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Washington, D.C.

2006-10-04T01:41:29Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Washington D.C.

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{{Infobox City |official_name = Washington, D.C.
|nickname=DC''", "''The District
|motto = Justitia Omnibus (Justice for All)
|image_skyline = WashMonument WhiteHouse.jpg
|image_flag = Flag of Washington, D.C..svg
|image_seal = Seal-DC.png
|image_map = DC_locator_map_with_state_names_w_usmap.png
|mapsize= 260px
|map_caption = Location of Washington, D.C., with regard to the surrounding states of [[Maryland]] and [[Virginia]].
|subdivision_type = [[Federal District]]
|subdivision_name = [[District of Columbia]]
|leader_title = [[List of mayors of Washington, D.C.|Mayor]]
|leader_title1 = [[City Council]]
|leader_name = [[Anthony A. Williams|Anthony Williams]] [[United States Democratic Party|(D)]]
|leader_name1 = Chairperson - [[Linda W. Cropp]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 1 - [[Jim Graham]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 2- [[Jack Evans (D.C. Council)|Jack Evans]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 3- [[Kathleen Patterson]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 4 - [[Adrian Fenty]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 5 - [[Vincent Orange]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 6 - [[Sharon Ambrose]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 7 - [[Vincent C. Gray]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) Ward 8 - [[Marion Barry]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) At-Large - [[Carol Schwartz]] ([[United States Republican Party|R]]) At-Large - [[David Catania]] ([[Independent politician|I]]) At-Large- [[Phil Mendelson]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]) At-Large- [[Kwame R. Brown]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]])
|established = Founded
|established_date = [[July 16]], [[1790]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 177.0
|TotalArea_sq_mi = 68.3
|area_land = 159.0
|LandArea_sq_mi = 61.4
|area_water = 18.0
|WaterArea_sq_mi = 6.9
|population_as_of = 2005
|population_metro = 8,026,807
|population_urban = 5,214,666
|population_total = 582,049<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/21/AR2006072101621.html |author=Washington Post |title=Population Revision 'Big Deal' For D.C. |accessdate=2006-07-26}}</ref>
|population_density = 3,481
|population_density_mi2 = 9,015
|timezone = [[North American Eastern Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 38
|latm = 53
|lats = 42.4
|latNS = N
|longd = 77
|longm = 02
|longs = 12.0
|longEW = W
|elevation = 0-410 ft  /  0-125
|website = http://www.dc.gov/
|footnotes =
}}
'''Washington, D.C.''' is the [[capital]] [[city]] of the [[United States]]. "D.C." stands for the '''District of Columbia''', the [[federal district]] coextensive with the city of Washington. The city is named after [[George Washington]], military leader of the [[American Revolution]] and the first [[President of the United States]].

The District of [[Historical Columbia|Columbia]] and the city of Washington are coextensive and are governed by a single [[municipality|municipal]] [[government]], so for most practical purposes they are considered to be the same entity (this was not always the case, though, as there were multiple jurisdictions within the district as late as 1871, when [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]] ceased to be a separate city within the District). Although there is a municipal government and a mayor, [[United States Congress|Congress]] has the [[Suzerainty|supreme authority]] over the city and district, which results in citizens having a different status and less representation in government than residents of the states.

The centers of all three branches of the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] are in the District as well as the headquarters of most [[Independent agencies of the United States government|independent agencies]]. It serves as the headquarters for the [[World Bank]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], and the [[Organization of American States]], and other national and international institutions. Washington is the frequent location of large political [[Demonstration (people)|demonstrations]] and [[protest]]s, particularly on the [[National Mall]]. Washington is the site of numerous [[National Historic Landmark|national landmark]]s, monuments, and [[museum]]s, and is a popular destination for [[tourism|tourists]].

It is commonly known as '''D.C.''', '''The District''', or simply '''Washington'''. Historically, it was called the '''Federal City''' or '''Washington City'''. It is easily confused with the state of [[Washington]], located in the [[Pacific Northwest]] — to avoid this, the capital city is often called simply '''D.C.''', and the state referred to as "Washington State." The population of the District of Columbia, as of 2005 [[U.S. Census Bureau]] estimates, is 582,049 persons. The [[Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area]] surpasses 8 million persons. If Washington, D.C. were a [[U.S. state|state]], it would rank last in area behind [[Rhode Island]], 50th in population ahead of [[Wyoming]], first in population density ahead of [[New Jersey]], and 35th in [[Gross State Product]].

==History==
{{main|History of Washington, D.C.}}
The District of Columbia, founded on [[July 16]], [[1790]], is a federal district as specified by the [[United States Constitution]]. The U.S. Congress has ultimate authority over the District of Columbia, though it has delegated limited local rule to the municipal government. The land forming the original District came from the states of [[Virginia]] and [[Maryland]]. However, the [[area]] south of the [[Potomac River]] (39 square miles or about 100 km²) was returned, or "[[retrocession (District of Columbia)|retroceded]]", to Virginia in 1847 and now is incorporated into [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington County]] and the City of [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]]. After 1847, the remaining land that formed the area now known as the District of Columbia was formed exclusively from land that once belonged to Maryland.

===Planning===
[[Image:L'Enfant plan.jpg|right|thumb|250px|L'Enfant plan for Washington]]
[[image:Karte_Washington_MKL1888.png|250px|thumb|1888 [[Germany|German]] map of Washington, D.C.]]
A Southern site for the new country's capital was agreed upon at a dinner between [[James Madison]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]], hosted by [[Thomas Jefferson]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Ellis, Joseph J. | title=Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation | publisher=Vintage| year=2002| id=ISBN 0-375-70524-4}}</ref> The city was designed by [[Pierre Charles L'Enfant]], a [[Major]] in the [[United States Army]]. The initial plan for the "Federal District" was a diamond, measuring 10 [[mile]]s (16 [[kilometre|km]]) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (256 km²). The actual site on the Potomac River was chosen by [[George Washington|President Washington]]. Washington may have chosen the site for its natural scenery, believing the Potomac would become a great navigable waterway. The city was officially named "Washington" on [[September 9]], [[1791]]. Out of modesty, George Washington never referred to it as such, preferring to call it "the Federal City". Despite choosing the site and living nearby at [[Mount Vernon (plantation)|Mount Vernon]], he rarely visited the city. The federal district was named the District of Columbia because [[Historical Columbia|Columbia]] was a poetic name for the United States used at the time.

Initially, the District of Columbia included four distinct sections, of which the city of Washington was only one. The others were [[Alexandria County, D.C.|Alexandria County]], [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]], and the [[Washington County, D.C.|County of Washington]]. Georgetown occupied its current boundaries. Alexandria County included parts of the present-day City of Alexandria, as well as the current [[Arlington County, Virginia]]. Washington City occupied much of its current area but ended at present-day [[Rock Creek Park]] on the west and [[Florida Avenue]] and Benning Road on the north. Florida Avenue was then called "Boundary Street." The remainder of the district was Washington County.

In 1791–92, [[Andrew Ellicott]] and the free [[African American|African-American]] [[Benjamin Banneker]] surveyed the border of the District with both Virginia and Maryland, placing boundary stones at every mile point; many of these still stand.

The [[cornerstone]] of the [[White House]], the first newly constructed building of the new capital, was laid on [[October 13]], [[1792]]. That was the day after the first solemn celebrations of [[Columbus Day]], marking its 300th anniversary.

On [[August 24]], [[1814]], British forces [[Burning of Washington|burned the capital]] during the most notable raid of the [[War of 1812]] in retaliation for the sacking and burning of York (modern-day [[Toronto]]) during the winter months, which had left many Canadians homeless. President [[James Madison]] and U.S. forces fled before the British forces arrived and burned public buildings, including the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] and the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]] building. The [[White House]] was burned and gutted. The Navy Yard was also burned—by American sailors. The home of the [[Commandant of the Marine Corps]], located at the [[Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.|Marine Barracks]], was one of the few government buildings not burned by the raiding British soldiers out of a sign of respect and is now the oldest public building in continuous use in the nation's capital. The damage done by the British forces is often exaggerated and was not as reckless as the sacking of York.{{citation-needed}} Civilians were not directly targeted and, initially, the British had approached the city hoping to secure a truce. However, they were fired upon, triggering frustration and anger among the British, which ultimately led to the sacking of government buildings.<ref>[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/washingtonsack.htm "The British Burn Washington, DC, 1814"]. EyeWitness to History, eyewitnesstohistory.com (2003).</ref>

During the 1830s the District was home to one of the largest slave trading operations in the country (see [[Alexandria, Virginia]]).

In 1846, the populace of Alexandria County, who resented the loss of business with the competing port of Georgetown and feared greater impact if slavery were outlawed in the capital, voted in a referendum to ask Congress to [[retrocession (District of Columbia)|retrocede]] Alexandria back to the state of Virginia. Congress agreed to do so on [[July 9]] of that year.

[[Image:Washington_dc_1874.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Newspaper Row, Washington, D.C., 1874.]]
Washington remained a small city—the 1860 Census put the population at just over 75,000 persons—until the outbreak of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] in 1861. The significant expansion of the federal government to administer the war and its legacies such as veterans' pensions led to notable growth in the city's population. By 1870, the District population had grown to nearly 132,000.

In July 1864, [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces under [[Jubal Anderson Early]] made a brief raid into Washington, culminating in the [[Battle of Fort Stevens]]. The Confederates were repulsed, and Early eventually returned to the [[Shenandoah Valley]]. The [[Fort Stevens (Washington, D.C.)|fort]] is located near present day [[Walter Reed Army Medical Center]] in northwest Washington. The battle was the only battle where a U.S. president, [[Abraham Lincoln]], was present and under enemy fire while in office. <ref> [http://www.nps.gov/rocr/ftcircle/stevens.htm Rock Creek Park - National Park Service] www.nps.gov (accessed April 03 2006)</ref>

In the early 1870s, Washington was given a territorial government, but Governor [[Alexander Robey Shepherd]]'s reputation for extravagance resulted in Congress abolishing his office in favor of direct rule. Congressional governance of the District would continue for a century.

In 1878, Congress passed an [[Organic Act]] that made the boundaries of the city of Washington coterminous with those of the District of Columbia. This effectively eliminated Washington County; Georgetown, technically made a part of the city, was allowed to remain nominally separate until 1895 when it was formally combined with Washington.

The [[Washington Monument]] opened in 1888. Plans were laid to further develop the monumental aspects of the city, with work contributed by such noted figures as [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] and [[Daniel Burnham]]. However, development of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] and other structures on the National Mall did not begin until the early 20th century.

[[Image:Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington DC, USA, 1998.jpg|300px|thumb|Pennsylvania Avenue in 1998]]
The District's population peaked in 1950, when the census for that year recorded a record population of 802,178 people.<ref>"[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2003/cb03-ff18se2.pdf Anniversary of Washington, D.C., as Nation’s Capital]." ''[[United States Census Bureau]] (Facts for Features).'' [December 1, 2003. Retrieved on [April 28, 2006.</ref> At the time, the city was the ninth-largest in the country, ahead of [[Boston]] and behind [[St. Louis, Missouri|Saint Louis]]. The population declined in the following decades, mirroring the suburban emigration of many of the nation's older urban centers following [[World War II]].

The [[Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution]] was ratified on [[March 29]], [[1961]], allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to vote for president and have their votes count in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]].

After the assassination of civil rights activist [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], in Memphis, Tennessee, on [[1968 Washington, D.C. riots|April 4, 1968, riots]] broke out in downtown Washington. The violence raged for four days. Much of downtown D.C. was burned. At one point, the rioters came within two blocks of the White House. President [[Lyndon Johnson]] ordered over 13,000 federal troops to occupy the city--the largest occupation of an American city since the Civil War. Although religious and civic leaders of all races, creeds and colors gathered afterwards to work together to try to rebuild the devastated city, it took decades for D.C.'s downtown to recover, and as late as 2006 there are still vacant lots, 38 years later, which were caused by the rioting as some buildings which were damaged, torn down and never rebuilt after the 1968 riots. Many businesses, theaters and even houses of worship closed or moved to the suburbs. It was the country's bicentennial in 1976 that helped attract investment back to the capital. The [[Union Station (Washington, D.C.)|train station]]--which had been a tattered shell known locally as "Amshack"-- was turned into a visitor's center and then eventually transformed to the glittering building it is today.

One of the most important developments in bringing people back downtown was the building of the subway system. The first 4.6 miles (7.4 km) of the [[Washington Metro]] [[metro|subway]] system opened on [[March 27]], [[1976]].

[[Walter Washington]] became the first elected mayor of the District in 1974. [[Marion Barry]] became mayor in 1978, but he was arrested for [[recreational drug use|drug use]] in an [[FBI]] [[sting operation]] on [[January 18]], [[1990]], and served a six-month jail term. His successor, [[Sharon Pratt Kelly]], became the first black woman to lead a city of that size and importance in the U.S. Barry, however, defeated her in the 1994 primary and was once again elected mayor for his fourth term, during which time the city nearly became [[insolvent]] and was forced to give up some home rule to a congressionally-appointed financial control board. In 1998, [[Anthony A. Williams]] was elected the city's mayor and led the city into a fiscal recovery, which made him a popular figure. Williams was reelected in 2002.

