spenser's Faerie queene. A poem in six books; with the fragment Mutabilitie | editor-first = Thomas J. | editor-last = Wise |year = 1897 | publisher = George Allen }}, in six volumes illustrated by Walter Crane
**{{citation| title = Book One | url = https://archive.org/details/spensersfaeriequ01spenuoft | year = | volume = }} , [https://archive.org/details/gri_33125012901803 alt link]
**{{citation| title =Book Two | url =https://archive.org/details/spensersfaeriequ02spenuoft | year = | volume = }} , [https://archive.org/details/gri_33125012901746 alt link]
**{{citation| title = Book Three| url = https://archive.org/details/spensersfaeriequ03spenuoft | year = | volume = }} , [https://archive.org/details/gri_33125012901795 alt link]
**{{citation| title = Book Four | url = https://archive.org/details/spensersfaeriequ04spenuoft| year = | volume = }} , [https://archive.org/details/gri_33125012901738 alt link]
**{{citation| title = Book Five | url = https://archive.org/details/spensersfaeriequ05spenuoft | year = | volume = }} , [https://archive.org/details/gri_33125013853243 alt link]
**{{citation| title = Book Six | url = https://archive.org/details/spensersfaeriequ06spenuoft | year = | volume = }} , [https://archive.org/details/gri_33125013853235 alt link]
* {{Citation | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15272/15272-h/15272-h.htm | publisher = Project Gutenberg | title = Book I}} incorporating modern rendition and glossary

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}

{{Wikibooks}}
{{Commons category}}

* {{Citation | url = http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/sfq/ | first = Mary | last = Macleod | year = 1916 | type = retelling in prose | title = Stories from The Faerie Queene}}
* [[s:The Faerie Queene/Book I/Glossary|Wikisource glossary for words used in ''The Faerie Queene'']]
* {{Citation | url = http://msuweb.montclair.edu/~furrg/el1/fq-summary.html | title = Summary of 'The Faerie Queene' | publisher = Montclair}}.
* {{Citation | url = http://thefaeriequeene.wordpress.com/ | title = Summary of Books I–VI | publisher = Wordpress}}
* {{Citation | url = http://www.faeriequeeneoutline.com/ | title = Faerie Queene Outline | type = interactive outline of Book I}}
* [http://www008.upp.so-net.ne.jp/hybiblio/index.html ''The Faerie Queene'' ''Longman Annotated English Poets'' Published September 2001]

{{Edmund Spenser}}
{{The Faerie Queene}}
{{Fairies}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Faerie Queene, The}}
[[Category:The Faerie Queene| ]]
[[Category:1590 poems]]
[[Category:Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Anti-Catholic publications]]
[[Category:Arthurian literature in English]]
[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Allegory]]
[[Category:Epic poems in English]]
[[Category:Fictional fairies and sprites]]
[[Category:Fairy royalty]]
[[Category:Poetry by Edmund Spenser]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Elizabeth I]]
[[Category:Fairies and sprites in popular culture]]
[[Category:Unfinished poems]]

Thomas Kyd

2020-08-07T19:42:35Z

Madler:

{{refimprove|date=April 2019}}
{{short description|16th-century English dramatist}}
{{Other people|Thomas Kidd}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2013}}
'''Thomas Kyd''' (baptised 6 November 1558; buried 15 August 1594) was an English [[playwright]], the author of ''[[The Spanish Tragedy]]'', and one of the most important figures in the development of [[Elizabethan theatre|Elizabethan drama]].

Although well known in his own time, Kyd fell into obscurity until 1773 when [[Thomas Hawkins (literary editor)|Thomas Hawkins]], an early editor of ''The Spanish Tragedy'', discovered that Kyd was named as its author by [[Thomas Heywood]] in his ''Apologie for Actors'' (1612). A hundred years later, scholars in Germany and England began to shed light on his life and work, including the controversial finding that he may have been the author of a ''Hamlet'' play pre-dating Shakespeare's, which is now known as the ''[[Ur-Hamlet]]''.

==Early life==
Thomas Kyd was the son of Francis and Anna Kyd. There are no records of the day he was born, but he was baptised in the church of [[St Mary Woolnoth]] in the Ward of Langborn, Lombard Street, London on 6 November 1558. The baptismal register at St Mary Woolnoth carries this entry: "Thomas, son of Francis Kydd, Citizen and Writer of the Courte Letter of London". Francis Kydd was a [[scrivener]] and in 1580 was warden of the [[Scriveners' Company]].

In October 1565 the young Kyd was enrolled in the newly founded [[Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood|Merchant Taylors' School]], whose headmaster was [[Richard Mulcaster]]. Fellow students included [[Edmund Spenser]] and [[Thomas Lodge]]. Here, Kyd received a well-rounded education, thanks to Mulcaster's progressive ideas. Apart from Latin and Greek, the curriculum included music, drama, physical education, and "good manners". There is no evidence that Kyd went on to university. He may have followed in his father's professional footsteps because there are two letters written by him and his writing style is similar to that of a scrivener.

==Career==
[[File:The Spanish Tragedy.jpg|thumb|Title page of Kyd's ''[[The Spanish Tragedy]],'' with a woodcut showing (left) the hung body of Horatio discovered by (centre) [[Hieronymo]]; and [[Bel-imperia]] being taken from the scene by a [[blackface]] Lorenzo (right).]]

Evidence suggests that in the 1580s Kyd became an important playwright, but little is known about his activity. [[Francis Meres]] placed him among "our best for tragedy" and Heywood elsewhere called him "Famous Kyd". [[Ben Jonson]] mentions him in the same breath as [[Christopher Marlowe]] (with whom, in London, Kyd at one time shared a room) and [[John Lyly]] in the [[Shakespeare]] First Folio.

''[[The Spanish Tragedy|The Spanish Tragedie]]'' was probably written in the mid to late 1580s. The earliest surviving edition was printed in 1592; the full title being, ''The Spanish Tragedie, Containing the lamentable end of Don Horatio, and Bel-imperia: with the pittifull death of olde Hieronimo''. However, the play was usually known simply as "Hieronimo", after the [[protagonist]]. It was arguably the most popular play of the "Age of Shakespeare" and set new standards in effective plot construction and character development. In 1602 a version of the play with "additions" was published. [[Philip Henslowe]]'s diary records payment to [[Ben Jonson]] for additions that year, but it is disputed whether the published additions reflect Jonson's work or if they were actually composed for a 1597 revival of ''The Spanish Tragedy'' also mentioned by Henslowe.

Other works by Kyd are his translations of [[Torquato Tasso]]'s ''Padre di Famiglia'', published as ''The Householder's Philosophy'' (1588); and [[Robert Garnier]]'s ''[[Cornélie (play)|Cornélie]]'' (1594). Plays attributed in whole or in part to Kyd include ''[[Soliman and Perseda]]'', ''[[King Leir]]'', ''[[Arden of Faversham]]'' and ''[[Edward III (play)|Edward III]]''. A play related to ''The Spanish Tragedy'' called ''The First Part of Hieronimo'' (surviving in a quarto of 1605) may be a [[bad quarto]] or [[memorial reconstruction]] of a play by Kyd, or it may be an inferior writer's burlesque of ''The Spanish Tragedy'' inspired by that play's popularity.<ref>Thomas Kyd, ''The First Part of Hieronimo'' and ''The Spanish Tragedy'', ed. Andrew S. Cairncross, Regents Renaissance Drama Series, Lincoln, Neb., 1967, p. xiv.</ref> Kyd is more generally accepted to have been the author of a ''Hamlet'', the precursor of the Shakespearean play (see: [[Ur-Hamlet]]).

The success of Kyd's plays extended to Europe. Versions of ''The Spanish Tragedy'' and his ''Hamlet'' were popular in Germany and the [[Netherlands]] for generations. The influence of these plays on European drama was largely the reason for the interest in Kyd among German scholars in the nineteenth century.

==Later life==
From 1587 to 1593 Kyd was in the service of an unidentified noble, since, after his imprisonment in 1593 (see below), he wrote of having lost "the favours of my Lord, whom I haue servd almost theis vi yeres nowe". Proposed nobles include the [[Henry Radclyffe, 4th Earl of Sussex|Earl of Sussex]],<ref>Arthur Freeman, ''Thomas Kyd: Facts and Problems'', Oxford, 1967</ref> the [[Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Earl of Pembroke]],<ref>Lukas Erne, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qjMVA_FmHHEC Beyond the Spanish Tragedy: A Study of the Works of Thomas Kyd], Manchester University Press 2002, {{ISBN|0-7190-6093-1}}</ref> and [[Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby|Lord Strange]].<ref>Charles Nicholl, ''The reckoning: the murder of Christopher Marlowe'', University Of Chicago Press, 1995, {{ISBN|0-226-58024-5}}, p. 225</ref> He may have worked as a secretary, if he did not also write plays. Around 1591 [[Christopher Marlowe]] also joined this patron's service, and for a while Marlowe and Kyd shared lodgings, and perhaps even ideas.

On 11 May 1593 the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] ordered the arrest of the authors of "divers lewd and mutinous libels" which had been posted around London. The next day, Kyd was among those arrested; he would later believe that he had been the victim of an informer. His lodgings were searched and instead of evidence of the "libels" there was found an [[Arianism|Arianist]] tract, described by an investigator as "vile heretical conceits denying the eternal deity of Jesus Christ found amongst the papers of Thos. Kydd ''(sic)'', prisoner ... which he affirmeth he had from C. Marley ''(sic)''". It is believed that Kyd was tortured brutally to obtain this information. Kyd told authorities the writings found in his possession belonged to Christopher Marlowe, a fellow dramatist and former roommate. Kyd “accused his former roommate of being a blasphemous traitor, an atheist who believed that Jesus Christ was a homosexual,”<ref>Gainor, J. Ellen., Stanton B. Garner, and Martin Puchner. The Norton Anthology of Drama. Second ed. Vol. 1. New York: W.W. Norton, 2009. Print. </ref> an uninformed confusion over the Arian and Early Gnostic concept of [[homoousios]] ({{lang-grc|ὁμοούσιος}}). Unfortunately, Kyd was with Marlowe at the wrong place at the wrong time. Marlowe was summoned by the Privy Council after these events, and, while waiting for a decision on his case, was killed in an incident in [[Deptford]] involving known government agents.

Kyd was eventually released but was not accepted back into his lord's service. Believing he was under suspicion of atheism himself, he wrote to the [[Lord Keeper]], Sir John Puckering, protesting his innocence, but his efforts to clear his name were apparently fruitless. The last we hear from the playwright is the publication of ''Cornelia'' early in 1594. In the dedication to the Countess of Sussex he alludes to the "bitter times and privy broken passions" he had endured. Kyd died later that year at the age of 35, and was buried on 15 August in [[St Mary Colechurch]] in London. In December of that same year, Kyd's mother legally renounced the administration of his estate, probably because it was debt-ridden.

St Mary Colechurch was destroyed in the [[Great Fire of London]] in 1666, and not rebuilt. Thus Thomas Kyd's grave was lost to posterity.

==Works==
The dates of composition are approximate.<ref>https://www.unige.ch/lettres/angle/en/collaborateurs/modernearly/erne/publications/books/beyond-the-spanish-tragedy-a-study-of-the-works-of-thomas-kyd/</ref>

* ''Don Horatio'' (partially extant in ''The First Part of Hieronimo'', ''c''. 1586)
* ''[[The Spanish Tragedy]]'' (''c''. 1587)
* ''The Householder's Philosophy'' (translation, 1588)
* ''[[Arden of Faversham]]'' (attributed, 1592)
* ''Soliman and Perseda'' (attributed, ''c''. 1593)
* ''[[Cornelia (play)|Cornelia]]'' (translation of [[Robert Garnier]], 1594)
* ''[[King Leir]]'' (attributed, 1594)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*Philip Edwards, ''The Spanish Tragedy'', Methuen, 1959, reprinted 1974. {{ISBN|0-416-27920-1}}.
*Charles Nicholl, ''The Reckoning: The Murder of Christopher Marlowe'', Vintage, 2002 (revised edition). {{ISBN|0-09-943747-3}} (especially for the circumstances surrounding Kyd's arrest).

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Thomas Kyd}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{Commons category|Thomas Kyd}}
* [http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/kyd.htm Thomas Kyd] at the Lumniarum website
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Kyd,+Thomas | name=Thomas Kyd}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Thomas Kyd}}
* {{Librivox author |id=2755}}
* *[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/spatr10.txt The Spanish Tragedie] Full text of the play
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401195103/http://www.elizabethanauthors.com/span1.htm |date=1 April 2009 |title=The Spanish Tragedy }} Full text of the play, modern spelling
* [https://archive.org/details/The_Spanish_Tragedy_for_a_Modern_Audience The Spanish Tragedy] Shorter version of the play for a modern audience
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050519073317/http://facstaff.uwa.edu/rmu/kyd.htm |date=19 May 2005 |title=Thomas Kyd and The Spanish Tragedy }} (University of West Alabama)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030802125850/http://parallel.park.uga.edu/~jnettles/kyd.html Perverse justice in Kyd's Spanish Tragedy, by John Nettles] (University of Georgia)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kyd, Thomas}}
[[Category:1558 births]]
[[Category:1594 deaths]]
[[Category:English Renaissance dramatists]]
[[Category:People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood]]
[[Category:16th-century English writers]]
[[Category:16th-century male writers]]
[[Category:16th-century English dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:English male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:University Wits]]

User:Madler

2020-07-23T16:23:02Z

Madler: ←Blanked the page

Mikhail Yefremov (actor)

2020-06-10T08:23:32Z

Madler: Fixed grammar

{{Other people|Mikhail Yefremov|Mikhail Yefremov (disambiguation){{!}}Mikhail Yefremov}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mikhail Yefremov
| image = Efremov m.jpg
| alt = Mikhail Yefremov
| caption = Mikhail Yefremov in 2008
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|11|10}}
| birth_place = [[Moscow]], [[USSR]]
| years_active = 1976–2020
| occupation = Actor
}}
'''Mikhail Olegovich Yefremov''' ({{lang-ru|Михаи́л Оле́гович Ефре́мов}}; born November 10, 1963) is a [[Russia]]n film and stage actor, [[Merited Artist of the Russian Federation|Meritorious Artist]] of Russian Federation (1995).<ref>{{cite web|title=УКАЗ Президента РФ от 17.03.1995 N 284 "О ПРИСВОЕНИИ ПОЧЕТНЫХ ЗВАНИЙ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ ТВОРЧЕСКИМ РАБОТНИКАМ"|url=http://graph.document.kremlin.ru/page.aspx?1;1258019|publisher=[[Kremlin.ru]]|accessdate=4 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103212448/http://graph.document.kremlin.ru/page.aspx?1%3B1258019|archive-date=3 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Life and career==
Mikhail is the son of [[People's Artist of the USSR]] [[Oleg Yefremov]] and [[Sovremennik Theatre]] actor Professor [[Alla Pokrovskaya]] ([[Boris Pokrovsky]]'s daughter).<ref name="7Days">[http://7days.ru/stars/bio/mikhail-efremov.htm Профиль звезды: Михаил Ефремов]</ref> He made his stage and screen debut in mid 1970s as schoolboy. In 1982-1984 Yefremov served in [[Soviet Army]]. In 1987 he graduated from the [[Moscow Art Theatre]] School.<ref name="7Days"/>

Yefremov was married four times and he has six children. His first wife was the editor Asya Vorobieva, their son [[Nikita Yefremov|Nikita]] is a [[Sovremennik Theatre]] actor. His second wife was the actress [[Yevgenia Dobrovolskaya]], their son [[Nikolay Yefremov|Nikolay]] is also an actor.<ref name="7Days"/> His third wife was actress [[Kseniya Kachalina]], they have a daughter Anna Mariya. His fourth wife is audio engineer Sofiya Kruglikova, they have daughters Vera and Nadezhda, and son Bori.<ref name="7Days"/>

In 2009-2014, Yefremov presented [[Channel One Russia|Channel One]] show ''Wait for Me'', dedicated to search of long lost relatives and friends. In 2010's he collaborated [[Dmitry Bykov (writer)|Dmitry Bykov]] over their project "Citizen Poet" (a pun on [[Nikolai Nekrasov]]'s poem "Poet and Citizen").<ref name="7Days"/> Yefremov reads poems, written by Bykov, which are usually satirical comments on the contemporary Russian society, politics and culture. Each poem parodies the style of a famous poet of the past, e.g. Pushkin, Nekrasov, Kipling, among others.

It was originally broadcast on [[Dozhd]] TV channel, but the original project was closed, because the poems were too critical towards Russian government. Currently, the show is hosted in audio format by [[Echo of Moscow]] radio station.

On 8 June 2020, Efremov was involved in a head-on collision while driving under the influence of alcohol. The driver of the other car died in the hospital. A video of Efremov speaking to the police in a slurred manner after the accident was widely published.

== Selected filmography ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Original Title
! Role
|-
| 1979
| ''[[When I Grow Up To Be a Giant]]''
| ''Когда я стану великаном''
| Petya Kopeykin
|-<http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0077815/>
|-
| 1991
| ''[[Viva Gardes-Marines!]]''
| ''Виват, гардемарины!''
| [[Peter III of Russia|Pyotr Fyodorovich]]
|-
| 2000
| ''[[The Romanovs: An Imperial Family]]''
| ''Романовы. Венценосная семья''
| [[Alexander Kerensky]]
|-
| 2002
| ''[[Antikiller]]''
| ''Антикиллер''
| Banker
|-
| 2002
| ''[[In Motion (film)|In Motion]]''
| ''В движении''
| Vovan
|-
| 2004
| ''[[Moscow Saga]]''
| ''Московская сага''
| party organizer of the medical institute
|-
| 2005
| ''[[The 9th Company]]''
| ''9 рота''
| Dembel
|-
| 2005
| ''[[The State Counsellor (film)|The State Counsellor]]''
| ''Статский советник''
| Mylnikov
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Nobody Knows About Sex]]''
| ''Никто не знает про секс''
| Kesha's dad
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Piranha (2006 film)|Piranha]]''
| ''Охота на пиранью''
|
|-
| 2007
| ''[[12 (2007 film)|12]]''
| ''12''
| 8th Juror
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Election Day (2007 film)|Election Day]]''
| ''День выборов''
|
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Paragraph 78]]''
| ''Параграф 78''
| Prison commander
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Actress (2007 film)|Actress]]''
| ''Артистка''
| Gusyatnikov
|-
| 2007
| ''[[The Irony of Fate 2]]''
| ''Ирония судьбы. Продолжение''
| Ded Moroz
|-
| 2009
| ''[[The Best Movie 2]]''
| ''Самый лучший фильм 2''
| Sailor's father
|-
| 2009
| ''[[Attack on Leningrad]]''
| ''Ленинград''
| Omelchenko
|-
| 2009
| ''[[The Book of Masters]]''
| ''Книга мастеров''
| The bogatyr
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Love in the Big City 2]]''
| ''Любовь в большом городе 2''
| coach
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Generation P (film)|Generation P]]''
| ''Generation П''
| Leonid (Legion) Azadovsky
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Soulless (film)|Soulless]]''
| ''Духless''
| Alexey Alexeyevich Kondratov
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Rzhevsky versus Napoleon]]''
| ''Ржевский против Наполеона''
| Leo Tolstoy
|-
| 2013
| ''[[The Thaw (TV series)|The Thaw]]''
| ''Оттепель''
| Fyodor Krivitsky
|-
| 2015
| ''[[About Love (2015 film)|About Love]]''
| ''Про любовь''
| groom
|-
| 2016
| ''[[The Good Boy]]''
| ''Хороший мальчик''
| Vladimir Dronov
|-
| 2019
| ''[[Goalkeeper of the Galaxy]]''
| ''Вратарь Галактики''
|
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Mikhail Olegovich Yefremov}}
*{{IMDb name|name=Mikhail Yefremov|id=0947236}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yefremov, Mikhail}}
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Male actors from Moscow]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Soviet male child actors]]
[[Category:Russian male child actors]]
[[Category:Russian male film actors]]
[[Category:Russian male stage actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Russian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Russian male actors]]
[[Category:Russian television presenters]]
[[Category:Honored Artists of the Russian Federation]]
[[Category:State Prize of the Russian Federation laureates]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Nika Award]]
[[Category:Dozhd]]
[[Category:Soviet male film actors]]
[[Category:Soviet male stage actors]]
[[Category:Echo of Moscow radio presenters]]

Roman Hruska

2018-10-04T23:33:41Z

Madler: No evidence in the citation that the speech was antisemitic.

{{Infobox Senator
|image name=Hruskalee2.jpg
|jr/sr=United States Senator
|state=[[Nebraska]]
|party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|alma_mater=[[University of Omaha]] [[University of Chicago]] [[Creighton University]]
|term_start=November 8, 1954
|term_end=December 27, 1976
|state2 = [[Nebraska]]
|district2 = [[Nebraska's 2nd congressional district|2nd]]
|term_start2=January 3, 1953
|term_end2=November 8, 1954
|preceded2 = [[Howard Buffett]]
|succeeded2 = [[Jackson B. Chase]]
|preceded=[[Samuel W. Reynolds]]
|succeeded=[[Edward Zorinsky]]
|birth_name=Roman Lee Hruska
|birth_date={{birth date|1904|8|16}}
|birth_place=[[David City, Nebraska]]
|death_date={{death date and age|1999|4|25|1904|8|16}}
|death_place=[[Omaha, Nebraska]]
|spouse=Victoria Kuncl Hruska
|children=Jana Hruska Quenton Hruska Roman Hruska, Jr.
|religion=[[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian]]
}}

'''Roman Lee Hruska''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|ʌ|s|k|ə}} (August 16, 1904{{spaced ndash}}April 25, 1999) was a [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] U.S. Senator from the state of [[Nebraska]]. Hruska was known as one of the most vocal [[conservatism|conservatives]] in the [[United States Senate]] during the 1960s and 1970s.

Hruska was also co-founder of the [[Douglas Theatre Company]], based in Nebraska.

==Life and career==
Hruska was born in [[David City, Nebraska]]. His family moved to Omaha, where he graduated from high school. He attended the [[University of Omaha]] and the [[University of Chicago]] and graduated from the [[Creighton University School of Law]]. He settled in [[Omaha, Nebraska]] and became a lawyer.

Hruska soon entered politics, becoming a member of the [[Douglas County, Nebraska]] board of commissioners. He served as a regular member from 1944 to 1945 and as chairman from 1945 to 1952. He was vice-president of the National Association of County Officials from 1951 to 1952, and served for a time as a member of the Nebraska Board of control and the board of regents of the University of Omaha.

Hruska was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] from the Omaha-dominated second district of Nebraska. He served only one term, as he ran for a [[United States Senate]] seat in 1954, which was vacated by the death of [[Hugh A. Butler|Hugh Butler]]. Hruska won, and was reelected in 1958, 1964 and 1970 and served in the Senate until his retirement in 1976. His opponent in 1958 and 1970 was [[Frank B. Morrison]]. Hruska did not run for reelection to a fourth full term.

Even after Nixon resigned, Hruska defended him and claimed Watergate only became a scandal as part of a partisan effort to attack Nixon.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hruska dead at 94|url=http://columbustelegram.com/hruska-dead-at/article_584e3153-72c9-5396-a319-db66befe8fcf.html|accessdate=April 22, 2018|publisher=Columbus Telegram|date=April 26, 1999}}</ref>

Hruska became an influential member of the [[Senate Appropriations Committee]] and the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]]. He voted for the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. Though Congress was controlled by Democrats for his entire time in the Senate, he was known as a skillful legislator, and was said to have influenced much of the federal criminal justice system's changes during his era. He was the ranking minority member of the Judiciary Committee at the time of his retirement.

On October 10, 1978, President Carter signed into law a bill which renamed the [[U.S. Meat Animal Research Center]] (USMARC) located in [[Clay County, Nebraska]] after former Senator Roman L. Hruska. The [[Roman L. Hruska Federal Courthouse]] in Omaha is also named in his honor.

===Mediocrity===
Hruska is best remembered in American political history for a 1970 speech he made to the Senate urging them to confirm the nomination of [[G. Harrold Carswell]] to the [[SCOTUS|Supreme Court]]. Responding to criticism that Carswell had been a mediocre judge, Hruska claimed that:

<blockquote>Even if he were mediocre, there are a lot of mediocre judges and people and lawyers. They are entitled to a little representation, aren't they, and a little chance? We can't have all [[Louis Brandeis|Brandeises]], [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurters]] and [[Benjamin Cardozo|Cardozos]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D03E6D7173DF934A15757C0A96F958260|title=Roman L. Hruska Dies at 94; Leading Senate Conservative|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]|author=William H. Hohan|date=April 27, 1999|accessdate=April 22, 2018}}</ref></blockquote>

This speech was criticized by many,<ref>Roderick MacLeisch, ''[[The Washington Post]]'', [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=ePojAAAAIBAJ&sjid=YGYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7252,739139&dq=roman+hruska+carswell&hl=en Book on Carswell 'Brawl' Said Superb], published in Sarasota Herald-Tribune, April 18, 1971.</ref><ref>Meriden (Connecticut) Morning Record, [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RudHAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nf8MAAAAIBAJ&pg=4308,4743509&dq=roman+hruska+carswell&hl=en Mediocrity Not Necessary], April 4, 1970.</ref><ref>[[Art Buchwald]], [https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=RRZJAAAAIBAJ&sjid=cIMMAAAAIBAJ&pg=5837,3680829&dq=roman+hruska+carswell&hl=en Support Your Mediocre Judge], ''[[The Vindicator]]'', March 26, 1970.</ref> and Carswell was eventually defeated.

==Retirement==
Hruska moved back to Omaha in 1976, and lived there until his death. On April 10, 1999, he fell, broke his hip, and died fifteen days later from complications during treatment. He was buried in Bohemian Cemetery in Omaha.

==Personal life==
Hruska was married to Victoria Kuncl Hruska. They had three children: Jana, Quentin and Roman, Jr.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|us-hs}}
{{USRepSuccessionBox
|state=Nebraska
|district=2
|before=[[Howard Buffett]]
|after=[[Jackson B. Chase]]
|years=1953–1954}}
{{s-par|us-sen}}
{{U.S. Senator box
|state=Nebraska
|class=1
|before=[[Samuel W. Reynolds]]
|after=[[Edward Zorinsky]]
|alongside=[[Hazel Abel]], [[Carl T. Curtis]]
|years=1954–1976}}
{{s-end}}

{{USSenNE}}
{{NebraskaUSRepresentatives}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hruska, Roman}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1999 deaths]]
[[Category:County supervisors and commissioners in Nebraska]]
[[Category:People from David City, Nebraska]]
[[Category:American people of Czech descent]]
[[Category:Nebraska Republicans]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Nebraska]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Nebraska]]
[[Category:Nebraska lawyers]]
[[Category:Politicians from Omaha, Nebraska]]
[[Category:University of Nebraska Omaha alumni]]
[[Category:University of Chicago alumni]]
[[Category:Creighton University School of Law alumni]]
[[Category:Accidental deaths from falls]]
[[Category:Accidental deaths in Nebraska]]
[[Category:Republican Party United States Senators]]
[[Category:Czech-American culture in Nebraska]]
[[Category:Sokol members]]
[[Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]
[[Category:20th-century American politicians]]
[[Category:Lawyers from Omaha, Nebraska]]

John Falstaff

2018-02-26T07:35:34Z

Madler: /* Film */

{{EngvarB|date=July 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{About|the Shakespearean character}}
{{Infobox character
| name = John Falstaff
| series = [[Henriad]]
| image = Adolf Schrödter Falstaff und sein Page.jpg
| caption = [[Adolf Schrödter]]: Falstaff and his page
| creator = [[William Shakespeare]]
| portrayer =
| nickname =
| alias =
| species =
| gender = Male
| occupation = Knight
| religion = Christian
| nationality = English
}}
'''Sir John Falstaff''' is a fictional character who is mentioned in five plays by [[William Shakespeare]] and appears on stage in three of them. His significance as a fully developed character in Shakespeare is primarily formed in the plays ''[[Henry IV, Part 1]]'' and ''[[Henry IV, Part 2|Part 2]]'', where he is a companion to [[Prince Hal]], the future King [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]. A notable eulogy for Falstaff is presented in Act II, Scene III of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'', where Falstaff does not appear as a character on stage, as enacted by Mistress Quickly in terms that some scholars have ascribed to Plato's description of the death of Socrates after drinking hemlock. By comparison, in ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'', Falstaff is presented by Shakespeare as the buffoonish suitor of two married women.

Though primarily a comic figure, Falstaff still embodies a kind of depth common to Shakespeare's major characters. A fat, vain, boastful, and cowardly knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the [[Boar's Head Inn]] with petty criminals, living on stolen or borrowed money. Falstaff leads the apparently wayward [[Prince Hal]] into trouble, and is ultimately repudiated after Hal becomes king. Falstaff has since appeared in other media, notably in operas by [[Giuseppe Verdi]], [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], and [[Otto Nicolai]], and in [[Orson Welles]]' 1966 film ''[[Chimes at Midnight]]''. The operas focus on his role in ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'', while the film adapts from the [[Henriad]] and ''The Merry Wives''. Welles, who played Falstaff in his film, considered the character to be "Shakespeare's greatest creation".{{sfn|Lyons|1989|p=4}}

==Role in the plays==
[[File:MerryWives.jpg|thumb|right|Mistress Page and Falstaff in ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'', staged by [[Pacific Repertory Theatre]] at the [[Golden Bough Playhouse]] in [[Carmel-by-the-Sea, California|Carmel, CA]], in 1999]]
Falstaff appears in three of Shakespeare's plays, ''[[Henry IV, Part 1]]'', ''[[Henry IV, Part 2]]'', and ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]''. His death is mentioned in ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' but he has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage. However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into [[Henry V of England|King Henry V]]'s character. The most notable examples in cinema are [[Laurence Olivier]]'s [[Henry V (1944 movie)|1944 version]] and [[Kenneth Branagh]]'s [[Henry V (1989 movie)|1989 film]], both of which draw additional material from the ''Henry IV'' plays.

[[File:James Stephanoff - Falstaff at Herne's Oak, from "The Merry Wives of Windsor," Act V, Scene v - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|''Falstaff at Herne's Oak, from "The Merry Wives of Windsor," Act V, Scene v'', James Stephanoff, 1832]]

The character is known to have been very popular with audiences at the time, and for many years afterwards. According to [[Leonard Digges (writer)|Leonard Digges]], writing shortly after Shakespeare's death, while many plays could not get good audiences, "let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest, you scarce shall have a room".{{sfn|Birch|2009|p=475}}

===''Henry IV, Part 1''===
{{further|Henry IV, Part 1}}
Adding to King Henry's troubles is the behaviour of his son and heir, the [[Prince of Wales]]. Hal (the future [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]) has forsaken the Royal Court to waste his time in taverns with low companions. This makes him an object of scorn to the nobles and calls into question his royal worthiness. Hal's chief friend and foil in living the low life is Sir John Falstaff. Fat, old, drunk, and corrupt as he is, he has a [[charisma]] and a zest for life that captivates the Prince.

The play features three groups of characters that interact slightly at first, and then come together in the [[Battle of Shrewsbury]], where the success of the rebellion will be decided. First there is King Henry himself and his immediate council. He is the engine of the play, but usually in the background. Next there is the group of rebels, energetically embodied in [[Henry Percy (Hotspur)|Henry Percy ("Hotspur")]] and including his father, the Earl of Northumberland and led by his uncle [[Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester|Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester]]. The Scottish Earl of Douglas, Edmund Mortimer and the Welshman [[Owen Glendower]] also join. Finally, at the centre of the play are the young Prince Hal and his companions Falstaff, Poins, Bardolph, and Peto. Streetwise and pound-foolish, these rogues manage to paint over this grim history in the colours of comedy.

Meanwhile, Henry's son Hal is joking, drinking, and thieving with Falstaff and his associates. He likes Falstaff but makes no pretense at being like him. He enjoys insulting his dissolute friend and makes sport of him by joining in Poins' plot to disguise themselves and rob and terrify Falstaff and three friends of loot they have stolen in a highway robbery, purely for the fun of watching Falstaff lie about it later, after which Hal returns the stolen money. Rather early in the play, in fact, Hal informs us that his riotous time will soon come to a close, and he will re-assume his rightful high place in affairs by showing himself worthy to his father and others through some (unspecified) noble exploits. Hal believes that this sudden change of manner will amount to a greater reward and acknowledgment of prince-ship, and in turn earn him respect from the members of the court.

On the way to this climax, we are treated to Falstaff, who has "misused the King's press damnably",{{sfd|1H4|4|2|12–13}} not only by taking money from able-bodied men who wished to evade service but by keeping the wages of the poor souls he brought instead who were killed in battle ("food for powder, food for powder").{{sfd|1H4|4|2|66–67}} Left on his own during Hal's battle with Hotspur, Falstaff dishonourably counterfeits death to avoid attack by Douglas. After Hal leaves Hotspur's body on the field, Falstaff revives in a mock miracle. Seeing he is alone, he stabs Hotspur's corpse in the thigh and claims credit for the kill. Though Hal knows better, he allows Falstaff his disreputable tricks. Soon after being given grace by Hal, Falstaff states that he wants to amend his life and begin "to live cleanly as a nobleman should do".{{sfd|1H4|5|4|76–169}}

===''Henry IV, Part 2''===
{{further|Henry IV, Part 2}}

===''Henry V''===
{{further|Henry V (play)|l1=Henry V}}
Although Falstaff does not appear on stage in ''Henry V'', his death is the main subject of Act 3, Scene 2, in which [[Mistress Quickly]] delivers a memorable eulogy:

{{quote
|character=[[Mistress Quickly]]
|title=''Henry V''
|author=[[William Shakespeare]]
|source=Act 3, Scene 2.{{sfd|H5|2|3|9–26}}
|text=<poem>
Nay, sure, he’s not in hell! He’s in Arthur’s
bosom, if ever man went to Arthur’s bosom. He
made a finer end, and went away an it had been any
christom child. He parted ev’n just between twelve
and one, ev’n at the turning o’ th’ tide; for after I saw
him fumble with the sheets and play with flowers
and smile upon his finger’s end, I knew there was
but one way, for his nose was as sharp as a pen and
he talked of green fields. 'How now, Sir John?'
quoth I. 'What, man, be o’ good cheer!' So he cried
out 'God, God, God!' three or four times. Now I, to
comfort him, bid him he should not think of God; I
hoped there was no need to trouble himself with
any such thoughts yet. So he bade me lay more
clothes on his feet. I put my hand into the bed and
felt them, and they were as cold as any stone. Then I
felt to his knees, and so upward and upward, and
all was as cold as any stone.</poem>
}}

===''The Merry Wives of Windsor''===
{{further|The Merry Wives of Windsor}}

==Origins==
[[File:Grützner Falstaff mit Kanne.jpg|thumb|right|[[Eduard von Grützner]]: ''Falstaff mit großer Weinkanne und Becher'' (1896) (Falstaff with big wine jar and cup, 1896)]]

===John Oldcastle===
It is generally believed that Shakespeare originally named Falstaff "[[John Oldcastle]]", and that [[William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham|Lord Cobham]], a descendant of the historical John Oldcastle, complained, forcing Shakespeare to change the name. There is both textual and external evidence for this belief. Shakespeare's ''Henry IV'' plays and ''Henry V'' adapted and developed the material in an earlier play called ''[[The Famous Victories of Henry V]]'', in which Sir John "Jockey" Oldcastle appears as a dissolute companion of the young Henry. In the published version of ''Henry IV, Part 1'', Falstaff's name is always [[metre (poetry)|unmetrical]], suggesting a name change after the original composition; Prince Hal refers to Falstaff as "my old lad of the castle" in the first act of the play; the epilogue to ''Henry IV, Part 2'', moreover, explicitly disavows any connection between Falstaff and Oldcastle: "Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man."{{sfd|2H4|ftln=3431}}

The historical Oldcastle was unlike Falstaff; in particular, he was a [[Lollardy|Lollard]] who was executed for his beliefs, and he was respected by many Protestants as a [[martyr]]. In addition to the anonymous ''The Famous Victories of Henry V'', in which Oldcastle is Henry V's companion, Oldcastle's history is described in [[Raphael Holinshed]]'s ''Chronicles'', Shakespeare's usual source for his histories.

===Cobhams===
It is not clear, however, if Shakespeare characterised Falstaff as he did for dramatic purposes, or because of a specific desire to satirise Oldcastle or the Cobhams. Cobham was a common butt of veiled satire in Elizabethan popular literature; he figures in [[Ben Jonson]]'s ''[[Every Man in His Humour]]'' and may have been part of the reason ''[[The Isle of Dogs (play)|The Isle of Dogs]]'' was suppressed. Shakespeare's desire to burlesque a hero of early English Protestantism could indicate [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] sympathies, but [[Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham]] was sufficiently sympathetic to Catholicism that in 1603, he was imprisoned as part of the [[Main Plot]] to place [[Arbella Stuart]] on the English throne, so if Shakespeare wished to use Oldcastle to embarrass the Cobhams, he seems unlikely to have done so on religious grounds.

The Cobhams appear to have intervened while Shakespeare was in the process of writing either ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' or the second part of ''Henry IV''. The first part of ''Henry IV'' was probably written and performed in 1596, and the name Oldcastle had almost certainly been allowed by [[Master of the Revels]] [[Edmund Tilney]]. [[William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham]] may have become aware of the offensive representation after a public performance; he may also have learned of it while it was being prepared for a court performance (Cobham was at that time [[Lord Chamberlain]]). As father-in-law to the newly widowed [[Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury|Robert Cecil]], Cobham certainly possessed the influence at court to get his complaint heard quickly. Shakespeare may have included a sly retaliation against the complaint in his play ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' (published after the Henry IV series). In the play, the paranoid, jealous Master Ford uses the alias "Brook" to fool Falstaff, perhaps in reference to William Brooke. At any rate, the name is Falstaff in the ''Henry IV, Part 1'' [[quarto]], of 1598, and the epilogue to the second part, published in 1600, contains this clarification:

{{quote
|title=''Henry IV, Part 1''
|author=[[William Shakespeare]]
|source=Epilogue.{{sfd|1H4|ftln=3425–3431}}
|text=<poem>
One word more, I beseech you: if you be not too
much cloyed with fat meat, our humble author will
continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make
you merry with fair Katherine of France, where, for
anything I know, Falstaff shall die of a sweat, unless
already he be killed with your hard opinions; for
Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man.
</poem>
}}

===Sir John Fastolf===
The new name "Falstaff" probably derived from the medieval knight Sir [[John Fastolf]] (who may also have been a [[Lollard]]). The historical John Fastolf fought at the [[Battle of Patay]] against [[Joan of Arc]], which the English lost. Fastolf's previous actions as a soldier had earned him wide respect, but he seems to have become a scapegoat after the debacle. He was among the few English military leaders to avoid death or capture during the battle, and although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardice, he was temporarily stripped of his knighthood. Fastolf appears in ''[[Henry VI, Part 1]]'' in which he is portrayed as an abject coward. In the'' [[First Folio]] ''his name is spelled "Falstaffe", so Shakespeare may have directly appropriated the spelling of the name he used in the earlier play. In a further comic double meaning, the name implies impotence.

===Robert Greene===
It has been suggested that the dissolute writer [[Robert Greene (dramatist)|Robert Greene]] may also have been an inspiration for the character of Falstaff. This theory was first proposed in 1930 and has recently been championed by [[Stephen Greenblatt]].{{sfn|Maxwell|1930}}{{sfn|Greenblatt|2004|pp=216–225}} Notorious for a life of dissipation and debauchery somewhat similar to Falstaff, he was among the first to mention Shakespeare in his work (in ''[[Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit]]''), suggesting to Greenblatt that the older writer may have influenced Shakespeare's characterisation.{{sfn|Greenblatt|2004|pp=216–225}}

[[File:Falstaff and Mistress Quickly Francis Philip Stephanoff.jpeg|thumb|''Falstaff and Mistress Quickly from The Merry Wives of Windsor'', [[Francis Philip Stephanoff]], circa 1840]]

==Cultural adaptations and appropriations==
There are several works about Falstaff, inspired by Shakespeare's plays:

===Drama===
*''[[Falstaff's Wedding]]'' (1766), by [[William Kenrick (writer)|William Kenrick]] was set after the events of ''Henry IV, Part 2''. To restore his financial position after his rejection by Hal, Falstaff is forced to marry Mistress Ursula (a character briefly mentioned by Shakespeare, whom Falstaff has "weekly" promised to marry). The play exists in two very different versions. In the first version Falstaff is drawn into [[Southampton Plot|Scroop's plot]] to murder the king, but win's back Henry's favour by exposing the plot. In the second this story is dropped for a purely farcical storyline.{{sfn|Sutherland|1933}}

===Music===
[[File:KembleFalstaff.jpg|thumb| [[Stephen Kemble]], "the best Sir John Falstaff which the British stage ever saw."{{sfn|Edinburgh Literary Journal|1830}}]]
*''[[Falstaff (Salieri)|Falstaff]]'' (1799), [[Antonio Salieri]]'s [[opera buffa|opera]], with a libretto by [[Carlo Prospero Defranceschi]], which is based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Rice|n.d.}}
*''[[Falstaff (Balfe)|Falstaff]]'' (1838), an opera by [[Michael William Balfe]] to an Italian libretto by S. Manfredo Maggione that is based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Marek|2013|p=8}}
*''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor (opera)|Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor]]'' (1849) by [[Otto Nicolai]], based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Brown|n.d.}}
*''[[Le songe d'une nuit d'été]]'' (1850), an opera by [[Ambroise Thomas]] in which Shakespeare and Falstaff meet.{{sfn|Hoenselaars|Calvo|2010}}
*''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'' (1893), [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s last [[opera buffa|opera]], with a [[libretto]] by [[Arrigo Boito]]. It is mostly based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Parker|n.d.}}
*''[[Falstaff (Elgar)|Falstaff]]'' (1913), a "symphonic study" by [[Edward Elgar|Elgar]], which is a sympathetic and programmatic musical portrait.{{sfn|Elgar|1913}}
*''[[At the Boar's Head]]'' (1925), a short opera by [[Gustav Holst]] based on the Henry IV plays.{{sfn|Kennedy|n.d.a}}
*''[[Sir John in Love]]'' (1929), an opera by composer [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Kennedy|n.d.b}}
* ''Plump Jack'' (1985/2005), an opera with both libretto and music by composer [[Gordon Getty]], adapted from the text of both the Henry IV and Henry V plays.{{sfn|Rosenblum|2013}}

===Film===
*[[Orson Welles]]'s ''[[Chimes at Midnight]]'' (1966) compiles the two ''Henry IV'' plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'' and ''Henry V''. The film, also known as ''Falstaff'', features Welles himself in the title role, with film critic [[Vincent Canby]] stating in 1975 that it "may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made, bar none".{{sfn|Canby|1975}}

*[[Gus Van Sant]]’s ''[[My Own Private Idaho]]'' is partially a retelling of the ''Henry IV'' plays, set in the contemporary US, the character of Bob representing Falstaff.

===Print===
*Alexander Smith (pseud.) "Sir John Falstaff a Notorious Highwayman" in ''A Compleat History of the Lives and Robberies of the most Notorious Highway-Men, Foot-Pads, Shop-Lifts, and Cheats, of Both Sexes'' (London: J. Morphew, 1714){{sfn|McKenzie|2013}}
*[[James White (1775–1820)|James White]]'s book ''Falstaff's Letters'' (1796) purports to be a collection of letters written by Falstaff, provided by a descendant of Mistress Quickly's sister. She had inherited them from Mistress Quickly herself, who kept them in drawer in the Boar's Head Tavern until her death in "August 1419".{{sfn|Craik|1995}}
*''The Life of Sir John Falstaff'' (1858), a novel by [[Robert Barnabas Brough]].{{sfn|Brough|2013}}
*''Falstaff'' (1976), a novel by [[Robert Nye]].{{sfn|Klein|2013}}

==See also==
*[[Onufry Zagłoba]], similar character in [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]'s series of three novels, ''[[The Trilogy]]''

==Notes and references==
{{refbegin}}
All references to ''Henry IV, Part 1'', ''Henry IV, Part 2'', and ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'', unless otherwise specified, are taken from the [[Folger Shakespeare Library]]'s ''Folger Digital Editions'' texts edited by Barbara Mowat, Paul Werstine, Michael Poston, and Rebecca Niles. Under their referencing system, 3.1.55 means act 3, scene 1, line 55. Prologues, epilogues, scene directions, and other parts of the play that are not a part of character speech in a scene, are referenced using Folger Through Line Number: a separate line numbering scheme that includes every line of text in the play.
{{refend}}
{{reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book
|title = [[The Oxford Companion to English Literature]]
|editor1-last = Birch
|editor1-first = Dinah
|editor1-link = Dinah Birch
|series = [[Oxford Companions]]
|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
|location = Oxford
|year = 2009
|edition = 7th
|isbn = 9780192806871
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|title = The Life of Sir John Falstaff: With a Biography of the Knight from Authentic Sources
|last = Brough
|first = Robert Barnabas
|authorlink = Robert Barnabas Brough
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|location = Cambridge
|year = 2013
|orig-year = first published 1858
|isbn = 9781139542562
|doi = 10.1017/CBO9781139542562
|subscription = yes
|via = [[Cambridge Core]]
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Lustigen Weiber von Windsor, Die ('The Merry Wives of Windsor')
|last = Brown
|first = Clive
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O009159
|ref = {{harvid|Brown|n.d.}}
}}
*{{cite news
|title = Film View: The Undiminished Chutzpah of Orson Welles
|last = Canby
|first = Vincent
|author-link = Vincent Canby
|date = 2 March 1975
|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]
|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1975/03/02/archives/film-view-the-undiminished-chutzpah-of-orson-welles.html
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Jem White and ''Falstaff's Letters''
|last = Craik
|first = T.W.
|author-link = T.W. Craik
|year = 1995
|journal = [[The Charles Lamb Bulletin]]
|publisher = [[The Charles Lamb Society]]
|issue = 91
|pages = 118–129
|url = http://www.charleslambsociety.com/CLSBulletin(1973-today)/Issue%2091.pdf
|format = PDF
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite magazine
|title = Stephen Kemble and The Son of Neptune
|author = 
|date = 10 April 1830
|magazine = [[The Edinburgh Literary Journal]]
|publisher =
|location = Edinburgh
|volume = 3
|issue = 74
|pages = 216–217
|hdl = 2027/wu.89094395365
|via = [[HathiTrust]]
|ref = {{harvid|Edinburgh Literary Journal|1830}}
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = ''Falstaff''
|last = Elgar
|first = Edward
|author-link = Edward Elgar
|journal = [[The Musical Times]]
|issn = 0027-4666
|eissn = 2397-5318
|volume = 54
|issue = 847
|year = 1913
|pages = 575–579
|doi = 10.2307/908045
|jstor = 908045
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|title = Will In The World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare
|last = Greenblatt
|first = Stephen
|authorlink = Stephen Greenblatt
|year = 2004
|publisher = [[W. W. Norton]]
|isbn = 9780393050578
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Introduction: Shakespeare and the Cultures of Commemoration
|last1 = Hoenselaars
|first1 = Ton
|last2 = Calvo
|first2 = Clara
|journal = [[Critical Survey]]
|publisher = [[Berghahn Books]]
|issn = 0011-1570
|eissn = 1752-2293
|volume = 22
|issue = 2, Shakespeare and the Cultures of Commemoration
|year = 2010
|pages = 1–10
|jstor = 41556363
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = At the Boar's Head
|last = Kennedy
|first = Michael
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O900239
|ref = {{harvid|Kennedy|n.d.a}}
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Sir John in Love
|last = Kennedy
|first = Michael
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O008391
|ref = {{harvid|Kennedy|n.d.b}}
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Shakespeare und der historische: Roman Parallelen, Transformationen, Kontraste in der Henriade und bei Edith Pargeter, Denise Giardina, Robert Nye
|last = Klein
|first = Holger
|journal = [[AAA (journal)|AAA: Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik]]
|publisher = [[Narr Francke Attempto Verlag]]
|issn = 0171-5410
|volume = 38
|issue = 2
|year = 2013
|pages = 129–159
|jstor = 43025855
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|last = Lyons
|first = Bridget Gellert
|title = Chimes at Midnight
|year = 1989
|publisher = [[Rutgers University Press]]
|location = New Brunswick and London
|isbn = 9780813513393
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|title = Giovanni Battista Rubini and the Bel Canto Tenors: History and Technique
|last = Marek
|first = Dan H.
|publisher = [[Scarecrow Press]]
|year = 2013
|isbn = 9780810886681
|location = Lanham, MD
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = The Original of Sir John Falstaff: Believe It or Not
|last = Maxwell
|first = Baldwin
|journal = [[Studies in Philology]]
|publisher = [[University of North Carolina Press]]
|issn = 0039-3738
|eissn = 1543-0383
|volume = 27
|issue = 2
|year = 1930
|pages = 230-232
|jstor = 4172061
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Biting the Biter: Sex, Scatology, and Satirical Inversion in Augustan Highwayman 'Lives'
|last = McKenzie
|first = Andrea
|journal = [[Huntington Library Quarterly]]
|publisher = [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]
|issn = 0018-7895
|eissn = 1544-399X
|volume = 76
|issue = 2
|year = 2013
|pages = 235-256
|doi = 10.1525/hlq.2013.76.2.235
|jstor = 10.1525/hlq.2013.76.2.235
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Falstaff(ii)
|last = Parker
|first = Roger
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O901547
|ref = {{harvid|Parker|n.d.}}
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Falstaff (i) [''Falstaff, ossia Le tre burle''] ('Falstaff, or The Three Jokes')
|last = Rice
|first = John A.
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O901546
|ref = {{harvid|Rice|n.d.}}
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Getty: ''Plump Jack''
|last = Rosenblum
|first = Joshua
|date = September 2013
|journal = [[Opera News]]
|volume = 78
|issue = 3
|department = Opera and Oratorio
|url = https://www.operanews.com/Opera_News_Magazine/2013/9/Recordings/GETTY__Plump_Jack.html
|accessdate = 4 October 2017
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Shakespeare's Imitators in the Eighteenth Century
|last = Sutherland
|first = James R.
|journal = [[The Modern Language Review]]
|publisher = [[Modern Humanities Research Association]]
|issn = 0026-7937
|eissn = 2222-4319
|volume = 28
|issue = 1
|year = 1933
|pages = 21–36
|doi = 10.2307/3715883
|jstor = 3715883
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book
|title = Falstaff: Give Me Life
|last = Bloom
|first = Harold
|authorlink = Harold Bloom
|publisher = [[Chelsea House]]
|location = New York
|year = 1992
|isbn = 9781501164132
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = 'Banish all the wor(l)d': Falstaff's iconoclastic threat to kingship in I Henry IV
|last = Caldwell
|first = Ellen M.
|year = 2007
|journal = [[Renascence (journal)|Renascence]]
|publisher = [[Marquette University Press]]
|volume = 59
|issue = 4
|pages = 219–245
|issn = 0034-4346
|eissn = 2329-8626
|doi = 10.5840/renascence200759417
|url = https://www.thefreelibrary.com/%22Banish+all+the+wor(l)d%22%3a+Falstaff%27s+iconoclastic+threat+to+kingship...-a0170507857
|via = [[The Free Library]]
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite book
|title = The Real Falstaff: Sir John Fastolf and the Hundred Years War
|last = Cooper
|first = Stephen
|publisher = Pen & Sword
|year = 2010
|isbn = 9781848841239
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Falstaff's 'Honour': Homeric Burlesque in ''1 Henry IV'' (1597–8)
|last = Doloff
|first = Steven
|year = 2008
|journal = [[Notes and Queries]]
|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
|volume = 55
|issue = 2
|pages = 177–181
|issn = 0029-3970
|eissn = 1471-6941
|doi = 10.1093/notesj/gjn016
|via = [[Oxford Journals]]
|subscription = yes
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Falstaff: Subjectivity between the Carnival and the Aesthetic
|last = Grady
|first = Hygh
|journal = [[The Modern Language Review]]
|publisher = [[Modern Humanities Research Association]]
|issn = 0026-7937
|eissn = 2222-4319
|volume = 96
|issue = 3
|year = 2001
|pages = 609–623
|doi = 10.2307/3736733
|jstor = 3736733
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = William Shakespeare, Richard James and the House of Cobham
|last = Taylor
|first = Gary
|author-link = Gary Taylor (scholar)
|journal = [[The Review of English Studies]]
|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
|issn = 0034-6551
|eissn = 1471-6968
|series = New Series
|volume = 38
|issue = 151
|year = 1987
|pages = 334—354
|jstor = 515567
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite book
|title = The Fortunes of Falstaff
|last = Wilson
|first = J. Dover
|authorlink = J. Dover Wilson
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|location = Cambridge
|year = 1943
|ol = 6456735M
|ref = none
}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*{{commons category-inline|Falstaff}}

{{Henriad}}
{{The Merry Wives of Windsor}}

[[Category:Literary archetypes by name]]
[[Category:Male Shakespearean characters]]
[[Category:Comedy characters]]
[[Category:Prisoners in Fleet Prison]]
[[Category:Fictional knights]]
[[Category:Fictional alcohol abusers]]
[[Category:Characters in The Merry Wives of Windsor]]

John Falstaff

2018-02-26T07:35:08Z

Madler: /* Film */

{{EngvarB|date=July 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{About|the Shakespearean character}}
{{Infobox character
| name = John Falstaff
| series = [[Henriad]]
| image = Adolf Schrödter Falstaff und sein Page.jpg
| caption = [[Adolf Schrödter]]: Falstaff and his page
| creator = [[William Shakespeare]]
| portrayer =
| nickname =
| alias =
| species =
| gender = Male
| occupation = Knight
| religion = Christian
| nationality = English
}}
'''Sir John Falstaff''' is a fictional character who is mentioned in five plays by [[William Shakespeare]] and appears on stage in three of them. His significance as a fully developed character in Shakespeare is primarily formed in the plays ''[[Henry IV, Part 1]]'' and ''[[Henry IV, Part 2|Part 2]]'', where he is a companion to [[Prince Hal]], the future King [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]. A notable eulogy for Falstaff is presented in Act II, Scene III of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'', where Falstaff does not appear as a character on stage, as enacted by Mistress Quickly in terms that some scholars have ascribed to Plato's description of the death of Socrates after drinking hemlock. By comparison, in ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'', Falstaff is presented by Shakespeare as the buffoonish suitor of two married women.

Though primarily a comic figure, Falstaff still embodies a kind of depth common to Shakespeare's major characters. A fat, vain, boastful, and cowardly knight, he spends most of his time drinking at the [[Boar's Head Inn]] with petty criminals, living on stolen or borrowed money. Falstaff leads the apparently wayward [[Prince Hal]] into trouble, and is ultimately repudiated after Hal becomes king. Falstaff has since appeared in other media, notably in operas by [[Giuseppe Verdi]], [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], and [[Otto Nicolai]], and in [[Orson Welles]]' 1966 film ''[[Chimes at Midnight]]''. The operas focus on his role in ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'', while the film adapts from the [[Henriad]] and ''The Merry Wives''. Welles, who played Falstaff in his film, considered the character to be "Shakespeare's greatest creation".{{sfn|Lyons|1989|p=4}}

==Role in the plays==
[[File:MerryWives.jpg|thumb|right|Mistress Page and Falstaff in ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'', staged by [[Pacific Repertory Theatre]] at the [[Golden Bough Playhouse]] in [[Carmel-by-the-Sea, California|Carmel, CA]], in 1999]]
Falstaff appears in three of Shakespeare's plays, ''[[Henry IV, Part 1]]'', ''[[Henry IV, Part 2]]'', and ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]''. His death is mentioned in ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' but he has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage. However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into [[Henry V of England|King Henry V]]'s character. The most notable examples in cinema are [[Laurence Olivier]]'s [[Henry V (1944 movie)|1944 version]] and [[Kenneth Branagh]]'s [[Henry V (1989 movie)|1989 film]], both of which draw additional material from the ''Henry IV'' plays.

[[File:James Stephanoff - Falstaff at Herne's Oak, from "The Merry Wives of Windsor," Act V, Scene v - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|''Falstaff at Herne's Oak, from "The Merry Wives of Windsor," Act V, Scene v'', James Stephanoff, 1832]]

The character is known to have been very popular with audiences at the time, and for many years afterwards. According to [[Leonard Digges (writer)|Leonard Digges]], writing shortly after Shakespeare's death, while many plays could not get good audiences, "let but Falstaff come, Hal, Poins, the rest, you scarce shall have a room".{{sfn|Birch|2009|p=475}}

===''Henry IV, Part 1''===
{{further|Henry IV, Part 1}}
Adding to King Henry's troubles is the behaviour of his son and heir, the [[Prince of Wales]]. Hal (the future [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]) has forsaken the Royal Court to waste his time in taverns with low companions. This makes him an object of scorn to the nobles and calls into question his royal worthiness. Hal's chief friend and foil in living the low life is Sir John Falstaff. Fat, old, drunk, and corrupt as he is, he has a [[charisma]] and a zest for life that captivates the Prince.

The play features three groups of characters that interact slightly at first, and then come together in the [[Battle of Shrewsbury]], where the success of the rebellion will be decided. First there is King Henry himself and his immediate council. He is the engine of the play, but usually in the background. Next there is the group of rebels, energetically embodied in [[Henry Percy (Hotspur)|Henry Percy ("Hotspur")]] and including his father, the Earl of Northumberland and led by his uncle [[Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester|Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester]]. The Scottish Earl of Douglas, Edmund Mortimer and the Welshman [[Owen Glendower]] also join. Finally, at the centre of the play are the young Prince Hal and his companions Falstaff, Poins, Bardolph, and Peto. Streetwise and pound-foolish, these rogues manage to paint over this grim history in the colours of comedy.

Meanwhile, Henry's son Hal is joking, drinking, and thieving with Falstaff and his associates. He likes Falstaff but makes no pretense at being like him. He enjoys insulting his dissolute friend and makes sport of him by joining in Poins' plot to disguise themselves and rob and terrify Falstaff and three friends of loot they have stolen in a highway robbery, purely for the fun of watching Falstaff lie about it later, after which Hal returns the stolen money. Rather early in the play, in fact, Hal informs us that his riotous time will soon come to a close, and he will re-assume his rightful high place in affairs by showing himself worthy to his father and others through some (unspecified) noble exploits. Hal believes that this sudden change of manner will amount to a greater reward and acknowledgment of prince-ship, and in turn earn him respect from the members of the court.

On the way to this climax, we are treated to Falstaff, who has "misused the King's press damnably",{{sfd|1H4|4|2|12–13}} not only by taking money from able-bodied men who wished to evade service but by keeping the wages of the poor souls he brought instead who were killed in battle ("food for powder, food for powder").{{sfd|1H4|4|2|66–67}} Left on his own during Hal's battle with Hotspur, Falstaff dishonourably counterfeits death to avoid attack by Douglas. After Hal leaves Hotspur's body on the field, Falstaff revives in a mock miracle. Seeing he is alone, he stabs Hotspur's corpse in the thigh and claims credit for the kill. Though Hal knows better, he allows Falstaff his disreputable tricks. Soon after being given grace by Hal, Falstaff states that he wants to amend his life and begin "to live cleanly as a nobleman should do".{{sfd|1H4|5|4|76–169}}

===''Henry IV, Part 2''===
{{further|Henry IV, Part 2}}

===''Henry V''===
{{further|Henry V (play)|l1=Henry V}}
Although Falstaff does not appear on stage in ''Henry V'', his death is the main subject of Act 3, Scene 2, in which [[Mistress Quickly]] delivers a memorable eulogy:

{{quote
|character=[[Mistress Quickly]]
|title=''Henry V''
|author=[[William Shakespeare]]
|source=Act 3, Scene 2.{{sfd|H5|2|3|9–26}}
|text=<poem>
Nay, sure, he’s not in hell! He’s in Arthur’s
bosom, if ever man went to Arthur’s bosom. He
made a finer end, and went away an it had been any
christom child. He parted ev’n just between twelve
and one, ev’n at the turning o’ th’ tide; for after I saw
him fumble with the sheets and play with flowers
and smile upon his finger’s end, I knew there was
but one way, for his nose was as sharp as a pen and
he talked of green fields. 'How now, Sir John?'
quoth I. 'What, man, be o’ good cheer!' So he cried
out 'God, God, God!' three or four times. Now I, to
comfort him, bid him he should not think of God; I
hoped there was no need to trouble himself with
any such thoughts yet. So he bade me lay more
clothes on his feet. I put my hand into the bed and
felt them, and they were as cold as any stone. Then I
felt to his knees, and so upward and upward, and
all was as cold as any stone.</poem>
}}

===''The Merry Wives of Windsor''===
{{further|The Merry Wives of Windsor}}

==Origins==
[[File:Grützner Falstaff mit Kanne.jpg|thumb|right|[[Eduard von Grützner]]: ''Falstaff mit großer Weinkanne und Becher'' (1896) (Falstaff with big wine jar and cup, 1896)]]

===John Oldcastle===
It is generally believed that Shakespeare originally named Falstaff "[[John Oldcastle]]", and that [[William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham|Lord Cobham]], a descendant of the historical John Oldcastle, complained, forcing Shakespeare to change the name. There is both textual and external evidence for this belief. Shakespeare's ''Henry IV'' plays and ''Henry V'' adapted and developed the material in an earlier play called ''[[The Famous Victories of Henry V]]'', in which Sir John "Jockey" Oldcastle appears as a dissolute companion of the young Henry. In the published version of ''Henry IV, Part 1'', Falstaff's name is always [[metre (poetry)|unmetrical]], suggesting a name change after the original composition; Prince Hal refers to Falstaff as "my old lad of the castle" in the first act of the play; the epilogue to ''Henry IV, Part 2'', moreover, explicitly disavows any connection between Falstaff and Oldcastle: "Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man."{{sfd|2H4|ftln=3431}}

The historical Oldcastle was unlike Falstaff; in particular, he was a [[Lollardy|Lollard]] who was executed for his beliefs, and he was respected by many Protestants as a [[martyr]]. In addition to the anonymous ''The Famous Victories of Henry V'', in which Oldcastle is Henry V's companion, Oldcastle's history is described in [[Raphael Holinshed]]'s ''Chronicles'', Shakespeare's usual source for his histories.

===Cobhams===
It is not clear, however, if Shakespeare characterised Falstaff as he did for dramatic purposes, or because of a specific desire to satirise Oldcastle or the Cobhams. Cobham was a common butt of veiled satire in Elizabethan popular literature; he figures in [[Ben Jonson]]'s ''[[Every Man in His Humour]]'' and may have been part of the reason ''[[The Isle of Dogs (play)|The Isle of Dogs]]'' was suppressed. Shakespeare's desire to burlesque a hero of early English Protestantism could indicate [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] sympathies, but [[Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham]] was sufficiently sympathetic to Catholicism that in 1603, he was imprisoned as part of the [[Main Plot]] to place [[Arbella Stuart]] on the English throne, so if Shakespeare wished to use Oldcastle to embarrass the Cobhams, he seems unlikely to have done so on religious grounds.

The Cobhams appear to have intervened while Shakespeare was in the process of writing either ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' or the second part of ''Henry IV''. The first part of ''Henry IV'' was probably written and performed in 1596, and the name Oldcastle had almost certainly been allowed by [[Master of the Revels]] [[Edmund Tilney]]. [[William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham]] may have become aware of the offensive representation after a public performance; he may also have learned of it while it was being prepared for a court performance (Cobham was at that time [[Lord Chamberlain]]). As father-in-law to the newly widowed [[Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury|Robert Cecil]], Cobham certainly possessed the influence at court to get his complaint heard quickly. Shakespeare may have included a sly retaliation against the complaint in his play ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'' (published after the Henry IV series). In the play, the paranoid, jealous Master Ford uses the alias "Brook" to fool Falstaff, perhaps in reference to William Brooke. At any rate, the name is Falstaff in the ''Henry IV, Part 1'' [[quarto]], of 1598, and the epilogue to the second part, published in 1600, contains this clarification:

{{quote
|title=''Henry IV, Part 1''
|author=[[William Shakespeare]]
|source=Epilogue.{{sfd|1H4|ftln=3425–3431}}
|text=<poem>
One word more, I beseech you: if you be not too
much cloyed with fat meat, our humble author will
continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make
you merry with fair Katherine of France, where, for
anything I know, Falstaff shall die of a sweat, unless
already he be killed with your hard opinions; for
Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is not the man.
</poem>
}}

===Sir John Fastolf===
The new name "Falstaff" probably derived from the medieval knight Sir [[John Fastolf]] (who may also have been a [[Lollard]]). The historical John Fastolf fought at the [[Battle of Patay]] against [[Joan of Arc]], which the English lost. Fastolf's previous actions as a soldier had earned him wide respect, but he seems to have become a scapegoat after the debacle. He was among the few English military leaders to avoid death or capture during the battle, and although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardice, he was temporarily stripped of his knighthood. Fastolf appears in ''[[Henry VI, Part 1]]'' in which he is portrayed as an abject coward. In the'' [[First Folio]] ''his name is spelled "Falstaffe", so Shakespeare may have directly appropriated the spelling of the name he used in the earlier play. In a further comic double meaning, the name implies impotence.

===Robert Greene===
It has been suggested that the dissolute writer [[Robert Greene (dramatist)|Robert Greene]] may also have been an inspiration for the character of Falstaff. This theory was first proposed in 1930 and has recently been championed by [[Stephen Greenblatt]].{{sfn|Maxwell|1930}}{{sfn|Greenblatt|2004|pp=216–225}} Notorious for a life of dissipation and debauchery somewhat similar to Falstaff, he was among the first to mention Shakespeare in his work (in ''[[Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit]]''), suggesting to Greenblatt that the older writer may have influenced Shakespeare's characterisation.{{sfn|Greenblatt|2004|pp=216–225}}

[[File:Falstaff and Mistress Quickly Francis Philip Stephanoff.jpeg|thumb|''Falstaff and Mistress Quickly from The Merry Wives of Windsor'', [[Francis Philip Stephanoff]], circa 1840]]

==Cultural adaptations and appropriations==
There are several works about Falstaff, inspired by Shakespeare's plays:

===Drama===
*''[[Falstaff's Wedding]]'' (1766), by [[William Kenrick (writer)|William Kenrick]] was set after the events of ''Henry IV, Part 2''. To restore his financial position after his rejection by Hal, Falstaff is forced to marry Mistress Ursula (a character briefly mentioned by Shakespeare, whom Falstaff has "weekly" promised to marry). The play exists in two very different versions. In the first version Falstaff is drawn into [[Southampton Plot|Scroop's plot]] to murder the king, but win's back Henry's favour by exposing the plot. In the second this story is dropped for a purely farcical storyline.{{sfn|Sutherland|1933}}

===Music===
[[File:KembleFalstaff.jpg|thumb| [[Stephen Kemble]], "the best Sir John Falstaff which the British stage ever saw."{{sfn|Edinburgh Literary Journal|1830}}]]
*''[[Falstaff (Salieri)|Falstaff]]'' (1799), [[Antonio Salieri]]'s [[opera buffa|opera]], with a libretto by [[Carlo Prospero Defranceschi]], which is based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Rice|n.d.}}
*''[[Falstaff (Balfe)|Falstaff]]'' (1838), an opera by [[Michael William Balfe]] to an Italian libretto by S. Manfredo Maggione that is based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Marek|2013|p=8}}
*''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor (opera)|Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor]]'' (1849) by [[Otto Nicolai]], based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Brown|n.d.}}
*''[[Le songe d'une nuit d'été]]'' (1850), an opera by [[Ambroise Thomas]] in which Shakespeare and Falstaff meet.{{sfn|Hoenselaars|Calvo|2010}}
*''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'' (1893), [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s last [[opera buffa|opera]], with a [[libretto]] by [[Arrigo Boito]]. It is mostly based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Parker|n.d.}}
*''[[Falstaff (Elgar)|Falstaff]]'' (1913), a "symphonic study" by [[Edward Elgar|Elgar]], which is a sympathetic and programmatic musical portrait.{{sfn|Elgar|1913}}
*''[[At the Boar's Head]]'' (1925), a short opera by [[Gustav Holst]] based on the Henry IV plays.{{sfn|Kennedy|n.d.a}}
*''[[Sir John in Love]]'' (1929), an opera by composer [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.{{sfn|Kennedy|n.d.b}}
* ''Plump Jack'' (1985/2005), an opera with both libretto and music by composer [[Gordon Getty]], adapted from the text of both the Henry IV and Henry V plays.{{sfn|Rosenblum|2013}}

===Film===
*[[Orson Welles]]'s ''[[Chimes at Midnight]]'' (1966) compiles the two ''Henry IV'' plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'' and ''Henry V''. The film, also known as ''Falstaff'', features Welles himself in the title role, with film critic [[Vincent Canby]] stating in 1975 that it "may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made, bar none".{{sfn|Canby|1975}}

*[[Gus Van Sant]]’s ''[[My Own Private Idaho]]'' is partially a retelling of the ''Henry IV'' plays, set in the contemporary US, character Bob representing Falstaff.

===Print===
*Alexander Smith (pseud.) "Sir John Falstaff a Notorious Highwayman" in ''A Compleat History of the Lives and Robberies of the most Notorious Highway-Men, Foot-Pads, Shop-Lifts, and Cheats, of Both Sexes'' (London: J. Morphew, 1714){{sfn|McKenzie|2013}}
*[[James White (1775–1820)|James White]]'s book ''Falstaff's Letters'' (1796) purports to be a collection of letters written by Falstaff, provided by a descendant of Mistress Quickly's sister. She had inherited them from Mistress Quickly herself, who kept them in drawer in the Boar's Head Tavern until her death in "August 1419".{{sfn|Craik|1995}}
*''The Life of Sir John Falstaff'' (1858), a novel by [[Robert Barnabas Brough]].{{sfn|Brough|2013}}
*''Falstaff'' (1976), a novel by [[Robert Nye]].{{sfn|Klein|2013}}

==See also==
*[[Onufry Zagłoba]], similar character in [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]'s series of three novels, ''[[The Trilogy]]''

==Notes and references==
{{refbegin}}
All references to ''Henry IV, Part 1'', ''Henry IV, Part 2'', and ''The Merry Wives of Windsor'', unless otherwise specified, are taken from the [[Folger Shakespeare Library]]'s ''Folger Digital Editions'' texts edited by Barbara Mowat, Paul Werstine, Michael Poston, and Rebecca Niles. Under their referencing system, 3.1.55 means act 3, scene 1, line 55. Prologues, epilogues, scene directions, and other parts of the play that are not a part of character speech in a scene, are referenced using Folger Through Line Number: a separate line numbering scheme that includes every line of text in the play.
{{refend}}
{{reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book
|title = [[The Oxford Companion to English Literature]]
|editor1-last = Birch
|editor1-first = Dinah
|editor1-link = Dinah Birch
|series = [[Oxford Companions]]
|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
|location = Oxford
|year = 2009
|edition = 7th
|isbn = 9780192806871
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|title = The Life of Sir John Falstaff: With a Biography of the Knight from Authentic Sources
|last = Brough
|first = Robert Barnabas
|authorlink = Robert Barnabas Brough
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|location = Cambridge
|year = 2013
|orig-year = first published 1858
|isbn = 9781139542562
|doi = 10.1017/CBO9781139542562
|subscription = yes
|via = [[Cambridge Core]]
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Lustigen Weiber von Windsor, Die ('The Merry Wives of Windsor')
|last = Brown
|first = Clive
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O009159
|ref = {{harvid|Brown|n.d.}}
}}
*{{cite news
|title = Film View: The Undiminished Chutzpah of Orson Welles
|last = Canby
|first = Vincent
|author-link = Vincent Canby
|date = 2 March 1975
|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]
|url = https://www.nytimes.com/1975/03/02/archives/film-view-the-undiminished-chutzpah-of-orson-welles.html
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Jem White and ''Falstaff's Letters''
|last = Craik
|first = T.W.
|author-link = T.W. Craik
|year = 1995
|journal = [[The Charles Lamb Bulletin]]
|publisher = [[The Charles Lamb Society]]
|issue = 91
|pages = 118–129
|url = http://www.charleslambsociety.com/CLSBulletin(1973-today)/Issue%2091.pdf
|format = PDF
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite magazine
|title = Stephen Kemble and The Son of Neptune
|author = 
|date = 10 April 1830
|magazine = [[The Edinburgh Literary Journal]]
|publisher =
|location = Edinburgh
|volume = 3
|issue = 74
|pages = 216–217
|hdl = 2027/wu.89094395365
|via = [[HathiTrust]]
|ref = {{harvid|Edinburgh Literary Journal|1830}}
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = ''Falstaff''
|last = Elgar
|first = Edward
|author-link = Edward Elgar
|journal = [[The Musical Times]]
|issn = 0027-4666
|eissn = 2397-5318
|volume = 54
|issue = 847
|year = 1913
|pages = 575–579
|doi = 10.2307/908045
|jstor = 908045
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|title = Will In The World: How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare
|last = Greenblatt
|first = Stephen
|authorlink = Stephen Greenblatt
|year = 2004
|publisher = [[W. W. Norton]]
|isbn = 9780393050578
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Introduction: Shakespeare and the Cultures of Commemoration
|last1 = Hoenselaars
|first1 = Ton
|last2 = Calvo
|first2 = Clara
|journal = [[Critical Survey]]
|publisher = [[Berghahn Books]]
|issn = 0011-1570
|eissn = 1752-2293
|volume = 22
|issue = 2, Shakespeare and the Cultures of Commemoration
|year = 2010
|pages = 1–10
|jstor = 41556363
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = At the Boar's Head
|last = Kennedy
|first = Michael
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O900239
|ref = {{harvid|Kennedy|n.d.a}}
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Sir John in Love
|last = Kennedy
|first = Michael
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O008391
|ref = {{harvid|Kennedy|n.d.b}}
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Shakespeare und der historische: Roman Parallelen, Transformationen, Kontraste in der Henriade und bei Edith Pargeter, Denise Giardina, Robert Nye
|last = Klein
|first = Holger
|journal = [[AAA (journal)|AAA: Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik]]
|publisher = [[Narr Francke Attempto Verlag]]
|issn = 0171-5410
|volume = 38
|issue = 2
|year = 2013
|pages = 129–159
|jstor = 43025855
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|last = Lyons
|first = Bridget Gellert
|title = Chimes at Midnight
|year = 1989
|publisher = [[Rutgers University Press]]
|location = New Brunswick and London
|isbn = 9780813513393
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite book
|title = Giovanni Battista Rubini and the Bel Canto Tenors: History and Technique
|last = Marek
|first = Dan H.
|publisher = [[Scarecrow Press]]
|year = 2013
|isbn = 9780810886681
|location = Lanham, MD
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = The Original of Sir John Falstaff: Believe It or Not
|last = Maxwell
|first = Baldwin
|journal = [[Studies in Philology]]
|publisher = [[University of North Carolina Press]]
|issn = 0039-3738
|eissn = 1543-0383
|volume = 27
|issue = 2
|year = 1930
|pages = 230-232
|jstor = 4172061
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Biting the Biter: Sex, Scatology, and Satirical Inversion in Augustan Highwayman 'Lives'
|last = McKenzie
|first = Andrea
|journal = [[Huntington Library Quarterly]]
|publisher = [[University of Pennsylvania Press]]
|issn = 0018-7895
|eissn = 1544-399X
|volume = 76
|issue = 2
|year = 2013
|pages = 235-256
|doi = 10.1525/hlq.2013.76.2.235
|jstor = 10.1525/hlq.2013.76.2.235
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Falstaff(ii)
|last = Parker
|first = Roger
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O901547
|ref = {{harvid|Parker|n.d.}}
}}
*{{cite Grove
|title = Falstaff (i) [''Falstaff, ossia Le tre burle''] ('Falstaff, or The Three Jokes')
|last = Rice
|first = John A.
|year = 
|doi = 10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O901546
|ref = {{harvid|Rice|n.d.}}
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Getty: ''Plump Jack''
|last = Rosenblum
|first = Joshua
|date = September 2013
|journal = [[Opera News]]
|volume = 78
|issue = 3
|department = Opera and Oratorio
|url = https://www.operanews.com/Opera_News_Magazine/2013/9/Recordings/GETTY__Plump_Jack.html
|accessdate = 4 October 2017
|ref = harv
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Shakespeare's Imitators in the Eighteenth Century
|last = Sutherland
|first = James R.
|journal = [[The Modern Language Review]]
|publisher = [[Modern Humanities Research Association]]
|issn = 0026-7937
|eissn = 2222-4319
|volume = 28
|issue = 1
|year = 1933
|pages = 21–36
|doi = 10.2307/3715883
|jstor = 3715883
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = harv
}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book
|title = Falstaff: Give Me Life
|last = Bloom
|first = Harold
|authorlink = Harold Bloom
|publisher = [[Chelsea House]]
|location = New York
|year = 1992
|isbn = 9781501164132
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = 'Banish all the wor(l)d': Falstaff's iconoclastic threat to kingship in I Henry IV
|last = Caldwell
|first = Ellen M.
|year = 2007
|journal = [[Renascence (journal)|Renascence]]
|publisher = [[Marquette University Press]]
|volume = 59
|issue = 4
|pages = 219–245
|issn = 0034-4346
|eissn = 2329-8626
|doi = 10.5840/renascence200759417
|url = https://www.thefreelibrary.com/%22Banish+all+the+wor(l)d%22%3a+Falstaff%27s+iconoclastic+threat+to+kingship...-a0170507857
|via = [[The Free Library]]
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite book
|title = The Real Falstaff: Sir John Fastolf and the Hundred Years War
|last = Cooper
|first = Stephen
|publisher = Pen & Sword
|year = 2010
|isbn = 9781848841239
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Falstaff's 'Honour': Homeric Burlesque in ''1 Henry IV'' (1597–8)
|last = Doloff
|first = Steven
|year = 2008
|journal = [[Notes and Queries]]
|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
|volume = 55
|issue = 2
|pages = 177–181
|issn = 0029-3970
|eissn = 1471-6941
|doi = 10.1093/notesj/gjn016
|via = [[Oxford Journals]]
|subscription = yes
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = Falstaff: Subjectivity between the Carnival and the Aesthetic
|last = Grady
|first = Hygh
|journal = [[The Modern Language Review]]
|publisher = [[Modern Humanities Research Association]]
|issn = 0026-7937
|eissn = 2222-4319
|volume = 96
|issue = 3
|year = 2001
|pages = 609–623
|doi = 10.2307/3736733
|jstor = 3736733
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite journal
|title = William Shakespeare, Richard James and the House of Cobham
|last = Taylor
|first = Gary
|author-link = Gary Taylor (scholar)
|journal = [[The Review of English Studies]]
|publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
|issn = 0034-6551
|eissn = 1471-6968
|series = New Series
|volume = 38
|issue = 151
|year = 1987
|pages = 334—354
|jstor = 515567
|via = [[JSTOR]]
|subscription = y
|ref = none
}}
*{{cite book
|title = The Fortunes of Falstaff
|last = Wilson
|first = J. Dover
|authorlink = J. Dover Wilson
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|location = Cambridge
|year = 1943
|ol = 6456735M
|ref = none
}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*{{commons category-inline|Falstaff}}

{{Henriad}}
{{The Merry Wives of Windsor}}

[[Category:Literary archetypes by name]]
[[Category:Male Shakespearean characters]]
[[Category:Comedy characters]]
[[Category:Prisoners in Fleet Prison]]
[[Category:Fictional knights]]
[[Category:Fictional alcohol abusers]]
[[Category:Characters in The Merry Wives of Windsor]]

Taco rice

2017-11-17T15:38:25Z

Madler:

{{distinguish-otheruses|Tako (disambiguation)|Taco (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:Taco Rice1.JPG|thumb|220 px|right|The original taco rice w/cheese and vegetables of Parlor Senri]]
[[Image:Taco Rice2.JPG|thumb|220 px|right|side view]]
[[Image:Taco rice.jpg|thumb|220 px|right|Another example of taco rice.]]
{{nihongo|'''Taco rice'''|タコライス|takoraisu}} is a [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese dish]] and a popular example of [[Okinawan cuisine]]. It consists of [[taco]]-flavored ground beef served on a bed of [[rice]], frequently served with shredded [[cheese]], shredded [[lettuce]], [[tomato]] and [[Salsa (sauce)|salsa]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ocvb.or.jp/card/en/0000211078.html |title= Today's Food Culture - Time to rediscover traditional cooking |date = 31 March 2005 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061130193931/http://www.ocvb.or.jp/card/en/0000211078.html | archivedate = 30 November 2006 | accessdate= 19 May 2015 |publisher= Okinawa Convention & Visitors Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = The Ethnomusicologists' Cookbook: Complete Meals from Around the World | author= Sean Williams |publisher = Routledge | location= | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=qRffAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA49&dq=taco+rice+okinawa#v=onepage&q=taco%20rice%20okinawa&f=false | date = 2013 | page = 49 | isbn = 9781135518967 | accessdate = 19 May 2015 }}</ref>

Charlie's Tacos, serving tacos in shells made from rice flour, had been established in 1956 as the first "taco place" on Okinawa.<ref>{{cite book | title =Searching for Happily Ever After | author= Christopher Scharping |publisher = Xlibris Corporation | location= | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Ow68IYipXogC&pg=PA289&dq=taco+rice+okinawa#v=onepage&q=taco%20rice%20okinawa&f=false | date = 2012 | page = 49 | isbn = 9781479732401 | accessdate = 19 May 2015 }}</ref> Taco rice was created in 1984 by Matsuzo Gibo and introduced at two of his cafes, Parlor Senri and King Tacos, located just a minute from the main gate of [[Camp Hansen]] in [[Kin, Okinawa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wearethemighty.com/taco-rice-cheese-okinawa-2015-03 | title=This Japanese Dish Exists Only Because Of The US Military |date = 17 March 2015 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150519220248/http://www.wearethemighty.com/taco-rice-cheese-okinawa-2015-03 | archivedate = 19 May 2015 | accessdate= 19 May 2015| publisher= We Are The Mighty}}</ref><ref name = "StarsStripes">{{Citation | author = Oscar Johnson and Elena Sugiyama | title = A TRIBUTE TO TACO RICE: The U.S. military's favorite Mex-Oki fusion food | newspaper = Stars and Stripes Okinawa | date = 28 March 2015 | url = http://okinawa.stripes.com/news/tribute-taco-rice-us-militarys-favorite-mex-oki-fusion-food| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150519220526/http://okinawa.stripes.com/news/tribute-taco-rice-us-militarys-favorite-mex-oki-fusion-food | archivedate = 19 May 2015| accessdate = 19 May 2015}}</ref>

Taco rice is a popular dish among U.S. military personnel stationed in Okinawa as lunch or late night food. [[KFC]] put it on their menu throughout Japan for a time during the 1990s and [[Yoshinoya]], a nationwide [[gyudon]] restaurant, serves it in the chain's restaurants in Okinawa prefecture.<ref name = "StarsStripes"/> In addition, [[Taco Bell]] offers it as a menu option at the chain's restaurant in the [[Shibuya]] district of Tokyo. It is one of the best-known dishes of the Okinawan cuisine outside of Okinawa.

The Tex-Mex flavor is sometimes emulated through the use of [[soy sauce]], [[mirin]] and [[sake]]. Occasionally it is served with rice in a [[tortilla]] roll. The ingredients of taco meat, rice, and cheese are combined, dipped in batter, and deep fried into a "taco rice ball", served with salsa or tomato [[ketchup]]. {{cn|date=May 2015}}

==References==

{{Reflist}}

{{commons category|Taco rice}}

[[Category:Japanese rice dishes]]
[[Category:Okinawan cuisine]]

Relief

2017-10-03T04:29:39Z

Madler: Unsourced personal opinion about usage removed

{{other uses}}
[[File:Qajari relief.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A [[Persian Empire|Persian]] '''mid-relief''' (''mezzo-rilievo'') from the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] era, at [[Tangeh Savashi]] in [[Iran]], which might also be described as two stages of low-relief. This is a [[rock relief]] carved into a cliff.]]

'''Relief''' is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''[[wikt:relief|relief]]'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background [[Plane (geometry)|plane]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/relief |title=Relief |publisher= Merriam-Webster|accessdate=2012-05-31}}</ref> What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a flat surface of stone (relief sculpture) or wood ([[relief carving]]) is a lowering of the field, leaving the unsculpted parts seemingly raised. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. On the other hand, a relief saves forming the rear of a subject, and is less fragile and more securely fixed than a sculpture in the round, especially one of a standing figure where the ankles are a potential weak point, especially in stone. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster [[stucco]], ceramics or [[papier-mâché]] the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental [[bronze]] reliefs are made by [[casting]].

There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the sculpted form from the field, for which the Italian appellations are still sometimes used. The full range includes '''high relief''' (''alto-rilievo'', ''haut-relief''), where more than 50% of the depth is shown and there may be undercut areas, '''mid-relief''' (''mezzo-rilievo''), '''low-relief''' (''basso-rilievo'', or French: '''bas-relief''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|b|ɑː|r|ɪ|ˈ|l|iː|f}}), and shallow-relief or ''rilievo schiacciato'',<ref>Murray, Peter & Linda, Penguin Dictionary of Art & Artists, London, 1989. p.348, Relief; ''bas-relief'' remained common in English until the mid 20th century.</ref> where the plane is only very slightly lower than the sculpted elements. There is also '''sunk relief''', which was mainly restricted to [[Ancient Egypt]] (see below). However the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only terms used to discuss most work.

The definition of these terms is somewhat variable, and many works combine areas in more than one of them, sometimes sliding between them in a single figure; accordingly some writers prefer to avoid all distinctions.<ref>For example Avery in [[Grove Art Online]], whose long article on "Relief sculpture" barely mentions or defines them, except for sunk relief.</ref> The opposite of relief sculpture is '''counter-relief''', [[intaglio (sculpture)|intaglio]], or ''cavo-rilievo,''<ref>Murray, 1989, op.cit.</ref> where the form is cut into the field or background rather than rising from it; this is very rare in [[monumental sculpture]]. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, though they are rarely seen in "sunk relief" and are usual in "bas-relief" and "counter-relief". Works in the technique are described as "in relief", and, especially in [[monumental sculpture]], the work itself is "a relief".

[[File:Albert Memorial Friese Facing South - May 2008.jpg|thumb|650px|A face of the high-relief ''[[Frieze of Parnassus]]'' round the base of the [[Albert Memorial]] in London. Most of the heads and many feet are completely undercut, but the torsos are "engaged" with the surface behind.]]
[[File:Abraham (Gates of Paradise) 01.JPG|thumb|[[Lorenzo Ghiberti]]'s cast [[gilt-bronze]] "Gates of Paradise" at the [[Florence Baptistery]] in [[Florence]], Italy, combines high-relief main figures with backgrounds mostly in low relief.]]

Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of smaller settings, and a sequence of several panels or sections of relief may represent an extended narrative. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with many figures and very active poses, such as battles, than free-standing "sculpture in the round". Most ancient architectural reliefs were originally painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. The subject of reliefs is for convenient reference assumed in this article to be usually figures, but sculpture in relief often depicts decorative geometrical or foliage patterns, as in the [[Arabesque (Islamic art)|arabesques]] of [[Islamic art]], and may be of any subject.

[[Rock relief]]s are those carved into solid rock in the open air (if inside caves, whether natural or man-made, they are more likely to be called "rock-cut"). This type is found in many cultures, in particular those of the [[Ancient Near East]] and Buddhist countries. A [[stele]] is a single standing stone; many of these carry reliefs.

==Types==
The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are very often combined in a single work. In particular, most later "high reliefs" contain sections in low relief, usually in the background. From the [[Parthenon Frieze]] onwards, many single figures have heads in high relief, but their lower legs are in low relief; the slightly projecting figures created in this way work well in reliefs that are seen from below (see Moissac portal in gallery). As unfinished examples from various periods show, raised reliefs, whether high or low, were normally "blocked out" by marking the outline of the figure and reducing the background areas to the new background level, work no doubt performed by apprentices (see gallery).

{{anchor|Bas-relief or low relief}}

===Low relief or bas-relief===
[[File:PupienusSest.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Low-relief on Roman [[sestertius]], 238 AD]]
A '''low relief''' or '''bas-relief''' ("low relief", {{IPA-fr|baʁəljɛf}}, from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''basso rilievo'') is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. In the lowest reliefs the relative depth of the elements shown is completely distorted, and if seen from the side the image makes no sense, but from the front the small variations in depth register as a three-dimensional image. Other versions distort depth much less. It is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required. In the [[art of Ancient Egypt]] and other [[ancient Near East]]ern and Asian cultures, and also [[Meso-America]], a very low relief was commonly used for the whole composition. These images would all be painted after carving, which helped define the forms; today the paint has worn off in the great majority of surviving examples, but minute, invisible remains of paint can usually be discovered through chemical means.

The [[Ishtar Gate]] of [[Babylon]], now in Berlin, has low reliefs of large animals formed from moulded bricks, glazed in colour. Plaster, which made the technique far easier, was widely used in Egypt and the [[Near East]] from antiquity into Islamic times (latterly for architectural decoration, as at the [[Alhambra]]), Rome, and Europe from at least the Renaissance, as well as probably elsewhere. However, it needs very good conditions to survive long in unmaintained buildings – Roman decorative plasterwork is mainly known from [[Pompeii]] and other sites buried by ash from [[Mount Vesuvius]]. Low relief was relatively rare in Western [[medieval art]], but may be found, for example in wooden figures or scenes on the insides of the folding wings of multi-panel [[altarpiece]]s.
[[File:Borobudur Relief Panel I.b119, 0972.jpg|thumb|Bas-relief of 9th-century [[Candi of Indonesia|Candi]] [[Borobudur]]. The temple possesses 1,460 panels of bas-relief narrating Buddhist scriptures.]]

The revival of low relief, which was seen as a classical style, begins early in the Renaissance; the [[Tempio Malatestiano]] in [[Rimini]], a pioneering classicist building, designed by [[Leon Battista Alberti]] around 1450, uses low reliefs by [[Agostino di Duccio]] inside and on the external walls. Since the Renaissance plaster has been very widely used for indoor [[ornament (art)|ornamental]] work such as [[cornice]]s and ceilings, but in the 16th century it was used for large figures (many also using high relief) at the [[Chateau of Fontainebleau]], which were imitated more crudely elsewhere, for example in the Elizabethan [[Hardwick Hall]].

In later Western art, until a 20th-century revival, low relief was used mostly for smaller works or combined with higher relief to convey a sense of distance, or to give depth to the composition, especially for scenes with many figures and a landscape or architectural background, in the same way that lighter colours are used for the same purpose in painting. Thus figures in the foreground are sculpted in high-relief, those in the background in low-relief. Low relief may use any medium or technique of sculpture, [[stone carving]] and [[metal casting]] being most common. Large architectural compositions all in low relief saw a revival in the 20th century, being popular on buildings in [[Art Deco]] and related styles, which borrowed from the ancient low reliefs now available in museums.<ref>Avery, vii</ref> Some sculptors, including [[Eric Gill]], have adopted the "squashed" depth of low relief in works that are actually free-standing.
[[Image:Banteay Srei in Angkor.jpg|thumb|Bas-relief, [[Banteay Srei]], [[Cambodia]]; [[Ravana]] shaking Mount [[Kailasa]], the Abode of [[Shiva|Siva]]]]

Mid-relief, "half-relief" or ''mezzo-rilievo'' is somewhat imprecisely defined, and the term is not often used in English, the works usually being described as low relief instead. The typical traditional definition is that only up to half of the subject projects, and no elements are undercut or fully disengaged from the background field. The depth of the elements shown is normally somewhat distorted. Shallow-relief or ''rilievo stiacciato'', used for the background areas of compositions with the main elements in low-relief, was perfected by the Italian Renaissance sculptor [[Donatello]]. It is a very shallow relief, which merges into engraving in places, and can be hard to read in photographs.<ref>Avery, vi</ref>

Mid-relief is probably the most common type of relief found in the [[Hindu art|Hindu]] and [[Buddhist art]] art of [[India]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. The low reliefs of 2nd-century BCE to 6th-century CE [[Ajanta Caves]] and 5th to 10th-century [[Ellora Caves]] in India are rock reliefs. Most of these reliefs are used to narrate sacred scriptures, such as the 1,460 panels of the 9th-century [[Borobudur]] temple in [[Central Java]], [[Indonesia]], narrating the [[Jataka tales]] or lives of the [[Buddha]]. Other examples are low reliefs narrating the [[Ramayana]] Hindu epic in [[Prambanan]] temple, also in Java, in [[Cambodia]], the temples of [[Angkor]], with scenes including the [[Samudra manthan]] or "Churning the Ocean of Milk" at the 12th-century [[Angkor Wat]], and reliefs of [[apsaras]]. At [[Bayon]] temple in [[Angkor Thom]] there are scenes of daily life in the [[Khmer Empire]].

===High relief===
[[File:Ac marbles.jpg|thumb|left|'''High relief''' [[Metope (architecture)|metope]] from the Classical Greek [[Elgin Marbles]]. Some front limbs are actually detached from the background completely, while the [[centaur]]'s left rear leg is in low relief.]]
High relief (or ''altorilievo'', from [[Italian language|Italian]]) is where in general more than half the mass of the sculpted figure projects from the background, indeed the most prominent elements of the composition, especially heads and limbs, are often completely undercut, detaching them from the field. The parts of the subject that are seen are normally depicted at their full depth, unlike low relief where the elements seen are "squashed" flatter. High-relief thus uses essentially the same style and techniques as free-standing sculpture, and in the case of a single figure gives largely the same view as a person standing directly in front of a free-standing statue would have. All cultures and periods in which large sculptures were created used this technique in [[monumental sculpture]] and architecture.

Most of the many grand figure reliefs in [[Ancient Greek sculpture]] used a very "high" version of high-relief, with elements often fully free of the background, and parts of figures crossing over each other to indicate depth. The [[metopes of the Parthenon]] have largely lost their fully rounded elements, except for heads, showing the advantages of relief in terms of durability. High relief has remained the dominant form for reliefs with figures in Western sculpture, also being common in Indian temple sculpture. Smaller Greek sculptures such as private tombs, and smaller decorative areas such as friezes on large buildings, more often used low relief.
[[File:Khajurahosculpture.jpg|thumb|A temple high relief in [[Khajuraho]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]] features a couple in a sexual embrace.]]
[[Hellenistic]] and Roman [[sarcophagus]] reliefs were cut with a drill rather than [[chisel]]s, enabling and encouraging compositions extremely crowded with figures, like the [[Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus]] (250–260 CE). These are also seen in the enormous strips of reliefs that wound round Roman [[triumphal column]]s. The [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] in particular exerted a huge influence on later Western sculpture. The European Middle Ages tended to use high relief for all purposes in stone, though like [[Ancient Roman sculpture]] their reliefs were typically not as high as in Ancient Greece.<ref>Avery, ii and iii</ref> Very high relief reemerged in the Renaissance, and was especially used in wall-mounted [[funerary art]] and later on [[Neoclassical architecture|Neo-classical]] [[pediment]]s and public monuments.

In Hindu-Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia high relief can also be found, although it is not as common as low reliefs. Most of Hindu-Buddhist sculptures however also can be considered as a high relief, since these sculptures usually connected to a stella as the background to support the statue as well as provides additional elements such as aura or halo in the back of sculpture's head, or floral decoration. The examples of Indian high reliefs can be found in [[Khajuraho]] temple, that displaying voluptuous twisting figures that often describes the erotic [[Kamasutra]] positions. In 9th-century [[Prambanan]] temple, Central Java, the examples are the high reliefs of [[Lokapala]] [[devata]]s, the guardian of directions deities.

===Sunk relief===
[[File:Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their children.jpg|thumb|right|A '''sunk-relief''' depiction of Pharaoh [[Akhenaten]] with his wife [[Nefertiti]] and daughters. The main background has not been removed, merely that in the immediate vicinity of the sculpted form. Note how strong shadows are needed to define the image.]]

Sunk or sunken relief is largely restricted to the [[art of Ancient Egypt]] where it is very common, becoming after the [[Amarna period]] of [[Ahkenaten]] the dominant type used, as opposed to low relief. It had been used earlier, but mainly for large reliefs on external walls, and for [[hieroglyph]]s and [[cartouche]]s. The image is made by cutting the relief sculpture itself into a flat surface. In a simpler form the images are usually mostly linear in nature, like hieroglyphs, but in most cases the figure itself is in low relief, but set within a sunken area shaped round the image, so that the relief never rises beyond the original flat surface. In some cases the figures and other elements are in a very low relief that does not rise to the original surface, but others are modeled more fully, with some areas rising to the original surface. This method minimizes the work removing the background, while allowing normal relief modelling.

The technique is most successful with strong sunlight to emphasise the outlines and forms by shadow, as no attempt was made to soften the edge of the sunk area, leaving a face at a right-angle to the surface all around it. Some reliefs, especially funerary monuments with heads or busts from ancient Rome and later Western art, leave a "frame" at the original level around the edge of the relief, or place a head in a hemispherical recess in the block (see Roman example in gallery). Though essentially very similar to Egyptian sunk relief, but with a background space at the lower level around the figure, the term would not normally be used of such works.

===Counter-relief===
Sunk relief technique is not to be confused with "counter-relief" or intaglio as seen on [[engraved gem]] [[Seal (emblem)|seals]]—where an image is fully modeled in a "negative" manner. The image goes into the surface, so that when impressed on wax it gives an impression in normal relief. However many engraved gems were carved in [[Cameo (carving)|cameo]] or normal relief.

A few very late [[Hellenistic]] monumental carvings in Egypt use full "negative" modelling as though on a gem seal, perhaps as sculptors trained in the Greek tradition attempted to use traditional Egyptian conventions.<ref>Barasch, Moshe, ''Visual Syncretism: A Case Study'', pp. 39–43 in Budick, Stanford & Iser, Wolfgang, eds., ''The Translatability of cultures: figurations of the space between'', [[Stanford University Press]], 1996, {{ISBN|0-8047-2561-6}} ({{ISBN|978-0-8047-2561-3}}).</ref>

===Small objects===
[[File:French - Diptych with Scenes from the Passion of Christ - Walters 71179 - Open.jpg|thumb|left|French Gothic [[diptych]], 25 cm (9.8 in) high, with crowded scenes from the ''[[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]]'', c. 1350–1365.]]
Small-scale reliefs have been carved in various materials, notably [[ivory carving|ivory]], wood, and wax. Reliefs are often found in [[decorative arts]] such as [[ceramic art|ceramics]] and [[metalwork]]; these are less often described as "reliefs" than as "in relief". Small bronze reliefs are often in the form of "plaques" or [[plaquette]]s, which may be set in furniture or framed, or just kept as they are, a popular form for European collectors, especially in the Renaissance.

Various modelling techniques are used, such [[repoussé]] ("pushed-back") in metalwork, where a thin metal plate is shaped from behind using various metal or wood punches, producing a relief image. [[Casting]] has also been widely used in [[bronze]] and other metals. Casting and repoussé are often used in concert in to speed up production and add greater detail to the final relief. In stone, as well as engraved gems, larger [[hardstone carving]]s in semi-precious stones have been highly prestigious since ancient times in many Eurasian cultures. Reliefs in [[wax]] were produced at least from the [[Renaissance]].

[[Ivory carving|Carved ivory]] reliefs have been used since ancient times, and because the material, though expensive, cannot usually be reused, they have a relatively high survival rate, and for example [[consular diptych]]s represent a large proportion of the survivals of portable secular art from [[Late Antiquity]]. In the [[Gothic art|Gothic period]] the carving of ivory reliefs became a considerable [[Luxury goods|luxury]] industry in [[Paris]] and other centres. As well as small [[diptych]]s and [[triptych]]s with densely packed religious scenes, usually from the [[New Testament]], secular objects, usually in a lower relief, were also produced.

These were often round mirror-cases, combs, handles, and other small items, but included a few larger caskets like the [[Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)]] in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], in the United States. Originally there were very often painted in bright colours. Reliefs can be impressed by stamps onto clay, or the clay pressed into a mould bearing the design, as was usual with the mass-produced {{lang|la|''[[terra sigillata]]''}} of [[Ancient Roman pottery]]. Decorative reliefs in [[plaster]] or [[stucco]] may be much larger; this form of architectural decoration is found in many styles of interiors in the post-Renaissance West, and in [[Islamic architecture]].

==Gallery==
<gallery perrow=7>

File:Luxor temple 15.jpg|Sunk relief as low relief within a sunk outline, from the [[Luxor Temple]] in Egypt, carved in very hard [[granite]]
File:Luxor Temple 9544.JPG|low relief within a sunk outline, linear sunk relief in the [[hieroglyph]]s, and high relief (right), from Luxor
File:UnfinishedStele-NefertitiPouringWineIntoAkhenatensCup.png|"Blocked-out" unfinished low relief of [[Ahkenaten]] and [[Nefertiti]]; unfinished Greek and Persian high-reliefs show the same method of beginning a work.
File:Nowruz Zoroastrian.jpg|[[Bas-relief]] in [[Persepolis]] – a symbol of [[Zoroastrism|Zoroastrian]] Nowruz – in day of a spring [[equinox]] power of eternally fighting bull (personifying the [[Earth]]), and a lion (personifying the [[Sun]]), are equal
Image:Atropos.jpg|[[Atropos]] cutting the thread of life. Ancient Greek low relief.
File:The Ara Pacis Augustae or Altar of the Augustan Peace, built to celebrate the return of Augustus to Rome in 13 BC following campaigns in Spain and Gaul, Museo dell'Ara Pacis, Rome (20975268184).jpg|Section on the [[Ara Pacis]], Rome, with varied levels of relief
File:Rilievo funerario dei vibii, fine del I secolo ac..JPG|Roman funerary relief with frame at original level, but not sunk relief
File:Warren Cup BM GR 1999.4-26.1 n2.jpg|The Roman [[Warren Cup]], silver [[repoussé]] work
Image:Mayapanel.JPG|[[Yaxchilan]] [[Lintel (architecture)|Lintel]] 24, a [[Maya art|Mayan]] carving depicting a [[blood sacrifice]]
Image:Bas relief nagsh-e-rostam al.jpg|[[Rock relief]] at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]]; the Persian [[Sassanian]] emperor [[Shapur I]] (on horseback) with Roman emperors submitting to him
File:Abadia de Saint-Pierre de Moissac - Portalada Sud de Moissac.JPG|The 12th century [[Romanesque art|Romanesque]] portal of ''[[Christ in Majesty]]'' at [[Moissac]] Abbey moves between low and high relief in a single figure.
File:Triptych Harbaville Louvre OA3247 recto.jpg|[[Harbaville Triptych]], Byzantine ivory
Image:Relief-side view.jpg|Side view of high relief: ''Madonna and Child'', marble of {{circa|1500}}/1510 by an unknown north Italian sculptor
File:Fontainebleau escalier roi5.jpg|The elaborate [[stucco]] (plaster) reliefs decorating the [[Chateau de Fontainebleau]] were hugely influential. Low-relief decorative [[frieze]] above.
File:Adorazione dei pastori - Francesco Grassia.jpg|Baroque marble high-relief by [[Francesco Grassia]], 1670, Rome
Image:St GaudensShaw Mem.jpg|Robert Gould Shaw Memorial, 1897, Boston, combining free-standing elements with high and low relief.
File:Relief on building in Bishopsgate, London 2.JPG|A relatively modern high relief (depicting shipbuilding) in [[Bishopsgate]], [[London]]. Note that some elements jut out of the frame of the image.

Image:Bas relief at Ryerson University.jpg|[[Elizabeth Wyn Wood]]'s [[Bas-relief]] at [[Ryerson University]] in [[Toronto]]
File:Unakoti group of bas-relief sculptures, Tripura, India.jpg|Colossal Hindu [[rock relief]]s at [[Unakoti]], [[Tripura]], India
</gallery>
</center>

==Notable reliefs==
Notable examples of monumental reliefs include:
* Ancient Egypt: Most [[Egyptian temple]]s, e.g. the [[Temple of Karnak]]
* Assyria: A famous collection is in the [[British Museum]], [[Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III]]
* [[Ancient Persia]]: [[Persepolis]], and rock-face reliefs at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] and [[Naqsh-e Rajab]]
* Ancient Greece: The [[Parthenon Marbles]], [[Bassae Frieze]], [[Great Altar of Pergamon]], [[Ludovisi Throne]]
* [[Mesopotamia]]: [[Ishtar Gate]] of [[Babylon]]
* Ancient Rome: [[Ara Pacis]], [[Trajan's Column]], [[Column of Marcus Aurelius]], [[triumphal arch]]es, [[Portonaccio sarcophagus]]
* Medieval Europe: Many cathedrals and other churches, such as [[Chartres Cathedral]] and [[Bourges Cathedral]]
* India: [[Sanchi]], base of the [[Lion Capital of Asoka]], the rock-cut [[Elephanta Caves]] and [[Ellora Caves]], [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho temples]], [[Mahabalipuram]] with the ''[[Descent of the Ganges (Mahabalipuram)|Descent of the Ganges]]'', and many South Indian temples, Unakoti group of sculptures(bas relief) at Kailashahar, Unakoti District, Tripura, India
* South-East Asia: [[Borobodur]] in [[Java]], [[Angkor Wat]] in Cambodia,
* Glyphs, [[Mayan stelae]] and other reliefs of the [[Maya art|Maya]] and [[Aztec]] civilizations
* United States: [[Stone Mountain]], [[Robert Gould Shaw]] Memorial, Boston, [[Mount Rushmore National Memorial]],
* UK: Base panels of [[Nelson's Column]], [[Frieze of Parnassus]]

Smaller-scale reliefs:
* Ivory: [[Nimrud ivories]] from much of the Near East, [[Late Antique]] [[Consular diptych]]s, the Byzantine [[Harbaville Triptych]] and [[Veroli Casket]], the [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon]] [[Franks Casket]], [[Cloisters Cross]].
* Silver: [[Warren Cup]], [[Gundestrup cauldron]], [[Mildenhall Treasure]], [[Berthouville Treasure]], [[Missorium of Theodosius I]], [[Lomellini Ewer and Basin]].
* Gold: [[Berlin Gold Hat]], [[Bimaran casket]], [[Panagyurishte Treasure]]
* Glass: [[Portland Vase]], [[Lycurgus Cup]]

==See also==
* [[Repoussé and chasing]] – a metalworking technique
* [[Relief printing]] – a different concept
* [[Pargetting]] – English exterior plaster reliefs

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|2}}

;Works cited
* Avery, Charles, in [[Grove Art Online]], "Relief sculpture". Retrieved April 7, 2011.

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Alto-Relievo}}
{{EB1911 poster|Basso-Relievo}}
* Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/amrs/hd_amrs.htm "American Relief Sculpture"], Metropolitan Museum of Art, [[New York City]].
* Melissa Hardiman, [http://edweb.tusd.k12.az.us/Sabino/library/pathfindermelissa2.htm "Bas-Relief Pathfinder"]
{{commons category|position=left|Reliefs| Reliefs}}

{{Branches of the visual arts|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Sculpture techniques]]
[[Category:Sculpture terms]]
[[Category:Types of sculpture]]

Moon landing conspiracy theories

2017-06-21T14:07:18Z

Madler:

{{pp-vand|small=yes}}
[[File:Apollo 11 Crew During Training Exercise - GPN-2002-000032.jpg|thumb|[[Astronaut]]s [[Buzz Aldrin]] and [[Neil Armstrong]] in NASA's training [[mockup]] of the Moon and lander module. Conspiracy theorists say that the films of the missions were made using sets similar to this training mockup.]]

'''Moon landing conspiracy theories''' are [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] which claim that some or all elements of the [[Apollo program]] and the associated [[Moon landing]]s were [[hoax]]es staged by [[NASA]] with the aid of other organizations. The most notable claim is that the [[List of Apollo missions#Manned Apollo missions|six manned landings (1969–72)]] were faked and that [[List of Apollo astronauts#Apollo astronauts who walked on the Moon|twelve Apollo astronauts]] did not actually walk on the [[Moon]]. Various groups and individuals have made claims since the mid-1970s, that NASA and others knowingly misled the public into believing the landings happened, by manufacturing, tampering with, or destroying evidence including photos, [[telemetry]] tapes, radio and TV transmissions, [[Moon rock]] samples, and even some key witnesses.

Much [[third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings|third-party evidence for the landings]] exists, and detailed rebuttals to the hoax claims have been made.<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], pp. 154–173</ref> Since the late 2000s, high-definition photos taken by the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] (LRO) of the Apollo landing sites have captured the lander modules and the tracks left by the astronauts.<ref name="NASA LRO">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/apollo-sites.html |title=NASA Spacecraft Images Offer Sharper Views of Apollo Landing Sites |last1=Neal-Jones |first1=Nancy |last2=Zubritsky |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Cole |first3=Steve |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert |date=September 6, 2011 |publisher=NASA |id=Goddard Release No. 11-058 (co-issued as NASA HQ Release No. 11-289) |accessdate=September 22, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/news/index.php?/archives/620-Question-Answered!.html |title=LRO slewed 19° down-Sun allowing the illuminated side of the still standing American flag to be captured at the Apollo 17 landing site. M113751661L |last=Robinson |first=Mark |publisher=LROC News System |date=July 27, 2012 |type=Caption |accessdate=April 29, 2013}}</ref> In 2012, images were released showing five of the six Apollo missions' [[Lunar Flag Assembly|American flags erected on the Moon]] still standing; the exception is that of [[Apollo 11]], which has lain on the lunar surface since being accidentally blown over by the takeoff rocket's exhaust.<ref>{{cite news |title=Apollo Moon flags still standing, images show |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-19050795 |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |location=London |date=July 30, 2012 |accessdate=April 29, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/technology/2012/07/american-flags-from-apollo-missions-still-standing/ |title=American Flags From Apollo Missions Still Standing |last=Abbey |first=Jennifer |work=[[ABC News]] |publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] |location=New York |type=Blog |date=July 31, 2012 |accessdate=April 29, 2013}}</ref>

Conspiracists have managed to sustain public interest in their theories for more than 40 years, despite the rebuttals and third-party evidence. [[Opinion poll]]s taken in various locations have shown that between 6% and 20% of [[Americans]], 25% of [[Britons]], and 28% of [[Russians]] surveyed believe that the manned landings were faked. Even as late as 2001, the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox television network]] documentary ''Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?''<ref>[[#Conspiracy Theory|''Conspiracy Theory'' (2001)]]</ref> claimed NASA faked the first landing in 1969 to win the [[Space Race]].<ref name="greatmoonhoax">{{cite web |url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2001/ast23feb_2/ |title=The Great Moon Hoax |last=Phillips |first=Tony |date=February 23, 2001 |work=Science@NASA |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=July 30, 2012}}</ref>

== Origins ==
An early and influential book about the subject of a moon-landing conspiracy, ''We Never Went to the Moon: America's Thirty Billion Dollar Swindle'', was [[Self-publishing|self-published]] in 1976 by [[Bill Kaysing]].<ref>[[#Kaysing|Kaysing 2002]]</ref> Despite having no knowledge of rockets, or technical writing<ref>[[#Kaysing|Kaysing 2002]], p. 30</ref> Kaysing, a former [[U.S. Navy]] officer with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] in English, was hired as a senior [[technical writer]] in 1956 by [[Rocketdyne]], the company which built the [[F-1 (rocket engine)|F-1]] engines used on the [[Saturn V]] rocket.<ref>[[#Kaysing|Kaysing 2002]], p. 80</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://billkaysing.com/biography.php |title=A brief biography of Bill Kaysing |last=Kaysing |first=Wendy L. |publisher=BillKaysing.com |accessdate=February 28, 2013}}</ref> He served as head of the technical publications unit at the company's Propulsion Field Laboratory until 1963. Kaysing's book made many allegations, and effectively began discussion of the Moon landings being faked.<ref name=k-pg7 /><ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], p. 157</ref> The book claims that the chance of a successful manned landing on the Moon was calculated to be 0.0017%, and that despite close monitoring by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], it would have been easier for NASA to fake the Moon landings than to really go there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://braeunig.us/space/hoax.htm |title=Did we land on the Moon? |last=Braeunig |first=Robert A. |date=November 2006 |website=Rocket and Space Technology |publisher=Robert Braeunig |accessdate=May 3, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billkaysing.com/hoaxtheory.php |last=Galuppini |first=Albino |title=Hoax Theory |publisher=BillKaysing.com |accessdate=May 3, 2013}}</ref>

In 1980, the [[Flat Earth Society]] accused NASA of faking the landings, arguing that they were staged by Hollywood with [[Walt Disney]] sponsorship, based on a script by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] and directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]].<ref group=Note>In 1968, Clarke and Kubrick had collaborated on the film ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', which realistically portrayed a Moon mission.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schadewald |first=Robert J. |authorlink=Robert Schadewald |date=July 1980 |title=The Flat-out Truth: Earth Orbits? Moon Landings? A Fraud! Says This Prophet |journal=[[Science Digest]] |location=New York |publisher=[[Hearst Corporation|Hearst Magazines]] |url=http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/fe-scidi.htm |accessdate=April 29, 2013}}</ref> Folklorist [[Linda Dégh]] suggests that writer-director [[Peter Hyams]]' 1978 film ''[[Capricorn One]]'', which shows a hoaxed journey to [[Mars]] in a [[spacecraft]] that looks identical to the Apollo craft, might have given a boost to the hoax theory's popularity in the post-[[Vietnam War]] era. She notes that this happened during the post-[[Watergate scandal|Watergate]] era, when American citizens were [[Credibility gap|inclined to distrust official accounts]]. Dégh writes: "The mass media catapult these half-truths into a kind of twilight zone where people can make their guesses sound as truths. Mass media have a terrible impact on people who lack guidance."<ref name="wired">{{cite news |url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/2.09/moon.land.html?pg=5 |title=The Wrong Stuff |last=van Bakel |first=Rogier |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast Publications]] |location=New York |issue=2.09 |date=September 1994 |page=5 |accessdate=August 13, 2009}}</ref> In ''[[A Man on the Moon]]'',<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 2007]] (page needed)</ref> first published in 1994, [[Andrew Chaikin]] mentions that at the time of [[Apollo 8]]'s [[Lunar orbit|lunar-orbit]] mission in December 1968,<ref>[[#Attivissimo|Attivissimo 2013]], p. 70</ref> similar conspiracy ideas were already in circulation.<ref>[[#Dick & Launius|Dick & Launius 2007]], pp. 63–64</ref>

== Conspiracists and their contentions ==
After Kaysing, Moon-landing conspiracists include (in alphabetical order):
* [[Marcus Allen (publisher)|Marcus Allen]] – British publisher of ''[[Nexus (magazine)|Nexus]]'', who said photographs of the lander would not prove that the United States put men on the Moon, and "Getting to the Moon really isn't much of a problem – [[Luna 2|the Russians did that in 1959]]. The big problem is getting people there." He suggests that NASA sent robot missions because [[radiation]] levels in [[outer space]] would be deadly.<ref>{{cite news |title=World's biggest telescope to prove Americans really walked on Moon |first=Robert |last=Matthews |authorlink=Robert Matthews (scientist) |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1414144/Worlds-biggest-telescope-to-prove-Americans-really-walked-on-Moon.html |date=November 24, 2002 |newspaper=[[The Sunday Telegraph]] |publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]] |location=London |accessdate=May 15, 2013}}</ref> Another variant on this is the idea that NASA and its contractors did not recover quickly enough from the [[Apollo 1]] fire, and so all the early Apollo missions were faked, with [[Apollo 14|Apollos 14]] or [[Apollo 15|15]] being the first real mission.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cosmoquest.org/forum/archive/index.php/t-1180.html |title=Irrefutable proof [Archive] – Bad Astronomy and Universe Today Forum |date=May 3, 2002 |publisher=[[Bad Astronomy]] |type=Forum |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2009}}</ref>
* William L. Brian – a nuclear engineer who self-published a book in 1982, ''[[Moongate (book)|Moongate: Suppressed Findings of the U.S. Space Program]]'',<ref>[[#Brian|Brian 1982]]</ref> in which he disputes the Moon's surface gravity.
* James M. Collier (d. 1998) – American [[journalist]] and writer, producer of the video ''Was It Only a Paper Moon?'' (1997).
* [[Milton William Cooper]] (1943–2001) – was an American conspiracy theorist and author. He believed that all of the Apollo missions to the Moon were actually carefully rehearsed productions that were then filmed in large [[sound stage]]s.<ref name="cooper">{{cite web |url=http://www.williamcooper.com/majestyt.htm |title=MAJESTYTWELVE |last=Cooper |first=William |year=1997 |website=williamcooper.com |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20000815194854/http://www.williamcooper.com/majestyt.htm |archivedate=August 15, 2000 |accessdate=May 31, 2013}}</ref>
* [[James H. Fetzer]] – retired American philosophy professor and conspiracy theorist. On May 2, 2013, Dr. Fetzer was interviewed by Dr. Sterling Harwood. Fetzer defended his conspiracist views that all six lunar landings were hoaxes.<ref name="SpirittoSpirit">{{cite interview |last=Fetzer |first=James H. |authorlink=James H. Fetzer |interviewer=Sterling Harwood |title=Did America Land Men on the Moon?: The Moon Landing Hoax |url=http://kliv.gotdns.com/kliv/paid/2013_05_02_SpirtToSpirt.mp3 |format=[[MP3]] |work=Spirit To Spirit |publisher=[[KLIV]] 1590 AM |location=San Jose, California |date=May 2, 2013 |accessdate=May 3, 2013}}</ref>
* David Groves – works for Quantech Image Processing. He examined the photo of [[Examination of Apollo Moon photographs#Apparent "hot spots" in some photographs|Aldrin emerging from the lander]] and said he can pinpoint when a spotlight was used. Using the focal length of the [[camera]]'s lens and an actual boot, he allegedly calculated, using [[Ray tracing (graphics)|ray-tracing]], that the spotlight is between {{Convert|24|to|36|cm}} to the right of the camera.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ufos-aliens.co.uk/cosmicapollo.html |title=The Apollo Hoax |last=Cosnette |first=Dave |website=Ufos-aliens.co.uk |publisher=Dave Cosnette |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> This matches with the sunlit part of Armstrong's [[Space suit|spacesuit]].<ref name="bootspot">{{cite web|url=http://www.clavius.org/bootspot.html |title=Clavius: Photo Analysis – buzz's hot spot |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=June 25, 2009}}</ref>
* [[Clyde Lewis]] – radio talk show host who says the 1969 moon landing was fake.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aboutfacemag.com/interviews/media/clyde-lewis-ground-zero-radio/ |title=Clyde Lewis: Ground Zero Radio |first=Jeff |last=Miller |work=Portland Interview Magazine |date=October 1, 2012 |access-date=May 4, 2017}}</ref><ref name="clydelewis">{{cite web|url=http://archives.groundzeromedia.org/dis/gorsky/gorsky.html |title=Good Luck, Mr. Gorsky! |last=Lewis |first=Clyde |authorlink=Clyde Lewis |publisher=Groundzeromedia.org |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>
* [[Philippe Lheureux]] – [[French people|French]] author of ''Lumières sur la Lune''.<ref>[[#Lheureux|Lheureux 2000]]</ref> An English language edition was published in 2003, ''Moon Landings: Did NASA Lie?'' He said that astronauts did land on the Moon, but to stop other states from benefiting from scientific information in the real photos, NASA published fake images.<ref>{{cite news |title=Moon shots 'faked' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/1399132.stm |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |location=London |date=June 21, 2001}}</ref>
* [[Yury Ignatyevich Mukhin]] – Russian opposition politician, publicist and author of the book ''Antiapollon: Moonlight scam US''<ref>[[#Mukhin|Mukhin 2005]]</ref> in which he denies all Moon landing evidence and accuses the United States government of plundering the money paid by the American taxpayers for the Moon program. He also claims the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] and some Soviet scientists helped NASA fake the landings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ymuhin.ru/node/35 |script-title=ru:'АнтиАполлон'. Лунная афера США |first=Yury Ignatyevich |last=Mukhin |authorlink=Yury Ignatyevich Mukhin |publisher=ymuhin.ru |language=Russian |trans_title=Anti-Apollo: Lunar Scam of the USA |accessdate=April 28, 2013}} Promotional webpage from Mukhin's personal website.{{Unreliable source?|date=September 2009}}</ref>
* David S. Percy – TV producer, expert in audiovisual technologies, and member of the [[Royal Photographic Society]]. He is co-author, along with Mary Bennett, of ''Dark Moon: Apollo and the Whistle-Blowers''<ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Bennett & Percy|Bennett & Percy 2001]]</ref> and co-producer of ''What Happened On the Moon?'' He is the main proponent of the '[[Whistleblower|whistle-blower]]' accusation, arguing that mistakes in the NASA photos are so obvious that they are evidence that insiders are trying to 'blow the whistle' on the hoax by knowingly adding mistakes that they know will be seen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/bibcast.html |title=Clavius: Bibliography – dramatis personae |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>
* Stanislav Pokrovsky – Russian and General Director of a scientific-manufacturing enterprise ''Project-D-MSK'' who calculated that the real speed of the Saturn V rocket at [[S-IC]] staging time was only half of what was declared.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pokrovsky |first=Stanislav G. |year=2007 |title=Investigation into the Saturn V velocity and its ability to place the stated payload into lunar orbit |journal=Актуальные проблемы современной науки |issue=5 |pages=152–66 |location=Moscow |format=PDF |issn=1680-2721 |accessdate=May 1, 2013 |url=http://aulis.com/pdf%20folder/Pokrovsky1.pdf}} English translation by BigPhil 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://aulis.com/pdf%20folder/Pokrovsky2.pdf |title=Improved estimates of the Saturn V velocity and its ability to place the stated payload into lunar orbit |last=Pokrovsky |first=Stanislav G. |format=PDF |accessdate=May 1, 2013}} English translation by BigPhil 2011.</ref> His analysis appears to assume that the solid rocket plumes from the fuselage and [[retrorocket]]s on the two stages came to an instant halt in the surrounding air so they can be used to estimate the velocity of the rocket. He ignored [[high-altitude]] winds and the altitude at staging, 67 km, where air is about 1/10,000 as dense as at [[sea level]], and claimed that only a loop around the Moon was possible, not a manned landing on the Moon with return to Earth. He also allegedly found the reason for this – problems with the [[Inconel]] [[superalloy]] used in the F-1 engine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://supernovum.ru/public/index.php?chapter=20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725132428/http://supernovum.ru:80/public/index.php?chapter=20 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=July 25, 2009 |title=Investigations: Moon |website=Supernovum.ru |language=Russian |accessdate=May 1, 2013}} Site archives three papers by Stanislav G. Pokrovsky.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://professionali.ru/~170677/ |title=Станислав Покровский – Профессионалы.ru |publisher=Профессионалы.ru |language=Russian |trans_title=Stanislav Pokrovsky – professionali.ru |accessdate=May 1, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://vif2ne.ru/nvz/forum/archive/229/229340.htm |title=Уточненная реконструкция |last=Pokrovsky |first=Stanislav |date=April 27, 2008 |publisher=Форум С.Кара-Мурзы |trans_title=A more exact reconstruction |type=Forum |accessdate=May 1, 2013}} S. Kara-Murza forum message to Дмитрий Кропотов.</ref>
* Alexander Ivanovich Popov – Russian author of the book ''The Americans on the Moon: the great breakthrough or cosmic scam??''<ref>[[#Popov|Popov 2009]]</ref> in which he aims to prove that Saturn V was in fact a camouflaged [[Saturn IB]]<ref>{{cite book |url=http://fictionbook.ru/author/popov_aleksandr_ivanovich/chelovek_na_lune_kakie_dokazatelstva/read_online.html?page=21 |script-title=ru:Человек на Луне? Какие доказательства? |last=Popov |first=Alexander Ivanovich |series=Part 2 |language=Russian |trans_title=Man on the Moon? What's the Evidence? |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217185334/http://fictionbook.ru/author/popov_aleksandr_ivanovich/chelovek_na_lune_kakie_dokazatelstva/read_online.html?page=21 |archivedate=February 17, 2009}}</ref> and denies all Moon landing evidence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manonmoon.ru/ |script-title=ru:Человек на Луне? Какие доказательства? |last=Popov |first=Alexander Ivanovich |language=Russian |trans_title=Man on the Moon? What's the Evidence? |type=Abstract |accessdate=April 28, 2013}} "Man on the Moon? What's the Evidence?" is the title of a preliminary paper. Selected chapters of Popov's book, ''Americans on the Moon'', are also provided.</ref>
* [[Aron Ranen]] – a [[Filmmaking|filmmaker]], directed and produced the documentary ''Did We Go?''<ref name="didwego">{{cite AV media |author1=Ranen, Aron (Director, Writer, Producer) |author2=Britton, Benjamin (Writer, Executive Producer) |origyear=First published 1999 by the [[University of Cincinnati]] as part of ''Moon: A Mutual Reality Art Experience'' |year=2005 |title=Did We Go? |medium=VHS tape |url=http://moonhoax.com/site/index.htm |accessdate=May 4, 2013 |publisher=Third Wave Media |location=Santa Monica, CA |oclc=56316947}} Abstract: "This video looks at whether man actually walked on the moon in 1969 or if it was an elaborate hoax."</ref><ref name="moonproject">{{cite AV media |author1=Britton, Benjamin (Executive Producer) |author2=Britton, Lisa (Associate Producer) |author3=Ranen, Aron (Video Documentary) |author4=Troy Gerth (Lunar South Pole Virtual Museum) |author5=Derrick Woodham (Lunar South Pole Virtual Museum) |author6=Ken Rhee (Virtual Reality Moon Landing) |author7=Bill Mauritzen (Virtual Reality Moon Landing) |author8=Chih-min Chen (Virtual Reality Moon Landing) |year=1999 |title=Moon: A Mutual Reality Art Experience |medium=DVD video |publisher=University of Cincinnati |location=Cincinnati, OH |oclc=43837978 |display-authors=3}} Abstract: "The Moon Project is a full-screen, Mutual Reality Internet DVD made on the event of the 30th anniversary of humankind's first moon landing. It is to bring viewers into personal contact with humanity's cultural tradition through participation in the exploration of the moon. As an historical source document and as an artistic interpretation of cultural context, the Moon project is made to connect viewers in our collective global culture."</ref>
* [[Ralph René]] (1933–2008) – was an inventor and 'self-taught' engineering buff. Author of the self-published book ''NASA Mooned America!''<ref>[[#René|René 1994]]</ref>
* [[Bart Sibrel]] – a filmmaker, produced and directed four films for his company, AFTH, LLC,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://moonmovie.com/ |title=Moon Hoax – MOONMOVIE.COM – Seeking Full Disclosure of NASA's Fraudulent Manned Moon Landings |work=Moonmovie.com |publisher=AFTH, LLC |location=Nashville, TN |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101102061011/http://moonmovie.com/ |archivedate=November 2, 2010 |accessdate=November 13, 2010}}</ref> including a 2001 film, ''[[A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon]]'',<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Sibrel, Bart Winfield (Writer, Producer, Director) |year=2001 |title=A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon |medium=DVD |publisher=AFTH, LLC |location=Fairway, TN |oclc=426135438}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moonmovie.com/afthft.htm |title=Moon Hoax – A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon DVD – Front Cover & Bart Sibrel |work=Moonmovie.com |publisher=AFTH, LLC |location=Nashville, TN |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228201557/http://www.moonmovie.com/afthft.htm |archivedate=February 28, 2008 |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> examining the evidence of a hoax. The arguments that Sibrel puts forward in this film have been [[Debunker|debunked]] by many sources, including Svector Studios' five-part video series ''Lunar Legacy'',<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Svector (Writer, Producer, Director) |year=2007 |title=Lunar Legacy |medium=Digital video |url=https://www.youtube.com/user/venompangx/videos?query=lunar+legacy |accessdate=May 9, 2013 |format=Flash Video |publisher=Low Gravity Films}}</ref> which disproves the documentary's main argument that the Apollo crew faked their distance from the Earth while in [[low Earth orbit]]. Sibrel has said that the effect on the shot covered in his film was made through the use of a transparency of the Earth. Some parts of the original footage, according to Sibrel, were not able to be included on the official releases for the media. On such allegedly censored parts, the correlation between Earth and [[lunar phase|Moon phases]] can be clearly confirmed, refuting Sibrel's claim that these shots were faked. On September 9, 2002, Sibrel was punched in the face by [[Buzz Aldrin]] after Sibrel confronted Aldrin with his theories<ref>{{YouTube|id=1wcrkxOgzhU|title="Buzz Aldrin Punch"}}</ref> and accused the former astronaut of being "a coward, and a liar, and a thief." The [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]] district attorney's office refused to file charges against Aldrin, saying that he had been provoked by Sibrel.<ref>{{cite news |author=Bancroft, Colette |date=September 29, 2002 |url=http://www.sptimes.com/2002/09/29/Floridian/Lunar_lunacy.shtml|title=Lunar Lunacy |publisher=[[Tampa Bay Times|St. Petersburg Times]] |accessdate=February 13, 2007}}</ref>
* {{Interlanguage link multi|Takahiko Soejima|ja|3=副島隆彦}} – [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[Political science|political scientist]], author of ''人類の月面着陸は無かったろう論''.<ref>[[#Soejima|Soejima 2004]]</ref>
* Jay Weidner – author and interviewee about the Moon conspiracy theory in the documentary film [[Room 237]] (2012). In this film he repeatedly states that he does not necessarily doubt that America landed men on the Moon even though he thinks there was a conspiracy with Stanley Kubrick to fake the lunar landing footage.
* [[Jack D. White]] (1927–2012) – was an American photo [[historian]] known for his attempt to prove forgery in photos and the [[Zapruder film]] related to the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]].<ref name="nomoregames">{{cite interview |last=White |first=Jack D. |interviewer=[[Morgan Reynolds|Morgan O. Reynolds]] |title=An Interview with Photo Analyst Jack White On JFK, Apollo and 9/11 |url=http://nomoregames.net/2010/04/13/an-interview-with-photo-analyst-jack-white-on-jfk-apollo-and-911/ |website=NoMoreGames.net |date=April 13, 2010 |accessdate=May 23, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Bugliosi">{{cite book |last=Bugliosi |first=Vincent |authorlink=Vincent Bugliosi |title=Reclaiming History: The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy |year=2007 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |pages=504–12 |isbn=978-0-393-04525-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Fetzer |editor-first=James H. |title=Assassination Science: Experts Speak Out on the Death of JFK |year=1998 |publisher=Catfeet Press |location=Chicago |pages=213–14 |isbn=0-8126-9366-3}}</ref><ref name="whitebib">{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/jackwhite.html |title=Clavius: Bibliography – jack white |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=May 23, 2013}}</ref>
* {{Interlanguage link multi|Gerhard Wisnewski|de}} – [[Germans|German]] journalist and filmmaker, author of ''One Small Step?: The Great Moon Hoax and the Race to Dominate Earth from Space''.<ref>[[#Wisnewski|Wisnewski 2007]]</ref>

== Claimed motives of the United States and NASA ==
Those who believe the Moon landings were faked give several theories about the motives of NASA and the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]]. The three main theories are below.

=== The Space Race ===
Motivation for the United States to engage the [[Soviet Union]] in a [[Space Race]] can be traced to the then on-going [[Cold War]]. Landing on the Moon was viewed as a national and technological accomplishment that would generate world-wide acclaim. But going to the Moon would be risky and expensive, as exemplified by [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy#Space program|John F. Kennedy]] famously stating in [[We choose to go to the Moon|a 1962 speech]] that the [[United States]] chose to go ''because'' it was hard.<ref>[[#Chaikin|Chaikin 2007]], p. 2, "We choose to go to the Moon! We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things – not because they are easy, but because they are ''hard.''" – Kennedy speaking at [[Rice University]], September 12, 1962.</ref>

Hoax theory-debunker [[Philip Plait]] says in his book ''[[Bad Astronomy]]'', that the Soviets – with [[Soviet manned lunar programs|their own competing Moon program]], an [[nuclear espionage|extensive intelligence network]] and a formidable scientific community able to analyze NASA data – would have cried foul if the United States tried to fake a Moon landing,<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], p. 173</ref> especially since their own program had failed. Proving a hoax would have been a huge propaganda win for the Soviets. Conspiracist [[Bart Sibrel]] responded, "the Soviets did not have the capability to track deep spacecraft until late in 1972, immediately after which, the last three Apollo missions were abruptly canceled."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moonmovie.com/faq.htm |title=Moon Hoax MOONMOVIE.COM Frequently Asked Questions |work=Moonmovie.com |publisher=AFTH, LLC |location=Nashville, TN |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080212134517/http://www.moonmovie.com/faq.htm |archivedate=February 12, 2008 |accessdate=August 26, 2009}}</ref>

In fact, the Soviets had been sending [[unmanned spacecraft]] to the Moon since 1959,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/SpaceRace/sec300/sec361.htm |title=Soviet Lunar Programs |website=Space Race |publisher=[[National Air and Space Museum]] |location=Washington, D.C. |type=Online version of exhibition on view in Gallery 114 |accessdate=November 13, 2010}}</ref> and "during 1962, deep space tracking facilities were introduced at IP-15 in [[Ussuriysk|Ussuriisk]] and IP-16 in [[Yevpatoria|Evpatoria]] (Crimean Peninsula), while Saturn communication stations were added to IP-3, 4 and 14,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/kik.html |title=Russia's space command and control infrastructure |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |website=RussianSpaceWeb.com |publisher=Anatoly Zak |accessdate=November 13, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708063431/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/kik.html |archivedate=July 8, 2010 |df=mdy }}</ref> the latter having a 100 million km range.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/sovstems.htm |title=Soviet Space Tracking Systems |work=[[Encyclopedia Astronautica]] |publisher=Mark Wade |accessdate=November 13, 2010}}</ref> The Soviet Union tracked the Apollo missions at the Space Transmissions Corps, which was "fully equipped with the latest intelligence-gathering and surveillance equipment."<ref>[[#Scheaffer|Scheaffer 2004]], p. 247</ref> [[Vasily Mishin]], in an interview for the article "The Moon Programme That Faltered," describes how the Soviet Moon program dwindled after the Apollo landings.<ref>{{cite journal |date=March 1991 |title=The Moon Programme That Faltered |journal=[[Spaceflight (magazine)|Spaceflight]] |volume=33 |pages=2–3 |location=London |publisher=[[British Interplanetary Society]]}}</ref>

Also, there was nothing "abrupt" about the [[Canceled Apollo missions|Apollo cancelations]], which were announced in January and September 1970 for cost-cutting reasons.<ref name="Cancelled Apollos">"[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_18_20.html Apollo 18 through 20 – The Canceled Missions]", Dr. David R. Williams, NASA, accessed July 19, 2006.</ref> (See '''Vietnam War''' below.)

=== NASA funding and prestige ===
It is claimed{{by whom|date=February 2014}} that NASA faked the landings to forgo humiliation and to ensure that it continued to get funding. NASA raised "about US$30 billion" to go to the Moon, and [[Bill Kaysing|Kaysing]] claimed in his book that this could have been used to "pay off" many people.<ref>[[#Kaysing|Kaysing 2002]], p. 71</ref> Since most conspiracists believe that sending men to the Moon was impossible at the time,<ref>[[#Attivissimo|Attivissimo 2013]], p. 163</ref> they argue that landings had to be faked to fulfill Kennedy's 1961 goal, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."<ref name="Special Message">{{cite AV media |people=Kennedy, John F. |date=May 25, 1961 |title=Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs |medium=Motion picture (excerpt) |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/xzw1gaeeTES6khED14P1Iw.aspx |accessdate=August 1, 2013 |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |location=Boston, MA |id=Accession Number: TNC:200; Digital Identifier: TNC-200-2}}</ref> In fact, NASA accounted for the cost of Apollo to the US Congress in 1973, totaling US$25.4 billion.<ref>{{cite book |author=Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics |title=1974 NASA Authorization Hearings |type=Hearing on H.R. 4567 |year=1973 |publisher=[[93rd United States Congress|93rd Congress]], first session |location=Washington, D.C. |oclc=23229007 |ref=93rd Congress}}</ref>

Mary Bennett and David Percy have claimed in ''Dark Moon: Apollo and the Whistle-Blowers'', that, with all the known and unknown hazards,<ref>[[#Bennett & Percy|Bennett & Percy 2001]], p. 77</ref> NASA would not risk broadcasting an astronaut getting sick or dying on live television.<ref>[[#Bennett & Percy|Bennett & Percy 2001]], pp. 330–31</ref> The counter-argument generally given is that NASA in fact ''did'' incur a great deal of public humiliation and potential political opposition to the program by losing an entire crew in the [[Apollo 1]] fire during a ground test, leading to its upper management team being questioned by Senate and House of Representatives space oversight committees.<ref>{{Citation | last = Anderson | first = Clinton P. | author-link = Clinton Presba Anderson
| title = Apollo 204 Accident: Report of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, United States Senate, with Additional Views | volume = Senate Report 956
| place = Washington, D.C. | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office
| date = January 30, 1968
| url = http://klabs.org/richcontent/Reports/Failure_Reports/as-204/senate_956/index.htm
|ref=Anderson}}</ref> There was in fact no video broadcast during either the landing or takeoff because of technological limitations.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Steven-Boniecki
| first = Dwight
| title = Live TV From the Moon
| year = 2010
| publisher = Apogee Books
| location = Burlington, Ontario
| isbn = 978-1-926592-16-9
| url = http://www.livetvfromthemoon.com/
}}</ref>

=== Vietnam War ===
The American Patriot Friends Network claimed in 2009 that the landings helped the United States government distract public attention from the unpopular [[Role of the United States in the Vietnam War#Americanization|Vietnam War]], and so manned landings suddenly ended about the same time that the United States ended its involvement in the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apfn.org/apfn/moon.htm |title=Was The Apollo Moon Landing Fake? |date=July 21, 2009 |website=American Patriot Friends Network (APFN) |publisher=APFN.org |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> In fact, the ending of the landings was not "sudden" (see '''The Space Race''' above). The war was one of several federal budget items with which NASA had to compete; NASA's budget peaked in 1966, and fell by 42.3% by 1972.<ref>U.S. Office of Management and Budget</ref> This was the reason the final flights were cut, along with plans for even more ambitious follow-on programs such as a permanent [[space station]] and manned flight to Mars.<ref>Hepplewhite, T.A. [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/sp4221.htm ''The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle''], chapter 4. Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1999.</ref>

== Hoax claims and rebuttals==
Many Moon-landing conspiracy theories have been put forward: claiming either that the landings did not happen and that NASA employees have lied, or that the landings did happen but not in the way that has been told. Conspiracists have focused on perceived gaps or inconsistencies in the historical record of the missions. The foremost idea is that the whole manned landing program was a hoax from start to end. Some claim that the technology to send men to the Moon was lacking or that the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s, [[solar flare]]s, [[solar wind]], [[coronal mass ejection]]s and [[cosmic ray]]s made such a trip impossible.<ref name=k-pg7>[[#Kaysing|Kaysing 2002]], p. 7–8</ref>

Vince Calder and Andrew Johnson, scientists from [[Argonne National Laboratory]], gave detailed answers to the conspiracists' claims on the laboratory's website.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/gen01/gen01278.htm |last1=Calder |first1=Vince |last2=Johnson |first2=Andrew, P.E.|last3=ProfHoff 503 |title=Ask A Scientist|date=October 12, 2002|work=Newton |publisher=[[Argonne National Laboratory]] |accessdate=August 14, 2009 |display-authors=2}}</ref> They show that NASA's portrayal of the Moon landing is fundamentally accurate, allowing for such common mistakes as mislabeled photos and imperfect personal recollections. Using the [[scientific process]], any hypothesis that is contradicted by the observable facts may be rejected. The 'real landing' hypothesis is a single story since it comes from a single source, but there is no unity in the hoax hypothesis because hoax accounts vary between conspiracists.<ref>[[#Ramsay|Ramsay 2006]] (page needed)</ref>

=== Number of conspirators involved ===
According to James Longuski (Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics Engineering at [[Purdue University]]), the conspiracy theories are impossible because of their size and complexity. The conspiracy would have to involve more than 400,000 people who worked on the Apollo project for nearly ten years, the 12 men who walked on the Moon, the six others who flew with them as [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command Module]] pilots, and another six astronauts who orbited the Moon.<ref group=Note>This number includes the crews of Apollos 8, [[Apollo 10|10]], and [[Apollo 13|13]], though the latter technically only performed a fly-by. These three missions account for only six additional astronauts because James Lovell orbited the Moon twice (Apollos 8 and 13) and John Young and Gene Cernan orbited on Apollo 10 both later landed on the Moon.</ref> Hundreds of thousands of people – including astronauts, scientists, engineers, technicians, and skilled laborers – would have had to keep the secret. Longuski argues that it would have been much easier to really land on the Moon than to generate such a huge conspiracy to fake the landings.<ref>[[#Longuski|Longuski 2006]], p. 102</ref><ref>[[#Aaronovitch|Aaronovitch 2010]], pp. 1–2, 6</ref> To date, nobody from the United States government or NASA who would have had a link to the Apollo program has said the Moon landings were hoaxes. [[Penn Jillette]] made note of this in the "Conspiracy Theories" episode of his contrarian television show ''[[Penn & Teller: Bullshit!]]'' in 2005.<ref name="bullshit">{{cite episode |title=Conspiracy Theories |series=[[Penn & Teller: Bullshit!]] |network=[[Showtime (TV channel)|Showtime]] |airdate=May 9, 2005 |season=3 |number=3}}</ref> With the number of people involved, and noting the [[Watergate scandal]], Jillette noted that ''someone'' would have outed the hoax by now.

=== Photograph and film oddities ===
{{Main article|Examination of Apollo Moon photographs}}

Moon-landing conspiracists focus heavily on NASA photos. They point to oddities in photos and films taken on the Moon. Photography experts (including those unrelated to NASA) answer that the oddities are what one would expect from a real Moon landing, and not what would happen with tweaked or studio imagery. Some of the main arguments and counter-arguments are listed below.

1. In some photos, [[Reticle|crosshairs]] seem to be behind objects. The cameras were fitted with a [[Réseau plate]] (a clear glass plate with crosshairs etched on), making it impossible for any photographed object to appear "in front" of the grid. This suggests that objects have been "pasted" over them.

:* ''This only appears in copied and scanned photos, not the originals. It is caused by overexposure: the bright white areas of the emulsion "bleed" over the thin black crosshairs. The crosshairs are only about 0.004 inches thick (0.1 mm) and emulsion would only have to bleed about half that much to fully obscure it. Furthermore, there are many photos where the middle of the crosshair is "washed-out" but the rest is intact. In some photos of the American flag, parts of one crosshair appear on the red stripes, but parts of the same crosshair are faded or invisible on the white stripes. There would have been no reason to "paste" white stripes onto the flag.<ref name="clavius-crosshairs">{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/photoret.html |title=Clavius: Photography – Crosshairs |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=April 20, 2013}}</ref>

<center>
{{Gallery
|title=
|width=200
|lines=4
|File:Apollo 11 1998 scan cropped.jpg|Enlargement of a poor-quality 1998 scan – both the crosshair and part of the red stripe have "bled out"
|File:Apollo 11 2004 scan cropped.jpg|Enlargement of a higher-quality 2004 scan – crosshair and red stripe visible
|File:Scott Gives Salute - GPN-2000-001114.jpg|[[David Scott]] salutes the American flag during the [[Apollo 15]] mission. The arms of the crosshair are washed-out on the white stripes of the flag (Photo ID: AS15-88-11863)
|File:Apollo 15 flag crop.jpg|Close-up of the flag, showing washed-out crosshairs
}}
</center>

2. Crosshairs are sometimes rotated or in the wrong place.

:* ''This is a result of popular photos being cropped and/or rotated for aesthetic impact.''<ref name="clavius-crosshairs" />

3. The quality of the photographs is implausibly high.

:* ''There are many poor-quality photos taken by the Apollo astronauts. NASA chose to publish only the best examples.''<ref name="clavius-crosshairs" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/photoqual.html | title=Clavius: Photography – image quality |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=September 5, 2009}}</ref>
:* ''The Apollo astronauts used high-resolution [[Hasselblad]] 500 EL cameras with [[Carl Zeiss AG|Carl Zeiss optics]] and a 70 mm [[Medium format (film)|medium format]] film magazine.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_11/photography/ |title=Apollo 11 Mission Photography |publisher=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |accessdate=July 23, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hasselblad.com/about-hasselblad/hasselblad-in-space/space-cameras.aspx |title=Space Cameras |website=Hasselblad in Space |publisher=Victor Hasselblad AB |accessdate=May 6, 2013}}</ref>

4. There are no [[star]]s in any of the photos; the [[Apollo 11]] astronauts also claimed in a post-mission press conference to not remember seeing any stars.

:* ''The astronauts were talking about naked-eye sightings of stars during the lunar daytime. They regularly sighted stars through the spacecraft navigation optics while aligning their inertial reference platforms, the [[Apollo PGNCS]].''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-AOTNavStarsDetents.html |title=Navigation Stars used in the AOT |last1=Jones |first1=Eric M. |date=January 21, 2012 |website=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 28, 2014}}</ref>

:* ''All manned landings happened during the lunar daytime. Thus, the stars were outshone by the sun and by sunlight reflected off the Moon's surface. The astronauts' eyes were adapted to the sunlit landscape around them so that they could not see the relatively faint stars. Likewise, cameras were set for daylight exposure and could not detect the stars.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/blogs/earthmatters/2011/09/28/where-are-the-stars/?src=twitter-em |title=Where are the stars? |last=Carlowicz |first=Mike |date=September 28, 2011 |work=[[NASA Earth Observatory]] |publisher=NASA |type=Blog |accessdate=April 20, 2013}}</ref><ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], pp. 158–60</ref> Camera settings can turn a well-lit background to black when the foreground object is brightly lit, forcing the camera to increase shutter speed so that the foreground light does not wash out the image. A demonstration of this effect is here.<ref>[[:File:Lamp-and-moon-example-2.JPG]]</ref> The effect is similar to not being able to see stars from a brightly lit car park at night – the stars only become visible when the lights are turned off. The astronauts could see stars with the naked eye only when they were in the shadow of the Moon.''<ref>[[#Woods|Woods 2008]], pp. 206–07</ref><ref>[[#Harrison|Harrison 2012]], pp. 95–96</ref>

:* ''A special far [[ultraviolet]] camera, the [[Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph]], was taken to the lunar surface on [[Apollo 16]] and operated in the shadow of the [[Apollo Lunar Module]] (LM). It took photos of Earth and of many stars, some of which are dim in visible light but bright in the ultraviolet. These observations were later matched with observations taken by orbiting ultraviolet telescopes. Furthermore, the positions of those stars with respect to Earth are correct for the time and location of the Apollo 16 photos.''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Keel |first=William C. |date=July 2007 |title=The Earth and Stars in the Lunar Sky |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=47–50 |location=Amherst, NY |publisher=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astr.ua.edu/keel/space/Apollo16EarthID.gif |title=Apollo16EarthID.gif |last=Keel |first=William C. |website=UA Astronomy Home Page |format=[[Graphics Interchange Format|GIF]] |accessdate=May 8, 2013}} Base image: AS16-123-19657; Earth image start: 1233 CDT 21 April 1972; Field shown: 18.9 degrees.</ref>

:* ''Photos of the solar corona that included the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and some [[background stars]] were taken from lunar orbit by Apollo 15 Command Module Pilot [[Al Worden]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/luceneweb/caption_direct.jsp?photoId=AS15-98-13311 |title=Solar corona photographed from Apollo 15 one minute prior to sunrise |date=July 31, 1971 |work=JSC Digital Image Collection |publisher=[[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]] |id=Photo ID: AS15-98-13311 |accessdate=April 26, 2013}}</ref>

:* ''Photos of the planet [[Venus]] (which is much brighter than any of the stars) were taken from the Moon's surface by astronaut [[Alan Shepard]] during the Apollo 14 mission.''<ref name="venusovera14">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a14/a14Venus.html |title=Venus over the Apollo 14 LM |last1=Lunsford |first1=Danny Ross |last2=Jones |first2=Eric M. |year=2007 |work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |accessdate=May 8, 2013}}</ref>

<center>
{{Gallery
|title=
|width=200
|lines=5
|File:213177main s122e010982 hires.jpg|Short-exposure photo of the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) taken from [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'']] in February 2008 – one of many photos taken in space where no stars are visible
|File:Earth & Mir (STS-71).jpg|Earth and ''[[Mir]]'' in June 1995 – an example of how sunlight can outshine the stars, making them invisible
|File:Apollo 16 UV photo of Earth rotated.jpg|[[Long-exposure photography|Long-exposure]] photo taken from the Moon's surface by [[Apollo 16]] astronauts using the [[Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph]]. It shows the Earth with the correct background of stars
|File:Space Shuttle Atlantis in the sky on July 21, 2011, to its final landing.jpg|Long-exposure photo (1.6 seconds at {{f/}}2.8, [[Film speed#ISO|ISO]] 10000) from the ISS in July 2011 of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' re-entry in which some stars are visible.
In this image, the Earth is lit by moonlight, not sunlight
}}
</center>

5. The angle and color of shadows are inconsistent. This suggests that artificial lights were used.

:* ''Shadows on the Moon are complicated by reflected light, uneven ground, [[wide-angle lens]] distortion, and [[lunar dust]]. There are several light sources: the Sun, sunlight reflected from the Earth, sunlight reflected from the Moon's surface, and sunlight reflected from the astronauts and the Lunar Module. Light from these sources is scattered by lunar dust in many directions, including into shadows. Shadows falling into craters and hills may appear longer, shorter and distorted.<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], pp. 167–72</ref> Furthermore, shadows display the properties of [[vanishing point]] perspective, leading them to converge to a point on the horizon.''
:* This theory was debunked on the ''[[MythBusters]]'' episode "[[MythBusters (2008 season)#Episode 104 – "NASA Moon Landing"|NASA Moon Landing]]".

6. There are identical backgrounds in photos which, according to their captions, were taken miles apart. This suggests that a painted background was used.

:* ''Backgrounds were not identical, just similar. What appears as nearby hills in some photos are actually mountains many miles away. On Earth, objects that are further away will appear fainter and less detailed. On the Moon, there is no [[atmosphere]] or [[haze]] to obscure faraway objects, thus they appear clearer and nearer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iangoddard.com/moon01.htm |title=Goddard's Journal: Are Apollo Moon Photos Fake? |last=Goddard |first=Ian Williams |date=February 26, 2001 |website=Iangoddard.com |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> Furthermore, there are very few objects (such as trees) to help judge distance. One case is debunked in "Who Mourns For Apollo?" by Mike Bara.<ref name="whomourns">{{cite web|url=http://www.studyphysics.ca/apollo2.pdf |title=Who Mourns For Apollo? Part II |last1=Bara |first1=Michael |last2=Troy |first2=Steve |website=Mr. Clintberg's Studyphysics! |publisher=LunarAnomalies.com |format=PDF |accessdate=November 13, 2010 }} Part I with Steve Troy and Richard C. Hoagland is available [http://www.studyphysics.ca/apollo1.pdf here] (PDF). Part III by Steve Troy has been archived from the original by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20090610025602/http://www.lunaranomalies.com/rad.htm Wayback Machine] on June 10, 2009.</ref>

7. The number of photos taken is implausibly high. Up to one photo per 50 seconds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aulis.com/skeleton.htm |title=The skeleton in NASA's spacesuit |last=White |first=Jack |year=2005 |website=AULIS Online |publisher=AULIS Publishing |location=London |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>

:* ''Simplified gear with fixed settings allowed two photos a second. Many were taken immediately after each other as stereo pairs or panorama sequences. The calculation (one per 50 seconds) was based on a lone astronaut on the surface, and does not take into account that there were two astronauts sharing the workload during an [[Extra-vehicular activity]] (EVA).''

8. The photos contain artifacts like the two seemingly matching 'C's on a rock and on the ground. These may be labeled studio props.

:* ''The "C"-shaped objects are most likely printing imperfections and do not appear in the original film from the camera. It has been suggested that the "C" is a coiled hair.<ref name="whomourns" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/rover1.html |title=Clavius: Photo Analysis – lunar rover |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=September 5, 2009}}</ref>

<center>
{{Gallery
|title=
|width=200
|lines=2
|File:Apollo 16 rocks.jpg|Original AS16-107-17445 photograph
|File:Duke on the Descartes - GPN-2000-001123.jpg|Original AS16-107-17446 photograph
|Image:Apollo16CRock.jpg|Close-up of later generation prints of AS16-107-17446
}}
</center>

9. A resident of [[Perth|Perth, Western Australia]], a woman named Una Ronald (a pseudonym created by the authors of the source<ref>[[#Bennett & Percy|Bennett & Percy 2001]], p. 321</ref>), said that for two or three seconds she saw a [[Coca-Cola]] bottle roll across the lower right quadrant of her television screen that was displaying the live broadcast of the Apollo 11 EVA. She also said that several letters appeared in ''[[The West Australian]]'' discussing the Coca-Cola bottle incident within ten days of the lunar landing.<ref>[[#Bennett & Percy|Bennett & Percy 2001]], pp. 319–20</ref>

:* ''No such newspaper reports or recordings have been found.<ref name="cokebottle">{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/bibcoke.html |title=Clavius: Bibliography – una ronald and the coke bottle |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=May 23, 2013}}</ref> Ronald's claims have only been relayed by one source.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> There are also flaws in the story, e.g. the statement that she had to stay up late to watch the Moon landing live is easily discounted by many witnesses in Australia who watched the landing in the middle of their daytime.<ref>[[#Bennett & Percy|Bennett & Percy 2001]], p. 319</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webwombat.com.au/careers_ed/education/fly-to-moon.htm |title=Fly Me to the Moon |last=Anthony |first=James |work=Web Wombat |publisher=Web Wombat Pty Ltd |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>''

10. The book ''[[Moon Shot]]''<ref>[[#Shepard & Slayton|Shepard & Slayton 1994]] (page needed)</ref> contains an obvious composite photo of Alan Shepard hitting a golf ball on the Moon with another astronaut.

:* '' It was used instead of the only existing real images, from the TV monitor, which the editors seemingly felt were too grainy for their book. The book publishers did not work for NASA.''

11. There appear to be "hot spots" in some photos that look like a huge spotlight was used.

:* '' Pits on the Moon's surface focus and reflect light like the tiny glass spheres used in the coating of street signs, or dewdrops on wet grass. This creates a glow around the photographer's own shadow when it appears in a photograph (see [[Heiligenschein]]).''
:* ''If the astronaut is standing in sunlight while photographing into shade, light reflected off his white spacesuit yields a similar effect to a spotlight.<ref name="bootspot" />''
:* ''Some widely published Apollo photos were high-contrast copies. Scans of the original transparencies are generally much more evenly lit. An example is shown below:''

<center>
{{Gallery
|title=
|width=200
|lines=4
|File:Aldrin Apollo 11 original.jpg|Original photo of Buzz Aldrin during [[Apollo 11]]
|File:Aldrin Apollo 11.jpg|The more famous edited version. The contrast has been tweaked (yielding the "spotlight effect") and a black band has been pasted at the top
}}
</center>

12. Who filmed Neil Armstrong stepping onto the Moon?

:* ''The Lunar Module did. While still on the steps, Armstrong deployed the Modularized Equipment Stowage Assembly from the side of the Lunar Module. This housed, amongst other things, the TV camera. This meant that upward of 600 million people on Earth could watch the live feed.''

=== Environment ===
1. The astronauts could not have survived the trip because of exposure to radiation from the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] and galactic ambient radiation (see [[Acute radiation syndrome|radiation poisoning]] and [[health threat from cosmic rays]]). Some conspiracists have suggested that [[Starfish Prime]] (a [[High-altitude nuclear explosion|high-altitude nuclear test]] in 1962) was a failed attempt to disrupt the Van Allen belts.

:* ''There are two main Van Allen belts – the inner belt and the outer belt – and a transient third belt.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2013/28feb_thirdbelt/ |title=Van Allen Probes Discover a New Radiation Belt |work=Science@NASA |publisher=NASA |date=February 28, 2013 |editor-last=Phillips |editor-first=Tony |accessdate=May 8, 2013}}</ref> The inner belt is the more dangerous one, containing energetic protons. The outer one has less-dangerous low-energy electrons ([[Beta particle]]s).<ref name="vanallenbelts">{{cite web |url=http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/tour/AAvan.html |title=The Van Allen Belts |website=IMAGE Science Center |publisher=NASA |accessdate=May 6, 2013}}</ref><ref name="woods109">[[#Woods|Woods 2008]], p. 109</ref> The Apollo spacecraft passed through the inner belt in a matter of minutes and the outer belt in about {{frac|1|1|2}} hours.<ref name="woods109" /> The astronauts were shielded from the ionizing radiation by the aluminum hulls of the spacecraft.<ref name="woods109" /><ref name="plait162">[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], p. 162</ref> Furthermore, the orbital transfer trajectory from Earth to the Moon through the belts was chosen to lessen radiation exposure.<ref name="plait162" /> Even Dr. [[James Van Allen]], the discoverer of the Van Allen radiation belts, rebutted the claims that radiation levels were too harmful for the Apollo missions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clavius.org/envrad.html |title=Clavius: Environment – radiation and the van allen belts |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=September 8, 2009}}</ref> Plait cited an average dose of less than 1 [[Röntgen equivalent man|rem]] (10 [[Sievert|mSv]]), which is equivalent to the ambient radiation received by living at sea level for three years.<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], pp. 160–62</ref> The total radiation received on the trip was about the same as allowed for workers in the nuclear energy field for a year''<ref name="woods109" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/s2ch3.htm |title=Radiation Protection and Instrumentation |last=Bailey |first=J. Vernon |year=1975 |publisher=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |id=NASA SP-368 |accessdate=May 17, 2013}} Section II, Chapter 3, of NASA SP-368, [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/sp368.htm ''Biomedical Results of Apollo'']. See "[http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/Resize-jpg/ts2c3-2.jpg Table 2]: Average Radiation Doses of the Flight Crews for the Apollo Missions."</ref> ''and not much more than what Space Shuttle astronauts received.''<ref name="vanallenbelts" />

2. Film in the cameras would have been fogged by this radiation.

:* ''The film was kept in metal containers that stopped radiation from fogging the film's emulsion.<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], pp. 162–63</ref> Furthermore, film carried by unmanned lunar probes such as the [[Lunar Orbiter program|Lunar Orbiter]] and [[Luna 3]] (which used on-board film development processes) was not fogged.''