On [[September 29]], [[2004]], [[Major League Baseball]] officially relocated the [[Montreal Expos]] to Washington for the 2005 season, now named the [[Washington Nationals]], despite opposition from [[Baltimore Orioles]] owner [[Peter Angelos]]. A very public lengthy discussion between the city council and MLB threatened to scuttle the agreement until [[December 21]], when a plan for a [[Nationals Ballpark|new stadium]] in [[Washington DC (southeast)|Southeast D.C.]] was finalized. The Nationals will play at [[Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium|R.F.K. Stadium]] until the new stadium is ready on the waterfront in 2008.

==Geography==
[[Image:DC satellite image.jpg|thumb|250px|Washington, D.C. is divided into four quadrants: [[Washington, D.C. (northwest)|Northwest]], [[Washington, D.C. (northeast)|Northeast]], [[Washington, D.C. (southeast)|Southeast]], and [[Washington, D.C. (southwest)|Southwest]]. The axes bounding the [[Address (geography)#Quadrants|quadrants]] radiate from the U.S. Capitol building.]]
{{main|Geography of Washington, D.C.}}
Washington, D.C. is located at {{coor dms|38|53|42|N|77|02|11|W|region:US}} (the coordinates of the [[Zero Milestone]], on The Ellipse). According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 68.3 [[square mile]]s (177.0 [[km²]]). 61.4 square miles (159.0 km²) of it is land and 6.9 square miles (18.0 km²) of it (10.16%) is water.

Washington is surrounded by the [[U.S. state|state]]s of [[Virginia]] (on its western side) and [[Maryland]] (on its southeast, northeast, and northwest sides); it interrupts those states' common border, which is the Potomac River's southern shore both upstream and downstream from the District. The Potomac River as it passes Washington is virtually entirely within the District of Columbia border because of colonial [[riparian rights]] between Maryland and Virginia.

The District has three major natural flowing streams: the [[Potomac River]], the [[Anacostia River]], and [[Rock Creek (Potomac River)|Rock Creek]]. The Anacostia River and Rock Creek are tributaries of the Potomac River. There are also three man-made [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]]: [[Dalecarlia Reservoir]], which crosses over the northwest border of the District from Maryland; [[McMillan Reservoir]] near [[Howard University]]; and [[Georgetown Reservoir]] upstream of Georgetown.

The highest point in the District of Columbia is 410 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (125 m) above sea level at [[Tenleytown]]. The lowest point is sea level, which occurs along all of the Anacostia shore and all of the Potomac shore except the uppermost portion (the Little Falls - Chain Bridge area). The sea level Tidal Basin rose eleven feet during [[Hurricane Isabel]] on [[September 18]], [[2003]].

The geographic center of the District of Columbia is located near 4th Street NW, L Street NW, and New York Avenue NW (not under the Capitol Dome, as is sometimes said.)

Geographical features of Washington, D.C. include [[Theodore Roosevelt Island]], [[Columbia Island (District of Columbia)|Columbia Island]], the [[Three Sisters (Washington, D.C.)|Three Sisters]], and [[Hains Point]].
[[Image:Washington C D.C. Tidal Basin cherry trees.jpg|thumb|right|Washington Monument]]

===Climate===
Washington has a [[humid subtropical climate]] typical of the [[Mid-Atlantic|Mid-Atlantic U.S.]], with four distinct seasons. Summer tends to be hot and humid with daily high temperatures in July and August averaging in the high 80s° to low 90s°[[Fahrenheit|F]] (about 30° to 33°[[Celsius|C]]). The combination of heat and humidity makes thunderstorms very frequent in the summer. Spring and fall are mild with high temperatures in April and October averaging in the high 60s° Fahrenheit (about 20 °C). Winter brings cool temperatures and occasional snowfall. Average highs tend to be in the 40s (4 to 8 °C) and lows in the 20s (-6 to -2 °C) from mid December to mid February. While [[hurricane]]s (or the remnants of them) occasionally track through the area in the late summer and early fall, they have often weakened by the time they reach Washington. Spring is the most favorable time of year, with low humidity, mild temperatures and blooming foliage. This period generally lasts from late March until mid May.

The average annual snowfall is 15 [[inch]]es (381 [[millimetres|mm]]) and the average high temperature in January is 43 °F (6 °C); the average low for January is 27 °F (-3 °C). The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on [[July 20]], [[1930]] and [[August 6]], [[1918]] and the lowest recorded temperature was -15 °F (-26 °C) on [[February 11]], [[1899]].<ref>National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</ref>

==Demographics==
The 2005 Census estimate of the city's population was 582,049, <ref>Montgomery, Lori; Silverman, Elissa. "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/21/AR2006072101621.html Population Revision 'Big Deal' For D.C.]." ''[[Washington Post]].'' [[July 22]], [[2006]]. Retrieved on [[August 31]], [[2006]].</ref> after the city government questioned the Census' results. The Census admitted it had made a mistake and added more than 31,000 to its original estimate. This would make the biggest increase in the city's population since 1950.

As of the 2000 census, there were 572,059 people, 248,338 households, and 114,235 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 9,316.4 per square mile (3,597.3/km²). There were 274,845 housing units at an average density of 1,728.3/km² (4,476.1/mi²).
{| border="1" style="float:right; margin: 1em;border-collapse:collapse;"
|+ '''Historical populations of Washington, D.C.'''
| valign="top" |
{|
! style="background:#efefef;" | Year
! style="background:#efefef;" | Population
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1800|1800]] || align="right" | 8,144
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1810|1810]] || align="right" | 15,471
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1820|1820]] || align="right" | 23,336
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1830|1830]] || align="right" | 30,261
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1840|1840]] || align="right" | 33,745
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1850|1850]] || align="right" | 51,687
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1860|1860]] || align="right" | 75,080
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1870|1870]] || align="right" | 131,700
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1880|1880]] || align="right" | 177,624
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1890|1890]] || align="right" | 230,392
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1900|1900]] || align="right" | 278,718
|}
| valign="top" |
{|
! style="background:#efefef;" | Year
! style="background:#efefef;" | Population
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1910|1910]] || align="right" | 331,069
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1920|1920]] || align="right" | 437,571
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1930|1930]] || align="right" | 486,869
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1940|1940]] || align="right" | 663,091
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1950|1950]] || align="right" | 802,178
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1960|1960]] || align="right" | 763,956
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1970|1970]] || align="right" | 756,510
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1980|1980]] || align="right" | 638,333
|-----
| [[United States Census, 1990|1990]] || align="right" | 606,900
|-----
| [[United States Census, 2000|2000]] || align="right" | 572,059
|-----
| [[2005]] estimate || align="right" | 582,049
|-----
|}
|-----
|}
{{US Demographics|state=District of Columbia}}
The largest Hispanic group is [[Salvadoran]], and a plurality of whites are of [[British-American|British ancestry]].

There were 248,338 households, out of which 19.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 22.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 18.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.0% were non-families. 43.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 3.07.

In the city, the population was spread out with 20.1% under the age of 18, 12.7% from 18 to 24, 33.1% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 89.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.1 males.
[[Image:Mount pleasant farmers market.jpg|left|225px|thumb|[[Mount Pleasant, Washington, D.C.|Mount Pleasant]] Farmer's Market]]
The median income for a household in the city was $40,127, and the median income for a family was $46,283. Males had a median income of $40,513 versus $36,361 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $28,659. About 16.7% of families and 20.2% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 31.1% of those under age 18 and 16.4% of those over age 65.

As of 2000, 83.2% of Washington, D.C. residents age 5 and older speak only [[English language|English]] at home and 9.2% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 1.8%, followed by African languages at 1.0% and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] at 0.5%.

According to the 2001 American Religious Identification Survey, nearly three out of four District residents identified themselves as [[Christian]].<ref>Kosmin, Barry A.; Mayer, Egon; Keysar, Ariela. "[http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_studies/aris.pdf Religious Identification Survey, 2001]." ''[[City University of New York]] (Graduate Center).'' Retrieved on [[April 3]], [[2006]].</ref> This breaks down to 72% Christian (27% [[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Catholic]], 19% [[Baptist]], and 26% other [[Protestant]] churches), 13% stating no religion, 4% [[Buddhist]], 2% [[Muslim]], and 1% [[Jewish]].
[[Image:Chinatown, DC gate.jpg|thumb|225px|right|"Friendship Arch" in [[Chinatown, Washington, D.C.|Chinatown]]]]
According to the [[Census Bureau]], the District's daytime population is estimated at 982,853.<ref>Bergman, Mike. "[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/005822.html Washington, D.C., Has Huge Increase. Census Bureau Releases First-Ever Data On Daytime Populations for Cities and Counties]." (press release). ''[[United States Census Bureau]].'' [[October 20]], [[2005]]. Retrieved on [[August 31]], [[2006]].</ref> The influx of over 410,000 workers into Washington on a normal business day comprises a 72% increase of the capital's normal population. That is the largest increase percentage-wise of any city studied and the second-largest net increase, behind only [[New York City]].

The Greater Washington metropolitan area, including contiguous areas of Virginia and Maryland, had an estimated population of 5.8 million in 2003, according to the estimates of the Greater Washington Initiative.

As host to over 180 embassies and hundreds of international organizations, Washington, D.C. has a substantial population of foreign residents. There are also many students from abroad studying at the local universities and colleges. This adds a cosmopolitan flavor to the city.

===Crime===
{{main|Crime in Washington, D.C.}}
During the [[violent crime]] wave of the early 1990s, Washington, D.C. was known as the murder capital of the United States, and often rivals [[New Orleans]] as the nation's most murderous city. Murders peaked in 1991 at 482, with violence declining drastically since then: murders declined to 198 in 2004, with a slight decline to 195 in 2005. Once plagued with violent crime, many D.C. neighborhoods, such as [[Columbia Heights, Washington, D.C.|Columbia Heights]], are becoming safe and vibrant areas as a result of [[gentrification]]. While not as intensely violent, crime hot spots have since displaced farther into the eastern sections of Washington, D.C. and across the border into Maryland. Although the southeastern side of the city has developed a reputation for being unsafe, these crime hot spots are generally concentrated in very specific areas that are associated with [[Illegal drug trade|drugs]] and [[gangs]]. Other areas east of the U.S. Capitol, as well as the city's wealthier [[Washington DC (northwest)|Northwest]] neighborhoods, experience low levels of crime. Despite the declining trends, Washington D.C. crime rates (2005) remain among the highest of U.S. cities, and it was most recently ranked as the 13th most dangerous city in the nation. Washington D.C. surpasses L.A. and New York in crime.<ref>"[http://morganquitno.com/cit06pop.htm#CITIES America's Safest (and Most Dangerous) Cities]." ''[[Morgan Quitno|Morgan Quitno Press]].'' [[November 21]], [[2005]]. Retrieved on [[July 8]], [[2006]].</ref>

On [[July 11]],[[2006]], Metropolitan Police Chief [[Charles H. Ramsey]] declared a "crime emergency" in the city in response to a rising homicide rate (the city had logged 13 murders since July 1st, most notably the killing of a prominent British political activist in [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]]. While the declaration allows for more flexible and increased policing in high-crime neighborhoods, it is temporary and will be revisited following a 30-day trial period. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/11/AR2006071100720.html |title=Police Chief Declares D.C. Crime Emergency |first=Allison |last=Klein |publisher=[[Washington Post]] |accessdate=2006-07-21 |date=[[July 12]], [[2006]] }}</ref>

===Landmarks and museums===
[[Image:Jefferson Memorial at dusk.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Jefferson Memorial]]]]
Washington is home to numerous national landmarks and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the United States. The [[National Mall]] is a large, open area in the center of the city featuring many monuments to American leaders; it also serves to connect the White House and the United States Capitol buildings. Located prominently in the center of the Mall is the [[Washington Monument]]. Other notable points of interest near the Mall include the [[Jefferson Memorial]] (see right), [[Lincoln Memorial]], [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial]], [[National World War II Memorial]], [[Korean War Veterans Memorial]], [[Vietnam Veterans Memorial]], the [[District of Columbia War Memorial]] and the [[Albert Einstein Memorial, Washington DC|Albert Einstein Memorial]].
[[Image:National Museum of the American Indian.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[National Museum of the American Indian]]]]
The world famous [[Smithsonian Institution]] is located in the District. The Smithsonian today is a collection of museums that includes the [[Anacostia Museum]], [[Arthur M. Sackler Gallery]], [[Hirshhorn Museum]], [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[National Museum of American History]], [[National Museum of the American Indian]], [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[National Portrait Gallery, Washington, DC|National Portrait Gallery]], [[National Postal Museum]], [[Smithsonian American Art Museum]], [[Renwick Gallery]], and the [[Smithsonian National Zoological Park|National Zoo]].

There are many art museums in D.C., in addition to those that are part of the Smithsonian, including the [[National Gallery of Art]], [[National Museum of Women in the Arts]], the [[Corcoran Gallery of Art]], and the [[Phillips Collection]].
[[Image:Archives_DC.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]]]
The [[Library of Congress]] and the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] house thousands of documents covering every period in American history. Some of the more notable documents in the National Archives include the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] and [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].

The District of Columbia operates its own [[public library]] system with 27 branches throughout the city. The main branch — which occupies a multi-story glass and steel-framed building at the intersection of 9th and G Streets, N.W., designed by modernist architect [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] – is known as the [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Martin Luther King Jr.]] Memorial Library.<ref>"[http://www.dclibrary.org/mlk/MLK-BUILDING.HTML Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Library - A Brief History]." ''[http://www.dclibrary.org/ DC Library].'' Retrieved on [[August 31]], [[2006]].</ref> It has a large mural in its mail hall depicting the civil rights leader.