3. The Moon's surface during the daytime is so hot that camera film would have melted.

:* ''There is no atmosphere to efficiently bind lunar surface heat to devices (such as cameras) that are not in direct contact with it. In a [[vacuum]], only radiation remains as a heat transfer mechanism. The physics of radiative heat transfer are thoroughly understood, and the proper use of passive optical coatings and paints was enough to control the temperature of the film within the cameras; Lunar Module temperatures were controlled with similar coatings that gave them a gold color. Also, while the Moon's surface does get very hot at lunar noon, every Apollo landing was made shortly after lunar sunrise at the landing site; the [[Lunar day|Moon's day]] is about 29½ Earth days long, meaning that one Moon day (dawn to dusk) lasts nearly fifteen Earth days. During the longer stays, the astronauts did notice increased cooling loads on their spacesuits as the sun and surface temperature continued to rise, but the effect was easily countered by the passive and active cooling systems.<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], pp. 165–67</ref> The film was not in direct sunlight, so it was not overheated.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clavius.org/envheat.html |title=Clavius: Environment – heat |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>''

4. The Apollo 16 crew could not have survived a big [[solar flare]] firing out when they were on their way to the Moon.

:* ''No large solar flare occurred during the flight of Apollo 16. There were large solar flares in August 1972, after Apollo 16 returned to Earth and before the flight of [[Apollo 17]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://science1.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/27jan_solarflares/ |title=Sickening Solar Flares |last=Phillips |first=Tony |date=January 27, 2005 |work=Science@NASA |publisher=NASA |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Predicting Solar Eruptions |first=Selby |last=Cull |url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/news/3422566.html?page=1&c=y |work=News from Sky & Telescope |publisher=Sky Publishing |date=July 12, 2006 |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>

5. The [[Lunar Flag Assembly|flag]] placed on the surface by the astronauts fluttered despite there being no wind on the Moon. This suggests that it was filmed on Earth and a breeze caused the flag to flutter. Sibrel said that it may have been caused by indoor fans used to cool the astronauts since their spacesuit cooling systems would have been too heavy on Earth.

:* ''The flag was fastened to a'' Г-''shaped rod (see [[Lunar Flag Assembly]]) so that it did not hang down. The flag only seemed to flutter when the astronauts were moving it into position. Without air drag, these movements caused the free corner of the flag to swing like a [[pendulum]] for some time. The flag was rippled because it had been folded during storage – the ripples could be mistaken for movement in a still photo. Videos show that when the astronauts let go of the flagpole it vibrates briefly but then remains still''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/envflutter.html |title=Clavius: Environment: fluttering flags |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=April 20, 2013}}</ref><ref>[[#Harrison|Harrison 2012]], p. 97</ref><ref>[[#McAdams|McAdams 2011]], p. 132</ref>
:* This theory was debunked on the ''MythBusters'' episode "[[MythBusters (2008 season)#Episode 104 – "NASA Moon Landing"|NASA Moon Landing]]".

<center>
{{Gallery
|title=
|width=200
|lines=4
|Image:AldrinFlag1a.jpeg|Cropped photo of Buzz Aldrin saluting the flag (the fingers of Aldrin's right hand can be seen behind his helmet)
|Image:AldrinFlag2a.jpeg|Cropped photo taken a few seconds later, Buzz Aldrin's hand is down, head turned toward the [[camera]], the flag is unchanged
|Image:AldrinFlag-animation.gif|Animation of the two photos, showing that though Armstrong's camera moved between exposures, the flag is not waving
}}
</center>

6. Footprints in the Moondust are unexpectedly well preserved, despite the lack of moisture.

:* ''The Moon dust has not been weathered like Earth sand and has sharp edges. This allows the Moondust particles to stick together and hold their shape in the vacuum. The astronauts likened it to "talcum powder or wet sand".''<ref name="whomourns" />
:* This theory was debunked on the ''MythBusters'' episode "[[MythBusters (2008 season)#Episode 104 – "NASA Moon Landing"|NASA Moon Landing]]".

7. The alleged Moon landings used either a sound stage or were filmed outside in a remote desert with the astronauts either using harnesses or slow-motion photography to make it look like they were on the Moon.

:* ''While the [[HBO]] [[miniseries]] "[[From the Earth to the Moon (miniseries)|From the Earth to the Moon]]", and a scene from the movie "[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]" used the sound-stage and harness setup, it is clearly seen from those films that when dust rose it did not quickly settle; some dust briefly formed clouds. In the film footage from the Apollo missions, dust kicked up by the astronauts' boots and the wheels of the [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]]s rose quite high due to the lower lunar gravity, and settled quickly to the ground in an uninterrupted parabolic arc since there was no air to suspend the dust. Even if there had been a sound stage for hoax Moon landings that had the air pumped out, the dust would have reached nowhere near the height and trajectory as in the Apollo film footage because of Earth's greater gravity.

:* ''During the Apollo 15 mission, [[David Scott]] did an experiment by dropping a hammer and a falcon feather at the same time. Both fell at the same rate and hit the ground at the same time. This proved that he was in a vacuum.<ref>{{Cite APOD |title=Hammer Versus Feather on the Moon |date=November 1, 2011 |access-date=April 20, 2013}} Source for video: {{YouTube|id=4mTsrRZEMwA|title="The Hammer and the Feather"}}</ref>

:* This theory was debunked on the ''MythBusters'' episode "[[MythBusters (2008 season)#Episode 104 – "NASA Moon Landing"|NASA Moon Landing]]".
<center>
{{Gallery
|title=
|width=200
|File:Apollo 15 feather and hammer drop.ogg|David Scott drops a hammer and feather on the Moon
}}
</center>

=== Mechanical issues ===
[[File:Apollo11 under LM.jpg|right|thumb|Under the Apollo 11 Lunar Module]]

1. The Lunar Modules made no blast [[Explosion crater|craters]] or any sign of dust scatter.<ref>[[#Kaysing|Kaysing 2002]], p. 75</ref>

:* ''No crater should be expected. The 10,000-pound thrust [[Descent Propulsion System]] was throttled very far down during the final landing.<ref>[[#Harrison|Harrison 2012]], p. 96</ref> The Lunar Module was no longer quickly decelerating, so the descent engine only had to support the lander's own weight, which was lessened by the Moon's gravity and by the near exhaustion of the descent propellants. At landing, the engine thrust divided by the nozzle exit area is only about 10 [[Pascal (unit)|kilopascals]] (1.5 [[Pounds per square inch|PSI]]).<ref>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], p. 164</ref> Beyond the engine nozzle, the plume spreads, and the pressure drops very quickly. Rocket exhaust gasses expand much more quickly after leaving the engine nozzle in a vacuum than in an atmosphere. The effect of an atmosphere on rocket plumes can be easily seen in launches from Earth; as the rocket rises through the thinning atmosphere, the exhaust plumes broaden very noticeably. To lessen this, rocket engines made for vacuums have longer bells than those made for use on Earth, but they still cannot stop this spreading. The lander's exhaust gasses, therefore, expanded quickly well beyond the landing site. The descent engines did scatter a lot of very fine surface dust as seen in [[16 mm film|16mm movies]] of each landing, and many mission commanders spoke of its effect on visibility. The landers were generally moving horizontally as well as vertically, and photos do show scouring of the surface along the final descent path. Finally, the lunar [[regolith]] is very compact below its surface dust layer, making it impossible for the descent engine to blast out a "crater".<ref name=ba-pg163-165>[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], pp. 163–65</ref> A blast crater was measured under the Apollo 11 lander using shadow lengths of the descent engine bell and estimates of the amount that the landing gear had compressed and how deep the lander footpads had pressed into the lunar surface and it was found that the engine had eroded between 4 and 6 inches of regolith out from underneath the engine bell during the final descent and landing.''<ref name="as11psr">{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/as11psr.pdf |title=Apollo 11 Preliminary Science Report |year=1969 |publisher=NASA |format=PDF |id=NASA SP-214 |accessdate=May 1, 2013}}</ref>

2. The second stage of the launch rocket and/or the Lunar Module [[Apollo Lunar Module#Ascent stage|ascent stage]] made no visible flame.

:* ''The Lunar Modules used [[Aerozine 50]] (fuel) and [[dinitrogen tetroxide]] (oxidizer) propellants, chosen for simplicity and reliability; they ignite [[hypergolic propellant|hypergolically]] – upon contact – without the need for a spark. These propellants produce a nearly [[transparent materials|transparent]] exhaust.<ref>[[#Woods|Woods 2008]], p. 191</ref> The same fuel was used by the core of the American [[Titan II GLV|Titan II]] rocket. The transparency of their plumes is apparent in many launch photos. The plumes of rocket engines fired in a vacuum spread out very quickly as they leave the engine nozzle (see above), further lessening their visibility. Finally, rocket engines often run "rich" to slow internal corrosion. On Earth, the excess fuel burns in contact with atmospheric oxygen, enhancing the visible flame. This cannot happen in a vacuum.''

<center>
<gallery>
File:Ap17-ascent.ogv|Apollo 17 [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]] leaving the Moon; rocket exhaust visible only briefly
File:Apollo8Launch.ogg|[[Apollo 8]] launch through the first stage separation
File:Apollo6Interstage.jpg|Exhaust flame may not be visible outside the atmosphere, as in this photo. Rocket engines are the dark structures at the bottom center
</gallery>
<gallery>
File:Gemini-Titan 11 Launch - GPN-2000-001020.jpg|The launch of a [[Titan II GLV|Titan II]], burning [[Hypergolic propellant|hypergolic]] Aerozine-50/N2O4, {{convert|430000|lbf|MN}} of thrust. Note the near-transparency of the exhaust, even in air (water is being sprayed up from below)
File:Atlas missile launch.jpg|[[Atlas (rocket family)|Atlas]] uses non-hypergolic kerosene ([[RP-1]]) fuel which gives a bright and very visible exhaust, {{convert|340000|lb-f|MN|abbr=on}} of thrust
File:Apollo 11 launch.jpg|Bright flame from first stage of the [[Saturn V]], burning RP-1
</gallery>
</center>

3. The Lunar Modules weighed 17 tons and made no mark on the Moondust, yet footprints can be seen beside them.<ref>[[#René|René 1994]] pp. n, 11</ref>

:* ''On the surface of the Earth, Apollo 11's fueled and crewed Lunar Module, Eagle, would have weighed approximately 17 [[short ton]]s (15,300 kg). On the surface of the Moon, however, after expending fuel and oxidizer on her descent from lunar orbit, the lander weighed about {{convert|2698|lb|kg|0}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm |title=Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference |last=Orloff |first=Richard W. |origyear=First published 2000 |date=September 2004 |website=NASA History Program Office |publisher=NASA |isbn=0-16-050631-X |id=NASA SP-2000-4029 |accessdate=May 31, 2013}} See Statistical Tables: [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-37_Selected_Mission_Weights.htm "Selected Mission Weights (lbs)"] and [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_18-28a_LM_Descent_Stage_Propellant_Status.htm "LM Descent Stage Propellant Status"].</ref> The astronauts were much lighter than the lander, but their boots were much smaller than the lander's approximately {{convert|3|ft|cm|adj=on}} diameter footpads.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/LM_Landing%20Gear1973010151.pdf |title=Apollo Lunar Module Landing Gear |last=Rogers |first=William F. |work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal |publisher=NASA |format=PDF |accessdate=May 31, 2013}}</ref> Pressure (or force per unit area) rather than mass determines the amount of regolith compression. In some photos, the footpads did press into the regolith, especially when they moved sideways at touchdown. (The bearing pressure under Apollo 11's footpads, with the lander being about 44 times the weight of an EVA-configured astronaut, would have been of similar magnitude to the bearing pressure exerted by the astronauts' boots.)''<ref>[[#Heiken|Heiken 1991]], pp. 475–476</ref>

4. The air conditioning units that were part of the astronauts' spacesuits could not have worked in an environment of no atmosphere.<ref name="cooper" />

:* ''The cooling units could only work in a vacuum. Water from a tank in the backpack flowed out through tiny pores in a metal [[Sublimation (phase transition)|sublimator]] plate where it quickly vaporized into space. The loss of the heat of vaporization froze the remaining water, forming a layer of ice on the outside of the plate that also sublimated into space (turning from a solid directly into a gas). A separate water loop flowed through the LCG ([[Liquid Cooling and Ventilation Garment|Liquid Cooling Garment]]) worn by the astronaut, carrying his metabolic waste heat through the sublimator plate where it was cooled and returned to the LCG. Twelve pounds (5.4 kg) of feedwater gave about eight hours of cooling; because of its bulk, it was often the limiting consumable on the length of an EVA.

[[File:Surveyor 3-Apollo 12.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surveyor 3]] with [[Apollo 12]] lander in background]]

=== Transmissions ===
1. There should have been more than a two-second delay in communications between Earth and the Moon, at a distance of {{convert|400000|km|mi|abbr=on}}.

:* ''The round trip light travel time of more than two seconds is apparent in all the real-time recordings of the lunar audio, but this does not always appear as expected. There may also be some documentary films where the delay has been edited out. Reasons for editing the audio may be time constraints or in the interest of clarity.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redzero.demon.co.uk/moonhoax/Radio.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080729183941/http://www.redzero.demon.co.uk/moonhoax/Radio.htm |archivedate=July 29, 2008 |title=Radio Lag |publisher=Redzero.demon.co.uk |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>

2. Typical delays in communication were about 0.5 seconds.

:* ''Claims that the delays were only half a second are untrue, as examination of the original recordings shows. Also, there should not be a consistent time delay between every response, as the conversation is being recorded at one end – [[Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center|Mission Control]]. Responses from Mission Control could be heard without any delay, as the recording is being made at the same time that Houston receives the transmission from the Moon.''

3. The [[Parkes Observatory]] in Australia was billed to the world for weeks as the site that would be relaying communications from the first moonwalk. However, five hours before transmission they were told to stand down.

:* ''The timing of the first moonwalk was changed after the landing. In fact, delays in getting the moonwalk started meant that Parkes did cover almost the entire Apollo 11 moonwalk.''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://airandspace.si.edu/collections/imagery/apollo/AS11/a11sum.htm |title=Apollo 11 Mission Summary |website=The Apollo Program |publisher=National Air and Space Museum |date=July 16, 1969 |accessdate=November 13, 2010 |quote=From NASA SP-214, Preliminary Science Report}}</ref>

4. Parkes supposedly had the clearest video feed from the Moon, but Australian media and all other known sources ran a live feed from the United States.

:* ''While that was the original plan, and, according to some sources, the official policy, the Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) did take the transmission direct from the Parkes and [[Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station|Honeysuckle Creek]] [[radio telescope]]s. These were converted to [[NTSC]] television at [[Paddington, New South Wales|Paddington]], in Sydney. This meant that Australian viewers saw the moonwalk several seconds before the rest of the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.honeysucklecreek.net/Apollo_11/Australian_TV.html |title=Apollo 11 TV – as seen in Australia |publisher=Honeysucklecreek.net |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> See also Parkes radio astronomer John Sarkissian's article, [http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/ "On Eagle's Wings: The Parkes Observatory's Support of the Apollo 11 Mission"]<ref name="eagleswings2" /> The events surrounding the Parkes Observatory's role in relaying the live television of the moonwalk were portrayed in a slightly fictionalized Australian film comedy "[[The Dish]]" (2000).''

5. Better signal was supposedly received at Parkes Observatory when the Moon was on the opposite side of the planet.

:* ''This is not supported by the detailed evidence and logs from the missions.''<ref name="eagleswings1">{{cite journal |last=Sarkissian |first=John M. |title=On Eagle's Wings: The Parkes Observatory's Support of the Apollo 11 Mission |year=2001 |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=287–310 |location=Collingwood, Victoria |publisher=CSIRO Publishing for the Astronomical Society of Australia |doi=10.1071/AS01038 |accessdate=November 25, 2008 |url=http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/one_giant_leap.html|bibcode = 2001PASA...18..287S }} October 2000 website version, part 9 of 12: "One Giant Leap." Original version available from [http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/pasa/on_eagles_wings.pdf CSIRO Parkes Observatory] (PDF).</ref>

=== Missing data ===
[[Blueprint]]s and design and development drawings of the machines involved are missing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/bibdave32.html |title=Clavius: Bibliography – cosmic dave's 32 questions |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=November 13, 2010}}</ref><ref name="bibcollier">{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/bibcollier.html |title=Clavius: Bibliography – the Collier article |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=November 13, 2010}}</ref> Apollo 11 data tapes containing [[telemetry]] and the high-quality video (before [[scan conversion]] from [[slow-scan TV]] to standard TV) of the first moonwalk are also missing.<ref name="didwego" /><ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2006/08/04/1154198328978.html| title=One giant blunder for mankind: how NASA lost moon pictures| first=Richard| last=Macey|date=August 5, 2006| publisher=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]}}</ref>

==== Tapes ====
{{Main article|Apollo 11 missing tapes}}

[[File:Apollo11C.jpg|thumb|right|Photo of the high-quality SSTV image before the scan conversion]]
[[File:Apollo11D.jpg|thumb|right|Photo of the degraded image after the SSTV scan conversion]]
Dr. David R. Williams (NASA archivist at [[Goddard Space Flight Center]]) and Apollo 11 flight director [[Gene Kranz|Eugene F. Kranz]] both acknowledged that the Apollo 11 telemetry data tapes are missing. Conspiracists see this as evidence that they never existed.<ref name="didwego" /> The Apollo 11 telemetry tapes were different from the telemetry tapes of the other Moon landings because they contained the raw television broadcast. For technical reasons, the Apollo 11 lander carried a [[slow-scan television]] (SSTV) camera (see [[Apollo TV camera]]). To broadcast the pictures to regular television, a [[scan conversion]] had to be done. The [[radio telescope]] at Parkes Observatory in Australia was able to receive the telemetry from the Moon at the time of the Apollo 11 moonwalk.<ref name="eagleswings2">{{cite journal |last=Sarkissian |first=John M. |title=On Eagle's Wings: The Parkes Observatory's Support of the Apollo 11 Mission |year=2001 |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=287–310 |location=Collingwood, Victoria |publisher=[[CSIRO Publishing]] for the [[Astronomical Society of Australia]] |doi=10.1071/AS01038 |accessdate=November 25, 2008 |url=http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/|bibcode = 2001PASA...18..287S }} October 2000 website version, part 1 of 12: "Introduction." Original version available from [http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/pasa/on_eagles_wings.pdf CSIRO Parkes Observatory] (PDF).</ref> Parkes had a bigger antenna than NASA's antenna in Australia at the Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station, so it received a better picture. It also received a better picture than NASA's antenna at [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex]]. This direct TV signal, along with telemetry data, was recorded onto one-inch fourteen-track analog tape at Parkes. The original SSTV transmission had better detail and contrast than the scan-converted pictures, and it is this tape that is missing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parkes.atnf.csiro.au/news_events/apollo11/Parkes_Apollo11_TV_quality.html |title=The Parkes Apollo 11 TV Quality |last=Sarkissian |first=John M. |publisher=[[Parkes Observatory|CSIRO Parkes Observatory]] |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> A crude, real-time scan conversion of the SSTV signal was done in Australia before it was broadcast worldwide. However, still photos of the original SSTV image are available (see photos). About fifteen minutes of it were filmed by an amateur [[8 mm film]] camera and these are also available. Later Apollo missions did not use SSTV. At least some of the telemetry tapes from the [[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package|ALSEP]] scientific experiments left on the Moon (which ran until 1977) still exist, according to Dr. Williams. Copies of those tapes have been found.<ref name="Amalfi">{{cite news |title=Lost Moon landing tapes discovered |last=Amalfi |first=Carmelo |url=http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/features/lost-moon-landing-tapes-discovered/ |work=COSMOS Online |publisher=Cosmos Media Pty Ltd |location=Australia |date= November 1, 2006 |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>

Others are looking for the missing telemetry tapes for different reasons. The tapes contain the original and highest quality video feed from the Apollo 11 landing. Some former Apollo personnel want to find the tapes for posterity while NASA engineers looking towards future Moon missions believe the tapes may be useful for their design studies. They have found that the Apollo 11 tapes were sent for storage at the U.S. National Archives in 1970, but by 1984, all the Apollo 11 tapes had been returned to the Goddard Space Flight Center at their request. The tapes are believed to have been stored rather than re-used.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.honeysucklecreek.net/Apollo_11/tapes/Search_for_SSTV_Tapes.pdf |title=The Search for the Apollo 11 SSTV Tapes |last=Sarkissian |first=John M. |date=May 21, 2006 |website=Honeysucklecreek.net |publisher=CSIRO Parkes Observatory |format=PDF |accessdate=April 26, 2013}}</ref> Goddard was storing 35,000 new tapes per year in 1967,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19670010532_1967010532.pdf| accessdate=September 5, 2009| format=PDF| title=The GSFC Scientific Data Storage Problem| publisher=NASA}}</ref> even before the Moon landings.

In November 2006, [[Cosmos (magazine)|COSMOS Online]] reported that about 100 data tapes recorded in Australia during the Apollo 11 mission had been found in a small marine science laboratory in the main physics building at the [[Curtin University of Technology]] in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]]. One of the old tapes has been sent to NASA for analysis. The slow-scan television images were not on the tape.<ref name="Amalfi" />

In July 2009, NASA indicated that it must have erased the original Apollo 11 Moon footage years ago so that it could re-use the tape. In December 2009 NASA issued a final report on the Apollo 11 telemetry tapes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/Apollo_11_TV_Tapes_Report.pdf |title=The Apollo 11 Telemetry Data Recordings: A Final Report |date=December 2009 |publisher=NASA |format=PDF |accessdate=April 27, 2013}}</ref> Senior engineer Dick Nafzger, who was in charge of the live TV recordings during the Apollo missions, is now in charge of the restoration project. After a three-year search, the "inescapable conclusion" was that about 45 tapes (estimated 15 tapes recorded at each of the three tracking stations) of Apollo 11 video were erased and re-used, said Nafzger.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.usnews.com/science/articles/2009/07/17/nasa-lost-moon-footage-but-hollywood-restores-it |title=NASA lost moon footage, but Hollywood restores it |date=July 17, 2009 |first=Seth |last=Borenstein |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=[[US News & World Report]] |accessdate=September 5, 2009}}</ref> In time for the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 11 landing, [[Lowry Digital]] has been tasked with restoring the surviving footage. Lowry Digital president Mike Inchalik said that, "this is by far and away the lowest quality" video the company has dealt with. Nafzger praised Lowry for restoring "crispness" to the Apollo video, which will remain in black and white and contains conservative digital enhancements. The US$230,000 restoration project that will take months to complete will not include sound quality improvements. Some selections of restored footage in high-definition have been made available on the NASA website.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/hd/apollo11.html |title=Apollo 11 Partial Restoration HD Video Streams |date=August 7, 2009 |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert |publisher=NASA |accessdate=September 5, 2009}}</ref>

==== Blueprints ====
[[File:Apollo15LunarRover.jpg|right|thumb|Lunar Roving Vehicle flown on Apollo 15]]

The website Xenophilia.com documents a hoax claim that blueprints for the [[Saturn V]] rocket, [[Apollo Lunar Module]] (LM), [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]] (LRV), and associated equipment are missing.<ref name="xenophilia">{{cite web| url=http://www.xenophilia.com/zb0003c.htm |accessdate=September 2, 2009 |title=Xenophilia – Moon Hoax Debate| date=August 2, 2005 |publisher=Xenophilia.com}}</ref> There are some diagrams of the Lunar Module and Lunar Roving Vehicle on the NASA website and on Xenophilia.com.<ref name="xenophilia" /> [[Grumman]] appears to have destroyed most of their LM documentation,<ref name="bibcollier" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://pirlwww.lpl.arizona.edu/~jscotti/NOT_faked/collier.htm |title=The Collier article – a critique |first=Jim | last=Scotti |authorlink=James V. Scotti |date=February 4, 2000 |website=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |publisher=University of Arizona |accessdate=September 2, 2009}} Scotti's critique of James M. Collier August 1997 article, "Investigator Challenging NASA", ''Media Bypass'' (Evansville, IN: [https://secure.in.gov/sos/online_corps/name_search_results.aspx?search_name=Tree+Top+Communications%2C+Inc.&search_type=exact&client_id=&submit.x=46&submit.y=9&search_mode=search Tree Top Communications, Inc.]) Vol. 5, No. 8. {{ISSN|1085-6714}}.</ref> but copies of the blueprints for the Saturn V exist on [[Microform|microfilm]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/news/spacehistory/saturn_five_000313.html |title=Saturn 5 Blueprints Safely in Storage |work=[[Space.com]] |publisher=[[TechMediaNetwork, Inc.]] |last=Paine |first=Michael |date=March 13, 2000 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080708081443/http://www.space.com/news/spacehistory/saturn_five_000313.html |archivedate=July 8, 2008 |accessdate=November 13, 2010}}</ref>

Four mission-worthy LRVs were built by [[Boeing]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/127/1 |title=Lunar rovers past and future |last=Young |first=Anthony |date=April 5, 2004 |work=[[The Space Review]] |publisher=[[Jeff Foust]] |page=1 |accessdate=September 5, 2009}}</ref> Three of them were carried to the Moon on Apollos 15, 16, and 17, and left there. After Apollo 18 was canceled, the other LRV was used for spare parts for the Apollos 15 to 17 missions. The 221-page operation manual for the LRV contains some detailed drawings,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/lrvhand.html |title=Lunar Rover Operations Handbook |publisher=NASA |id=Doc. LS006-002-2H |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> although not the blueprints.

=== Technology ===
{{See also|Space Race|List of space exploration milestones, 1957–1969}}

Bart Sibrel cites the relative level of the United States and USSR space technology as evidence that the Moon landings could not have happened. For much of the early stages of the Space Race, the USSR was ahead of the United States, yet in the end, the USSR was never able to fly a manned craft to the Moon, let alone land one on the surface. It is argued that, because the USSR was unable to do this, the United States should have also been unable to develop the technology to do so.

For example, he claims that, during the Apollo program, the USSR had five times more manned hours in space than the United States, and notes that the USSR was the first to achieve many of the early milestones in space: the first man-made [[satellite]] in [[orbit]] (October 1957, [[Sputnik 1]]);<ref group=Note>According to the 2007 ''[[Nova (TV series)|NOVA]]'' episode "[[List of Nova episodes#Season 35: 2007–2008|Sputnik Declassified]]," the United States could have launched the ''[[Explorer 1]]'' probe before Sputnik, but the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration hesitated, first because they were not sure if international law meant that national borders kept going all the way into orbit (and, thus, their orbiting satellite could cause an international uproar by violating the borders of dozens of nations), and second because there was a desire to see the not yet ready [[Project Vanguard|Vanguard satellite program]], designed by American citizens, become America's first satellite rather than the Explorer program, that was mostly designed by former rocket designers from [[Nazi Germany]]. A transcript of the appropriate section from the show is available at "[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/sputnik-impact-on-america.html Sputnik's Impact on America]."</ref> the first living creature in orbit (a [[dog]] named [[Laika]], November 1957, [[Sputnik 2]]); the first man in space and in orbit ([[Yuri Gagarin]], April 1961, [[Vostok 1]]); the first woman in space ([[Valentina Tereshkova]], June 1963, [[Vostok 6]]); and the first spacewalk (EVA) ([[Alexei Leonov]] in March 1965, [[Voskhod 2]]).

However, most of the Soviet gains listed above were matched by the United States within a year, and sometimes within weeks. In 1965, the United States started to achieve many firsts (such as the first successful [[space rendezvous]]), which were important steps in a mission to the Moon. Furthermore, NASA and others say that these gains by the Soviets are not as impressive as they seem; that a number of these firsts were mere stunts that did not advance the technology greatly, or at all, ''e.g.'', the first woman in space.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/techsoviet.html |title=Clavius: Technology – beating the soviets |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=September 5, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/ISS_Science_Blog/2013/06/17/women-in-space-part-one-female-firsts-in-flight-for-space-exploration-and-research/ |title=Women in Space Part One, Female Firsts in Flight for Space Exploration and Research |last=Warren |first=Liz |date=June 17, 2013 |work=A Lab Aloft |publisher=NASA Blogs |type=Blog |accessdate=July 18, 2013}}</ref> In fact, by the time of the launch of the first manned Earth-orbiting Apollo flight ([[Apollo 7]]), the USSR had made only nine [[spaceflight]]s (seven with one cosmonaut, one with two, one with three) compared to 16 by the United States. In terms of spacecraft hours, the USSR had 460 hours of spaceflight; the United States had 1,024 hours. In terms of astronaut/cosmonaut time, the USSR had 534 hours of manned spaceflight whereas the United States had 1,992 hours. By the time of Apollo 11, the United States had a lead much wider than that. (See [[List of human spaceflights, 1961–1970]], and refer to individual flights for the length of time.)

Moreover, the USSR did not develop a successful rocket capable of a manned lunar mission until the 1980s – their [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] failed on all four launch attempts between 1969 and 1972.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sovnding.htm |title=Soviet Lunar Landing |work=[[Encyclopedia Astronautica]] |publisher=Mark Wade |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref> The Soviet [[LK (spacecraft)|LK]] lunar lander was tested in unmanned low-Earth-orbit flights three times in 1970 and 1971.

=== Deaths of NASA personnel ===
In a television program about the moon-landing hoax allegations, [[Fox Entertainment Group]] listed the deaths of ten astronauts and of two civilians related to the manned spaceflight program as having possibly been killed as part of a cover-up.
* [[Theodore Freeman]] (killed ejecting from [[T-38 Talon|T-38]] which had suffered a [[bird strike]], October 1964)
* [[Elliot See]] and [[Charles Bassett|Charlie Bassett]] ([[1966 NASA T-38 crash|T-38 crash in bad weather]], February 1966)
* [[Gus Grissom|Virgil Ivan "Gus" Grissom]], [[Edward Higgins White|Edward Higgins "Ed" White]], and [[Roger B. Chaffee]] ([[Apollo 1]] fire, January 1967)
* [[Edward Givens|Edward "Ed" Givens]] (car accident, June 1967)
* [[Clifton Williams|Clifton "C. C." Williams]] (killed ejecting from T-38, October 1967)
* [[Michael James Adams|Michael J. "Mike" Adams]] ([[North American X-15|X-15]] crash, November 1967. The only pilot killed during the X-15 flight test program. He was a test pilot, not a NASA astronaut, but had flown the X-15 above 50 miles.)
* [[Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr.]] ([[F-104 Starfighter|F-104]] crash, December 1967, shortly after being selected as a pilot with the [[United States Air Force]]'s (later canceled) [[Manned Orbiting Laboratory]] (MOL) program.)
* [[Thomas Baron|Thomas Ronald Baron]] ([[North American Aviation]] employee died in an automobile collision with train, April 27, 1967, six days after testifying before [[United States House of Representatives|Rep.]] [[Olin E. Teague]]'s House Subcommittee on NASA Oversight hearing held at [[Cape Canaveral|Cape Kennedy]], [[Florida]], concerning the Apollo 1 fire, after which he was fired). Baron was a quality control inspector who wrote a report critical of the Apollo program and was an outspoken critic after the Apollo 1 fire. Baron and his family were killed as their car was struck by a train at a train crossing. The deaths were an accident.<ref name="not_faked">{{cite web |url=http://pirlwww.lpl.arizona.edu/~jscotti/NOT_faked/FOX.html |title=Comments on the FOX special on the Hoax |first=Jim | last=Scotti |website=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |publisher=University of Arizona |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/barron.html |title=NASA Apollo Mission Apollo-1 – Baron Report |website=NASA History Program Office |publisher=NASA |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921155820/http://history.nasa.gov/Apollo204/barron.html |archivedate=September 21, 2008 |accessdate=November 25, 2008}}</ref>
* Brian D. Welch, a leading official in NASA's Public Affairs Office and Director of Media Services, died a few months after appearing in the media to debunk the Fox pro-Moon hoax television show cited above.<ref name="Fake Moon Flight' Myth 2003, pp. 23, 30">{{cite journal |last=Oberg |first=James |authorlink=James Oberg |date=March–April 2003 |title=Lessons of the 'Fake Moon Flight' Myth |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |location=Amherst, NY |publisher=[[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry]] |pages=23, 30 |accessdate=April 27, 2013 |url=http://www.jamesoberg.com/042003lessonsfake_his.html}} Reprinted in [[Kendrick Frazier|Frazier, Kendrick]] (ed.) (2009). ''Science Under Siege: Defending Science, Exposing Pseudoscience''. Amherst, NY: [[Prometheus Books]]. ISBN 978-1-59102-715-7.</ref> He died of a heart attack at the age of 42.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/news/spaceagencies/welch_obit_001127.html |title=Brian Welch, NASA director Of media services, Dies |date=November 24, 2000 |work=Space.com |publisher=TechMediaNetwork, Inc. |accessdate=May 2, 2013 |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523144102/https://www.space.com/news/spaceagencies/welch_obit_001127.html |archivedate=May 23, 2009 }}</ref>

Two of them, X-15 pilot Mike Adams and MOL pilot Robert Lawrence, had no connection with the civilian manned space program of which Apollo was a part. All of the deaths listed beside Welch occurred at least 20 months ''before'' Apollo 11 and the subsequent flights.

As of February 2016, seven of the twelve [[List of Apollo Astronauts#Apollo astronauts who walked on the Moon|Apollo astronauts who landed on the Moon]] between 1969 and 1972 still survive, including Buzz Aldrin. Also, nine of the twelve [[List of Apollo Astronauts#Apollo astronauts who flew to the Moon without landing|Apollo astronauts who flew to the Moon without landing]] between 1968 and 1972 still survive, including [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]].

The number of deaths within the American astronaut corps during the run-up to Apollo and while the Moon landings were happening is similar to the number of deaths suffered by the Russians. During the period 1961 to 1972, at least, eight Russian serving and former cosmonauts died:
* [[Valentin Bondarenko]] (ground training accident, March 1961)
* [[Grigori Nelyubov]] (suicide, February 1966)
* [[Vladimir Komarov]] (''[[Soyuz 1]]'' accident, April 1967)
* [[Yuri Gagarin]] ([[MiG-15]] crash, March 1968)
* [[Pavel Belyayev]] (complications following surgery, January 1970)
* [[Georgi Dobrovolski]], [[Vladislav Volkov]], and [[Viktor Patsayev]] (''[[Soyuz 11]]'' accident, June 1971)

Also, the overall chief of their manned-spaceflight program, [[Sergei Korolev]], died while undergoing surgery in January 1966.

=== NASA response ===
In June 1977, NASA issued a fact sheet responding to recent claims that the Apollo Moon landings had been hoaxed.<ref>{{cite web |url=ftp://ftp.hq.nasa.gov/pub/pao/media/2001/lunar_landing.pdf |title=Did U.S. Astronauts Really Land on the Moon |author= |date=February 14, 2001 |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |type=Reissue (June 1977) |format=PDF |accessdate=April 24, 2014}}</ref> The fact sheet is particularly blunt and regards the idea of faking the Moon landings to be preposterous and outlandish. NASA refers to the rocks and particles collected from the Moon as being evidence of the program's legitimacy, as they claim that these rocks could not have been formed under conditions on earth. NASA also notes that all of the operations and phases of the Apollo program were closely followed and under the scrutiny of the news media, from liftoff to splashdown. NASA responds to Bill Kaysing's book, ''We Never Went to the Moon'', by identifying one of his claims of fraud regarding the lack of a crater left on the Moon's surface by the landing of the lunar module, and refuting it with facts about the soil and cohesive nature of the surface of the Moon.

The fact sheet was reissued on February 14, 2001, the day before Fox television's broadcast of ''Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?'' The documentary reinvigorated the public's interest in conspiracy theories and the possibility that the Moon landings were faked, which has provoked NASA to once again defend its name.

=== Alleged Stanley Kubrick involvement ===

Filmmaker [[Stanley Kubrick]] is accused of having produced much of the footage for Apollos 11 and 12, presumably because he had just directed ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', which is partly set on the Moon and featured advanced special effects.<ref name="clydelewis" /> It has been claimed that when ''2001'' was in [[post-production]] in early 1968, NASA secretly approached Kubrick to direct the first three Moon landings. The launch and splashdown would be real but the spacecraft would stay in Earth orbit and fake footage broadcast as "live from the Moon." No evidence was offered for this theory, which overlooks many facts. For example, ''2001'' was released before the first Apollo landing and Kubrick's depiction of the Moon's surface is much different from its appearance in Apollo video, film, and photography. Kubrick did hire [[Frederick I. Ordway III|Frederick Ordway]] and [[Harry Lange (film designer)|Harry Lange]], both of whom had worked for NASA and major aerospace contractors, to work with him on ''2001''. Kubrick also used some 50 mm f/0.7 lenses that were left over from a batch made by [[Carl Zeiss AG|Zeiss]] for NASA. However, Kubrick only got this lens for ''[[Barry Lyndon]]'' (1975). The lens was originally a still photo lens and needed changes to be used for motion filming.

The [[mockumentary]] based on this idea, ''[[Dark Side of the Moon (documentary)|Dark Side of the Moon]]'', could have fueled the conspiracy theory. This French mockumentary, directed by William Karel, was originally aired on Arte channel in 2002 with the title ''Opération Lune''. It parodies conspiracy theories with faked interviews, stories of assassinations of Stanley Kubrick's assistants by the CIA, and a variety of conspicuous mistakes, puns, and references to old movie characters, inserted through the film as clues for the viewer. Nevertheless, ''Opération Lune'' is still taken at face value by some conspiracy believers.

An article entitled “Stanley Kubrick and the Moon Hoax” appeared on Usenet in 1995, in the newsgroup "alt.humor.best-of-usenet". One passage – on how Kubrick was supposedly coerced into the conspiracy – reads:
<blockquote>NASA further leveraged their position by threatening to publicly reveal the heavy involvement of Mr. Kubrick's younger brother, Raul, with the [[American Communist Party]]. This would have been an intolerable embarrassment to Mr. Kubrick, especially since the release of ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]''.</blockquote>
Kubrick had no such brother – the article was a spoof, complete with a giveaway sentence describing Kubrick shooting the moonwalk "on location" on the Moon. Nevertheless, the claim was taken up in earnest;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clavius.org/bibkubrick.html |title=Clavius: Bibliography – the kubrick article |last=Windley |first=Jay |website=Moon Base Clavius |publisher=Clavius.org |accessdate=April 20, 2013}}</ref> [[Clyde Lewis]] used it almost word-for-word,<ref name="clydelewis" /> whereas [[Room 237|Jay Weidner]] gave the brother a more senior status within the party:
<blockquote>No one knows how the powers-that-be convinced Kubrick to direct the Apollo landings. Maybe they had compromised Kubrick in some way. The fact that his brother, Raul Kubrick, was the head of the American Communist Party may have been one of the avenues pursued by the government to get Stanley to cooperate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://realitysandwich.com/23226/kubrick_apollo/|title=How Stanley Kubrick Faked the Apollo Moon Landings|work=Reality Sandwich}}</ref></blockquote>

The 2015 movie [[Moonwalkers (film)|Moonwalkers]] is a fictional account of a CIA agent's claim of Kubrick's involvement.

In December 2015, a video surfaced which allegedly shows Kubrick being interviewed shortly before his 1999 death; the video purportedly shows the director confessing to T. Patrick Murray that the Apollo Moon landings had been faked.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.express.co.uk/news/science/626119/MOON-LANDINGS-FAKE-Shock-video-Stanley-Kubrick-admit-historic-event-HOAX-NASA |title=Moon Landings 'Fake': Shock video shows 'Stanley Kubrick' admit historic event was 'HOAX' |last=Austin |first=Jon |publisher=''[[Daily Express]]'' |date=December 11, 2015 |accessdate=December 11, 2015}}</ref> Research quickly found, however, that the video was a [[hoax]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/false-stanley-kubrick-faked-moon-landings/ |title=Lie Me to the Moon |last=Evon |first=Dan |publisher=[[Snopes.com]] |date=December 11, 2015 |accessdate=December 11, 2015}}</ref>

=== Academic work ===
In 2002, NASA granted US$15,000 to James Oberg for a commission to write a point-by-point rebuttal of the hoax claims. However, NASA canceled the commission later that year, after complaints that the book would dignify the accusations.<ref name="Fake Moon Flight' Myth 2003, pp. 23, 30" /> Oberg said that he meant to finish the book.<ref name="Fake Moon Flight' Myth 2003, pp. 23, 30" /><ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2424927.stm| accessdate=August 26, 2009| title=Nasa pulls Moon hoax book| date=November 8, 2002| first=David| last=Whitehouse|work=BBC News | location = London}}</ref> In November 2002, [[Peter Jennings]] said "NASA is going to spend a few thousand dollars trying to prove to some people that the United States did indeed land men on the Moon," and "NASA had been so rattled, [they] hired [somebody] to write a book refuting the conspiracy theorists." Oberg says that belief in the hoax theories is not the fault of the conspiracists, but rather that of teachers and people (including NASA) who should provide information to the public.<ref name="Fake Moon Flight' Myth 2003, pp. 23, 30" />

In 2004, Martin Hendry and Ken Skeldon of the [[University of Glasgow]] were awarded a grant by the [[United Kingdom|UK]]-based [[Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council]] to investigate Moon landing conspiracy theories.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cafescientifique.org/glasgow1.htm |title=Did we really land on the Moon? |date=February 17, 2005 |last1=Hendry |first1=Martin |last2=Skeldon |first2=Ken |publisher=[[Café Scientifique|Cafescientifique.org]] |accessdate=August 26, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174628/http://www.cafescientifique.org/glasgow1.htm |archivedate=August 5, 2009}}</ref> In November 2004, they gave a lecture at the [[Glasgow Science Centre]] where the top ten claims by conspiracists were individually addressed and refuted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dimaggio.org/Glasgow/SPST/nov_2004.htm |title=Hoax Busters |date=November 2004 |first=Mario |last=Di Maggio |publisher=Dimaggio.org |accessdate=August 26, 2009 |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20071012215016/http://dimaggio.org/Glasgow/SPST/nov_2004.htm |archivedate=October 12, 2007}}</ref>

=== ''MythBusters'' special ===
{{Main article|MythBusters (2008 season)#Episode 104 – "NASA Moon Landing"|l1=Mythbusters "NASA Moon Landing" episode}}

An episode of ''[[MythBusters]]'' in August 2008 was dedicated to the Moon landings. The ''MythBusters'' crew tested many of the conspiracists’ claims. Some of the testings were done in a NASA training facility. All of the conspiracists' claims examined on the show were labeled as having been "Busted", meaning that the conspiracists' claims were not true.

== Third-party evidence of Moon landings ==
{{Main article|Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings}}

=== Imaging the landing sites ===
[[File:584392main M168000580LR ap17 area.jpg|right|thumb|350px|[[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]] photo of Apollo 17 landing site (click to enlarge)<ref name="NASA LRO" />]]
[[File:Lroc apollo11 landing site 20091109 zoom.jpg|thumb|right|Apollo 11 landing site – "There the lunar module sits, parked just where it landed 40 years ago, as if it still really were 40 years ago and all the time since merely imaginary." –''[[The New York Times]]''<ref name="nyt_lro_lm_img">{{cite news |title=The Human Moon |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/opinion/17tue4.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 16, 2009 |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>]]

Moon-landing conspiracists claim that observatories and the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] should be able to photograph the landing sites. This implies that the world's major observatories (as well as the Hubble Program) are complicit in the hoax by refusing to take photos of the landing sites. Photos of the Moon have been taken by Hubble, including at least two Apollo landing sites, but the Hubble resolution limits viewing of lunar objects to sizes no smaller than 60–75 yards (55–69 meters), which is insufficient resolution to see any landing site features.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/hubble_moon.html |title=Hubble Shoots The Moon |editor-last=Stoyanova |editor-first=Silvia |date=September 10, 2007 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=October 20, 2009}}</ref>

In April 2001, Leonard David published an article on [[space.com]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/apollo15_touchdown_photos_010427.html |title=Apollo 15 Landing Site Spotted in Images |last=David |first=Leonard |date=April 27, 2001 |work=Space.com |publisher=TechMediaNetwork, Inc. |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050301074851/http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/missions/apollo15_touchdown_photos_010427.html |archivedate=March 1, 2005 |accessdate=August 26, 2009}}</ref><ref name="apolloclempix">{{cite web |url=http://www.tass-survey.org/richmond/answers/lunar_lander.html |title=Can we see Apollo hardware on the Moon? |date=August 17, 2002 |first=Michael |last=Richmond |publisher=The Amateur Sky Survey (TASS) |accessdate=August 26, 2009}}</ref> which showed a photo taken by the [[Clementine mission]] showing a diffuse dark spot at the site NASA says is the Apollo 15 lander. The evidence was noticed by Misha Kreslavsky, of the Department of Geological Sciences at [[Brown University]], and Yuri Shkuratov of the [[Ukrainian T-shaped Radio telescope, second modification|Kharkiv Astronomical Observatory]] in [[Ukraine]]. The [[European Space Agency]]'s [[SMART-1]] unmanned probe sent back photos of the landing sites, according to [[Bernard Foing]], Chief Scientist of the ESA Science Program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/847-conspiracy-theories-spacecraft-snoops-apollo-moon-sites.html |title=End of Conspiracy Theories? Spacecraft Snoops Apollo Moon Sites |last=David |first=Leonard |date=March 4, 2005 |work=Space.com |publisher=TechMediaNetwork, Inc. |accessdate=May 2, 2013}}</ref> "Given SMART-1’s initial high orbit, however, it may prove difficult to see artifacts," said Foing in an interview on space.com.

In 2002, Alex R. Blackwell of the [[University of Hawaii]] pointed out that some photos taken by Apollo astronauts<ref name="apolloclempix" /> while in orbit around the Moon show the landing sites.

''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' published a story in 2002 saying that European astronomers at the [[Very Large Telescope]] (VLT) would use it to view the landing sites. According to the article, Dr. [[Richard Martin West|Richard West]] said that his team would take "a high-resolution image of one of the Apollo landing sites." Marcus Allen, a conspiracist, answered that no photos of hardware on the Moon would convince him that manned landings had happened.<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1414144/Worlds-biggest-telescope-to-prove-Americans-really-walked-on-Moon.html |accessdate=August 26, 2009| title=World's biggest telescope to prove Americans really walked on Moon| date=November 24, 2002| first=Robert| last=Matthews| newspaper=The Daily Telegraph | location = London}}</ref> As the VLT is capable of resolving equivalent to the distance between the headlights of a car as seen from the Moon,<ref>{{cite press release |last=Stee |first=Philippe |title=To Be or Not to Be: Is It All About Spinning? |date=September 20, 2006 |publisher=[[European Southern Observatory]] |location=Garching, Germany |url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso0635/ |accessdate=September 5, 2009}}</ref> it may be able to photograph some features of the landing sites. Such photos, if and when they become available, would be the first non-NASA-produced photos of the sites at that definition.

The [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] (JAXA) launched their [[SELENE]] Moon orbiter on September 14, 2007 (JST), from [[Tanegashima Space Center]]. SELENE orbited the Moon at about {{Convert|100|km}} altitude. In May 2008, JAXA reported detecting the "halo" generated by the Apollo 15 Lunar Module engine exhaust from a Terrain Camera image.<ref>{{cite press release |title=The "halo" area around Apollo 15 landing site observed by Terrain Camera on SELENE (KAGUYA) |date=May 20, 2009 |publisher=[[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] |location=Chōfu, Tokyo |url=http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2008/05/20080520_kaguya_e.html |accessdate=August 26, 2009}}</ref> A three-dimensional reconstructed photo also matched the terrain of an Apollo 15 photo taken from the surface.

On July 17, 2009, NASA released low-resolution engineering test photos of the Apollo 11, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16 and Apollo 17 landing sites that have been photographed by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter as part of the process of starting its primary mission.<ref name="LRO1">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/apollosites.html |title=LRO Sees Apollo Landing Sites |last1=Hautaluoma |first1=Grey |last2=Freeberg |first2=Andy |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert|date=July 17, 2009 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=August 14, 2009 |quote=NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, or LRO, has returned its first imagery of the Apollo Moon landing sites. The pictures show the Apollo missions' lunar module descent stages sitting on the moon's surface, as long shadows from a low sun angle make the modules' locations evident.}}</ref> The photos show the descent stage of the landers from each mission on the Moon’s surface. The photo of the Apollo 14 landing site also shows tracks made by an astronaut between a science experiment (ALSEP) and the lander.<ref name="LRO1" /> Photos of the Apollo 12 landing site were released by NASA on September 3, 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc_20090903_apollo12.html |title=Apollo 12 and Surveyor 3 |date=September 3, 2009 |editor-last=Garner |editor-first=Robert |publisher=NASA |accessdate=May 2, 2013}}</ref> The ''Intrepid'' lander descent stage, experiment package ([[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package#Apollo 12|ALSEP]]), Surveyor 3 spacecraft, and astronaut footpaths are all visible. While the [[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter|LRO]] images have been enjoyed by the scientific community as a whole, they have not done anything to convince conspiracists that the landings happened.<ref name="lrohoaxbelievers">{{cite web |url=http://lunarlandinghoax.com/2009/09/10/a-hb-response-to-the-lro-photos/ |title=A HB Response To The LRO Photos |last=Antonia |date=September 10, 2009 |website=Lunarlandinghoax.com |publisher=Antares 14 Media |type=Blog |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018041511/http://lunarlandinghoax.com/2009/09/10/a-hb-response-to-the-lro-photos/ |archivedate=October 18, 2009 |accessdate=April 27, 2013}}</ref>

On September 1, 2009, [[India]]'s lunar mission [[Chandrayaan-1]] took photos of the Apollo 15 landing site and tracks of the lunar rovers.<ref name="TOI article">{{cite news |title=Chandrayaan sends images of Apollo 15 landing |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-02/india/28083351_1_chandrayaan-1-lunar-mission-lunar-reconnaissance-orbiter |work=[[The Times of India]] |publisher=[[The Times Group]] |location=New Delhi |date=September 2, 2009 |accessdate=April 20, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Chandrayaan’s moon findings: Water, rocks and traces of Apollo |url=http://news.in.msn.com/national/article.aspx?cp-documentid=3303481 |work=[[MSN]] India |agency=India Syndicate |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |location=Redmond, WA |date=October 22, 2009 |accessdate=April 20, 2013}}</ref> The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] launched their unmanned lunar probe on September 8, 2008 (IST), from [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre]]. The photos were taken by a [[Hyperspectral imaging|hyperspectral camera]] fitted as part of the mission's image payload.<ref name="TOI article" />

[[China]]'s second lunar probe, [[Chang'e 2]], which was launched in 2010, can photograph the lunar surface with a resolution of up to 1.3 meters (4.3 ft). It spotted traces of the Apollo landings.<ref>{{cite news |title=China publishes high-resolution full moon map |editor-last=Lina |editor-first=Yang |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/sci/2012-02/06/c_131393210.htm |work=English.news.cn |publisher=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |location=Beijing |date=February 6, 2012 |accessdate=April 20, 2013}}</ref>

=== Moon rocks ===
{{Main article|Moon rocks}}
[[File:Apollo 15 Genesis Rock.jpg|right|thumb|[[Genesis Rock]] brought back by Apollo 15 – older than any rocks on Earth]]
The Apollo program collected {{convert|838|lb|kg|disp=flip}} of [[Moon rock]]s during the six manned missions. Analyses by scientists worldwide all agree that these rocks came from the Moon – no published accounts in [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[scientific journal]]s exist that dispute this claim. The Apollo samples are easily distinguishable from both [[meteorite]]s and Earth rocks<ref name="greatmoonhoax" /> in that they show a lack of [[mineral hydration|hydrous alteration]] products, they show evidence of having undergone impact events on an airless body, and they have unique geochemical traits. Furthermore, most are more than 200 million years older than the oldest Earth rocks. The Moon rocks also share the same traits as Soviet samples.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Papike |first1=James J. |last2=Ryder |first2=Graham |last3=Shearer |first3=Charles K. |date=January 1998 |title=Lunar Samples |journal=[[Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry]] |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=5.1–5.234 |publisher=[[Mineralogical Society of America]]|location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-939950-46-1}}</ref>

Conspiracists argue that [[Marshall Space Flight Center#Directors|Marshall Space Flight Center Director]] [[Wernher von Braun]]'s trip to [[Antarctica]] in 1967 (about two years before the Apollo 11 launch) was to gather [[lunar meteorite]]s to be used as fake Moon rocks. Because von Braun was a former [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] officer (though one who had been detained by the [[Gestapo]]),<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.reformation.org/wernher-von-braun.html | title = Wernher von Braun in SS uniform |work=The Reformation Online |publisher=Bible Believers Press}} Source cited: [[Walter Dornberger|Dornberger, Walter]] ''V-2'' (1958) New York: Viking Press [OCLC 255209058].</ref> the documentary film ''Did We Go?''<ref name="didwego" /> suggests that he could have been pressured to agree to the conspiracy to protect himself from recriminations over his past. NASA said that von Braun’s mission was "to look into environmental and logistic factors that might relate to the planning of future space missions, and hardware."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/yy/y1967.html | title = Marshall Highlights for 1967 | publisher =[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] History Office}} Originally "published in a news release issued in late 1967 by the Marshall Center Public Affairs Office."</ref> NASA continues to send teams to work in Antarctica to mimic the conditions on other planets.

It is now accepted by the scientific community that rocks have been blasted from both the [[Mars|Martian]] and lunar surface during [[impact crater|impact events]], and that some of these have landed on the Earth as meteorites.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Head |first1=James N. |last2=Melosh |first2=H. Jay |last3=Ivanov |first3=Boris A. |date=November 2002 |title=Martian Meteorite Launch: High-Speed Ejecta from Small Craters |journal=Science |volume=298 |pages=1752–56 | doi=10.1126/science.1077483 |pmid=12424385 |issue=5599 |bibcode=2002Sci...298.1752H}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Great Interplanetary Rock Swap |author=Cooke, Bill |journal=Astronomy |volume=34 |issue=8 |year=2006 |pages=64–67 |location=Waukesha, WI |publisher=Kalmbach Publishing |issn=0091-6358}}</ref> However, the first Antarctic lunar meteorite was found in 1979, and its lunar origin was not recognized until 1982.<ref name="Korotev2005">{{cite journal | author = Korotev, Randy | title = Lunar geochemistry as told by lunar meteorites | journal = Chemie der Erde | volume= 65 | pages = 297–346 | year=2005 | doi = 10.1016/j.chemer.2005.07.001 | issue = 4|bibcode = 2005ChEG...65..297K }}</ref> Furthermore, lunar meteorites are so rare that it is unlikely that they could account for the 380 kilograms of Moon rocks that NASA gathered between 1969 and 1972. Only about 30 kilograms of lunar meteorites have been found on Earth thus far, despite private collectors and governmental agencies worldwide searching for more than 20 years.<ref name="Korotev2005" />

While the Apollo missions gathered 380 kilograms of Moon rocks, the Soviet [[Luna 16]], [[Luna 20]] and [[Luna 24]] robots gathered only 326 grams combined (that is, less than one-thousandth as much). Indeed, current plans for a Martian sample return would only gather about 500 grams of soil,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Exploration/Mars_Sample_Return2 |title=Mars Sample Return |publisher=[[European Space Agency]]}}</ref> and a recently proposed [[South Pole-Aitken basin]] robot mission would only gather about 1 kilogram of Moon rock.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lunar South Pole-Aitken Sample Return (2002) |url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/11/lunar-south-pole-aitken-sample-return-2002/ |last=Portree |first=David S. F. |date=November 7, 2012 |work=Wired |publisher=Condé Nast Publications |location=New York |accessdate=May 2, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Duke |first=Michael B. |date=June 2003 |title=Sample return from the lunar South Pole-Aitken Basin |journal=[[Advances in Space Research]] |volume=31 |issue=11 |pages=2347–52 |location=Netherlands |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |bibcode=2003AdSpR..31.2347D |doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00539-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/moon99/pdf/8017.pdf |title=Sample Return Mission to the South Pole Aitken Basin |last1=Duke |first1=M. B. |last2=Clark |first2=B. C. |last3=Gamber |first3=T. |last4=Lucey |first4=P. G. |last5=Ryder |first5=G. |last6=Taylor |first6=G. J. |date=September 24, 1999 |accessdate=May 2, 2013 |format=PDF |displayauthors=3}} Paper presented at the "[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/moon99/moon99.3rd.html New Views of the Moon II: Understanding the Moon Through the Integration of Diverse Datasets]" workshop held on September 22–24, 1999, in Flagstaff, AZ. The workshop's [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/moon99/pdf/program.pdf preliminary program] (PDF).</ref> If NASA had used similar robot technology, then between 300 and 2000 robot missions would have been needed to collect the current amount of Moon rocks that is held by NASA.

On the makeup of the Moon rocks, Kaysing asked: "Why was there never a mention of gold, silver, diamonds or other precious metals on the moon? Wasn't this a viable consideration? Why was this fact never discussed [''sic''] in the press or by the astronauts?"<ref>[[#Kaysing|Kaysing 2002]], p. 8</ref> Geologists realize that gold and silver deposits on Earth are the result of the action of hydrothermal fluids concentrating the precious metals into veins of ore. Since in 1969 water was believed to be absent on the Moon, no geologist would bother discussing the possibility of finding these on the Moon in any great amount.

=== Missions tracked by independent parties ===
{{Main article|Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings#Apollo missions tracked by independent parties|l1=Apollo missions tracked by independent parties}}
Aside from NASA, a number of groups and individuals tracked the Apollo missions as they happened. On later missions, NASA released information to the public explaining where and when the spacecraft could be sighted. Their flight paths were tracked using radar and they were sighted and photographed using telescopes. Also, radio transmissions between the astronauts on the surface and in orbit were independently recorded.

=== Retroreflectors ===
[[File:Apollo 11 Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment.jpg|right|thumb|Apollo 11 retroreflector, still with its protective cover]]
The presence of [[retroreflectors]] (mirrors used as targets for Earth-based tracking lasers) from the [[Lunar Laser Ranging experiment|Laser Ranging Retroreflector Experiment]] (LRRR) is evidence that there were landings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dorminey |first=Bruce |date=March 2011 |title=Secrets beneath the Moon's surface |journal=Astronomy |pages=24–29 |location=Waukesha, WI |publisher=Kalmbach Publishing |issn=0091-6358}}</ref> [[Lick Observatory]] attempted to detect from Apollo 11's retroreflector while Armstrong and Aldrin were still on the Moon but did not succeed until August 1, 1969.<ref>[[#Hansen|Hansen 2005]], p. 515</ref> The Apollo 14 astronauts deployed a retroreflector on February 5, 1971, and [[McDonald Observatory]] detected it the same day. The Apollo 15 retroreflector was deployed on July 31, 1971, and was detected by McDonald Observatory within a few days.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bender, P. L. |author2=Currie, D. G. |author3=Dicke, R. H. |author4=Eckhardt, D. H. |author5=Faller, J. E. |author6=Kaula, W. M. |author7=Mullholland, J. D. |author8=Plotkin, H. H. |author9=Silverberg, E. C. |author10=Wilkinson, D. T. |author11=Williams, J. G. |author12=Alley, C. O. |date=October 19, 1973 |title=The Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=182 |issue=4109 |pmid=17749298 |bibcode=1973Sci...182..229B |doi=10.1126/science.182.4109.229 |pages=229–38 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] |format=PDF |accessdate=April 27, 2013 |url=http://www.physics.ucsd.edu/~tmurphy/apollo/doc/Bender.pdf |display-authors=3}}</ref> Smaller retroreflectors were also put on the Moon by the Russians; they were attached to the unmanned lunar rovers [[Lunokhod 1]] and [[Lunokhod 2]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/news/lro-20100426.html |title=NASA's LRO Team Helps Track Laser Signals to Russian Rover Mirror |last1=Jones |first1=Nancy |last2=McDonald |first2=Kim |editor-last=Jenner |editor-first=Lynn |date=April 26, 2010 |publisher=NASA |id=Goddard Release No. 10-038 |accessdate=September 24, 2012}}</ref>

== Public opinion ==
{{See also|Moon landing conspiracy theories in popular culture}}

In a 1994 poll by ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 9% of the respondents said that it was possible that astronauts did not go to the Moon and another 5% were unsure.<ref>[[#Scheaffer|Scheaffer 2004]], pp. 226–27</ref> A 1999 [[Gallup Poll]] found that 6% of the Americans surveyed doubted that the Moon landings happened and that 5% of those surveyed had no opinion,<ref name="plait156">[[#Plait|Plait 2002]], p. 156</ref><ref name="Borenstein" /><ref name="gallup1">{{cite press release| url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/1993/Did-Men-Really-Land-Moon.aspx |accessdate=August 14, 2009|title=Did Men Really Land on the Moon? |date=February 15, 2001| publisher=[[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]]}}</ref><ref name="gallup2">{{cite press release|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/3712/Landing-Man-Moon-Publics-View.aspx |accessdate=August 14, 2009|title=Landing a Man on the Moon: The Public's View| first=Frank| last=Newport |date=July 20, 1999 |publisher=Gallup}}</ref> which roughly matches the findings of a similar 1995 ''Time/CNN'' poll.<ref name="plait156" /> Officials of the Fox network said that such skepticism rose to about 20% after the February 2001 airing of their network's television special, ''Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?'', seen by about 15 million viewers.<ref name="Borenstein">{{Cite news |title=Book to confirm moon landings |first=Seth |last=Borenstein |url=http://archive.deseretnews.com/archive/946348/Book-to-confirm-moon-landings.html |agency=[[Knight Ridder]] Newspapers |newspaper=[[Deseret News]] |location=Salt Lake City, UT |date=November 2, 2002 |accessdate=August 13, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726105516/http://archive.deseretnews.com/archive/946348/Book-to-confirm-moon-landings.html |archivedate=July 26, 2009}}</ref> This Fox special is seen as having promoted the hoax claims.<ref name="theage">{{cite news |url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/12/24/1040511043172.html |accessdate =August 13, 2009 |title=One giant leap of imagination |date=December 24, 2002 |newspaper=[[The Age]] |location=Melbourne, Australia |agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref><ref name="newsweek">{{Cite news |title=American Beat: Moon Stalker |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/65087/output/print |work=Newsweek.com |publisher=[[Newsweek]] |location=New York |date=September 15, 2002 |accessdate=August 13, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206023002/http://www.newsweek.com/id/65087/output/print |archivedate=December 6, 2007}}</ref>

A 2000 poll conducted by the {{Interlanguage link multi|Public Opinion Foundation|ru|3=Фонд Общественное Мнение}} (''ФОМ'') in Russia found that 28% of those surveyed did not believe that American astronauts landed on the Moon, and this percentage is roughly equal in all social-demographic groups.<ref>{{Cite press release |last=Петрова |first=А.С. |script-title=ru:БЫЛИ ЛИ АМЕРИКАНЦЫ НА ЛУНЕ? |trans_title=Were the Americans on the Moon? |date=April 19, 2000 |publisher=[[Public Opinion Foundation]] (''ФОМ'') |url=http://bd.fom.ru/report/cat/sci_sci/kosmos/of001605 |accessdate=August 13, 2009 |language=Russian}} Nationwide Russian survey of urban and rural population conducted on April 1, 2000. 1,500 respondents. Americans walked on the Moon? Overall results of poll: 51% yes; 28% no; 22% unsure.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bd.fom.ru/report/map/t001333 |script-title=ru:ИНОГДА ВЫСКАЗЫВАЕТСЯ МНЕНИЕ, ЧТО НА САМОМ ДЕЛЕ ВЫСАДКИ АМЕРИКАНСКИХ АСТРОНАВТОВ НА ЛУНУ НЕ БЫЛО. ВЫ ЛИЧНО ВЕРИТЕ ИЛИ НЕ ВЕРИТЕ, ЧТО АМЕРИКАНСКИЕ АСТРОНАВТЫ ДЕЙСТВИТЕЛЬНО ПОБЫВАЛИ НА ЛУНЕ? |date=April 5, 2000 |publisher=Public Opinion Foundation (''ФОМ'') |language=Russian |accessdate=April 30, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bd.fom.ru/report/map/t001332 |script-title=ru:ЗНАЕТЕ ЛИ ВЫ, ЧТО-ТО СЛЫШАЛИ ИЛИ СЛЫШИТЕ СЕЙЧАС ВПЕРВЫЕ О ВЫСАДКЕ АМЕРИКАНСКИХ АСТРОНАВТОВ НА ЛУНУ ЛЕТОМ 1969 ГОДА? |date=April 5, 2000 |publisher=Public Opinion Foundation (''ФОМ'') |language=Russian |accessdate=April 30, 2013}}</ref> In 2009, a poll held by the [[United Kingdom]]'s ''[[Engineering & Technology]]'' magazine found that 25% of those surveyed did not believe that men landed on the Moon.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bizony |first=Piers |authorlink=Piers Bizony |date=July 6, 2009 |title=It was a fake, right? |journal=[[Engineering & Technology]] |location=London |publisher=[[Institution of Engineering and Technology]] |accessdate=February 19, 2011 |url=http://eandt.theiet.org/magazine/2009/12/fake-right.cfm}}</ref> Another poll gives that 25% of 18- to 25-year-olds surveyed were unsure that the landings happened.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kruesi |first=Liz |date=December 2009 |title=The Cosmic Grid |journal=[[Astronomy (magazine)|Astronomy]] |page=62 |location=Waukesha, WI |publisher=[[Kalmbach Publishing]] |issn=0091-6358}}</ref>

There are subcultures worldwide which advocate the belief that the Moon landings were faked. By 1977 the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] magazine ''[[Back to Godhead]]'' called the landings a hoax, claiming that, since the [[Sun]] is 93,000,000 miles away, and "according to [[Hindu mythology]] the Moon is 800,000 miles farther away than that", the Moon would be nearly 94,000,000 miles away; to travel that span in 91 hours would require a speed of more than a million miles per hour, "a patently impossible feat even by the scientists' calculations."<ref name="Goswami">{{cite journal |author=Satsvarūpa dāsa Goswami |authorlink=Satsvarupa dasa Goswami |date=May 1977 |title=Man on the Moon: A Case of Mass Brainwashing |url=http://back2godhead.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/123_1977_12-05.pdf |format=PDF |journal=[[Back to Godhead]] |location=Los Angeles |publisher=[[Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]] |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=10–11, 13–14 |issn=0005-3643 |accessdate=October 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>[[#Scheaffer|Scheaffer 2011]], p. 229</ref>

[[James Oberg]] of [[ABC News]] said that the conspiracy theory is taught in [[Cuba]]n schools and wherever Cuban teachers are sent.<ref name="Fake Moon Flight' Myth 2003, pp. 23, 30" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Getting Apollo 11 Right |first=James |last=Oberg |authorlink=James Oberg |url=http://abcnews.go.com/ABC2000/abc2000science/oberg2000.html |accessdate=August 13, 2009 |work=ABC News |publisher=ABC |location=New York |date=July 1999|quote=I'm told that this is official dogma still taught in schools in Cuba, plus wherever else Cuban teachers have been sent (such as [[Sandinista]] Nicaragua and Angola). |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030402094521/http://abcnews.go.com/ABC2000/abc2000science/oberg2000.html |archivedate=April 2, 2003}}</ref> A poll conducted in the 1970s by the [[United States Information Agency]] in several countries in [[Latin America]], [[Asia]], and [[Africa]] found that most respondents were unaware of the Moon landings, many of the others dismissed them as [[propaganda]] or [[science fiction]], and many thought that it had been the [[Russia]]ns that landed on the Moon.<ref>[[#Oberg|Oberg 1982]], p. 97</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight|Moon}}
* ''[[Astronauts Gone Wild]]''
* ''[[In the Shadow of the Moon (film)|In the Shadow of the Moon]]''
* [[Lost Cosmonauts]]
* [[List of topics characterized as pseudoscience]]
* [[Stolen and missing moon rocks]]

== Notes ==

{{Reflist|group=Note}}

== Citations ==
{{Include-NASA}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Aaronovitch| first=David| authorlink=David Aaronovitch
| title=Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History
| edition=1st American
| origyear=Originally published 2009 in Great Britain by [[Jonathan Cape]]
| year=2010
| publisher=[[Riverhead Books]]
| location=New York
| isbn=978-1-59448-895-5
| ref=Aaronovitch}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Attivissimo| first=Paulo
| title=Moon Hoax: Debunked!
| edition=1st English
| origyear=
| year=2013
| publisher=[[Lulu (company)|Lulu]]
| location=
| isbn=978-1-291-59157-6
| ref=Attivissimo}}
* {{Cite book
| last1=Bennett| first1=Mary| last2=Percy| first2=David S.
| title=Dark Moon: Apollo and the Whistle-Blowers
| origyear=First published 1999 in Great Britain by Aulis Publishers
| year=2001
| publisher=[[David Hatcher Childress|Adventures Unlimited Press]]
| location=Kempton, IL
| isbn=978-0-932813-90-9
| ref=Bennett & Percy}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Brian| first=William L.| authorlink=Moongate (book)
| title=Moongate: Suppressed Findings of the U.S. Space Program, The NASA-Military Cover-Up
| edition=1st
| year=1982
| publisher=Future Science Research Publishing Co.
| location=Portland, OR
| isbn=978-0-941292-00-9
| ref=Brian}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Chaikin| first=Andrew| authorlink=Andrew Chaikin
| others=Foreword by Tom Hanks and a new afterword by the author
| title=A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts
| edition=Reissue
| origyear=First published 1994
| year=2007
| publisher=[[Penguin Books]]
| location=New York
| isbn=978-0-14-311235-8
| ref=Chaikin}}
* {{Cite book
| editor1-last=Dick| editor1-first=Steven J.| editor2-last=Launius| editor2-first=Roger D.
| title=Societal Impact of Spaceflight
| url=http://history.nasa.gov/sp4801-part1.pdf
| format=PDF
| accessdate=June 7, 2013
| year=2007
| publisher=NASA
| location=Washington, D.C.
| isbn=978-0-16-080190-7
| id=NASA SP-2007-4801
| ref=Dick & Launius}} Part 2 available [http://history.nasa.gov/sp4801-part2.pdf here] (PDF).
* {{Cite book
| last=Hansen| first=James R.
| title=[[First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong]]
| year=2005
| publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]
| location=New York
| isbn=978-0-7432-5631-5
| ref=Hansen}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Harrison| first=Guy P.
| others=Foreword by Phil Plait
| title=50 popular beliefs that people think are true
| year=2012
| publisher=[[Prometheus Books]]
| location=Amherst, NY
| isbn=978-1-61614-495-1
| ref=Harrison}}
* {{Cite book
| last1=Heiken| first1=Grant H.|last2=Vaniman| first2=David T.| last3=French| first3=Bevan M.
| title=Lunar Sourcebook: A User's Guide to the Moon
| url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/books/lunar_sourcebook/pdf/LunarSourceBook.pdf| format=PDF
| accessdate=May 24, 2013
| year=1991
| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
| location=Cambridge, England; New York
| isbn=0-521-33444-6
|ref=Heiken}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Kaysing| first=Bill| authorlink=Bill Kaysing
| others=Randy Reid credited as co-author in 1976 editions
| title=We Never Went to the Moon: America's Thirty Billion Dollar Swindle
| origyear=First published 1976
| year=2002
| publisher=Health Research Books
| location=Pomeroy, WA
| oclc=52390067
| ref=Kaysing}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Kranz| first=Gene
| authorlink=Gene Kranz
| title=Failure is not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond
| year=2000
| publisher=Simon & Schuster
| location=New York
| isbn=0-7432-0079-9
| ref=Kranz}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Lheureux| first=Philippe
| title=Lumières sur la Lune
| trans_title=Lights on the Moon
| url=http://lheureux.free.fr/
| year=2000
| publisher=Éditions Carnot
| location=Chatou
| language=French
| isbn=978-2-912-36249-0
| ref=Lheureux}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Longuski| first=Jim
| title=The Seven Secrets of How to Think Like a Rocket Scientist
| year=2006
| publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]
| location=New York
| isbn=978-0-387-30876-0
| ref=Longuski}}
* {{Cite book
| last=McAdams| first=John C.| authorlink=John C. McAdams
| title=JFK Assassination Logic: How to Think about Claims of Conspiracy
| year=2011
| publisher=Potomac Books
| location=Washington, D.C.
| isbn=978-1-59797-489-9
| ref=McAdams}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Mindell| first=David A.
| title=Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight
| year=2008
| publisher=[[MIT Press]]
| location=Cambridge, MA
| isbn=978-0-262-13497-2
| ref=Mindell}}
* {{cite book
| last=Мухин |first=Юрий Игнатьевич |authorlink=Yury Ignatyevich Mukhin
| script-title=ru:Антиаполлон: Лунная афера США
| trans_title=Anti-Apollo: Lunar Scam of the USA
| year=2005
| publisher=[[Eksmo]]
| location=Moscow
| language=Russian
| isbn=978-5-699-08657-3
| ref=Mukhin}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Oberg| first=James E.| authorlink=James Oberg
| title=UFOs & Outer Space Mysteries: A Sympathetic Skeptic's Report
| year=1982
| publisher=[[The Donning Company]]
| location=Norfolk, VA
| isbn=978-0-89865-102-7
| ref=Oberg}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Plait| first=Philip C.| authorlink=Philip Plait
| title=Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax"
| year=2002
| publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]
| location=New York
| isbn=0-471-40976-6
| ref=Plait}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Попов |first=Александр Иванович
| script-title=ru:Американцы на Луне: великий прорыв или космическая афера?
| trans_title=Americans on the Moon: The Great Breakthrough or Space Scam?
| year=2009
| publisher=Veche
| location=Moscow
| language=Russian
| isbn=978-5-9533-3315-3
| ref=Popov}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Ramsay| first=Robin
| title=Conspiracy Theories
| year=2006
| publisher=[[Pocket Essentials]]
| location=Harpenden
| isbn=1-904048-65-X
| ref=Ramsay}}
* {{Cite book
| last=René| first=Ralph| authorlink=Ralph René
| editor-last=Lucas|editor-first=Stu
| others=Drawings by Chris Wolfer
| title=NASA Mooned America!
| year=1994
| publisher=René
| location=Passaic, NJ
| oclc=36317224
| ref=René}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Scheaffer| first=Robert| authorlink=Robert Sheaffer
| others=Illustrations by Rob Pudim
| title=Psychic Vibrations: Skeptical Giggles from The Skeptical Inquirer
| year=2011
| publisher=CreateSpace
| location=Charleston, SC
| isbn=978-1-4636-0157-7
| ref=Scheaffer}} Reprinted from the ''[[Skeptical Inquirer]]'', Fall 1977.
* {{Cite book
| last1=Scott| first1=David| authorlink1=David Scott| last2=Leonov| first2=Alexei| authorlink2=Alexei Leonov| last3= Toomey |first3=Christine
| others=Foreword by [[Neil Armstrong]]; introduction by [[Tom Hanks]]
| title=Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race |edition=1st U.S.
| year=2004
| publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]]
| location = New York
| isbn=0-312-30865-5
| ref=Scott & Leonov}}
* {{Cite book
| last1=Shepard| first1=Alan B.| authorlink1=Alan Shepard| last2=Slayton| first2=Donald K.| authorlink2=Deke Slayton
| others=With [[Jay Barbree]] and Howard Benedict; introduction by Neil Armstrong
| title=Moon Shot: The Inside Story of America's Race to the Moon
| year=1994
| publisher=[[Turner Publishing Company|Turner Publishing]]
| location=Atlanta
| isbn=978-1-878685-54-4
| ref=Shepard & Slayton}}
* {{Cite book
| last=副島| first=隆彦
| script-title=ja:人類の月面着陸は無かったろう論
| trans_title=Apollo 11 Has Never Been to the Moon
| year=2004
| publisher=[[Tokuma Shoten]]
| location=Tokyo
| language=Japanese
| isbn=978-4-198-61874-2
| ref=Soejima}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Wisnewski| first=Gerhard
| others=English translation by Johanna Collis
| title=One Small Step?: The Great Moon Hoax and the Race to Dominate Earth from Space
| origyear=Originally published 2005 in German under the title ''Lügen im Weltraum, Von der Mondlandung zur Weltherrschaft'', Knaur Taschenbuch Verlag, Munich
| year=2007
| publisher=Clairview Books
| location=Forrest Row
| isbn=978-1-905570-12-6
| ref=Wisnewski}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Woods |first=W. David
| title=How Apollo Flew to the Moon
| year=2008
| publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer-Verlag]]
| location=New York
| isbn=978-0-387-71675-6
| ref=Woods}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal
| last = Loxton|first = Daniel|authorlink=Daniel Loxton
| year = 2010
| title = Top Ten Busted Myths
| journal = [[Skeptic (U.S. magazine)|Skeptic]]
| volume =15
| issue = 4
| page = 74
}}
* {{Cite journal
| last = Morrison|first = David|authorlink=David Morrison (astrophysicist)
|date=November 2009
| title = Moon Hoax Resolved: New Lunar Orbiter Images Show Moon Landers, Astronaut's Tracks
| journal = [[Skeptical Inquirer]]
| volume =33
| issue = 6
| pages = 5–6
}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Steven-Boniecki|first=Dwight
| title=Live TV from the Moon
| year=2010
| publisher=Apogee Books
| location=Burlington, Ontario
| isbn=978-1-926592-16-9
}}
* {{Cite journal
| last = Talcott|first = Richard
|date=November 2010
| title = Astronomy Mythbusters
| journal = [[Astronomy (magazine)|Astronomy]]
| volume =38
| issue = 11
| pages = 56–57
}} Author examines ten common astronomy myths. See: Myth #10: NASA faked the Moon landings.
* {{Cite journal
| last = Achenbach|first = Joel
|date=March 2015
| title = The Age of Disbelief
| journal = [[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]
| volume =227
| issue = 3
| pages = 30–47
}} Author examines climate change, evolution, the Moon landing, vaccinations, and genetically modified food

== External links ==
* [http://www.clavius.org/index.html Moon Base Clavius] is devoted to analyzing the conspiracists' claims and attempting to debunk them.
* [http://history.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] Photos, audio, video and complete communication transcriptions of the six successful landings and Apollo 13
* {{cite news |title=A Moon Landing? What Moon Landing? |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20F12F739581B7493CAA81789D95F4D8685F9 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 18, 1969 |page=30 |type=Abstract |accessdate=August 5, 2008}} Story by [[John Noble Wilford]]
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/14/science/space/14hoax.html "Vocal Minority Insists It Was All Smoke and Mirrors"] by John Schwartz for ''[[The New York Times]]'', July 13, 2009
* [http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Apollo11MoonLanding/Story?id=8104410&page=1 "Refuting the Most Popular Apollo Moon Landing Hoax Theories"] by Christina Caron, [[ABC News]], July 19, 2009
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ksUQfEzMoM Why there are no stars in the photographs]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r45Q-MT2vfc Hatchmarks in the photos]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDds_PnLu2g Seeing the landing sites]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QsLtAUb1-Lw Lunar Module rocket plume]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CyH4Zaz3mEE No blast crater]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fyPIRheeOig Why haven't we been back to the Moon?]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1LaRlGA85Y LRO photos compared to Apollo 11 film]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGXTF6bs1IU Moon Hoax Not]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fSDeIjSzTzA Topography]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9HdPi9Ikhk Complete Apollo 11 moonwalk video, restored. Flag planted 50 minutes in, then doesn't flap for the next 2 hours and 11 minutes.]