Other points of interest in the District include [[Arena Stage]], [[Chinatown, Washington, D.C.|Chinatown]], [[Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception]], [[Blair House]], [[Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle]], [[Folger Shakespeare Library]], [[Ford's Theatre]], [[Frederick Douglass National Historic Site]], [[International Spy Museum]], [[National Building Museum]], [[The Awakening (Johnson sculpture)|the Awakening at Hains Point]], [[Old Post Office Building (Washington)|Old Post Office Building]], [[Theodore Roosevelt Island]], [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]], and the [[Washington National Cathedral]].

==Economy==
As of 2002, the federal government accounts for 27% of Washington, D.C.'s jobs.<ref>Whitman, Ray D.; Siegmund, Fred. "[http://www.does.dc.gov/does/frames.asp?doc=/does/lib/does/info/ep2.62105.pdf District of Columbia Employment Projections by Industry and Occupation, 2002-2012]." ''D.C. Department of Employment Services, Office of Labor Market Research and Information.'' [[June 1]], [[2005]]. Retrieved on [[August 31]], [[2006]].</ref> The presence of many major government agencies, including the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], [[National Institutes of Health]], and the [[Food and Drug Administration]], has led to business development both in the District itself as well as in the suburbs of northern Virginia and Maryland. These businesses include federal [[independent contractor|contractor]]s (defense and civilian), numerous nonprofit organizations, law firms and lobbying firms, catering and administrative services companies, and several other industries that are sustained by the economic presence of the federal government. This arrangement makes the Washington economy virtually [[recession]]-proof relative to the rest of the country, because the federal government will still operate no matter the state of the general economy, and it often grows during recessions.

[[Fannie Mae]], electric utility [[Pepco Holdings, Inc.]], and manufacturer [[Danaher]] are major companies with headquarters in Washington, D.C. itself. Many other [[Fortune 500]] companies maintain their headquarters in the metropolitan area, including [[AES Corporation]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]], [[Capital One Financial Corporation|Capital One]], [[Gannett Company Incorporated|Gannett]], and [[NVR]] Incorporated in [[McLean, Virginia]]; [[Lockheed Martin]], [[Marriott International]], and [[Coventry Health Care]] in [[Bethesda, Maryland]]; and [[Sprint Nextel Corporation]] and [[SLM Corporation]] in [[Reston, Virginia]] and [[Kellogg Brown and Root]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]].

Major defense contractors [[General Dynamics Corporation|General Dynamics]], [[Computer Sciences Corporation|Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC)]], and [[Science Applications International Corporation|Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC)]], [[Orbital Sciences Corporation]] are also located in the metro area, as is the consulting firm [[Booz Allen Hamilton]]. In addition, [[America Online]] is located in nearby [[Dulles, Virginia]].

Because of the proximity to the [[National Institutes of Health]] in Bethesda, Maryland, the American genomics industry has recently sprouted in the Maryland suburbs of Washington. Prominent companies are [[Celera Genomics]], [[The Institute for Genomic Research]], and [[Human Genome Sciences]] (all of which are in the city of [[Rockville, Maryland]]).

Of non-government employers, Washington, D.C.'s major universities and hospitals are among the top employers with [[George Washington University]], [[Georgetown University]] and [[Washington Hospital Center]] as the top three. [[Howard University]] and [[Fannie Mae]] round out the top five employers in Washington, D.C. <ref>"[http://does.dc.gov/does/frames.asp?doc=/does/lib/does/frames/top200__2004__36pgs.pdf Top 200 Chief Executive Officers of the Major Employers in the District of Columbia]." ''Department of Employment Services, Office of Labor Market Research and Information.'' September 2004. Retrieved on [[June 6]], [[2006]].</ref>

The [[gross state product]] of the District in 2004 was [[United States Dollar|$]]75.264 billion, ranking it #36 when compared with the fifty states.<ref>Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce.</ref> In 2006, ''Expansion Magazine'' ranked DC among the top 10 metropolitan areas in the nation for climates favorable to business expansion.<ref>{{cite news|work=Expansion Magazine|url=http://www.expansionmanagement.com/smo/newsviewer/default.asp?cmd=articledetail&articleid=17713&st=3|date=August 7, 2006|title=2006 MAYOR'S CHALLENGE: Where Are the Best Metros for Future Business Locations?}}</ref>

==Media==
====Newspapers====
''[[The Washington Post]]'' is the oldest and most-read daily [[newspaper]] in Washington, and it has developed into one of the most reputable daily newspapers in the U.S. It is perhaps most notable for exposing the [[Watergate scandal]], among other achievements. The daily ''[[Washington Times]]'' and the free weekly ''[[Washington City Paper]]'' also have substantial readership in the District. On [[February 1]], [[2005]] the free daily [[tabloid]] ''[[Washington Examiner]]'' debuted, having been formed from a chain of suburban newspapers known as the ''Journal Newspapers''. The weekly ''[[Washington Blade]]'' focuses on [[gay]] issues, and the ''[[Washington Informer]]'' on [[African American]] issues. Now Metro has a daily free newspaper called the Express which summarizes current events, sports, and entertainment.

Many neighborhoods in the District have their own small-circulation newspaper, usually published by the neighborhood association on a weekly basis. Some of these papers included the ''[[Current Newspapers|Dupont Current]]'' ([[Dupont Circle]]), ''[[Current Newspapers|Georgetown Current]]'' (Georgetown), ''In-Towner'' (Dupont Circle, [[Logan Circle, Washington, D.C.|Logan Circle]], & [[Adams Morgan]]), ''[[Current Newspapers|Northwest Current]]'' (Upper Northwest), the ''Voice of the Hill'', the ''[[Hill Rag]]'' ([[Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C.|Capitol Hill]]), and ''East of the River'' (Anacostia). In addition, several specialty newspapers have sprung up that specifically serve the U.S. Congress; most notable are ''[[Roll Call (newspaper)|Roll Call]]'' and ''[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]''.

====Television====
The metro area is well served by several local broadcast [[television]] stations and is the eighth largest [[designated market area]] in the U.S., with 2,252,550 homes (2.04% of the U.S. population). Major television network affiliates include [[WUSA (TV)|WUSA]] 9 ([[CBS]]), [[WJLA]] 7 ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), [[WRC-TV|WRC]] 4, ([[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]]), [[WTTG]] 5 ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]), [[WDCW]] 50 ([[The WB Television Network|WB]], transitioning to [[The CW Television Network|The CW]]), [[WDCA]] 20 ([[UPN]], transitioning to [[My Network TV]]), as well as [[WETA]] 26 and [[WHUT]] 32 ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]) stations. Channels 4, 5, and 50 are [[Owned-and-operated station]]s (however WDCW's owners only own 25% of The WB). [[Public access television|Public Access]] on Cable Television is provided by the [[Public Access Corporation of the District of Columbia]] on two channels simulcast to both local cable TV Systems. One channel is devoted to religious programming and the other channel provides a diversity of offerings. A regional news station, [[News Channel 8]], is carried on Channel 8 on all cable systems in Washington, D.C. and surrounding communities. Spanish-language television is also represented by Telefutura affiliate WMDO-CA 47 and Telemundo WZDC-LP 64, but these are low-power stations whose broadcasting range is limited to within the [[Capital Beltway]] area. Univision's WFDC 14, however, transmits as a full power station and can be received as far north as Baltimore.

Incidentally, D.C's Univision and Telefutura stations (owned by Entravision) switched call letters on [[January 1]], [[2006]]; meaning that now Univision is the only Spanish station which can be seen at full power over the whole Washington metropolitan area. The Univision network moved from low-powered Channel 47/WMDO to full-powered Channel 14/WFDC; Univision's youth-oriented Telefutura network moved from 14 to 47. The change caused Univision and Telefutura to exchange channel locations on D.C. area cable TV systems, too.

Several [[cable television]] networks have their headquarters in the Washington area including [[C-SPAN]] on [[Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C.|Capitol Hill]], [[Black Entertainment Television]] (BET) in [[Washington, D.C. (northeast)|Northeast Washington]], and [[Discovery Channel|Discovery Communications]] in [[Silver Spring, Maryland]], as well as the [[Public Broadcasting Service]] (PBS) in [[Alexandria, Virginia]]. Major national broadcasters and cable outlets including [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]], [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[Columbia Broadcasting Service|CBS]], [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], and [[Cable News Network|CNN]] maintain a significant presence in Washington, as do those from around the world including the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]], [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], and [[Al Jazeera]].

====Radio====
[[Image:Npr headquarters.jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[National Public Radio]] headquarters, located at [[Mount Vernon Square]].]]
There are several major [[radio]] stations serving the metro area, with a wide variety of musical interests. [[Rock and Roll|Rock]] stations include [[WARW]] 94.7 FM ([[classic rock]]), [[WIHT]] 99.5 FM ([[top 40]]), and [[WWDC (FM)|WWDC]] 101.1 FM (alternative rock/pop). [[Urban contemporary|Urban]] stations include [[WPGC-FM|WPGC]] 95.5 FM ([[Rhythmic Top 40|Rhythmic CHR]]/[[Mainstream Urban]]), [[WHUR]] 96.3 FM ([[Howard University]] [[Urban Adult Contemporary|Urban AC]] station), [[WMMJ]] 102.3FM ([[Urban Adult Contemporary|Urban AC]]), [[WKYS]] 93.9 FM ([[Mainstream Urban]]), and [[Radio CPR]] 97.5 FM (a popular [[pirate radio]] station broadcasting the area around [[Mount Pleasant]], [[Adams Morgan]], and [[Columbia Heights, Washington, D.C.|Columbia Heights]]). Two major [[contemporary Christian music]] stations in the region are [[WGTS]] 91.9 FM (out of [[Takoma Park, Maryland|Takoma Park]]) and [[WPER]] 89.9 (out of [[Warrenton, Virginia]]). Stations that concentrate on talk and sports include [[WJFK-FM|WJFK]] 106.7 FM, [[WMAL]] 630 AM ([[conservatism|conservative]]), [[WWRC]] 1260AM ([[Air America Radio]]), [WOL] 1450 AM, [[WPGC (AM)|WPGC]] 1580 AM ([[Urban Gospel]]), WTEM 980 AM (sports talk), [[WAVA]] 105.1 FM ([[Christian talk radio|Christian talk]]), [[WTOP]] 820 AM, 103.5 FM (all news), and [[WTWP]] 1500 AM, 107.7 FM (Washington Post Radio/talk). Radio duos [[Don and Mike]] and [[Ron and Fez]] both had periods of great success on [[WJFK]]. [[Don and Mike]] still broadcast on [[WJFK]], while [[Ron and Fez]] broadcast on DC-based [[XM Satellite Radio]] yet out of XM's New York studio.

Three of the above-mentioned stations—WOL 1450 AM, WKYS 93.9 FM, and WMMJ 102.3—are owned by the Washington media conglomerate [[Radio One]]. Radio One is the biggest African-American media conglomerate in the country, founded by Cathy Hughes, a prominent figure in Washington radio since her days at [[Howard University]]'s WHUR.

There are two [[National Public Radio]] (NPR) affiliates: [[WAMU]] 88.5 FM (usual NPR programs, community programming, and [[BBC]] news), broadcast from the [[American University]], and [[WETA (FM)|WETA]] 90.9 FM (round-the-clock news/analysis, broadcasting shows originating mainly from [[NPR]], [[Public Radio International|PRI]], and [[BBC]]). Other stations include [[WASH]] 97.1 FM ([[adult contemporary]]), [[WMZQ]] 98.7 FM ([[country music]]), [[WBZS/WBPS]] 92.7/94.3 Mega Clasica (Latin Adult Contemporary), [[WLZL]] El Zol 99.1 FM (Latin/Tropical), [[WGMS]] 104.1/103.9 FM ([[european classical music|classical music]]), [[WPFW]] 89.3 FM ([[jazz]] and progressive talk), [[WJZW]] 105.9 FM ([[smooth jazz]]), and [[WRQX]] 107.3 FM (adult contemporary). Additionally, most major radio stations from Baltimore can be heard in the Washington metropolitan area.

[[XM Satellite Radio]] and NPR are based in Washington. The [[Voice of America]], the U.S. government's [[international broadcasting]] service, is headquartered in Washington.

===Performing arts===
[[Image:KennedyCtr.jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[Kennedy Center]]]]
[[Image:Adamsmorgan1.jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[Madam's Organ Blues Bar|Madam's Organ]], in [[Adams Morgan]], is a popular venue for [[blues]] and [[bluegrass music]].]]
Washington is a major national center for the arts, with many venues for the performing arts in the city. [[Arena Stage]], one of the first not-for-profit regional theaters in the nation, is rich with history and produces an eight-show season ranging from classics to world premieres, dedicated to the American canon of theater. The [[Shakespeare Theatre Company]] is regarded as one of the world's great Shakespeare troupes. The [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]] hosts the [[National Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Washington National Opera]], the [[Washington Ballet]], and a variety of other musical and stage performances. Notable local music clubs include [[Madam's Organ Blues Bar]] in [[Adams Morgan]]; Blues Alley in Georgetown; the [[Eighteenth Street Lounge]] in the [[Dupont Circle]] district; and the [[the Black Cat (nightclub)|Black Cat]], the [[9:30 Club]], and the [[Bohemian Caverns]] jazz club, all in the [[U Street]] NW area. The U Street area actually contains more than two dozen bars, clubs, and restaurants that feature jazz either nightly or several times a week.

Notable Washingtonians from the entertainment industry include singer songwriter [[Marvin Gaye]], film actress [[Merle Oberon]], comedian [[David Chappelle]], musician [[Duke Ellington]], filmmaker [[Ted Salins]] and two members of The [[Jefferson Airplane]] -guitarist [[Jorma Kaukonen]] and bass player [[Jack Cassidy]].

===Music===
D.C. has its own native music genre, called [[go-go]], a post-funk, percussion-driven flavor of [[R&B]] that blends live sets with relentless dance rhythms, so-called because they "go and go and go." The most accomplished practitioner of go-go was D.C. bandleader [[Chuck Brown]], who brought go-go to the brink of national recognition with his 1979 LP ''[[Bustin' Loose]]''. Go-Go band and Washington natives [[Experience Unlimited]] hit the American pop charts in 1988 with their memorable dance tune "[[Da Butt]]" Other notable go-go bands include [[Rare Essence]], [[Trouble Funk]], Junkyard, Backyard, and Northeast Groovers.

Washington was an important center in the genesis of [[punk rock]] in the United States. Punk bands of note from Washington include [[Fugazi (band)|Fugazi]], [[Bad Brains]], and [[Minor Threat]]. Washingtonians continue to support punk bands, long after the punk movement's popularity peaked. The region also has a significant [[indie rock]] history and was home to [[TeenBeat Records|TeenBeat]], [[Dischord Records]] and [[Simple Machines Records|Simple Machines]], among other indie record labels.

===Television shows===
There have been several television series that have featured the District. Most of these have been related to government (''[[The West Wing (TV series)|The West Wing]] and [[Commander in Chief (TV series)|Commander in Chief]]'') or security organizations (''[[The District]]'', ''[[Get Smart]]''). Other programs had the nation's capital as a secondary focus, telling stories on their own that were not always tied to the infrastructure of the government either in the district or for the country. For instance, ''[[Murphy Brown]]'' focused on the lives of the reporters of the (fictional) Washington-based television newsmagazine, ''FYI''. The soap opera ''[[Capitol (TV series)|Capitol]]'' allowed for stories about political intrigue alongside the traditional class struggle sagas. The sitcom ''[[227 (TV series)|227]]'' portrayed the life of the African American majority as seen through the eyes of residents in a Washington apartment building. There are also many movies shot and filmed in the city yearly.

{{seealso|List of television shows set in Washington, D.C.}}

==Law and government==
===Local government===
[[Image:Washington_DC_Capitol11.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[U.S. Capitol]], seat of the Legislative Branch of the U.S. Federal Government, sits prominently east of the [[National Mall]] in Washington, D.C.]]
The city is run by an elected mayor (currently [[Anthony A. Williams]]) and a [[Council of the District of Columbia|city council]]. The city council is composed of 13 members — a representative elected from each of the eight [[Ward (subnational entity)|ward]]s and five members, including the chairman, elected at large. The council conducts its work through standing committees and special committees established as needed. District schools are administered by a [[school board]] that has both elected and appointed members. There are 37 elected [[Advisory Neighborhood Commission]]s that provide the most direct access for residents to their local government. The commissions serve as local councils, and their suggestions are required to be given "great weight" by the D.C. Council. However, the U.S. Congress has the ultimate plenary power over the district. It has the right to review and overrule laws created locally and has often done so. The [[Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] does not apply to the District of Columbia.

D.C. residents pay federal [[taxation in the United States|taxes]], such as [[income tax]], as well as local taxes. The mayor and council adopt a budget of local money with Congress reserving the right to make any changes. Much of the valuable property in the District is federally owned and hence exempt from local property taxes; at the same time, the city is burdened with the extraordinary expenses related to its role as the capital, such as police overtime and street cleaning for D.C.'s frequent parades and festivals. These factors are often used to explain why the city's budget is frequently overstretched. However, the federal government also appropriates funds for the city. For instance, according to Public Law 108-7, the federal government provided, among other funds, an estimated 25% of the District's operating budget in 2003.

Historically, the city's local government has earned somewhat of a reputation for mismanagement and waste, particularly during the mayoralty of [[Marion Barry]], who was re-elected despite serving jail time for smoking [[cocaine|crack cocaine]]. A front page story in the [[July 21]], [[1997]] ''Washington Post'' reported that Washington had some of the highest cost, lowest quality services in the region. Prosperity in the late 1990s and early 2000s has lessened public pressure on Mayor Williams, who still faces daunting [[urban renewal]], public health, and public education challenges.

{{see also|District of Columbia home rule}}

===Representation in federal government===
The U.S. Constitution gives Congress direct jurisdiction for Washington, D.C. While Congress has delegated various amounts of this authority to local government, including an elected mayor and city council, Congress still intervenes, from time to time, in local affairs relating to schools, [[gun control]] policy, and other issues.

Citizens of the District have no voting representation in Congress. They are represented in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] by a [[Delegate (United States Congress)|non-voting delegate]] (currently [[Eleanor Holmes Norton]] (D-[[DC At-Large]])) who sits on committees and participates in debate but cannot vote. D.C. has no representation at all in the [[United States Senate|Senate]]. Attempts to change this situation, including the proposed [[District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment]], have been unsuccessful.

Citizens of Washington, D.C. are not unique in having diminished representation in their federal legislature, although they are unique in having no voting representation at all. Some nations that have built capital cities from scratch, including [[Parliament of Australia#Composition|Australia]] and [[Politics of Nigeria|Nigeria]], have diminished representation for a federal district. Washington's situation can also be compared to the historical status of [[United States territory|U.S. territories]], which had only non-voting delegates to the House. However, unlike U.S. territories today (such as American Samoa and Guam), citizens of the District of Columbia are fully taxed and subject to all U.S. laws, just as the citizens of the fifty states. In recent years, "Taxation Without Representation" has been the ironic motto featured on D.C. license plates.

With the passage of the [[Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution|23rd Amendment]] in 1961, citizens of the District became eligible to vote for President. The District has three [[United States Electoral College|electoral votes]]--the same number as states with the smallest populations, such as Montana, South Dakota and Wyoming.

{{see also|United States presidential election, 2004, in D.C.|D.C. Statehood|District of Columbia voting rights|No taxation without representation}}

==Education==
===Public schools===
The public school system in the city is operated by [[District of Columbia Public Schools]] and consists of 167 schools and learning centers, which consist of 101 elementary schools, 11 middle schools, 9 junior high schools, 20 senior high schools, 6 education centers, and 20 special schools.<ref>[http://www.k12.dc.us/DCPS/offices/facts1.html Just the facts]. DCPS. URL accessed on April 29, 2006.</ref> The [[District of Columbia Public Charter School Board]] monitors charter schools in Washington, D.C. [http://www.dcpubliccharter.com/home/index.html]
:''See also: [[District of Columbia Public Schools]]''

===Private schools===
Private schools in the city include the British School of Washington, [[Emerson Preparatory School]], [[Georgetown Day School]], Holy Trinity School,[[Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School]], [[Gonzaga College High School]], [[Edmund Burke School]], Field School, German School, [[The Maret School]], [[The Model Secondary School]], [[National Cathedral School]], Our Lady of Victory, Sheridan School, [[Sidwell Friends|Sidwell Friends School]], [[St. Albans School (Washington, D.C.)|St. Albans School]], [[St. Anselm's Abbey School]], [[St. John's College High School]], Archbishop Carroll High School, St.Augustine Catholic School, [[Parkmont School]] and the [[Washington International School]].

===Colleges and universities===
{{see|List of colleges and universities in the District of Columbia}}
[[Image:Healy hall georgetown.jpg|thumb|right|[[Georgetown University]]'s [[Healy Hall]]]]
The city is home to several [[universities]], [[college]]s, and other institutes of [[higher education]], both public and private. The [[University of the District of Columbia]] is the city's public university; it is the nation's only urban [[land-grant university]] and is counted among the [[historically black college]]s. The [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]]'s Graduate School offers continuing education and graduate-level classes in many disciplines. The Department of Defense maintains the [[National Defense University]] at [[Fort McNair]].

Among private institutions, [[Georgetown University]] is older than the District itself, having been founded in 1789 by [[John Carroll]]. It is the nation's oldest [[Roman Catholic]] affiliated body of higher education. The nation's first African American university president was at Georgetown. The university is especially well-known for the [[Edmund Walsh School of Foreign Service]] and the [[Georgetown University Law Center]].

[[Image:George Washington University.jpg|thumb|left|[[George Washington University]]]]
[[The George Washington University]], founded by an act of Congress in 1821, is the largest institution of higher education in the nation's capital with its main campus in [[Foggy Bottom]] and its Mount Vernon campus in the [[Foxhall]] neighborhood of [[Washington DC (northwest)|Northwest Washington]]. It is the second-largest landholder and employer in the District, second only to the Federal government.

[[The Catholic University of America]] (CUA), in the Northeast quadrant of the District is unique as the national university of the Roman Catholic Church and as the only higher education institution founded by [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|U.S. Roman Catholic bishop]]s. Established in 1887 following approval by [[Pope Leo XIII]] as a graduate and research center, the university began offering undergraduate education in 1904. In April of 2004, CUA purchased 49 acres (20 ha) of land from the Armed Forces Retirement Home. The parcel is the largest plot of open space in the District and makes CUA the largest university in D.C. by land area. [[Trinity University (Washington, DC)|Trinity University]], a female-only Roman Catholic affiliated institution, is located near CUA.

[[Image:CUA Aerial.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Mall at [[The Catholic University of America]] from the air, with the [[Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception]] in the foreground.]]
[[American University]], a private institution chartered by an act of Congress in 1893, is situated on an 84 acre (34 ha) campus in upper Northwest Washington and is well known for the [[Washington College of Law]], the [[Kogod School of Business]], the School of International Service, the School of Public Affairs, and the School of Communication.

Other notable private colleges in the District include [[Gallaudet University]], the first school for the advanced education of the [[deaf]] and [[hard-of-hearing]]; [[Howard University]], a historically black university dating to the nineteenth century; and [[Southeastern University]]. Howard and Gallaudet have the distinction of being named for persons unaffiliated with their primary focus: Howard University is named for a white man, and Gallaudet University is named for a man who was not deaf.

[[Image:Howard U.jpg|thumb|left|[[Howard University]]'s Founders Library]]
Furthermore, [[The Johns Hopkins University]]'s [[Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies]] (SAIS), dedicated to the graduate study of [[international relations]] and international [[economics]], is located near [[Dupont Circle]], on Massachusetts Avenue's [[Embassy Row]].

The US military's [[National Defense University]] is located in Washington on [[Fort McNair]]. The [[Corcoran College of Art and Design]] has an arts program attached to the Corcoran Museum of Art, adjacent to the White House Complex. The [[Reformed Theological Seminary]] and the Washington Theological Union have graduate programs in theology. [[Strayer University]], a for-profit career school, has a campus in Washington, D.C.

 

==Sports==
{| class=wikitable
! Club
! Sport
! League
! Venue
|-
|[[Washington Redskins]]
|[[American Football|Football]]
|[[National Football League]]''';''' [[National Football Conference|NFC]], [[NFC East|East Division]]
|[[FedExField]] ([[Landover, Maryland]])
|-
|[[Washington Nationals]]
|[[Baseball]]
|[[Major League Baseball]]''';''' [[National League|NL]], [[NL East|East Division]]
|[[Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium|RFK Stadium]]
|-
|[[Washington Capitals]]
|[[Ice Hockey]]
|[[National Hockey League|NHL]], [[Eastern Conference (NHL)|Eastern Conference]], [[Southeast Division (NHL)|Southeast Division]]
|[[Verizon Center]]
|-
|[[D.C. United]]
|[[Soccer]]
|[[Major League Soccer]], [[MLS Eastern Conference|Eastern Conference]]
|[[Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium|RFK Stadium]]
|-
|[[Washington Wizards]]
|[[Basketball]]
|[[National Basketball Association|NBA]]''';''' [[Eastern Conference (NBA)|Eastern Conference]], Southeast Division
|[[Verizon Center]]
|-
|[[Washington Mystics]]
|[[Basketball]]
|[[Women's National Basketball Association|WNBA]], Eastern Conference
|[[Verizon Center]]
|}

[[Image:Mci center jan2006b.jpg|225px|right|thumb|[[Verizon Center]], home of the [[Washington Wizards]] and [[Washington Capitals]]]]
Other professional and semi-professional teams based in D.C. include the [[Australian rules football|USAFL]] [[Baltimore Washington Eagles]], the [[National Women's Football Association|NWFA]] [[D.C. Divas]], the [[Minor League Football]] [[D.C. Explosion]], the [[Washington Rugby Football Club|Washington RFC]] [[Rugby union|rugby union]] team of the [[Rugby Super League]], as well as a host of others playing in the [[Potomac Rugby Union]], and the [[cricket|Washington Cricket League]]. It was also home to the [[Women's United Soccer Association|WUSA]] [[Washington Freedom]], from 1987 to 1989 home of the [[Major Indoor Lacrosse League]]'s [[Washington Wave]], and during the [[2000 NLL season|2000]]–[[2002 NLL season|2002]] [[National Lacrosse League|NLL]] seasons, the [[Washington Power]] was based in the city. In [[rugby league]], the [[Washington D.C. Slayers]] play in the [[American National Rugby League]].