=== Television specials ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite AV media
| author=William Karel (Director)|authorlink=William Karel
| year=2002
| title=[[Dark Side of the Moon (film)|Opération lune]]
| trans_title=Dark Side of the Moon
| type=[[Mocumentary]]
| language=French, English
| publisher=[[Arte]] France / [[Point du Jour International]]
| location=Paris
| oclc=57723359
| ref=Dark Side of the Moon}} First airdate: October 16, 2002.
* {{Cite AV media
| author1=John Moffett (Director, Producer, Writer)| author2=Bruce M. Nash (Executive Producer, Writer)| authorlink2=Bruce Nash
| year=2001
| title=Conspiracy Theory: Did We Land on the Moon?
| type=[[Documentary film|Documentary]]
| publisher=[[Nash Entertainment]], Inc.
| location=Hollywood, CA
| oclc=52473513
| ref=Conspiracy Theory}} First airdate on Fox TV: February 15, 2001.
* {{IMDb title|id=0425571|title=The Truth Behind the Moon Landings: Stranger Than Fiction (2003) (TV)}}
{{refend}}

{{Conspiracy theories}}
{{Pseudoscience}}
{{The Moon}}
{{People who have walked on the Moon}}
{{Manned lunar spacecraft}}
{{Moon spacecraft}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2013}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Conspiracy theories by subject]]
[[Category:Moon landing conspiracy theories| ]]
[[Category:Denialism]]
[[Category:Pseudohistory]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

West Lake Hills, Texas

2017-06-17T16:31:06Z

Madler:

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = West Lake Hills, Texas
|settlement_type = [[City]]
|nickname =
|motto =


|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_flag =
|image_seal =


|image_map = Travis County WestLakeHills.svg
|mapsize = 250px
|map_caption = Location of West Lake Hills, Texas


|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Texas]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Texas|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Travis County, Texas|Travis]]


|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|leader_title1 =
|leader_name1 =
|established_title =
|established_date =


|unit_pref = Imperial
|area_footnotes =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 9.7
|area_land_km2 = 9.7
|area_water_km2 = 0.0
|area_total_sq_mi = 3.7
|area_land_sq_mi = 3.7
|area_water_sq_mi = 0.0


|population_as_of = [[United States Census, 2010|2010]]
|population_footnotes =
|population_total = 3063
|population_density_km2 = auto


|timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|Central (CST)]]
|utc_offset = -6
|timezone_DST = CDT
|utc_offset_DST = -5
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 238
|elevation_ft = 781
|coordinates = {{coord|30|17|23|N|97|48|24|W|region:US-TX|display=inline,title}}
|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 78746
|area_code = [[Area code 512|512]]
|blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
|blank_info = 48-77632<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=http://factfinder2.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=American FactFinder}}</ref>
|blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
|blank1_info = 1349756<ref name="GR3">{{cite web|url=http://geonames.usgs.gov|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=US Board on Geographic Names|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=2007-10-25}}</ref>
|website =
|footnotes =
}}
'''West Lake Hills''' (locally referred to as "Westlake"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.austinchronicle.com/daily/food/2013-04-10/serious-froyo-shop-opens-in-westlake/}}</ref>) is a city in [[Travis County, Texas|Travis County]], [[Texas]], [[United States]]. The population was 3,063 at the 2010 census. The city developed rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s on the south side of the [[Colorado River (Texas)|Colorado River]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|3.7|sqmi|km2}}.

It is an affluent suburb of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], located on the west side of Austin. Based on [[per capita income]], West Lake Hills is the third most affluent suburb of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], and the 16th most affluent [[Texas locations by per capita income|location in Texas]].

==Demographics==
{{US Census population
|1960= 714
|1970= 1488
|1980= 2166
|1990= 2542
|2000= 3116
|2010= 3063
|estyear=2016
|estimate=3386
|estref=<ref name="USCensusEst2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/data/tables.2016.html|title=Population and Housing Unit Estimates|accessdate=June 9, 2017}}</ref>
|footnote=<center>U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="DecennialCensus">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/www/decennial.html|title=Census of Population and Housing|publisher=Census.gov|accessdate=June 4, 2015}}</ref></center>
}}
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2" /> of 2000, there were 3,116 people, 1,143 households, and 873 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 835.7 people per square mile (322.5/km2). There were 1,185 housing units at an average density of 317.8 per square mile (122.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.60% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.29% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.28% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.71% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 1.83% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 3.85% of the population.

There were 1,143 households out of which 40.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.6% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.71 and the average family size was 3.10.

In the city, the population was spread out with 28.1% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 22.1% from 25 to 44, 35.5% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city of Westlake Hills was $116,905, and the median income for a family was $232,913. Males had a median income of $116,371 versus $43,969 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $55,651. About 0.6% of families and 2.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 1.8% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over. In June 2010, the average home price was $1,225,697.

==Education==
West Lake Hills is the only city completely within the [[Eanes Independent School District]]. Residents are zoned to Eanes Elementary School, Bridge Point Elementary School, Barton Creek Elementary School, Cedar Creek Elementary School, Forest Trail Elementary School, Valley View Elementary School, Hill Country Middle School, West Ridge Middle School, and [[Westlake High School (Austin)|Westlake High School]].<ref>[http://www.eanesisd.net/aboutdistrict/boundary-map/Large%20Map%20-%20EISDElemMarch282007.pdf Eanes ISD boundary map] ([http://www.webcitation.org/6DKX1Bnrsn Archive]) Accessed: 4/28/2012 "MIDDLE SCHOOL BOUNDARY 2007-08: Students living west of Loop 360 attend West Ridge MS Students living east of Loop 360 attend Hill Country MS Starting in 2008-09: Students from Barton Creek, Forest Trail, and Valley View attend West Ridge MS Students from Bridge Point, Cedar Creek and Eanes attend Hill Country MS."</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Austin}}
* [http://www.westlakehills.org/ City of West Lake Hills]
* {{Handbook of Texas|id=hgw04|name=West Lake Hills, Texas}}
* [https://www.fundera.com/blog/start-business-texas 10 Best Places to Start a Business in Texas]

{{Travis County, Texas}}
{{Greater Austin}}
{{Texas}}

[[Category:Cities in Travis County, Texas]]
[[Category:Cities in Texas]]
[[Category:Cities in Greater Austin]]

Gopnik

2016-12-18T19:26:46Z

Madler:

{{About||people with this surname|Gopnik (surname)}}
[[File:Ваван Панк.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Gopnik in a [[khrushchyovka]]]]
'''Gopnik''' ({{lang-ru|го́пник|links=no}})<ref>Russian plural гопники (''gopniki''), also гопота (''gopota''), and гопари (''gopari'').</ref> is a pejorative term and a social slur used in [[Russia]], post-Soviet countries, and [[Israel]] to refer to aggressive young lower-class suburban male dwellers (usually under 30 years of age) <ref>Beiträge der Europäischen Slavistischen Linguistik (POLYSLAV)., Volume 8, 2005, ISBN 3-87690-924-4, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qpnjAAAAMAAJ&q=%D1%87%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA+%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0&dq=%D1%87%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA+%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjiqf7d1_DJAhUS5GMKHXYFC70Q6AEIJDAB p. 237]</ref> coming from families of poor education and income, somewhat similar to British [[chav]]s, [[Ned (Scottish)|neds]], or [[Scallie]] [[subculture]]s. The female form is ''gopnitsa'' ({{lang-ru|го́пница|links=no}}), and the collective noun is ''gopota'' ({{lang-ru|гопота́|links=no}}).

One of the distinctive characteristics of the gopniks is that they will often be seen [[Squatting position|squatting]] (sitting on haunches), a learned behavior attributed to prison habits or disadvantaged origins.<ref>Ханипов Р. «Гопники» – значение понятия, и элементы репрезентации субкультуры «гопников» в России // "Social Identities in Transforming Societies"</ref>

The gopnik stereotype includes predominant use of underworld [[Mat (Russian profanity)|''mat'']] slang, flagrant disrespect for the laws (such as mugging and beating up passers-by; public consumption of [[alcoholic beverage]]s, most usually – the least obvious [[Jaguar (beverage)|"Jaguar" cocktail]] or homemade beverage created by adding vodka into [[fizzy pop]] for same reasons) and love snacking on roasted [[sunflower seed]]s while remaining squatted, spitting the seeds' shells.

Fashion preferences include [[flat cap]]s, [[Adidas]] [[tracksuits]], often cheap and obvious counterfeits or label-less replicas. Shoes include [[dress shoe]]s and loafers, often made of PVC or artificial leather. In the winter, a [[leather jacket]] and a "gondonka" (a [[Beanie (seamed cap)|beanie]] or [[knit cap]]) are added to a typical Gopnik's attire.

== Origin ==
The term "gopnik" was probably derived from slang term [[gop-stop]] ({{lang-ru|Гоп-стоп|links=no}}), meaning street [[robbery|mugging]].

Another hypothesis is that "gopnik" derived from the [[acronym]] ''GOP'', probably a reference to ''Gorodskoye Obshchestvo Prizreniya'' (the municipal agency for care of destitutes), the numerous [[almshouse]]s organized by the government after the [[October Revolution]].

Another version translates the acronym as ''Gorodskoye Obshchezhitiye Proletariata'' (The Municipal Dormitory of the Proletariat), putatively organized in the 1920s in [[Leningrad]] in the hotel ''Oktyabrskaya'', which quickly became known for the criminal activities of its inhabitants. The major argument against this theory is that there are no surviving records proving the existence of such an institution in Leningrad.

Another theory refers to old slang word "гопать" (literally, "to gop") was already [[Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language|"Dal's Dictionary"]] and it means "sleeping on street" on the slang of "mazuricks", St. Petersburgh's crooks.

Another hypothetical chain links to English slang phrase "gob stop" being used as "gop-stop!" order to stand still to the person being robbed. Such a usage could happen, because gopnik's collective robbing has ''modus operandi'' of suppressing victim by surrounding and asking sensitive questions in loud voice, thus "jokingly" testing the victim for courage rather than perform outlawed activities. Point for gopnicks is, that person, who easily breaks and "gives" goods, [[cell phone|phones]] or accessories, can't clearly describe to the police all the details of gob stop.

== Literature, further reading ==
* Фима Жиганец. Жемчужины босяцкой речи. Ростов-на-Дону, "Феникс", 1999. ISBN 5-222-00958-0
* Потапов С.М. Словарь жаргона преступников. Блатная музыка. Народный комиссариат внутренних дел, 1990.
* Владимир Козлов. Гопники. Ад Маргинем, 2003. ISBN 5-93321-041-2

== See also ==
*[[Ars (slang)]]
*[[Bogan]]
*[[Dres]]
*[[Flaite]]
*[[Gangsta rap]]
*[[Kazan phenomenon]]
*[[Thief in law]]
*[[Wigger]]
*[[Chav]]
*[[Yob (slang)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{skinhead}}

[[Category:Class-related slurs]]
[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]
[[Category:Russian culture]]
[[Category:Slang]]
[[Category:Social groups]]
[[Category:Stereotypes of suburban people]]
[[Category:Stereotypes of working class men]]
[[Category:Social class subcultures]]
[[Category:Criminal subcultures]]
[[Category:Working class in Europe]]

Continuum (magazine)

2016-04-24T12:31:57Z

Madler:

{{Infobox magazine
| title = Continuum
| logo =
| logo_size =
| image_file = Continuum magazine autumn 2000 cover small.png
| image_size = 
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| editor =
| editor_title =
| previous_editor = {{Plainlist|
* Jody Wells
* Huw Christie Williams
* Michael Baumgartner
}}
| staff_writer =
| photographer =
| category = [[Health]]
| frequency =
| circulation =
| publisher =
| founder = Jody Wells
| founded =
| firstdate = {{Start date|1992|12}}
| finaldate = {{End date|2001}}
| company =
| country = United Kingdom
| based =
| language = [[English language|English]]
| website = 
| issn = 1461-1597
| issn_note = <ref name=vol5n2>{{cite web|title=Continuum vol.5 no.2 Winter 1997/8 from archive on virusmyth.com|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v5n2.pdf|accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref>
| oclc = 36211346
}}

'''''Continuum''''' was a [[magazine]] published by an activist group of the same name who denied the existence of HIV/AIDS.

Favoring [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] content, the magazine addressed issues related to [[HIV/AIDS]], [[HIV/AIDS denialism|AIDS denialism]], [[alternative medicine]], and themes of interest to the [[LGBT]] community. It ran from December 1992 until February 2001, ceasing publication because all the contributors had died of [[AIDS-defining clinical condition]]s.

==History==
''Continuum'' was created in December 1992 by Jody Wells (March 12, 1947 – August 26, 1995) in [[London]], [[United Kingdom]]. It ceased publication in 2001, after all the editors died from [[AIDS-defining clinical condition]]s,<ref>
{{cite web|url=http://newhumanist.org.uk/2165/how-to-spot-an-aids-denialist|title = How to spot an AIDS denialist|accessdate = 15 January 2013}}</ref> leaving debts of over £14,000.<ref name="lastissueeditorial">{{cite web|url = http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/latest/editoria.htm|title = Continuum vol6 No3 |date=Summer–Autumn 2001|accessdate = 16 January 2013}}</ref> The magazine last appeared in print in 1998 and then surfaced again in February 2001 on the Internet.<ref Name="lastissueeditorial"/> It was initially published bimonthly, then began to be published seasonally.

According to the magazine:
{{quote|''Continuum'' began as a newsletter encouraging those affected to empower themselves to make care and treatment choices. As we look further, anomalies in the orthodox view{{efn|The magazine used words like [[orthodoxy]], orthodox view and [[hypothesis]], to refer to the established fact by the international scientific community that the HIV is the cause of AIDS, the HIV/AIDS exists, and that HIV can be spread via [[sexually transmitted infection|sexual]], [[Vertically transmitted infection|vertical]] and [[HIV|parenteral]] means.}} continue to appear.<ref name="Continuumv3n6">{{cite journal|date=March–April 1996|journal=Continuum Magazine|volume=3|issue=6|url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/v3n6.pdf|title = Continuum v3.6|accessdate=5 June 2013}}</ref>}}

''Continuum'' promoted the idea that AIDS was a [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy]] and was not related to HIV. Wells believed that the fear of AIDS was based on [[homophobia]], not science.<ref name=13AIDSdenialists>{{cite web|url = http://voices.yahoo.com/13-aids-denialists-died-aids-6813978.html|title = 13 AIDS denialists who have died of AIDS|date=September 21, 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306111823/http://voices.yahoo.com/13-aids-denialists-died-aids-6813978.html?cat=5|archivedate=2014-03-06|accessdate=2015-02-04|deadurl=yes}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=June 2015}}

''Continuum'' claimed to be a scientific journal for those who had alternative theories about HIV/AIDS, even though it had no peer review and promoted and advertised [[alternative medicine|alternative therapies]] such as [[urinotherapy]]. [[AIDS denialism|AIDS denialists]] often cite the articles published in this journal as a source of scientific information.
{{quote|Continuum is a unique forum for those in the scientific community challenging the orthodoxy and those whose lives have in some way been touched by the hypothesis.<ref Name="Continuumv3n6"/>}}

In the January/February 1996 edition, the magazine began offering £1,000 to the first person who could find a scientific study that showed the isolation of HIV,<ref Name="Continuumv3n5">{{cite journal|date=January–February 1996|journal=Continuum Magazine|volume=3|issue=5|url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/v3n5.pdf|title = Continuum v3.5|accessdate=5 June 2013}}</ref> even though it had been isolated in 1983 by [[Luc Montagnier]] and [[Françoise Barré-Sinoussi]]<ref name="Science4599">{{Cite journal|author= Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vezinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L|title=Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)|journal = Science|volume = 220|issue = 4599|pages = 868–871|year=1983|pmid=6189183|doi=10.1126/science.6189183|bibcode=1983Sci .. 220 .. 868B}}</ref> (for which they obtained a [[Nobel Prize]]),<ref name="BBC_Nobel">{{cite web| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7654214.stm|title = Nobel prize for viral discoveries|publisher = [[BBC News]]|date = 6 October 2008|accessdate = 15 January 2013}}</ref> and then was confirmed by [[Robert Gallo]] in 1984,{{efn|The four papers are,
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.6200935 | author = Popovic M, Sarngadharan MG, Read E, Gallo RC. |date=May 1984 |title= Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS |journal = Science |volume= 224 |issue=4648 |pages= 497–500 |pmid= 6200935|bibcode = 1984Sci...224..497P }}
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.6200936 | author = Gallo RC, Salahuddin SZ, Popovic M, Shearer GM, Kaplan M, Haynes BF, Palker TJ, Redfield R, Oleske J, Safai B |date=May 1984 |title= Frequent detection and isolation of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and at risk for AIDS |journal = Science |volume= 224 |issue=4648 |pages= 500–3 |pmid= 6200936|bibcode = 1984Sci...224..500G |display-authors=etal}}
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.6200937 | author = Schüpbach J, Popovic M, Gilden RV, Gonda MA, Sarngadharan MG, Gallo RC. |date=May 1984 |title= Serological analysis of a subgroup of human T-lymphotropic retroviruses (HTLV-III) associated with AIDS |journal = Science |volume= 224 |issue=4648 |pages= 503–5 |pmid= 6200937|bibcode = 1984Sci...224..503S }}
*{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.6324345 | author = Sarngadharan MG, Popovic M, Bruch L, Schüpbach J, Gallo RC. |date=May 1984 |title= Antibodies reactive with human T-lymphotropic retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the serum of patients with AIDS |journal = Science |volume= 224 |issue=4648 |pages= 506–8 |pmid= 6324345|bibcode = 1984Sci...224..506S }}}} demonstrating that a retrovirus they had isolated, called HTLV-III in the belief that the virus was related to the leukemia viruses of Gallo's earlier work, was the cause of AIDS.<ref name="hilts">{{cite news | last = Hilts | first = Philip | title=U.S. Drops Misconduct Case Against an AIDS Researcher | publisher = ''[[New York Times]]'' | date = 1993-11-13 |url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9F0CEFDB1F3BF930A25752C1A965958260}}</ref>
[[Peter Duesberg]] tried to claim the prize and wrote an article for the magazine in its July/August 1996 issue,<ref name="Continuumv4n2">{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v4n2.pdf|title=Continuum vol4 No 2 July/August 1996|accessdate= 15 January 2013}}</ref> but the award was rejected because it had to meet certain conditions.

Immunity Resource Foundation hosts the complete library of ''Continuum'' magazine among an internet database of 120,000 similar documents {{as of|June 2013|lc=yes}}.<ref name="IRF">{{cite web|url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/aims.html|title=Aims of The Immunity Resource Foundation|accessdate=4 June 2013}}</ref>

==Editors==
Jody Wells, founder and chief editor, died on August 26, 1995 at 48 by [[Pneumocystis pneumonia|''Pneumocystis'' pneumonia]], an AIDS defining clinical condition.<ref name="aidstruth"/>

Huw Christie Williams was the chief editor after the death of Jody Wells until shortly before his death on August 17, 2001, at 41<ref name="virusmyth">{{cite web| url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/hiv/mbobituaryhc.htm| title=Obituario de Huw Christie Williams| accessdate=January 15, 2013}}</ref> by [[Kaposi's sarcoma]], an AIDS defining clinical condition.<ref name="aidstruth">{{cite web| url=http://www.aidstruth.org/denialism/dead_denialists| title=AIDS denialists who have died| accessdate=15 January 2013}}</ref>

Michael Baumgartner was the acting editor on the last edition of the magazine.<ref name="lastedition">{{cite web| url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/latest/index.htm|title=Continuum last edition|accessdate=15 January 2013}}</ref> He served as editor only this time at the request of Huw Christie Williams before his death, for a final publication before the final closing of the magazine.

==Contributors==
'' People who at least once have been mentioned as working in the magazine. In order of appearance in the publications.''
* Tony Tompsett wrote for the magazine since 1993.<ref name="Continuumv3n1"/> He died in 1998, at age 39 from [[Kaposi's sarcoma]], [[toxoplasmosis]], and possibly Pneumocystis pneumonia, AIDS defining clinical conditions<ref name="aidstruth"/>
* [[Barry Duke]]<ref name="Continuumv1n3">{{cite web| url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/Continuum_Vol_1_no3.pdf| title=Continuum vol1 n°3 April/May 1993|accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Marcel Wiel<ref name="Continuumv1n3"/>
* Brian Parry<ref name="Continuumv1n3"/>
* Garry French<ref name="Continuumv1n3"/>
* Richard Young<ref name="Continuumv1n3"/>
* [[Mary Lou Clements-Mann|Mary Clements]]<ref name="Continuumv1n3"/>
* Raj Singh<ref name="Continuumv1n3"/>
* Lilian Ankunda<ref name="Continuumv1n3"/>
* Boo Armstrong<ref name="Continuumv1n4">{{cite web| url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/Continuum_Vol_1_no4.pdf|title=Continuum vol1 n°4 June/July 1993| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Mark Cohen<ref name="Continuumv1n4"/>
* Rachel Armstrong<ref name="Continuumv1n5">{{cite web| url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/Cont_Vol_1_no5.pdf| title=Continuum vol1 n°5 August/September 1993| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Stuart Bennett<ref name="Continuumv1n5"/>
* Giuseppe Paperone<ref name="Continuumv1n5"/>
* John Dunphy<ref name="Continuumv2n2">{{cite web| url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/v2n2.pdf| title=Continuum vol2 n°2 April/May 1994| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Patrick Brough<ref name="Continuumv2n2"/>
* Molly Ratcliffe<ref name="Continuumv3n1">{{cite web| url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/v3n1.pdf| title=Continuum vol3 n°1 April/May 1995| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Musimbi Sangale<ref name="Continuumv3n1"/>
* Malcom Manning<ref name="Continuumv3n4">{{cite web| url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/v3n4.pdf| title=Continuum vol3 n°4 November/December 1995| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Andy Hitchen<ref name="Continuumv3n4"/>
* Matthew Probert<ref name="Continuumv3n5"/>
* James Whitehead<ref name="Continuumv3n5"/>
* Alex Russell<ref name="Continuumv3n5"/>
* Nigel Edwards<ref name="Continuumv4n1"/>
* Rafael Ramos<ref name="Continuumv4n1">{{cite web| url=http://www.immunity.org.uk/media/Continuum%20PDFs/v4n1.pdf| title=Continuum vol4 n°1 May/June 1996| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Stefan Lanka<ref name="Continuumv4n5">{{cite web| url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v4n5.pdf| title= Continuum vol4 n°5 February/March 1997| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Chris Baker<ref name="Continuumv4n6">{{cite web| url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v4n6.pdf|title= Continuum vol4 n°6 June/July 1997|accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Dmitri Gouskov<ref name="Continuumv5n2">{{cite web| url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v5n2.pdf| title=Continuum vol5 n°2 Winter 1997-1998|accessdate=16 January 2013 }}</ref>
* Ian Young<ref name="Continuumv5n2"/>
* Ben Kypreos<ref name="Continuumv5n2"/>
* Michael Verney-Elliot<ref name="Continuumv5n3">{{cite web| url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v5n3.pdf| title= Continuum vol5 n°3 Spring 1998| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Clair Walton<ref name="Continuumv5n4">{{cite web| url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v5n4.pdf| title=Continuum vol5 n°4 Summer 1998| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Bill Goldberg<ref name="Continuumv5n6"/>
* Kevin Corbett<ref name="Continuumv5n6"/>
* Martin Walker<ref name="Continuumv5n6"/>
* Sara Ayech<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>
* Etienne de Harven<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>
* Claus Kohnlein<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>
* Michael Tracey<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>
* Klazien Matter-Walstra<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>
* Anju Singh<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>
* Alistair McConnachie<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>
* Olivier Clerc<ref name="lastissueeditorial"/>

==Consultants==
''People appearing explicitly as consultants in the magazine.''

* Michael Baumgartner<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Nigel Edwards<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Leon Chaitow<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* [[Peter Duesberg]]<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Michael Ellner<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Alfred Hässig<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Neville Hodgkinson<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Christine Johnson<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Heinrich Kremer<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Stefan Lanka<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* [[John Lauritsen]]<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Margaret Turner<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Joan Shenton<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Gordon Stewart<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Michael Verney-Elliot<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Ian Young<ref name="Continuumv4n2"/>
* Lluis Botinas<ref name="Continuumv4n4">{{cite web| url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v4n4.pdf| title= Continuum vol4 n°4 November/December 1996| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>
* Volker Glidemeister<ref name="Continuumv4n4"/>
* Djamel Tahi<ref name="Continuumv4n4"/>
* Felix de Fries<ref name="Continuumv4n6"/>
* [[Celia Farber]]<ref name="Continuumv4n6"/>
* Linda Lazarides<ref name="Continuumv4n6"/>
* Kevin Corbett<ref name="Continuumv5n6">{{cite web| url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/v5n6.pdf| title= Continuum vol5 n°6 Summer 1999| accessdate=16 January 2013}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.virusmyth.com/aids/continuum/index.htm Continuum website]
* [http://www.immunity.org.uk/continuum/ Continuum archives]

[[Category:Magazines disestablished in 2001]]
[[Category:Magazines established in 1992]]
[[Category:Defunct magazines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Health magazines]]
[[Category:HIV/AIDS denialism]]
[[Category:British LGBT-related magazines]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:London magazines]]

Slavoj Žižek

2016-03-08T04:48:46Z

Madler: evidence here (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BSLS0MvT8W0) that his German isn't good enough for conversation.

{{redirect2|Žižek|Zizek|the biographical documentary film|Zizek!}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| name = Slavoj Žižek
| image = Slavoj Zizek in Liverpool cropped.jpg
| image_size = 230px
| caption = Slavoj Žižek in Liverpool, England, 2008
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1949|3|21}}
| birth_place = [[Ljubljana]], [[People's Republic of Slovenia|PR Slovenia]], [[Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia|FPR Yugoslavia]]
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = {{nowrap|[[20th-century philosophy|20th-]]{{\}}[[21st-century philosophy]]}}
| school_tradition = {{unbulleted list|style=white-space:nowrap; |[[Ljubljana school of psychoanalysis]] |[[Lacanian psychoanalysis]] |[[Hegelianism]] |[[Marxism]]}}
| main_interests = {{hlist|[[Ideology]] |[[Marxism]] |[[Ontology]] |[[Political theory]] |[[Psychoanalysis]] |[[Cultural studies]] |[[Film theory]] |[[Theology]] |[[German idealism]]}}
| alma_mater = {{unbulleted list |[[University of Ljubljana]] (B.A./M.A./D.A.)|[[University of Paris VIII]] (Ph.D.)}}
| institutions = {{unbulleted list |[[University of Ljubljana]] |[[New York University]] |[[Birkbeck, University of London]]}}
| notable_ideas = {{longitem|Ideology as an [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]] fantasy that structures reality}} {{longitem|revival of [[dialectical materialism]]}}
| influences = {{hlist |[[Louis Althusser|Althusser]] |[[Alain Badiou|Badiou]] |[[G. K. Chesterton|Chesterton]] |[[Božidar Debenjak|Debenjak]] |[[Sigmund Freud|Freud]] |[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] |[[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]] |[[Frederic Jameson|Jameson]] |[[Jacques Lacan|Lacan]] |[[Ernesto Laclau|Laclau]] |[[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]] |[[Karl Marx|Marx]] |[[Maximilien Robespierre|Robespierre]] |[[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]]}}
| influenced = {{hlist |[[Mark Fisher (theorist)|Fisher]] |[[Srećko Horvat|Horvat]] |[[Adrian Johnston|Johnston]] |[[Ian Parker (psychologist)|Parker]] |[[Renata Salecl|Salecl]] |[[Frank Ruda|Ruda]] |[[Alenka Zupančič|Zupančič]] |[[Frederic Jameson|Jameson]] |[[Terry Eagleton|Eagleton]]}}
}}

'''Slavoj Žižek''' ({{IPA-sl|ˈslavoj ˈʒiʒɛk|Slovene:|Zizek - the correct Slavoj Žižek pronunciation.ogg}}; born 21 March 1949) is a [[List of Slovene philosophers|Slovenian]] [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] [[philosopher]], [[cultural critic]], and a [[Marxist]] scholar. He is a senior researcher at the Institute for Sociology and Philosophy at the [[University of Ljubljana]], Global Distinguished Professor of German at [[New York University]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Visiting Faculty|url=http://german.as.nyu.edu/page/people|publisher=New York University}}</ref> and international director of the [[Birkbeck Institute for the Humanities]].<ref>http://www.bbk.ac.uk/bih/aboutus/staff/zizek</ref> His work is located at the intersection of a range of disciplines, including [[continental philosophy]], [[political theory]], [[cultural studies]], [[psychoanalysis]], [[film criticism]], and [[theology]].

Born in [[Slovenia]] and educated in [[Ljubljana]] and later [[Paris]], Žižek first achieved international recognition after the 1989 publication of his first English text, ''[[The Sublime Object of Ideology]]'', in which he departed from traditional [[Marxist]] theory to develop a [[materialist]] conception of [[ideology]] that drew heavily on [[Lacanian psychoanalysis]] and [[Hegelian idealism]].<ref name="Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/biography/Slavoj-Zizek ''Britannica'']</ref><ref name="iep.utm.edu">"Slavoj Žižek," by Matthew Sharpe, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISSN|2161-0002}}, http://www.iep.utm.edu/zizek/. 27 September 2015.</ref> His early theoretical work became increasingly eclectic and political in the 1990s, dealing frequently in the critical analysis of disparate forms of popular culture and making him a popular figure of the academic [[leftism|Left]].<ref name="Britannica"/><ref>Kirk Boyle. "The Four Fundamental Concepts of Slavoj Žižek’s Psychoanalytic Marxism." ''International Journal of Žižek Studies''. Vol 2.1. [http://zizekstudies.org/index.php/ijzs/article/viewFile/70/163 (link)]</ref> A critic of [[capitalism]] and [[neoliberalism]], Žižek identifies as a [[Political radicalism|political radical]], and his work has been characterized as challenging orthodoxies of both the [[political right]] and the [[left-liberal]] [[academia|academy]].<ref name="iep.utm.edu"/><ref name="Spiegel">[http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/slavoj-zizek-greatest-threat-to-europe-is-it-s-inertia-a-1023506.html ''Spiegel'']</ref><ref>[[Ian Parker (psychologist)|Ian Parker]], ''Slavoj Žižek: A Critical Introduction'' (London: Pluto Press, 2004).</ref> His [[Slavoj Žižek bibliography|prodigious body of writing]] spans dense theoretical polemics, academic tomes, and accessible introductory books; in addition, he has taken part in various film projects, including two documentary collaborations with director [[Sophie Fiennes]], ''[[The Pervert's Guide to Cinema]]'' (2006) and ''[[The Pervert's Guide to Ideology]]'' (2012).

Žižek's unorthodox style, popular academic works, frequent magazine [[op-eds]], and critical assimilation of [[high culture|high]] and [[low culture|low]] culture have gained him international influence and a substantial audience outside of academia in addition to controversy and criticism.<ref name="Spiegel"/><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/authorinterviews/7871302/Slavoj-Zizek-the-worlds-hippest-philosopher.html ''The Telegraph'']</ref><ref>[http://www.salon.com/2012/12/29/slavoj_zizek_i_am_not_the_worlds_hippest_philosopher/ ''Salon'']</ref><ref name="RoyalOperaHouse">{{cite news|last=O'Hagan|first=Sean|title=Slavoj Žižek: a philosopher to sing about |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/theobserver/2013/jan/13/observer-profile-slavoj-zizek-opera/|accessdate=13 January 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 January 2013}}</ref><ref>[https://ceasefiremagazine.co.uk/zizek-the-most-dangerous-thinker-in-the-west/ ''Ceasefire Magazine'']</ref> In 2012, ''[[Foreign Policy]]'' listed Žižek on its list of Top 100 Global Thinkers, calling him "a celebrity philosopher,"<ref name="The FP Top 100 Global Thinkers">{{cite web |url=http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/11/26/the_fp_100_global_thinkers?page=0,55 |title=The FP Top 100 Global Thinkers|date=26 November 2012 |work=Foreign Policy |accessdate=28 November 2012 |archivedate=28 November 2012|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6CViUyRpk |deadurl=no}}</ref> while elsewhere he has been dubbed the "[[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] of cultural theory" and "the most dangerous philosopher in the [[western world|West]]."<ref name="Zizek Journal">{{cite web |url=http://zizekstudies.org/index.php/ijzs/index |title=International Journal of Žižek Studies, home page |accessdate=27 December 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.vice.com/en_uk/video/slavoj-zizek ''Vice'']</ref> Žižek's work was chronicled in a 2005 documentary film entitled ''[[Zizek!]]'' A scholarly journal, the ''[[International Journal of Žižek Studies]]'', was also founded to engage his work.<ref>http://zizekstudies.org/index.php/ijzs/about</ref>

==Early life==
Žižek was born in [[Ljubljana]], [[SR Slovenia]], [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], to a middle-class family. His parents were both [[Atheism|atheists]].<ref name="mladina.si">{{cite web|url=http://www.mladina.si/tednik/200442/clanek/nar-kdo_je_kdaj--ursa_matos/ |trans_title=Who's When: Slavoj Žižek. The Last of the Marxists who made Pop from Philosophy and Philosophy from Pop |title= Kdo je kdaj: Slavoj Žižek. Tisti poslednji marksist, ki je iz filozofije naredil pop in iz popa filozofijo |publisher=Mladina |date=24 October 2004 |accessdate=13 August 2010|language=Slovenian}}</ref> His father Jože Žižek was an economist and civil servant from the region of [[Prekmurje]] in eastern Slovenia. His mother Vesna, native of the [[Brda, Slovenia|Brda]] region in the [[Slovenian Littoral]], was an accountant in a state enterprise.<ref name="mladina.si"/><ref>''Slovenski biografski leksikon'' (Ljubljana: [[Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts|SAZU]], 1991), XV. edition</ref> He spent most of his childhood in the coastal town of [[Portorož]], during which time he was formatively exposed to noncommunist Western film, popular culture, and theory.<ref name="iep.utm.edu"/><ref name=slovenskapomlad>{{cite web|url=http://www.slovenskapomlad.si/2?id=20 |title=Slovenska pomlad: Slavoj Žižek (Webpage run by the National Museum of Modern History in Ljubljana) |publisher=Slovenskapomlad.si |date=29 September 1988 |accessdate=4 June 2011}}</ref> The family moved back to Ljubljana when Slavoj was a teenager. Žižek attended [[Bežigrad High School]].<ref name=slovenskapomlad/> In 1967, he enrolled at the [[University of Ljubljana]], where he studied philosophy and sociology. He received a [[Doctor of Arts]] in Philosophy from the [[University of Ljubljana]] in 1981 with a dissertation under the title The Theoretical and Practical Relevance of French Structuralism."<ref name="lacan.com">[http://www.lacan.com/zizekchro1.htm Slavoj Zizek - His Life]</ref>

==Career==
Žižek began his studies in an era of [[liberalization]] of the [[Titoism|Titoist]] [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. Already prior to his enrollment to university, he began reading French [[Structuralism|structuralists]].<ref name="mladina.si">{{cite web|url=http://www.mladina.si/tednik/200442/clanek/nar-kdo_je_kdaj--ursa_matos/ |title=Tednik, številka 42, Slavoj Žižek |publisher=Mladina.Si |date=24 October 2004 |accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref> In 1967, he published the first translation of a text by [[Jacques Derrida]] to Slovenian.<ref name="mladina.si" /> Among his early influences was the Slovenian [[Marxism|Marxist]] philosopher [[Božidar Debenjak]] who introduced the thought of the [[Frankfurt School]] to Slovenia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dpu.mirovni-institut.si/9letnik/debenjak.php |title=Delavsko-punkerska univerza |publisher=Dpu.mirovni-institut.si |date=22 February 1999 |accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref> Debenjak taught the philosophy of [[German idealism]] at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Ljubljana, and his reading of Marx's ''[[Das Kapital]]'' from the perspective of Hegel's ''[[Phenomenology of the Mind]]'' influenced many future Slovenian philosophers, including Žižek.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mladina.si/tednik/200904/dr__bozidar_debenjak__filozof |title=Tednik, številka 04, Dr. Božidar Debenjak, filozof |publisher=Mladina.Si |date=6 February 2009 |accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref>

Žižek frequented the circles of dissident intellectuals, including the [[Martin Heidegger|Heideggerian]] philosophers [[Tine Hribar]] and [[Ivo Urbančič]],<ref name="mladina.si" /> and published articles in alternative magazines, such as ''[[Praxis School|Praxis]]'', ''Tribuna'' and ''Problemi'', of which he was also an editor.<ref name=slovenskapomlad/> In 1971, he was given employment at the University of Ljubljana as an assistant researcher with the promise of tenure, but was dismissed after his Master's thesis was explicitly accused of being "non-Marxist."<ref name="p37">Žižek's response to the article "Če sem v kaj resnično zaljubljena, sem v življenje (Sobotna priloga Dela, p. 37 (19.1. 2008)</ref> He spent the next few years undertaking [[national service]] in the [[Yugoslav army]] in [[Karlovac]].

Žižek's early work used the work of [[Jacques Lacan]] to interpret [[Hegelianism|Hegelian]] and Marxist philosophy. During this time in the 1980s, he also edited and translated into [[Slovene language|Slovene]] Lacan, [[Sigmund Freud]], and [[Louis Althusser]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dskp-drustvo.si/prevajalci.php |title=Prevajalci – Društvo slovenskih književnih prevajalcev |publisher=Dskp-drustvo.si |accessdate=7 January 2012}}</ref>

He completed his second doctorate ([[Doctor of Philosophy]] in psychoanalysis) at the [[University of Paris VIII]] in 1985<ref name="lacan.com"/> under [[Jacques-Alain Miller]] and [[François Regnault]].

In addition, he wrote the introduction to Slovene translations of [[G. K. Chesterton]]'s and [[John Le Carré]]'s detective novels. In 1988, he published his first book dedicated entirely to [[film theory]]. Žižek achieved international recognition as a [[Social theory|social theorist]] with the 1989 publication of his first book in English, ''The Sublime Object of Ideology''.

Žižek has been publishing on a regular basis in journals such as ''[[Lacanian Ink]]'' and ''[[In These Times]]'' in the United States, the ''[[New Left Review]]'' and ''[[The London Review of Books]]'' in the United Kingdom, and with the Slovenian [[Social liberalism|left-liberal]] magazine ''[[Mladina]]'' and newspapers ''[[Dnevnik (Ljubljana)|Dnevnik]]'' and ''[[Delo]]''. He also co-operates with the Polish leftist magazine ''[[Krytyka Polityczna]]'', regional southeast European left-wing journal ''[[Novi Plamen]]'', and serves on the editorial board of the psychoanalytical journal ''Problemi''.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

==Politics==
In the late 1980s, Žižek came to public attention as a columnist for the alternative youth magazine ''[[Mladina]]'', which assumed a critical stance towards the [[Titoism|Titoist]] regime, criticizing several aspects of Yugoslav politics, especially the [[militarization]] of society. He was a member of the [[Communist Party of Slovenia]] until October 1988, when he quit in protest against the [[JBTZ trial]] together with 32 other Slovenian public intellectuals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slovenskapomlad.si/1?id=103 |title=Skupinski protestni izstop iz ZKS |date=28 October 1998 |publisher=Slovenska Pomlad}}</ref> Between 1988 and 1990, he was actively involved in several political and [[civil society]] movements which fought for the [[democratization]] of Slovenia, most notably the [[Committee for the Defence of Human Rights]].<ref>{{Cite journal
|url=http://www.slovenskapomlad.si/1?id=31&aofs=3 |title=Odbor za varstvo človekovih pravic |date=3 June 1998 |publisher=Slovenska Pomlad
|postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> In the [[Slovenian presidential election, 1990|first free elections]] in 1990, he ran as the [[Liberal Democracy of Slovenia|Liberal Democratic Party]]'s candidate for Slovenian presidency (an office formally abolished in the [[Constitution of Slovenia|1991 constitution]]).

Despite his activity in liberal democratic projects, Žižek remains committed to the communist ideal and is critical of right-wing circles, such as nationalists, [[Conservatism|conservatives]], and [[Classical liberalism|classical liberals]] both in Slovenia and worldwide. He wrote that the [[Cankar Hall|convention center]] in which nationalist [[Slovene writers]] hold their conventions should be blown up, adding, "Since we live in the time without any sense of irony, I must add I don't mean it literally."<ref name="Interview_part_two">[http://www.webcitation.org/6FZv9WUfX Interview] with Žižek – part two, [[Delo]], 2 March 2013.</ref> Similarly, he jokingly made the following comment on May 2013, during [[Subversive Festival]]: "If they don't support [[SYRIZA]], then, in my vision of the democratic future, all these people will get from me [is] a first-class one-way ticket to [a] [[gulag]]." In response, the right-wing [[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democracy]] party claimed Žižek's comments should be understood literally, not ironically.<ref name="Mionis interview">{{cite news |title=Israel must fight to keep neo-Nazis out of Greece's government |author=Sabby Mionis |url=http://www.haaretz.com/opinion/israel-must-fight-to-keep-neo-nazis-out-of-greece-s-government-1.416802 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=6 March 2012 |accessdate=6 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_20/05/2013_499789 |title=Slovenian philospher Zizek proposes 'gulag' for those who do not support SYRIZA |date=20 May 2013 |accessdate=20 May 2013 }}</ref>
[[File:Slavoj Zizek Fot M Kubik May15 2009 10.jpg|upright|alt=|thumb|Žižek seen here signing books in 2009.]]
In a 2008 interview with [[Amy Goodman]] on ''[[Democracy Now!]]'', he described himself as a "communist in a qualified sense," and in another appearance in October 2009 he described himself as a "radical leftist."<ref name="democracynow.org">[http://www.democracynow.org/2008/3/11/everybody_in_the_world_except_us ''Democracy Now!'' television program online transcript], 11 March 2008.</ref><ref name="http">{{cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2009/10/15/slovenian_philosopher_slavoj_zizek_on_the |title=Slovenian Philosopher Slavoj Zizek on Capitalism, Healthcare, Latin American "Populism" and the "Farcical" Financial Crisis |publisher=Democracynow.org |accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref> The following year Žižek appeared in the [[Arte]] documentary ''[[Marx Reloaded]]'' in which he defended the idea of communism.

In 2013, he corresponded with [[Pussy Riot]] member and activist [[Nadezhda Tolokonnikova]] in a series of letters while she was imprisoned for [[hooliganism]].<ref name="Guardian, Nadezhda Tolokonnikova of Pussy Riot's prison letters to Slavoj Žižek">{{cite web|title=Nadezhda Tolokonnikova of Pussy Riot's prison letters to Slavoj Žižek|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/nov/15/pussy-riot-nadezhda-tolokonnikova-slavoj-zizek}}</ref>

==Public life==
In 2003, Žižek wrote text to accompany [[Bruce Weber (photographer)|Bruce Weber]]'s photographs in a catalog for [[Abercrombie & Fitch]]. Questioned as to the seemliness of a major intellectual writing ad copy, Žižek told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'', "If I were asked to choose between doing things like this to earn money and becoming fully employed as an American academic, kissing ass to get a tenured post, I would with pleasure choose writing for such journals!"<ref>Glenn, Joshua. "The Examined Life: Enjoy Your Chinos!", ''[[Boston Globe]]''. 6 July 2003. H2.</ref>

Žižek and his thought have been the subject of several documentaries. In ''[[The Reality of the Virtual]]'' (2004), Žižek gives an hour lecture on his interpretation of Lacan's tripartite thesis of the imaginary, the symbolic, and the real. ''[[Zizek!]]'' is a 2005 documentary by [[Astra Taylor]] on his philosophy. ''[[Liebe Dein Symptom wie Dich selbst!]]'' (1996) is a German documentary on him. ''[[The Pervert's Guide to Cinema]]'' (2006) and ''[[The Pervert's Guide to Ideology]]'' (2012) also portray Žižek's ideas and cultural criticism. ''[[Examined Life]]'' (2008) features Žižek speaking about aesthetics at a garbage dump. He was also featured in ''[[Marx Reloaded]]'' (2011), directed by [[Jason Barker]].

''[[Foreign Policy (magazine)|Foreign Policy]]'' named Žižek one of its 2012 [[FP Top 100 Global Thinkers|Top 100 Global Thinkers]] "for giving voice to an era of absurdity."<ref name="The FP Top 100 Global Thinkers"/>

The British [[Royal Opera House]] announced on January 2013 that four new operas inspired by Žižek's writings have been commissioned.<ref name="RoyalOperaHouse">{{cite news|last=O'Hagan|first=Sean|title=Slavoj Žižek: a philosopher to sing about |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/theobserver/2013/jan/13/observer-profile-slavoj-zizek-opera/|accessdate=13 January 2013|newspaper=The Guardian|date=13 January 2013}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Žižek has been married three times: firstly, to [[Renata Salecl]],<ref name="Interview_with_Salecl_2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.mladina.si/51268/dr__renata_salecl__filozofinja_in_sociologinja/ |title=Interview with Renata Salecl |publisher=Mladina |date=29 July 2010 |accessdate=4 December 2012}}</ref> another [[Slovene philosophy|Slovene philosopher]]; secondly, to fashion model Analia Hounie, daughter of an Argentine Lacanian psychoanalyst; and thirdly, to the Slovene journalist [[Jela Krečič]], daughter of the historian of architecture [[Peter Krečič]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.delo.si/druzba/panorama/zizka-vzela-jela-z-dela.html |title=Žižka vzela Jela z Dela |publisher=Delo |date=1 July 2013 |accessdate=3 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Delo_2005">{{cite web|url=http://www.delo.si/clanek/8516 |title=Philosopher and Beauty |publisher=Delo |date=29 March 2005 |accessdate=4 December 2012}}</ref>

He is a fluent speaker of [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]], French, and English.

==Thought ==
{{Multiple issues|section=yes|
{{expand section|date=September 2015}}
{{BLP sources section|date=September 2015}}
}}
{{Section OR|date=September 2015}}

===Ontology, ideology, and the Real===
In developing a thesis of ideology and its function, Žižek makes two intertwined arguments:<ref>Žižek, Slavoj. The Sublime Object of Ideology. New York: Verso, 1989.</ref>
#He begins with a critique of [[Karl Marx|Marx]]'s concept of ideology (as described in ''[[The German Ideology]]'') in which people are beholden to [[false consciousness]] that prevents them from seeing how things really are. Žižek argues, continuing Althusser, that ideology is thoroughly unconscious; and that ideology functions as a series of justifications and spontaneous socio-symbolic rituals which support virtual authorities.
# However, [[the Real]] is not equivalent to the reality experienced by subjects as a meaningfully ordered totality. For Žižek, the Real names points within the ontological fabric, knitted by the hegemonic systems of representation and reproduction, that nevertheless resist full inscription into its terms and that may as such attempt to generate sites of active political resistance.

Drawing on Lacan's notion of the barred subject, for Žižek the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] is a purely negative entity, a void of negativity (in the Hegelian sense), which allows for the flexibility and reflexivity of the cartesian Cogito (Transcendental Subject).<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name=Sinnerbrink2008>{{cite journal|last=Sinnerbrink|first=Robert|title=The Hegelian 'Night of the World': Žižek on Subjectivity, Negativity, and Universality|journal=International Journal of Žižek Studies|year=2008|volume=2|issue=2|url=http://zizekstudies.org/index.php/ijzs/article/view/136|accessdate=17 August 2012|issn=1751-8229|quote=This extraordinary analysis of the transcendental imagination, critique of Heidegger, and rereading of Hegelian 'night of the world,' together contribute to Žižek's reassertion of the radicality of the 'Cartesian subject'—that thoroughly repudiated theoretical spectre which nonetheless continues to 'haunt Western academia' (1999: 1–5). This unorthodox reading of the Hegelian 'night of the world'—the radical negativity that haunts subjectivity—is developed further in an explicitly political direction, which helps explain Žižek's recent critique of the 'Fukuyamaian' consensus, shared both by moral-religious conservatives and libertarian 'postmodernists', that global capitalism remains the 'unsurpassable horizon of our times'.}}</ref> Žižek claims that though consciousness is opaque, following Hegel, that the epistemological gap between the In-itself and For-itself is immanent to reality itself;<ref>{{Cite book|title = Umbr(a): The Object|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k7QbBAAAQBAJ|publisher = Umbr(a) Journal|date = 2013-01-01|isbn = 9780979953965|first = Tom|last = Eyers|first2 = Graham|last2 = Harman|first3 = Adrian|last3 = Johnston|first4 = Guy Le|last4 = Gaufey|first5 = Todd|last5 = McGowan|first6 = Duane|last6 = Rousselle|first7 = Jelica Šumič|last7 = Riha|first8 = Rado|last8 = Riha}}</ref> that the [[Kant's antinomies|antinomies]] of Kant, quantum physics, and Badiou's 'materialist' principle that 'The One is Not', point towards an inconsistent ("Barred") Real itself that Lacan conceptualized prior.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Less Than Nothing: Hegel and the Shadow of Dialectical Materialism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FAqM5rxWWKwC|publisher = Verso Books|date = 2012-05-22|isbn = 9781844679027|first = Slavoj|last = Zizek}}</ref>

[[File:Slavoj Žižek 2011.jpg|alt=|thumb|left|Žižek speaking in 2011]]

Žižek argues that although there are multiple Symbolic interpretations of the Real, they are not all relatively "true". Žižek identifies two instances of the Real: the abject Real (or "real Real"), which cannot be wholly integrated into the symbolic order, and the symbolic Real, a set of signifiers that can never be properly integrated into the horizon of sense of a subject. The truth is revealed in the process of transiting the contradictions; or the real is a "minimal difference", the gap between the infinite judgement of a [[reductionism|reductionist]] materialism and experience as lived,<ref>Zizek, On Belief</ref> developing his thesis of the "Parallax" of dialectical antagonisms as inherent to reality itself, and developing [[Dialectical Materialism]] - contra [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]] - as a new materialist Hegelianism, incorporating the insights of Lacanian psychoanalysis, set theory, quantum physics, and contemporary continental philosophy (most notably in his ''magnum opus "Less than Nothing: Hegel and the Shadow of Dialectical Materialism"'' (2012)'','' as well as ''"Absolute Recoil: Towards a New Foundation of Dialectical Materialism"'' (2014)).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Less Than Nothing: Hegel and the Shadow of Dialectical Materialism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XxYQCoaEU7AC|publisher = Verso Books|date = 2012-05-22|isbn = 9781844678976|first = Slavoj|last = Žižek}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = Absolute Recoil: Towards A New Foundation Of Dialectical Materialism|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=i8xNBAAAQBAJ|publisher = Verso Books|date = 2014-10-07|isbn = 9781781686836|first = Slavoj|last = Zizek}}</ref>

===Political thought and the postmodern subject===
Žižek argues that the state is a system of regulatory institutions that shape our behavior. Its power is purely symbolic and has no normative force outside of collective behavior. In this way, the term ''the law'' signifies society's basic principles, which enable interaction by prohibiting certain acts.<ref>Žižek, ''For They Know Not What They Do''</ref>

Political decisions for Žižek have become depoliticized and accepted as natural conclusions. For example, controversial policy decisions (such as reductions in social welfare spending) are presented as apparently "objective" necessities. Although governments make claims about increased citizen participation and democracy, the important decisions are still made in the interests of [[Capital (economics)|capital]]. The [[two-party system]] dominant in the United States and elsewhere produces a similar illusion.<ref>''A Plea for Intolerance''</ref> Žižek says that it is still necessary to engage in [[Political particularism|particular]] conflicts—such as labor disputes—but the trick is to relate these individual events to the larger struggle. Particular demands, if executed well, might serve as ''metaphorical condensation'' for the system and its injustices. The real political conflict for Žižek is between an ordered structure of society and those without a place in it.<ref name="Ticklish Subject — Politics">{{cite book|last=Žižek|first=Slavoj|title=The Ticklish Subject: the absent centre of political ontology|year=1999|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=9781859848944|chapter=Political Subjectivization and Its Vicissitudes}}</ref>

In stark contrast to the intellectual tenets of the European "universalist Left" in general, and those [[Jürgen Habermas]] defined as postnational, in particular, Žižek spares no efforts in his clear and unequivocal defense of the pro-sovereignty and pro-independence processes opened in Europe.<ref>[https://www.dropbox.com/s/cihuwrieedr8s1j/44101916-LAPIKO-TXOSTENAK-ZIZEK.pdf Žižek: "The force of universalism is in you Basques, not in the Spanish state", Interview in ''ARGIA'' (27 June 2010)]</ref>

Žižek argues that the [[Postmodernism|postmodern]] subject is cynical toward official institutions, yet at the same time believes in conspiracies. When we lost our shared belief in a single power, we constructed another of the [[Big Other|Other]] in order to escape the unbearable freedom that we faced.<ref>Žižek, ''Looking Awry: an Introduction to Jacques Lacan through Popular Culture''</ref> For Žižek, it is not enough to merely know that you are being lied to, particularly when continuing to live a normal life under capitalism. Although one may possess a self-awareness, Žižek argues, just because one understands what one is doing ''does not mean that one is doing the right thing''.<ref name=YouMay1999>{{cite journal|last=Žižek|first=Slavoj|title=You May!|journal=London Review of Books|date=18 March 1999|volume=21|issue=6|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v21/n06/slavoj-zizek/you-may|accessdate=20 August 2012|quote=But the notion is undermined by the rise of what might be called 'Post-Modern racism', the surprising characteristic of which is its insensitivity to reflection – a neo-Nazi skinhead who beats up black people knows what he's doing, but does it anyway. Reflexivisation has transformed the structure of social dominance. Take the public image of [[Bill Gates]]....}}</ref>

Žižek has said that he considers religion not an enemy but rather one of the fields of struggle. In a 2006 ''[[New York Times]]'' op-ed he made the argument for atheism, arguing that religious fundamentalists are, in a way, no different from "godless Stalinist Communists." He argued that both value divine will and salvation over moral or ethical action.<ref>Žižek, Slavoj. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/13/opinion/13iht-edzizek.html "Atheism is a legacy worth fighting for"]. ''The New York Times''. 13 March 2006.</ref><ref>Zizek, Slavoj. [http://news.genius.com/Slavoj-zizek-atheism-is-a-legacy-worth-fighting-for-annotated "Atheism is a Legacy Worth Fighting For"]. ''News.Genius.com''. Retrieved Mon., 18 August 2014.</ref>

==Criticism==
{{BLP sources section|date=September 2015}}
{{Section OR|date=September 2015}}
Many hundreds of academics have addressed aspects of Žižek's work in professional papers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?num=50&hl=en&lr=&c2coff=1&q=slavoj+zizek&btnG=Search |title=Google Scholar search for Zizek |publisher=Google Scholar |accessdate=4 June 2011}}</ref> and in 2007, the ''[[International Journal of Žižek Studies]]'' was established for the discussion of his work. There are two main themes of critique of Žižek's ideas: his failure to articulate an alternative or program in the face of his denunciation of contemporary social, political, and economic arrangements, and his lack of rigor in argumentation.<ref>Korstanje M (2015) A Difficult World, examining the roots of Capitalism. New York, Nova Science Publishers.</ref>

===Ambiguity and lack of alternatives===
Žižek's philosophical and political positions are not always clear, and critiques have called him out on his failure to take a consistent stance.<ref>Kuhn, Gabriel (2011). [http://www.alpineanarchist.org/r_anarchist_hypothesis.html The Anarchist Hypothesis, or Badiou, Žižek, and the Anti-Anarchist Prejudice] Alpine Anarchist. Retrieved 4 September 2013.</ref> He has claimed to stand by a revolutionary Marxist project, but his lack of vision or circumstance of revolution makes it unclear what that project consists of. According to some, his theoretical argument often lacks historical fact, which lends him more to provocation rather than insight.<ref name="ViolentVisions">{{cite journal|last=Gray|first=John|title=The Violent Visions of Slavoj Žižek|journal=New York Review of Books|date=12 July 2012|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/jul/12/violent-visions-slavoj-zizek/|accessdate=22 September 2012}}</ref><ref name=Holbo-2004>{{cite journal|last=Holbo|first=John|title=On Žižek and Trilling|journal=Philosophy and Literature|date=1 January 2004|volume=28|issue=2|pages=430–440|doi=10.1353/phl.2004.0029|quote=...an unhealthy anti-liberal is one, like Z+iz=ek, who ticks and tocks in unreflective revulsion at liberalism, pantomiming that he is de Maistre (or Abraham) or Robespierre (or Lenin) by turns, lest he look like Mill.}}</ref><ref name=Holbo-CT-2010>{{cite news|last=Holbo|first=John|title=Zizek on the Financial Collapse – and Liberalism|url=http://crookedtimber.org/2010/12/17/zizek-on-the-financial-collapse-and-liberalism/|accessdate=21 August 2012|newspaper=Crooked Timbers|date=17 December 2010|quote=To review: Zizek does this liberal = neoliberal thing. Which is no good. And he doesn't even have much to say about economics. And Zizek does this liberal = self-hating pc white intellectuals thing. Which is no good.}}</ref>

Žižek's refusal to present an alternative vision has led critics to accuse him of using unsustainable Marxist categories of analysis and having a 19th-century understanding of class. For example, [[Ernesto Laclau]] argued that "Žižek uses class as a sort of deus ex machina to play the role of the good guy against the multicultural devils."<ref>Butler, Judith, Ernesto Laclau and Slavoj Žižek "Contingency, Hegemony, Universality: Contemporary Dialogues on the Left". Verso. London, New York City 2000. pp. 202–206</ref> The use of such analysis, however, is not systematic and draws on critical accounts of [[Stalinism]] and [[Maoism]], as well as [[post-structuralism]] and Lacanian [[psychoanalysis]].<ref name=VanAuken&Haig-2010>{{cite news|title=Zizek in Manhattan: An intellectual charlatan masquerading as "left"|url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2010/nov2010/zize-n12.shtml|accessdate=21 August 2012|newspaper=World Socialist Web Site|date=12 November 2010|author=Bill Van Auken|author2=Adam Haig}}</ref>

For some, Žižek represents one of two trajectories in contemporary thought of a progressive alternative.<ref name="Skof">Skof, Lenart. 2010. "On Progressive Alternative: Unger Versus Žižek." ''Synthesis Philosophica'' 49.</ref><ref>MacNeil, William, 1999. "Taking Rights Symptomatically — Jouissance, Coupure, Objet Petit a." ''Griffith Law Review'' 8.</ref> On the one side are those thinkers like Žižek and [[Alain Badiou]] who embrace communism as the only radical alternative to the current social, political, and economic arrangements. They draw their inspiration from the social theory of Marxism, and extend it to form a radical [[critique of capitalism]], contemporary politics, and neoliberalism in general. They advocate a withdrawal from, in Žižek's words, "everyday material social life," and decry anyone who abandons the "hypothesis of communism" (Badiou) as resigning themselves to the market economy.<ref name="Skof"/>

For [[Roberto Mangabeira Unger]], an alternative path not trodden by thinkers like Žižek and Badiou is that of rethinking structural transformation and the construction of an alternative vision of social arrangements.<ref name="Skof"/> Although Žižek and Unger have been compared for their mutual encounter with Hegel and Marx, as well as by their experience of engagement in the political life of their respective countries, for Unger, the lack of a clear vision of alternatives in contemporary thinkers like Žižek represents a betrayal of our most important attribute: our power to resist and to reshape the social and conceptual worlds in which we find ourselves.<ref name="Skof"/>

Žižek does not agree with his critics who attribute to him a belief in necessitationism and has stated:
<blockquote>There is no such thing as the Communist [[big Other]], there's no historical necessity or [[teleology]] directing and guiding our actions." (In [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: "''Ni komunističnega velikega Drugega, nobene zgodovinske nujnosti ali teleologije, ki bi usmerjala in vodila naša dejanja''".)<ref name="Interview_part_two"/></blockquote>

In his book "Living in the End Times" Žižek acknowledges part of his critics of being ambiguous and multilateral in his positions.: <blockquote>[...] I am attacked for being anti-Semitic ''and'' for spreading [[Zionism|Zionist]] lies, for being a covert Slovene nationalist ''and'' unpatriotic traitor to my nation, for being a crypto-Stalinist defending terror ''and'' for spreading Bourgeois lies about Communism... so maybe, just maybe I am on right path, the path of fidelity to freedom."<ref>Slavoj Žižek. "Living in the End Times".</ref></blockquote>

===Unorthodox style and scholarship===
Critics complain of a theoretical chaos in which questions and answers are confused and in which Žižek constantly recycles old ideas which were scientifically refuted long ago or which in reality have quite a different meaning than Žižek gives to them.<ref>See e.g. David Bordwell, "Slavoj Žižek: Say Anything", DavidBordwell.net blog, April 2005.[http://www.davidbordwell.net/essays/zizek.php]; Philipp Oehmke, "Welcome to the Slavoj Zizek Show". ''Der Spiegel Online (International edition)'', 7 August 2010 [http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/the-most-dangerous-philosopher-in-the-west-welcome-to-the-slavoj-zizek-show-a-705164.html]; [[Jonathan Rée]], "Less Than Nothing by Slavoj Žižek – review. A march through Slavoj Žižek's 'masterwork'". ''The Guardian'', 27 June 2012.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/jun/27/less-than-nothing-slavoj-zizek-review]</ref> Harpham calls Žižek's style "a stream of nonconsecutive units arranged in arbitrary sequences that solicit a sporadic and discontinuous attention."<ref>Harpham [http://www.uchicago.edu/research/jnl-crit-inq/issues/v29/v29n3.harpham1.html "Doing the Impossible: Slavoj Žižek and the End of Knowledge"]</ref> O'Neill concurs: "a dizzying array of wildly entertaining and often quite maddening rhetorical strategies are deployed in order to beguile, browbeat, dumbfound, dazzle, confuse, mislead, overwhelm, and generally subdue the reader into acceptance."<ref>O'Neill, [http://www.film-philosophy.com/vol5-2001/n17oneill "The Last Analysis of Slavoj Žižek"]</ref>

Such presentation has laid him open to accusations of misreading other philosophers, particularly [[Jacques Lacan]] and [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]. Žižek carries over many concepts from Lacan's teachings into the sphere of political and social theory, but has a tendency to do so in an extreme deviation from its psychoanalytic context.<ref>Ian Parker, ''Slavoj Žižek: A Critical Introduction'' (Pluto Press: London and Sterling, 2004) p.78-80. For example, Žižek's appropriation of Lacan's discussion of [[Antigone (Sophocles)|Antigone]] in his 1959/1960 seminar, ''The Ethics of Psychoanalysis''. In this seminar, Lacan uses Antigone to defend the claim that "the only thing of which one can be guilty is of having given ground relative to one's desire" (Slavoj Žižek, ''The Metastases of Enjoyment'', Verso: London, 1994; p. 69). However, as Parker notes, Antigone's act (burying her dead brother in the knowledge that she will be buried alive) was never intended to effect a revolutionary change in the political status quo; yet, despite this, Žižek frequently cites Antigone as a paradigm of ethico-political action.</ref> Similarly, according to some critics, Žižek's conflation of Lacan's unconscious with Hegel's unconscious is mistaken. Noah Horwitz, in an effort to dissociate Lacan from the more problematic Hegel, interprets the Lacanian unconscious and the Hegelian unconscious as two totally different mechanisms. Horwitz points out, in Lacan and Hegel's differing approaches to the topic of speech, that Lacan's unconscious reveals itself to us in [[parapraxis]], or "slips-of-the-tongue." We are therefore, according to Lacan, alienated from language through the revelation of our desire (even if that desire originated with the Other, as he claims, it remains peculiar to us). In Hegel's unconscious, however, we are alienated from language whenever we attempt to articulate a particular and end up articulating a universal. For example, if I say 'the dog is with me', although I am trying to say something about this particular dog at this particular time, I actually produce the universal category 'dog,' and therefore express a generality, not the particularity I desire. Hegel's argument implies that, at the level of sense-certainty, we can never express the true nature of reality. Lacan's argument implies, to the contrary, that speech reveals the true structure of a particular unconscious mind.<ref>Noah Horwitz, "Contra the Slovenians: Returning to Lacan and away from Hegel" (''Philosophy Today'', Spring 2005, pp. 24–32.</ref>

In a very negative review of Žižek’s magnum opus "Less than Nothing", the British political philosopher [[John Gray]] attacked Žižek for his celebrations of violence, his failure to ground his theories in historical facts, and his ‘formless radicalism’ which, according to Gray, professes to be communist yet lacks the conviction that communism could ever be successfully realized. Gray concluded that Žižek’s work, though entertaining, is intellectually worthless: ‘Achieving a deceptive substance by endlessly reiterating an essentially empty vision, Žižek’s work amounts in the end to less than nothing.’<ref name="New York Times Review of Books">http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2012/07/12/violent-visions-slavoj-zizek/</ref>

===Accusations of plagiarism in 2014===
Žižek's tendency to recycle portions of his own texts in subsequent works resulted in the accusation of [[self-plagiarism]] by ''[[The New York Times]]'' in 2014, after Žižek published
an op-ed in the magazine which contained portions of his writing from an earlier book.<ref name="Newsweek">[http://www.newsweek.com/slavoj-zizek-self-plagiarized-new-york-times-269221 ''Newsweek'']</ref> In response, Žižek expressed perplexity at the harsh tone of the denunciation, emphasizing that the recycled passages in question only acted as references from his theoretical books to supplement otherwise original writing.<ref name="Newsweek"/>

On 11 July 2014, leading American weekly newsmagazine ''[[Newsweek]]'' reported that in an article published in 2006 Žižek plagiarized substantial passages from an earlier review that first appeared in the [[White Nationalist]] journal ''[[American Renaissance (magazine)|American Renaissance]]'', a publication condemned by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] as the organ of a "white nationalist hate group."<ref name="American_Renaissance_Plagiarism">{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/did-marxist-philosophy-superstar-slavoj-zizek-plagiarize-white-nationalist-journal-258433 |title= Did Marxist Philosophy Superstar Slavoj Žižek Plagiarize a White Nationalist Journal?|work= Newsweek |date=11 July 2014 |accessdate=13 July 2014}}</ref> However, in response to the allegations, Žižek stated:
<blockquote>When I was writing the text on Derrida which contains the problematic passages, a friend told me about [[Kevin B. MacDonald|Kevin Macdonald's]] theories, and I asked him to send me a brief resume. The friend send [sic] it to me, assuring me that I can use it freely since it merely resumes another's line of thought. Consequently, I did just that – and I sincerely apologize for not knowing that my friend's resume was largely borrowed from Stanley Hornbeck's review of Macdonald's book. [...] As any reader can quickly establish, the problematic passages are purely informative, a report on another's theory for which I have no affinity whatsoever; all I do after this brief resume is quickly dismissing Macdonald's theory as a new chapter in the long process of the destruction of Reason. In no way can I thus be accused of plagiarizing another's line of thought, of "stealing ideas." I nonetheless deeply regret the incident.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dean|first1=Michelle|title=Slavoj Žižek Sorta Kinda Admits Plagiarizing White Supremacist Journal|url=http://gawker.com/slavoj-zizek-sorta-kinda-admits-plagiarizing-white-supr-1604590014|website=Gawker.com|publisher=Gawker Online|accessdate=20 February 2015}}</ref></blockquote>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
|-
| 2004
|'' [[The Reality of the Virtual]]''
| Script author, lecturer (as himself)
|-
| 2005
| ''[[Zizek!]]''
| Lecturer (as himself)
|-
| 2006
| ''[[The Pervert's Guide to Cinema]]''
| Screenwriter, presenter (as himself)
|-
| 2012
| ''[[The Pervert's Guide to Ideology]]''
| Screenwriter, presenter (as himself)
|}

==References==
{{Library resources box|by=yes||onlinebooks=yes|viaf=2478493}}

===Bibliography===
{{Main|Slavoj Žižek bibliography}}

{{clear}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2|colwidth=30em}}

===Sources===
* Canning, P. "The Sublime Theorist of Slovenia: Peter Canning Interviews Slavoj Žižek" in ''Artforum'', Issue 31, March 1993, pp. 84–9.

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons}}
* {{dmoz|Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/Z/Zizek%2C_Slavoj/}}
* [http://www.egs.edu/faculty/slavoj-zizek/biography/ Slavoj Žižek Faculty Page] at [[European Graduate School]]
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/z/zizek.htm Žižek's entry] in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [http://www.lacan.com/bibliographyzi.htm Žižek bibliography] at ''[[Lacanian Ink]]'' Magazine
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/slavojzizek Column archive] at ''[[The Guardian]]''
* {{C-SPAN|slavojzizek}}
* {{Charlie Rose view|7283}}
* {{IMDb name|1670978}}

{{Continental philosophy}}
{{Social and political philosophy}}
{{Death of God philosophers}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zizek, Slavoj}}
[[Category:Slavoj Žižek| ]]
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:20th-century philosophers]]
[[Category:21st-century philosophers]]
[[Category:20th-century Slovene writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Slovene writers]]
[[Category:European Graduate School faculty]]
[[Category:Academics of Birkbeck, University of London]]
[[Category:Analysands of Jacques-Alain Miller]]
[[Category:Critical theorists]]
[[Category:Cultural critics]]
[[Category:Film theorists]]
[[Category:Freudo-Marxism]]
[[Category:Hegelian philosophers]]
[[Category:Jacques Lacan]]
[[Category:Liberal Democracy of Slovenia politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Marxist theorists]]
[[Category:Marxist writers]]
[[Category:Members of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts]]
[[Category:People from Ljubljana]]
[[Category:Psychoanalytic theory]]
[[Category:Slovenian atheists]]
[[Category:Slovenian communists]]
[[Category:Slovenian philosophers]]
[[Category:Slovenian psychoanalysts]]
[[Category:Slovenian sociologists]]
[[Category:University of Ljubljana alumni]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:Slovenian socialists]]
[[Category:Philosophers of nihilism]]
[[Category:Political philosophers]]
[[Category:Ontologists]]
[[Category:Philosophers of culture]]
[[Category:Slovenian Marxists]]
[[Category:Slovenian theologians]]
[[Category:Atheist theologians]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers]]
[[Category:Death of God theologians]]
[[Category:Yugoslav dissidents]]

Bad Lip Reading

2016-03-03T20:22:38Z

Madler: seven plagues on the word-cancer "themself"

{{infobox company
|name =
|logo = Bad Lip Reading logo.jpg
|logo_caption = Bad Lip Reading logo
|genre = [[Comedy]]
|industry = [[YouTube]] Channel
|homepage = {{URL|http://youtube.com/BadLipReading}}
}}
'''Bad Lip Reading''' (abbreviated as '''BLR''') is a [[YouTube]] channel, run by an anonymous individual<ref name="RollingStone"/> in the music production business, that spoofs clips from films, TV shows, songs, sports, and political news stories by overdubbing humorous vocal work that matches the lip movements of the targets. ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' described the channel as "the breakout hit" of the [[United States presidential election, 2012|2012 United States presidential election]] cycle.<ref name="RollingStone"/> As of March 2016, the Bad Lip Reading YouTube channel had amassed over 5 million subscribers and over 607 million views across its videos. The identity of the creator is unknown.<ref name="WPost">{{cite web | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/bad-lip-reading-interview-with-the-man-behind-the-viral-videos-everyones-talking-about/2011/10/18/gIQAlroEuL_blog.html|title = Bad Lip Reading: behind the viral videos everyone’s talking about | publisher = Washington Post | first = Melissa|last = Bell | date = October 18, 2011 | accessdate = June 9, 2012 }}</ref>

== Background ==
The "Bad Lip Reader" behind the channel is an anonymous music and video producer. The first Bad Lip Reading video released was a spoof of [[Rebecca Black]]'s song "[[Friday (Rebecca Black song)|Friday]]", titled "Gang Fight". New music and lyrics were matched to Black's video to make it appear as though she were singing about [[gang]] warfare. The "Gang Fight" YouTube video, released in March 2011, earned BLR a million hits and thousands of subscribers.<ref name="RollingStone"/>

More spoof videos followed, including interpretations of [[The Black Eyed Peas]]' "[[Boom Boom Pow]]" (a [[viral video]]<ref name="HuffingtonPost"/> called "Everybody Poops"), [[Taylor Swift]]'s "[[Our Song (Taylor Swift song)|Our Song]]" and [[Michael Bublé]]'s "[[Haven't Met You Yet]]". The latter was transformed into the "electronica inspired" "Russian Unicorn",<ref name="RollingStone"/> which Bublé himself praised as his "new favorite song"<ref name="BubléInterview" /> and "one of the coolest things I've ever seen."<ref name="BubléReply"/>

In September 2011, BLR branched out from pop singers to politicians with a "bad lip-reading" of Texas governor and US Presidential hopeful [[Rick Perry]]. BLR replaced clips of Perry with invented dialogue matched to his lip movements. After airing on Ellen DeGeneres' show, the video was featured by news and media outlets across the United States, leading to a sudden surge in Bad Lip Reading's popularity. Following the Perry spoof, BLR released bad lip-readings of [[Barack Obama|President Obama]],<ref name="GlobeAndMail" /> Republican presidential candidates [[Michele Bachmann]],<ref name="BoingBoingBachmann"/> [[Mitt Romney]], [[Herman Cain]], [[Ron Paul]], [[Newt Gingrich]], and [[Rick Santorum]].

The channel found even more success in November 2012 when it began overdubbing popular movie and televisions shows. BLR's version of "Twilight" quickly went viral, followed by Bad Lip-Readings of "The Hunger Games", "[[The Walking Dead (TV series)|The Walking Dead]]", and "Game of Thrones". The videos have been well-received not only by the public, but also by the cast and creators of the properties being spoofed. [http://elizabethbanks.com/post/59512067649/a-bad-lip-reading-of-the-hunger-games In her online blog], Elizabeth Banks, Jennifer Lawrence's co-star in ''The Hunger Games,'' said, "Bad Lip Reading is awesome. I was introduced to it by none other than Jennifer Lawrence. Yup - she saw this, people. And she laughed. And so did I. A lot." Lawrence's co-star Josh Hutcherson also praised the video, tweeting it to his fans. The cast and creators of The Walking Dead have publicly praised the Bad Lip Reading "Walking Dead" videos on several occasions.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

Expanding his scope yet again, in January 2013 BLR released a "bad lip-reading" of [[National Football League]] players, coaches and referees, which would go on to become the channel's most popular video. A second NFL video followed in 2014,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://guycodeblog.mtv.com/2013/01/16/nfl-lip-readings/|title=Bad Lip Reading: The NFL Like You've Never Heard It|publisher=MTV|date=2013-01-16|accessdate=2013-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aol.sportingnews.com/nfl/story/2013-01-16/nfl-bad-lip-reading-video-adrian-peterson-tom-brady-playoffs-afc-nfc|title='The NFL: A Bad Lip Reading' stars Adrian Peterson, Tom Brady and more (VIDEO)|work=[[Sporting News]]|date=2013-01-16|accessdate=2013-02-01}}</ref> and a third was released in 2015.<ref>http://www.si.com/extra-mustard/2015/01/22/nfl-bad-lip-reading-2015-video</ref>

In a ''Rolling Stone'' interview, the producer behind the Bad Lip Reading videos said that he first encountered the technique of [[lip reading]] when his mother, then in her 40s, lost her hearing due to unknown causes. While she excelled at lip reading, he was unable to pick up the skill despite trying: "I was terrible at it."<ref name="RollingStone"/>

In 2013, Bad Lip Reading won the Webby Awards' "People's Choice" Award for Best Comedy Series. In April 2014, BLR won the American Comedy Award for Best Viral video for its "NFL: A Bad Lip Reading" video. Patrick Stewart accepted the award on BLR's behalf during the televised ceremony on NBC.

On June 8, 2014 the BLR Facebook page announced the release of the full version of "Modify" by Kniles, a song that has been used in multiple BLR productions. The fact that this song was used without previous attribution, as well as stylistic similarities to other BLR-produced songs, have prompted speculation that Kniles is another pseudonym for the individual behind Bad Lip Reading.<ref>https://www.facebook.com/badlipreading/posts/813629791983055</ref>

== Copyright dispute ==
One of Bad Lip Reading's works, "Dirty Spaceman", a redubbing of "[[Check It Out (will.i.am and Nicki Minaj song)|Check It Out]]" by [[Will.i.am]] featuring [[Nicki Minaj]], was taken down due to a claim of copyright infringement. It is unclear if Universal Music issued a formal DMCA takedown request or if YouTube's Content ID Match system detected the work and removed it automatically.<ref>{{cite web|last=Masnick|first=Mike|title=Universal Uses Copyright To Censor Bad Lip Reading Parody; Why Not Embrace It?|url=http://www.techdirt.com/articles/20111023/22041616483/universal-uses-copyright-to-censor-bad-lip-reading-parody-why-not-embrace-it.shtml|publisher=techdirt|accessdate=21 March 2012}}</ref> Also, in March 2012, the video "[http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=BKjn2_Ina5o Beard With Glue]," a bad lip reading of "[[You're Beautiful]]" by [[James Blunt]], was taken down by [[Warner Music Group]] on a copyright claim. Unlike "Dirty Spaceman", the claim was soon released, and the video was returned. Likewise, "Gang Fight" was taken down in 2011, but returned. UMG has also taken down "Rockin' All Nite Long", the Taylor Swift spoof that also features [[Wiz Khalifa]].