There were two [[Major League Baseball]] teams named the [[Washington Senators]] in the early and mid-[[20th century|20th century]], which left to become respectively the [[Minnesota Twins]] and the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]. In the [[Washington Senators#19th century baseball in Washington|19th century]], the town was home to teams called the Washington Nationals, Washington Statesmen, and Washington Senators on and off from the 1870s to the turn of the century.

Washington was home to several [[Negro League baseball]] teams, including the [[Homestead Grays]], [[Washington Black Senators]], [[Baltimore Elite Giants|Washington Elite Giants]], [[Washington Pilots]], and [[Washington Potomacs]].

The [[Verizon Center]] in [[Chinatown, Washington, D.C.|Chinatown]], home to the Capitals, Mystics, Wizards, and the [[Georgetown Hoyas]], is also a major venue for concerts, [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] (WWE) [[professional wrestling]], and other events.

Washington hosts the annual [[Legg Mason Tennis Classic]] [[tennis]] tournament that takes place at the [[Carter Barron Tennis Center]] on 16th Street.

The [[National Marathon]] is held annually in Washington.
{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}

==Transportation==
{{main|Transportation in Washington, D.C.}}
{{main|Streets and highways of Washington, D.C.}}
City streets in the District of Columbia are organized primarily in a grid-like fashion with its origin at the [[United States Capitol]]. The north-south roads are primarily named with numbers (ie. 1st Street, 2nd Street, etc), while the east-west roads are primarily named with letters (ie. A Street, B Street, etc). Among this network of streets, there are diagonal roads; these roads are named after specific states in the United States. Within this grid, all streets are a part of one of the four [[Address (geography)#Quadrants|quadrants]], the center being the Capitol Building. There are a [[Washington, D.C. (northeast)|Northeast (NE)]], [[Washington, D.C. (northwest)|Northwest (NW)]], [[Washington, D.C. (southeast)|Southeast (SE)]], and [[Washington, D.C. (southwest)|Southwest (SW)]]. All roads end with this suffix at the end of their title. For example, there are a 4th Street NE, 4th Street NW, 4th Street SE, and 4th Street SW.

Major interstates running through the area include the [[Capital Beltway]] (I-495), [[I-66]], [[I-95]], [[Interstate 395 (District of Columbia-Virginia)|I-395]], [[Interstate 295 (District of Columbia)|I-295]], and [[Interstate 270 (Maryland)|I-270]] (which does not reach D.C., terminating at I-495). Other major highways include the [[Whitehurst Freeway]], and [[Anacostia Freeway]] in D.C., the [[George Washington Parkway]] in D.C. and Virginia, the [[Suitland Parkway]] in D.C. and Maryland, [[U.S. Route 50 in Maryland|US Route 50]], the [[Clara Barton Parkway]] and the [[Baltimore-Washington Parkway]] in Maryland, and the [[Dulles Toll Road]] in Virginia.

[[Image:Columbia heights.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Columbia Heights (Washington Metro)|Columbia Heights]] [[Washington Metro|Metro]] station.]]
[[Image:FederalCenterSWMetoStationWashingtonDC.jpg|thumb|250px|The Federal Center SW metro station in Washington DC]]
The Washington area is served by the [[Washington Metro]] public transportation system, which operates public [[bus]]es ([[Metrobus (Washington, D.C.)|Metrobus]]) and the region's subway system ([[Washington Metro#Metrorail network|Metrorail]]). A [[public-private partnership]] operates the [[DC Circulator]] buses downtown. Many of the jurisdictions around the region run public buses that interconnect with the Metrobus/Metrorail system. [[Union Station (Washington, DC)|Union Station]] is served by [[MARC Train|MARC]] and [[Virginia Railway Express|VRE]] commuter trains, and [[Amtrak]] intercity rail. Intercity bus service is available from the [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound Bus]] Terminal in [[Washington DC (northeast)|Northeast]] and from [[Chinatown bus lines|dragon bus]]es leaving from Chinatown.
{{Seealso|WMATA}}

Washington, D.C. is served by three major [[international airport|airports]]: two are located in suburban Virginia and one in Maryland. [[Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport]] {{airport codes|DCA|KDCA}} is the closest — located in Arlington County, Virginia, just across the [[Potomac River]] from [[Hains Point]], and accessible via Washington Metro. The airport is conveniently located to the downtown area; however it has somewhat restricted flights to airports within the United States because of noise and security concerns. Most major international flights arrive and depart from [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] {{airport codes|IAD|KIAD}}, located 26.3 miles (42.3 km) west of the city in [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax]] and [[Loudoun County, Virginia|Loudoun]] counties in Virginia. Dulles is the second busiest international gateway on the [[Eastern Seaboard]]. Dulles offers service from several low-cost carriers including [[JetBlue]], although the low-cost selection decreased greatly when [[Independence Air]] (which was headquartered at Dulles) folded in January 2006. It is the Washington/Baltimore region's largest airport in terms of passengers served. 27 million passengers were served in the year 2005. [[Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport]] {{airport codes|BWI|KBWI}}, is located 31.7 miles (51.0 km) northeast of the city in [[Anne Arundel County, Maryland|Anne Arundel County]], Maryland, near Baltimore. BWI is notable for its variety of [[low-cost carrier]], such as [[Southwest Airlines]] and has had the highest passenger volume of the three major airports in the Baltimore-Washington Metroplex for several months.

General aviation is additionally available at several smaller airfields, including [[Montgomery County Airpark]] ([[Gaithersburg, Maryland]]), [[College Park Airport]] ([[College Park, Maryland]]), [[Potomac Airfield]] ([[Friendly, Maryland|Friendly]] CDP of [[Prince George's County, Maryland]]), and [[Manassas Regional Airport]] ([[Manassas, Virginia]]). Since 2003, the general aviation airports closest to Washington, D.C. have had their access strictly limited by the implementation of the [[Air Defense Identification Zone]] (ADIZ).

==Sister cities==
Washington, D.C.'s [[town twinning|sister cities]] are:

*{{flagicon|Greece}} [[Athens]], [[Greece]]
*{{flagicon|Thailand}} [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]]
*{{flagicon|China}} [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]]
*{{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} [[Brazzaville]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]]
*{{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
*{{flagicon|China}} [[Chongqing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]]
*{{flagicon|Senegal}} [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Paris]], [[France]]
*{{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Pretoria]], [[South Africa]]
*{{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
*{{flagicon|UK}} [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*{{flagicon|UK}} [[Sunderland]], [[England]] ([[United Kingdom]])

Ten of these cities are designated by [[Sister Cities International]]<ref>[http://www.sister-cities.org/icrc/directory/usa/DC Sister Cities International] Accessed [[May 29]], [[2006]].</ref>.

In [[June]], [[2006]], the city signed an Agreement of Friendship with the [[United Kingdom|British]] city of [[Sunderland]], signalling the start of increased economic and cultural cooperation between the two cities.<ref name="sunderland">Staff Writer. "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/wear/5097412.stm Cities in star-spangled agreement]." ''[[BBC News]].'' [[June 21]], [[2006]]. Retrieved on [[July 8]], [[2006]].</ref> [[Washington Old Hall]], on the outskirts of Sunderland, is the ancestral home of [[George Washington]]. Both these cities participate in [[town twinning]] instead of [[Sister Cities International|sister cities]].

==References==
<div class="references-small"><references/>
</div>

==See also==
*[[List of neighborhoods of the District of Columbia by ward]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Washington, D.C.}}
*[http://www.dc.gov/ Official Website]
*[http://www.greaterwashington.org/ Greater Washington Regional Economic Initiative]
*[http://www.washington.org/ Washington, D.C. Convention and Tourism Corporation]
*[http://www.h-net.org/~dclist H-DC Washington, D.C. History/H-Net]
*[http://www.citymuseumdc.org/ City Museum of Washington, D.C.]
*[http://www.dcpages.com/ Washington DC Community]
*[http://www.dcguide.com Washington, D.C. Monuments and Memorials]
*[http://www.dcblogs.com DC Blogs listing and live feed]
*[http://bardc.com DC Bars and Clubs]
*[http://hatlie.de/history/sitesofmemory/location.html#washington Memorials in Washington, D.C. at "Sites of Memory"]

===Webcams===
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/mmedia/webcams/eyeondc.htm Washington Monument Capitol Building Webcam]
*[http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/WebCams/parks/nacccam/washcam.cfm Washington Monument Capitol Building Potomac River Webcam]

===Maps===
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.913611|-77.013222}}
*[http://www.dcdar.org/BoundaryStoneLocations.htm Locations of boundary stones]
*[http://www.crimeindc.org/ Washington, DC Crime Map]

{{USCapital}}
{{USPoliticalDivisions}}
{{USLargestCities}}

[[Category:Birthplaces of United States vice-presidents]]
[[Category:Washington, D.C.| ]]
[[Category:1790 establishments]]
[[Category:Capitals in North America]]
[[Category:Cities named for Presidents of the United States]]
[[Category:Cities on the Potomac River]]
[[Category:Planned cities]]

{{link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|pt}}

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Volga

2006-10-04T01:40:02Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Volga

{{Redirect|Volga}}
{{Infobox_river | river_name = Volga River
|image_name = Russia_River_Volga.jpg
|caption = Volga in [[Yaroslavl]] (autumn morning)
|origin = [[Valdai Hills]]
|mouth = [[Caspian Sea]]
|basin_countries = [[Russia]]
|length = 3,692 km (2,293 mi)
|elevation = 225 m (738 ft)
|discharge = 8,000 m³/s (282,517 ft³/s)
|watershed = 1,380,000 km² (532,821 mi²)
}}

The '''Volga''', widely viewed as the national river of [[Russia]], flows through the western part of the country. It is [[Europe]]'s longest [[river]], with a length of [[1 E6 m|3,690 km (2,293 miles)]], and forms the core of the largest river system in Europe. Some of the largest [[reservoir (water)|reservoir]]s in the world may be found along the river.

== Nomenclature ==

The Russian hydronym ''Во́лга'' is akin to the Slavic word for "wetness", "humidity" (''влага'', ''волога''). It is transliterated as ''Volga'' in English and as ''Wolga'' in [[German language|German]]. 

The [[Turkic]] populations living along the river formerly referred to it as [[Itil]] or [[Atil]]. [[Attila the Hun]] might have been named after this river as well. In modern Turkic languages, the Volga is known as ''İdel'' (''Идел'') in [[Tatar language|Tatar]], ''Атăл (Atăl)'' in [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]] and ''İdil'' in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. Another version of the same root is represented by [[Mari language|Mari]] ''Юл (Jul)''.

A still more ancient hydronym is the [[Scythian]] name of the river, ''Rha'', which may reflect the ancient [[Avestan]] and [[Sanskrit]] names ''Rañha'' and ''Rasah'' for a sacred river.<ref>Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. ''Les Sarmates : Amazones et lanciers cuirassés entre Oural et Danube''. Paris: Editions Errance, 2002.</ref> This ancient name survives in the modern [[Mordvin language|Mordvin]] name for the Volga, ''Рав (Raw)''.

==Description==
[[Image:volgarivermap.png|thumb|left|300px|Map of the Volga watershed]]

Rising in the [[Valdai Hills]] 225 m (740 ft) above sea level north-west of [[Moscow]] and about 320 kilometres south-east of [[Saint Petersburg]], the Volga heads east past [[Sterzh]], [[Tver']], [[Dubna]], [[Rybinsk]], [[Yaroslavl]], [[Nizhny Novgorod]] and [[Kazan]]. From there it turns south, flows past [[Ulyanovsk]], [[Tolyatti]], [[Samara, Russia|Samara]], [[Saratov]] and [[Volgograd]], and discharges into the [[Caspian Sea]] below [[Astrakhan]] at 28 metres below sea level. At its most strategic point, it bends toward the [[Don River, Russia|Don]] ("the big bend"). Volgograd, formerly Stalingrad, is located there.

The Volga has many [[tributaries]], most importantly the [[Kama River|Kama]], the [[Oka River|Oka]], the [[Vetluga River|Vetluga]], and the [[Sura River|Sura]] rivers. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which drains an area of about 1.35 million square kilometres in the most heavily populated part of Russia. The [[Volga Delta]] has a length of about 160 kilometres and includes as many as 500 channels and smaller rivers. The Volga freezes for most of its length during three months of each year.

The Volga drains most of Western Russia. Its many large reservoirs provide [[irrigation]] and hydroelectric power. The [[Moscow Canal]], the [[Volga-Don Canal]], and the [[Mariinsk Canal]] systems form navigable [[waterway]]s connecting Moscow to the [[White Sea]], the [[Baltic Sea]], the [[Caspian Sea]], the [[Sea of Azov]] and the [[Black Sea]]. High levels of chemical pollution currently give cause for environmental concern.

The fertile river valley provides large quantities of wheat, and also has many mineral riches. A substantial petroleum industry centres on the Volga valley. Other minerals include natural gas, salt, and potash. The Volga Delta and the nearby [[Caspian Sea]] offer superb fishing grounds. [[Astrakhan]], at the delta, is the centre of the [[caviar]] industry.

===Confluents (downstream to upstream) ===
[[Image:Rzhev.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Rzhev]] is the uppermost town situated on the Volga (early part of 20th century).]]

*[[Samara River|Samara]] (in [[Samara, Russia|Samara]])
*[[Kama River|Kama]] (south of [[Kazan]])
*[[Kazanka River|Kazanka]] (in [[Kazan]])
*[[Sviyaga River|Sviyaga]] (west of [[Kazan]])
*[[Vetluga River|Vetluga]] (near [[Kozmodemyansk]])
*[[Sura River|Sura]] (in [[Vasilsursk]])
*[[Kerzhenets River|Kerzhenets]] (near [[Lyskovo]])
*[[Oka River|Oka]] (in [[Nizhny Novgorod]])
*[[Uzola River|Uzola]] (near [[Balakhna]])
*[[Unzha River|Unzha]] (near [[Yuryevets]])
*[[Kostroma River|Kostroma]] (in [[Kostroma]])
*[[Kotorosl]] (in [[Yaroslavl]])
*[[Sheksna River|Sheksna]] (in [[Cherepovets]])
*[[Mologa River|Mologa]] (near [[Vesyegonsk]])
*[[Kashinka River|Kashinka]] (near [[Kalyazin]])
*[[Nerl River (Volga)|Nerl]] (near Kalyazin)
*[[Medveditsa River (Volga basin)|Medveditsa]] (near [[Kimry]])
*[[Dubna River (Volga basin)|Dubna]] (in [[Dubna]])
*[[Shosha]] (near [[Konakovo]])
*[[Tvertsa River|Tvertsa]] (in [[Tver]])

===Reservoirs on the Volga===
Nine major [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power stations]] and several large artificial lakes formed by dams lie along the Volga. The reservoirs, upstream to downstream, are:
*[[Volgo Lake]]
*[[Ivankovskoye Reservoir]] (the Moscow Sea)
*[[Uglich Reservoir]]
*[[Rybinsk Reservoir]]
*[[Gorkovskoye Reservoir]]
*[[Cheboksary Reservoir]]
*[[Samara Reservoir]]
*[[Saratov Reservoir]]
*[[Volgograd Reservoir]]

===Human history===
[[Image:Volga tolga.jpg|thumb|350px|Many Orthodox shrines and monasteries are strewn along the banks of the Volga.]]

The ancient scholar [[Ptolemy]] of Alexandria mentions the lower Volga in his ''Geography'' (Book 5, Chapter 8, 2nd Map of Asia). He calls it the ''Rha'', which was the Scythian name for the river. Ptolemy believed the Don and the Volga shared the same upper branch, which flowed from the [[Hyperborean]] Mountains.

The downstream of the Volga, widely believed to have been a cradle of the [[Proto-Indo-European]] civilization, was settled by Huns and other Turkic peoples in the first millennium AD, replacing [[Scythians]].

Subsequently the river basin played an important role in the movements of peoples from Asia to Europe. A powerful polity of [[Volga Bulgaria]] once flourished where the [[Kama River|Kama river]] joins the Volga, while [[Khazaria]] controlled the lower stretches of the river. Such Volga cities as [[Atil]], [[Saqsin]], or [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] were among the largest in the medieval world. [[Image:nikolsky_bell.jpg|thumb|300px|Several old towns, including [[Kalyazin]] and [[Mologa]], were flooded by Soviet authorities in the 1940s.]]

Khazars were replaced by [[Kipchaks]], [[Kimeks]] and [[Mongols]], who founded the [[Golden Horde]] in the lower stream of Volga. Later the Empire broke into the [[Khanate of Kazan]] and [[Khanate of Astrakhan]]; subsequently they were conquered by Russians in the 16th century.

In modern times, the city on the big bend of the Volga, currently known as Volgograd, witnessed the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], the bloodiest battle in human history. The Russian people's deep feeling for the Volga often finds echoes in their songs and literature (see [[The Volga Boatmen's Song]] for one conspicuous example).

==Ethnic groups==
The indigenous population of Upper Volga were Finnic [[Merya]], that were assimilated to Russians. Other Finnic ethnic groups are [[Mari people|Maris]] and [[Mordvins]] of middle Volga. Turkic populations appeared in the [[600s]] and assimilated some Finnic and Indo-European population at the middle and lower Volga, later they were transformed to [[Christian]] [[Chuvash]] and [[Muslim]] [[Tatars]]; also to [[Nogais]], which were supplanted to [[Daghestan]] later. Mongolian Buddhists [[Kalmyk]]s resettled to Volga in the 17th century.

The Volga region is home to a German minority group, the [[Volga Germans]]. [[Catherine the Great]] had issued a Manifesto in 1763 inviting all foreigners to come and populate the region, offering them numerous incentives to do so. This was partly to develop the region but also to provide a buffer zone between the Russians and the Mongol hordes to the east. Because of conditions in German territories, the Germans responded in the largest numbers. Under the [[Soviet Union]] a slice of the region was turned into the [[Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] to house many of the Volga Germans. Others were executed or dispersed throughout the Soviet Union prior to and after WWII.

==Navigation==
[[Image:Lotus 27 by dlee.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Volga Delta]] - the largest in Europe - is the only place in Russia where [[pelican]]s, [[flamingo]]es, and [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]]es may be found.]]

The Volga is of great importance to inland shipping and transport in Russia: all the dams in the river have been equipped with large (double) [[Canal lock|ship locks]], so that vessels of considerable dimensions can actually travel from the [[Caspian Sea]] almost to the upstream end of the river. Connections with the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]] and the [[Black Sea]] are possible through the [[Volga-Don Canal]]. Connections with the lakes of the north ([[Lake Ladoga]], [[Lake Onega]]), [[Saint Petersburg]] and the [[Baltic Sea]] are possible through the [[Volga-Baltic Waterway]]; and a liaison with Moscow has been realised by the [[Moscow Canal]] connecting the Volga and the [[Moskva River|Moskva]] rivers. This infrastructure has been designed for vessels of a relatively large scale (lock dimensions of 290 x 30 meters on the Volga, slightly smaller on some of the other rivers and canals) and it spans many thousands of kilometers.

Until recently access to the Russian waterways was only granted on a very limited scale. The increasing contacts between the European Union and Russia have led to new policies with regard to the access to the Russian inland waterways. It is expected that vessels of other nations will be allowed on the Russian rivers soon. (Source: [http://www.noordersoft.com/indexen.html NoorderSoft Waterways Database) ]

==References==
<references/>

== See also ==
*[[:Category:Cities on the Volga|Cities on the Volga]]
*[[Rivers of Russia]]
*[[The Volga Boatmen's Song]]
*[[Volga Delta]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|River Volga}}
*[http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=339&theme=2 Information and a map of the Volga's watershed]
*[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_volga_delta.html Volga Delta from Space]

[[Category:Rivers of Russia]]
[[Category:Caspian Sea]]

[[ar:فولغا]]
[[bg:Волга]]
[[ca:Volga]]
[[cv:Атăл]]
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[[el:Βόλγας]]
[[es:Volga]]
[[eo:Volgo]]
[[fa:ولگا]]
[[fr:Volga]]
[[gl:Río Volga]]
[[ko:볼가 강]]
[[is:Volga]]
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Uruguay

2006-10-04T01:39:13Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Uruguay

{{Infobox Country
|native_name =''República Oriental del Uruguay''
|conventional_long_name =Eastern Republic of Uruguay
|common_name =Uruguay
|image_flag =Flag of Uruguay.svg
|image_coat =Uruguay_coa.png
|symbol_type =Coat of Arms
|image_map =LocationUruguay.png
|national_motto = ''Libertad o Muerte'' (freedom or death){{Fact}}
|national_anthem = ''[[National Anthem of Uruguay]]''{{Fact}}
|official_languages =[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|capital =[[Montevideo]]
|latd=34 |latm=53 |latNS=S |longd=56 |longm=10 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[Montevideo]]
|government_type =Democratic [[Republic]]
|leader_title1 =[[List of Presidents of Uruguay|President]]
|leader_name1 =[[Tabaré Vázquez]]
|area_rank =90th
|area_magnitude =1 E11
|area=176,220
|areami²=67,574
|percent_water = 1.5
|population_estimate = 3,463,000
|population_estimate_rank =130th 1
|population_estimate_year =July 2005
|population_census = 3,399,237
|population_census_year =2002
|population_density =20
|population_densitymi² =51
|population_density_rank =186th 1
|GDP_PPP = $34.305 billion 
|GDP_PPP_rank = 90th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $10,028 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 65th
|sovereignty_type =[[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = from [[Brazil]]
|established_event1 = Declared
|established_date1 = [[August 25]], [[1825]]
|established_event2 = Recognised
|established_date2 = [[August 28]], [[1828]]
|HDI =0.840
|HDI_rank =46th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category =high
|currency = [[Uruguayan Peso]]
|currency_code = UYU
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset =-3
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =-2
|cctld = [[.uy]]
|calling_code =598
|footnotes = 1.) Rank based on 2005 figures
}}
'''Uruguay''', officially the '''Eastern Republic of Uruguay''' or the '''Republic East of the Uruguay (River)''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República Oriental del Uruguay''; [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβ̞lika oɾjen'tal del uɾu'ɰwaj]}}), is a country located in southern [[South America]]. It is bordered by [[Brazil]] to the north, the [[Uruguay River]] to the west, the [[estuary]] of the [[Río de la Plata]] (literally "River of Silver", but commonly known in English as "River Plate") to the southwest, with [[Argentina]] on the other bank of both, and finally the South [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the southeast. About half of its people live in the capital and largest city, [[Montevideo]]. The nation is the second smallest independent country in South America, larger only than [[Suriname]] (it is also larger than [[French Guiana]], which is not independent), and is one of the most politically and economically stable.

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Uruguay]]''
[[Image:Toortse Rio de la Plata.png|thumb|left|200px|Rio de la Plata in 1603]]
The name "Uruguay" comes from [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]], the original language of the native people of the region. It has many possible meanings since Guaraní is a highly [[agglutinative]] language. Two of them are "river of the urus" (uru is a kind of bird) and "river of colorful or 'painted' birds."

The [[Europe]]ans arrived in the area in the early [[16th century]]. Both [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] pursued the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonization]] of the Uruguayan territory, with the Spanish eventually gaining control. The future capital, [[Montevideo]], was founded in the early [[18th century]] and became a rival to [[Buenos Aires]] across the Río de la Plata. Montevideo, however, was thought of as a military center for the Spanish empire, while Buenos Aires was a commercial center.

The Uruguayan territory was part of the Spanish ''Virreinato del Río de la Plata'' ([[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]]). The first name given to this land was ''Banda Oriental'' ('Eastern Shore') and then Uruguayans were known as "'''Orientales'''.Today some people think this is odd because Uruguay isn't in Asia."But any way This name is not really related to the Uruguay River (as many people may think) but to the Río de la Plata, because from Buenos Aires, the Uruguayan shore is seen as it were at the East of the Río de la Plata (and not at the North as it really is.)

The administration of the Banda Oriental was divided in two: Montevideo controlled the areas near the city and Buenos Aires had control over the rest of the territory. Later on, the Banda Oriental, including part of the southern region of the ''Misiones Jesuíticas'' ([[Jesuit Reductions]]), became the ''Provincia Oriental''. In [[1816]] Portugal invaded the Provincia Oriental and finally annexed it in [[1820]] under the name of ''"Província Cisplatina"'' as a new province for Brazil.

[[Image:Juan_Manuel_Blanes_-_Artigas_en_la_Ciudadela.jpg|right|250px|José Gervasio Artigas]]

In the early [[19th century]], independence movements sprung up across [[South America]], including Uruguay. From 1811 to 1816, [[José Gervasio Artigas]], who was born in the province and was former captain in the Spanish army, lead the patriots against Spain, Portugal and the attempts made for the aristocratic government which took power in Buenos Aires to centralize all the authority in the region. Artigas, who had advanced social ideas taken from the French and American Revolutions and the free-mason ideology, wanted a federation of the provinces and proclaimed progressive law about the property of the land, freedom for blacks and Indians, promoted democracy and popular education. Artigas' ideas are comparable with several other Latin American leaders, the Argentine [[Mariano Moreno]] and the Mexicans [[Bartolome Hidalgo]], [[Benito Juarez]] and [[Emiliano Zapata]].
Artigas was betrayed and defeated in 1816 by the agreement between Spain, Portugal and the authorities of Buenos Aires. He went to exile to Paraguay and died there in 1850.
A group of Oriental patriots, former Artigas' lieutentans, the [[Treinta y Tres Orientales]], began a revolt on April, 1825 in the Uruguayan territory and finally on [[August 25]], [[1825]], the Provincia Oriental declared its independence '''''"from the King of Portugal, the Emperor of Brazil, and from any other in the universe."'''''