==Discography==
The following is a list of BLR's song-based spoofs; spoken-word spoofs are not included in the table. The music videos for each song may be found on [[YouTube]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Artist !! Featuring !! Original song(s) !! Release date(s) !! BLR song !! Upload date
|-
| [[Rebecca Black]] || || "[[Friday (Rebecca Black song)|Friday]]" || Mar 14, 2011 || "Gang Fight" || Mar 21, 2011
|-
| [[Justin Bieber]] || [[Rascal Flatts]] || "[[That Should Be Me]]" || Mar 19, 2010 || "Asian Baby" || Mar 24, 2011
|-
| [[Black Eyed Peas]] || || "[[Boom Boom Pow]]" || Mar 30, 2009 || "Everybody Poops" || Mar 29, 2011
|-
| [[Miley Cyrus]] || [[Snoop Dogg]] || "[[Party in the U.S.A.]]", "[[Boom (Snoop Dogg song)|Boom]]" || Aug 11, 2009, March 8, 2011 || "Black Umbrella (The Right Stuff)" || Apr 7, 2011
|-
| [[Ludacris]] || [[The Bee Gees]] || "[[My Chick Bad]]", "[[Too Much Heaven]]" || Feb 23, 2010, Oct 24, 1978 || "Magic Man" || Apr 18, 2011
|-
| [[Justin Bieber]] || [[Rascal Flatts]] || "[[That Should Be Me]]" || Mar 19, 2010 || "Hot Jumping Beans" || May 1, 2011
|-
| [[Taylor Swift]] || || "[[Our Song (Taylor Swift song)|Our Song]]" || Aug 22, 2007 || "(Rockin') All Nite Long" || May 29, 2011
|-
| [[Michael Bublé]] || || "[[Haven't Met You Yet]]" || Aug 31, 2009 || "Russian Unicorn" || Jul 11, 2011
|-
| [[Bruno Mars]] || [[Lady Gaga]], [[Jay-Z]] || "[[The Lazy Song]]", "[[Alejandro (song)|Alejandro]]", "[[Empire State of Mind]]", "[[Do It Again (Put Ya Hands Up)]]" || Feb 15, 2011, Apr 20, 2010, Oct 20, 2009 || "Morning Dew" || Aug 8, 2011
|-
| [[Barack Obama]] || || N/A || N/A || "Trick the Bridesmaid" || Sep 19, 2011
|-
| [[Nicki Minaj]] || [[will.i.am]] || "[[Check It Out (will.i.am and Nicki Minaj song)|Check It Out]]" || Sept 3, 2010 || "Dirty Spaceman" || Oct 1, 2011
|-
| [[James Blunt]] || || "[[You're Beautiful]]" || May 30, 2005 || "Beard with Glue" || Oct 28, 2011
|-
| [[Gotye]] || [[Kimbra]] || "[[Somebody That I Used to Know]]" || Jul 5, 2011 || "Kicked Your Monkey" || May 3, 2012
|-
| [[Double Take (musical duo)|Double Take]] || || "[[Hot Problems]]" || Apr 15, 2012 || "Time to Rock" || May 16, 2012
|-
| [[Coldplay]] || || "[[In My Place]]" || Aug 5, 2002 || "Yeti" || Jul 24, 2012
|-
| [[One Direction]] || || "[[Gotta Be You (One Direction song)|Gotta Be You]]" || Nov 11, 2011 || "SHADOW PICO Trailer" || Dec 27, 2012
|-
| [[Beyoncé]] || || "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" || Jan 21, 2013 || "La Fway" || Jan 26, 2013
|-
|[[Carl Grimes]] || || N/A || N/A ||"Carl Poppa" || Oct 2, 2014
|-
|[[Obi-Wan Kenobi]] || [[Luke Skywalker]], [[R2-D2]] || N/A || N/A || "Bushes of Love" || Jan 1, 2016
|-
|N/A
|[[C-3PO]], [[Chewbacca]], [[Luke Skywalker]], [[R2-D2]]
|N/A
|N/A
|"Not The Future"
|Feb 9, 2016
|}

The following is a list of BLR's movie and TV show based spoofs.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Film/TV Show!! Release date !! BLR Title(s)!! Upload date(s)
|-
| ''[[High School (2010 film)|High School]]'' || Jun 1, 2012 || A BLR of a scene from "High School" || May 30, 2012
|-
| ''[[Veep (TV series)|Veep]]'' || Apr 22, 2012 || [[Selina Meyer]]- A BLR Sound Bite from "VEEP" || Jun 4, 2012
|-
| ''[[Jeff, Who Lives at Home]]'' || Mar 16, 2012 || Jeff, Who Lives at Home || Jul 6, 2012
|-
| ''[[Twilight (2008 film)|Twilight]]'' || Nov 28, 2008 || Edward and Bella || Sept 4, 2012
|-
| ''[[The Hunger Games]]'' || Mar 23, 2012 || The Hunger Games || Sept 20, 2012
|-
| ''[[The Campaign (film)|The Campaign]]'' || Aug 10, 2012 || Iraqi Gold || Oct 26, 2012
|-
| ''[[The Twilight Saga: New Moon]]'' || Nov 20, 2009 || More Twilight || Nov 21, 2012
|-
| ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man (2012 film)|The Amazing Spider-Man]]'' || Jul 3, 2012 || Peter and Gwen || Mar 4, 2013
|-
| rowspan=3 | ''[[The Walking Dead (TV series)|The Walking Dead]]''
| rowspan=3 | Oct 31, 2010
|The Walking (And Talking) Dead || May 2, 2013
|-
|More Walking (And Talking) Dead: Part 1 || Sept 25, 2014
|-
|More Walking (And Talking) Dead: Part 2 || Oct 10, 2014
|-
| ''[[Game of Thrones]]'' || Apr 17, 2011 || Medieval Land Fun-Time World- Extended Trailer || Oct 16, 2013
|-
| ''[[The Twilight Saga: Eclipse]]'' || Jun 24, 2010 || Twilight III || Apr 24, 2014
|-
| ''[[American Idol]]'' || Jun 11, 2002 || Sing-Song Contest of America || May 22, 2014
|-
| rowspan=2 | ''[[The Hunger Games: Catching Fire]]''
| rowspan=2 | Nov 22, 2013
|More Hunger Games || Nov 27, 2014
|-
|Obsidiots: Live From District 11 || Nov 27, 2014
|-
| ''[[The Avengers (2012 film)|The Avengers]]'' || May 4, 2012 || Redneck Avengers: Tulsa Nights || May 23, 2015
|-
| ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' || May 25, 1977 || Star Wars: A Bad Lip Reading || Dec 16, 2015
|-
| ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' || May 21, 1980 || The Empire Strikes Back: A Bad Lip Reading || Dec 16, 2015
|-
| ''[[Return of the Jedi]]'' || May 25, 1983 || Return of the Jedi: A Bad Lip Reading || Dec 16, 2015
|}

The following is a list of BLR spoofs of politicians, athletes, and other videos not previously mentioned.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! BLR Title
! Featuring
! Upload date
|-
|Rick Perry || [[Rick Perry]] || Sept 18, 2011
|-
|Michele Bachmann || [[Michele Bachmann]] || Oct 3, 2011
|-
|Mitt Romney || [[Mitt Romney]] || Oct 14, 2011
|-
|Herman Cain || [[Herman Cain]] || Oct 28, 2011
|-
|Ron Paul || [[Ron Paul]] || Dec 5, 2011
|-
|Rick Santorum || [[Rick Santorum]] || Jan 31, 2012
|-
|Newt Gingrich || [[Newt Gingrich]] || Feb 7, 2012
|-
|Joe Biden || [[Joe Biden]] || Apr 16, 2012
|-
|A Bad Lip Reading of Rick Perry's "Strong" Ad || [[Rick Perry]] || May 22, 2012
|-
|Bush & Clinton || [[Bill Clinton]], [[George W. Bush]] || June 28, 2012
|-
|More Mitt || [[Mitt Romney]] || Aug 13, 2012
|-
|Paul Ryan's Video Diary || [[Paul Ryan]] || Oct 2, 2012
|-
|Eye of the Sparrow || [[Mitt Romney]], [[Barack Obama]], [[Jim Lehrer]] || Oct 9, 2012
|-
|2012 Debate Highlights || [[Barack Obama]], [[Mitt Romney]], [[Joe Biden]], [[Paul Ryan]], [[Martha Raddatz]], [[Bob Schieffer]] || Nov 6, 2012
|-
|The NFL: A Bad Lip Reading || || Jan 15, 2013
|-
|Inauguration 2013: A Bad Lip Reading || [[Barack Obama]], [[John Roberts]], [[Beyoncé]] || Jan 24, 2013
|-
|2013 Independent Spirit Awards: Best Screenplay Nominees || [[Bradley Cooper]], [[Jennifer Lawrence]], [[Sam Rockwell]], [[Paul Dano]], [[Zoe Kazan]], [[Tilda Swinton]], [[Bruce Willis]], [[Edward Norton]], [[Thure Lindhardt]], [[Zachary Booth]] || Feb 26, 2013
|-
|More NFL || || Jan 24, 2014
|-
|NFL 2015 || || Jan 22, 2015
|-
|First Republican Debate Highlights: 2015 || [[Bret Baier]], [[Megyn Kelly]], [[Chris Wallace]], [[Chris Christie]], [[Ted Cruz]], [[Donald Trump]], [[Ben Carson]], [[Mike Huckabee]], [[Jeb Bush]], [[Marco Rubio]], [[John Kasich]], [[Scott Walker]], [[Rand Paul]] || Aug 19, 2015
|-
|First Democratic Debate Highlights: 2015 || [[Anderson Cooper]], [[Bernie Sanders]], [[Martin O'Malley]], [[Hillary Clinton]], [[Jim Webb]], [[Lincoln Chafee]] || Oct 28, 2015
|-
|NFL 2016: Part One || || Feb 2, 2016
|-
|NFL 2016: Part Two || || Feb 5, 2016
|-
|Ted Cruz || [[Ted Cruz]] || Mar 1, 2016
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="RollingStone">{{cite journal
| title = Exclusive: The Bad Lip Reader Speaks
| url = http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/blogs/national-affairs/exclusive-the-bad-lip-reader-speaks-20111007
| first = Tim
| last = Dickinson
| work = [[Rolling Stone]]
| date = October 7, 2011
| accessdate = October 12, 2011
| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/62OWbugn1
| archivedate = October 12, 2011 }}
</ref>
<ref name="HuffingtonPost">{{cite web
| url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/27/bad-lip-reading-rick-perry_n_983789.html
| title = Bad Lip Reading Translates Rick Perry, Gets It About Right
| work = [[The Huffington Post]]
| date = September 27, 2011
| accessdate = October 13, 2011 }}
</ref>
<ref name="BubléInterview">{{cite web
| url = http://ustream.tv/recorded/15993556
| title = Michael Bublé Live On Ustream
| publisher = Ustream.tv
| accessdate = October 13, 2011 }}
</ref>
<ref name="BubléReply">{{cite web
| url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5DvQgIKe2M/
| title = Michael Bublé Video Reply: Russian Unicorn
| first = Michael
| last = Bublé
| authorlink = Michael Bublé
| publisher = YouTube
| date = July 21, 2011
| accessdate = October 13, 2011 }}
</ref>
<ref name="GlobeAndMail">{{cite news
| url = http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/technology/digital-culture/trending-tech/why-bad-lip-reading-is-way-more-awesome-than-auto-tune-the-news/article2186228/
| title = Why Bad Lip Reading is way more awesome than Auto-Tune The News
| first = Amber
| last = Macarthur
| work = [[The Globe and Mail]]
| date = September 30, 2011
| accessdate = October 13, 2011 }}
</ref>
<ref name="BoingBoingBachmann">{{cite web
| url = http://boingboing.net/2011/10/04/michele-bachmann-honored-by-bad-lip-reading.html
| title = Michele Bachmann honored by Bad Lip Reading
| first = Mark
| last = Frauenfelder
| work = [[Boing Boing]]
| date = October 4, 2011
| accessdate = October 13, 2011 }}
</ref>

}}

== External links ==
*{{Official website|1=http://badlipreading.com/}}
*{{YouTube|u=BadLipReading|{{PAGENAMEBASE}}}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:American Internet celebrities]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]
[[Category:YouTube channels]]
[[Category:Maker Studios channels]]

Robert Budreau

2016-03-02T17:30:43Z

Madler: no sic's needed. nothing's misspelled.

{{BLP sources|date=January 2008}}
'''Robert Budreau''' (born January 25, 1974) is a Canadian director, screenwriter and producer at his production company [[Lumanity]] with offices in [[Toronto]], and [[North Bay, Ontario|North Bay]].

Budreau was born in [[London, Ontario|London]], [[Ontario]]. Before completing his Genie-nominated debut theatrical feature film ''[[That Beautiful Somewhere]]'' starring [[Roy Dupuis]], he made a series of short films that won awards at film festival around the world and aired on various television stations. His short film ''[[Judgment Call]]'' won Best Short Film on the Emmy-nominated [[PBS]] series 'The Short List', while his short film ''[[Dry Whiskey]]'' (executive produced by [[Fred Fuchs]], former head of [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s [[American Zoetrope]]) has won multiple awards at various film festivals, including Best Film at Cinefest Sudbury 2005 and appearing on [[Alliance Atlantis]] Showcase. Other features include the Canadian-Colombian co-production entitled ¿The Boss¿, which was a box-office hit internationally, as well as the comedy Cubicle Warriors now titled Bank$tas and the thriller Solo.

==Filmography==
* ''[[Born to Be Blue (film)|Born to Be Blue]]'' (2015)
* ''Bank$tas / Cubicle Warriors'' (2014)
* ''Solo'' (2013)
* ''Bodyslam'' (2013)
* ''The Boss'' (2010)
* ''As You Like It'' (2010)
* ''Sunshine Swim Team'' (2008)
* ''That Beautiful Somewhere'' (2006)
* ''The Unspoken Promise'' (2006)
* ''The Secret Miracle'' (2006)
* ''Sunshine Swim Team'' (2006)
* ''Drag'' (2006)
* ''Dry Whiskey'' (2005)
* ''Welcome'' (2005)
* ''Yesteryears'' (2005)
* ''The Unfolding'' (2004)
* ''Judgment Call'' (2004)
* ''Do No Harm'' (2004)
* ''Photographic Fate'' (2003)
* ''Dream Recording'' (2003)
* ''The Multiple Selves of Hannah Maynard'' (2003)
* ''Dylanology'' (2002)

== External links ==
*{{IMDB name|1519253}}
*[http://www.lumanity.com Lumanity Productions]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Budreau, Robert
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Canadian film director
| DATE OF BIRTH = January 25, 1974
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Budreau, Robert}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Canadian film directors]]
[[Category:1974 births]]

Walerian Krasiński

2015-12-29T14:51:46Z

Madler:

[[File:The grave of Count Valerian Krasinski, Warriston Cemetery.JPG|thumb|The grave of Count Valerian Krasinski, Warriston Cemetery]]

Count '''Walerian Skorobohaty Krasiński''' or '''Valerian Krasinski''' (1795– 22 December 1855) was a Polish Calvinist politician, nationalist and historian.

Krasinski was a Polish aristocrat in exile after the [[November Uprising]] 1830, during the Austrian, German and Russian [[partition of Poland]].<ref>Peter F. Sugar ''Nationality and society in Habsburg and Ottoman Europe'' reprint of article from 1967</ref> In 1844, he was proposed for a chair in Slavonic Studies at Oxford University. In 1848, he presented appeals to the Habsburg government. In ''Russia and Europe, or, The probable consequences of the present war'' he wrote on the [[Crimean War]].

Krasinski's ''Historical sketch of the rise, progress, and decline of the Reformation in Poland'' (1838) still one of main texts on the subject available in English, was written in English. One of Krasinski's main sources is ''Slavonia reformata'' (1679) by [[Andrzej Węgierski|Andreas Vengerscius]].<ref>Piotr Wilczek ''Jesuits in Poland according to A.F. Pollard'' a review of A. F. Pollard, The Jesuits in Poland. [The Lothian Essay, 1892] New York. Haskell House Publishers Ltd. Publishers of Scarce Scholarly Books. 1971. 98 pages. Hardcover.</ref>

He died in [[Edinburgh]] and is buried in the [[Warriston Cemetery]] close to another Polish exile, the violinist and composer [[Feliks Janiewicz]], one of the co-organisers of the first [[Edinburgh Festival]]. The grave is marked by a tall grey granite obelisk. It lies in the overgrown area (2014) to the south-west, around 50m east of the more accessible monument to [[Horatio McCulloch]].

==Works==
* ''The present government of Russia: the Emperor Nicholas,'' article 1841<ref>543-591. Volume 11, No. XXII, 1840 [Published January 9, 1841]</ref>
* ''Russia and Europe, or, The probable consequences of the present war''
*{{cite book|last=Krasiński|first=Waleryan|title=Historical sketch of the rise, progress and decline of the reformation in Poland|date=1838|volume=1|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SKoPAAAAQAAJ|location=London|publisher=[s.n.]|oclc=714971939|display-authors=0}}
:{{cite book|last=Krasiński|first=Waleryan|title=Historical sketch of the rise, progress and decline of the reformation in Poland|date=1840|volume=2|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FKgPAAAAQAAJ|location=London|publisher=[s.n.]|oclc=714971939|display-authors=0}}
* ''Monachologia, Or, Handbook Of The Natural History Of Monks: Arranged According To The Linnean System'' [[Ignaz von Born|Ignaz Edler Von Born]] and Walerian Krasinski.
* English translation of [[John_Calvin|Calvin]]'s ''[[John_Calvin_bibliography#Theological_treatises|Treatise on Relics]]''.
* ''Panslavism and Germanism'' 1848<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Walerjan Krasiński's "Panslavism and Germanism" (1848): Polish Goals in a Pan-Slav Context|author=Alexander Maxwell|volume=42|year=2008|journal=New Zealand Slavonic Journal|publisher=Australia and New Zealand Slavists’ Association|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41219953}}</ref>
*{{cite book|last=Krasiński|first=Waleryan|title=Sketch of the religious history of the Slavonic nations|date=1851|edition=2nd|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=090yAQAAMAAJ|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Johnstone and Hunter|oclc=794325672|display-authors=0}}
* ''Montenegro and the Slavonians in Turkey'' 1853
* ''The Polish Question and panslavism'' 1855
* ''Poland, its history, constitution, literature etc.'' 1855

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Gutenberg author | id=Krasinski,+Valerian,+Count | name=Valerian Krasinski}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Walerian Skorobohaty Krasiński" OR "Walerian Krasiński" OR "Krasiński, Walerian" OR "Valerian Krasinski" OR "Krasinski, Valerian")}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Krasinski, Walerian
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Historian
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1780
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1855
| PLACE OF DEATH = Edinburgh, Scotland
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Krasinski, Walerian}}
[[Category:1780 births]]
[[Category:1855 deaths]]
[[Category:Polish historians]]
[[Category:Burials at Warriston Cemetery]]
[[Category:Counts of Poland]]
[[Category:Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Polish Calvinist and Reformed Christians]]
[[Category:Polish politicians]]
[[Category:Polish political writers]]

Talk:Boules

2015-06-23T15:18:56Z

Madler:

{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject Sports|class=start|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject France|class=start|importance=Low}}
{{0.7 set nominee|Olympic events}}
}}
Why isn't bowling mentioned here?

Claudia Kim

2015-05-02T23:50:22Z

Madler: Added content

{{Other people|Kim Soo-hyun}}
{{Korean name|Kim}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Claudia Kim
| image = Kim Soo-hyun 18 March 2014 (cropped).png
|caption=Kim in March 2014
| birth_name = Kim Soo-hyun
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1985|1|25}}
| birth_place = [[South Korea]]
| othername = Soo-hyun Uriel
| occupation = [[Actress]]
| years_active = 2005-present
| agent = Apple of the Eye Entertainment (South Korea) [[United Talent Agency]] (USA)
| education = [[Ewha Womans University]] - International Studies
| module = {{Infobox Korean name|child=yes|color=transparent
| hangul = 김수현
| hanja =
| rr = Gim Su-hyeon
| mr = Kim Su-hyŏn
}}}}
'''Kim Soo-hyun''' ({{ko-hhrm|김수현}}; born January 25, 1985), also known as '''Claudia Kim''',<ref name=KT/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ha|first1=Ji-won|title=Photo shows behind scene of ''Avengers 2''|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20140612001430|website=[[The Korea Herald]]|accessdate=2014-06-18|date=12 June 2014}}</ref> is a [[South Korea]]n actress. She made her entertainment debut when she won a [[model (profession)|modeling]] contest in 2005, and went on to appear in supporting roles in [[medical drama]] ''[[Brain (TV series)|Brain]]'' (2011) and spy comedy ''[[7th Grade Civil Servant]]'' (2013), as well as a leading role in the [[sitcom]] ''[[Standby (TV series)|Standby]]'' (2012). She lived in New Jersey for six years as a child. <ref name=KT>{cite web|url=http://www.koreatimesus.com/rising-star-claudia-kim-talks-about-avengers-2-role/}}</ref> In 2015, Kim gained international attention for her role as Dr. Helen Cho in ''[[Avengers: Age of Ultron]]'' (2015).<ref name=KT>{{cite web|last=Kim|first=Ji-soo|title=Soo-hyun to star in ''Avengers'' sequel|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2014/03/386_152796.html|work=[[The Korea Times]]|accessdate=2014-03-28|date=5 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Son|first=Bo-kyung|title=Korean Actress Kim Soo Hyun Reportedly Cast in ''Avengers 2''|url=http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/57237/kimsoohyun-may-appear-in-avengers-2|work=enewsWorld|accessdate=2014-02-12|date=28 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jin|first=Eun-soo|title=Kim Soo-hyun makes Marvel debut on red carpet|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2986096|work=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|accessdate=2014-03-11|date=11 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Actress Kim Soo-hyun Says ''Avengers'' Sequel a Boon for Tourism|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2014/03/22/2014032200348.html|work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]]|accessdate=2014-03-24|date=22 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Park|first=Si-soo|title=Korean stars grace Hollywood movies|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2014/04/386_154802.html|work=[[The Korea Times]]|accessdate=2014-04-07|date=6 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Baek|first1=Byung-yeul|title=Claudia Kim steals show in ''Avengers''|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2015/04/141_177654.html|website=[[The Korea Times]]|accessdate=2015-04-30|date=23 April 2015}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Television series===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|2006
|''Queen of the Game''
|Park Joo-won
|
|-
|2010
|''[[The Fugitive: Plan B]]''
|Sophie
|
|-
|2011
|''[[Romance Town]]''
|Hwang Joo-won
|
|-
|2011
|''[[Brain (TV series)|Brain]]''
|Jang Yoo-jin
|
|-
|2012
|''[[Standby (TV series)|Standby]]''
| Kim Soo-hyun
|
|-
|2013
|''[[7th Grade Civil Servant]]''
|Mi-rae
|
|-
|2014
|''[[Marco Polo (TV series)|Marco Polo]]''
|[[Khutulun]]
|
|-
|}

===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|2015
|''[[Avengers: Age of Ultron]]''
|Dr. Helen Cho
|
|-
|2015
|''[[Equals (film)|Equals]]''
|
|
|-
|}

==Awards==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Nominated work
! Result
|-
| 2005 || Korea-China Supermodel Contest || First Place || {{NA}} || {{won}}
|-
| 2006 || [[SBS Drama Awards]] || New Star Award || ''Queen of the Game'' || {{won}}
|-
| 2012 || [[MBC Entertainment Awards]] || Excellence Award, Actress in a Comedy/Sitcom || ''[[Standby (TV series)|Standby]]'' || {{won}}
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Kim Soo-Hyun (actress)}}
* {{twitter|ClaudiaSKim|Claudia Kim}} {{ko icon}}
* {{facebook|486686134693492|Claudia Kim}} {{ko icon}}
* {{instagram|claudiashkim|Claudia Kim}} {{ko icon}}
* {{IMDb name|2263791|Claudia Kim}}
* {{kmdb person|00181125|Kim Soo-hyun}}
* {{hancinema person|Soo_Hyeon|Soo-hyun}}

{{Persondata
| name = Kim, Claudia
| alternative names = Kim, Soo-hyun
| short description = Actress
| date of birth = 15 January 1985
| place of birth = South Korea
| date of death =
| place of death =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kim, Claudia}}
[[Category:1985 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:South Korean film actresses]]
[[Category:South Korean television actresses]]
[[Category:South Korean female models]]
[[Category:Ewha Womans University alumni]]
[[Category:South Korean expatriates in the United States]]
[[Category:21st-century South Korean actresses]]

Photodynamic therapy

2015-03-05T14:47:56Z

Madler:

{{Infobox interventions |
Name = Photodynamic therapy |
Image = photodynamic therapy.jpg |
Caption = Close up of surgeons' hands in an operating room with a beam of light traveling along fiber optics for photodynamic therapy. Its source is a laser beam which is split at two different stages to create the proper therapeutic wavelength. A patient is given a photosensitive drug that is absorbed by cancer cells. During the surgery, the light beam is positioned at the tumor site, which then activates the drug that kills the cancer cells, thus photodynamic therapy (PDT). |
ICD10 = |
ICD9unlinked = |
MeshID = D010778 |
OPS301 = |
OtherCodes = |
}}
'''Photodynamic therapy''' ('''PDT'''), sometimes called '''photochemotherapy''', is a form of [[phototherapy]] using nontoxic light-sensitive compounds that are exposed selectively to light, whereupon they become toxic to targeted malignant and other diseased cells ([[phototoxicity]]). PDT has proven ability to kill microbial cells, including bacteria, fungi and viruses. PDT is popularly used in treating acne. It is used clinically to treat a wide range of medical conditions, including [[macular degeneration#Wet AMD|wet age-related macular degeneration]] and malignant [[cancers]],<ref name ="intro1">
{{Cite journal
| last = Wang
| first = SS
|author2=J Chen |author3=L Keltner |author4=J Christophersen |author5=F Zheng |author6=M Krouse |author7=A Singhal
| title = New technology for deep light distribution in tissue for phototherapy
| journal = Cancer Journal
| volume = 8
| issue = 2
| year = 2002
| pages = 154–63
| pmid = 11999949
| doi = 10.1097/00130404-200203000-00009
}} 
{{Cite journal
| last = Lane
| first = N
| title = New Light on Medicine
| journal = Scientific American
| date = Jan 2003
| url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=new-light-on-medicine
}}
</ref> and is recognised as a treatment strategy which is both minimally invasive and minimally toxic.

Most modern PDT applications involve three key components:<ref name ="intro1" /> a [[photosensitizer]], a [[light source]] and tissue [[oxygen]]. The combination of these three components leads to the chemical destruction of any tissues which have both selectively taken up the photosensitizer and have been locally exposed to light. The wavelength of the light source needs to be appropriate for exciting the photosensitizer to produce [[reactive oxygen species]]. These reactive oxygen species generated through PDT are free radicals (Type I PDT) generated through electron abstraction or transfer from a substrate molecule and highly reactive state of oxygen known as [[singlet oxygen]] (Type II PDT). In understanding the mechanism of PDT it is important to distinguish it from other [[Light therapy|light-based and laser therapies]] such as laser wound healing and rejuvenation, or [[intense pulsed light]] hair removal, which do not require a photosensitizer. The phototoxicity that is the basis for photodynamic therapy is the reason exposure to sunlight is lethal to [[vampires]].

==Procedure==
In order to achieve the selective destruction of the target area using PDT while leaving normal tissues untouched, either the photosensitizer can be applied locally to the target area, or photosensitive targets can be locally excited with light. For instance, in the treatment of skin conditions, including [[acne]], [[psoriasis]], and also [[skin cancer]]s, the photosensitizer can be applied topically and locally excited by a light source. In the local treatment of internal tissues and cancers, after photosensitizers have been administered intravenously, light can be delivered to the target area using [[endoscopes]] and [[fiber optic]] [[catheters]] (see figure).

Photosensitizers can also target many viral and microbial species, including [[HIV]] and [[Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|MRSA]].<ref name="intro5">
{{Cite journal
| volume = 3
| pages = 436–450
| last = Hamblin
| first = MR
|author2=T Hasan
| title = Photodynamic therapy: a new antimicrobial approach to infectious disease?
| journal = Photochem Photobiol Sci
| year = 2004
| pmid = 15122361
| pmc = 3071049
| doi = 10.1039/b311900a
| issue = 5
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 635
| pages = 155–173
| last = Huang
| first = L
|author2=T Dai |author3=MR Hamblin
| title = Antimicrobial Photodynamic Inactivation and Photodynamic Therapy for Infections
| journal = Methods Mol Biol
| year = 2010
| pmid = 20552347
| pmc = 2933785
| doi = 10.1007/978-1-60761-697-9_12
| series = Methods in Molecular Biology
| isbn = 978-1-60761-696-2
}}
</ref> Using PDT, pathogens present in samples of blood and [[bone marrow]] can be decontaminated before the samples are used further for transfusions or transplants.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 7
| pages = 134–143
| last = Boumedine
| first = RS
|author2=DC Roy
| title = Elimination of alloreactive T cells using photodynamic therapy
| journal = Cytotherapy
| year = 2005
| pmid = 16040392
| doi = 10.1080/14653240510027109
| issue = 2
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 21
| pages = 24–27
| last = Mulroney
| first = CM
|author2=S Gluck |author3=AD Ho
| title = The use of photodynamic therapy in bone marrow purging
| journal = Semin Oncol
| year = 1994
| pmid = 7992104
| issue = 6 Suppl 15
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 47
| pages = 1185–94
| last = Ochsner
| first = M
| title = Photodynamic therapy: the clinical perspective. Review on applications for control of diverse tumorous and non-tumorous diseases
| journal = Arzneimittelforschung
| year = 1997
| pmid = 9428971
| issue = 11
}}
</ref> PDT can also eradicate a wide variety of pathogens of the skin and of the oral cavities. Given the seriousness that drug resistant pathogens have now become, there is increasing research into PDT as a new antimicrobial therapy.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 13
| pages = 87–91
| last = Tang
| first = HM
|author2=MR Hamblin |author3=CM Yow
| title = A comparative in vitro photoinactivation study of clinical isolates of multidrug-resistant pathogens
| journal = J Infect Chemother
| year = 2007
| pmid = 17458675
| doi = 10.1007/s10156-006-0501-8
| issue = 2
| pmc = 2933783
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 9
| pages = 360–6
| last = Maisch
| first = T
|author2=S Hackbarth |author3=J Regensburger |author4=A Felgentrager |author5=W Baumler |author6=M Landthaler |author7=B Roder
| title = Photodynamic inactivation of multi-resistant bacteria (PIB) — a new approach to treat superficial infections in the 21st century
| journal = J Dtsch Dermatol Ges
| year = 2011
| pmid = 21114627
| doi = 10.1111/j.1610-0387.2010.07577.x
| issue = 5
}}
</ref>

===Photosensitizers===
[[File:Phototherapy week.png|thumb|Interim result of Phototherapy for Actinic keratosis with Metvix one week after exposure. Patient has light skin, blue eyes]]
In air and tissue, molecular oxygen occurs in a [[triplet state]], whereas almost all other molecules are in a singlet state. Reactions between these are [[Forbidden transition|forbidden by quantum mechanics]], thus oxygen is relatively non-reactive at physiological conditions. A photosensitizer is a chemical compound that can be promoted to an [[excited state]] upon absorption light and undergo intersystem crossing with oxygen to produce [[singlet oxygen]]. This species rapidly attacks any organic compounds it encounters, thus being highly [[cytotoxic]]. It is rapidly eliminated: in cells, the average lifetime is 3 µs.<ref>Lifetime and Diffusion of Singlet Oxygen in a Cell. Esben Skovsen, John W. Snyder, John D. C. Lambert, Peter R. Ogilby. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2005 109 (18), 8570-8573. DOI: 10.1021/jp051163i</ref>

A wide array of photosensitizers for PDT exist. They can be divided into [[porphyrin]]s, [[chlorophyll]]s and [[dye]]s.<ref name=Allinson2004/> Some examples include [[aminolevulinic acid]] (ALA), Silicon Phthalocyanine Pc 4, [[Foscan|m-tetrahydroxyphenylchlorin]] ([[mTHPC]]), and mono-L-aspartyl [[chlorin]] e6 ([[NPe6]]).

Several photosensitizers are commercially available for clinical use, such as [[Allumera]], [[Photofrin]], [[Visudyne]], [[Levulan]], [[Foscan]], [[Metvix]], [[Hexvix]], [[Cysview]], and [[Laserphyrin]], with others in development, e.g. [[Antrin]], [[Photochlor]], [[Photosens]], [[Photrex]], [[Lumacan]], [[Cevira]], [[Visonac]], [[BF-200 ALA]].<ref name=Allinson2004>
{{cite journal
| last = Allison
| first = RR | authorlink =
|author2=et al.
| title = Photosensitizers in clinical PDT
| journal = Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy
| volume = 1
| pages = 27–42
| publisher = Elsevier
| year = 2004
| url = http://bmlaser.physics.ecu.edu/literature/2004%2005_Photosensitizers%20in%20clinical%20PDT.pdf
| format = PDF
| doi = 10.1016/S1572-1000(04)00007-9 }}</ref><ref name=PDT2005>{{cite journal |author=Huang Z |title=A review of progress in clinical photodynamic therapy |journal=Technol. Cancer Res. Treat. |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=283–93 |date=June 2005 |pmid=15896084 |pmc=1317568 |url=http://www.tcrt.org/index.cfm?d=3022&c=4179&p=12984&do=detail}}</ref> [[Amphinex]].<ref name=OGB2009>
{{cite news |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3931/is_200909/ai_n42040200/pg_7/ |title=Porphyrin and Nonporphyrin Photosensitizers in Oncology: Preclinical and Clinical Advances in Photodynamic Therapy. Photochemistry and Photobiology, Sep/Oct 2009 |author=O'Connor, Aisling E, Gallagher, William M, Byrne, Annette T | work=Photochemistry and Photobiology | year=2009}}</ref> Also [[Azadipyrromethene]]s.

Although these photosensitizers can be used for wildly different treatments, they all aim to achieve certain characteristics:<ref name="Wilson">
{{cite journal
| last = Wilson
| first = Brian C
| authorlink =
|author2=Michael S Patterson
| title = The physics, biophysics, and technology of photodynamic therapy
| journal = [[Physics in Medicine and Biology]]
| volume = 53
| issue = 9| pages = R61–R109
| year = 2008
| doi = 10.1088/0031-9155/53/9/R01
| pmid = 18401068 }}</ref>

*High absorption at long wavelengths
**Tissue is much more transparent at longer wavelengths (~700–850 nm). Absorbing at longer wavelengths would allow the light to penetrate deeper,<ref name=OGB2009/> and allow the treatment of larger tumors.
*High [[singlet oxygen]] quantum yield
*Low [[photobleaching]] to prevent degradation of the photosensitizer {{Why?|date=February 2012}}
*Natural [[fluorescence]]
**Many optical dosimetry techniques, such as [[fluorescence spectroscopy]], depend on the drug being naturally fluorescent<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Lee
| first = TK
| authorlink =
|author2=ED Baron |author3=THH Foster
| title = Monitoring Pc 4 photodynamic therapy in clinical trials of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma using noninvasive spectroscopy
| journal = Journal of Biomedical Optics
| volume = 13
| issue = 3
| pages = 030507
| year = 2008
| doi = 10.1117/1.2939068
| pmid = 18601524
| pmc = 2527126 }}</ref>
*High chemical stability
*Low dark toxicity
**The photosensitizer should not be harmful to the target tissue until the treatment beam is applied.
*Preferential uptake in target tissue

The major difference between different types of photosensitizers is in the parts of the cell that they target. Unlike in [[radiation therapy]], where damage is done by targeting cell DNA, most photosensitizers target other cell structures. For example, mTHPC has been shown to localize in the nuclear envelope and do its damage there.<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Foster
| first = TH
|author2=BD Pearson |author3=S Mitra |author4=CE Bigelow
| title = Fluorescence anisotropy imaging reveals localization of meso-tetrahydroxyphenyl chlorin in the nuclear envelope
| journal = Photochemistry and Photobiology
| volume = 81
| issue = 6
| pages = 1544–7
| year = 2005
| doi = 10.1562/2005-08-11-RN-646
| pmid = 16178663
}}
</ref> In contrast, ALA has been found to localize in the [[mitochondria]]<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Wilson
| first = JD
|author2=CE Bigelow |author3=DJ Calkins |author4=TH Foster
| title = Light Scattering from Intact Cells Reports Oxidative-Stress-Induced Mitochondrial Swelling
| journal = [[Biophysical Journal]]
| volume = 88
| issue = 4
| pages = 2929–38
| publisher = [[Biophysical Society]]
| year = 2005
| doi = 10.1529/biophysj.104.054528
| pmid = 15653724
| pmc = 1305387 }}
</ref> and [[Methylene Blue]] in the lysosomes.<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Mellish
| first = Kirste
|author2=R Cox |author3=D Vernon |author4=J Griffiths |author5=S Brown
| title = In Vitro Photodynamic Activity of a Series of Methylene Blue Analogues
| journal = Photochemistry and Photobiology
| volume = 75
| issue = 4
| pages = 392–7
| publisher = American Society for Photobiology
| year = 2002
| doi = 10.1562/0031-8655
| pmid = 12003129 }}
</ref>

To allow treatment of deeper tumours some researchers are using internal [[chemiluminescence]] to activate the photosensitiser.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Laptev R, Nisnevitch M, Siboni G, Malik Z, Firer MA |title=Intracellular chemiluminescence activates targeted photodynamic destruction of leukaemic cells |journal=Br. J. Cancer |volume=95 |issue=2 |pages=189–96 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16819545 |pmc=2360622 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6603241 |url=http://www.nature.com/bjc/journal/v95/n2/full/6603241a.html}}</ref>

[[PUVA therapy]] is using [[psoralen]] as photosensitiser and UVA [[ultraviolet]] as light source, but this form of therapy is usually classified as a separate form of therapy from photodynamic therapy.<ref>{{cite pmid|16225614}}</ref><ref>[http://www.va.gov/hac/forbeneficiaries/champva/policymanual/champva/chapter2/1c2s30-11.htm Champva Policy Manual, Chapter: 2, Section: 30.11, Title: PDT (Photodynamic Therapy) and PUVA (Photochemotherapy)] at U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. Date: 12/23/2011</ref>

===Targeted PDT===
Some photosensitisers naturally accumulate in the [[endothelial cell]]s of [[vascular tissue]] allowing 'vascular targeted' PDT, but there is also research to target the photosensitiser to the tumour (usually by linking it to [[antibody|antibodies]] or antibody fragments). It is currently only in pre-clinical studies.<ref>
{{cite journal |author=Spangler C.W.; Starkey J.R.; Rebane A.; Meng F.; Gong A.; Drobizhev M. |title=Synthesis, characterization and preclinical studies of two-photon- activated targeted PDT therapeutic triads |editor=Kessel, David |title=Optical Methods for Tumor Treatment and Detection: Mechanisms and Techniques in Photodynamic Therapy XV |series=Proceedings of the SPIE |volume=6139 |pages=219–228 |year=2006 |doi=10.1117/12.646312 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Renno RZ, Terada Y, Haddadin MJ, Michaud NA, Gragoudas ES, Miller JW |title=Selective photodynamic therapy by targeted verteporfin delivery to experimental choroidal neovascularization mediated by a homing peptide to vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 |journal=Arch. Ophthalmol. |volume=122 |issue=7 |pages=1002–11 |date=July 2004 |pmid=15249365 |doi=10.1001/archopht.122.7.1002 }}
</ref>

==Applications==
Compared to normal tissues, most types of cancers are especially active in both the uptake and accumulation of photosensitizers agents, which makes cancers especially vulnerable to PDT.<ref name="intro3">
{{Cite journal
| volume = 49
| pages = 300–313
| last = Park
| first = S
| title = Delivery of photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy
| journal = Korean J Gastroenterol
| date = May 2007
| pmid = 17525518
| issue = 5
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 23
| pages = 103–112
| last = Selbo
| first = PK
|author2=A Hogset |author3=L Prasmickaite |author4=K Berg
| title = Photochemical internalisation: a novel drug delivery system
| journal = Tumour Biol.
| year = 2002
| pmid = 12065848
| doi = 10.1159/000059713
| issue = 2
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 16
| pages = S147–154
| last = Silva
| first = JN
|author2=P Filipe |author3=P Morliere |author4=JC Maziere |author5=JP Freitas |author6=JL Cirne de Castro |author7=R Santus
| title = Photodynamic therapies: principles and present medical applications
| journal = Biomed Mater Eng
| year = 2006
| pmid = 16823106
| issue = 4 Suppl
}}
</ref> Since photosensitizers can also have a high affinity for [[vascular]] [[endothelial cell]]s.<ref name="intro4">
{{Cite journal
| volume = 16
| pages = 279–305
| last = Chen
| first = B
|author2=BW Pogue |author3=PJ Hoopes |author4=T Hasan
| title = Vascular and cellular targeting for photodynamic therapy
| journal = Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr
| year = 2006
| pmid = 17206921
| issue = 4
| doi=10.1615/critreveukargeneexpr.v16.i4.10
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 21
| pages = 4271–7
| last = Krammer
| first = B
| title = Vascular effects of photodynamic therapy
| journal = Anticancer Res
| year = 2001
| pmid = 11908681
| issue = 6B
}}
</ref>

===Usage in acne===
PDT is currently in clinical trials to be used as a treatment for severe acne. Initial results have shown for it to be effective as a treatment only for severe acne,<ref>{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT00706433|Light Dose Ranging Study of Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) With Levulan + Blue Light Versus Vehicle + Blue Light in Severe Facial Acne}}</ref> though some question whether it is better than existing acne treatments. The treatment causes severe redness and moderate to severe pain and burning sensation. ''(see also: [[Levulan]])''
A phase II trial, while it showed improvement occurred, failed to show improved response compared to the blue/violet light alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biospace.com/news_story.aspx?NewsEntityId=114055|title=DUSA Pharmaceuticals (DUSA) to Stop Developing Phase 2 Acne Treatment |date=2008-10-23|publisher=Biospace|accessdate=2009-07-30}}</ref>

==History==
While the applicability and potential of PDT has been known for over a hundred years,<ref name="intro2">
{{Cite journal
| last = Moan
| first = J
| title = An outline of the hundred-year history of PDT
|author2=Q Peng
| journal = Anticancer Res
| volume = 23
| issue = 5A
| pages = 3591–600
| pmid = 14666654
| year = 2003
}}
</ref> the development of modern PDT has been a gradual one, involving scientific progress in the fields of [[photobiology]] and cancer biology, as well as the development of modern [[photonic]] devices, such as [[laser]]s and [[LED]]s.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 64
| pages = 84–92
| last = Aronoff
| first = BL
| title = Lasers: reflections on their evolution
| journal = J Surg Oncol
| date = January 1997
| pmid = 9040808
| doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9098(199701)64:1<84::AID-JSO17>3.0.CO;2-W
| issue = 1
}}
</ref> It was John Toth as product manager for Cooper Medical Devices Corp/Cooper Lasersonics with early clinical argon dye lasers ca 1981 who acknowledged the "photodynamic chemical effect" of the therapy and wrote the first "white paper" branding the therapy as "Photodynamic Therapy" (PDT) to support efforts in setting up 10 clinical sites in Japan where the term "radiation" had negative connotations. PDT received even greater interest as result of Thomas Dougherty helping expand clinical trials and forming the International Photodynamic Association, in 1986.

In the 1990s the team of Polish professor Aleksander Sieroń developed the process and devices used today for PDT treatment, while improving the photosensitizer compound at the university of Bytom in Poland. This Polish team is considered at the cutting edge of research in this field, with many published articles and ongoing clinical trials.

===PDT in ancient medicine===
The earliest recorded treatments that exploited a photosensitizer and a light source, in this case sunlight, for medical effect can be found in ancient Egyptian and Indian sources. Annals over 3000 years old report the use of topically applied vegetable and plant substances to produce photoreactions in skin and cause a repigmentation of depigimented skin lesions, as seen with [[vitiligo]] and [[leukoderma]].

The photosensitizing agents used in these ancient therapies have been characterised with modern science as belonging to the [[psoralen]] family of chemicals. Psoralens are still in use today in PDT regimes to treat a variety of skin conditions, including vitiligo, [[psoriasis]], [[neurodermatitis]], [[eczema]], [[cutaneous T-cell lymphoma]] and [[lichen ruber planus]].<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 19
| pages = 78–88
| last = Bethea
| first = D.
|author2=B. Fullmer |author3=S. Syed |author4=G. Seltzer |author5=J. Tiano |author6=C. Rischko |author7=L. Gillespie |author8=D. Brown |author9=F. P Gasparro
| title = Psoralen photobiology and photochemotherapy: 50 years of science and medicine
| journal = J. Dermatol. Sci.
| date = February 1999
| doi = 10.1016/S0923-1811(98)00064-4
| pmid = 10098699
| issue = 2
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 27
| pages = 437–445
| last = Tamesis
| first = M. E
|author2=J. G Morelli
| title = Vitiligo treatment in childhood: a state of the art review
| journal = Pediatr Dermatol
| year = 2010
| doi = 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2010.01159.x
| pmid = 20553403
| issue = 5
}}
</ref>

===20th-century development of PDT===
The first detailed scientific evidence that agents, photosensitive synthetic dyes, in combination with a light source and oxygen could have potential therapeutic effect was made at the turn of the 20th century in the laboratory of von Tappeiner in Munich, Germany. Historically this was a time when Germany was leading the world in the industrial synthesis of dyes.

While studying the effects of [[acridine]] on [[paramecia]] cultures, Oscar Raab, a student of von Tappeiner observed a toxic effect. Fortuitously Raab also observed that light was dependent for the killing of paramecia cultures to take place.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 39
| pages = 524–546
| last = Raab
| first = O.
| title = Ueber die Wirkung Fluorescierenden Stoffe auf Infusorien
| journal = Z. Biol.
| year = 1904
}}
</ref> Subsequent work in the laboratory of von Tappeiner showed that oxygen was essential for the 'photodynamic action' – a term coined by von Tappeiner.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 80
| pages = 427–487
| last = Tappeiner
| first = H. von
|author2=A. Jodlbauer
| title = Uber die Wirkung der photodynamischen (fluorescierenden) Stoffe auf Protozoen und Enzyme
| journal = Dtsch. Arch. Klin. Med.
| year = 1904
}}
</ref>

With the discovery of photodynamic effects, von Tappeiner and colleagues went on to perform the first PDT trial in patients with skin carcinoma using the photosensitizer, [[eosin]], Out of 6 patients with a facial basal cell carcinoma, treated with a 1% eosin solution and a long-term exposure either to sunlight or to arc-lamp light, 4 patients showed total tumour resolution and a relapse-free period of 12 months.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 50
| pages = 2042–4
| last = Tappeiner
| first = H. von
|author2=H. Jesionek
| title = Therapeutische Versuche mit fluoreszierenden Stoffen
| journal = Munch. Med. Wschr.
| year = 1903
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 82
| pages = 223–6
| last = Jesionek
| first = H.
|author2=H. von Tappeiner
| title = Zur Behandlung der Hautcarcinome mit fluoreszierenden Stoffen
| journal = Dtsch. Arch. Klin. Med.
| year = 1905
}}
</ref>

It was only much later, when Thomas Dougherty and co-workers<ref>{{cite book
|last= Moan
|first= J.
|authorlink=
|author2=Q. Peng
|editor= Thierry Patrice
|title= Photodynamic Therapy
|url= http://www.rsc.org/publishing/ebooks/2003/9780854043064.asp
|series= Comprehensive Series in Photochemistry and Photobiology
|volume= 2
|year= 2003
|publisher= The Royal Society of Chemistry
|doi= 10.1039/9781847551658
|pages= 1–18
|chapter= An outline of the history of PDT
|chapterurl= http://www.rsc.org/ebooks/archive/free/BK9780854043064/BK9780854043064-00001.pdf
}}
</ref> at [[Roswell Park Cancer Institute]], Buffalo NY, clinically tested PDT again. In 1978, they published striking results in which they treated 113 cutaneous or subcutaneous malignant tumors and observed a total or partial resolution of 111 tumors.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 38
| pages = 2628–35
| last = Dougherty
| first = T. J
|author2=J. E Kaufman |author3=A. Goldfarb |author4=K. R Weishaupt |author5=D. Boyle |author6=A. Mittleman
| title = Photoradiation therapy for the treatment of malignant tumors
| journal = Cancer Res.
| date = August 1978
| pmid = 667856
| issue = 8
}}
</ref>

The active photosensitizer used in the clinical PDT trial by Dougherty was an agent called [[Haematoporphyrin]] Derivative (HpD), which was first characterised in 1960 by Lipson.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 82
| pages = 508–516
| last = Lipson
| first = R. L.
|author2=E. J. Baldes
| title = The photodynamic properties of a particular hematoporphyrin derivative
| journal = Arch Dermatol
| date = October 1960
| pmid = 13762615
| doi=10.1001/archderm.1960.01580040026005
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 26
| pages = 1–11
| last = Lipson
| first = R. L.
|author2=E. J. Baldes |author3=A. M. Olsen
| title = The use of a derivative of hematoporhyrin in tumor detection
| journal = J. Natl. Cancer Inst.
| date = January 1961
| pmid = 13762612
}}</ref> In his research, Lipson wanted to find a diagnostic agent suitable for the detection of tumours in patients. With the discovery of HpD, Lipson went onto pioneer the use of endoscopes and HpD fluorescence to detect tumours.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 20
| pages = 2255–7
| last = Lipson
| first = R. L
|author2=E. J Baldes |author3=M. J Gray
| title = Hematoporphyrin derivative for detection and management of cancer
| journal = Cancer
| date = December 1967
| doi = 10.1002/1097-0142(196712)20:12<2255::AID-CNCR2820201229>3.0.CO;2-U
| pmid = 6073903
| issue = 12
}}
</ref>

As its name suggests, HpD is a porphyrin species derived from haematoporphyrin, Porphyrins have long been considered as suitable agents for tumour photodiagnosis and tumour PDT because cancerous cells exhibit a significantly greater uptake and affinity for porphyrins compared to normal quiescent tissues. This important observation, which underlies the success of PDT to treat cancers, had been established by a number of scientific researchers prior to the discoveries made by Lipson. In 1924, Policard first revealed the diagnostic capabilities of hematoporphyrin fluorescence when he observed that ultraviolet radiation excited red fluorescence in the sarcomas of laboratory rats.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 91
| pages = 1423–1424
| last = Policard
| first = A
| title = Etudes sur les aspects offerts par des tumeurs experimentales examines a la lumiere de Wood
| journal = CR Soc. Biol.
| year = 1924
}}
</ref> Policard hypothesized at the time that the fluorescence was associated with endogenous hematoporphyrin accumulation. In 1948, Figge with co-workers<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 101
| pages = 657
| last = Figge
| first = FH
|author2=GS Weiland |author3=L. O Manganiello
| title = Studies on cancer detection and therapy; the affinity of neoplastic, embryonic, and traumatized tissue for porphyrins, metalloporphyrins, and radioactive zinc hematoporphyrin
| journal = Anat. Rec.
| date = August 1948
}}
</ref> showed on laboratory animals that porphyrins exhibit a preferential affinity to rapidly dividing cells, including malignant, embryonic, and regenerative cells, and because of this, they proposed that porphyrins should be used in the treatment of cancer. Subsequently many scientific authors have repeated the observation that cancerous cells naturally accumulate porphyrins and have characterised a number of mechanisms to explain it.

HpD, under the pharmaceutical name [[Photofrin]], was the first PDT agent approved for clinical use in 1993 to treat a form of bladder cancer in Canada. Over the next decade, both PDT and the use of HpD received wider international attention and grew in their clinical use, and lead to the first PDT treatments to receive U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] approval. Additional organic dyes applicable to laser PDT are listed by Goldman.<ref>
{{cite book |editors = [[F. J. Duarte|Duarte FJ]]; Hillman LM
|title=Dye Laser Principles
|publisher= [[Academic Press]]
|location=Boston
|year=1990
|pages= 419–32
| chapter = Dye Lasers in Medicine
|isbn=0-12-222700-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=
| author = Goldman L }}
</ref>

===Modern development of PDT in Russia===

Of all the nations beginning to use PDT in the late 20th century, the Russians were the quickest to advance its use clinically and to make many developments. One early Russian development was a new photosensitizer called Photogem which, like HpD, was derived from haematoporphyrin in 1990 by Professor Andrey F. Mironov and coworkers in Moscow. Photogem was approved by the Ministry of Health of Russia and tested clinically from February 1992 to 1996. A pronounced therapeutic effect was observed in 91 percent of the 1500 patients that underwent PDT using Photogem, with 62 percent having a total tumor resolution. Of the remaining patients, a further 29 percent had a partial tumor resolution, where the tumour at least halved in size. In those patients that had been diagnosed early, 92 percent of the patients showed complete resolution of the tumour.<ref name="magicray">
{{Cite web
| title = Centre of laser medicine — Historical Aspects of Photodynamic Therapy Development
| accessdate = 2011-08-05
| url = http://www.magicray.ru/ENG/lecture/L2/2.html
}}
</ref>

Around this time, Russian scientists also collaborated with NASA medical scientists who were looking at the use of LEDs as more suitable light sources, compared to lasers, for PDT applications.<ref>
{{Cite web
| title = Innovation (November/December 97) — Space Research Shines Life-Saving Light
| accessdate = 2011-08-05
| url = http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation56/light.htm
}} 
{{Cite web
| title = Photonic Clinical Trials
| accessdate = 2011-08-05
| url = http://www.warplighttherapy.com/WARP10_ClinicalTrialsAndStudies.htm
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = CP552
| pages = 35–45
| last =Whelan
| first = HT
| coauthors = EV Buchmann, NT Whelan, SG Turner, V Cevenini, H Stinson, R Ignatius, T Martin, J Cwiklinski, GA Meyer, B Hodgson, L Gould, M Kane, G Chen, J Caviness
| title = Hematoporphyrin derivative for detection and management of cancer
| journal = Space Technology and Applications International Forum
| year = 2001
}}
</ref>

===Modern development of PDT in Asia===
PDT has also seen considerably development in Asia. Since 1990, the Chinese have been developing specialist clinical expertise with PDT using their own domestically produced photosensitizers, derived from Haematoporphyrin, and light sources.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| volume = 3
| pages = 3–10
| last = Huang
| first = Z
| coauthors = EV Buchmann, NT Whelan, SG Turner, V Cevenini, H Stinson, R Ignatius, T Martin, J Cwiklinski, GA Meyer, B Hodgson, L Gould, M Kane, G Chen, J Caviness
| title = Photodynamic therapy in China: Over 25 years of unique clinical experience: Part One—History and domestic photosensitizers
| journal = Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy
| year = 2006
| doi = 10.1016/S1572-1000(06)00009-3
}} 
{{Cite journal
| volume = 4
| pages = 13–25
| last = Xu
| first = DY
| title = Research and development of photodynamic therapy photosensitizers in China
| journal = Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy
| year = 2007
| doi = 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2006.09.003
}}
</ref> PDT in China is especially notable for the technical skill of specialists in effecting resolution of difficult to reach tumours
.<ref>
{{Cite journal
| pages = 1181–1184
| last = Qui
| first = HX
|author2=Y Gu |author3=FG Liu |author4=NY Huang |author5=HX Chen |author6=J Zeng
| title = Clinical Experience of Photodynamic Therapy in China
| journal = Complex Medical Engineering, 2007
| year = 2007
}}
</ref>

==See also==
* [[Blood irradiation therapy]]
* [[Laser medicine]]
* [[Photomedicine]]
* [[Sonodynamic therapy]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://sites.pcmd.ac.uk/ipa/ International Photodynamic Association]
* [http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/PP/Article.asp?Type=CurrentIssue Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences]
* [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/701993/description Photodiagnosis and Phototherapy Journal]
* [http://www.biophotonicsworld.org/home Biophotonicsworld]
* [http://www.ngpdt.com/ Next Generation PDT]
* [http://www.killingcancer.co.uk/ Killing Cancer Charity]
* [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/photodynamic Photodynamic Therapy for Cancer]

{{Intracellular chemotherapeutic agents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Photodynamic Therapy}}
[[Category:Cancer treatments]]
[[Category:Medical physics]]
[[Category:Laser medicine]]
[[Category:Light therapy]]

Joseph Roth

2014-12-21T18:40:24Z

Madler: sounded like a part of the description of the story.

{{For|the German politician|Joseph Roth (politician)}}
[[File:Joseph Roth (1926).jpg|thumb|right|Joseph Roth in 1918]]
'''Joseph Roth''', born '''Moses Joseph Roth''' (September 2, 1894 – May 27, 1939), was an [[Austria]]n-[[Jewish]] journalist and novelist, best known for his [[family saga]] ''[[Radetzky March (novel)|Radetzky March]]'' (1932) about the decline and fall of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], and for his novel of Jewish life, ''Job'' (1930) as well as the seminal essay 'Juden auf Wanderschaft' (1927; translated into English as ''[[The Wandering Jews]]''), a fragmented account about the Jewish migrations from eastern to western Europe in the aftermath of [[World War I]] and the [[Russian Revolution]].<ref>[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/jroth.htm Joseph Roth] at kirjasto.sci.fi</ref> In the 21st century, publications in English of ''Radetzky March'' and of collections of his journalism from [[Berlin]] and [[Paris]] created a revival of interest in the author.<ref>Author Biography in ''Radetzky March'', Penguin Modern Classics Edition, 1984.</ref>

==Habsburg empire==
Born to a [[Jew]]ish family, Roth was born and grew up in [[Brody]], a small town near [[Lviv|Lemberg]] in [[Austrian Galicia|East Galicia]], part of the easternmost reaches of what was then [[Austro-Hungarian empire]]. [[Jewish culture]] played an important role in the life of the town, which had one of the biggest Jewish populations in Europe. Roth grew up with his mother and her relatives; he never saw his father, who disappeared before he was born.<ref name="About Wandering 141">[[Michael Hofmann|Hofmann, Michael]]. "About the author", ''The Wandering Jews'', Granta, p.141. ISBN 1-86207-392-9</ref>

After high school, Joseph Roth moved to Lviv to begin his university studies in 1913 before transferring to the [[University of Vienna]] in 1914 to study philosophy and [[German literature]]. In 1916, Roth quit his university course and volunteered to serve in the [[Imperial Habsburg army]] fighting on the Eastern Front in the [[First World War]], "though possibly only as an army journalist or censor."<ref name="About Wandering 141" /> This experience had a major and long-lasting influence on his life. So, too, did the collapse of the [[Habsburg Empire]] in 1918, which marked the beginning of a pronounced sense of 'homelessness' that was to feature regularly in his work. "My strongest experience was the War and the destruction of my fatherland, the only one I ever had, the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary."{{citation needed|date=January 2012}}

==Germany==
In 1918 Roth returned to Vienna and wrote for [[left wing]] newspapers, occasionally as '''Red Roth''' (''der rote Roth''). In 1920 he moved to [[Berlin]], where he worked as a highly successful journalist for the ''[[Neue Berliner Zeitung]]'' and from 1921 for the ''[[Berliner Börsen-Courier]]''. In 1923 he began his association with the well-known liberal ''[[Frankfurter Zeitung]]'', travelling widely throughout [[Europe]] and reporting from the south of [[France]], the [[USSR]], [[Albania]], [[Poland]], [[Italy]] and Germany. "He was one of the most distinguished and best-paid journalists of the period-being paid at the dream rate of one [[Deutschmark]] per line."<ref name="About Wandering 142">Hofmann, Michael. "About the author", ''The Wandering Jews'', Granta, p.142. ISBN 1-86207-392-9</ref>
In 1925 he spent an influential period working in France and never again resided permanently in Berlin.

==Marriage and family==
[[File:Roth Joseph And Friedl.jpg|thumb|right|Joseph Roth (right) with Friedl (centre) and an unknown person on horseback]]
Roth married Friederike (Friedl) Reichler in 1922. In the late 1920s, his wife Friederike became [[schizophrenic]], which threw Roth into a deep crisis both emotionally and financially. She lived for years in sanatorium and was later murdered by the Nazis.

==Fiction career==
In 1923 Roth's first (unfinished) novel, ''The Spider's Web'', was serialized in an Austrian newspaper. He achieved moderate success as a writer throughout the 1920s with a series of novels exploring life in post-war Europe. Only upon publication of ''Job'' and ''Radetzky March'' did he achieve real acclaim as a novelist.

From 1930, Roth's fiction became less concerned with contemporary society, with which he had become increasingly disillusioned; during this period, his work frequently evoked a [[Depression (mood)|melancholic]] [[nostalgia]] for life in imperial [[Central Europe]] prior to 1914. He often portrayed the fate of homeless wanderers looking for a place to live, in particular Jews and former citizens of the old Austria-Hungary, who, with the downfall of the monarchy, had lost their only possible ''Heimat'' ("true home"). In his later works in particular, Roth appeared to wish that the monarchy could be restored in all its old glamour, although at the start of his career he had written under the codename '''Red Joseph'''. His longing for a more tolerant past may be partly explained as a reaction against the [[nationalism]] of the time, which finally culminated in [[Nazism|National Socialism]].

The novel ''Radetzky March'' (1932) and the story ''Die Büste des Kaisers'' (''The Bust of the Emperor'') (1935) are typical of this late phase. In the novel ''The Emperor's Tomb'', Roth describes the fate of a cousin of the hero of ''Radetzky March'', until Germany's annexation of Austria in 1938.

Of his works which deal with [[Judaism]], the novel ''Job'' is the best known.

==Paris==
[[Image:Grave-Joseph-Roth.jpg|thumb|The grave of Joseph Roth at the [[Cimetière de Thiais]]]]

As a prominent liberal Jewish journalist, Roth left Germany when [[Adolf Hitler]] became [[Chancellor|Reich Chancellor]] on January 30, 1933. Roth spent most of the next decade in [[Paris]], a city he loved. His essays written in France were exuberant with delight in the city and its culture.

Shortly after Hitler's rise to power, in February 1933, Roth wrote in a prophetic letter to his friend, the Austrian writer [[Stefan Zweig]]:

{{quote|You will have realized by now that we are drifting towards great catastrophes. Apart from the private — our literary and financial existence is destroyed — it all leads to a new war. I won't bet a penny on our lives. They have succeeded in establishing a reign of barbarity. Do not fool yourself. Hell reigns.<ref>38. Hell reigns. Letter of Joseph Roth to Stefan Zweig, February 1933. ''Hitlers Machtergreifung - dtv dokumente'', edited by Josef & Ruth Becker, Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, 2nd edition, Munich, Germany, 1992, p.70. ISBN 3-423-02938-2</ref>}}

From 1936 to 1938, Roth had a romantic relationship with [[Irmgard Keun]]. They worked together, traveling to various cities such as Paris, [[Wilna]], [[Lemberg]], [[Warsaw]], Vienna, [[Salzburg]], [[Brussels]] and [[Amsterdam]].

Without intending to deny his Jewish origins, Roth considered his relationship to [[Catholicism]] very important. In the final years of his life, he may even have converted; translator [[Michael Hofmann]] states in the preface to the collection of essays ''Report from a Parisian Paradise'' that Roth "was said to have had two funerals, one Jewish, one Catholic."

His last years were difficult. He moved from hotel to hotel, drinking heavily, anxious about money and the future. Despite suffering from chronic [[alcoholism]], Roth remained prolific until his premature death in Paris in 1939. His final novella, ''[[The Legend of the Holy Drinker]]'' (1939), considered to be amongst his finest,{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} chronicles the attempts made by an alcoholic vagrant to regain his dignity and honour a debt.

Roth's final collapse was precipitated by hearing the news that the playwright [[Ernst Toller]] had hanged himself in New York.<ref name="About Wandering 142" />

Joseph Roth is interred in the [[Cimetière de Thiais]], south of Paris.

==Works==
*''The Spider's Web'' (''Das Spinnennetz'') (1923, adapted in 1989 into a [[Das Spinnennetz|film of the same name]] by [[Bernhard Wicki]], starring [[Ulrich Mühe]], [[Armin Mueller-Stahl]], and [[Klaus Maria Brandauer]])
*''[[Hotel Savoy (novel)|Hotel Savoy]]'' (1924)
*''[[The Rebellion]]'' (''Die Rebellion'') (1924)
*''[[April: The History of a Love]]'' (''April. Die Geschichte einer Liebe'') (1925)
*''[[The Blind Mirror]]'' (''Der blinde Spiegel'') (1925)
*''[[The Wandering Jews]]'' (''Juden auf Wanderschaft'') (1927)
*''[[The Flight without End]]'' (''Die Flucht ohne Ende'') (1927)
*''[[Zipper and His Father]]'' (''Zipper und sein Vater'') (1928)
*''[[Right and Left (novel)|Right and Left]]'' (''Rechts und links'') (1929)
*''[[The Silent Prophet]]'' (''Der stumme Prophet'') (1929)
*''[[Job (novel)|Job]]'' (''Hiob'') (1930)
*''[[Radetzky March (novel)|Radetzky March]]'' (''Radetzkymarsch'') (1932)
*''The Antichrist'' (''Der Antichrist'') (1934)
*''Tarabas'' (1934)
*''Die Büste des Kaisers'' (1934)
*''[[Confession of a Murderer]]'' (''Beichte eines Mörders'') (1936)
*"Die hundert Tage" ("The Ballad of the Hundred Days") (1936)
*''Weights and Measures'' (''Das falsche Gewicht'') (1937)
*''[[The Emperor's Tomb]]'' (''Die Kapuzinergruft'') (1938)
*''[[The Legend of the Holy Drinker]]'' (''Die Legende vom heiligen Trinker'') (1939)
*''The String of Pearls 1939'' (''Die Geschichte von der 1002. Nacht'')<ref>Nürnberger, Helmuth. ''Joseph Roth''. Reinbek, Hamburg, 1981, p.152. ISBN 3-499-50301-8</ref>
*''[[The Leviathan (novel)|The Leviathan]]'' (''Der Leviathan'') (1940)
*''The Wandering Jews'', trans. by [[Michael Hofmann]], New York: W. W. Norton & Company (2001)
*''[[What I Saw: Reports from Berlin, 1920-1933]]'', trans. by Michael Hofmann, New York: W. W. Norton & Company (2002)
*''The Collected Stories of Joseph Roth'', trans. by Michael Hofmann, New York: W. W. Norton & Company (2003)
*''Report from a Parisian Paradise: Essays from France, 1925-1939'', trans. by Michael Hofmann, New York: W. W. Norton & Company (2004)
*''Joseph Roth: A Life in Letters'', trans. and edited by Michael Hofmann, New York: W. W. Norton & Company (2012)

== See also ==
* [[Exilliteratur]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{citation | last = Mauthner| first = Martin| title = German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940 |place = London| publisher = Vallentine Mitchell | year = 2007| edition = |isbn = 978-0-85303-540-4 }}
* {{Cite journal | last = Prang | first = Christoph | coauthors = | title = Semiomimesis: The influence of [[semiotics]] on the creation of literary texts. [[Peter Bichsel]]'s Ein Tisch ist ein Tisch and Joseph Roth's Hotel Savoy | journal = [[Semiotica]] | volume = 10 | issue = 182 | pages = 375–396| year = 2010 }}
* {{citation | last = von Sternburg| first = Wilhelm| title = Joseph Roth. Eine Biographie |place = Cologne| publisher = Kiepenheuer & Witsch | year = 2010| edition =| language = German |isbn = 978-3-462-04251-1 }}
* {{citation | last = Hoffman | first = Michael| title = Joseph Roth: A Life in Letters | year = 2012}}
* {{citation|last=Snick|first=Els|title=Waar het me slecht gaat is mijn vaderland. Joseph Roth in Nederland en België|place=Amsterdam|publisher= Bas Lubberhuizen|year=2013|isbn=978-90-5937-3266}}
* {{citation|last=Lazaroms|first=Ilse Josepha|title=The Grace of Misery: Joseph Roth and The Politics of Exile, 1919–1939|place=Leiden and Boston|publisher= Brill|year=2013|isbn=978-90-0423-4857}}
* Michael Hoffman, trans. and ed., ''Joseph Roth: A Life in Letters'' (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012).
* Alexander Stillmark,(ed.) ''Joseph Roth. Der Sieg ueber die Zeit''. (1996).

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Joseph Roth}}
* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/roth_online/index.html&date=2009-10-26+01:50:49 JRO - Joseph Roth Online]
* [http://www.lbi.org/digibaeck/results/?qtype=pid&term=121485 Joseph Roth Collection] at the Leo Baeck Institute

{{German literature}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=56615783}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Roth, Joseph
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Roth, Moses Joseph
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = journalist, author
| DATE OF BIRTH = September 2, 1894
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Brody]]
| DATE OF DEATH = May 27, 1939
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Paris]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Roth, Joseph}}
[[Category:1894 births]]
[[Category:1939 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Brody]]
[[Category:Writers from Vienna]]
[[Category:University of Vienna alumni]]
[[Category:Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Austrian historical novelists]]
[[Category:Austrian journalists]]
[[Category:Austrian monarchists]]
[[Category:Austro-Hungarian Jews]]
[[Category:Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)]]
[[Category:Jewish novelists]]
[[Category:Joseph Roth| ]]
[[Category:Exilliteratur writers]]

Old Church Slavonic grammar

2014-11-26T11:51:38Z

Madler: added translations

'''[[Old Church Slavonic]]''' is an [[inflectional language]] with moderately complex verbal and nominal systems.

==Nouns==
===o-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Masculine gender ("town")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| grad-'''ъ'''
| grad-'''a'''
| grad-'''i'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| grad-'''a'''
| grad-'''u'''
| grad-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| grad-'''u'''
| grad-'''oma'''
| grad-'''omъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| grad-'''ъ'''
| grad-'''a'''
| grad-'''y'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| grad-'''e'''
| grad-'''a'''
| grad-'''i'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| grad-'''ě'''
| grad-'''u'''
| grad-'''ěxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| grad-'''omь'''
| grad-'''oma'''
| grad-'''y'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are generally masculines ending in '''''-ъ''''' in the nominative singular (''bogъ'', ''gradъ'', ''rodъ''). The only exception are the nouns in ''-ъ'' that inflect as u-stem masculines.

Sometimes (but not yet obligatorily, in contrast to later Slavic languages), in the accusative singular, the beginnings of a difference between an animate and inanimate subgender can be seen, as the genitive may occasionally be used instead of the accusative for animate objects (''raba'' beside ''rabъ'').

 
Nouns with the suffix '''''-(j)an-in-ъ''''' (''graždaninъ'') also belong to this declension class in the singular, but in the plural they lose the ''-in-'' interfix and conform to the consonantal paradigm (''graždane, graždanъ, graždanem, graždany, graždane, graždanexъ, graždany).
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Neuter gender ("wine")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| vin-'''o'''
| vin-'''ě'''
| vin-'''a'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| vin-'''a'''
| vin-'''u'''
| vin-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| vin-'''u'''
| vin-'''oma'''
| vin-'''omъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| vin-'''o'''
| vin-'''ě'''
| vin-'''a'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| vin-'''o'''
| vin-'''ě'''
| vin-'''a'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| vin-'''ě'''
| vin-'''u'''
| vin-'''ěxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| vin-'''omь'''
| vin-'''oma'''
| vin-'''y'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are neuters ending in '''''-o''''' in the nominative singular (''selo'', ''lěto'', ''město''). The only exception are the few neuters that are inflected as s-stems.
{{col-end}}

===jo-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Masculine gender ("knife")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| nož-'''ь'''
| nož-'''a'''
| nož-'''i'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| nož-'''a'''
| nož-'''u'''
| nož-'''ь'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| nož-'''u'''
| nož-'''ema'''
| nož-'''emъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| nož-'''ь'''
| nož-'''a'''
| nož-'''ę'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| nož-'''u'''
| nož-'''a'''
| nož-'''i'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| nož-'''i'''
| nož-'''u'''
| nož-'''ixъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| nož-'''emь'''
| nož-'''ema'''
| nož-'''i'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are masculines ending in '''''-ь''''' preceded by a [[palatal]] in the nominative singular (''vračь'', ''kralь'', ''košь'').

This paradigm encompasses nouns such as ''krai'' that don't appear to be ending in a palatal, but are in fact underlyingly combinations like ''krajь'' and so undergo this declension (''kraj -ь'', ''kraj -a'').

Nouns ending in agentive suffixes '''''-tel-ь''''' and '''''-ar-ь''''' also belong to this class (''učitelь, učitelja, učitelju...'', ''mytarь, mytarja, mytarju...'').

{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Neuter gender ("sea")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| mor-'''e'''
| mor-'''i'''
| mor-'''a'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| mor-'''a'''
| mor-'''u'''
| mor-'''ь'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| mor-'''u'''
| mor-'''ema'''
| mor-'''emъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| mor-'''e'''
| mor-'''i'''
| mor-'''a'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| mor-'''e'''
| mor-'''i'''
| mor-'''a'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| mor-'''i'''
| mor-'''u'''
| mor-'''ixъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| mor-'''emь'''
| mor-'''ema'''
| mor-'''i'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The jo-stem declension class encompasses neuters ending in ''-e'' (''lože'', ''polje'', ''molenьe'').
{{col-end}}

===a-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Feminine gender ("hand/arm")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''a'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫ'''c'''-'''ě'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''y'''}}
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''y'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''u'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''ъ'''}}
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| {{unicode|rǫ'''c'''-'''ě'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''ama'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''amъ'''}}
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''ǫ'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫ'''c'''-'''ě'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''y'''}}
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''o'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫ'''c'''-'''ě'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''y'''}}
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| {{unicode|rǫ'''c'''-'''ě'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''u'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''axъ'''}}
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''ojǫ'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''ama'''}}
| {{unicode|rǫk-'''ami'''}}
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are feminines ending in '''''-a''''' preceded by a hard, non-palatal consonant (''žena'').

Also belonging to this paradigm are the rare masculines ending in ''-a'' (''sluga'', ''vojevoda'').
{{col-end}}

===ja-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Feminine gender ("soul")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| duš-'''a'''
| duš-'''i'''
| duš-'''ę'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| duš-'''ę'''
| duš-'''u'''
| duš-'''ь'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| duš-'''i'''
| duš-'''ama'''
| duš-'''amъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| {{unicode|duš-'''ǫ'''}}
| duš-'''i'''
| duš-'''ę'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| duš-'''e'''
| duš-'''i'''
| duš-'''ę'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| duš-'''i'''
| duš-'''u'''
| duš-'''axъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| {{unicode|duš-'''ejǫ'''}}
| duš-'''ama'''
| duš-'''ami'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Noun belonging to this declension class are feminines ending in '''''-a''''' preceded by a soft, palatal consonant (''straža'', ''svešta'', ''mrěža'').

This paradigm also encompasses feminines ending in '''''-i''''' (''rabyni'', ''bogyni''), '''''-ica''''' (''děvica'') and '''''-ьni-''''' (''rizьnica''), and also masculines ending in ''-a'' preceded by a palatal (''junoša'').

{{col-end}}

===i-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Masculine gender ("guest")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| gost-'''ь'''
| gost-'''i'''
| gost-'''ьje'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| gost-'''i'''
| gost-'''ьju'''
| gost-'''ьi'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| gost-'''i'''
| gost-'''ьma'''
| gost-'''ьmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| gost-'''ь'''
| gost-'''i'''
| gost-'''i'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| gost-'''i'''
| gost-'''i'''
| gost-'''ьje'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| gost-'''i'''
| gost-'''ьju'''
| gost-'''ьxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| gost-'''ьmь'''
| gost-'''ьma'''
| gost-'''ьmi'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are masculines ending in '''''-ь''''' preceded by a hard, non-palatal consonant (''črьvь'', ''gospodь'', ''pǫtь''). The only exception are a limited number of such nouns belonging to the n-stem paradigm.

{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Feminine gender ("bone")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| kost-'''ь'''
| kost-'''i'''
| kost-'''i'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| kost-'''i'''
| kost-'''ьju'''
| kost-'''ьi'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| kost-'''i'''
| kost-'''ьma'''
| kost-'''ьmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| kost-'''ь'''
| kost-'''i'''
| kost-'''i'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| kost-'''i'''
| kost-'''i'''
| kost-'''i'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| kost-'''i'''
| kost-'''ьju'''
| kost-'''ьxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| {{unicode|kost-'''ьjǫ'''}}
| kost-'''ьma'''
| kost-'''ьmi'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to the i-stem feminine declension are feminines ending in '''''-ь''''' in the nominative singular (''rěčь, ''noštь'', ''tvarь'').

The only exception is the noun ''krъvь'' which undergoes ъv-stem (ū-stem) declension.
{{col-end}}

===u-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Masculine gender ("house")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| dom-'''ъ'''
| dom-'''y'''
| dom-'''ove'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| dom-'''u'''
| dom-'''ovu'''
| dom-'''ovъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| dom-'''ovi'''
| dom-'''ъma'''
| dom-'''ъmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| dom-'''ъ'''
| dom-'''y'''
| dom-'''y'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| dom-'''u'''
| dom-'''y'''
| dom-'''ove'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| dom-'''u'''
| dom-'''ovu'''
| dom-'''ъxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| dom-'''ъmь'''
| dom-'''ъma'''
| dom-'''ъmi'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension are a rather small group of masculines: '''činъ''', '''domъ''', '''ledъ''', '''medъ''', '''mirъ''', '''polъ''', '''sanъ''', '''synъ''', '''volъ''', '''vrъxъ'''.
{{col-end}}

===ū-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Feminine gender
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| tik-'''y'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''i'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''i'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| tik'''ъv'''-'''e'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''u'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| tik'''ъv'''-'''i'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''ama'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''amъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| tik'''ъv'''-'''ь'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''i'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''i'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| tik-'''y'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''i'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''i'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| tik'''ъv'''-'''e'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''u'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''axъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| {{unicode|tik'''ъv'''-'''ьjǫ'''}}
| tik'''ъv'''-'''ama'''
| tik'''ъv'''-'''ami'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to the ū-stem declension (also known as '''-ъv-''' declension, or '''v-stem''' declension) are: '''buky''', '''brady''', '''cěly''', '''crьky''', '''{{unicode|horǫgy}}''', '''loky''', '''ljuby''', '''neplody''', '''prěljuby''', '''smoky''', '''svekry''', '''žrьny''', '''kry''' (this last form is attested in [[Psalterium Sinaiticum]]; older sources list the accusative form ''krъvь'' as a lemma).
{{col-end}}

===n-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Masculine gender ("stone")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| kam-'''y'''
| kam'''en'''-'''i'''
| kam'''en'''-'''e'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| kam'''en'''-'''e'''
| kam'''en'''-'''u'''
| kam'''en'''-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| kam'''en'''-'''i'''
| kam'''en'''-'''ьma'''
| kam'''en'''-'''ьmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| kam'''en'''-'''ь'''
| kam'''en'''-'''i'''
| kam'''en'''-'''i'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| kam-'''y'''
| kam'''en'''-'''i'''
| kam'''en'''-'''e'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| kam'''en'''-'''e'''
| kam'''en'''-'''u'''
| kam'''en'''-'''ьxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| kam'''en'''-'''ьmь'''
| kam'''en'''-'''ьma'''
| kam'''en'''-'''ьmi'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following masculines: '''dьnь''', '''jelenь''', '''jęčьmenь''', '''kamy''', '''korenь''', '''plamy''', '''remenь''', '''sęženь''', '''stepenь'''.
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Neuter gender ("tribe")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| plem-'''ę'''
| plem'''en'''-'''i'''
| plem'''en'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| plem'''en'''-'''e'''
| plem'''en'''-'''u'''
| plem'''en'''-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| plem'''en'''-'''i'''
| plem'''en'''-'''ьma'''
| plem'''en'''-'''ьmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| plem-'''ę'''
| plem'''en'''-'''i'''
| plem'''en'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| plem-'''ę'''
| plem'''en'''-'''i'''
| plem'''en'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| plem'''en'''-'''e'''
| plem'''en'''-'''u'''
| plem'''en'''-'''ьxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| plem'''en'''-'''ьmь'''
| plem'''en'''-'''ьma'''
| plem'''en'''-'''y'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following neuters: '''brěmę''', '''čismę''', '''imę''', '''pismę''', '''plemę''', '''sěmę''', '''slěmę''', '''těmę''', '''vrěmę'''.
{{col-end}}

===s-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Neuter gender ("sky/heaven")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| neb-'''o'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ě'''
| neb'''es'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| neb'''es'''-'''e'''
| neb'''es'''-'''u'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| neb'''es'''-'''i'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ьma'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ьmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| neb-'''o'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ě'''
| neb'''es'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| neb-'''o'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ě'''
| neb'''es'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| neb'''es'''-'''e'''
| neb'''es'''-'''u'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ьxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| neb'''es'''-'''ьmь'''
| neb'''es'''-'''ьma'''
| neb'''es'''-'''y'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Nouns belonging to this declension class are the following neuters: '''čudo''', '''divo''', '''drěvo''', '''kolo''', '''nebo''', '''tělo''', '''slovo''' and also '''uxo''' and '''oko''' which have dual forms like i-stems.
{{col-end}}

===t-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Neuter gender ("body")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| tel-'''ę'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ě'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''e'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| tel'''ęt'''-'''e'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''u'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| tel'''ęt'''-'''i'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ьma'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ьmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| tel-'''ę'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ě'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| tel-'''ę'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ě'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''a'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| tel'''ęt'''-'''e'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''u'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ьxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ьmь'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''ьma'''
| tel'''ęt'''-'''y'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The t-stem (also known as '''nt'''-stem) paradigm encompasses neuters denoting a young of an animal or human: '''otročę''', '''agnę''', '''kozьlę''', '''kljusę''', '''osьlę''', '''ovьčę''', '''telę''', '''žrěbę''' etc.
{{col-end}}

===r-stems===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Feminine gender ("mother")
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| mat-'''i'''
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| mat'''er'''-'''e'''
| mat'''er'''-'''u'''
| mat'''er'''-'''ъ'''
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
| mat'''er'''-'''ьma'''
| mat'''er'''-'''ьmъ'''
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| mat'''er'''-'''ь'''
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
|-
| [[Vocative|V]]
| mat-'''i'''
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| mat'''er'''-'''i'''
| mat'''er'''-'''u'''
| mat'''er'''-'''ьxъ'''
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| {{unicode|mat'''er'''-'''ьjǫ'''}}
| mat'''er'''-'''ьma'''
| mat'''er'''-'''ьmi'''
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
r-stem feminines are the nouns '''mati''' and '''dъšti'''.
{{col-end}}

==Pronouns==
===Personal pronouns===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ First-person pronoun
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| azъ
| vě
| my
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| mene
| naju
| nasъ
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| mьně (mi)
| nama (na)
| namъ (ny)
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| mene (mę)
| na (ny)
| ny
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| mьně
| naju
| nasъ
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| mъnojǫ
| nama
| nami
|}

{{col-break|gap=5em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Second-person pronoun
|-
| -
| Singular
| Dual
| Plural
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| ty
| va (vy)
| vy
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| tebe
| vaju
| vasъ
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| tebě (ti)
| vama (va)
| vamъ
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| tebe (tę)
| va (vy)
| vasъ (vy)
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| tebě
| vaju
| vasъ
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| tobojǫ
| vama
| vami
|}

{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=5em}}
The nominative forms of the first and second person pronouns are only used for emphasis, and are otherwise unnecessary because the subject is implicit in the verb's inflection. The oblique forms, however, are quite commonly used. The parenthesized forms are enclitic alternatives, usually standing after the first accented word of a clause.
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Third-person pronoun
|-
| -
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Singular'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Dual'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Plural'''
|-
| -
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| *i (jь)
| *ja
| *je
| ja
| i (ji)
| i (ji)
| i (ji)
| ję
| ja
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| jego
| jeję
| jego
| jeju
| jeju
| jeju
| (j)ixъ
| (j)ixъ
| (j)ixъ
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| jemu
| jei
| jemu
| (j)ima
| (j)ima
| (j)ima
| (j)imъ
| (j)imъ
| (j)imъ
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| i (jь), nь
| jǫ
| je
| ja
| ji
| ji
| ję
| ję
| ja
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| jemь
| jei
| jemь
| jeju
| jeju
| jeju
| (j)ixъ
| (j)ixъ
| (j)ixъ
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| (j)imь
| jejǫ
| (j)imь
| (j)ima
| (j)ima
| (j)ima
| (j)imi
| (j)imi
| (j)imi
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
Just as the first and second person pronouns, the third person pronoun is commonly used only in oblique cases. Nominative singular forms are not attested in the OCS corpus, and are reconstructed. In the East South Slavic dialectal area where OCS originated, a suppletive nominative singular stem of the demonstrative ''tъ'' ('that') is used, elsewhere ''onъ'' ('that one there, yon'), or very rarely ''sь'' ('this').