Being free now, the province decided to be reunited with the other provinces of the Virreinato that had formed the ''[[Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata]]'' (later known as Argentina.) It was finally accepted by the Provincias Unidas, but this started a war with Brazil. After the war was over, the Provincia Oriental became an independent country ([[Treaty of Montevideo]] in [[1828]]) under the name of ''"Estado Oriental"'' which was changed later to '''''República Oriental del Uruguay'''''.
The British diplomacy pretty much "invented" Uruguay as an independent country, for 2 reasons:, number 1, to solve the conflict between the Provincias Unidas (Argentina) and the Empire Of Brazil, and, number 2, to create a smaller country easy to control for the British and gifted with the best port in the whole region: Montevideo. {{fact}}

It is clear that the name of the territory was changed to become ''"Uruguay"'', but it is hard to know whether the word ''"Oriental"'' refers to the people (the ''Orientales'' in plural, ''Oriental'' in singular) or the geographical location of the country (at the east of the Uruguay River.) Then "República Oriental del Uruguay" could mean ''"the Republic of the Oriental people who lives in the territory of Uruguay,"'' or ''"the Republic that is at the eastern shore of the Uruguay River."'' Even when the second option may be the easiest way to understand this official name, the first option may be more logical for Uruguayans still use the word "Oriental" as a synonym for "Uruguayo" (Uruguayan) and the 'official' translation into English that appears eg in Uruguayan passports is "'''''Oriental''' Republic of Uruguay''" and not "'Eastern' Republic of Uruguay".

The original population of [[Charrúa]] Indians was gradually decimated over three centuries, culminating on [[11 April]] 1831 in a mass killing at [[Salsipuedes]], which was led by General [[Fructuoso Rivera]], Uruguay's first president. After that date the few remaining Charrúas were dispersed and a viable Charrúa culture was a thing of the past, although Charrúa blood still runs in the veins of many Uruguayans today as a result of extensive Charrúa-Spanish intermixing during colonial times. Four Charrúas — Senaqué, the leader Vaimaca Pirú, the warrior Tacuabé and his wife Guyunusa — were taken to Paris in 1833 to be displayed as circus attractions.

In the latter part of the 19th century, Uruguay participated in the [[War of the Triple Alliance]] against [[Paraguay]].
[[Image:Fructuoso Rivera.jpg|thumb|right|200px|General Fructuoso Rivera]]
Uruguay then experienced a series of elected and appointed presidents and saw conflicts with neighboring states, political and economic fluctuations and modernization, and large inflows of immigrants, mostly from Europe. The work of [[President of Uruguay|President]] [[José Batlle y Ordóñez]] made Uruguay an advanced nation with a complex [[Welfare state|welfare system]]; for most of the 20th century Uruguay was on par with European nations. {{Fact}}Due to its advanced social system and its stable democracy, Uruguay came to be known as "the [[Switzerland]] of [[Americas|the Americas]]".{{Fact}}

The Uruguayan economy relies largely on agricultural exports. The world wars brought prosperity as Uruguayan beef and grain went to feed a war-ravaged Europe. World food prices dropped precipitously following the end of [[World War II|WWII]], which triggered years of decline for the Uruguayan economy. By the 1960's, the stable social system began to break down as the economy spiralled.
The government started losing popular support as students, workers and lower-class families felt the pain of an economy unable to adapt to a post-agricultural world economy. The [[Tupamaros]], a radical group, responded to the crisis with violence. Although it's argumented Tupamaros triggered government repression (also called the Two Demons Theory), that repression was used against all left social and political movements. In [[1968]] individual rights were suspended by the president, [[Jorge Pacheco Areco]], and his successor, [[Juan María Bordaberry]]. In [[1972]] Tupamaros were all imprisoned but repression was still going on. Finally, in [[1973]], the army seized power, ushering in 11 years of military dictatorship in what was once one of the most stable democracies in the region. In [[1984]], democracy was finally restored and [[Julio María Sanguinetti]] was elected.

Uruguay received enormous publicity in [[1972]] due to the crash of [[Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571]] whose passengers were the alumni rugby team of [[Stella Maris College (Montevideo)]]. Sixteen survivors were rescued in the [[Andes mountains]] when [[Nando Parrado]] and [[Roberto Canessa]] climbed over the mountains in search of help. The story was first told in the [[1974]] book, ''[[Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors]]'' and more recently in the [[2006]] book, ''[[Miracle in the Andes: 72 Days on the Mountain and My Long Trek Home]]''.

The other source for Uruguayan notoriety is soccer (football, spelled "futbol"). Uruguay won 2 Olympic and 2 World Cup titles, several South American Cups and the Uruguayan soccer teams Nacional and Peñarol were crowned several times as the monarchs of the Intercontinental Cup. An amazing accomplishment for a nation of just 3 million people. In later years the economics have determined the decadence of the Uruguayan national teams and clubs, however, Uruguayan individual footballers play for most of the big clubs in Italy, Spain and England.

== Administrative divisions ==
[[Image:Uruguay mapa.png|framed|Map of Uruguay]]
''Main article: [[Departments of Uruguay]]''

Uruguay consists of 19 [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]] (''departamentos'', singular - ''departamento''):

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background-color:#FFEBAD"
!Department
!Area (km²)
!Population (2004)
!Capital
|-
|[[Artigas Department|Artigas]]
| align="right" | 11,928
| align="right" | 78,019
|[[Artigas, Uruguay|Artigas]]
|-
|[[Canelones Department|Canelones]]
| align="right" | 4,536
| align="right" | 485,028
|[[Canelones]]
|-
|[[Cerro Largo Department|Cerro Largo]]
| align="right" | 13,648
| align="right" | 86,564
|[[Melo]]
|-
|[[Colonia Department|Colonia]]
| align="right" | 6,106
| align="right" | 119,266
|[[Colonia del Sacramento]]
|-
|[[Durazno Department|Durazno]]
| align="right" | 11,643
| align="right" | 58,859
|[[Durazno]]
|-
|[[Flores Department|Flores]]
| align="right" | 5,144
| align="right" | 25,104
|[[Trinidad, Uruguay|Trinidad]]
|-
|[[Florida Department|Florida]]
| align="right" | 10,417
| align="right" | 68,181
|[[Florida, Uruguay|Florida]]
|-
|[[Lavalleja Department|Lavalleja]]
| align="right" | 10,016
| align="right" | 60,925
|[[Minas, Uruguay|Minas]]
|-
|[[Maldonado Department|Maldonado]]
| align="right" | 4,793
| align="right" | 140,192
|[[Maldonado]]
|-
|[[Montevideo Department|Montevideo]]
| align="right" | 530
| align="right" | 1,326,064
|[[Montevideo]]
|-
|[[Paysandú Department|Paysandú]]
| align="right" | 13,922
| align="right" | 113,244
|[[Paysandú]]
|-
|[[Río Negro Department|Río Negro]]
| align="right" | 9,282
| align="right" | 53,989
|[[Fray Bentos]]
|-
|[[Rivera Department|Rivera]]
| align="right" | 9,370
| align="right" | 104,921
|[[Rivera]]
|-
|[[Rocha Department|Rocha]]
| align="right" | 10,551
| align="right" | 69,937
|[[Rocha]]
|-
|[[Salto Department|Salto]]
| align="right" | 14,163
| align="right" | 123,120
|[[Salto, Uruguay|Salto]]
|-
|[[San José Department|San José]]
| align="right" | 4,992
| align="right" | 103,104
|[[San José de Mayo]]
|-
|[[Soriano Department|Soriano]]
| align="right" | 9,008
| align="right" | 84,563
|[[Mercedes, Uruguay|Mercedes]]
|-
|[[Tacuarembó Department|Tacuarembó]]
| align="right" | 15,438
| align="right" | 90,489
|[[Tacuarembó]]
|-
|[[Treinta y Tres Department|Treinta y Tres]]
| align="right" | 9,676
| align="right" | 49,318
|[[Treinta y Tres]]
|}

== Geography ==
[[Image:Uruguay_T2.png|thumb|right|210px|Satellite photo of Uruguay]]
[[Image:Colonia de Sacramento.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Lighthouse at Colonia de Sacramento]]

''Main article: [[Geography of Uruguay]]''

At 176.220 [[square kilometre]]s, Uruguay is the third smallest country in [[South America]], after [[Suriname]]. The landscape features mostly rolling plains and low hill ranges (''cuchillas'') with a fertile coastal lowland, most of it grassland, ideal for [[cattle]] and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] raising. The highest point in the country is the Cerro Catedral at 514 metres (1,686 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). To the southwest is the [[Río de la Plata]] (River of Silver), the estuary of the [[Uruguay River]], which forms the western border, and the [[Paraná River]], that does not run through Uruguay itself. The only other major river is the [[Río Negro (Uruguay)|Río Negro]]. Several lagoons are found along the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast.

The [[climate]] in Uruguay is [[temperate climate|temperate]], but fairly warm, as freezing temperatures are almost unknown. The predominantly flat landscape is also somewhat vulnerable to rapid changes from weather fronts, as well as to the [[pampero]], a chilly and occasionally violent wind blowing north from the [[pampa]]s plains in [[Argentina]].

=== Enclaves and exclaves ===
There is one Argentine [[enclave]] within Uruguayan territory: the island of [[Martín García]] (co-ordinates {{coor dm|34|11|S|58|15|W}}). It is situated near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a mere kilometre (1,100 [[yard|yd]]) inside Uruguayan waters, about 3.5 kilometres (2.2 [[mile|mi]]) from the Uruguayan coastline, near the small city of [[Martín Chico]] (itself about halfway between [[Nueva Palmira]] and [[Colonia]]).

An agreement reached by Argentina and Uruguay in [[1973]] reaffirmed Argentine jurisdiction over the island, ending a century-old dispute between the two countries.{{Fact}} According to the terms of the agreement, Martín García is to be devoted exclusively to a natural preserve. Its area is about 2 square kilometres (500 [[acres]]), and the population about 200 persons. In addition, Gloria Recoda has exclusive land rights on a quarter of the island.

rick james bitch

== Economy ==
:''Main article: [[Economy of Uruguay]]''
[[Image:Playa Pocitos.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[Montevideo]], Uruguay's capital]]
Uruguay's economy is characterised by an export-oriented [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector, a well-educated workforce, and high levels of social spending, as well as a developed industrial sector. After averaging growth of 5% annually in [[1996]]-[[1998]], in [[1999]]-[[2001]] the economy suffered from lower demand in [[Argentina]] and [[Brazil]], which together account for nearly half of Uruguay's exports. Despite the severity of the trade shocks, Uruguay's financial indicators remained more stable than those of its neighbours, a reflection of its solid reputation among investors and its investment-grade sovereign bond rating — one of only two in South America.{{Fact}} In recent years Uruguay has shifted most of its energy into developing the commercial use of IT technologies and has become an important exporter of software in Latin America{{Fact}}.

While some parts of the economy appeared to be resilient, the downturn had a far more severe impact on Uruguayan citizens, as unemployment levels rose to more than twenty percent, [[real wage]]s fell, the [[Uruguayan peso|peso]] was devalued, and the percentage of Uruguayans in poverty reached almost 40%. These worsening economic conditions played a part in turning public opinion against the [[free market]] economic policies adopted by the previous administrations in the 1990s, leading to popular rejection of proposals for [[privatization]] of the state petroleum company in 2003 and of the state water company in 2004. The newly elected [[Frente Amplio]] government, while pledging to continue payments on Uruguay's external debt,{{Fact}} has also promised to undertake a crash jobs programs to attack the widespread problems of poverty and unemployment.{{Fact}}

== Agriculture ==
:''Main article: [[Agriculture of Uruguay]]''
Agriculture played such an important part in Uruguayan history and national identity until the middle of the 20th century that the entire country was then sometimes likened to a single huge estancia (agricultural estate) with Montevideo, where the wealth generated in the hinterland was spent, as its ''casco'' or administrative head. As another saying went, "''Uruguay es la vaca y el puerto''" ("Uruguay is the cow and the port").{{Fact}} When world market prices for Uruguay’s main export commodities like beef and wool fell drastically in the 1950s, the country's prosperous golden era came to an end.

[[Image: Estanciahistorica-florida-uruguay.jpg|thumb|280px|A heartland of historic estancias : Estancia San Eugenio, Casupá, southern department of Florida]]Today, agriculture still contributes roughly 10% to the country’s GDP and is the main foreign exchange earner, putting Uruguay in line with other agricultural exporters like Brazil, Canada and New Zealand. Uruguay is a member of the [[Cairns Group]] of exporters of agricultural products. Uruguay’s agriculture has relatively low inputs of labour, technology and capital in comparison with other such countries, which results in comparatively lower yields per hectare but also open the door for Uruguay to market its products as "natural" or "ecological."

Campaigns like “Uruguayan grass-fed beef” and “Uruguay Natural” aim to establish Uruguay as a premium brand in beef, wine and other food products.{{Fact}}

Recently, an industry has arisen around [[agritourism|estancia tourism]] that capitalizes on the traditional or folkloristic connotations associated with gaucho culture and the remaining resources of the historic [[hacienda|estancias]] of Uruguay's golden era.

== Demographics ==
:''Main article: [[Demographics of Uruguay]]''

As a [[Spanish language|Spanish-speaking]] country of [[Latin America]], most Uruguayans share a [[Spain|Spanish]] cultural background{{fact}}. Some 88% of the population is white and of European descent, with [[mestizo]]s (8%) and Afro-Uruguayans (4%) forming the only significant ethnic minorities. Church and state are officially separated. Most Uruguayans adhere to the [[Roman Catholic]] faith (66%), with smaller [[Protestant]] (2%) and [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Armenians|Armenian]] (1%) communities, as well as a large nonprofessing group (31%).[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uy.html#People]

Uruguay is distinguished by its high [[literacy]] rate (98%), large urban middle class, and relatively even income distribution. During the 1970s and 1980s two decades, an estimated 500,000 Uruguayans emigrated, principally to [[Spain]]. Other Uruguayans went to various countries in [[Europe]].