By attaching the enclitic particle ''že'' to the forms of *i one obtains the relative pronoun: ''iže'' ('he who'), ''ježe'' ('the (female) one to whom'), ''jejuže'' ('the two of whom'), etc.

When following prepositions, these pronouns take a prothetic ''n-'', hence ''kъ n'imъ'' ('to them') instead of ''*imъ'', ''na n'emь'' ('on him'), etc. This is a remnant of final -m/n in the PIE prepositions *kom (cf. Latin [[:wikt:cum#Latin|cum]], Sanskrit [[:wikt:कम्|kám]]), {{unicode|*sm̥}} (cf. Sanskrit [[:wikt:सम्|sám]]) and {{unicode|*h₁n̥}} that yielded the OCS prepositions ''kъ'', ''sъ'', and ''vъ'' and then spread analogically to all the other prepositions.
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Reflexive pronoun
|-
| -
| Singular
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| -
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| sebe
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| sebě (si)
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| sę
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| sebě
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| sobojǫ
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The reflexive pronoun has only singular oblique forms, which is the state of affairs inherited from PIE [[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Indo-European *swé|*swé]]. The reflexive pronoun refers to the subject as a whole, and can be translated as English ''-self'' (myself, yourself, himself etc.)
{{col-end}}

===Relative pronoun===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Relative pronoun
|-
| -
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Singular'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Dual'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Plural'''
|-
| -
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| iže
| jaže
| ježe
| jaže
| iže
| iže
| iže
| jęže
| jaže
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| jegože
| jejęže
| jegože
| jejuže
| jejuže
| jejuže
| ixъže
| ixъže
| ixъže
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| jemuže
| jeiže
| jemuže
| imaže
| imaže
| imaže
| imъže
| imъže
| imъže
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| iže
| jǫže
| ježe
| jaže
| iže
| iže
| jęže
| jęže
| jaže
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| jemьže
| jeiže
| jemьže
| jejuže
| jejuže
| jejuže
| ixъže
| ixъže
| ixъže
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| imьže
| jejǫže
| imьže
| imaže
| imaže
| imaže
| imiže
| imiže
| imiže
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
As mentioned, the third person pronoun *i participates in the formation of the relative pronoun by appending the indeclinable enclitic ''že''. Unlike the third person pronoun, however, the nominative case forms do occur. Similarly, a prothetic ''n-'' occurs when following prepositions, e.g., ''vъ n'ьže'' ('in which').
{{col-end}}

===Interrogative pronoun and adjective===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Interrogative pronoun
|-
| -
| Masculine, Feminine
| Neuter
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| kъto
| čьto (čь)
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| kogo
| česo (česogo, čьso, čьsogo)
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| komu
| česomu (čьsomu, čemu)
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| kogo
| čьto
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| komь
| čemь (česomь)
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| cěmь
| čimь
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The interrogative pronoun ('who?, what?') has singular-only forms, with the masculine and feminine forms syncretized. Variant forms of ''čьto'' occurring in some of the oblique cases have been listed in parentheses.
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Interrogative adjective (pronoun)
|-
| -
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Singular'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Dual'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Plural'''
|-
| -
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| kyi (ky)
| kaja
| koje
| (kaja)
| -
| -
| cii
| kyję
| kaja
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| kojego
| kojeję (koję)
| kojego
| (kojeju)
| (kojeju)
| (kojeju)
| kyixъ (koixъ)
| kyixъ (koixъ)
| kyixъ (koixъ)
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| kojemu
| kojei (koi)
| kojemu
| kyima
| kyima
| kyima
| kyimъ
| kyimъ
| kyimъ
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| kyi
| kǫjǫ (kojǫ)
| koje
| (kaja)
| -
| -
| kyję
| kyję
| kaja
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| kojemь
| kojei
| kojemь
| (kojeju)
| (kojeju)
| (kojeju)
| kyixъ
| kyixъ
| kyixъ
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| kyimь
| kojejǫ (kojǫ)
| kyimь
| kyima
| kyima
| kyima
| kyimi
| kyimi
| kyimi
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The interrogative adjective, sometimes also labelled as the interrogative pronoun ('which?, what sort of?'), also has some variant forms listed in parentheses.
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=15em}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Possessive interrogative adjective (pronoun)
|-
| -
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Singular'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Dual'''
| colspan="3" align="center" | '''Plural'''
|-
| -
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
| Masculine
| Feminine
| Neuter
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| čii (ky)
| čija
| čije
| (čija)
| -
| -
| čii
| čiję
| čija
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| čijego
| čijeję (koję)
| čijego
| (čijeju)
| (čijeju
| (čijeju
| čiixъ (koixъ)
| čiixъ (koixъ)
| čiixъ (koixъ)
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| čijemu
| čijei (koi)
| čijemu
| čiima
| čiima
| čiima
| čiimъ
| čiimъ
| čiimъ
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| čii
| čijǫ (kojǫ)
| čije
| (čija)
| -
| -
| čiję
| čiję
| čija
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| čijemь
| čijei
| čijemь
| (čijeju)
| (čijeju)
| (čijeju)
| čiixъ
| čiixъ
| čiixъ
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| čiimь
| čijejǫ (kojǫ)
| čiimь
| čiima
| čiima
| čiima
| čiimi
| čiimi
| čiimi
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The possessive interrogative adjective, sometimes also labelled as the possessive interrogative pronoun ('whose?'), follows the same declension.
{{col-end}}

===Indefinite pronouns and adjectives===
The interrogative pronouns ''kъto, čьto'' can also have the indefinite meanings of 'anybody', 'anything' respectively.

The prefix ''ně-'' imparts an indefinite meaning to the word to which it is attached: thus ''kъto'' ('who?') becomes ''někъto'' ('someone'), and ''čьto'' ('what?') becomes ''něčьto'' ('something'). Similarly, the prefix ''ni-'' imparts a negative meaning: ''nikъto'' ('no one'), ''ničьto'' ('nothing'). A prepositions may come between prefix and base word:
: ně u kogo — ''with someone''
: ni o komьže nerodiši — ''you care for no one''

==Adjectives==
OCS adjectives can be in two forms: '''short''' and '''long''', corresponding to '''indefinite''' and '''definite''' meaning respectively. The long form is generally used only attributively, whereas the short form is predicative in nature. So, e.g., ''člověkъ dobrъ'' "a good man, man is good" whilst ''člověkъ dobryi'' "the good man, the man who is good".

Indefinite adjectives are inflected as the corresponding nouns of the primary declension, e.g., ''novъ'' as ''rabъ'', ''nova'' as ''žena'', ''novo'' as ''selo'', ''ništь'' as ''vračь'', ''ništa'' as ''duša'', ''nište'' as ''polje''.

Definite adjectives (also known as '''compound''', '''long''', or '''pronominal''' forms of adjective) are formed by suffixing to the indefinite form the anaphoric third-person pronoun ''jь'' (spelled as ''i'' in OCS orthography), ''ja, je'' as shown in the table.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ "new"
| [[Nominative|N]]
| novъ + i (jь) = novъjь > novyi
| nova + ja = novaja
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| nova + jego = novajego
| novy + jeję = novyję
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| novu + jemu = novujemu
| nově + jei = nověi
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| novъ + i (jь) = novъjь > novyi
| {{unicode|novǫ}} + {{unicode|jǫ}} = {{unicode|novǫjǫ}}
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| nově + jemь = novějemь
| nově + jei = nověi
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| novomь + imь = novъimь > novyimь
| {{unicode|novojǫ}} + {{unicode|jejǫ}} = {{unicode|novojǫ}}, {{unicode|novǫjǫ}}
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| [[Nominative|N]], [[Accusative|A]]
| nova + ja = novaja
| nově + i = nověi
|-
| [[Genitive|G]], [[Locative|L]]
| novu + jeju = novuju
| novu + jeju = novuju
|-
| [[Dative|D]], [[Instrumental case|I]]
| novoma + ima = novyima
| novoma + ima = novyima
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| [[Nominative|N]]
| novi + (j)i = novii
| novy + ję = novyję
|-
| [[Genitive|G]]
| novъ + ixъ = novyixъ
| novъ + ixъ = novyixъ
|-
| [[Dative|D]]
| novomъ + imъ = novyimъ
| novamъ + imъ = novyimъ
|-
| [[Accusative|A]]
| novy + ję = novyję
| novy + ję = novyję
|-
| [[Locative|L]]
| nověxъ + ixъ = novyixъ
| novaxъ + ixъ = novyixъ
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]]
| novy + imi = novyimi
| novami + imi = novyimi
|}

===Adjective gradation===
There are three levels of adjective gradation in OCS:

*'''positive''', stating an absolute property of an object;
*'''comparative''', stating a relative property of an object;
*'''superlative''', stating a property of an object in relation to any other object it may be compared to.

====Comparative====
# Adjectives with falling tone on the root syllable:
#: dragъ ("dear") − draž-ii (''m''), draž-e (''n''), draž-ьši (''f'');
#: tęžьkъ ("heavy") − tęžii, tęže, tęžьši;
#: grǫbъ ("rude") − grǫblii, grǫble, grǫblьši.
# Adjectives with rising tone on the root syllable:
#: novъ ("new") − nov-ěi, nov-ěje, nov-ěiši;
#: starъ ("old") − star-ěi, star-ěje, star-ěiši;
#: junъ ("young") − jun-ěi, jun-ěje, jun-ěiši.

====Declension of the comparative====
{|
|[[Nominative|N]]|||| dražii |||||||||| draže |||||||||| dražьši |||||||||| juněi |||||||||| juněje |||||||||| juněiši
|-
| [[Genitive|G]] |||| dražьša |||||||||| dražьša |||||||||| dražьšę |||||||||| juněiša |||||||||| juněiša |||||||||| juněišę
|-
| [[Dative|D]] |||| dražьšu |||||||||| dražьšu |||||||||| dražьši |||||||||| juněišu |||||||||| juněišu |||||||||| juněiši
|-
| [[Accusative|A]] |||| dražьšii |||||||||| draže |||||||||| dražьšǫ |||||||||| juněi |||||||||| juněje |||||||||| juněišǫ
|-
| [[Locative|L]] |||| dražьši |||||||||| dražьši |||||||||| dražьši |||||||||| juněiši |||||||||| junějiši |||||||||| juněiši
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]] |||| dražьšemь |||||||||| dražьšemь |||||||||| dražьšejǫ |||||||||| juněišemь |||||||||| juněišemь |||||||||| juněišejǫ
|}

{|
|[[Nominative|N]], [[Accusative|A]] |||| dražьša |||||||||| dražьši |||||||||| dražьši |||||||||| juněiša |||||||||| juněiši |||||||||| juněiši
|-
|[[Genitive|G]], [[Locative|L]] |||| dražьšu |||||||||| dražьšu |||||||||| dražьšu |||||||||| juněišu |||||||||| juněišu |||||||||| juněišu
|-
|[[Dative|D]], [[Instrumental case|I]] |||| dražьšema |||||||||| dražьšema |||||||||| dražьšama |||||||||| juněišema |||||||||| juněišema |||||||||| juněišama
|}

{|
| [[Nominative|N]] |||| dražьše |||||||||| dražьša |||||||||| dražьšę |||||||||| juněiše |||||||||| juněiša |||||||||| juněišę
|-
| [[Genitive|G]] |||| dražьšь |||||||||| dražьšь |||||||||| dražьšь |||||||||| juněišь |||||||||| juněišь |||||||||| juněišь
|-
| [[Dative|D]] |||| dražьšemъ |||||||||| dražьšemъ |||||||||| dražьšamъ |||||||||| juněišemъ |||||||||| juněišemъ |||||||||| juněišamъ
|-
| [[Accusative|A]] |||| dražьšę |||||||||| dražьša |||||||||| dražьšę |||||||||| juněišę |||||||||| juněiša |||||||||| juněišę
|-
| [[Locative|L]] |||| dražьšixь |||||||||| dražьšixь |||||||||| dražьšaxь |||||||||| juněišixь |||||||||| juněišixь |||||||||| juněišaxь
|-
| [[Instrumental case|I]] |||| dražьši |||||||||| dražьši |||||||||| dražьšami |||||||||| juněiši |||||||||| juněiši |||||||||| juněišami
|}

====Superlative====
The superlative is formed:
# by adding the prefix ''nai-'' to the comparative base: '''naidražii, naitęžьši, naigrǫble''';
# by combining the comparative form with the pronoun ''vьsego/vьsěxъ'': '''nověi vьsego, dražii vьsěxъ'''.

The '''absolute superlative''' is formed:
# by adding the prefix ''prě-'' to the positive: '''prědragъ, prěnova, prěstaro''';
# by using the adverb ''Ʒělo'' with the positive: '''Ʒělo dragъ, Ʒělo nova, Ʒělo staro'''.

==Numerals==
===Cardinals===
:{|
| 1 |||| jedinъ (''m''), jedina (''f''), jedino (''n'')
|-
| 2 |||| dъva (''m''), dъvě (''f'' and ''n'')
|-
| 3 |||| tri (''m''), trьje (''f'' and ''n'')
|-
| 4 |||| četyri (''m''), četyre (''f'' and ''n'')
|-
| 5 |||| pętь
|-
| 6 |||| šestь
|-
| 7 |||| sedmь
|-
| 8 |||| osmь
|-
| 9 |||| devętь
|-
| 10 |||| desętь
|-
| 11 |||| jedin-ъ/a/o na desęte
|-
| 12 |||| dъv-a/ě na desęte
|-
| 20 |||| dъva desęti
|-
| 21 |||| dъva desęti i jedin-ъ/a/o
|-
| 22 |||| dъva desęti i dъv-a/ě
|-
| 30 |||| trije desęte
|-
| 40 |||| četyre desęte
|-
| 50 |||| pętь desętь
|-
| 60 |||| šestь desętь
|-
| 70 |||| sedmь desętь
|-
| 80 |||| osmь desętь
|-
| 90 |||| devętь desętь
|-
| 100 |||| sъto
|-
| 200 |||| dъvě sъtě
|-
| 300 |||| tri sъta
|-
| 400 |||| četyre sъta
|-
| 500 |||| pętь sъtъ
|-
| 1 000 |||| tysęšti, tysǫšti
|-
| 2 000 |||| dъvě tysǫšti
|-
| 5 000 |||| pętь tysǫštь
|-
| 10 000 |||| desętь tysǫštь ''or'' tьma
|-
| 20 000 |||| dъvadesęti tysǫštь ''or'' dъvě tьmě
|-
| 100 000 |||| sъto tysǫštь ''or'' leĝeonъ
|}

====Declension of cardinal numbers====
:{|
| 1 |||| pronominal declension ''jedinъ − jedinogo, jedina − jedinoję''
|-
| 2 |||| pronominal declension, only in dual
|-
| 3 |||| undergoes i-stem declension, plural forms only
|-
| 4 |||| exactly like ''trьje, tri'', except for the nominative and genitive which undergo consonant-stem declension
|-
| 5−10 |||| undergoes i-stem declension, only in singular, except for ''desętь'' which also has dual and plural forms
|-
| 11−19 |||| only the first component is inflected, e.g., jedinomu na desęte
|-
| 20, 30, 40 |||| both components are inflected, e.g., dъvěma desętьma, trьmь desętьmь
|-
| 50−90 |||| only the first component is inflected, e.g., pętijǫ desętь
|}
: ''sъto'' is declined as ''selo'', ''tysęšti'' as ''bogyni'', ''tьma'' as ''žena'', ''leĝeonъ'' as ''rabъ''

===Ordinals===
:{|
| 1 |||| prъvyi, prъvaja, prъvoje
|-
| 2 |||| vъtoryi, vъtoraja, vъtoroje
|-
| 3 |||| tretii, tretijaja, tretijeje
|-
| 4 |||| četvrъyi, četvrъaja, četvrъoje
|-
| 5 |||| pętyi, pętaja, pętoje
|-
| 11 |||| prъvyi / prъvaja / prъvoje na desęte
|-
| 20 |||| dъvadesętьn-yi/aja/oje
|-
| 21 |||| dъvadesętьn-yi/aja/oje prъv-yi/aja/oje
|-
| 60 |||| šestьdesętьn-yi/aja/oje
|-
| 100 |||| sъtъn-yi/aja/oje
|-
| 1 000 |||| tysǫčьn-yi/aja/oje
|}

All ordinals are inflected like the corresponding adjectives.

==Verbs==
===Present===
The '''present tense''' is formed by adding present-tense endings onto the '''present tense stem''', which itself is sometimes hidden due to [[sound change]]s that have occurred in the past (more common verbs are listed):

*bosti (bod-), vesti (ved- or vez-), krasti (krad-), iti (id-)
*plesti (plet-), mesti (met-), greti (greb-), krasti (krad-)
*rešti (rek-), pešti (pek-), mošti (mog-), tešti (tek-)

There are several classes of verbs:

1. e-type verbs add the interfix ''-e-'' to the present stem (except in front of ''{{unicode|-ǫ}}'') and the endings:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| bosti (bod-) ("be (future)")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. bod -'''{{unicode|ǫ}}'''
|2. bod -'''e''' + -'''ši'''
|3. bod -'''e''' + -'''tъ'''
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. bod -'''e''' + -'''mъ'''
|2. bod -'''e''' + -'''te'''
|3. bod {{unicode|-'''ǫtъ'''}}
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. bod -'''e''' + -'''vě'''
|2. bod -'''e''' + -'''ta'''
|3. bod -'''e''' + -'''te'''
}}
|-
| rešti (rek-) ("speak")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. rek {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}}
|2. reč -'''e''' + -'''ši'''
|3. reč -'''e''' + -'''tъ'''
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. reč -'''e''' + -'''mъ'''
|2. reč -'''e''' + -'''te'''
|3. rek {{unicode|-'''ǫtъ'''}}
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. reč -'''e''' + -'''vě'''
|2. reč -'''e''' + -'''ta'''
|3. reč -'''e''' + -'''te'''
}}
|}

2. i-type verbs exhibit the same set of endings, but this time the interfix is ''-i-'' (except in front of ''{{unicode|-ǫ}}'' and ''{{unicode|-ę}}''). In the first person singular one finds the processes of [[iotation]] (''k/c + j > č, g/z + j > ž, x/s + j > š, l + j > lj, n + j > nj, t + j > št, d + j > žd'') and [[epenthesis]] (''bj > blj, pj > plj, mj > mlj, vj > vlj''):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| xvaliti (xval-) ("praise")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. xval + -'''j''' + {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}}
|2. xval -'''i''' + -'''ši'''
|3. xval -'''i''' + -'''tъ'''
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. xval -'''i''' + -'''mъ'''
|2. xval -'''i''' + -'''te'''
|3. xval -'''ętъ'''
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. xval -'''i''' + -'''vě'''
|2. xval -'''i''' + -'''ta'''
|3. xval -'''i''' + -'''te'''
}}
|-
| ljubiti (ljub-) ("love")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. ljub + -'''lj''' + {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}}
|2. ljub -'''i''' + -'''ši'''
|3. ljub -'''i''' + -'''tъ'''
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. ljub -'''i''' + -'''mъ'''
|2. ljub -'''i''' + -'''te'''
|3. ljub -'''ętъ'''
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. ljub -'''i''' + -'''vě'''
|2. ljub -'''i''' + -'''ta'''
|3. ljub -'''i''' + -'''te'''
}}
|}

3. The athematic verbs ''byti'', ''dati'', ''věděti'', ''iměti'' and ''jasti'' form the present tense irregularly:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| byti ("be")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. jesmь
|2. jesi
|3. jestъ
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. jesmъ
|2. jeste
|3. {{unicode|sǫtъ}}
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. jesvě
|2. jesta
|3. jeste
}}
|-
| věděti ("know")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. věmь
|2. věsi
|3. věstъ
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. věmъ
|2. věste
|3. vědętъ
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. věvě
|2. věsta
|3. věste
}}
|-
| iměti ("have")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. imamь
|2. imaši
|3. imatъ
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. imamъ
|2. imate
|3. {{unicode|imǫtъ}}
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. imavě
|2. imata
|3. imate
}}
|-
| jasti ("eat")
| {{unbulleted list
|1. jamь
|2. jasi
|3. jastъ
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. jamъ
|2. jaste
|3. jadętъ
}}
| {{unbulleted list
|1. javě
|2. jasta
|3. jaste
}}
|}

One should distinguish the verbs ''iměti'' (''imamь, imaši, imatъ''), ''imati'' ({{unicode|''jemljǫ}}, jemleši, jemletъ'') and ''jęti'' ({{unicode|''imǫ}}, imeši, imetъ''). Exceptional is also the verb ''xotěti'' which exhibits iotation even though it's not an i-type verb ({{unicode|''xoštǫ}}, xošteši, xoštetъ'').

===Asigmatic aorist===
The '''asigmatic aorist''' (also called '''root''' or '''simple''' aorist) was named after the loss of the phoneme /s/ in the inflection ([[Ancient Greek language|AGr.]] ''[[sigma]]''), i.e. there is no ''VsV > VxV'' change (intervocalic /s/ yielding /x/). Over time, the asigmatic aorist became increasingly marked as an archaic language feature and was eventually replaced by the other two [[aorist]] formations.

The asigmatic aorist was formed by adding to the '''infinitive stem''' of e-type verbs with stem ending in a consonant (i.e. verbs with the infix ''{{unicode|-nǫ-}}'', which is dropped before the aorist endings, and verbs with the null infix) the following endings: '''''-ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, {{unicode|-ǫ}}; -ově, -eta, -ete'''''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| pasti (pad-) ("fall")
| 1. pad -'''ъ''' 
2. pad -'''e''' 
3. pad -'''e'''
| 1. pad -'''omъ''' 
2. pad -'''ete''' 
3. pad {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}}
| 1. pad -'''ově''' 
2. pad -'''eta''' 
3. pad -'''ete'''
|-
| tešti (tek-) ("flow")
| 1. tek -'''ъ''' 
2. teč -'''e''' 
3. teč -'''e'''
| 1. tek -'''omъ''' 
2. teč -'''ete''' 
3. tek {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}}
| 1. tek -'''ově''' 
2. teč -'''eta''' 
3. teč -'''ete'''
|-
| mošti (mog-) ("be able to")
| 1. mog -'''ъ''' 
2. mož -'''e''' 
3. mož -'''e'''
| 1. mog -'''omъ''' 
2. mož -'''ete''' 
3. mog {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}}
| 1. mog -'''ově''' 
2. mož -'''eta''' 
3. mož -'''ete'''
|-
| {{unicode|dvignǫti}} (dvig-) ("move")
| 1. dvig -'''ъ''' 
2. dviž -'''e''' 
3. dviž -'''e'''
| 1. dvig -'''omъ''' 
2. dviž -'''ete''' 
3. dvig {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}}
| 1. dvig -'''ově''' 
2. dviž -'''eta''' 
3. dviž -'''ete'''
|}

===Sigmatic aorist===
The '''sigmatic''' or '''s-aorist''' was formed in the following ways:

*Verbs whose stem ends in '''b, p, d, t, z, s''' form this aorist by dropping the final consonant and adding the interfix '''''-s-''''' plus the endings '''''-ъ, -, -; -omъ, -te, -ę; -ově, -ta, -te'''''. Intervocalic [[sigma]] (''s'') exhibits no change. As a side effect, '''''e''''' is lengthened to '''''ě''''', and '''''o''''' to '''''a'''''.
*Verbs whose stem ends in '''''r''''' or '''''k''''' form this aorist in the same way as previously mentioned, except that intervocalic sigma (''s'') changes into ''x'', the same set of endings being suffixed to the interfix. As a side effect, '''''e''''' is lengthened to '''''ě''''', and '''''o''''' to '''''a'''''.
:The 2nd and 3rd person singular forms of these verbs are not attested, so the sigmatic aorist forms are used as a replacement.
*Verbs whose stem ends in a vowel form this aorist by suffixing exactly the same set of endings to the infinitive stem, and intervocalic ''-s-'' changes into ''-x-''.

:The 2nd and 3rd person singular forms of these verbs match the infinitive stem due to the elision of word-final sigma.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| xvaliti (xval'''i'''-)
| 1. xvali -'''x''' -'''ъ''' 
2. xvali 
3. xvali
| 1. xvali -'''x''' -'''omъ''' 
2. xvali -'''s''' -'''te''' 
3. xvali -'''š''' -'''ę'''
| 1. xvali -'''x''' -'''ově''' 
2. xvali -'''s''' -'''ta''' 
3. xvali -'''s''' -'''te'''
|-
| tešti (te'''k'''-)
| 1. těxъ (tek -s -ъ) 
2. teče 
3. teče
| 1. těxomъ (tek -s -omъ) 
2. těste 
3. těšę
| 1. těxově (tek -s -ově) 
2. těsta 
3. těste
|-
| greti (gre'''b'''-)
| 1. grěsъ 
2. grebe 
3. grebe
| 1. grěsomъ 
2. grěste 
3. grěsę
| 1. grěsově 
2. grěsta 
3. grěste
|-
| bosti (bo'''d'''-)
| 1. basъ 
2. bode 
3. bode
| 1. basomъ 
2. baste 
3. basę
| 1. basově 
2. basta 
3. baste
|}

===New aorist===
The '''new aorist''' (also known as '''ox-aorist''') is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem of e-type verbs ending in a consonant (verbs with the interfix ''{{unicode|-nǫ-}}'' and verbs with the null interfix) the interfix ''-os-'' (''-ox'') and onto it the endings '''''-ъ, -, -; -omъ, -te, -ę; -ově, -ta, -te'''''. Intervocalic sigma ''s'' changes into ''x''.

The 2nd and the 3rd person singular forms are not attested and thus the asigmatic aorist forms are taken as a replacement.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| krasti (krad-) ("steal")
| 1. krad '''-ox''' -'''ъ''' 
2. (krad -e) 
3. (krad -e)
| 1. krad -'''ox''' -'''omъ''' 
2. krad -'''os''' -'''te''' 
3. krad -'''oš''' -'''ę'''
| 1. krad -'''ox''' -'''ově''' 
2. krad -'''os''' -'''ta''' 
3. krad -'''os''' -'''te'''
|-
| rešti (rek-)
| 1. rek '''-ox''' -'''ъ''' 
2. (reč -e) 
3. (reč -e)
| 1. rek -'''ox''' -'''omъ''' 
2. rek -'''os''' -'''te''' 
3. rek -'''oš''' -'''ę'''
| 1. rek -'''ox''' -'''ově''' 
2. rek -'''os''' -'''ta''' 
3. rek -'''os''' -'''te'''
|-
| iti (id-) ("go/walk")
| 1. id '''-ox''' -'''ъ''' 
2. (id -e) 
3. (id -e)
| 1. id -'''ox''' -'''omъ''' 
2. id -'''os''' -'''te''' 
3. id -'''oš''' -'''ę'''
| 1. id -'''ox''' -'''ově''' 
2. id -'''os''' -'''ta''' 
3. id -'''os''' -'''te'''
|}

===Imperfect===
There are two ways of forming the imperfect:

1. If the infinitive stems ends in ''-a'' or ''-ě'', the interfix '''''-ax-''''' is appended (which changes to '''''-aš-''''' according to the first palatalization in front of ''e'') and onto it, the endings of the asigmatic aorist: '''''-ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, {{unicode|-ǫ}}; -ově, -eta, -ete'''''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| glagolati (glagola-) ("speak")
| 1. glagola -'''ax''' -'''ъ''' 
2. glagola -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
3. glagola -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
| 1. glagola -'''ax''' -'''omъ''' 
2. glagola -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
3. glagola -'''ax''' {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}} 
| 1. glagola -'''ax''' -'''ově''' 
2. glagola -'''aš''' -'''eta''' 
3. glagola -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
|-
| viděti (vidě-) ("see")
| 1. vidě -'''ax''' -'''ъ''' 
2. vidě -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
3. vidě -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
| 1. vidě -'''ax''' -'''omъ''' 
2. vidě -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
3. vidě -'''ax''' {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}} 
| 1. vidě -'''ax''' -'''ově''' 
2. vidě -'''aš''' -'''eta''' 
3. vidě -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
|}

2. The other way of forming the imperfect, applying to all other verbal stems, is by adding onto the present stem the interfix '''''-ěax-''''' (which, in accordance with the first palatalization, is changed to ''-ěaš-'' in front of ''e'') and onto it the endings of asigmatic aorist: '''''-ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, {{unicode|-ǫ}}; -ově, -eta, -ete'''''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| zъvati (zov-) ("call")
| 1. zov -'''ě''' -'''ax''' -'''ъ''' 
2. zov -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
3. zov -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
| 1. zov -'''ě''' -'''ax''' -'''omъ''' 
2. zov -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
3. zov -'''ě''' -'''ax''' {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}} 
| 1. zov -'''ě''' -'''ax''' -'''ově''' 
2. zov -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''eta''' 
3. zov -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
|-
| bosti (bod-)
| 1. bod -'''ě''' -'''ax''' -'''ъ''' 
2. bod -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
3. bod -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''e''' 
| 1. bod -'''ě''' -'''ax''' -'''omъ''' 
2. bod -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
3. bod -'''ě''' -'''ax''' {{unicode|-'''ǫ'''}} 
| 1. bod -'''ě''' -'''ax''' -'''ově''' 
2. bod -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''eta''' 
3. bod -'''ě''' -'''aš''' -'''ete''' 
|}

Both of these imperfect formations often occur side by side in verbs with stem alternation:
*bъrati (bъra-; ber-) > ''bъraaxъ'' or ''berěaxъ''
*gъnati (gъna-; žen-) > ''gъnaaxъ'' or ''ženěaxъ''
*plьvati (plьva-; pljuj-) > ''plьvaaxъ'' or ''pljujěaxъ''
*zъvati (zъva-; zov-) > ''zъvaaxъ'' or ''zověaxъ''

In the texts of the OCS canon the forms are often contracted, so that '''''ěax''''' becomes '''''ěx''''' and '''''aax''''' becomes '''''ax'''''. An illustrating example is in [[Chernorizets Hrabar]]'s famous work ''O pismenex'' "An Account of Letters": 
:''Prěžde ubo slověne ne {{unicode|iměxǫ}} knigъ, {{unicode|nǫ}} črъtami i rězami {{unicode|čьtěxǫ}} i {{unicode|gataaxǫ}}, pogani {{unicode|sǫšte}}.''

Some forms exhibit [[sound change]]s, namely [[palatalization]] or [[iotation]] in front of ''ě'', [[yat]] thus turning into ''a''. The same applies if the stem ends in ''j'' which is then reduced in front of yat and yat again changes into ''a'':
*xvaliti (xval-) > xval + ě + axъ > ''xvaljaaxъ''
*nositi (nos-) > nos + ě + axъ > ''nošaaxъ''
*pešti (pek-) > pek + ě + axъ > ''pečaaxъ''
*čuti (čuj-) > čuj + ě + axъ > ''čujaaxъ''

That the second form and not the first is the original one (the first being formed by the change of yat to ''a'') is confirmed by the imperfect paradigm of the verb ''byti'':
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Plural
! Dual
|-
| byti
| 1. běaxъ 
2. běaše 
3. běaše 
| 1. běaxomъ 
2. běašete 
3. {{unicode|běaxǫ}} 
| 1. běaxově 
2. běašeta 
3. běašete 
|}

===Participles===
====Present active participle====
The '''present active participle''' is formed by adding the following endings to the present stem:

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:
* present stem + '''''-y''''' (masculine and neuter) and '''''{{unicode|-ǫšti}}''''' (feminine)
:(e.g., ''greti (greb-) > greby; {{unicode|grebǫšti''}})

2. e-type verbs whose present stem ends in a palatal:
* present stem + '''''-ę''''' (masculine and neuter) and '''''{{unicode|-ǫšti}}''''' (feminine)
:(e.g., ''kupovati (kupuj-) > kupuję, {{unicode|kupujǫšti''}})

3. i-type verbs:
* present stem + '''''-ę''''' (masculine and neuter) and '''''{{unicode|-ęšti}}''''' (feminine)
:(e.g., ''ljubiti (ljub-) > ljubę, ljubęšti'')

====Present passive participle====
The '''present passive participle''' is formed by suffixing to the present stem the endings '''''-o/e/i''''' + '''''m''''' + '''''ъ/a/o''''' (masculine, feminine, neuter):

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:
* present stem + '''''o''''' + '''''m''''' + '''''ъ/a/o'''''
:(e.g., ''pešti (pek-) > pekomъ, pekoma, pekomo'')

2. e-type verbs whose stem ends in a palatal:
* present stem + '''''e''''' + '''''m''''' + '''''ъ/a/o'''''
:(e.g., ''želeti (želj-) > željemъ, željema, željemo'')

3. i-type verbs:
* present stem + '''''i''''' + '''''m''''' + '''''ъ/a/o'''''
:(e.g., ''xvaliti (xval-) > xvalimъ, xvalima, xvalimo'')

====Past active participle====
The '''past active participle''' is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:
* infinitive stem + '''''-ъ''''' (masculine and neuter) or '''''-ъši''''' (feminine)
:(e.g., ''bosti (bod-) > bodъ, bodъši'')

2. i-type verbs exhibit epenthetic ''v'', which eliminates [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]]:
* infinitive stem + '''''-vъ''''' (masculine and neuter) or '''''-vъši''''' (feminine)
:(e.g., ''xvaliti (xvali-) > xvalъ, xvalъši'')

The latter i-type verbs have twofold forms of this participle - the mentioned one of older origin, and a newer one which arose due to analogical leveling:
* ''nositi'' (nosi-) > ''nošъ, nošъši'' (by [[iotation]] from ''+ ''jъ, jъši'') or ''nosivъ, nosivъši''
* ''roditi'' (rod-) > ''roždъ, roždъši'' (by [[iotation]] from ''+ ''jъ, jъši'') or ''rodivъ, rodivъši''

3. Verbs with [[liquid metathesis]] form this participle from its older stem form:
* ''mrěti'' (< ''*merti'') > ''mьrъ, mьrъši'' (and not ''mrěvъ, mrěvъši'')
* ''prostrěti'' (< ''*prosterti'') > ''prostьrъ, prostьrъši'' (and not ''prostrěvъ, prostrěvъši'')

4. Irregular participles:
* ''iti'' > ''šьdъ, šьdъši''
* ''jaxati'' > ''javъ, javъši''

====l-participle====
The '''l-participle''' (also known as the '''resultative participle''' or '''second past active participle''') is formed by adding to the infinitive stem the interfix '''''-l-''''' and the endings '''''ъ/a/o'''''. If the stem ends in ''-t'' or ''-d'', this consonant is dropped.
* ''xvaliti (xvali) > xvalilъ, xvalila, xvalilo''
* ''plesti (plet-) > plelъ, plela, plelo''

====Past passive participle====
The '''past passive participle''' is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:

1. Verbs with stem ending in a consonant, ''-y'' or ''-i'':
* infinitive stem + '''''en''''' + '''''ъ/a/o'''''
:(e.g., ''bosti (bod-) > bodenъ, bodena, bodeno'')
:(e.g., ''nositi (nosi-) > nošenъ, nošena, nošeno'' - by [[iotation]] from ''nosi + enъ > nosjenъ > nošenъ'')
:(e.g., ''umyti'' with interfix ''-ъv-'' > ''umъvenъ, umъvena, umъveno'')

2. Verbs with stem ending in ''-a'' or ''-ě'':
* infinitive stem + '''''n''''' + '''''ъ/a/o'''''
:(e.g., ''glagolati (glagola-) > glagolanъ, glagolana, glagolano'')
:(e.g., ''viděti (vidě-) > vižden, viždena, viždeno'' - by [[iotation]] from ''viděn, viděna, viděno'')

3. Verbs with stem ending in ''-ę'', ''-u'', ''-i'' and ''-ě'' (obtained by [[liquid metathesis]]):
* infinitive stem + '''''t''''' + '''''ъ/a/o'''''
:(e.g., ''klęti (klę-) > klętъ, klęta, klęto'')
:(e.g., ''obuti (obu-) > obutъ, obuta, obuto'')
:(e.g., ''mrěti (mrě-) > mrětъ, mrěta, mrěto'')
:(e.g., ''viti (vi-) > vitъ, vita, vito'')

Of the latter verbs, those with stem ending in ''-i'' (''viti, biti'' etc.) can also form the past passive participle like the verbs in the first group: ''bitъ'' or ''bijenъ'', ''vitъ'' or ''vijenъ'' etc.).

===Compound tenses===
====Perfect====
The '''perfect''' is formed by combining the l-participle with the imperfective present forms of the auxiliary verb ''byti''.

*''nosilъ/a/o'' ''jesmь, jesi, jestъ''
*''nosili/y/a'' ''jesmъ, jeste, {{unicode|sǫtь''}}
*''nosila/ě/ě'' ''jesvě, jesta, jeste''

====Pluperfect====
The '''pluperfect''' can be formed in multiple ways, by combining the l-participle with the perfect, imperfect or aorist formation of the auxiliary verb ''byti''.
*''nosilъ/a/o'' ''bylъ/a/o jesmь'' or ''běaxъ'' or ''běxъ''
*''nosili/y/a'' ''byli/y/a jesmъ'' or ''běaxomъ'' or ''běxomъ''
*''nosila/ě/ě'' ''byla/ě/ě jesvě'' or ''běaxově'' or ''běxově''

====Future====
The '''future tense''' is usually expressed using the present tense form of the perfective verb. Imperfective verbs form the future tense by combining the auxiliary verb (''byti, xotěti, načęti, iměti'') and the infinitive.
*{{unicode|''bǫdǫ}} / {{unicode|xoštǫ}} / {{unicode|načьnǫ}} / imamь'' ''xvaliti''

====Future perfect====
The '''future perfect''' is formed by combining the l-participle with the perfective present of the auxiliary verb ''byti''.
* ''nosilъ/a/o'' {{unicode|''bǫdǫ}}, {{unicode|bǫdeši}}, {{unicode|bǫdetъ''}}
* ''nosili/y/a'' {{unicode|''bǫdemъ}}, {{unicode|bǫdete}}, {{unicode|bǫdǫtъ''}}
* ''nosila/ě/ě'' {{unicode|''bǫdevě}}, {{unicode|bǫdeta}}, {{unicode|bǫdete''}}

====Conditional====
The '''conditional''' (or '''conditional-optative''') modal formation is formed by combining the l-participle with special modal forms of the auxiliary verb ''byti'' (with unattested dual forms):
*''nosilъ/a/o'' ''bimь, bi, bi''
*''nosili/y/a'' ''bimъ, biste, {{unicode|bǫ}}/bišę''

An alternative conditional is formed with the perfective aorist forms of ''byti'':
*''nosilъ/a/o'' ''byxъ, by, by''
*''nosili/y/a'' ''byxomъ, byste, byšę''

==Adverbs==
===Primary adverbs===
These are original adverbs with difficult to guess etymology and origin.

*'''abьje''' ('''abije''') = right away
*'''jedъva''' = hardly, barely
*'''ješte''' = yet, still
*'''nyně''' = now, today
*'''paky''' = again, back
*'''(j)uže''' = already

===Derived adverbs===
====Pronominal adverbs====
Pronominal adverbs are derived by suffixing pronouns (e.g., ''ov'' + ''amo'' = ovamo, ''kъ'' + ''de'' = ''kъde''):
*'''''-amo''''' = direction of movement (''tamo'', ''kamo'', ''onamo'')
*'''''-ako / -ače''''' = way, mode, manner (''tako'', ''inako'', ''inače'')
*'''''-de''''' = place (''sьde'', ''onude'', ''vьsьde'')
*'''''-gda''''' = time (''tъgda'', ''kъgda'', ''egda'')
*'''''-lь / -li / / -lě / -lьma / -lьmi''''' = measure, amount (''kolь'', ''kolě'', ''kolьmi'')

====Nominal adverbs====
Nominal adverbs are derived from nominals or turn by conversion to adverbs which are in fact inflective lexemes with adverbial semantics.

Modal adverbs are created with the suffixes '''''-o''''' or '''''-ě''''' (the endings of accusative and locative singular neuter gender respectively), with no difference in meanings between suffixes, although some adverbs have only the forms in ''-o'' (''veselo''), and some in ''-ě'' (''javě'').

Modal adverbs could also be formed deadjectivally by means of the interfix '''''-ьsk-''''' and the ending '''''-y''''' (by origin, the instrumental plural ending; e.g., ''slověnьsky'').

Adverbs could also be formed with the suffix '''''-ь''''' (''pravь'', ''različь'') and are by origin probably inherited [[Proto-Slavic]] accusative forms.

Frequently occurring are the adverbialized a-stem instrumentals such as ''{{unicode|jednьnojǫ}}'' and also adverbially used oblique cases.

Locative adverbs are by origin mostly petrified locative case forms of nouns: ''gorě'', ''dolě'', ''nizu'', and the same can be said for temporal adverbs: ''zimě'', ''polu dьne''.

==Prepositions==
===Primary prepositions===
The primary and non-derived prepositions are of [[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]] and [[Proto-Slavic language|PSl.]] heritage:
*'''''bez''''' "without" + [[genitive|G]]
*'''''iz''''' or '''''is''''' "from, out" + [[genitive|G]]
*:izdrǫky < iz rǫky — ''from the hand''
*'''''kъ''''' "to, for, unto" + [[dative|D]]
*:..reče že Marθa kъ Iisusu.. — ''and Martha said unto Jesus''
*'''''na''''' "on, to, upon" + [[accusative|A]] (denoting direction) or [[locative|L]] (denoting place)
*:zlijašę ognь na zemьjǫ — ''they poured fire on earth''
*'''''nadъ''''' "on, upon, over" + [[accusative|A]] (denoting direction) or [[instrumental case|I]] (denoting place)
*:nadъ glavǫ — ''over the head''
*'''''o''''' or '''''ob''''' "over, round, about" + [[accusative|A]] (denoting direction) or [[locative|L]] (denoting place)
*:ob noštь vьsǫ — ''the whole night through''
*'''''otъ''''' "from, away" + [[genitive|G]]
*:otъ nebese — ''from heaven''
*'''''po''''' originally "under, below" + [[dative|D]] (extension in space), [[accusative|A]] (extension in space or time) or [[locative|L]] (temporal and local)
*:po vьsę grady — ''through all towns''
*:po tomь že — ''after that''
*:po morjǫ xodę — ''walking over the sea''
*'''''podъ''''' "under, beneath" + [[accusative|A]] (denoting direction) or [[instrumental case|I]] (denoting situation, location)
*:podъ nogy, podъ nogama — ''under the feet''
*'''''pri''''' "at, at the time" + [[locative|L]]
*:pri vraƷěxъ — ''among the heathen''
*'''''prědъ''''' "in front of, before" + [[accusative|A]] (denoting direction) or [[instrumental case|I]] (denoting situation)
*:prědъ gradomь — ''in the vicinity of the city''
*'''''sъ''''' "for the extent of" + [[accusative|A]], "from, off, away" + [[genitive|G]], "with" + [[instrumental case|I]] (denoting association, not instrument)
*:sъ lakъtь — ''a cubit long''
*:sъ nebese — ''down from heaven''
*:sъ nimь — ''with him''
*'''''u''''' "at, in" + [[genitive|G]]
*:u dvьrьcь — ''at the doors''
*'''''vъ''''' "in" + [[accusative|A]] (denoting direction) or [[locative|L]] (denoting place)
*:vъ tъ dьnь — ''that day''
*:vъ kupě — ''together''
*'''''vъz''''' or '''''vъs''''' "for, in exchange for" + [[accusative|A]]
*:vъs kǫjǫ — ''why?''
*'''''za''''' "for, after, behind" + [[accusative|A]] (denoting direction), [[instrumental case|I]] (denoting place) or [[genitive|G]] (in the sense "because")
*:ęti za vlasy — ''to seize by the hair''

===Secondary prepositions===
The secondary prepositions are derived from adverbial expressions: ''vьslědъ'' from ''vь slědъ'', ''prěžde'' is a comparative form of ''prědъ'' etc.

==Conjunctions and particles==
Conjunctions and particles are not easily separable because they sometimes function as an [[intensifier]], and sometimes as a conjunction.

*'''''a''''', '''''ali''''' "but" - (proclitic), setting two parts of a statement in opposition
*'''''ako''''', '''''jako''''', '''''ěko''''' "that, so that, how, when, as" - (proclitic) introducing indirect or direct speech; highly context-dependent
*'''''ašte''''' "if, whether" - (proclitic) a conditional particle, also used to generalize relative pronouns
*'''''bo''''' "for, because" - (enclitic) denoting caustive relationships (''i'' + ''bo'' = ibo, ''u'' + ''bo'' = ubo)
*'''''da''''' "in order that" - (proclitic) introducing final result
*'''''i''''' "and; even, too" - (proclitic) connecting clauses or used as an adverb within a clause
*'''''ide''''' "for, since" - (proclitic)
*'''''jegda''''', '''''jegdaže''''' "when, if" - (proclitic)
*'''''jeda''''' "surely not" - (proclitic), introducing a question expecting a negative answer
*'''''li''''' "or", '''''li...li''''' "either... or" - (proclitic or enclitic) generally when forming a question; when enclitic, usually a direct question, when proclitic, taking the meaning "or"
*'''''ne''''' "not", '''''ne...ni''''' "neither... nor" - ''ne'' generally occurs before the negated item, occurring usually once in the main clause, but ''ni'' may occur several times in the same clause
*'''''nъ''''' "but" - (proclitic) connecting two clauses
*'''''to''''' "then, so" - (proclitic) correlative to ''ašte''
*'''''že''''' "on the other hand, or, and" - (enclitic) the commonest particle functioning both as an intensifier and a conjunction; often bound to pronouns and adverbs (''jakože'', ''nikъto že'')

==Syntax==
{{Empty section|date=September 2008}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{citation |last=Damjanović |first=Stjepan |authorlink=Stjepan Damjanović| title=Slovo iskona |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |year=2004 |location=Zagreb |isbn=953-150-567-5 |language=Croatian }}
* {{citation | last=Hamm |first=Josip |authorlink=Josip Hamm |title=Staroslavenska gramatika |publisher=[[Školska knjiga]] |year=1974 | location=Zagreb |language=Croatian}}
* {{citation| last=Damjanović |first=Stjepan |authorlink=Stjepan Damjanović| title=Staroslavenski jezik |publisher=Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada |location=Zagreb |year=2003 |isbn=953-169-095-2 |language=Croatian}}
* {{citation| last=Huntley |first=David |editor=Bernard Comrie and Greville G. Corbett |title= The Slavonic languages |chapter=Old Church Slavonic |publisher= Routledge |year= 1993 |location= London & New York |isbn= 978-0-415-28078-5 }}

==External links==
* {{hr icon}} ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ntIcAAAAMAAJ Gramatika jezika hèrvatskoga: Osnovana na starobugarskoj slověnštini]'', [[Vatroslav Jagić]], 1864
* {{bg icon}} ''[http://www.promacedonia.org/pdf/mirchev_starobylgarski.html Старобългарски език — кратък граматичен очерк]'', Кирил Мирчев, София 1972
* {{en icon}} [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/ocsol-0-X.html Old Church Slavonic Online], [[University of Texas at Austin]]
* {{la icon}} [http://kodeks.uni-bamberg.de/AKSL/Grammatik/VajsAbecedarium/index.htm Abecedarium Palaeoslovenicum in usum glagolitarum], Josip Vajs, Veglae 1909.
* {{ru icon}} [http://web.archive.org/20050510133732/ksana-k.narod.ru/djvu/kulbakin2/index.htm Кульбакин С. М. Древнецерковнославянский язык. I. Введение. Фонетика. — Kharkiv, 1911]
* {{en icon}} [http://www.library.illinois.edu/spx/webct/SubjectResources/SubSourGen/lingocs2.htm Research Guide to Old Church Slavonic]

{{Slavic grammars}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Old Church Slavonic Grammar}}
[[Category:Old Church Slavonic language|Grammar, Old Church Slavonic]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]

Mikhail Veller

2014-09-03T13:40:06Z

Madler:

[[File:Mikhail Veller 2005 09 07.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Veller-Legendy.jpg|right|thumb|The image of Mikhail Veller with the [[Nevsky Prospect]] on the background is used for the audio-book ''Legends of Nevsky Prospect''. It shows how Veller wants the readers to perceive the author of one of his most notable work]]

'''Mikhail Iosifovich Veller''' (also sometimes '''Weller''') ({{lang-ru|Михаи́л Ио́сифович Ве́ллер}}) (born May 20, 1948) is a [[Russia]]n writer.

Veller was born in [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]], [[Ukrainian SSR]], [[Soviet Union]] (modern day [[Ukraine]]) in 1948. In 1972 he graduated with a degree in linguistics from [[Leningrad University]]. He worked as a children's summer camp counselor, a hunter in [[Taimyr]], a shepherd in the [[Altai mountains]], a logger, a journalist, a teacher, and more - around 30 professions in all.

Veller's first book, a collection of short stories titled ''I Want To Be A Yard-Sweeper'', was published in [[Estonia]] in 1983, followed by ''Heart Breaker'' (1988), ''Technology of a Short Story'' (1989), and ''Rendezvous with a Celebrity'' (1990). ''A Novel of Upbringing'' and ''Adventures of Major Zvyagin'' (1991) became bestsellers, along with "The Legends of Nevsky Prospect" (1993). His book ''Everything about Life'' is a book about how the world works, why a no one ever has what they need, and why happiness is not achievable but should be sought (his later book ''Cassandra'' updates this philosophy). His mini-novel ''The Knife of Seryozha [[Dovlatov]]'' created a literary scandal. Hist latest bestseller, ''Courier from Pisa'' (2000),<ref>In Russian, "Courier from Pisa" ("Гонец из Пизы") is a euphemism meaning "fuck-up", or "fucking disaster", substituting for the Russian word "пиздец" ([[pizdets]]), derived from a Russian word meaning "cunt".</ref> has had 11 editions.

In ''Everything about Life'' Veller repeated [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s words: "There are people who want to know everything and those who are sick of what they already know. The latter say nothing to prevent things from turning for the worse, while the former interfere in all, hoping to make things better" (paraphrased). Veller proclaims himself to be with the former kind.

Veller nurtures his [[world-view]] to the point that he publishes volumes with philosophical inclination. He invented ''energoevolutionism''. According to this theory the primordial energy released in the [[Big Bang]] is attached to material structures of ever increasing complexity, which in their turn decompose and release energy. These cycles continue at ever increasing speed. The human existence is entangled in this process and also increases the speed of revolution. Humankind thus is at the cutting edge of the evolution of the [[universe]]. The end of history is to arrive when post-humanity will assist the release of all energy in the matter, thereby causing a new cycle by the next BIg Bang event. Within the concept of energoevolution Veller addresses also [[aesthetics]], [[sociology]] and [[psychology]].<ref>Tetralogy: Энергоэволюционизм (2011) * Психология энергоэволюционизма (2011) * Социология энергоэволюционизма (2011) * Эстетика энергоэволюционизма (2011)</ref> Veller's philosophical essays achieved some attention in Russia and abroad, but also met with severe criticism from professional [[philosopher]]s,.<ref name="DubNova">[http://novainfo.ru/samodelnye-filosofy-nastupayut Дубровский, Давид Израилевич. «Самодельные» философы наступают! {{Ref-ru}}]</ref><ref>[[:ru:Дубровский, Давид Израилевич]]. [http://www.dialog21.ru/dubrovsky/publycystika/publicistika.htm#P_4 «Самодельные» философы наступают!] // Вестник [[Российское философское общество|РФО]], №3, [[2008 год]]. {{Ref-ru}} False link!</ref>

Veller has lectured on modern Russian prose in the universities of [[Milan]], [[Jerusalem]] and [[Copenhagen]].

In his free time, Veller lives in [[Moscow]] but continues to work in [[Tallinn]]. His hobbies include target shooting.

==English Translations==
* [http://lib.ru/WELLER/r_teacher_engl.txt The Guru]

==References==
* [http://lib.aldebaran.ru/author/veller_mihail/ Veller's biography] {{Ref-ru}}
* {{cite web|url=http://scepsis.ru/library/id_2815.html|title=Похабный анекдот|author=[[:ru:Тарасов, Александр Николаевич|Александр Тарасов]].|publisher=Скепсис|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/67lNAZYUz|archivedate=2012-05-19}} {{Ref-ru}}
* {{cite web|url=http://mikhail-boyko.narod.ru/review/hlopok.html|title=Большой Хлопок|author=[[:ru:Бойко, Михаил Евгеньевич|Михаил Бойко]]}} {{Ref-ru}}
* {{cite web|url=http://cemohopuce.mail333.su/m.weller_und_nihilismus.html|title=Михаил Веллер и нигилизм|author=[http://www.old.misis.ru/Portals/0/Autoreferat/Salihov_Marat.pdf Марат Салихов, к. т. н.]}} {{Ref-ru}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=66616780}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Veller
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Russian writer
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 20, 1948
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Veller}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Tallinn]]
[[Category:Russian novelists]]
[[Category:Russian philosophers]]
[[Category:Russian Jews]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 4th Class]]
[[Category:Russians in Estonia]]

Mark Regev

2014-07-25T14:11:40Z

Madler: Undid revision 618365312 by Sean.hoyland (talk) Unless you want to add a positive statement to his "reception" section, then this remains removed.

{{Infobox person
| name = Mark Regev מארק רגב
| image = Replace this image male.svg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1960}}
| birth_place = [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = Israeli
| other_names = Mark Freiberg
| known_for =
| occupation =
}}

'''Mark Regev''' ({{lang-he|מארק רגב}}) (born 1960), formerly '''Mark Freiberg''', is the chief spokesman for the [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]] of [[Israel]], a position he has held since 2007.

== Early life ==
Regev was born Mark Freiberg in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]], in 1960 to Martin and Freda Freiberg. He graduated from [[Mount Scopus Memorial College]], received his Bachelor's degree in Political Science and History at [[Melbourne University]], and a [[Master's]] degree in [[Political Science]] from the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], as well as a [[Master of Science]] in Management from [[Boston University]].

In his youth Regev was a prominent member of the group [[Socialist]]-[[Zionist]] [[Zionist youth movement|youth movement]], Ichud [[Habonim Dror|Habonim]], and was active in the Melbourne University Jewish Students Society. In 1982 he [[aliyah|emigrated to Israel]] and worked at kibbutz [[Tel Katzir]]. In Israel he Hebraicized his name from Freiberg to Regev. He is married and has three children.

== Career ==
Regev began his career as a lecturer on International Relations and Strategy at the [[Israel Defense Forces]] Staff College. He joined the Israel [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] in 1990, serving as Deputy Chief of Mission at the Consulate in [[Hong Kong]], and spokesmen at the Israeli embassies in [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Washington, D.C.]]. Regev was the spokesman for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in [[Jerusalem]] from 2004 to 2007.

Regev received prominence in international media when he presented the Israeli position in numerous interviews to English-language TV and radio channels during the 2006 Second Lebanon War, in 2008–2009 during Operation Cast Lead, and the 2012 [[Operation Pillar of Defense]] which included multiple interviews including one that received over 64,000 views on CNN.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{cite web|title=Mark Regev|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/abouttheministry/pages/mark%20regev.aspx|publisher=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs|date=15 November 2004}}
*{{cite news|author1=Jason Koutsoukis|title=The (Aussie) voice of Israel|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/in-depth/bpeopleb-the-aussie-voice-of-israels-prime-minister/2008/01/25/1201157667817.html|work=The Age|date=26 January 2008}}
* [http://www.usatoday.com/community/chat/2002-05-03-regev.htm Regev answers questions about Israeli policy]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2005/s1536769.htm Transcript of a radio interview with Regev]
* [http://www.onthemedia.org/transcripts/transcripts_040602_israel.html Another transcript of a radio interview with Regev]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Regev, Mark
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Israeli government spokesperson
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1960
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Regev, Mark}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Australian emigrants to Israel]]
[[Category:Boston University alumni]]
[[Category:Hebrew University of Jerusalem alumni]]
[[Category:Israeli civil servants]]
[[Category:Israeli diplomats]]
[[Category:Israeli Jews]]
[[Category:Australian Jews]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of Melbourne alumni]]
[[Category:People from Melbourne]]

Mark Regev

2014-07-24T21:12:54Z

Madler: removed "reception" section since it was 100% anti-Regev (clear violation of POV) and plus this guy isn't a novel or a movie. No need for a "reception" section.

Gevurah

2014-06-25T16:16:00Z

Madler:

{{original research|date=November 2011}}
{{sefirot}}
'''Gevurah''' or ''geburah'' (גבורה) is the fifth ''[[sephirot|sephirah]]'' in the [[Kabbalah|kabbalistic]] [[Tree of life (Kabbalah)|tree of life]], and it is the second of the emotive attributes of the ''sephirot''. It sits below [[Binah (Kabbalah)|Binah]], across from [[Chesed (Kabbalah)|Chesed]], and above [[Hod (Kabbalah)|Hod]].

Gevurah is 'the essence of judgment (DIN) and limitation, and corresponds to awe and the element of fire,'<ref>{{cite web|title=Gevurah|url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1585425605/sr=8-3/qid=1397348551 The Kabbalah Handbook, A Concise Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts in Jewish Mysticism}}</ref>

In the [[Bahir]] it is written "And who are the Officers? We learned that there are three. Strength (Gevurah) Is the Officer of all the Holy Forms to the left of the Blessed Holy One. He is Gabriel."

Gevurah is associated with the color red.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sefirot|url=http://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Theology/God/The_Middle_Ages/The_Kabbalists_on_God/The_Sefirot.shtml|work=Sefirot|publisher=My Jewish Learning|accessdate=5 December 2011}}</ref>

==Description==
Gevurah is the fifth of the ten [[sefirot]], and second of the emotive attributes in Creation, and which corresponds to the second day of creation<ref>[[#KAPLAN_1990|Kaplan Inner Space 1990]]: p. 61</ref>(Zohar 2:127b). In the Bahir it says "What is the fifth (utterance)? Fifth is the great fire of God, of which it says 'let me see no more of this great fire, lest I die (Deut 18:16). This is the left hand of God".<ref>Arthur Green. A guide to the Zohar</ref>

Gevurah is understood as God's mode of punishing the wicked and judging humanity in general. It is the foundation of stringency, absolute adherence to the letter of the law, and strict meting out of justice. This stands in contrast to chesed.

We thus speak of God's primary modes of action as being the kindness and unaccountability of chesed, versus the stringency and strict accountability of gevurah. It is called "strength" because of the power of God's absolute judgment.

Gevurah is associated in the soul with the power to restrain one's innate urge to bestow goodness upon others, when the recipient of that good is judged to be unworthy and liable to misuse it. As the force which measures and assesses the worthiness of Creation, gevurah is also referred to in [[Kabbalah]] as midat hadin ("the attribute of judgment"). It is the restraining might of gevurah which allows one to overcome his enemies, be they from without or from within (his evil inclination).

Chesed and Gevurah act together to create an inner balance in the soul's approach to the outside world. While the "right arm" of chesed operates to draw others near, the "left arm" of gevurah reserves the option of repelling those deemed undeserving. (Even towards those to whom one's initial relation is that of "the left arm repels," one must subsequently apply the complementary principle of "the right arm draws near").

Ultimately, the might of gevurah becomes the power and forcefulness to implement one's innate desire of chesed. Only by the power of gevurah is chesed able to penetrate the coarse, opposing surface of reality. The Baal Shem Tov discusses the ability of gevurah to effect Divine withdrawal (tzimzum), which in turn creates potential for chesed to occur in creation. (commentary to Parshat Toldot).

Gevurah appears in the configuration of the sefirot along the left axis, directly beneath binah, and corresponds in the tzelem Elokim to the "left arm."

The numerical value of Gevurah, 216, is 6 times 6 times 6. The tablets of the covenant that Moses received at Sinai were 6 by 6 by 6 handbreadths. The Torah was given to Moses and Israel from "the Mouth of the Gevurah." It is most significant that the name of no other sefirah is used by our sages to connote God Himself, other than gevurah (In the Bible, God is referred to as "the netzach [eternity] of Israel" (Samuel 1 15:29), but not as netzach alone). Here, gevurah implies God's essential power to contract and concentrate His infinite light and strength into the finite letters of Torah (especially those engraved on the tablets of the covenant, the Ten Commandments).

Gevurah = 216 = 3 times 72 ([[chesed]]). Each of God's [[72 names of God|72 hidden names]] possesses three letters, in all—216 letters. Meaning inheres to words and names. The ultimate "meaning" of every one of God's Names is His expression of love (chesed) for His Creation. Each Name expresses His love in a unique way. The components of each word and name, the "building blocks" of Creation are the letters which combine to form the words. The letters, "hewn" from the "raw material" of "pro-creation" (the secret of the reshimu, the "impression" of God's infinite light which remains after the initial act of tzimtzum, "contraction") reflect God's gevurah.

The two hands which act together to form all reality, [[chesed]] (72) plus gevurah (216) = 288 = 2 times 12 squared. 288 is the number of nitzotzot "fallen sparks" (from the primordial cataclysm of "the breaking of the vessels") which permeate all of created reality. Through the "dual effort" of chesed and gevurah, not only to form reality, but to rectify reality (through the means of "the left arm repels while the right draws near"), these fallen sparks are redeemed and elevated to return and unite with their ultimate source. In a universal sense, this is the secret of the coming of Mashiach and the resurrection of the dead.

== Uses in popular culture ==
[[DC Comics]]' [[Kate Kane|Batwoman]] has a red costume which was described as being "gevurah." Batwoman's alter ego, Kate Kane, was given the costume by her father, Jacob Kane.
[[NWOBHM]] band [[Angel Witch]]'s comeback album after 26 years [[As Above, So Below (album)]] has a song called 'Geburah'.

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==

===Jewish===
* ''Bahir'', translated by [[Aryeh Kaplan]] (1995). Aronson. (ISBN 1-56821-383-2)
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=6237 Lessons in Tanya]
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1585425605/sr=8-3/qid=1397348551 The Kabbalah Handbook, A Concise Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts in Jewish Mysticism]
* [http://www.aish.com/spirituality/kabbala101/Kabbala_11_-_Gevurah_The_Strength_of_Judgment.asp Kabbalah 101: Gevurah]
* {{cite book |title=Inner Space| last=Kaplan |first=Rabbi Aryeh | authorlink=Aryeh Kaplan | editor1-first=Abraham| editor1-last=Sutton | editor2-first=|editor2-last=|year=1990 |publisher=Moznaim |location=Brooklyn, NY |isbn=0-940118-56-4 |page=|pages=254 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NcgRAQAAIAAJ |accessdate=2010-09-19 |ref=KAPLAN_1990}}

==External links==
* [http://inner.org/sefirot/sefgevur.htm Basics in Kabbalah, The Ten Sefirot: Gevurah ] (inner.org)
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2010}}

[[Category:Sephirot]]
[[Category:Hebrew words and phrases]]
[[Category:Kabbalistic words and phrases]]

Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem

2014-06-14T13:28:33Z

Madler: See talk page re confusion of "she" referent.

'''Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem''' is a [[Latin]] passage and the official motto of the U.S. [[Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] and the [[University of Massachusetts Amherst]]. The phrase is often loosely translated into English as "''By the sword we seek peace, but peace only under liberty.''". The literal translation, however, is "she seeks with the sword a quiet peace under liberty." The "she" in question refers to the word "manus" from the full phrase "Manus haec inimica tyrannis ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem," which means "this hand, hostile to tyrants, seeks with the sword a quiet peace under liberty."

It was written c. 1659 by English soldier-statesman [[Algernon Sidney]], an opponent of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] and later executed for treason. The motto was first adopted by the [[Massachusetts General Court]] (i.e. the state legislature) and applied to the temporary seal of Massachusetts in 1775. On December 13, 1780 the legislature approved its application to the current [[Great Seal of Massachusetts]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Massachusetts}}
*[[List of Massachusetts state symbols]]
*[[Flag of Massachusetts]]

==References==
* Crampton, William G. ''Webster's Concise Encyclopedia of Flags & Coats of Arms.'' Crescent Books: 1985. ISBN 0-517-49951-7.
* Zieber, Eugene, ''Heraldry in America: The Civic Armorial Bearings of American States.'' Greenwich House: 1974.

==External links==
*[http://www.sec.state.ma.us/pre/presea/sealhis.htm The History of the Arms and Great Seal of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts]

{{Massachusetts}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ense Petit Placidam Sub Libertate Quietem}}
[[Category:Latin mottos]]
[[Category:State mottos of the United States]]
[[Category:Symbols of Massachusetts]]

Talk:Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem

2014-06-14T13:27:26Z

Madler:

Latin translated refined to be more accurate.
----
There's no "she" in this sentence, so it can't mean "the State," although if we were to extrapolate the gender of the subject of the dropped subject in the phrase, we see that it's feminine from the subject in the whole phrase - "manus."

It's only "she" if you don't have the whole phrase and have to include the subject, since in English we require subjects in all cases. [[User:Madler|Madler]] ([[User talk:Madler|talk]]) 13:27, 14 June 2014 (UTC)

Ikiryō

2014-05-05T04:37:41Z

Madler: /* Summary */

{{cleanup-translation|Japanese|listed=yes}}
[[File:SekienIkiryo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"Ikiryō" (生霊) from the "[[Gazu Hyakki Yagyō]]" by [[Sekien Toriyama]]]]
'''Ikiryō''', or '''shōryō''', '''seirei''', '''ikisudama''' (生霊, lit. "living ghost," "[[Eidolon_(apparition)|eidolon]]"), in popular belief or in fictional works, refers to the spirit that leaves the body of a person still alive, which can haunt other people or places, sometimes even a great distance away.<ref name="ikeda">{{Harvnb|Ikeda|1959|pp=186–190}}</ref><ref name="konno">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 3 (''Ikiryō no yūri''), pp. 63–98}}</ref><ref name=Clarke2000 >{{citation|last=Clarke|first=Peter Bernard|year=2000|title=Japanese new religions: in global perspective, Volume 1999|edition=annotated|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-7007-1185-7|page=247}}</ref> The term(s) are used in contrast to ''[[shiryō]]'', which refers to the spirit of the dead.

==Summary==
Popular belief that the human spirit (or soul) can escape loose from the body has been around since time memorial, with eyewitness accounts or experiences (hauntings, possessions, [[out-of-body experience]]) being reported in writing, both anecdotal and fictional.<ref name="ikeda" /><ref name="konno" /> The ''[[Kōjien]]'' dictionary defines ''ikiryō'' as "the {{nihongo|vengeful spirits|怨霊|[[onryō]]}} of the living, said to inflict {{nihongo|curses|[[:ja:祟り|祟り]]|tatari}} [upon the subjects of their vengeance]."<ref name="kojien">{{Cite book|editor-last=Shinmura|editor-first=Izuru|editor-link=Shinmura Izuru|title=[[Kojien|広辞苑]]|edition=4th|year=1991|publisher=[[Iwanami Shoten, Publishers|岩波書店]]|isbn=978-4-00-080101-0|page=122|trans_title=Kojien}}</ref> However, the spirit does not necessarily act out of spite or vengefulness, and stories are told of ''ikiryō'' who bears no grudge, or poses no real threat. In recorded examples, the spirit may take [[Spirit possession|possession]] of another person's body for motives other than vengeance, such as love and infatuation (e.g. the Matsutōya ghost below). A person's ''ikiryō'' may also leave the body (often very shortly before death) to manifest their presence around their dear ones and acquaintances.<ref name="konno" />

==Classical literature==
In classical literature, the ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' (ca. 1100) contains the "all too famous" episode of the ''ikisudama'' (antiquated form of ''ikiryō'') that emerged from [[Hikaru Genji|Genji]]'s lover [[Lady Rokujo]], and tormented Genji's pregnant wife [[Aoi no Ue]], culminating in her death after successful delivery of a son.<ref name="konno069">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|p=69}} "『源氏物語』の六条御息所が.. あまりにも有名であり"</ref> This spirit is also portrayed in the [[Noh]] play adaptation entitled ''[[Aoi no Ue (play)|Aoi no Ue]]''. After death, Lady Rokujo became an ''[[onryō]]'' and went oun to torment Genji's later consorts, [[Murasaki]] and {{ill2|Onna-sannomiya|ja|女三宮}}.<ref name="konno069"/>

In the [[Heian period]], a human soul leaving its body and drifting off is described by the old verb "akugaru" meaning "departure". In the ''The Tale of Genji'', the mentally anguished Kashiwagi fears that his soul may be found wandering off (''akugaru''), and if that should happen, requests that rites be performed to keep the soul tied down to him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bargen|first=Doris G. |title=A Woman's Weapon: Spirit Possession in The Tale of Genji|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1997 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BVWuLQkPm00C&pg=PA166|page=166|isbn=082481858X}}</ref>{{Refn|''Kojien'',<ref name="kojien"/> ''akugaru'', sense 2 "the soul leaving the body (lured by something)", usage example from ''Tale of Genji'', Book 36 (Kashiwagi).}} Another example of this term occurs in the verse by [[Izumi Shikibu]] which imagines that the firefly might be her wayward soul: "While I am rapt in thought, / The fireflies of the marsh would seem to be / My soul, caught up and wandering / Forth out off me." (''[[Goshūi Wakashū]]'' XX).<ref>{{cite book|last=Miyamori|first=Asatarō (ed. tr.)|title=Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry: Ancient and Modern|volume=1|publisher=Taiseido Shobo Company|year=1956|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AScHAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>Given as an example in {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=66–67}}</ref><ref name="murakami">{{Citation|last=村上|first=健司 (Murakami, Kenji)|authorlink=:ja:村上健司|title=日本妖怪大事典 (''Nihon yōkai daijiten'')|year=2005|publisher=[[Kadokawa Shoten|角川書店]]|series=Kwai books|isbn=978-4-04-883926-6|pages=24–25|trans_title=The Great Yokai Encyclopedia of Japan}}</ref>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|From the old verb ''akugaru'' derives the modern {{nihongo||[[wikt:憧れる|憧れる]]|akogareru}} meaning "to yearn for, have a romantic notion of" (''Kojien''<ref name="kojien"/>), since when one adores something or someone, the mind takes flight to that place. This etymology is also addressed by {{ill2|Yasaburo Ikeda|ja|池田彌三郎}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=66–67}}</ref> and by Murakami<ref name="murakami"/>}}

In the medieval collection ''[[Konjaku Monogatarishū]]'' is the tale of "How the Ikiryo Spirit of Omi Province Came and Killed a Man of the Capital." A man of humble origins traveling out of Kyoto meets a woman in the crossroad, seeking to be guided to the house of a certain {{nihongo|[[Ministry of Popular Affairs#Hierarchy|Senior Assistant Minister of Popular Affairs]]|民部大夫|Minbu-no-tayū}} back in the capital. She was the ''ikiryō'' of the abandoned wife of this official, as this man was later to learn. Upon reaching the house, she promptly vanished before his eyes, even though the gates were shut, then wailing noises were heard inside. In the morning, the guide learned that the master of the house had made the terrified declaration that the ''ikiryō'' of his wife causing his illness was now in his presence, and died shortly after. The man decided to pay a visit to the house in [[Ōmi Province]] where the lady he guided said she resided, and was received by a woman who acknowledged the man's service that day, met him through [[Sudare|blinds]], and showered him with gifts of silk cloths and such.<ref>{{citation|editor-last=Dykstra|editor-first=Yoshiko Kurata (tr.)|chapter=Book 27, Chapter 20: How the Ikiryo Spirit of Omi Province Came and Killed a Man of the Capital|work=The Konjaku Tales: From a Medieval Japanese Collection. Japanese section|volume=3|publisher=Intercultural Research Institute, Kansai Gaidai University Publication|year=2003|page=95-|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M3IqAQAAIAAJ|isbn=4873350263}}</ref><ref>{{citation|editor-last=Haga|editor-first=Yaichi (芳賀矢一)|chapter=卷第廿七/第20: 近江國生靈來京煞人語|work=攷証今昔物語集 (Kōshō konjaku monogatari shū)|volume=3 (下)|year=1921|pages=367-|url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/945416}}.</ref><ref>Included, in modern translation, in {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=93–96}} under the altered title {{nihongo||夫を取り殺した青衣の女|extra2="A woman in blue garment who possessed and killed her husband"}}, in his chapter on the ''ikiryō''</ref>

The ''ikiryō'' can also possess the object of its infatuation, rather than its love-rival. The essay collection "Okinagusa" (翁草) records a contemporaneous story of the "Matsutōya yūrei" that allegedly took place in [[Kyōhō]] 14 or 15 ([[1729]]-[[1730|30]]), whereby a Kyoto merchant named {{nihongo||松任屋徳兵衛|Matsutōya Tokubei}} had a teenaged son named Matsunosuke [[Spirit possession|possessed by the spirit]] of two girls in love with him. The boy would be tormented as if by guilt, be suspended in air, and engage in conversation as if the girls were present before his eyes, though the girls were nowhere visible, and the spirits' words were spoken through the boy's lips. Finally a renowned priest named {{nihongo|Zōkai|象海慧湛 1682-1733}} was summoned, and the exorcism led to the boy's successful recovery from illness, but unwanted rumors had spread regarding the incident.<ref>{{Cite book|editor=神沢貞幹/神沢杜口 (Kanzawa, Teikan/Tokō 1710-1795)|others=池辺義象 (revised)|title=翁草|volume=6|publisher=五車楼書店|year=1906|pages=66–7|chapter=Book 56 (Chapter 松任屋幽霊)|url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/772573}}. The wording is {{nihongo|"the spirit of the two possessed Matsunosuke"|「二人が霊、松之助につきて」|}}. Modern translations by Iwaya Sazanami, in {{nihongo||第語園|Dai goen}} (1935), Vol. 8, p.90.</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The anecdote is mentioned as a tale of {{nihongo||幽霊憑|yūreitsuki}} in the writings of [[Shigeru Mizuki]], e.g. his {{nihongo||『図説日本妖怪大鑑』|Zusetsu nihon yōkai taikan|}} (ISBN 978-4-06-256049-8).</ref>

[[File:Sorori wandering soul.jpg|right|thumb|240px|"Onna no Mōnen Mayoiaruku Koto" (女の妄念迷ひ歩く事) from the "Sorori Monogatari" (曾呂利物語)<ref name="sorori">{{Harvnb|高田編|1989|pp=13–15}}</ref>]]
The horror story (''[[kaidan]]'') collection entitled {{Nihongo||曾呂利物語|''Sorori Monogatari''}} (published [[Kanbun (era)|Kanbun]] 3, or [[1663]]) includes a tale of a woman whose ''ikiryō'' assumed the shape of her severed head (cf. the ''[[yōkai]]'' monster known as ''[[Rokurokubi#Rokurokubi whose heads come off (nukekubi)|nukekubi]]''). One night, a man traveling towards [[Kamigata|Kyoto]] came to a place called Sawaya in Kita-no-shō, [[Echizen Province]] (now [[Fukui, Fukui|Fukui City]]), where he thought he saw a chicken fly from the base of a stone tower onto the road, but it turned out to be (or transformed into) a live severed head of a woman. When the head grinned at him, the traveler attacked with a sword, and chased it to a home in the capital of the province. Inside the house, the housewife rose from a nightmare being chased by a man brandishing a blade, and awoke her husband. The wandering head was, according to the title, the woman's {{nihongo||{{linktext|妄|念}}|monen}}, or her wayward thoughts or obsession (that strays from the tenets of Buddhism). And the woman afterwards became a nun to repent her sins.<ref name="ikeda" /><ref name="sorori" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=湯浅|first=佳子 (Yuasa, Yoshiko)|title=『曾呂里物語』の類話|trans_title=A Study of the Similar Story of "SORORI-MONOGATARI"|journal=東京学芸大学紀要. 人文社会科学系 I|volume=60|year=2009|pages=307–309|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2309/96207|ISSN=18804314}}. Summarized, with the title transcribed as {{Nihongo|女のまうねんまよひありく事|onna no maunen mayohi ariku koto}}</ref>

==Folk beliefs==

===Regional near-death spirits===
Sightings of ''ikiryō'' belonging to those whose deaths are imminent have been recorded from all over Japan. Stories abound of spirits that materialize (or otherwise manifest their presence) to someone dear to them,<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171"/> such as immediate family, and the recipient of the visit experiences a metaphysical foreshadowing of this person's death, before any tangible news of bereavement arrives.

Many of the local terms for the ''ikiryō'' was collected by [[Kunio Yanagita]] and his school of folklorists:<ref group="lower-alpha">However, while the terms such as ''tobi-damashi'' or ''omokage'' of Akita, or ''shininbō'' of Ishikawa Prefecture are given in isolated instances, these terms are not well-attested independently elsewhere.</ref>

In the tradition of the [[Nishitsugaru District, Aomori|Nishitsugaru District]], [[Aomori Prefecture]], the souls of persons on the brink of death are called ''amabito,'' believed to depart from the body and walk around, sometimes creating noises like that of the door slinding open.<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171">{{citation|last=Yanagita|first=Kunio|others=Fanny Hagin Mayer (tr.)|title=About Our Ancestors: The Japanese Family System|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1970|chapter=Chapter 77|page=171|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xarXAAAAMAAJ|quote=and there are many stories, especially about when faced with death, how a man can go to the one he wants to see. In Senhoku-gun people who can fly anywhere in dreams are called ''tobi-damashi'' [flying soul], and those who come just before death to see somebody are called ''amabito'' in Tsugaru,..}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=pp. 67, 68}} narrows the locality as "Nishitsugaru", and mentions the soul walking and making door noises.</ref><ref name="minzoku">{{Harvnb|Ōtō et al|1955|pp=46–293}}</ref>

According to [[Kunio Yanagita|Yanagita]], {{nihongo||飛びだまし|tobi-damashi}} is the equivalent term in the [[Senboku District, Akita]] region. Yanagita describes this as an ability that presents in certain persons with that gift (who is able to see in a dream whatever the soul he releases into the world experiences), rather than an uncontrolled phenomenon visited upon the dying.<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171"/>

In the [[Kazuno District, Akita|Kazuno District]] in [[Akita Prefecture]], a soul that pays visit to acquaintances is called an {{nihongo||面影〔オモカゲ〕|omokage|extra2="reminescence, lingering shadow"}}, and assumes the form of a living human, that is to say, it has feet and make pitter-patter noises, unlike the stereotypical Japanese ghost that have no legs or feet.<ref name="minzoku" /><ref name="ikedap100">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 4, pp.100–105}}</ref>

Yanagita in ''Tōno monogatari shūi'' reported that in the [[Tōno, Iwate|Tōno Region]], [[Iwate Prefecture]], "the thoughts of the dead or the living coalesce into a walking shape, and appear to the human eye as an illusion is termed an ''omaku'' in this region." An example was a beautiful girl aged 16 or 17, critically ill with a case of {{nihongo|"[[Shang Han Lun|cold damage]]"|傷寒|shōkan}} ([[Typhoid fever]] or similar disease), but was seen wandering around the construction site for rebuilding the temple Kōganji in {{ill2|Tsujibuchi, Iwate|ja|土淵村}}, the day before she died.<ref name="minzoku" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=柳田|first=國男 (Yanagita, Kunio)|title=遠野物語|origyear=1948|year=2004|publisher=[[Kadokawa Shoten|角川書店]]|series=[[:ja:角川ソフィア文庫|]]|isbn=978-4-04-308320-6|pages=146–151|chapter=遠野物語拾遺160話|quote=生者や死者の思いが凝って出歩く姿が、幻になって人の目に見える}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=81, 82}}, citing Kunio Yanagita, ''[[Tōno Monogatari]]''</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The term ''omaku'' was unknown to [[Kizen Sasaki]], the local expert and chief source to Yanagita's ''Tōno monogatari'', [[Kizen Sasaki]]. Sasaki was not the one who provided testimony to the girl's ''ikiryō'' who appeared at Kōganji temple, being a boy at the time. Later, Sasaki remarked he did not know the term "omaku", though he was familiar with a similar phrase "omoi omaku", in response to {{ill2|Tōzō Suzuki|ja|鈴木棠三}}'s inquiry. {{Harvnb|今野|1969|pp=101–102}}, citing {{citation|last=鈴木|first=棠三 (Suzuki, Tōzō)|title=怪異を訪ねて|journal=大法輪|volume=26|number=6|year=1059}}</ref>

In [[Kashima District, Ishikawa]] on the [[Noto Peninsula]], a folklorist recorded belief in the {{nihongo||死人坊|shininbō}}, said to appear 2 or 3 days before someone's death, and can be seen passing through on its way to pay visit to its ''danna-dera'' (family temple, also called ''[[bodaiji]]''), that is to say, the place anticipated to be the soul's final resting grounds, alongside his ancestors.<ref name="ikedap100" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=中村|first=浩 (Nakamura, Hiroshi)|title= 能登島採訪録|journal=民俗学会 (Minzokugaku)|volume=1|number=2|publisher=民俗学会|year=1929|pages=42–44|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iTIEAAAAMAAJ}}, cited by {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|lco=Chapter 4, pp.103–104}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/YoukaiCard/2260011.shtml|title=シニンボウ|work=怪異・妖怪伝承データベース|author= International Research Center for Japanese Studies|year=2002}}</ref>

====Soul flame-type====
{{Details3|[[hitodama]] and [[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]}}
There are cases where the wandering ''ikiryō'' appear as a floating "soul flame", known in Japan as the ''[[hitodama]]'' or ''[[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]''.<ref group="lower-alpha">It is the Japanese equivalent of the [[will-o'-the-wisp]] (or gernerically "[[atmospheric ghost lights]]")</ref> However, a "soul flame" from a person not quite dead is not considered unusual, given the general traditional conception among Japanese that the soul escapes the body within a short span (several days) either ''before or'' after death.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 2 ''Hitodama kō'', p.38}}</ref> Therefore, pre-death soul flames may not be treated as cases of ''ikiryō'' in works on the subject of ghosts, but filed under chapters on the ''[[hitodama]]'' phenomenon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 2 ''Hitodama kō'', pp.37–62}}. On pp.44–46 are cases of floating balloon-like objects of yellow color ([[iridescence|iridescent]] colored, according to Konno) which presage death.The objects are called {{nihongo||タマシ|tamashi|extra2="souls"}} by locals in [[Shimokita District, Aomori]] (specifically Komena hamlet, in the town of [[Ōhata, Aomori|Ōhata]]). On the day after a sighting of one heading towards the mountains ([[Mount Osore]]) on April 2, 1963, a boy died in the hospital from a fall off a bridge while dobule-riding a bicycle. 30 years earlier, an eyewitness Masao Kashiwadani was convinced the ''tamashi'' he saw was a bedridden relative named Oyasu Takahashi, and sure enough she died.</ref>

One case of a near-death ''hitodama'' that a folklorist deemed suitable to discuss under the topic of ''ikiryō'' had the additional feature in common with the aforementioned tale of the woman's head in the "Sorori Monogatari", namely, that the subject who witnessed the soul's apparition pursued it ruthlessly, until he discovered the owner of the soul, who claimed to have seen the entire experience of being chased while dreaming. The subject worked at the town office of [[Tōno, Iwate]], and one night, he watched as a ''[[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]'' emerged from the stable into the house entrance and fly around. He chased it with a broom, and trapped it beneath a washbasin. A while after, he was rushed out to see his sick uncle on the brink of death, but before leaving released the fireball from capture. He learned that uncle had only just passed away, but breathed back to life again, able enough to accuse the nephew of the whole ordeal of chasing him with a broom and capturing him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|p=75}}, citing ''Tōno monogatari''</ref> Similarly, the folklore archives of [[Umedoi, Mie|Umedoi]], [[Mie Prefecture]] (now part of [[Inabe, Mie|Inabe]]) preserves a tale about a band of men who late in the night spotted and chased a [[Atmospheric ghost lights|fireball]] into a [[sake]] warehouse, awaking a maid sleeping inside who professed to being "pursued by a many men and fleeing here," thereby revealing the identity of the fireball.<ref name="ikeda" />

===Ikiryō as an illness===
[[File:Masasumi Rikonbyo.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''Rikonbyō'' (離魂病) from the ''[[Kyōka Hyaku Monogatari]]'' illustrated by Masasumi Ryūkansaijin. The woman on the left is afflicted by the "soul separation illness", and her ''ikiryō'' appears next to her.]]
During the [[Edo period]], there was belief in a condition called {{nihongo||離魂病|rikonbyō|extra2="soul separation illness"}}, whereby the soul would not just separate from the body, but assume the shape and appearance identical to the sufferer. The condition was also known interchangeably as {{nihongo|shadow-sickeness|影の病|kage no yamai}}, alternately written {{nihongo||カゲノワズライ|kagewazarai}}.<ref name="konno-rikonbyo">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=12, 64–66}}</ref><ref name="hearn-rikombyo">{{citation|last=Hearn|first=Lafcadio|title=The Romance of the Milky Way: And Other Studies & Stories|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin|year=1905|pages=314-|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oQFEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65|pages=60 –64}}</ref>

This affliction is treated as an instance of ''ikiryō'' by folklorist Ensuke Konno in his chapter on the topic.<ref name="konno-rikonbyo"/> The case study example is that of one Yūji Kita, doomed by the ''kage no yamai'' for three generations in succession, recorded in the {{Nihongo||奥州波奈志|Ōshu banashi|"Far North Tales"}} by [[Tadano Makuzu]] (d. [[1825]]).

The identical double might be seen by the sufferer or be witnessed by others, and can be classed as a [[doppelgänger]] phenomenon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hearn|1905|page=61}}</ref> Others have reported a sort of [[out-of-body experience]], whereby their consciousness inhabit the ''ikiryō'', looking at one's corporeal self from beyond.<ref name="tada">{{Harvnb|Tada|2008|p=283}}</ref>

==Deeds or phenomena that resemble ikiryō==
The {{nihongo||[[:ja:丑の刻参り|丑の刻参り]]|[[ushi no koku mairi]]}} is, when one, in the hour of the ox (1AM to 3AM), strikes a nail in a sacred tree, and thus becomes an ''[[oni]]'' while alive, and using these oni powers, would inflict curses and calamity upon someone hated. Although many ''ikiryō'' generally are spirits of humans that leave the body unconsciously and move about, deeds like performing these magic rituals and intentionally tormenting a target can also be interpreted as ikiryō.<ref name="tada" /> In the same way, in the [[Okinawa Prefecture]], performing a magic ritual for intentionally becoming an ''ikiryō'', possessing other people or animals, and inflicting harm on them is called {{ill2|ichijama{{!}}''ichijama''|ja|いちじゃま}}.<ref>{{Cite book|author=上江洲均|editor=大塚民俗学会編|title=日本民俗事典 (Nihon minzokushi taikei)|edition=Pocket |origyear=1972|year=1994|publisher=[[:ja:弘文堂|]]|isbn=978-4-335-57050-6|page=41|trans_title=Japanese folk encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=島袋源七|editor=[[:ja:池田彌三郎|池田彌三郎]] (Ikeda, Yasusaburō) et al|title=日本民俗誌大系|origyear=1929|year=1974|publisher=角川書店|volume=1|isbn=978-4-04-530301-2|page=373|chapter=山原の土俗}}</ref>

Also, as something that resembles this, some people who have testified witnessing a [[near-death experience]] speak of experiencing something as if their physical bodies and their consciousness have become separated. Also, there is also the example of [[out-of-body experience]]s (where the soul, as the consciousness, leaves the body, and as a spectator, is able to see one's own body).



==See also==
*[[Astral projection]]
*[[Out of body experience]]
*[[Doppelgänger]]
*[[Fetch (folklore)]]
*[[Soul]]

==Footnotes==

===Explanatory notes===
{{Notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|author=池田彌三郎 (Ikeda, Yasusaburō)|authorlink=:ja:池田彌三郎|title=日本の幽霊|origyear=1959|year=1978|publisher=[[Chuokoron-Shinsha|中央公論社]]|series=[[:ja:中公文庫|中公文庫]]|isbn=978-4-12-200127-5|ref={{SfnRef|Ikeda|1959}}|trans_title=Ghosts of Japan}}
* {{Cite book|author=大藤時彦 (Ōtō, Tokihiko) et al|authorlink=:ja:大藤時彦|editor=民俗学研究所|others=[[Kunio Yanagita|柳田國男]] (supervising editor)|title=綜合日本民俗語彙|year=1955|publisher=[[:ja:平凡社|平凡社]]|volume=1|id=BN05729787|ref={{SfnRef|大藤他|1955}}|trans_title=Sogo Japanese folk vocabulary}}
* {{Cite book|author=今野円輔 (Konno, Ensuke)|title=日本怪談集幽霊篇|origyear=1969|year=2004|publisher=[[Chuokoron-Shinsha|中央公論新社]]|series=中公文庫|volume=上|isbn=978-4-12-204464-7|ref={{SfnRef|Konno|1969}}|trans_title=Japanese kaidan collection: ghosts|format=snippet|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BG8nAQAAIAAJ}}
**Chapter 1 {{nihongo||姿なきマボロシ|Sugata naki maboroshi|extra2="Phantasm without visible form"}}, pp. 11–36
**Chapter 2 {{nihongo||人魂考|Hitodama kō|extra2="Thoughts on the soul flame"}}, pp. 37–62
**Chapter 3 {{nihongo||生霊の遊離|ikiryō no yūri|extra2="Peregrination of the living soul"}}, pp. 63–98
**Chapter 4 {{nihongo||たましいの別れ|Tamashī no wakare|extra2="Souls bidding farewell"}}, pp. 100–125
* {{Cite book|author=多田克己 (Tada, Tatsumi)|authorlink=:ja:多田克己|editor=[[:ja:京極夏彦|京極夏彦]] ([[Natsuhiko Kyogoku]])|title=妖怪画本狂歌百物語|year=2008|publisher=[[:ja:国書刊行会|国書刊行会]]|isbn=978-4-3360-5055-7|chapter=『妖怪画本・狂歌百物語』妖怪総覧|ref={{SfnRef|多田|2008}}|trans_title=[[Yōkai]] picture book: satirical [[Waka (poetry)|waka]] version [[Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai|Hyakumonogatari]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor=高田衛 (Takada, Mamoru)|editor-link=:ja:高田衛|title=江戸怪談集|year=1989|publisher=[[Iwanami Shoten|岩波書店]]|series=[[:ja:岩波文庫|岩波文庫]]|volume=中|isbn=978-4-00-302572-7|chapter=曾呂利物語|ref={{SfnRef|高田編|1989}}|trans_title=Edo ghost story collection}}
{{Refend}}

{{Japanese folklore long}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ikiryo}}
[[Category:Japanese ghosts]]
[[Category:Japanese folklore]]
[[Category:Japanese legendary creatures]]

Ikiryō

2014-05-05T04:36:12Z

Madler:

{{cleanup-translation|Japanese|listed=yes}}
[[File:SekienIkiryo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"Ikiryō" (生霊) from the "[[Gazu Hyakki Yagyō]]" by [[Sekien Toriyama]]]]
'''Ikiryō''', or '''shōryō''', '''seirei''', '''ikisudama''' (生霊, lit. "living ghost," "[[Eidolon_(apparition)|eidolon]]"), in popular belief or in fictional works, refers to the spirit that leaves the body of a person still alive, which can haunt other people or places, sometimes even a great distance away.<ref name="ikeda">{{Harvnb|Ikeda|1959|pp=186–190}}</ref><ref name="konno">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 3 (''Ikiryō no yūri''), pp. 63–98}}</ref><ref name=Clarke2000 >{{citation|last=Clarke|first=Peter Bernard|year=2000|title=Japanese new religions: in global perspective, Volume 1999|edition=annotated|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-7007-1185-7|page=247}}</ref> The term(s) are used in contrast to ''[[shiryō]]'', which refers to the spirit of the dead.

==Summary==
Popular belief that the human spirit (or soul) can escape loose from the body has been around since time memorial, with eyewitness accounts or experiences (hauntings, possessions, [[out-of-body experience]]) being reported in writing, both anecdotal and fictional.<ref name="ikeda" /><ref name="konno" /> The ''[[Kōjien]]'' dictionary defines ''ikiryō'' as "the {{nihongo|vengeful spirits|怨霊|[[onryō]]}} of the living, said to inflict {{nihongo|curses|[[:ja:祟り|祟り]]|tatari}} [upon the subject of its vengeance]."<ref name="kojien">{{Cite book|editor-last=Shinmura|editor-first=Izuru|editor-link=Shinmura Izuru|title=[[Kojien|広辞苑]]|edition=4th|year=1991|publisher=[[Iwanami Shoten, Publishers|岩波書店]]|isbn=978-4-00-080101-0|page=122|trans_title=Kojien}}</ref> However, the spirit does not necessarily act out of spite or vengefulness, and stories are told of ''ikiryō'' who bears no grudge, or poses no real threat. In recorded examples, the spirit may take [[Spirit possession|possession]] of another person's body for motives other than vengeance, such as love and infatuation (e.g. the Matsutōya ghost below). A person's ''ikiryō'' may also leave the body (often very shortly before death) to manifest their presence around their dear ones and acquaintances.<ref name="konno" />

==Classical literature==
In classical literature, the ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' (ca. 1100) contains the "all too famous" episode of the ''ikisudama'' (antiquated form of ''ikiryō'') that emerged from [[Hikaru Genji|Genji]]'s lover [[Lady Rokujo]], and tormented Genji's pregnant wife [[Aoi no Ue]], culminating in her death after successful delivery of a son.<ref name="konno069">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|p=69}} "『源氏物語』の六条御息所が.. あまりにも有名であり"</ref> This spirit is also portrayed in the [[Noh]] play adaptation entitled ''[[Aoi no Ue (play)|Aoi no Ue]]''. After death, Lady Rokujo became an ''[[onryō]]'' and went oun to torment Genji's later consorts, [[Murasaki]] and {{ill2|Onna-sannomiya|ja|女三宮}}.<ref name="konno069"/>

In the [[Heian period]], a human soul leaving its body and drifting off is described by the old verb "akugaru" meaning "departure". In the ''The Tale of Genji'', the mentally anguished Kashiwagi fears that his soul may be found wandering off (''akugaru''), and if that should happen, requests that rites be performed to keep the soul tied down to him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bargen|first=Doris G. |title=A Woman's Weapon: Spirit Possession in The Tale of Genji|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1997 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BVWuLQkPm00C&pg=PA166|page=166|isbn=082481858X}}</ref>{{Refn|''Kojien'',<ref name="kojien"/> ''akugaru'', sense 2 "the soul leaving the body (lured by something)", usage example from ''Tale of Genji'', Book 36 (Kashiwagi).}} Another example of this term occurs in the verse by [[Izumi Shikibu]] which imagines that the firefly might be her wayward soul: "While I am rapt in thought, / The fireflies of the marsh would seem to be / My soul, caught up and wandering / Forth out off me." (''[[Goshūi Wakashū]]'' XX).<ref>{{cite book|last=Miyamori|first=Asatarō (ed. tr.)|title=Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry: Ancient and Modern|volume=1|publisher=Taiseido Shobo Company|year=1956|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AScHAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>Given as an example in {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=66–67}}</ref><ref name="murakami">{{Citation|last=村上|first=健司 (Murakami, Kenji)|authorlink=:ja:村上健司|title=日本妖怪大事典 (''Nihon yōkai daijiten'')|year=2005|publisher=[[Kadokawa Shoten|角川書店]]|series=Kwai books|isbn=978-4-04-883926-6|pages=24–25|trans_title=The Great Yokai Encyclopedia of Japan}}</ref>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|From the old verb ''akugaru'' derives the modern {{nihongo||[[wikt:憧れる|憧れる]]|akogareru}} meaning "to yearn for, have a romantic notion of" (''Kojien''<ref name="kojien"/>), since when one adores something or someone, the mind takes flight to that place. This etymology is also addressed by {{ill2|Yasaburo Ikeda|ja|池田彌三郎}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=66–67}}</ref> and by Murakami<ref name="murakami"/>}}

In the medieval collection ''[[Konjaku Monogatarishū]]'' is the tale of "How the Ikiryo Spirit of Omi Province Came and Killed a Man of the Capital." A man of humble origins traveling out of Kyoto meets a woman in the crossroad, seeking to be guided to the house of a certain {{nihongo|[[Ministry of Popular Affairs#Hierarchy|Senior Assistant Minister of Popular Affairs]]|民部大夫|Minbu-no-tayū}} back in the capital. She was the ''ikiryō'' of the abandoned wife of this official, as this man was later to learn. Upon reaching the house, she promptly vanished before his eyes, even though the gates were shut, then wailing noises were heard inside. In the morning, the guide learned that the master of the house had made the terrified declaration that the ''ikiryō'' of his wife causing his illness was now in his presence, and died shortly after. The man decided to pay a visit to the house in [[Ōmi Province]] where the lady he guided said she resided, and was received by a woman who acknowledged the man's service that day, met him through [[Sudare|blinds]], and showered him with gifts of silk cloths and such.<ref>{{citation|editor-last=Dykstra|editor-first=Yoshiko Kurata (tr.)|chapter=Book 27, Chapter 20: How the Ikiryo Spirit of Omi Province Came and Killed a Man of the Capital|work=The Konjaku Tales: From a Medieval Japanese Collection. Japanese section|volume=3|publisher=Intercultural Research Institute, Kansai Gaidai University Publication|year=2003|page=95-|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M3IqAQAAIAAJ|isbn=4873350263}}</ref><ref>{{citation|editor-last=Haga|editor-first=Yaichi (芳賀矢一)|chapter=卷第廿七/第20: 近江國生靈來京煞人語|work=攷証今昔物語集 (Kōshō konjaku monogatari shū)|volume=3 (下)|year=1921|pages=367-|url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/945416}}.</ref><ref>Included, in modern translation, in {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=93–96}} under the altered title {{nihongo||夫を取り殺した青衣の女|extra2="A woman in blue garment who possessed and killed her husband"}}, in his chapter on the ''ikiryō''</ref>

The ''ikiryō'' can also possess the object of its infatuation, rather than its love-rival. The essay collection "Okinagusa" (翁草) records a contemporaneous story of the "Matsutōya yūrei" that allegedly took place in [[Kyōhō]] 14 or 15 ([[1729]]-[[1730|30]]), whereby a Kyoto merchant named {{nihongo||松任屋徳兵衛|Matsutōya Tokubei}} had a teenaged son named Matsunosuke [[Spirit possession|possessed by the spirit]] of two girls in love with him. The boy would be tormented as if by guilt, be suspended in air, and engage in conversation as if the girls were present before his eyes, though the girls were nowhere visible, and the spirits' words were spoken through the boy's lips. Finally a renowned priest named {{nihongo|Zōkai|象海慧湛 1682-1733}} was summoned, and the exorcism led to the boy's successful recovery from illness, but unwanted rumors had spread regarding the incident.<ref>{{Cite book|editor=神沢貞幹/神沢杜口 (Kanzawa, Teikan/Tokō 1710-1795)|others=池辺義象 (revised)|title=翁草|volume=6|publisher=五車楼書店|year=1906|pages=66–7|chapter=Book 56 (Chapter 松任屋幽霊)|url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/772573}}. The wording is {{nihongo|"the spirit of the two possessed Matsunosuke"|「二人が霊、松之助につきて」|}}. Modern translations by Iwaya Sazanami, in {{nihongo||第語園|Dai goen}} (1935), Vol. 8, p.90.</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The anecdote is mentioned as a tale of {{nihongo||幽霊憑|yūreitsuki}} in the writings of [[Shigeru Mizuki]], e.g. his {{nihongo||『図説日本妖怪大鑑』|Zusetsu nihon yōkai taikan|}} (ISBN 978-4-06-256049-8).</ref>

[[File:Sorori wandering soul.jpg|right|thumb|240px|"Onna no Mōnen Mayoiaruku Koto" (女の妄念迷ひ歩く事) from the "Sorori Monogatari" (曾呂利物語)<ref name="sorori">{{Harvnb|高田編|1989|pp=13–15}}</ref>]]
The horror story (''[[kaidan]]'') collection entitled {{Nihongo||曾呂利物語|''Sorori Monogatari''}} (published [[Kanbun (era)|Kanbun]] 3, or [[1663]]) includes a tale of a woman whose ''ikiryō'' assumed the shape of her severed head (cf. the ''[[yōkai]]'' monster known as ''[[Rokurokubi#Rokurokubi whose heads come off (nukekubi)|nukekubi]]''). One night, a man traveling towards [[Kamigata|Kyoto]] came to a place called Sawaya in Kita-no-shō, [[Echizen Province]] (now [[Fukui, Fukui|Fukui City]]), where he thought he saw a chicken fly from the base of a stone tower onto the road, but it turned out to be (or transformed into) a live severed head of a woman. When the head grinned at him, the traveler attacked with a sword, and chased it to a home in the capital of the province. Inside the house, the housewife rose from a nightmare being chased by a man brandishing a blade, and awoke her husband. The wandering head was, according to the title, the woman's {{nihongo||{{linktext|妄|念}}|monen}}, or her wayward thoughts or obsession (that strays from the tenets of Buddhism). And the woman afterwards became a nun to repent her sins.<ref name="ikeda" /><ref name="sorori" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=湯浅|first=佳子 (Yuasa, Yoshiko)|title=『曾呂里物語』の類話|trans_title=A Study of the Similar Story of "SORORI-MONOGATARI"|journal=東京学芸大学紀要. 人文社会科学系 I|volume=60|year=2009|pages=307–309|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2309/96207|ISSN=18804314}}. Summarized, with the title transcribed as {{Nihongo|女のまうねんまよひありく事|onna no maunen mayohi ariku koto}}</ref>

==Folk beliefs==

===Regional near-death spirits===
Sightings of ''ikiryō'' belonging to those whose deaths are imminent have been recorded from all over Japan. Stories abound of spirits that materialize (or otherwise manifest their presence) to someone dear to them,<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171"/> such as immediate family, and the recipient of the visit experiences a metaphysical foreshadowing of this person's death, before any tangible news of bereavement arrives.

Many of the local terms for the ''ikiryō'' was collected by [[Kunio Yanagita]] and his school of folklorists:<ref group="lower-alpha">However, while the terms such as ''tobi-damashi'' or ''omokage'' of Akita, or ''shininbō'' of Ishikawa Prefecture are given in isolated instances, these terms are not well-attested independently elsewhere.</ref>

In the tradition of the [[Nishitsugaru District, Aomori|Nishitsugaru District]], [[Aomori Prefecture]], the souls of persons on the brink of death are called ''amabito,'' believed to depart from the body and walk around, sometimes creating noises like that of the door slinding open.<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171">{{citation|last=Yanagita|first=Kunio|others=Fanny Hagin Mayer (tr.)|title=About Our Ancestors: The Japanese Family System|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1970|chapter=Chapter 77|page=171|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xarXAAAAMAAJ|quote=and there are many stories, especially about when faced with death, how a man can go to the one he wants to see. In Senhoku-gun people who can fly anywhere in dreams are called ''tobi-damashi'' [flying soul], and those who come just before death to see somebody are called ''amabito'' in Tsugaru,..}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=pp. 67, 68}} narrows the locality as "Nishitsugaru", and mentions the soul walking and making door noises.</ref><ref name="minzoku">{{Harvnb|Ōtō et al|1955|pp=46–293}}</ref>

According to [[Kunio Yanagita|Yanagita]], {{nihongo||飛びだまし|tobi-damashi}} is the equivalent term in the [[Senboku District, Akita]] region. Yanagita describes this as an ability that presents in certain persons with that gift (who is able to see in a dream whatever the soul he releases into the world experiences), rather than an uncontrolled phenomenon visited upon the dying.<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171"/>

In the [[Kazuno District, Akita|Kazuno District]] in [[Akita Prefecture]], a soul that pays visit to acquaintances is called an {{nihongo||面影〔オモカゲ〕|omokage|extra2="reminescence, lingering shadow"}}, and assumes the form of a living human, that is to say, it has feet and make pitter-patter noises, unlike the stereotypical Japanese ghost that have no legs or feet.<ref name="minzoku" /><ref name="ikedap100">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 4, pp.100–105}}</ref>

Yanagita in ''Tōno monogatari shūi'' reported that in the [[Tōno, Iwate|Tōno Region]], [[Iwate Prefecture]], "the thoughts of the dead or the living coalesce into a walking shape, and appear to the human eye as an illusion is termed an ''omaku'' in this region." An example was a beautiful girl aged 16 or 17, critically ill with a case of {{nihongo|"[[Shang Han Lun|cold damage]]"|傷寒|shōkan}} ([[Typhoid fever]] or similar disease), but was seen wandering around the construction site for rebuilding the temple Kōganji in {{ill2|Tsujibuchi, Iwate|ja|土淵村}}, the day before she died.<ref name="minzoku" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=柳田|first=國男 (Yanagita, Kunio)|title=遠野物語|origyear=1948|year=2004|publisher=[[Kadokawa Shoten|角川書店]]|series=[[:ja:角川ソフィア文庫|]]|isbn=978-4-04-308320-6|pages=146–151|chapter=遠野物語拾遺160話|quote=生者や死者の思いが凝って出歩く姿が、幻になって人の目に見える}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=81, 82}}, citing Kunio Yanagita, ''[[Tōno Monogatari]]''</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The term ''omaku'' was unknown to [[Kizen Sasaki]], the local expert and chief source to Yanagita's ''Tōno monogatari'', [[Kizen Sasaki]]. Sasaki was not the one who provided testimony to the girl's ''ikiryō'' who appeared at Kōganji temple, being a boy at the time. Later, Sasaki remarked he did not know the term "omaku", though he was familiar with a similar phrase "omoi omaku", in response to {{ill2|Tōzō Suzuki|ja|鈴木棠三}}'s inquiry. {{Harvnb|今野|1969|pp=101–102}}, citing {{citation|last=鈴木|first=棠三 (Suzuki, Tōzō)|title=怪異を訪ねて|journal=大法輪|volume=26|number=6|year=1059}}</ref>

In [[Kashima District, Ishikawa]] on the [[Noto Peninsula]], a folklorist recorded belief in the {{nihongo||死人坊|shininbō}}, said to appear 2 or 3 days before someone's death, and can be seen passing through on its way to pay visit to its ''danna-dera'' (family temple, also called ''[[bodaiji]]''), that is to say, the place anticipated to be the soul's final resting grounds, alongside his ancestors.<ref name="ikedap100" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=中村|first=浩 (Nakamura, Hiroshi)|title= 能登島採訪録|journal=民俗学会 (Minzokugaku)|volume=1|number=2|publisher=民俗学会|year=1929|pages=42–44|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iTIEAAAAMAAJ}}, cited by {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|lco=Chapter 4, pp.103–104}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/YoukaiCard/2260011.shtml|title=シニンボウ|work=怪異・妖怪伝承データベース|author= International Research Center for Japanese Studies|year=2002}}</ref>

====Soul flame-type====
{{Details3|[[hitodama]] and [[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]}}
There are cases where the wandering ''ikiryō'' appear as a floating "soul flame", known in Japan as the ''[[hitodama]]'' or ''[[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]''.<ref group="lower-alpha">It is the Japanese equivalent of the [[will-o'-the-wisp]] (or gernerically "[[atmospheric ghost lights]]")</ref> However, a "soul flame" from a person not quite dead is not considered unusual, given the general traditional conception among Japanese that the soul escapes the body within a short span (several days) either ''before or'' after death.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 2 ''Hitodama kō'', p.38}}</ref> Therefore, pre-death soul flames may not be treated as cases of ''ikiryō'' in works on the subject of ghosts, but filed under chapters on the ''[[hitodama]]'' phenomenon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 2 ''Hitodama kō'', pp.37–62}}. On pp.44–46 are cases of floating balloon-like objects of yellow color ([[iridescence|iridescent]] colored, according to Konno) which presage death.The objects are called {{nihongo||タマシ|tamashi|extra2="souls"}} by locals in [[Shimokita District, Aomori]] (specifically Komena hamlet, in the town of [[Ōhata, Aomori|Ōhata]]). On the day after a sighting of one heading towards the mountains ([[Mount Osore]]) on April 2, 1963, a boy died in the hospital from a fall off a bridge while dobule-riding a bicycle. 30 years earlier, an eyewitness Masao Kashiwadani was convinced the ''tamashi'' he saw was a bedridden relative named Oyasu Takahashi, and sure enough she died.</ref>

One case of a near-death ''hitodama'' that a folklorist deemed suitable to discuss under the topic of ''ikiryō'' had the additional feature in common with the aforementioned tale of the woman's head in the "Sorori Monogatari", namely, that the subject who witnessed the soul's apparition pursued it ruthlessly, until he discovered the owner of the soul, who claimed to have seen the entire experience of being chased while dreaming. The subject worked at the town office of [[Tōno, Iwate]], and one night, he watched as a ''[[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]'' emerged from the stable into the house entrance and fly around. He chased it with a broom, and trapped it beneath a washbasin. A while after, he was rushed out to see his sick uncle on the brink of death, but before leaving released the fireball from capture. He learned that uncle had only just passed away, but breathed back to life again, able enough to accuse the nephew of the whole ordeal of chasing him with a broom and capturing him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|p=75}}, citing ''Tōno monogatari''</ref> Similarly, the folklore archives of [[Umedoi, Mie|Umedoi]], [[Mie Prefecture]] (now part of [[Inabe, Mie|Inabe]]) preserves a tale about a band of men who late in the night spotted and chased a [[Atmospheric ghost lights|fireball]] into a [[sake]] warehouse, awaking a maid sleeping inside who professed to being "pursued by a many men and fleeing here," thereby revealing the identity of the fireball.<ref name="ikeda" />

===Ikiryō as an illness===
[[File:Masasumi Rikonbyo.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''Rikonbyō'' (離魂病) from the ''[[Kyōka Hyaku Monogatari]]'' illustrated by Masasumi Ryūkansaijin. The woman on the left is afflicted by the "soul separation illness", and her ''ikiryō'' appears next to her.]]
During the [[Edo period]], there was belief in a condition called {{nihongo||離魂病|rikonbyō|extra2="soul separation illness"}}, whereby the soul would not just separate from the body, but assume the shape and appearance identical to the sufferer. The condition was also known interchangeably as {{nihongo|shadow-sickeness|影の病|kage no yamai}}, alternately written {{nihongo||カゲノワズライ|kagewazarai}}.<ref name="konno-rikonbyo">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=12, 64–66}}</ref><ref name="hearn-rikombyo">{{citation|last=Hearn|first=Lafcadio|title=The Romance of the Milky Way: And Other Studies & Stories|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin|year=1905|pages=314-|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oQFEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65|pages=60 –64}}</ref>

This affliction is treated as an instance of ''ikiryō'' by folklorist Ensuke Konno in his chapter on the topic.<ref name="konno-rikonbyo"/> The case study example is that of one Yūji Kita, doomed by the ''kage no yamai'' for three generations in succession, recorded in the {{Nihongo||奥州波奈志|Ōshu banashi|"Far North Tales"}} by [[Tadano Makuzu]] (d. [[1825]]).

The identical double might be seen by the sufferer or be witnessed by others, and can be classed as a [[doppelgänger]] phenomenon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hearn|1905|page=61}}</ref> Others have reported a sort of [[out-of-body experience]], whereby their consciousness inhabit the ''ikiryō'', looking at one's corporeal self from beyond.<ref name="tada">{{Harvnb|Tada|2008|p=283}}</ref>

==Deeds or phenomena that resemble ikiryō==
The {{nihongo||[[:ja:丑の刻参り|丑の刻参り]]|[[ushi no koku mairi]]}} is, when one, in the hour of the ox (1AM to 3AM), strikes a nail in a sacred tree, and thus becomes an ''[[oni]]'' while alive, and using these oni powers, would inflict curses and calamity upon someone hated. Although many ''ikiryō'' generally are spirits of humans that leave the body unconsciously and move about, deeds like performing these magic rituals and intentionally tormenting a target can also be interpreted as ikiryō.<ref name="tada" /> In the same way, in the [[Okinawa Prefecture]], performing a magic ritual for intentionally becoming an ''ikiryō'', possessing other people or animals, and inflicting harm on them is called {{ill2|ichijama{{!}}''ichijama''|ja|いちじゃま}}.<ref>{{Cite book|author=上江洲均|editor=大塚民俗学会編|title=日本民俗事典 (Nihon minzokushi taikei)|edition=Pocket |origyear=1972|year=1994|publisher=[[:ja:弘文堂|]]|isbn=978-4-335-57050-6|page=41|trans_title=Japanese folk encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=島袋源七|editor=[[:ja:池田彌三郎|池田彌三郎]] (Ikeda, Yasusaburō) et al|title=日本民俗誌大系|origyear=1929|year=1974|publisher=角川書店|volume=1|isbn=978-4-04-530301-2|page=373|chapter=山原の土俗}}</ref>

Also, as something that resembles this, some people who have testified witnessing a [[near-death experience]] speak of experiencing something as if their physical bodies and their consciousness have become separated. Also, there is also the example of [[out-of-body experience]]s (where the soul, as the consciousness, leaves the body, and as a spectator, is able to see one's own body).



==See also==
*[[Astral projection]]
*[[Out of body experience]]
*[[Doppelgänger]]
*[[Fetch (folklore)]]
*[[Soul]]

==Footnotes==

===Explanatory notes===
{{Notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|author=池田彌三郎 (Ikeda, Yasusaburō)|authorlink=:ja:池田彌三郎|title=日本の幽霊|origyear=1959|year=1978|publisher=[[Chuokoron-Shinsha|中央公論社]]|series=[[:ja:中公文庫|中公文庫]]|isbn=978-4-12-200127-5|ref={{SfnRef|Ikeda|1959}}|trans_title=Ghosts of Japan}}
* {{Cite book|author=大藤時彦 (Ōtō, Tokihiko) et al|authorlink=:ja:大藤時彦|editor=民俗学研究所|others=[[Kunio Yanagita|柳田國男]] (supervising editor)|title=綜合日本民俗語彙|year=1955|publisher=[[:ja:平凡社|平凡社]]|volume=1|id=BN05729787|ref={{SfnRef|大藤他|1955}}|trans_title=Sogo Japanese folk vocabulary}}
* {{Cite book|author=今野円輔 (Konno, Ensuke)|title=日本怪談集幽霊篇|origyear=1969|year=2004|publisher=[[Chuokoron-Shinsha|中央公論新社]]|series=中公文庫|volume=上|isbn=978-4-12-204464-7|ref={{SfnRef|Konno|1969}}|trans_title=Japanese kaidan collection: ghosts|format=snippet|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BG8nAQAAIAAJ}}
**Chapter 1 {{nihongo||姿なきマボロシ|Sugata naki maboroshi|extra2="Phantasm without visible form"}}, pp. 11–36
**Chapter 2 {{nihongo||人魂考|Hitodama kō|extra2="Thoughts on the soul flame"}}, pp. 37–62
**Chapter 3 {{nihongo||生霊の遊離|ikiryō no yūri|extra2="Peregrination of the living soul"}}, pp. 63–98
**Chapter 4 {{nihongo||たましいの別れ|Tamashī no wakare|extra2="Souls bidding farewell"}}, pp. 100–125
* {{Cite book|author=多田克己 (Tada, Tatsumi)|authorlink=:ja:多田克己|editor=[[:ja:京極夏彦|京極夏彦]] ([[Natsuhiko Kyogoku]])|title=妖怪画本狂歌百物語|year=2008|publisher=[[:ja:国書刊行会|国書刊行会]]|isbn=978-4-3360-5055-7|chapter=『妖怪画本・狂歌百物語』妖怪総覧|ref={{SfnRef|多田|2008}}|trans_title=[[Yōkai]] picture book: satirical [[Waka (poetry)|waka]] version [[Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai|Hyakumonogatari]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor=高田衛 (Takada, Mamoru)|editor-link=:ja:高田衛|title=江戸怪談集|year=1989|publisher=[[Iwanami Shoten|岩波書店]]|series=[[:ja:岩波文庫|岩波文庫]]|volume=中|isbn=978-4-00-302572-7|chapter=曾呂利物語|ref={{SfnRef|高田編|1989}}|trans_title=Edo ghost story collection}}
{{Refend}}

{{Japanese folklore long}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ikiryo}}
[[Category:Japanese ghosts]]
[[Category:Japanese folklore]]
[[Category:Japanese legendary creatures]]

Ikiryō

2014-05-03T14:53:17Z

Madler:

{{cleanup-translation|Japanese|listed=yes}}
[[File:SekienIkiryo.jpg|right|thumb|200px|"Ikiryō" (生霊) from the "[[Gazu Hyakki Yagyō]]" by [[Sekien Toriyama]]]]
'''Ikiryō''', or '''shōryō''', '''seirei''', '''ikisudama''' (生霊, lit. "living ghost," "[[eidolon]]"), in popular belief or in fictional works, refers to the spirit that leaves the body of a person still alive, which can haunt other people or places, sometimes even a great distance away.<ref name="ikeda">{{Harvnb|Ikeda|1959|pp=186–190}}</ref><ref name="konno">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 3 (''Ikiryō no yūri''), pp. 63–98}}</ref><ref name=Clarke2000 >{{citation|last=Clarke|first=Peter Bernard|year=2000|title=Japanese new religions: in global perspective, Volume 1999|edition=annotated|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-7007-1185-7|page=247}}</ref> The term(s) are used in contrast to ''[[shiryō]]'', which refers to the spirit of the dead.

==Summary==
Popular belief that the human spirit (or soul) can escape loose from the body has been around since time memorial, with eyewitness accounts or experiences (hauntings, possessions, [[out-of-body experience]]) being reported in writing, both anecdotal and fictional.<ref name="ikeda" /><ref name="konno" /> The ''[[Kōjien]]'' dictionary defines ''ikiryō'' as "the {{nihongo|vengeful spirits|怨霊|[[onryō]]}} of the living, said to inflict {{nihongo|curses|[[:ja:祟り|祟り]]|tatari}} [upon the subject of its vengeance]."<ref name="kojien">{{Cite book|editor-last=Shinmura|editor-first=Izuru|editor-link=Shinmura Izuru|title=[[Kojien|広辞苑]]|edition=4th|year=1991|publisher=[[Iwanami Shoten, Publishers|岩波書店]]|isbn=978-4-00-080101-0|page=122|trans_title=Kojien}}</ref> However, the spirit does not necessarily act out of spite or vengefulness, and stories are told of ''ikiryō'' who bears no grudge, or poses no real threat. In recorded examples, the spirit may take [[Spirit possession|possession]] of another person's body for motives other than vengeance, such as love and infatuation (e.g. the Matsutōya ghost below). A person's ''ikiryō'' may also leave the body (often very shortly before death) to manifest their presence around their dear ones and acquaintances.<ref name="konno" />

==Classical literature==
In classical literature, the ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' (ca. 1100) contains the "all too famous" episode of the ''ikisudama'' (antiquated form of ''ikiryō'') that emerged from [[Hikaru Genji|Genji]]'s lover [[Lady Rokujo]], and tormented Genji's pregnant wife [[Aoi no Ue]], culminating in her death after successful delivery of a son.<ref name="konno069">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|p=69}} "『源氏物語』の六条御息所が.. あまりにも有名であり"</ref> This spirit is also portrayed in the [[Noh]] play adaptation entitled ''[[Aoi no Ue (play)|Aoi no Ue]]''. After death, Lady Rokujo became an ''[[onryō]]'' and went oun to torment Genji's later consorts, [[Murasaki]] and {{ill2|Onna-sannomiya|ja|女三宮}}.<ref name="konno069"/>

In the [[Heian period]], a human soul leaving its body and drifting off is described by the old verb "akugaru" meaning "departure". In the ''The Tale of Genji'', the mentally anguished Kashiwagi fears that his soul may be found wandering off (''akugaru''), and if that should happen, requests that rites be performed to keep the soul tied down to him.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bargen|first=Doris G. |title=A Woman's Weapon: Spirit Possession in The Tale of Genji|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1997 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BVWuLQkPm00C&pg=PA166|page=166|isbn=082481858X}}</ref>{{Refn|''Kojien'',<ref name="kojien"/> ''akugaru'', sense 2 "the soul leaving the body (lured by something)", usage example from ''Tale of Genji'', Book 36 (Kashiwagi).}} Another example of this term occurs in the verse by [[Izumi Shikibu]] which imagines that the firefly might be her wayward soul: "While I am rapt in thought, / The fireflies of the marsh would seem to be / My soul, caught up and wandering / Forth out off me." (''[[Goshūi Wakashū]]'' XX).<ref>{{cite book|last=Miyamori|first=Asatarō (ed. tr.)|title=Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry: Ancient and Modern|volume=1|publisher=Taiseido Shobo Company|year=1956|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=AScHAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>Given as an example in {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=66–67}}</ref><ref name="murakami">{{Citation|last=村上|first=健司 (Murakami, Kenji)|authorlink=:ja:村上健司|title=日本妖怪大事典 (''Nihon yōkai daijiten'')|year=2005|publisher=[[Kadokawa Shoten|角川書店]]|series=Kwai books|isbn=978-4-04-883926-6|pages=24–25|trans_title=The Great Yokai Encyclopedia of Japan}}</ref>{{Refn|group="lower-alpha"|From the old verb ''akugaru'' derives the modern {{nihongo||[[wikt:憧れる|憧れる]]|akogareru}} meaning "to yearn for, have a romantic notion of" (''Kojien''<ref name="kojien"/>), since when one adores something or someone, the mind takes flight to that place. This etymology is also addressed by {{ill2|Yasaburo Ikeda|ja|池田彌三郎}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=66–67}}</ref> and by Murakami<ref name="murakami"/>}}

In the medieval collection ''[[Konjaku Monogatarishū]]'' is the tale of "How the Ikiryo Spirit of Omi Province Came and Killed a Man of the Capital." A man of humble origins traveling out of Kyoto meets a woman in the crossroad, seeking to be guided to the house of a certain {{nihongo|[[Ministry of Popular Affairs#Hierarchy|Senior Assistant Minister of Popular Affairs]]|民部大夫|Minbu-no-tayū}} back in the capital. She was the ''ikiryō'' of the abandoned wife of this official, as this man was later to learn. Upon reaching the house, she promptly vanished before his eyes, even though the gates were shut, then wailing noises were heard inside. In the morning, the guide learned that the master of the house had made the terrified declaration that the ''ikiryō'' of his wife causing his illness was now in his presence, and died shortly after. The man decided to pay a visit to the house in [[Ōmi Province]] where the lady he guided said she resided, and was received by a woman who acknowledged the man's service that day, met him through [[Sudare|blinds]], and showered him with gifts of silk cloths and such.<ref>{{citation|editor-last=Dykstra|editor-first=Yoshiko Kurata (tr.)|chapter=Book 27, Chapter 20: How the Ikiryo Spirit of Omi Province Came and Killed a Man of the Capital|work=The Konjaku Tales: From a Medieval Japanese Collection. Japanese section|volume=3|publisher=Intercultural Research Institute, Kansai Gaidai University Publication|year=2003|page=95-|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M3IqAQAAIAAJ|isbn=4873350263}}</ref><ref>{{citation|editor-last=Haga|editor-first=Yaichi (芳賀矢一)|chapter=卷第廿七/第20: 近江國生靈來京煞人語|work=攷証今昔物語集 (Kōshō konjaku monogatari shū)|volume=3 (下)|year=1921|pages=367-|url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/945416}}.</ref><ref>Included, in modern translation, in {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=93–96}} under the altered title {{nihongo||夫を取り殺した青衣の女|extra2="A woman in blue garment who possessed and killed her husband"}}, in his chapter on the ''ikiryō''</ref>

The ''ikiryō'' can also possess the object of its infatuation, rather than its love-rival. The essay collection "Okinagusa" (翁草) records a contemporaneous story of the "Matsutōya yūrei" that allegedly took place in [[Kyōhō]] 14 or 15 ([[1729]]-[[1730|30]]), whereby a Kyoto merchant named {{nihongo||松任屋徳兵衛|Matsutōya Tokubei}} had a teenaged son named Matsunosuke [[Spirit possession|possessed by the spirit]] of two girls in love with him. The boy would be tormented as if by guilt, be suspended in air, and engage in conversation as if the girls were present before his eyes, though the girls were nowhere visible, and the spirits' words were spoken through the boy's lips. Finally a renowned priest named {{nihongo|Zōkai|象海慧湛 1682-1733}} was summoned, and the exorcism led to the boy's successful recovery from illness, but unwanted rumors had spread regarding the incident.<ref>{{Cite book|editor=神沢貞幹/神沢杜口 (Kanzawa, Teikan/Tokō 1710-1795)|others=池辺義象 (revised)|title=翁草|volume=6|publisher=五車楼書店|year=1906|pages=66–7|chapter=Book 56 (Chapter 松任屋幽霊)|url=http://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/772573}}. The wording is {{nihongo|"the spirit of the two possessed Matsunosuke"|「二人が霊、松之助につきて」|}}. Modern translations by Iwaya Sazanami, in {{nihongo||第語園|Dai goen}} (1935), Vol. 8, p.90.</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The anecdote is mentioned as a tale of {{nihongo||幽霊憑|yūreitsuki}} in the writings of [[Shigeru Mizuki]], e.g. his {{nihongo||『図説日本妖怪大鑑』|Zusetsu nihon yōkai taikan|}} (ISBN 978-4-06-256049-8).</ref>

[[File:Sorori wandering soul.jpg|right|thumb|240px|"Onna no Mōnen Mayoiaruku Koto" (女の妄念迷ひ歩く事) from the "Sorori Monogatari" (曾呂利物語)<ref name="sorori">{{Harvnb|高田編|1989|pp=13–15}}</ref>]]
The horror story (''[[kaidan]]'') collection entitled {{Nihongo||曾呂利物語|''Sorori Monogatari''}} (published [[Kanbun (era)|Kanbun]] 3, or [[1663]]) includes a tale of a woman whose ''ikiryō'' assumed the shape of her severed head (cf. the ''[[yōkai]]'' monster known as ''[[Rokurokubi#Rokurokubi whose heads come off (nukekubi)|nukekubi]]''). One night, a man traveling towards [[Kamigata|Kyoto]] came to a place called Sawaya in Kita-no-shō, [[Echizen Province]] (now [[Fukui, Fukui|Fukui City]]), where he thought he saw a chicken fly from the base of a stone tower onto the road, but it turned out to be (or transformed into) a live severed head of a woman. When the head grinned at him, the traveler attacked with a sword, and chased it to a home in the capital of the province. Inside the house, the housewife rose from a nightmare being chased by a man brandishing a blade, and awoke her husband. The wandering head was, according to the title, the woman's {{nihongo||{{linktext|妄|念}}|monen}}, or her wayward thoughts or obsession (that strays from the tenets of Buddhism). And the woman afterwards became a nun to repent her sins.<ref name="ikeda" /><ref name="sorori" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=湯浅|first=佳子 (Yuasa, Yoshiko)|title=『曾呂里物語』の類話|trans_title=A Study of the Similar Story of "SORORI-MONOGATARI"|journal=東京学芸大学紀要. 人文社会科学系 I|volume=60|year=2009|pages=307–309|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2309/96207|ISSN=18804314}}. Summarized, with the title transcribed as {{Nihongo|女のまうねんまよひありく事|onna no maunen mayohi ariku koto}}</ref>

==Folk beliefs==

===Regional near-death spirits===
Sightings of ''ikiryō'' belonging to those whose deaths are imminent have been recorded from all over Japan. Stories abound of spirits that materialize (or otherwise manifest their presence) to someone dear to them,<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171"/> such as immediate family, and the recipient of the visit experiences a metaphysical foreshadowing of this person's death, before any tangible news of bereavement arrives.

Many of the local terms for the ''ikiryō'' was collected by [[Kunio Yanagita]] and his school of folklorists:<ref group="lower-alpha">However, while the terms such as ''tobi-damashi'' or ''omokage'' of Akita, or ''shininbō'' of Ishikawa Prefecture are given in isolated instances, these terms are not well-attested independently elsewhere.</ref>

In the tradition of the [[Nishitsugaru District, Aomori|Nishitsugaru District]], [[Aomori Prefecture]], the souls of persons on the brink of death are called ''amabito,'' believed to depart from the body and walk around, sometimes creating noises like that of the door slinding open.<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171">{{citation|last=Yanagita|first=Kunio|others=Fanny Hagin Mayer (tr.)|title=About Our Ancestors: The Japanese Family System|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1970|chapter=Chapter 77|page=171|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xarXAAAAMAAJ|quote=and there are many stories, especially about when faced with death, how a man can go to the one he wants to see. In Senhoku-gun people who can fly anywhere in dreams are called ''tobi-damashi'' [flying soul], and those who come just before death to see somebody are called ''amabito'' in Tsugaru,..}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=pp. 67, 68}} narrows the locality as "Nishitsugaru", and mentions the soul walking and making door noises.</ref><ref name="minzoku">{{Harvnb|Ōtō et al|1955|pp=46–293}}</ref>

According to [[Kunio Yanagita|Yanagita]], {{nihongo||飛びだまし|tobi-damashi}} is the equivalent term in the [[Senboku District, Akita]] region. Yanagita describes this as an ability that presents in certain persons with that gift (who is able to see in a dream whatever the soul he releases into the world experiences), rather than an uncontrolled phenomenon visited upon the dying.<ref name="kunikida-ancestors-171"/>

In the [[Kazuno District, Akita|Kazuno District]] in [[Akita Prefecture]], a soul that pays visit to acquaintances is called an {{nihongo||面影〔オモカゲ〕|omokage|extra2="reminescence, lingering shadow"}}, and assumes the form of a living human, that is to say, it has feet and make pitter-patter noises, unlike the stereotypical Japanese ghost that have no legs or feet.<ref name="minzoku" /><ref name="ikedap100">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 4, pp.100–105}}</ref>

Yanagita in ''Tōno monogatari shūi'' reported that in the [[Tōno, Iwate|Tōno Region]], [[Iwate Prefecture]], "the thoughts of the dead or the living coalesce into a walking shape, and appear to the human eye as an illusion is termed an ''omaku'' in this region." An example was a beautiful girl aged 16 or 17, critically ill with a case of {{nihongo|"[[Shang Han Lun|cold damage]]"|傷寒|shōkan}} ([[Typhoid fever]] or similar disease), but was seen wandering around the construction site for rebuilding the temple Kōganji in {{ill2|Tsujibuchi, Iwate|ja|土淵村}}, the day before she died.<ref name="minzoku" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=柳田|first=國男 (Yanagita, Kunio)|title=遠野物語|origyear=1948|year=2004|publisher=[[Kadokawa Shoten|角川書店]]|series=[[:ja:角川ソフィア文庫|]]|isbn=978-4-04-308320-6|pages=146–151|chapter=遠野物語拾遺160話|quote=生者や死者の思いが凝って出歩く姿が、幻になって人の目に見える}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=81, 82}}, citing Kunio Yanagita, ''[[Tōno Monogatari]]''</ref><ref group="lower-alpha">The term ''omaku'' was unknown to [[Kizen Sasaki]], the local expert and chief source to Yanagita's ''Tōno monogatari'', [[Kizen Sasaki]]. Sasaki was not the one who provided testimony to the girl's ''ikiryō'' who appeared at Kōganji temple, being a boy at the time. Later, Sasaki remarked he did not know the term "omaku", though he was familiar with a similar phrase "omoi omaku", in response to {{ill2|Tōzō Suzuki|ja|鈴木棠三}}'s inquiry. {{Harvnb|今野|1969|pp=101–102}}, citing {{citation|last=鈴木|first=棠三 (Suzuki, Tōzō)|title=怪異を訪ねて|journal=大法輪|volume=26|number=6|year=1059}}</ref>

In [[Kashima District, Ishikawa]] on the [[Noto Peninsula]], a folklorist recorded belief in the {{nihongo||死人坊|shininbō}}, said to appear 2 or 3 days before someone's death, and can be seen passing through on its way to pay visit to its ''danna-dera'' (family temple, also called ''[[bodaiji]]''), that is to say, the place anticipated to be the soul's final resting grounds, alongside his ancestors.<ref name="ikedap100" /><ref>{{cite journal|last=中村|first=浩 (Nakamura, Hiroshi)|title= 能登島採訪録|journal=民俗学会 (Minzokugaku)|volume=1|number=2|publisher=民俗学会|year=1929|pages=42–44|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=iTIEAAAAMAAJ}}, cited by {{Harvnb|Konno|1969|lco=Chapter 4, pp.103–104}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nichibun.ac.jp/YoukaiCard/2260011.shtml|title=シニンボウ|work=怪異・妖怪伝承データベース|author= International Research Center for Japanese Studies|year=2002}}</ref>

====Soul flame-type====
{{Details3|[[hitodama]] and [[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]}}
There are cases where the wandering ''ikiryō'' appear as a floating "soul flame", known in Japan as the ''[[hitodama]]'' or ''[[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]''.<ref group="lower-alpha">It is the Japanese equivalent of the [[will-o'-the-wisp]] (or gernerically "[[atmospheric ghost lights]]")</ref> However, a "soul flame" from a person not quite dead is not considered unusual, given the general traditional conception among Japanese that the soul escapes the body within a short span (several days) either ''before or'' after death.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 2 ''Hitodama kō'', p.38}}</ref> Therefore, pre-death soul flames may not be treated as cases of ''ikiryō'' in works on the subject of ghosts, but filed under chapters on the ''[[hitodama]]'' phenomenon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|loc=Chapter 2 ''Hitodama kō'', pp.37–62}}. On pp.44–46 are cases of floating balloon-like objects of yellow color ([[iridescence|iridescent]] colored, according to Konno) which presage death.The objects are called {{nihongo||タマシ|tamashi|extra2="souls"}} by locals in [[Shimokita District, Aomori]] (specifically Komena hamlet, in the town of [[Ōhata, Aomori|Ōhata]]). On the day after a sighting of one heading towards the mountains ([[Mount Osore]]) on April 2, 1963, a boy died in the hospital from a fall off a bridge while dobule-riding a bicycle. 30 years earlier, an eyewitness Masao Kashiwadani was convinced the ''tamashi'' he saw was a bedridden relative named Oyasu Takahashi, and sure enough she died.</ref>

One case of a near-death ''hitodama'' that a folklorist deemed suitable to discuss under the topic of ''ikiryō'' had the additional feature in common with the aforementioned tale of the woman's head in the "Sorori Monogatari", namely, that the subject who witnessed the soul's apparition pursued it ruthlessly, until he discovered the owner of the soul, who claimed to have seen the entire experience of being chased while dreaming. The subject worked at the town office of [[Tōno, Iwate]], and one night, he watched as a ''[[onibi#types of onibi|hidama]]'' emerged from the stable into the house entrance and fly around. He chased it with a broom, and trapped it beneath a washbasin. A while after, he was rushed out to see his sick uncle on the brink of death, but before leaving released the fireball from capture. He learned that uncle had only just passed away, but breathed back to life again, able enough to accuse the nephew of the whole ordeal of chasing him with a broom and capturing him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|p=75}}, citing ''Tōno monogatari''</ref> Similarly, the folklore archives of [[Umedoi, Mie|Umedoi]], [[Mie Prefecture]] (now part of [[Inabe, Mie|Inabe]]) preserves a tale about a band of men who late in the night spotted and chased a [[Atmospheric ghost lights|fireball]] into a [[sake]] warehouse, awaking a maid sleeping inside who professed to being "pursued by a many men and fleeing here," thereby revealing the identity of the fireball.<ref name="ikeda" />

===Ikiryō as an illness===
[[File:Masasumi Rikonbyo.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''Rikonbyō'' (離魂病) from the ''[[Kyōka Hyaku Monogatari]]'' illustrated by Masasumi Ryūkansaijin. The woman on the left is afflicted by the "soul separation illness", and her ''ikiryō'' appears next to her.]]
During the [[Edo period]], there was belief in a condition called {{nihongo||離魂病|rikonbyō|extra2="soul separation illness"}}, whereby the soul would not just separate from the body, but assume the shape and appearance identical to the sufferer. The condition was also known interchangeably as {{nihongo|shadow-sickeness|影の病|kage no yamai}}, alternately written {{nihongo||カゲノワズライ|kagewazarai}}.<ref name="konno-rikonbyo">{{Harvnb|Konno|1969|pp=12, 64–66}}</ref><ref name="hearn-rikombyo">{{citation|last=Hearn|first=Lafcadio|title=The Romance of the Milky Way: And Other Studies & Stories|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin|year=1905|pages=314-|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oQFEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA65|pages=60 –64}}</ref>

This affliction is treated as an instance of ''ikiryō'' by folklorist Ensuke Konno in his chapter on the topic.<ref name="konno-rikonbyo"/> The case study example is that of one Yūji Kita, doomed by the ''kage no yamai'' for three generations in succession, recorded in the {{Nihongo||奥州波奈志|Ōshu banashi|"Far North Tales"}} by [[Tadano Makuzu]] (d. [[1825]]).

The identical double might be seen by the sufferer or be witnessed by others, and can be classed as a [[doppelgänger]] phenomenon.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hearn|1905|page=61}}</ref> Others have reported a sort of [[out-of-body experience]], whereby their consciousness inhabit the ''ikiryō'', looking at one's corporeal self from beyond.<ref name="tada">{{Harvnb|Tada|2008|p=283}}</ref>

==Deeds or phenomena that resemble ikiryō==
The {{nihongo||[[:ja:丑の刻参り|丑の刻参り]]|[[ushi no koku mairi]]}} is, when one, in the hour of the ox (1AM to 3AM), strikes a nail in a sacred tree, and thus becomes an ''[[oni]]'' while alive, and using these oni powers, would inflict curses and calamity upon someone hated. Although many ''ikiryō'' generally are spirits of humans that leave the body unconsciously and move about, deeds like performing these magic rituals and intentionally tormenting a target can also be interpreted as ikiryō.<ref name="tada" /> In the same way, in the [[Okinawa Prefecture]], performing a magic ritual for intentionally becoming an ''ikiryō'', possessing other people or animals, and inflicting harm on them is called {{ill2|ichijama{{!}}''ichijama''|ja|いちじゃま}}.<ref>{{Cite book|author=上江洲均|editor=大塚民俗学会編|title=日本民俗事典 (Nihon minzokushi taikei)|edition=Pocket |origyear=1972|year=1994|publisher=[[:ja:弘文堂|]]|isbn=978-4-335-57050-6|page=41|trans_title=Japanese folk encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=島袋源七|editor=[[:ja:池田彌三郎|池田彌三郎]] (Ikeda, Yasusaburō) et al|title=日本民俗誌大系|origyear=1929|year=1974|publisher=角川書店|volume=1|isbn=978-4-04-530301-2|page=373|chapter=山原の土俗}}</ref>

Also, as something that resembles this, some people who have testified witnessing a [[near-death experience]] speak of experiencing something as if their physical bodies and their consciousness have become separated. Also, there is also the example of [[out-of-body experience]]s (where the soul, as the consciousness, leaves the body, and as a spectator, is able to see one's own body).



==See also==
*[[Astral projection]]
*[[Out of body experience]]
*[[Doppelgänger]]
*[[Fetch (folklore)]]
*[[Soul]]

==Footnotes==

===Explanatory notes===
{{Notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|author=池田彌三郎 (Ikeda, Yasusaburō)|authorlink=:ja:池田彌三郎|title=日本の幽霊|origyear=1959|year=1978|publisher=[[Chuokoron-Shinsha|中央公論社]]|series=[[:ja:中公文庫|中公文庫]]|isbn=978-4-12-200127-5|ref={{SfnRef|Ikeda|1959}}|trans_title=Ghosts of Japan}}
* {{Cite book|author=大藤時彦 (Ōtō, Tokihiko) et al|authorlink=:ja:大藤時彦|editor=民俗学研究所|others=[[Kunio Yanagita|柳田國男]] (supervising editor)|title=綜合日本民俗語彙|year=1955|publisher=[[:ja:平凡社|平凡社]]|volume=1|id=BN05729787|ref={{SfnRef|大藤他|1955}}|trans_title=Sogo Japanese folk vocabulary}}
* {{Cite book|author=今野円輔 (Konno, Ensuke)|title=日本怪談集幽霊篇|origyear=1969|year=2004|publisher=[[Chuokoron-Shinsha|中央公論新社]]|series=中公文庫|volume=上|isbn=978-4-12-204464-7|ref={{SfnRef|Konno|1969}}|trans_title=Japanese kaidan collection: ghosts|format=snippet|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BG8nAQAAIAAJ}}
**Chapter 1 {{nihongo||姿なきマボロシ|Sugata naki maboroshi|extra2="Phantasm without visible form"}}, pp. 11–36
**Chapter 2 {{nihongo||人魂考|Hitodama kō|extra2="Thoughts on the soul flame"}}, pp. 37–62
**Chapter 3 {{nihongo||生霊の遊離|ikiryō no yūri|extra2="Peregrination of the living soul"}}, pp. 63–98
**Chapter 4 {{nihongo||たましいの別れ|Tamashī no wakare|extra2="Souls bidding farewell"}}, pp. 100–125
* {{Cite book|author=多田克己 (Tada, Tatsumi)|authorlink=:ja:多田克己|editor=[[:ja:京極夏彦|京極夏彦]] ([[Natsuhiko Kyogoku]])|title=妖怪画本狂歌百物語|year=2008|publisher=[[:ja:国書刊行会|国書刊行会]]|isbn=978-4-3360-5055-7|chapter=『妖怪画本・狂歌百物語』妖怪総覧|ref={{SfnRef|多田|2008}}|trans_title=[[Yōkai]] picture book: satirical [[Waka (poetry)|waka]] version [[Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai|Hyakumonogatari]]}}
* {{Cite book|editor=高田衛 (Takada, Mamoru)|editor-link=:ja:高田衛|title=江戸怪談集|year=1989|publisher=[[Iwanami Shoten|岩波書店]]|series=[[:ja:岩波文庫|岩波文庫]]|volume=中|isbn=978-4-00-302572-7|chapter=曾呂利物語|ref={{SfnRef|高田編|1989}}|trans_title=Edo ghost story collection}}
{{Refend}}

{{Japanese folklore long}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ikiryo}}
[[Category:Japanese ghosts]]
[[Category:Japanese folklore]]
[[Category:Japanese legendary creatures]]

Talk:Abdul Rahman Munif

2014-03-30T16:10:52Z

Madler:

{{WikiProject Biography
|living=no
|class=start

|listas=Munif, Abdul Rahman
}}

==Untitled==
I think the external link is of no use because you cannot access the obituary ("This article is available in full to Independent Portfolio subscribers. Access it through BT click&buy"). [[User:KF|<KF>]] 01:34, 5 Feb 2004 (UTC)

That's odd. It works fine for me, and I am not a subscriber. - [[User:SimonP|SimonP]] 01:52, Feb 5, 2004 (UTC)

== Ba'th party ==

He was actually a member of the National Command of the Ba'th Party, wasn't he? I presume the one who was, and was also from Jordan, was the same Abd al-Rahman Munif. [[User:Palmiro|Palmiro]] | [[User talk:Palmiro|Talk]] 15:57, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

== Name ==

Vintage, his English language publisher, renders his name as "Abdelrahman Munif". Shouldn't that be what we use? [[User:John K|john k]] ([[User talk:John K|talk]]) 02:54, 29 September 2012 (UTC)
:Quartet Books, another publisher of his works in English, uses "Abd al-Rahman Munif". His obituary in ''The Guardian'' uses "Abdul-Rahman Mounif". Wikipedia really ought to have a preferred [[Romanization of Arabic]], but alas. In this case it doesn't look as if any specific romanization is more common or standard than the other. [[User:Gabbe|Gabbe]] ([[User talk:Gabbe|talk]]) 17:35, 3 October 2012 (UTC)
::The version used here is used by the New York Times, seemingly. I do think that it would be better to use a spelling that is actually used by one of his English publishers, although I don't know how to decide between them. [[User:John K|john k]] ([[User talk:John K|talk]]) 20:46, 7 October 2012 (UTC)
:::The best thing to do would be to have a redirects from every possible spelling of his name. [[User:Madler|Madler]] ([[User talk:Madler|talk]]) 16:10, 30 March 2014 (UTC)

Abdul Rahman Munif

2014-03-30T16:09:17Z

Madler:

{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2011}}
'''Abdul Rahman Munif''' (May 29, 1933 – January 24, 2004) ({{lang-ar|عبد الرحمن منيف}}) was a [[Jordan]]ian-born [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] novelist.<ref name="SakkutMonroe">{{cite book|last1=Sakkut|first1=Hamdi|last2=Monroe|first2=Roger|title=The Arabic novel|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pewdETYrR6IC&pg=PA93|accessdate=February 24, 2011|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=978-977-424-502-2|page=93}}</ref> His novels include strong political elements and parodies of the [[Middle East]]ern elite class.

==Life==
Munif was born a Saudi national and brought up in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]] to [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] parents and an [[Iraq]]i grandmother.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/feb/05/guardianobituaries.booksobituaries |work=The Guardian |location=London | title=Abdul-Rahman Mounif | date=February 5, 2004 | accessdate=April 23, 2010 | first=Abdul-Hadi | last=Jiad}}</ref> In 1952 he moved to [[Baghdad]] to study law and later moved to [[Cairo]]. He received a law degree from the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] and a PhD in oil economics from the [[University of Belgrade]]'s [[University of Belgrade Faculty of Economics|Faculty of Economics]].<ref>http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/munif.htm</ref> He later returned to Iraq to work in the oil ministry and became a member of the [[Ba'ath Party]].

He began writing in the 1970s after he left his job with the Iraqi ministry, quit the Ba'ath party, and moved to [[Damascus]], [[Syria]], removing himself from a regime he opposed. He quickly became known for his scathing parodies of Middle Eastern elites, especially those of Saudi Arabia, a country which banned many of his books and stripped him of Saudi citizenship.<ref>Munif biography in Peter Theroux's translation – {{Cite book | author=Abdelrahman Munif | others=Translated by Peter Theroux | title=Cities of Salt | year=1987 | publisher=Vinatage International | location=New York | isbn=0-394-75526-X | pages=629}}</ref> He used his knowledge of the oil industry to full effect criticizing the businessmen who ran it and the politicians they served.

Munif was the author of a total of fifteen novels. The ''[[Cities of Salt]]'' quintet followed the evolution of the [[Arabian peninsula]] as its traditional [[Bedouin]] culture is transformed by the oil boom. The novels create a history of a broad region, evoking comparisons to [[William Faulkner]]'s [[Yoknapatawpha County]]. The quintet begins with ''Mudun al-Milh'' (مدن الملح, ''Cities of Salt'', 1984) in the desert oasis of Wadi al-Uyoun that is disrupted by the arrival of Western oilmen in an image similar to that of the disrupted village of [[Chinua Achebe]]'s ''[[Things Fall Apart]]''. As Achebe described the effects on a traditional African village of the arrival of powerful missionaries, so Munif chronicles the economic, social, and psychological effects of the promise of immeasurable wealth drawn from the deserts of nomad and oasis communities. The quintet continues with ''Al-ukhdud'' (1985;''The Trench''), ''Taqasim al-layl wa-al-nahar'' (1989; ''Variations on Night and Day''), ''Al-munbatt'' (1989; ''The Uprooted''), and ''Badiyat al zulumat'' (1989; ''The Desert of Darkness''). Daniel Burt ranked the quintet as the 71st greatest novel of all time.<ref>{{Cite book | author=Burt, Daniel S.; | title=The Novel 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Novels of All Time | year=2004 | publisher=Checkmark Books | location=New York | isbn=0-8160-4558-5 }}</ref> The last two novels in the series have not been translated into English.

While his works were never particularly successful in the west, throughout the Middle East they are critically acclaimed and extremely popular. ''Cities of Salt'' was described by [[Edward Said]] as the "only serious work of fiction that tries to show the effect of oil, Americans and the local oligarchy on a Gulf country."<ref>http://www.al-bab.com/arab/literature/munif.htm</ref>

While he was one of the fiercest critics of [[Saddam Hussein]] and his regime, he was utterly opposed to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|American invasion of Iraq]] and spent the last two years of his life working on non-fiction projects to oppose what he saw as renewed [[imperialism]].

==Bibliography – Works in English==
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1987. ''Cities of Salt'' (Cities of Salt Trilogy, Vol 1), New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-394-75526-X
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1991. ''The Trench'' (Cities of Salt Trilogy, Vol 2), New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-394-57672-1
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1993. ''Variations on Night and Day'' (Cities of Salt Trilogy, Vol 3), New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-75551-9
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1998. ''Endings'', London: Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-2651-5
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1998. ''Story of a City: A Childhood in Amman'', London: Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-8023-4

==Bibliography – Works in Arabic==
'''Fiction'''
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1973. ''Al-ashjar wa-ghtyal Marzuq الأشجار واغتيال مرزوق,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1974. ''Qissat hubb majusiyya قصّة حبّ مجوسية,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1975. ''[[Sharq al-Mutawassit]] شرق المتوسّط,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1976. ''Hina tarakna al-jisr حين تركنا الجسر,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1977. ''An-nihayat النهايات,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1979. ''Sibaq al-masafat at-tawila سباق المسافات الطويلة,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman & Jabra Ibrahim Jabra. 1982. ''Alam bi-la kharait عالم بلا خرائط,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1984. ''Mudun al-milh 1: Al-tih مدن الملح ١: التيه,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1985. ''Mudun al-milh 2: Al-ukhdud مدن الملح ٢: الأخدود,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1989. ''Mudun al-milh 3: Taqasim al-layl wan-nahar مدن الملح ٣: تقاسيم الليل والنهار,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1989. ''Mudun al-milh 4: Al-munbatt مدن الملح ٤: المنبتّ,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1989. ''Mudun al-milh 5: Badiyat az-zulmat مدن الملح ٥: بادية الظلمات,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1991. ''Al-an… huna, aw sharq al-Mutawassit marra ukhra الآن... هنا، أو شرق المتوسّط مرّة أخرى,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1999. ''Ard as-sawad 1–3 أرض السواد ١-٣,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 2005. ''Umm an-nudhur أمّ النذور,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.

'''Non-Fiction'''
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1973. ''Mabda al-musharaka wa-tamin al-bitrul al-arabi مبدأ المشاركة وتأمين البترول العربي'', Beirut: Dar al-awda.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1975. ''Al-bitrul al-arabi, musharaka aw at-tamin البترول العربي، مشاركة أو التأمين'', Beirut.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1976. ''Tamin al-bitrul al-arabi تأمين البترول العربي'', Baghdad.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1992. ''Al-katib wal-manfa – Humum wa-afaq ar-riwaya al-arabiyya الكاتب والمنفى – هموم وآفاق الرواية العربية'', Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1992. ''Ad-dimuqratiyya awwilan ad-dimuqratiyya daiman الديمقراطية أوّلاً الديمقراطية دائماً'', Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1994. ''Sirat madina – Amman fi l-arba'inat سيرة مدينة – عمّان في الأربعينات,'' Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1998. ''Bayn ath-thaqafa was-siyasa بين الثقافة والسياسة'', Casablanca: al-Markaz ath-Thaqafi al-Arabi.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 1998. ''Law'at al-ghiyab لوعة الغياب'', Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 2001. ''Rihlat daw رحلة ضوء'', Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.
*Munif, Abdul Rahman. 2001. ''Dhakira lil-mustaqbal ذاكرة للمستقبل'', Beirut: al-Muassasa al-Arabiyya lid-Dirasat wan-Nashr.

==Obituary==
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,3604,1141038,00.html The Guardian]
*[http://www.newleftreview.org/?view=2597 An Arabian Master] by Sabry Hafez, ''[[New Left Review]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.yementimes.com/defaultdet.aspx?SUB_ID=25640 Abdul-Rahman Munif: The Prolific and Renowned Arabic Novelist of Our Time]
*[http://readkutub.wordpress.com/2007/09/10/endings-al-nehayat-by-abd-al-rahman-munif/#more-26]

{{Authority control |VIAF=95290221 |LCCN=n/85/157058}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Munif, Abdul Rahman
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Saudi writer
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 29, 1933
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = January 24, 2004
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Munif, Abdul Rahman}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:2004 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Amman]]
[[Category:Arabic-language novelists]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian people of Iraqi descent]]
[[Category:University of Belgrade Faculty of Economics alumni]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian writers]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:Members of the Iraqi Regional Branch of the Ba'ath Party]]

Elijah

2014-02-24T13:27:53Z

Madler:

{{About|the prophet in various religious texts|other uses|Elijah (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox person
|name=Elijah (Elias)
|death_date=
|image=Elijah_Icon_Sinai_c1200.jpg
|imagesize=220px
|caption=''An icon of Elijah from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai''
|birth_place=[[Tishbe]], Gilad
|death_place=
}}

'''Elijah''' ({{Hebrew Name 1|אֱלִיָּהוּ|Eliyahu}}, meaning "My God is [[Yahweh]]"<ref>New Bible Dictionary. 1982 (second edition). Tyndale Press, Wheaton, IL, USA. ISBN 0-8423-4667-8, p. 319</ref>)<ref>{{cite book|title=Longman pronunciation dictionary|first=John C.|last= Wells|publisher=Longman|location=Harlow, England|year=1990|isbn=0-582-05383-8|page=239}}) entry "Elijah"</ref> or '''Elias''' ({{IPAc-en|ɨ|ˈ|l|aɪ|.|ə|s}}; {{lang-el|Ηλίας}}, ''Elías''; {{lang-ru|Илья}}, ''Ilya''; {{lang-la|Helias}}; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]:إلياس, ''Ilyās'') was a [[prophet]] and a [[Thaumaturgy|wonder-worker]] in the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|northern kingdom of Israel]]<ref>[http://christianbookshelf.org/yonge/the_chosen_people/lesson_viii_the_kingdom_of.htm Kingdom of Samaria]</ref> during the reign of [[Ahab]] (9th century BC), according to the Biblical [[Books of Kings]].
According to the Books of Kings, Elijah defended the worship of [[Yahweh]] over that of the Canaanite god [[Baal]] (which was considered as idol worship); he [[resurrection|raised the dead]], brought fire down from the [[sky]], and was taken up in a whirlwind (either accompanied by a chariot and horses of flame or riding in it).<ref>{{Bibleverse|2|Kings|2:11|HE}}</ref> In the [[Book of Malachi]], Elijah's return is prophesied "before the coming of the great and terrible day of the Lord,"<ref>{{Bibleverse||Malachi|3:23|HE}}</ref> making him a harbinger of the [[Messiah]] and the [[eschatology|eschaton]] in various faiths that revere the Hebrew Bible. Derivative references to Elijah appear in the [[Talmud]], [[Mishnah]], the [[New Testament]] and the [[Qur'an]].

In Judaism Elijah's name is invoked at the weekly [[Havdalah]] ritual that marks the end of [[Shabbat]], and Elijah is invoked in other Jewish customs, among them the [[Passover seder]] and the [[Brit milah]] (ritual circumcision). He appears in numerous stories and references in the [[Haggadah]] and [[rabbinic literature]], including the [[Babylonian Talmud]].

In Christianity the [[New Testament]] describes how both [[Jesus]] and [[John the Baptist]] are compared with Elijah and on some occasions thought by some to be manifestations of Elijah, and Elijah appears with [[Moses]] during the [[Transfiguration of Jesus]].

In Islam the [[Qur'an]] describes Elijah as a great and righteous prophet of God and one who powerfully preached against the worship of [[Ba'al]].

Elijah is also a figure in various Christian folk traditions, often identified with earlier pagan thunder or sky gods. 

== Biblical narratives and historical background ==
[[File:Kingdoms of Israel and Judah map 830.svg|thumb|250px|right|Map of Israel as it was in the 9th century [[Before Christ|BC]]. '''Blue''' is the Kingdom of Israel. '''Golden yellow''' is the Kingdom of Judah.]]
By the 9th century BC, the [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Kingdom of Israel]], once united under [[King Solomon]], was divided into the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] and southern [[Kingdom of Judah]], which retained the historic seat of government and focus of the Israelite religion at the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]. [[Omri (King of Israel)|Omri]], King of Israel, continued policies dating from the reign of [[Jeroboam]], contrary to the [[laws of Moses]], that were intended to reorient religious focus away from Jerusalem: encouraging the building of local temple altars for sacrifices, appointing priests from outside the family of the [[Levite]]s, and allowing or encouraging temples dedicated to the [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite]] god, [[Baal]].<ref>Kaufman, Yehezkel. "The Biblical Age." In Schwarz, Leo W. ed. ''Great Ages and Ideas of the Jewish People.'' Modern Library: New York. 1956. p. 53–56.</ref><ref>Raven, John H. ''The History of the Religion of Israel.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1979. p. 281–281.</ref> Omri achieved domestic security with a marriage alliance between his son [[Ahab]] and princess [[Jezebel (Bible)|Jezebel]], a priestess of Baal and the daughter of the king of [[Sidon]] in [[Phoenicia]].<ref>Psalm 45, sometimes viewed as a wedding song for Ahab and Jezebel, may allude to this union and its problems: "Hear, O daughter, consider, and incline your ear; forget your people and your father’s house; and the king will desire your beauty. Since he is your lord, bow to him; the people of Tyre will sue your favor with gifts."{{Bibleverse||Psalms|45:10–12|HE}}) See: Smith, Norman H. "I Kings." in [[George Arthur Buttrick|Buttrick, George A.]], et al. Eds. ''The Interpreter's Bible: Volume 3.'' Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1982. p 144.</ref> These solutions brought security and economic prosperity to Israel for a time,<ref>Miller, J. M. and J. H. Hayes. ''A History of Ancient Israel and Judah.'' Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006.</ref> but did not bring peace with the Israelite prophets, who were interested in a strict [[Deuteronomic Code|deuteronomic interpretation]] of Mosaic law.

As King, Ahab exacerbated these tensions. Ahab allowed worship of a foreign god in the palace, building a temple for Baal, and allowing Jezebel to bring a large entourage of priests and prophets of Baal and [[Asherah]] into the country. It is in this context that Elijah is introduced in {{Bibleverse|1|Kings|17:1|HE}} as Elijah "[[Tishbite|The Tishbite]]". He warns Ahab that there will be years of catastrophic [[drought]] so severe that not even [[dew]] will fall, because Ahab and his queen stand at the end of a line of kings of Israel who are said to have "done evil in the sight of the Lord."

=== 1st and 2nd Kings ===
[[File:Washington_Allston_-_Elijah_in_the_Desert_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|250px|thumb|right|''Elijah in the wilderness'', by [[Washington Allston]].]]
No background for the person of Elijah is given. His name in Hebrew means "My God is Yahweh", and may be a title applied to him because of his challenge to worship of Baal.<ref>New Bible Dictionary. 1982 (second edition). Tyndale Press, Wheaton, IL, USA. ISBN 0-8423-4667-8, p.323</ref><ref name = jency>{{cite web
| last =G. Hirsch
| first =Emil
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Eduard König, Solomon Schechter, Louis Ginzberg, M. Seligsohn, Kaufmann Kohler
| title =Jewish Encyclopedia.com: Elijah
| work =Jewish Encyclopedia.com
| publisher =The Kopelman Foundation
| year =2002
| url =http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=E&search=Elijah
| doi =
| accessdate = 2007-04-08 }}</ref><ref>"Elijah." ''Encyclopedia Judaica.'' Jerusalam: [[Keter Publishing House]], 1971. p 633.</ref><ref>Cogan, Mordechai. ''The Anchor Bible: I Kings.'' New York: Doubleday, 2001. p 425.</ref><ref>In Werblowsky, R.J.Z., and Geoffrey Wigoder, eds. ''Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-508605-8</ref>

Elijah's challenge, characteristic of his behavior in other episodes of his story as told in the Bible, is bold and direct.
[[Baal]] was the Canaanite god responsible for rain, thunder, lightning, and dew.
Elijah not only challenges Baal on behalf of his own God, Yahweh, he challenges Jezebel, her priests, Ahab and the people of Israel.

==== Widow of Zarephath ====
{{main|Raising of the son of the widow of Zarephath}}
After Elijah's confrontation with Ahab, God tells him to flee out of Israel, to a hiding place by the brook [[Cherith]], east of the [[Jordan river|Jordan]], where he will be fed by [[Cultural depictions of ravens|raven]]s. When the brook dries up, God sends him to a widow living in the town of [[Sarepta|Zarephath]]o in [[Phoenicia]]. When Elijah finds her and asks to be fed, she says that she does not have sufficient food to keep her and her own son alive. Elijah tells her that God will not allow her supply of flour or oil to run out, saying, "Don't be afraid..this is what the Lord, the God of Israel, says: 'The jar of flour will not be used up and the jug of oil will not run dry until the day the Lord gives rain on the land." She feeds him the last of their food, and Elijah's promise miraculously comes true; thus, by an act of faith the woman received the promised blessing. God gave her "[[manna]]" from heaven even while he was withholding food from his unfaithful people in the promised land. Some time later the widow's son dies and the widow cries, "Did you come to remind me of my sin and kill my son?" Moved by a faith like that of [[Abraham]] (Romans 4:17, Hebrews 11:19), Elijah prays that God might restore her son so that the veracity and trustworthiness of God's word might be demonstrated. {{Bibleverse|1|Kings|17:22|HE}} relates how God "heard the voice of Elijah; and the soul of the child came into him again, and he revived." This is the first instance of raising the dead recorded in Scripture. This non-Israelite widow was granted the best covenant blessing in the person of her son, the only hope for a widow in ancient society. The widow cried, "...the word of the Lord from your mouth is the truth." She made a confession that the Israelites had failed to make.

After more than three years of drought and famine, God tells Elijah to return to Ahab and announce the end of the drought: not occasioned by repentance in Israel but by the command of the Lord, who had determined to reveal himself again to his people. While on his way, Elijah meets [[Obadiah (1 Kings)|Obadiah]], the head of Ahab's household, who had hidden a hundred prophets of the [[Yahweh|God of Israel]] when Ahab and Jezebel had been killing them. Elijah sends Obadiah back to Ahab to announce his return to Israel.

==== Challenge to Baal ====
[[File:JPF-Cave Of Elijah.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A statue of Elijah in the Cave of Elijah, [[Mount Carmel]], Israel.]]
When Ahab confronts Elijah, he refers to him as the "troubler of Israel." Elijah responds by throwing the charge back at Ahab, saying that it is Ahab who has troubled Israel by allowing the worship of [[false god]]s. Elijah then berates both the people of Israel and Ahab for their acquiescence in Baal worship. “How long will you go limping with two different opinions? If the Lord is God, follow him; but if Baal then follow him” ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|18:21|HE}}). And the people were silent. The Hebrew for this word, "go limping" or "waver", is the same as that used for "danced" in verse 26, where the prophets of Baal frantically dance. Elijah speaks with sharp irony: in the religious ambivalence of Israel, she is engaging in a wild and futile religious "dance".

At this point Elijah proposes a direct test of the powers of Baal and Yahweh. The people of Israel, 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 prophets of [[Asherah]] are summoned to [[Mount Carmel, Israel|Mount Carmel]]. Two altars are built, one for Baal and one for Yahweh. Wood is laid on the altars. Two oxen are slaughtered and cut into pieces; the pieces are laid on the wood. Elijah then invites the priests of Baal to pray for fire to light the sacrifice. They pray from morning to noon without success. Elijah ridicules their efforts. They respond by cutting themselves and adding their own blood to the sacrifice (such mutilation of the body was strictly forbidden in the Mosaic law). They continue praying until evening without success.
[[File:Elijahwindow.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Elijah's offering is consumed by fire from heaven in a stained glass window at [[St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church]] in Charleston, South Carolina]]
Elijah now orders that the altar of Yahweh be drenched with water from "four large jars" poured three times ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|18:33–34|NIV}}). He asks God to accept the sacrifice. Fire falls from the sky, consuming the water, the sacrifice and the stones of the altar itself as well. Elijah seizes the moment and orders the death of the prophets of Baal. Elijah prays earnestly for rain to fall again on the land. Then the rains begin, signaling the end of the famine.

==== Mount Horeb ====
[[Jezebel (Bible)|Jezebel]], enraged that Elijah had ordered the deaths of her priests, threatens to kill Elijah ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|19:1–13|HE}}). This was Elijah's first encounter with Jezebel, and not the last. Later Elijah would prophesy about Jezebel's death, because of her sin. Later, Elijah flees to [[Beersheba]] in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], continues alone into the wilderness, and finally sits down under a [[Retama]]ine shrub, praying for death. He falls asleep under the tree; an [[angel]] touches him and tells him to wake up and eat. When he awakens he finds bread and a jar of water. He eats, drinks, and goes back to sleep. The angel comes a second time and tells him to eat and drink because he has a long journey ahead of him.

Elijah travels for forty days and forty nights to [[Mount Horeb]], where [[Moses]] had received the [[Ten Commandments]]. Elijah is the only person described in the Bible as returning to Horeb, after Moses and his generation had left Horeb several centuries before. He seeks shelter in a [[Cave of Elijah|cave]]. God again speaks to Elijah ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|19:9|HE}}): "What doest thou here, Elijah?". Elijah did not give a direct answer to the Lord's question but evades and equivocates, implying that the work the Lord had begun centuries earlier had now come to nothing, and that his own work was fruitless. Unlike Moses, who tried to defend Israel when they sinned with the golden calf, Elijah bitterly complains over the Israelites' unfaithfulness and says he is the "only one left". Up until this time Elijah has only the word of God to guide him, but now he is told to go outside the cave and "stand before the Lord." A terrible wind passes, but God is not in the wind. A great earthquake shakes the mountain, but God is not in the earthquake. Then a fire passes the mountain, but God is not in the fire. Then a "still small voice" comes to Elijah and asks again, "What doest thou here, Elijah?" Elijah again evades the question and his lament is unrevised, showing that he did not understand the importance of the divine revelation he had just witnessed. God then sends him out again, this time to [[Damascus]] to anoint [[Hazael]] as king of [[Syria]], [[Jehu]] as king of [[Israel]], and [[Elisha]] as his replacement.
[[File:Elijah's cave P3160005.JPG|thumb|left|300px|The Cave of Elijah, [[Mount Carmel]], Israel.]]

==== Vineyard of Naboth ====
Elijah encounters Ahab again in {{Bibleverse|1|Kings|21|HE}}, after Ahab has acquired possession of a vineyard by murder. Ahab desires to have the vineyard of [[Naboth]] of [[Jezreel (city)|Jezreel]]. He offers a better vineyard or a fair price for the land. But Naboth tells Ahab that God has told him not to part with the land. Ahab accepts this answer with sullen bad grace. Jezebel, however, plots a method for acquiring the land. She sends letters, in Ahab's name, to the elders and nobles who lived near Naboth. They are to arrange a feast and invite Naboth. At the feast, false charges of cursing God and Ahab are to be made against him. The plot is carried out and Naboth is stoned to death. When word comes that Naboth is dead, Jezebel tells Ahab to take possession of the vineyard.

God again speaks to Elijah and sends him to confront Ahab with a question and a prophecy: "Have you killed and also taken possession?" and, "In the place where dogs licked up the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick up your own blood" ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|21:19|HE}}). Ahab begins the confrontation by calling Elijah his enemy. Elijah responds by throwing the charge back at him, telling him that he has made himself the enemy of God by his own actions. Elijah then goes beyond the prophecy he was given and tells Ahab that his entire kingdom will reject his authority; that Jezebel will be eaten by dogs within Jezreel; and that his family will be consumed by dogs as well (if they die in a city) or by birds (if they die in the country). When Ahab hears this he repents to such a degree that God relents in punishing Ahab but will punish Jezebel and their son—[[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]].

==== Ahaziah ====
[[File:Elijah.jpg|thumb|[[Russian icon]] of the Prophet Elijah, 18th century ([[Iconostasis]] of [[Kizhi]] [[monastery]], [[Karelia]], [[Russia]]).]]

Elijah continues now from Ahab to an encounter with [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]]. The scene opens with Ahaziah seriously injured in a fall. He sends to the priests of [[Beelzebub|Baalzebub]] in [[Ekron]], outside the kingdom of Israel, to know if he will recover. Elijah intercepts his messengers and sends them back to Ahaziah with a message. In typical Elijah fashion, the message begins with a blunt, impertinent question: "Is it because there is no God in Israel that you are sending to inquire of Baalzebub, the god of Ekron?"({{Bibleverse|2|Kings|1:6|HE}}). Ahaziah asks the messengers to describe the person who gave them this message. They tell him he wore a hairy coat with a leather belt and he instantly recognizes the description as Elijah the Tishbite.

Ahaziah sends out three groups of soldiers to arrest Elijah. The first two are destroyed by fire which Elijah calls down from heaven. The leader of the third group asks for mercy for himself and his men. Elijah agrees to accompany this third group to Ahaziah, where he gives his prophecy in person.

==== Departure ====
Elijah, in company with [[Elisha]] (Eliseus), approaches the Jordan. He rolls up his [[mantle (vesture)|mantle]] and strikes the water ({{Bibleverse|2|Kings|2:8|HE}}). The water immediately divides and Elijah and Elisha cross on dry land. Suddenly, a chariot of fire and horses of fire appear and Elijah is lifted up in a whirlwind. As Elijah is lifted up, his mantle falls to the ground and Elisha picks it up.

=== Final mention: 2nd Chronicles ===
[[File:SaintIliaFromRilaMonastery.jpg|thumb|300px|Saint Elias in the cave (below) and on a chariot of fire. A fresco from [[Rila Monastery]], Bulgaria, medieval [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] tradition, renovated 20th century]]Elijah is mentioned once more in {{Bibleverse|2|Chronicles|21|HE}}, which will be his final mention in the Hebrew Bible. A letter is sent under the prophet's name to [[Jehoram of Judah]]. It tells him that he has led the people of Judah astray in the same way that Israel was led astray. The prophet ends the letter with a prediction of a painful death. This letter is a puzzle to readers for several reasons. First, it concerns a king of the southern kingdom, while Elijah concerned himself with the kingdom of Israel. Second, the message begins with "Thus says [[YHVH]], God of your father David..." rather than the more usual "...in the name of [[YHVH]] the God of Israel." Also, this letter seems to come after Elijah's ascension into the whirlwind. [[Jacob Myers]] suggests a number of possible reasons for this letter, among them that it may be an example of a better known prophet's name being substituted for that of a lesser known prophet.<ref>Myers, J. M. ''The Anchor Bible: II Chronicles.'' Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1965. pp.121–123.</ref> [[John Van Seters]], however, rejects the letter as having any connection with the Elijah tradition.<ref>VanSeters, John. "Elijah." In Jones, Lindsay. Editor in Chief. ''Encyclopedia of Religion.'' Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2005. p 2764.</ref> However Michael Wilcock, formally of [[Trinity College, Bristol]], argues that Elijah's letter: 'does address a very 'northern' situation in the southern kingdom', and thus is authentic.<ref>IVP New Bible Commentary 21st Century Edition, p 410.</ref>

=== The Christian End of Elijah in Malachi ===
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |
"Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes. And he will turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers, lest I come and smite the land with a curse."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | — Malachi 4:5–6
|}

While the final mention of Elijah in the Hebrew Bible is in the [[Book of Chronicles]], the Christian Bible's reversal of the ordering of the books of the Hebrew Bible in order to place the [[Book of Malachi]], which prophesies a messiah, immediately before the Christian Gospels, means that Elijah's final "Old Testament" appearance is in the [[Book of Malachi]], where it is written, "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and terrible day of the Lord." That day is described as the burning of a great furnace, "... so that it will leave them neither root nor branch." ({{Bibleverse||Malachi|3:19|HE}}) Traditionally, in Judaism, this is taken to mean the return of Elijah will precede the [[Messiah]]. In Christianity it is traditionally believed that the ministry of John the Baptist fulfilled this prophecy. Additionally, these verses are believed to represent Elijah having a role in the end-times, immediately before the second coming of Jesus.

=== Textual analysis ===
According to one recent researcher,<ref name=otto/> the Elijah stories were added to the [[Deuteronomistic History]] in four stages. The first stage dates from the final edition of the History, about 560 BC, when the three stories of [[Naboth]]’s vineyard, the death of [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]], and the story of [[Jehu]]’s coup were included to embody the themes of the reliability of God's word and the cycle of Baal worship and religious reform in the history of the Northern Kingdom. The narratives about the [[Omri (King of Israel)|Omri]]de wars were added shortly afterwards to illustrate a newly introduced theme, that the attitude of the king towards the word of the prophets determines the fate of Israel. {{Bibleverse|1|Kings|17–18|HE}} was added in early post-Exilic times (after 538 BC) to demonstrate the possibility of a new life in community with God after the time of judgment. In the fifth century BC, {{Bibleverse|1|Kings|19:1–18|HE}} and the remaining [[Elisha]] stories were inserted to give prophecy a legitimate foundation in the history of Israel.<ref name=otto>[http://jot.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/4/487 Susanne Otto, "The Composition of the Elijah-Elisha Stories and the Deuteronomistic History", Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Vol. 27, No. 4, 487–508 (2003), abstract]</ref>

== In the Aggadah and Talmud ==
Jewish legends about Elijah abound in the [[aggadah]], which is found throughout various collections of [[rabbinic literature]], including the [[Babylonian Talmud]]. This varied literature does not merely discuss his life, but has created a new history of him, which, beginning with his death—or "translation"—ends only with the close of the history of the human race. The volume of references to Elijah in Jewish Tradition stands in marked contrast to that in the Canon. As in the case of most figures of Jewish legend, so in the case of Elijah, the Biblical account became the basis of later legend. Elijah the precursor of the Messiah, Elijah zealous in the cause of God, Elijah the helper in distress: these are the three leading notes struck by the Aggadah, endeavoring to complete the Biblical picture with the Elijah legends. His career is extensive, colorful, and varied. He has appeared the world over in the guise of a beggar and scholar.

From the time of [[Malachi]], who says of Elijah that God will send him before "the great and dreadful day" (Mal. 3:23), down to the later stories of the Chasidic rabbis, reverence and love, expectation and hope, were always connected in the Jewish consciousness with Elijah.

=== Origin ===
Since, according to the Bible, Elijah lived a mysterious life, the Aggadah naturally did not fail to supply the Biblical gaps in its own way. In the first place, it was its aim to describe more precisely Elijah's origin, since the Biblical (I Kings xvii. 1) "Elijah, who was of the inhabitants of Gilead," was too vague.

Three different theories regarding Elijah's origin are presented in the Aggadah literature:
(1) he belonged to the tribe of Gad (Midrash Genensis Rabbah lxxi.)
(2) he was a Benjamite from Jerusalem, identical with the Elijah mentioned in I Chron. viii:27
(3) he was a priest.

That Elijah was a priest is a statement which is made by many Church fathers also (Aphraates, "Homilies," ed. Wright, p. 314; Epiphanius, "Hæres." lv. 3, passim), and which was afterward generally accepted. In some later works some rabbis speculate that he is to be identified with [[Phinehas]] (Pirḳe R. El. xlvii.; Targ. Yer. on Num. xxv. 12)

Mention must also be made of a statement which, though found only in the later [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] literature (Yalḳuṭ Reubeni, Bereshit, 9a, ed. Amsterdam), seems nevertheless to be very old (see Epiphanius, l.c.).{{clarify|date=August 2012}} According to this legend Elijah was really an [[angel]] in human form, so that he had neither parents nor offspring. See [[Melchizedek]].

=== Elijah's Zeal for God ===
[[File:Saint Elie Statue, Aleppo.jpg|thumb|upright|The statue of Elijah at the [[Saint Elias Cathedral]], [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]]]]
In spite of Elijah's many miracles, the mass of the Jewish people remained as godless as before. A [[midrash]] tells that they even abolished the sign of the covenant, and the prophet had to appear as Israel's accuser before God (Pirḳe R. El. xxix.).

In the same cave where God once appeared to Moses and revealed Himself as gracious and merciful, Elijah was summoned to appear before God. By this summons he perceived that he should have appealed to God's mercy, instead of becoming Israel's accuser. The prophet, however, remained relentless in his zeal and severity, so that God commanded him to appoint his successor (Tanna debe Eliyahu Zuṭa viii.).

The vision in which God revealed Himself to Elijah gave him at the same time a picture of the destinies of man, who has to pass through "four worlds." This world was shown to the prophet in the form of the wind, since it disappears as the wind; storm () is the day of death, before which man trembles (); fire is the judgment in Gehenna, and the stillness is the last day (Tan., Peḳude, p. 128, Vienna ed.).

Three years after this vision (Seder 'Olam R. xvii.) Elijah was "translated." Concerning the place to which Elijah was transferred, opinions differ among Jews and Christians, but the old view was that Elijah was received among the heavenly inhabitants, where he records the deeds of men (Ḳid. 70; Ber. R. xxxiv. 8), a task which according to the apocalyptic literature is entrusted to Enoch.

But as early as the middle of the 2nd century, when the notion of translation to heaven was very much changed by Christian theologians, the assertion was made that Elijah never entered into heaven proper (Suk. 5a). In later literature paradise is generally designated as the abode of Elijah (compare Pirḳe R. El. xvi.), but since the location of paradise is itself uncertain, the last two statements may be identical.

== Elijah in Judaism ==

=== Elijah's chair ===
{{See also|Brit milah}}[[File:Chair of Elijah.JPG|thumb|200px|"Chair of Elijah" used during the [[brit milah]] (circumcision) ceremony. The [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] inscription reads "This is the chair of Elijah, remembered for Good."]]At Jewish [[Brit milah|circumcision]] ceremonies, a chair is set aside for the use of the prophet Elijah. Elijah is said to be a [[witness]] at all circumcisions when the sign of the [[covenant (religion)|covenant]] is placed upon the body of the child. This custom stems from the incident at [[Mount Horeb]] ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|19|HE}}): Elijah had arrived at Mount Horeb after the demonstration of God's presence and power on [[Mount Carmel]]. ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|18|HE}}) God asks Elijah to explain his arrival, and Elijah replies: “I have been very jealous for the Lord, the God of hosts; for the people of Israel have forsaken thy covenant, thrown down thy altars, and slain thy prophets with the sword; and I, even I only, am left; and they seek my life, to take it away” ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|19:10|HE}}). According to Rabbinic tradition, Elijah's words were patently untrue ({{Bibleverse|1|Kings|18:4|HE}} and {{Bibleverse|1|Kings|19:18|HE}}), and since Elijah accused Israel of failing to uphold the covenant, God would require Elijah to be present at every covenant of circumcision.<ref>”Elijah, Chair of.” ''Encyclopedia Judaica.'' Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971.</ref><ref>Unterman, Alan. “Elijah’s Chair.” ''Dictionary of Jewish Lore and Legend.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1991.</ref>

=== Elijah's cup ===
{{See also|Passover Seder}}
In the [[Talmud|Talmudic literature]], Elijah would visit [[rabbis]] to help solve particularly difficult legal problems. Malachi had cited Elijah as the harbinger of the [[Jewish Eschatology|eschaton]]. Thus, when confronted with reconciling impossibly conflicting laws or rituals, the rabbis would set aside any decision “until Elijah comes.”<ref>”Elijah, Cup of.” ''Encyclopedia Judaica.'' Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1971.</ref>

One such decision was whether the [[Passover seder]] required four or five cups of wine. Each serving of wine corresponds to one of the "four expressions of redemption" in the [[Book of Exodus]]:

<blockquote>"I am the Lord, and ''I will bring you out'' from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and ''I will deliver you'' from their bondage, and ''I will redeem you'' with an out-stretched arm and with great acts of judgment, and ''I will take you'' for my people, and I will be your God; and you shall know that I am the Lord your God, who has brought you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians" ({{Bibleverse||Exodus|6:6–7|HE}}).</blockquote>

The next verse, "And ''I will bring you'' into the land which I swore to give to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob; I will give it to you for a possession. I am the Lord." ({{Bibleverse||Exodus|6:8|HE}}) was not fulfilled until the generation following the Passover story, and the rabbis could not decide whether this verse counted as part of the Passover celebration (thus deserving of another serving of wine). Thus, a cup was left for the arrival of Elijah.

In practice the fifth cup has come to be seen as a celebration of future redemption. Today, a place is reserved at the seder table and a cup of wine is placed there for Elijah. During the seder, the door of the house is opened and Elijah is invited in. Traditionally, the cup is viewed as Elijah’s and is used for no other purpose.<ref name=" Temple">Telushkin, Joseph. ''Jewish Literacy.'' New York: William Morrow, 2001.</ref><ref>{{cite web
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =Rabbi Ario S. and Tess Hyams Judaica Museum
| work =
| publisher =Temple Beth Sholom
| year =2007
| url =http://www.bethsholom.com/about_us/museum.shtml
| doi =
| accessdate =2007-06-23 }}</ref>

=== Havdalah ===
{{See also|Havdalah}}
[[Havdalah]] is the ceremony that concludes the [[Shabbat|Sabbath Day]] (Saturday evening in Jewish tradition). As part of the concluding [[hymn]], an appeal is made to God that Elijah will come during the following week. “Elijah the Prophet, Elijah the Tishbite. Let him come quickly, in our day with the messiah, the son of David.”<ref name="Temple"/>

=== Birkat HaMazon ===

{{See also|Birkat Hamazon}}

Elijah is invoked in the ''Harachaman'' section of the ''Birkat Hamazon'', the Grace After Meals, in his role as messianic herald. It says, 
".הָרַחֲמָן, הוּא יִשְׁלַח לָֽנוּ אֶת אֵלִיָּֽהוּ הַנָּבִיא זָכוּר לַטּוֹב, וִיבַשֶּׂר לָֽנוּ בְּשׂוֹרוֹת טוֹבוֹת יְשׁוּעוֹת וְנֶחָמוֹת"
"May the merciful one send us Elijah the Prophet, may he be remembered for good, and he will herald for us tidings of goodness, salvation, and comfort".

== Elijah in Jewish folklore ==
The volume of references to Elijah in folklore stands in marked contrast to that in the canon. Elijah's miraculous transferral to heaven lead to speculation as to his true identity. Louis Ginzberg equates him with Phinehas the grandson of Aaron<ref>Ginzberg, Lewis. ''Legends of the Bible.'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 580.</ref> ({{Bibleverse||Exodus|6:25|HE}}). Because of Phinehas zealousness for God, he and his descendants were promised, “a covenant of lasting priesthood” ({{Bibleverse||Numbers|25:13|HE}}). Therefore, Elijah is a priest as well as a prophet. Elijah is also equated with the Archangel [[Sandalphon]],<ref>Ginzberg, Lewis. ''Legends of the Bible.'' Jewish Philadelphia: Publication Society of America, 1956. p 589</ref> whose four wing beats will carry him to any part of the earth. When forced to choose between death and dishonor, Rabbi Kahana chose to leap to his death. Before he could strike the ground, Elijah/Sandalphon had appeared to catch him.<ref>Ginzberg, Lewis. ''Legends of the Bible.'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 590–591.</ref> Yet another name for Elijah is "Angel of the Covenant"<ref>Schwartz, Howard. ''Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. p 201.</ref>

=== Rabbi Joshua ben Levi ===
References to Elijah in Jewish folklore range from short observations (e. g. It is said that when dogs are happy for no reason, it is because Elijah is in the neighborhood<ref>Bialik, H. N. and Y. H Ravnitzky. eds. ''The Book of Legends: Sefer Ha-Aggadah.'' New York: Schocken Books, 1992. p 756, 782, and 805.</ref>) to lengthy parables on the nature of God’s justice.

One such story is that of Rabbi [[Joshua ben Levi]]. The rabbi, a friend of Elijah’s, was asked what favor he might wish. The rabbi answered only that he be able to join Elijah in his wanderings. Elijah granted his wish only if he refrained from asking any questions about any of the prophet’s actions. He agreed and they began their journey. The first place they came to was the house of an elderly couple who were so poor they had only one old cow. The old couple gave of their hospitality as best they could. The next morning, as the travelers left, Elijah prayed that the old cow would die and it did. The second place they came to was the home of a wealthy man. He had no patience for his visitors and chased them away with the admonition that they should get jobs and not beg from honest people. As they were leaving, they passed the man’s wall and saw that it was crumbling. Elijah prayed that the wall be repaired and it was so. Next, they came to a wealthy synagogue. They were allowed to spend the night with only the smallest of provisions. When they left, Elijah prayed that every member of the synagogue might become a leader.

Finally, they came to a very poor synagogue. Here they were treated with great courtesy and hospitality. When they left, Elijah prayed that God might give them a single wise leader. At this Rabbi Joshua could no longer hold back. He demanded of Elijah an explanation of his actions. At the house of the old couple, Elijah knew that the Angel of Death was coming for the old woman. So he prayed that God might have the angel take the cow instead. At the house of the wealthy man, there was a great treasure hidden in the crumbling wall. Elijah prayed that the wall be restored thus keeping the treasure away from the miser. The story ends with a moral: A synagogue with many leaders will be ruined by many arguments. A town with a single wise leader will be guided to success and prosperity. “Know then, that if thou seest an evil-doer prosper, it is not always unto his advantage, and if a righteous man suffers need and distress, think not God is unjust.”<ref>Ginzberg, Lewis. ''Legends of the Bible.'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 599.</ref>

=== Rabbi Eliezer ===
The Elijah of legend did not lose any of his ability to afflict the comfortable. The case of Rabbi Eliezer son of Rabbi [[Shimon bar Yochai|Simon ben Yohai]] is illustrative. Once, when walking a beach, he came upon a hideously ugly man—the prophet in disguise. The man greeted him courteously, “Peace be with thee, Rabbi.” Instead of returning the greeting, the rabbi could not resist an insult, “How ugly you are! Is there anyone as ugly as you in your town?” Elijah responded with, “I don’t know. Perhaps you should tell the Master Architect how ugly is this, His construction.” The rabbi realized his wrong and asked for pardon. But Elijah would not give it until the entire city had asked for forgiveness for the rabbi and the rabbi had promised to mend his ways.<ref>Ginzberg, Lewis. ''Legends of the Bible.'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956. p 597.</ref>

=== Lilith ===
Elijah was always seen as deeply pious, it seems only natural that he would be pitted against an equally evil individual. This was found in the person of [[Lilith]]. Lilith in legend was the first wife of Adam. She rebelled against Adam, the angels, and even God. She came to be seen as a demon and a witch.<ref>Schwartz, Howard. Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref><ref>Ginzberg, Lewis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956.</ref>

Elijah encountered Lilith and instantly recognized and challenged her, "Unclean one, where are you going?" Unable to avoid or lie to the prophet, she admitted she was on her way to the house of a pregnant woman. Her intention was to kill the woman and eat the child.

Elijah pronounced his malediction, "I curse you in the Name of the Lord. Be silent as a stone!" But, Lilith was able to make a bargain with Elijah. She promises to "forsake my evil ways" if Elijah will remove his curse. To seal the bargain she gives Elijah her names so that they can be posted in the houses of pregnant women or new born children or used as amulets. Lilith promises, "where I see those names, I shall run away at once. Neither the child nor the mother will ever be injured by me."<ref>Schwartz, Howard. Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. p 224–225.</ref>

== Elijah in Christianity ==

=== References in the New Testament ===

[[File:Intesa elijah.jpg|200px|thumb|A Northern Russian icon from ca. 1290 showing the ascent of Elijah toward heaven]]

In the [[New Testament]], [[Jesus]] would say for those who believed, [[John the Baptist]] was Elijah, who would come before the "great and terrible day" as predicted by [[Malachi]].

Some English translations of the New Testament use [[Elias]], a Latin form of the name. In the [[King James Version]], "Elias" appears only in the texts translated from Greek.

==== John the Baptist ====
[[John the Baptist]] preached a message of repentance and baptism. He predicted the day of judgment using imagery similar to that of Malachi. He also preached that the Messiah was coming. All of this was done in a style that immediately recalled the image of Elijah to his audience. He wore a coat of animal hair secured with a leather belt ({{Bibleverse||Matthew|3:4|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||Mark|1:6|NAB}}). He also frequently preached in wilderness areas near the Jordan river.

In the [[Gospel of John]], John the Baptist was asked by a delegation of priests if he was Elijah. To which, he replied "I am not ({{Bibleverse||John|1:21|NAB}})." The author of {{Bibleverse||Matthew|11:14|NAB}} and {{Bibleverse||Matthew|17:10–13|NAB}} however, makes it clear that John was Elijah (or that he fulfilled the office of Elijah) but was not recognized as such. In the annunciation narrative in Luke, an angel appears to Zechariah, John's father, and tells him that John "will turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God," and that he will go forth "in the spirit and power of Elijah ({{Bibleverse||Luke|1:16–17|NAB}})."

==== Jesus Christ ====
In the [[Gospel of Luke]], [[Herod Antipas]] hears some of the stories surrounding [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]. Some tell Herod that John the Baptist, whom he had executed, has come back to life. Others tell him that it is Elijah.<ref>{{Bibleverse||Luke|9:7–9|NAB}} also {{Bibleverse||Mark|6:14–16|NAB}}</ref> Later in the same gospel, Jesus asks his disciples who the people say that he is. The apostles' answer includes Elijah among others.<ref>{{Bibleverse||Luke|9:18–19|NAB}}, also {{Bibleverse||Matthew|16:13–16|NAB}}</ref>

However Jesus' ministry had little in common with that of Elijah; in particular, he preached the forgiveness of one's enemies, while Elijah killed his. [[Miracle]] stories similar to those of Elijah were associated with Jesus (e. g. raising of the dead,<ref>{{Bibleverse||Mark|5:21–43|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||Luke|7:11–15|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||Luke|8:49–56|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||John|11|NAB}}</ref> miraculous feeding<ref>{{Bibleverse||Matthew|14:13–21|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||Mark|6:34–45|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||Luke|9:10–17|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||John|6:5–16|NAB}}; also {{Bibleverse||Matthew|15:29–38|NAB}} and {{Bibleverse||Mark|8:1–9|NAB}}</ref>). Jesus implicitly separates himself from Elijah when he rebukes James and John for desiring to call down fire upon an unwelcoming Samaritan village in a similar manner to Elijah.<ref>{{Bibleverse||Luke|9:51–56|NAB}}</ref> Likewise, Jesus rebukes a potential follower who wanted first to return home to say farewell to his family, whereas Elijah permitted this of his replacement Elisha.<ref>{{Bibleverse||Luke|9:61–62|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||1 Kings|19:16–21|NAB}}</ref>
[[File:Transfigurationraffaelo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The upper part of the ''[[Transfiguration (Raphael)|Transfiguration]]'' (1520) by [[Raphael]], depicting Elijah, [[Jesus]], and [[Moses]] (holding the [[Tablets of the Law]]).]]
During [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus' crucifixion]], some of the onlookers wonder if Elijah will come to rescue him,<ref>{{Bibleverse||Matthew|27:46–49|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||Mark|15:35–36|NAB}}</ref> as by the time of Jesus, Elijah had entered folklore as a rescuer of Jews in distress.

==== Transfiguration ====
Elijah makes an appearance in the New Testament during an incident known as the [[Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfiguration]].<ref>{{Bibleverse||Matthew|17:1–13|NAB}}, {{Bibleverse||Mark|9:2–13|NAB}} and {{Bibleverse||Luke|9:28–36|NAB}}</ref>

At the summit of an unnamed mount, Jesus' face begins to shine. The disciples who are with Him hear the voice of God announce that Jesus is "My beloved Son." The disciples also see Moses and Elijah appear and talk with Jesus. Peter is so struck by the experience that he asks Jesus if they should build three "tabernacles": one for Elijah, one for Jesus and one for Moses.

There is consensus among Christian theologians that Elijah appears as a witness of the prophets and Moses as a witness of the law for the divinely announced "Son of God."<ref>Albright, W. F. and C. S. Mann. ''The Anchor Bible: Matthew.'' New York: Doubleday, 1971.</ref><ref>Fitzmyer, Joseph A. ''The Anchor Bible: Luke I–IX.'' New York: Doubleday, 1981.</ref>

==== Other references ====
Elijah is mentioned three more times in the New Testament: in Luke, Romans, and James. In {{Bibleverse||Luke|4:24–27|NAB}}, Jesus uses Elijah as an example of rejected prophets. Jesus says, "No prophet is accepted in his own country," and then mentions Elijah, saying that there were many widows in Israel, but Elijah was sent to one in Phoenicia. In {{Bibleverse||Romans|11:1–6|NAB}}, Paul cites Elijah as an example of God's never forsaking his people (the Israelites). In {{Bibleverse||James|5:16–18|NAB}}, James says, "The effectual fervent [[prayer]] of a righteous man availeth much," and then cites Elijah's prayers which started and ended the famine in Israel as examples.

=== Ecclesiasticus ===
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |
"At the appointed time, it is written, you are destined 
to calm the wrath of God before it breaks out in fury, 
to turn the hearts of parents to their children, 
and to restore the tribes of Jacob."
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | — A line in [[Ecclesiasticus]] describing Elijah's mission (Ecclesiasticus 48:10).
|}
In the [[Ben Sira|Wisdom of Jesus ben Sira]] ({{Bibleverse||Sirach|48:10|NAB}}) his tasks are altered to: 1) herald the eschaton, 2) calm God’s fury, 3) restore familial peace, and 4) restore the 12 tribes.

=== Prophet saint ===
{{Infobox saint
|name=Elijah (Elias)
|feast_day=July 20
|venerated_in=[[Judaism]] [[Christianity]] [[Islam]] [[Baha'i Faith]]
|image=Iliya prorok ikona Pskov.jpg
|imagesize=220px
|caption=[[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian]] [[Icon]] of the Prophet Elijah (12th century, [[Pskov]] school. [[Tretyakov Gallery]], [[Moscow]]).
|titles= Prophet
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=[[prophet]], [[Thaumaturgy|wonder-worker]]
|patronage=
|major_shrine=
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
|prayer=
|prayer_attrib=
|best known for= being Israel's most famous prophet, his brave challenge to Baal's prophets on Mount Carmel ,his ascent to heaven in a whirlwind
}}

[[File:ElijahByLouisHersent.JPG|thumb|left|230px|''Elijah reviving the Son of the Widow of [[Sarepta|Zarephath]]'' by [[Louis Hersent]]]]In [[Western Christianity]], the Prophet Elijah is commemorated as a [[saint]] with a feast day on 20 July by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]<ref>Martyrologium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2001 ISBN 88-209-7210-7)</ref> and the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]].<ref>[[Calendar of Saints (Lutheran)]]</ref> Catholics believe that he was unmarried, celibate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.holyspiritinteractive.net/questions/whycelibacy.asp |title=Why are Priests Celibate? |accessdate= |author= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date=2010-08-19 |year= |month= |work= Holy Spirit Interactive |publisher= |pages= |archiveurl= |archivedate= }}</ref>

In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and those [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] which follow the [[Byzantine Rite]], he is commemorated on the same date (in the 21st century, [[Julian Calendar]] 20 July corresponds to [[Gregorian Calendar]] 2 August). He is greatly revered among the Orthodox as a model of the [[monasticism|contemplative life]]. He is also commemorated on the [[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar|Orthodox liturgical calendar]] on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the [[Christmas|Nativity of the Lord]]).

==== Carmelite tradition ====
Elijah is revered as the spiritual Father and traditional founder of the Catholic religious Order of [[Carmelites]]. In addition to taking their name from Mt. Carmel where the first [[hermit]]s of the order established themselves, the Calced Carmelite and [[Discalced Carmelites|Discalced Carmelite]] traditions pertaining to Elijah focus upon the prophet’s withdrawal from public life.<ref>Ackerman, Jane. “Stories of Elijah and medieval Carmelite identity.” ''History of Religions.'' 35(2). 1995. 124–147.</ref><ref>Ackerman, Jane. ''Elijah Prophet of Carmel.'' Washington, D.C.: Institute of Carmelite Studies Publications, 2003.</ref> The medieval Carmelite [[Book of the First Monks]] offers some insight into the heart of the Orders' contemplative vocation and reverence for the prophet.

==== Liturgical commemorations ====
[[Image:Prophet-Elias-Grk-ikon.png|thumb|left|200px|Elias on [[Mount Horeb]], [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] [[icon]].]]

Since most [[Eastern Churches]] either use Greek as their liturgical language or translated their liturgies from the Greek, ''Elias'' (or its modern [[iotacism|iotacized]] form ''Ilias'') is the form of the prophet's name used among most members of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and those [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] which follow the [[Byzantine Rite]].

The [[feast day]] of [[saint]] Elias falls on July 20 of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar|Orthodox liturgical calendar]] (for those churches which follow the traditional [[Julian Calendar]], July 20 currently falls on August 2 of the modern [[Gregorian Calendar]]). This day is a major holiday in Lebanon and is one of a handful of holidays there whose celebration is accompanied by a launching of fireworks by the general public. The full name of St. Elias in Lebanon translates to St. Elias the Living because it is believed that he did not die but rode his fiery chariot to heaven. The reference to the fiery chariot is likely why the Lebanese celebrate this holiday with fireworks.

Elias is also commemorated, together with all of the righteous persons of the Old Testament, on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the [[Christmas|Nativity of the Lord]]).

The [[Apolytikion]] in the Fourth Tone for St. Elias:
<blockquote>The incarnate Angel, the Cornerstone of the Prophets, the second Forerunner of the Coming of Christ, the glorious Elias, who from above, sent down to Elisha the grace to dispel sickness and cleanse lepers, abounds therefore in healing for those who honor him.</blockquote>

The [[Kontakion]] in the Second Tone for St. Elias:
<blockquote>O Prophet and foreseer of the great works of God, O greatly renowned Elias, who by your word held back the clouds of rain, intercede for us to the only Loving One.</blockquote>

==== {{anchor|Helios}}Pagan associations and mountaintops ====
Starting in the fifth century, Elias is often connected with [[Helios]], the Sun. The two words have very similar pronunciations in post-classical Greek; Elijah rode in his chariot of fire to heaven ({{bible|2 Kings 2:11}}) just as Helios drove the chariot of the sun across the sky; and the [[Holocaust (sacrifice)|holocaust sacrifice]] offered by Elijah and burned by fire from heaven ({{bible|1 Kings 18:38}}) corresponds to the sun warming the earth.<ref>J. Theodore Bent, "The Sun Myths of Modern Hellas", ''The Antiquary'' '''20''' (1889), p. 10</ref>

[[Coelius Sedulius|Sedulius]] writes poetically in the fifth century that the "bright path to glittering heaven" suits Elias both "in merits and name", as changing one letter makes his name "Helios"; but he does not identify the two.<ref>Patrick McBrine, translator, Sedulius' ''Carmen paschale'', lines 184–187 [http://www.pmcbrine.com/translations/sedulius_carmen_paschale/cpbk1.pdf PDF]</ref> A homily entitled ''De ascensione Heliae'', misattributed to [[Chrysostom]], claims that poets and painters use the ascension of Elijah as a model for their depictions of the sun, and says that "Elijah is really Helios". [[Saint Patrick]] appears to conflate Helios and Elias.<ref>K. Sarah-Jane Murray, ''From Plato to Lancelot: a preface to Chrétien de Troyes'', Syracuse 2008, p. 148 [http://books.google.com/books?id=1DLN3x2lrA8C&pg=PA148 Google Books]</ref> All of these connections illustrate the common early Christian contention, held also by the Jewish philosopher [[Philo]], that the Greeks had learned their philosophy from reading the Old Testament; from this point of view, pseudo-Chrysostom could charge that the Greek myth of Helios was based on a distorted knowledge of the legend of Elias.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} In modern times, much Greek folklore also connects Elias with the sun.<ref>Mary Hamilton, "The Pagan Element in the Names of Saints", ''Annual of the British School at Athens'' '''13''':348–356 (1907) [http://books.google.com/books?id=K2gKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA355 Google Books]</ref>

In Greece, chapels and monasteries dedicated to Prophet Elias (Προφήτης Ηλίας) are often found on mountaintops, which themselves are often named after him. Since Wachsmuth (1864),<ref>C. Wachsmuth, ''Das alte Griechenland im neuen'', 1864, p. 23, cited by Hippolyte Delehaye, ''The Legends of the Saints: An Introduction to Hagiography'', 1907, p. 174</ref> the usual explanation for this has been that Elias was identified with Helios, who had mountaintop shrines. But few shrines of Helios were on mountaintops, and sun-worship was subsumed by Apollo-worship by Christian times, and so could not be confused with Elias.<ref>Delehaye, p. 174</ref> The modern folklore is not good evidence for the ''origin'' of the association of the sun, Elias, and mountaintops.<ref name="cook"/> Perhaps Elias is simply a "natural patron of high places".<ref>F. Lenormant, ''Monographie de la voie sacrée Éleusinienne'', 1864, p. 452 as quoted by Delehaye, p. 174</ref>

The association of Elias with mountaintops seems to come from a different pagan tradition: Elias took on the attributes and the locales associated with [[Zeus]], especially his associations with mountains and his powers over rain, thunder, lighting, and wind. When Elias prevailed over the priests of [[Baal]], it was on [[Mount Carmel]] ({{bible|1 Kings 18:38}}), which later became known as Mount St. Elias. When he spend forty days in a cave, it was on [[Mount Horeb]] ({{bible|1 Kings 19:8}}). When Elias confronts [[Ahab]], he stops the rains for three years ({{bible|1 Kings 17:1–18:1}}).<ref name="cook">[[Arthur Bernard Cook]], ''Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion'', 1925, p. 178 [http://books.google.com/books?id=9iShet_ZtHAC&pg=PA178 Google Books]</ref>

A map of mountain-cults of Zeus shows that most of these sites are now dedicated to Elias, including [[Mount Olympus]], [[Mount Lykaion]], [[Mount Arachnaion]], and [[Mount Taleton]] on the mainland, and [[Mount Kenaion]], [[Mount Oche]], and [[Mount Kynados]] in the islands. Of these, the only one with a recorded tradition of a Helios cult is Mount Taleton.<ref name="cook" />

Elias is associated with pre-Christian lightning gods in many other European traditions.

Among Albanians pilgrimages are made to mountaintops to ask for rain during the summer. One such tradition that is gaining popularity is the 2 August pilgrimage to [[Ljuboten]] on the Sharr mountains. Muslims refer to this day as Aligjyn (Ali Day), and it is even believed that Ali becomes Elias at midday.<ref>http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC&lpg=PA7&ots=JTLmoRlKcL&dq=aligjyni&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q=aligjyni&f=false</ref>

[[File:Ilia chariot.jpg|thumb|This common depiction of the prophet Elijah riding a flaming chariot across the sky resulted in [[syncretism|syncretistic]] folklore among the [[Slavs]] incorporating pre-Christian motifs in the beliefs and rites regarding him in [[Slavic culture]].]]
As Elijah was described as ascending into heaven in a fiery chariot, the Christian missionaries who converted [[Slavic tribes]] likely found him an ideal analogy for [[Perun#Post-Christian Perun| Perun]], the supreme [[Slavic mythology#Pantheon|Slavic god]] of storms, thunder and lightning bolts. In many [[Slavic countries]] Elijah is known as Elijah the Thunderer (Ilija Gromovnik), who drives the heavens in a chariot and administers rain and snow, thus actually taking the place of [[Perun]] in popular beliefs.<ref>Lenhoff, Gail. "Christian and Pagan Strata in the East Slavic Cult of St. Nicholas: Polemical Notes on Boris Uspenskij's FilologiÄeskie Razyskanija v Oblasti Slavjanskix Drevnostej." The Slavic and East European Journal. (July 1984) 28.2 pgs. 147–163.</ref><ref>McLeish, Kenneth. ''Myth: Myths and Legends of the World Explored.'' London: Facts on File, 1996. p 506.</ref><ref>Cherry Gilchrist, ''Russian Magic: Living Folk Traditions of an Enchanted Landscape'', ISBN 0-8356-0874-3, p. 81''ff'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=uMS2ZTuNGQYC&pg=PA82 full text]</ref> Perun is also sometimes conflated with the legendary hero [[Ilya Muromets|Elijah of Murom]].<ref>Mike Dixon-Kennedy, ''Encyclopedia of Russian and Slavic myth and legend'', ISBN 1-57607-130-8, p. 218, [http://books.google.com/books?id=eD5AkdM83iIC&pg=PA218 full text]</ref><ref name="mw">''Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions'', ISBN 0-87779-044-2, ''s.v.'' "Slavic religion" [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA1016 full text]</ref> The feast of St. Elias is known as ''Ilinden'' in [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]], and was chosen as the day of the [[Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising]] in 1903; it is now the holiday of [[Republic Day (Republic of Macedonia)|Republic Day]] in the [[Republic of Macedonia]].

In [[Estonian folklore]] Elijah is considered to be the successor of [[Ukko]], the lightning spirit.<ref>name="mw">''Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions'', ISBN 0-87779-044-2, ''s.v.'' "Slavic religion" [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC&pg=PA1016 full text]</ref>

In [[Georgian mythology]], he replaces [[Elwa]].<ref name="mw"/> A Georgian story about Elijah:
<blockquote>Once [[Jesus]], the prophet Elijah, and St. George were going through [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. When they became tired and hungry they stopped to dine. They saw a Georgian shepherd and decided to ask him to feed them. First, Elijah went up to the shepherd and asked him for a sheep. After the shepherd asked his identity Elijah said that, he was the one who sent him rain to get him a good profit from farming. The shepherd became angry at him and told him that he was the one who also sent thunderstorms, which destroyed the farms of poor widows. (After Elijah, Jesus and St. George attempt to get help and eventually succeed).<ref name="Gabidzashvili">Gabidzashvili, Enriko. 1991. Saint George: In Ancient Georgian Literature. Armazi - 89: Tbilisi, Georgia.</ref>
</blockquote>

Elias has other pagan associations: a modern legend about Elias mirrors precisely the legend of [[Odysseus]] seeking a place where the locals would not recognize an oar—hence the mountaintops.<ref>Arthur Bernard Cook, ''Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion'', p. 171</ref>

=== Elijah and Elias in Mormonism ===
[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) acknowledges Elijah as a prophet. The LDS Church teaches that the Malachi prophecy of the return of Elijah was fulfilled on April 3, 1836, when Elijah visited the prophet and founder of the church, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], along with [[Oliver Cowdery]], in the [[Kirtland Temple]] as a [[resurrection|resurrected]] being.<ref>{{citation |last= Petersen |first= Mark E. |authorlink= Mark E. Petersen |title= The Mission of Elijah |journal= [[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] |date=August 1981 |url= http://lds.org/ensign/1981/08/the-mission-of-elijah?lang=eng }}</ref> This event is chronicled in {{lds|Doctrine and Covenants|dc|110|13|16}}. This experience forms the basis for the church's focus on genealogy and family history and belief in the eternal nature of marriage and families.

In [[Latter-day Saint theology]], the name-title Elias is not always synonymous with Elijah and is often used for people other than the biblical prophet.<ref>{{citation |last= Perkins |first= Keith W. |authorlink= Keith W. Perkins |contribution= How can Elias, who appeared with Moses on the Mount of Transfiguration, be identified as both the Old Testament prophet Elijah and as John the Baptist? |url= http://lds.org/ensign/1999/07/i-have-a-question/i-have-a-question?lang=eng |title= I Have a Question |date=July 1999 |journal= Ensign }}</ref> According to Joseph Smith, <blockquote>The spirit of Elias is first, Elijah second, and Messiah last. Elias is a forerunner to prepare the way, and the spirit and power of Elijah is to come after, holding the keys of power, building the Temple to the capstone, placing the seals of the Melchizedek Priesthood upon the house of Israel, and making all things ready; then Messiah comes to His Temple, which is last of all.<ref>{{cite book |last= Smith |first= Joseph, Jr. |authorlink= Joseph Smith |editor-last= Smith |editor-first= Joseph Fielding |editor-link= Joseph Fielding Smith |title= [[Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith (book)|Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]] |publisher= [[Deseret Book]] |location= Salt Lake City |origyear= 1938 |year= 1976 |isbn= 0-87579-243-X |oclc= 22984603}} page 340</ref></blockquote>

People to whom the title Elias is applied in Mormonism include [[Noah]], the angel [[Gabriel]] (considered to be the same person as Noah), Elijah, [[John the Baptist]], [[John the Apostle]], and an unspecified man who was a contemporary of [[Abraham]].<ref name="urlElias">{{citation |url= http://lds.org/scriptures/bd/elias?lang=eng |contribution= Elias |title= [[Bible Dictionary (LDS Church)|Bible Dictionary]] |work= [[LDS edition of the Bible|KJV (LDS)]] |publisher= [[LDS Church]] }}</ref>

Detractors of Mormonism have often alleged that Smith, in whose time and place the King James Version was the only available English translation of the bible, simply failed to grasp the fact that the Elijah of the Old Testament and the Elias of the New are one and the same person.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}} Latter-day Saints deny this and say that the difference they make between the two is deliberate and prophetic. The names Elias and Elijah refer to one who prepares the way for the coming of the Lord. This is applicable to John the Baptist coming to prepare the way for the Lord and His baptism; it also refers to Elijah appearing during the transfiguration to prepare for Jesus by restoring keys of sealing power.<ref>{{citation |last= Burton |first= Theodore M. Burton |authorlink= Theodore M. Burton |title= The Power of Elijah |url= http://lds.org/ensign/1974/05/the-power-of-elijah?lang=eng |date=May 1974 |journal= Ensign }}</ref> Jesus then gave this power to the Twelve saying, "Verily I say unto you, Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."<ref>Matthew 18:18</ref>

== Elijah in Islam ==
[[File:Khidr and elijah.jpg|thumb|''Khizr and Elijah Praying in Mecca''; [[Persian miniature]] from an [[illuminated manuscript]] of ''[[Stories of the Prophets]]'' (c. 427 A.H.)]]
[[File:Mir Sayyid Ali Ilia prorok.jpg|thumb|''Prophet Elijah Rescuing Nur ad-Dahr from the Sea'', a scene from the ''[[Hamzanama]]'', here imagined in a [[Persian miniature]] by Mir Sayyid Ali (c. 1550 C.E.)]]
'''Elijah''' ([[Arabic]]:'''إلياس'''; ''Ilyas'') is also mentioned as a [[Prophets of Islam|prophet]] in the [[Qur'an]].<ref>Qur'an 6: 84</ref> Elijah's narrative in the [[Qur'an]] and later [[Muslim]] [[tradition]] resembles closely that in the [[Hebrew Bible]] and [[Muslim]] [[literature]] records Elijah's primary prophesying as taking place during the reign of [[Ahab]] and [[Jezebel]] as well as [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]].<ref>[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], ''[[The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary]]'', Note. '''4112''': "Elias is the same as Elijah, whose story will be found in the Old Testament in I Kings 17–19. and 2 Kings 1–2. Elijah lived in the reign of Ahab (B.C. 896–874) and Ahaziah (B.C. 874–872), kings of the (northern) kingdom of Israel or Samaria. He was a prophet of the desert, like John the Baptist, unlike our holy Prophet, who took part in, controlled, and guided all the affairs of his people. Both Ahab and Azariah were prone to lapse into the worship of Baal, the sun-god worshipped in Syria. That worship also included the worship of nature-powers and procreative powers, as in the Hindu worship of the Lingam, and led to many abuses. King Ahab had married a princess of Sidon, Jezebel, a wicked woman who led her husband to forsake Allah and adopt Baal-worship."Elijah denounced all Ahab's sins as well as the sins of Ahaziah and had to flee for his life. Eventually, according to the Old Testament (4 Kings, 2:11) he was taken up in a whirlwind to heaven in a chariot of fire after he had left his mantle with Elisha the prophet."</ref> He is seen by [[Muslim]]s to be the prophetic predecessor to [[Elisha]]. While neither the Bible nor the Qur'an mentions the genealogy of Elijah, some scholars of Islam believe he may have come from the priestly family of the prophet [[Aaron]].<ref>''[[Stories of the Prophets (Ibn Kathir)|Stories of the Prophets]]'', Ibn Kathir, page 474</ref> Elijah in [[Muslim]] [[theology]] is very rarely associated with the events of the [[End time|eschaton]], as he is in [[Jewish]] [[tradition]], and [[Islam]] generally views [[Jesus]] as the [[Messiah]].<ref>''Concise Enyclopedia of Islam'', C. Glasse, ''Elijah''</ref> Elijah's figure has, however, been identified with a number of other [[prophet]]s and [[saint]]s, including [[Idris (prophet)|Idris]], which is believed by some [[scholar]]s to have been another name for Elijah,<ref>''Message of the Qur'an'', M. Asad, Commentary on 19: 56–57</ref> and [[Khidr]].<ref>''Dimensions of Islam'', F. Schuon, index. ''Sayyidna Khizr''</ref> [[Islamic]] [[legend]] later developed the figure of Elijah, greatly embellishing upon his attributes, and some apocryphal literature gave Elijah the status of a half-human, half-angel.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam'', Vol. III, H-Iram</ref> Elijah also appears in later works of literature, including the ''[[Hamzanama]]''.<ref>''Adventures of Amir Hamza'', J. Seyller, pg. 240</ref>

=== Qur'an ===
Elijah is mentioned in the [[Qur'an]], where his preaching is recounted in a concise manner. The Qur'an narrates that Elijah told his people to come to the worship of God and to leave the worship of [[Baal]], the primary [[Idolatry|idol]] of the area. The [[Qur'an]] states:

{{Quote|Verily Elijah was one of the apostles. When he said to his people: "Will you not fear [[Allah|God]]? "Will ye call upon Ba'al and leave the Best of Creators, God, your {{LORD}} and Cherisher and the {{LORD}} and Cherisher of your fathers of old?"|Qur'an, chapter 37 ([[As-Saaffat]]), [[ayah|verse]] 123–126<ref>{{Cite quran|37|123|e=126|s=ns}}</ref>}}

The [[Qur'an]] makes it clear that the majority of Elijah's people denied the prophet and continued to follow idolatry. However, it mentions that a small number of devoted servants of [[God]] among them followed Elijah and believed in and worshiped the {{LORD}}. The Qur'an states:

{{Quote|They denied him (Elijah), and will surely be brought to punishment, Except the sincere and devoted Servants of God (among them). And We left his (memory) for posterity.|Qur'an, chapter 37 ([[As-Saaffat]]), [[ayah|verse]] 127–128<ref>{{Cite quran|37|127|e=128|s=ns}}</ref>}}

In the [[Qur'an]], [[God]] praises Elijah in two places:
* {{Quote|Peace be upon Elijah! This is how We reward those who do good. He is truly among our believing servants.|Qur'an, chapter 37 ([[As-Saaffat]]), [[ayah|verse]] 129–132<ref>{{Cite quran|37|129|e=132|s=ns}}</ref>}}

* {{Quote|And Zachariah and John and Jesus and Elijah, they were all from among the righteous|Qur'an, chapter 6 ([[Al-An'am]]), verse 85<ref>{{Cite quran|6|85|s=ns}}</ref>}}

Numerous commentators, including [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], have offered commentary on VI: 85<ref>[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], ''[[The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary]]'', Note. '''905'''"</ref> saying that Elijah, [[Zechariah (priest)|Zechariah]], [[John the Baptist]] and [[Jesus]] were all spiritually connected. [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] says:<blockquote>The third group consists not of men of action, but Preachers of Truth, who led solitary lives. Their epithet is: "the Righteous." They form a connected group round Jesus. Zachariah was the father of John the Baptist, who is referenced as "Elias, which was for to come" (Matt 11:14); and Elias is said to have been present and talked to Jesus at the Transfiguration on the Mount (Matt. 17:3).</blockquote>

=== Literature and tradition ===
[[Muslim]] [[literature]] and [[tradition]] recounts that Elijah preached to the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]], ruled over by [[Ahab]] and later his son [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]]. He is believed to have been a "prophet of the desert—like [[John the Baptist]]".<ref>Abdullah Yusuf Ali, ''Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation, Commentary'', ''Note on Elijah''</ref> Elijah is believed to have preached with zeal to Ahab and his wife [[Jezebel]], who according to Muslim tradition was partly responsible for the worship of [[False god|false idols]] in this area. Muslims believe that it was because the majority of people refused to listen to Elijah that Elisha had to continue preaching the message of [[God]] to Israel after him.<ref>''[[Stories of the Prophets (Ibn Kathir)|Stories of the Prophets]]'', Ibn Kathir, ''Stories of Elias and Elisha''</ref>

Elijah has been the subject of legends and folktales in [[Muslim]] [[culture]], usually involving his meeting with [[Khidr]], and in one legend, with [[Muhammad]] himself.<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam and Judaism'', B. M. Wheeler, ''Elijah'': "Muslim exegetes report that the prophet Muhammad and a band of followers once met Elijah on a journey outside Mecca. Elijah served the prophet with food from heaven and then left on a cloud heading for the heavens"</ref> Most such legends, however, are regarded as folktales rather than actual events. In [[Islamic]] [[mysticism]], however, Elijah is associated closely with the sage [[Khidr]]. One legend reported that Elijah and [[Khidr]] met together every year in [[Jerusalem]] to go on the [[pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]].<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam and Judaism'', B. M. Wheeler, ''Elijah'': "It is reported by Ibn Kathir that every year during the month of [[Ramadan]] in [[Jerusalem]], the prophets Elijah and [[Khidr]] meet..."</ref> Elijah appears also in the ''[[Hamzanama]]'' numerous times, where he is spoken of as being the brother of [[Khidr]] as well as one who drunk from the [[Fountain of Youth]].<ref>''The Adventures of Amir Hamza'', trans. M. A. Farooqi, cf. List of Characters: ''Ilyas'' or ''Prophet Elias''</ref>

Although most [[Muslim]] scholars believed that Elijah preached in [[Israel]], some early commentators on the [[Qur'an]] stated that Elijah was sent to [[Baalbek]], in [[Lebanon]].<ref>''[[Stories of the Prophets (Ibn Kathir)|Stories of the Prophets]]'', Ibn Kathir, ''Story of Elias and Elisha''</ref> Modern scholars have rejected this claim, stating that the connection of the city with Elijah would have been made because of the first half of the city's name, that of ''[[Baal]]'', which was the deity that Elijah exhorted his people to stop worshiping. Scholars who reject identification of Elijah's town with Baalbek further argue that the town of Baalbek is not mentioned with the narrative of Elijah in either the [[Qur'an]] or the [[Hebrew Bible]].<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam'', B. M. Wheeler, ''Baalbek''</ref>

== Elijah in other faiths ==

=== In Bahá'í ===
In the [[Bahá'í Faith]], the [[Báb]], founder of The [[Bábí]] Faith, is believed to be the return of Elijah and [[John the Baptist]].<ref name="gpb_58">{{cite book |first=Effendi |last=Shoghi |authorlink=Shoghi Effendi |year=1944 |title=God Passes By |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |isbn=0-87743-020-9 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/gpb-5.html#pg58 | page = 58}}</ref> Both Elijah and John the Baptist are considered to be Lesser [[Prophet]]s, whose stations are below that of a [[Manifestation of God]] such as Jesus Christ, Buddha, Muhammad, the Báb or [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. The Báb is buried on Mount Carmel, where Elijah had his confrontation with the prophets of Baal.<ref>{{cite book | first=John | last=Esslemont | title = Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA | isbn=0-87743-160-4 | url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/bne-21.html | page=18}}</ref>

== Controversies ==

=== Miracle of the ravens ===
That ''ravens'' fed Elijah by the brook [[Cherith]] has been questioned. The Hebrew text at {{Bibleverse|1|Kings|17:4–6|HE}} uses the word {{lang|he|עֹרְבִים}} ''`ōrvīm'', which means ''ravens'', but with a different vocalization might equally mean ''Arabs''. The [[Septuagint]] has {{lang|grc|κορακες}}, ''ravens'', and other traditional translations followed. When, centuries later, [[vowel points]] were added to the Hebrew text, they also were those for the ''ravens'' interpretation.

Alternatives have been proposed for many years; for example [[Adam Clarke]] treats it as a discussion already of long standing.<ref>[[Adam Clarke|Clarke, Adam]]. The Holy Bible ... with a Commentary and Critical Notes, Volume II, London 1836</ref> Objections to the traditional translation are that ravens are ritually unclean (see {{Bibleverse||Leviticus|11:13–17|HE}}) as well as physically dirty; it is difficult to imagine any method of delivery of the food which is not disgusting. The parallelism with the incident that follows, where Elijah is fed by the widow, also suggests a human, if mildly improbable, agent.

Prof. John Gray chooses ''Arabs'', saying "We adopt this reading solely because of its congruity with the sequel, where Elijah is fed by an alien Phoenician woman."<ref>Gray, John. Old Testament Library, I & II Kings, SCM Press, London, 1964</ref> His translation of the verses in question is: <blockquote>And the word of Jehovah came to Elijah saying, Go hence and turn eastward and hide thyself in the Wadi Kerith east of the Jordan, and it shall be that thou shalt drink of the wadi, and I have commanded the Arabs to feed thee there. And he went and did according to the word of Jehovah and went and dwelt in the Wadi Kerith east of the Jordan. And the Arabs brought him bread in the morning and flesh in the evening and he would drink of the wadi.</blockquote>

=== Ascension into the heavens ===
The [[Gospel of John]] quotes [[Jesus]] as saying:
{{quote|No one has ascended into heaven except the one who descended from heaven, the Son of Man. (Other ancient authorities add who is in heaven)|John 3:13, [[NRSV]]}}

Traditionally Christianity interprets the [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament#Son of Man|"Son of Man" as a title of Jesus]], but this has never been an article of faith and there are other interpretations. Further interpreting this quote, some Christians believe that Elijah was not assumed into heaven but simply transferred to another assignment either in heaven<ref name = "djytel">[http://www.concordant.org/expohtml/GeneralExpositions/EnochAndElijah.html biblical studies: The Fate of Enoch and Elijah<!–– Bot generated title ––>]</ref> or with [[Jehoram of Judah|King Jehoram of Judah]].<ref name = "djytel"/> Indeed, the prophets reacted in such a way that makes sense if he was carried away, and not simply straight up ({{Bibleverse||2Kings|2:16}}).

The question of whether Elijah was in heaven or elsewhere on earth depends partly on the view of the letter Jehoram received from Elijah in 2 Chron 21 after Elijah had ascended. Some have suggested that the letter was written before Elijah ascended, but only delivered later.<ref>Bromiley ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' p. 55</ref> The rabbinical [[Seder Olam Rabbah|Seder Olam]] explains that the letter was delivered seven years after his ascension.<ref>Aryeh Kaplan ''The handbook of Jewish thought, Volume 1 1992 Page 116 "This was seven years after Elijah's death; [[Seder Olam Rabbah]] 17.25"</ref> This is also a possible explanation for some variation in manuscripts of Josephus' [[Antiquities of the Jews]] when dealing with the contradiction between the ascension and the letter to Jehoram.<ref>Begg C. ''Josephus' story of the later monarchy: (AJ 9,1–10,185)'' Section "Elijah's Letter" p119</ref> Others have argued that Elijah was only "caught away" such as Philip in Acts 8:39<ref>Ron Abel ''Wrested Scriptures'' "There is evidence that Elijah was back on earth after he was taken away in the whirlwind. It can be shown that a letter was received by Jehoram, King of Judah, from Elijah, after Elijah was taken to heaven. Either the letter was written before he went to heaven and delivered by a messenger on earth (unlikely), or Elijah was "caught away" as was Philip from the Gaza Road to Azotas, (about 17 miles, Acts 8:39,40) for an unspecified purpose and returned to the earth. Consider the evidence: 1. Elijah had been taken to heaven in a whirlwind. (2 Kings 2:11). 2. Elisha had taken over the duties of Elijah in the reign of Jehoshaphat. (2 Kings 3:10,11)., 3. Jehoram received a letter from Elijah, the prophet. (2 Chron. 21:1, 9–12). King Jehoram reigned after Jehoshaphat. (2 Chron. 21:1)".</ref> [[John Lightfoot]] reasoned that it must have been a different Elijah.<ref>Barrett Richard A.F. ''A synopsis of criticisms upon those passages'', Volume 3, Part 1 p234 1847 "But our Dr. Lightfoot is of opinion, that it is not meant of that Elijah, who was carried up to heaven, but of another of his name, who sent this letter"</ref>

Elijah's name typically occurs in [[Entering heaven alive#Judaism|Jewish lists of those who have entered heaven alive]].

=== Return ===
Centuries after his departure the Jewish nation awaits the coming of Elijah to precede the coming of the Messiah. For many Christians this belief is referenced in Matthew's gospel, where Jesus Christ is interpreted as teaching that the Elijah who was to come was John the Baptist ({{Bibleverse||Matthew|17:9–13|NAB}}). Further argument for John the Baptist as Elijah hinges on two critical scriptures in Matthew 11:10, 14. Verse 10 is said to correlate with Malachi 3:1 and verse 14 to correlate with Malachi 4:5–6, although in John 1:19–21 John the Baptist denies that he is the prophet.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believes that Elijah returned on April 3, 1836 in an appearance to [[Joseph Smith]] and Oliver Cowdery, fulfilling the prophecy in Malachi.

The [[Bahá'í Faith]] believes Elijah returned as the [[Biblical]] [[Prophet]] [[John the Baptist]] and as the [[Báb]] who founded the [[Bábí]] Faith in 1844.<ref>[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/gpb-5.html#pg57 Bahá'í Reference Library—God Passes By, Pages 49–60]</ref><ref>[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/bne-18.html Bahá'í Reference Library—Bahá’u’lláh and the New Era, Pages 15–16]</ref>

== Elijah in arts and literature ==
* Perhaps the best-known representation of the story of Elijah is [[Felix Mendelssohn]]'s [[oratorio]] "[[Elijah (oratorio)|Elijah]]". The oratorio chronicles many episodes of Elijah's life, including his challenge to Ahab and the contest of the gods, the miracle of raising the dead, and his ascension into heaven. Composed and premiered in 1846, the oratorio was criticized by members of the [[New German School]] but nonetheless remains one of the most popular Romantic choral-orchestral works in the repertoire.
* In ''[[Orlando Furioso]]'', the English knight [[Astolfo]] flies up to the moon in Elijah's flaming chariot.
* [[Elijah Rock]] is a traditional [[Christian]] [[Spiritual (music)|spiritual]] about Elijah, also sometimes used by Jewish youth groups.
* "Go Like Elijah" is a song by the American rock-pop-jazz songwriter [[Chi Coltrane]].
* [[Lorenzetto]] created a statue of Elijah with assistance of the young sculptor [[Raffaello da Montelupo]], using designs by Raphael.<ref>[http://www.efn.org/~acd/vite/VasariLorenz.html Link to on-line biography of Lorenzetto from Vasari's ''Vite'']</ref>
* ''The Fifth Mountain'' by [[Paulo Coelho]] is based on the story of Elijah
* Christian metal band [[Disciple (band)|Disciple]] released the song "God of Elijah" on their 2001 album [[By God]]. The theme of the song is the challenge Elijah placed against Ahab between [[Baal]] and the god of Israel.
* The roots-fusion band [[Seatrain (band)|Seatrain]] records, on the albums of the same name (1970), bandmember Peter Rowans song Waiting for Elijah, alluding to Elijahs second coming, see Old Testament references above.
* From 1974 to 1976 [[Philip K. Dick]] believed himself to be [[Spirit possession|possessed]] by the spirit of Elijah.<ref>Rickman, Gregg. Philip K. Dick: The Last Testament. Long Beach, CA: Fragments West/The Valentine Press, 1985.</ref> He later included Elijah (as Elias Tate) in his novel ''[[The Divine Invasion]]''.
* On [[Ryan Adams]]' 2005 album ''[[29 (album)]]'' the song "Voices" speaks of Elijah, alluding to Elijah being the prophet of destruction.
* In 1996, [[Robin Mark]] created a praise song entitled ''Days of Elijah''.
* [[Cormac McCarthy]]'s post-apocalyptic novel ''[[The Road]]'' (2006) features an old man who ambiguously refers to himself as Ely.
* [[Elijah Baley|Elijah]] ("Lije") is the name of the protagonist in three novels of [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[Robot series (Asimov)|''Robot'' series]]. He is familiar with Biblical stories and sometimes relates them in the narrative or in discussion with his [[R. Daneel Olivaw|robot partner]] who was built on a world devoid of religion. His wife is ironically named Jezebel.
* The popular movie ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' alludes to the William Blake poem [[And did those feet in ancient time]], which in turn alludes to the Elijah story.
* Elijah was played by [[John Hoyt]] in the 1953 film ''[[Sins of Jezebel]]''.
* A series of paintings by [[Clive Hicks-Jenkins]] around 2003-7 depicted Elijah being fed by a raven, inspired by fragments of a Tuscan altarpiece in [[Christ Church Picture Gallery]] in Oxford.<ref>Jacqueline Thalmann, 'Windows to Grace' in Simon Callow, Andrew Green, Rex Harley, Clive Hicks-Jenkins, Kathe Koja, Anita Mills, Montserrat Prat, Jacqueline Thalmann, Damian Walford Davies and Marly Youmans, Clive Hicks-Jenkins (2011: Lund Humphries) ISBN 978-1-84822-082-9, pp. 81-97</ref>
* Referenced in the song "It Was Written," by [[Damian Marley]], featuring [[Capleton]] and [[Drag-On]].
* Referenced in the movie [[The Book of Eli]], starring [[Denzel Washington]] in the title role as the man on a mission in a post-apocalpytic world to deliver the Bible for safe-keeping.
* [[I. L. Peretz]] wrote ''The Magician'', which was illustrated by [[Marc Chagall]] in 1917, about Elijah.<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9615/ |title = The Magician |website = [[World Digital Library]] |year = 1917 |accessdate = 2013-09-30 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Saints}}
*[[Biblical narratives and the Quran|Biblical narratives and the Qur'an]]
*[[Carmelites]]
*[[Elias]]
*[[Elisha]]
*[[Khidr]]
*[[Legends and the Quran|Legends and the Qur'an]]
*[[Prophets of Islam]]
*[[Stories of The Prophets]]
*[[St. Elijah's Church (disambiguation)]], for churches dedicated to Elijah
*[[Theophoric name]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
* ''Elijah: Prophet of Carmel'', by Jane Ackerman, ICS Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-935216-30-8

=== History ===
* Miller, J. M. and J. H. Hayes. ''A History of Ancient Israel and Judah.'' Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2004. ISBN 0-664-22358-3

=== Folklore and tradition ===
* Bialik, H. N. and Y. H Ravnitzky. eds. ''The Book of Legends: Sefer Ha-Aggadah.'' New York: Schocken Books, 1992. ISBN 0-8052-4113-2
* Ginzberg, Lewis. ''Legends of the Bible.'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1956.
* Schwartz, Howard. ''Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-508679-1
* Wolfson, Ron and Joel L. Grishaver. ''Passover: The family Guide to Spiritual Celebration.'' Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2003. ISBN 1-58023-174-8

=== Children's literature ===
* Aronin, Ben and Shay Rieger. ''The Secret of the Sabbath Fish.'' Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1978. ISBN 0-8276-0110-7
* Goldin, Barbara. ''Journeys with Elijah: Eight Tales of the Prophet.'' New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999. ISBN 0-15-200445-9
* Jaffe, Nina. ''The Mysterious Visitor: Stories of the Prophet Elijah.'' New York: Scholastic Press, 1997. ISBN 0-590-48422-2
* Jaffe, Nina. ''The Way Meat Loves Salt: A Cinderella Tale from the Jewish Tradition.'' New York: Holt Publishing, 1998. ISBN 0-8050-4384-5
* Silverman, Erica. ''Gittel's Hands.'' Mahwah, NJ: BridgeWater Books, 1996. ISBN 0-8167-3798-3
* Sydelle, Pearl. ''Elijah's Tears: Stories for the Jewish Holidays.'' New York: Holt Publishing, 1996. ISBN 0-8050-4627-5
* Thaler, Mike. ''Elijah, Prophet Sharing: and Other Bible Stories to Tickle Your Soul.'' Colorado Springs, CO: Faith Kids Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7814-3512-9
* Scheck, Joann. ''The Water That Caught On Fire.'' St. Louis, Missouri: Concordia Publishing House: ARCH Books, 1969. (59-1159)

=== References in the Qur'an ===
* Mission of Elijah: {{Cite quran|37|123|e=126|s=ns|b=n}}, {{Cite quran|37|127|e=128|s=ns|b=n}}
* Praise for Elijah: {{Cite quran|6|85|s=ns|b=n}}, {{Cite quran|37|129|e=132|s=ns|b=n}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/loj/loj408.htm Legends of the Jews by Louis Ginzberg.] The legends of Elijah.
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=E&search=Elijah Jewish Encyclopedia: ''Elijah'']
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-65 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cosmic Voyages''] - Mentions (in passing) the story of Elijah being carried up to heaven in a flaming chariot as an inspiration for human flight
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_elijah.html ''Elijah'' by Rob Bradshaw] Extensive dictionary style article.
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/bd/e/33 LDS Bible Dictionary Entry on Elijah]
*[http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Statues/Founders/Elijah/Elijah.htm Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica]
*[http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=102060 Holy, Glorious Prophet Elijah] Orthodox [[icon]] and [[synaxarion]]
*[http://www.al-huda.com/TPOI_32.htm Prophet Ilyas]
*[http://www.islam101.com/history/people/prophets/elisha.htm The Story of Ilyas (Elias)]
*[http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=102060 Holy, Glorious Prophet Elijah] Orthodox [[icon]] and [[synaxarion]]
* {{ws|“[[s:Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)/Elijah|Elijah]]” in ''[[Easton's Bible Dictionary]]'', 1897}}
* {{Cite NIE|Elijah|year=1905}}

{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}
{{Prophets in the Qur'an}}
{{Qur'anic people}}
{{Catholic saints}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Elijah
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Elias
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = An early Hebrew prophet and a wonder-worker
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Tishbe]], Gilad
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}

[[Category:Elijah| ]]
[[Category:Descendants of Eber]]
[[Category:Books of Kings]]
[[Category:Hebrew Bible people]]
[[Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament]]
[[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
[[Category:Prophets of Islam]]
[[Category:World Digital Library related]]