As a result of the low birth rate, high [[life expectancy]], and relatively high rate of emigration of younger people, Uruguay's population is quite mature. In 2006 the country had a birth rate of 13.91 births per thousand population,[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uy.html#People] lower than neighboring countries [[Argentina]] (16.73 births/1000 population)[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html#People] and [[Brazil]] (16.56 births/1,000 population).[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html#People]

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Uruguay]]''
* [[Music of Uruguay]]
* [[List of Uruguayans]]

===Uruguayan writers===
* [[José Enrique Rodó]], essayist and thinker.
* [[Florencio Sánchez]], playwright.
* [[Horacio Quiroga]], short-story writer.
* [[Juana de Ibarbourou]], poet.
* [[Maria Eugenia Vaz Ferreira]], poet.
* [[Delmira Agustini]], poet.
* [[Juan Carlos Onetti]], novelist.
* [[Idea Vilariño]], poet.
* [[Felisberto Hernandez]], short-story writer and essayist.
* [[Mario Levrero]], , short-story writer.
* [[Mario Benedetti]], poet and novelist.
* [[Jacobo Langsner]], playwright.
* [[Eduardo Galeano]], writer and social commentator renowned throughout Latin America
* [[Jorge Majfud]], essayist and novelist.

===Uruguyan food===
*Pascualina- a spinach pie, tipically including eggs and onion
*[[Mate]]- A tea of yerba mate drank out of mate gourds and sipped from a bombilla (metal straw)
*[[Empanadas]]- A small pie, usually filled with meat, olives, eggs and carrots
*Martin Fierro- A slice of cheese and a slice of quince (membrillo)

Montevideo has been the birthplace of three important [[French literature|French poets]]:

* [[Comte de Lautréamont|Isidore Lucien Ducasse]]
* [[Jules Laforgue]]
* [[Jules Supervielle]]

== Sports ==
''Main article: [[Sports in Uruguay]]''

The most popular sport in Uruguay is [[association football]] (called ''fútbol'' in Spanish).{{Fact}} The country has earned many honours in that sport, including:
*gold medals at the [[1924 Summer Olympics|1924]] and [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928]] [[Olympic Games]] and
*two [[Football World Cup|World Cups]]:
**in 1930, when the first football world championship was celebrated in Montevideo; and
**in 1950 in Brazil.

[[Rugby union]] (see [[Rugby union in Uruguay]]) is also popular with the [[Uruguay national rugby union team|national team]] having qualified for both the [[1999 Rugby World Cup]] and the subsequent [[2003 Rugby World Cup|2003 world cup]]. The team is currently the second highest ranked in South America.[http://www.irb.com/en/World+Rankings/world+rankings+full.htm]

[[basketball]] and [[diving]] are also popular.{{Fact}}

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Uruguay]]
* [[Foreign relations of Uruguay]]
* [[Military of Uruguay]]
* [[Movimiento Scout del Uruguay]]
* [[Reporters without borders]] World-wide press freedom index 2002: Rank 21 out of 139 countries (3 way tie)
* [[Transportation in Uruguay]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Uruguay]]
* [[University of Uruguay]]
* [[University of the Republic, Uruguay]]
* [[Stella Maris College (Montevideo)]]

== External links ==
''Please help improve Wikipedia by providing [[Wikipedia:reliable sources|reliable sources]].''
=== Government resources ===
{{sisterlinks|Uruguay}}
* [http://www.ine.gub.uy/ INE] - National Statistics Institute (in Spanish)
* [http://www.mef.gub.uy/ MEF] - Official site of the Uruguayan Ministry of Finance (in Spanish)
* [http://www.poderjudicial.gub.uy/ Poder Judicial] - Official site of the Uruguayan Judiciary (in Spanish)
* [http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/ Poder Legislativo] - Official site of the Uruguayan Parliament (in Spanish)
* [http://www.uruguay.gub.uy/ Portal del Estado Uruguayo] - Uruguayan State portal (in Spanish)
* [http://www.presidencia.gub.uy/ Presidencia de la República Oriental del Uruguay] - Official presidential site (in Spanish)

=== General information ===
* [http://www.uruguaytotal.com/ Uruguay Total] - Uruguayan portal (in Spanish)
* [http://www.inocentes.info/ Portal Paysandu - Los inocentes de Siempre] - Uruguayan portal (in Spanish)
* [http://www.uruguay.com/ Uruguay.com] - Uruguayan portal (in Spanish, with English links)
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Uruguay Open Directory Project - Uruguay] directory category (multiple languages)
* [http://fromuruguay.blogspot.com/ From Uruguay] - Uruguayan blog (in English)
* [http://dug.punta.com/ Sociedad Alemana-Uruguaya] - German Uruguayan society (in Spanish and German)
* [http://www.vino-uruguay.com/index.php?Lang=en Wine Uruguay] - Uruguayan Wine Guide (in English, Spanish, German)
* [http://www.stonek.com Studio Stonek] - Uruguayan photography studio and image bank (in Spanish and English)
* [http://www.colonial-estates.pvoss.de/argentina-historical-estancias.htm/ Estancias - historic colonial architecture estates] and cattle ranches in the Pampa
* [http://www.boomersabroad.com/uruguay.html The Uruguay Page] - a Uruguay metadirectory (in English)
* [http://www.turbomaps.com.ar/english/uruguay.php Uruguay cities satellite views]
* [http://www.idea.int/countryprofile.cfm?CountryCode=UY Voter turnout, Gender quotas, Electoral system design and Political party financing in Uruguay]

=== Media ===
* [http://www.elpais.com.uy/ El País] - Montevideo daily newspaper
* [http://www.larepublica.com.uy/ La República] - Montevideo daily newspaper
* [http://www.observa.com.uy/ El Observador] - Montevideo daily newspaper
* [http://www.espectador.com/ El Espectador] - Montevideo radio station
* [http://www.sarandi690.com.uy/ Radio Sarandí] - Montevideo radio station
* [http://www.montevideo.com.uy/ Montevideo.com] - Montevideo news web site
* [http://www.laspiedras.zonapixels.com/index.html La Guía] - La Guía, comerce and news of Las Piedras, Canelones, Uruguay
* [http://www.infolatam.com/uruguay.php Infolatam] - Information and news of Uruguay

=== Travel and commerce ===
* [http://www.turismo.gub.uy/index.php Ministerio de Turismo del Uruguay] - Government tourism information site (in Spanish, Portuguese and English)
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.uruguayxxi.gub.uy/ Uruguay XXI] - Investment and Export Promotion (in Spanish and English)
*[http://www.traveltouruguay.com/ Traveltouruguay.com] - Touristic information and promotion
*[http://www.puntaonline.com PuntaOnline.com] Real Estate Portal for Punta del Este in Spanish and German
*[http://www.agro.pvoss.de/ Farm land and historic Estancias] for sale in Uruguay

=== Sports ===
*[http://www.auf.org.uy/ Asociación Uruguaya de Fútbol] - Uruguayan Football Association (in Spanish)
*[http://www.fubb.org.uy Federación Uruguaya de Basketball] - Uruguayan Basketball Federation (in Spanish)
*[http://www.uru.org.uy Unión de Rugby del Uruguay] - Uruguayan Rugby Union (in Spanish)
*[http://www.aug.com.uy Asociación Uruguaya de Golf] - Uruguayan Golf Association (in Spanish)

{{South_America}}

[[Category:South American countries]]
[[Category:Uruguay| ]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|fr}}

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[[zh:乌拉圭]]

Venezuela

2006-10-04T01:38:35Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Venezuela

{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = República Bolivariana de Venezuela1
|conventional_long_name = Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela1
|common_name =Venezuela
|image_flag = Flag of Venezuela (state).svg
|image_coat =Venezuela_coat_of_arms.png 
|symbol_type =Coat of Arms
|image_map =LocationVenezuela.png
|national_motto =''None'' 2
|national_anthem =''[[Gloria al Bravo Pueblo]]''
|official_languages =[[Spanish language|Spanish]] 3
|capital = [[Caracas]]
|latd=10 |latm=30 |latNS=N |longd=66 |longm=58 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[Caracas]]
|government_type = [[Federal republic]]
|leader_title1 =[[President of Venezuela|President]]
|leader_name1 =[[Hugo Chávez|Hugo Chávez Frías]]
|leader_title2 = [[Vice president]]
|leader_name2 = [[José Vicente Rangel]]
|area_rank = 33rd
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area=916,445
|areami²=353,841
|percent_water =0.3
|population_estimate = 26,749,000
|population_estimate_rank = 43rd
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_census = 23,054,210
|population_census_year = 2001
|population_density =29
|population_densitymi² =75
|population_density_rank =175th
|GDP_PPP = $163.503 billion 
|GDP_PPP_rank =51st
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,186
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 95th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_event1 = From [[Spain]]
|established_event2 = From [[Gran Colombia]]
|established_event3 = Recognised
|established_date1 = [[July 5]], [[1811]]
|established_date2 = [[November 21]], [[1831]]
|established_date3 = [[March 30]], [[1845]]
|HDI = 0.772
|HDI_rank =75th
|HDI_year =2003
|HDI_category =medium
|currency = [[Venezuelan bolívar]]
|currency_code =VEB
|country_code =
|time_zone = [[Atlantic Standard Time Zone|AST]]
|utc_offset = -4
|time_zone_DST = None
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld =[[.ve]]
|calling_code =58
|footnotes = 1 The ''Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela'' has been the full official title of the state since the adoption of the [[1999]] constitution, when the state was renamed in honour of [[Simón Bolívar]]. 2 '''Historical''': ''Dios y Federación'' ([[English Language|English]]: "God and Federation") 3 The Constitution also recognizes all indigenous languages existing in the country.
}}

'''Venezuela''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ˌvɛnɪˈzweɪlə]}}; {{lang-es|Venezuela}}, IPA: {{IPA|[beneˈswela]}}) is a country on the northern [[tropics|tropical]] [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] coast of [[South America]]. Venezuela borders [[Brazil]] to the south, [[Guyana]] to the east, and [[Colombia]] to the west. North of the Venezuelan coast lie the islands of [[Aruba]], the [[Netherlands Antilles]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]].

A former [[Spanish colony]], Venezuela is a [[federal republic]]. Historically, Venezuela has had territorial disputes with [[Guyana]], largely concerning the [[Essequibo]] area, and with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela. Today, Venezuela is known widely for its [[petroleum]] industry, the [[biodiversity|environmental diversity]] of its territory, and its sheer natural beauty. [[Christopher Columbus]] was so enthralled by Venezuela's landscape, when arriving to its coast in [[1498]], that he referred to the land as '''''Tierra de Gracia''''' (''Land of Grace''), which has become the country’s nickname.

==Origin of name==
[[Image:palafito.jpg|left|thumb|190px|A palafito, like the ones seen by Amerigo Vespucci]]
The name ''Venezuela'' is believed to have originated from the cartographer [[Amerigo Vespucci]] who, together with Alonso de Ojeda, led a [[1499]] naval expedition along the northwestern coast (known today as the [[Gulf of Venezuela]]). On reaching the [[Guajira Peninsula]], the crew observed the distinctive stilt villages (''[[palafitos]]'') that the indigenous Añu people had built over the water. This reminded Vespucci of the city of [[Venice]] ("Venezia" in Italian) and as a result the region was named ''Veneziela''; some argue this meant ''Little Venice'' and later evolved to "Venezuela". Other historians (notably Francisco Herrera Luque), noted that the suffix ''-zuela'' usually has a pejorative meaning in the Spanish language (''mujerzuela'', ''cazuela'', etc.) and sustain the thesis that the name implied more the notion of a second-rate Venice.

On the other hand, the Spanish geographer Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the same crew, says in his work ''Summa de Geografía'' that the aforementioned population was called ''Veneciuela'', and that it was built on a large, plain rock. According to this theory, the name ''Venezuela'' could be a native word. Nevertheless, the first account remains by far the most popular and accepted version of the origin of the country's name.

==History of colonization==
{{main|History of Venezuela}}
[[Image:Simón Bolívar.jpg|thumb|left|[[Simón Bolívar]], ''El Libertador'']]
Venezuela was [[colonization|colonized]] by [[Spain]] in [[1522]]. In what is now the city of Cumaná, [[Spain]] established their first permanent [[South America|South American]] settlement, and most of the territory eventually became part of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]]. Parts of what is now eastern Venezuela became [[New Andalusia]]. After several unsuccessful uprisings, the country declared independence from Spain on [[July 5th]] [[1811]] under the leadership of [[Francisco de Miranda]], a Venezuelan who was a marshal in the French Revolution. Nevertheless, full control over Venezuelan territory was achieved after Simón Bolívar, El Libertador, with the help of General [[José Antonio Páez]] and especially the then General [[marshal|Grand Marshall]] [[Antonio José de Sucre]], whose battle plan Bolívar chose to follow, won the [[Battle of Carabobo]] on [[June 24th]] [[1821]], and after [[José Prudencio Padilla]] won the [[Naval Battle of Lake Maracaibo]] on [[July 24th]] [[1823]].
[[Image:Castillo Santa Rosa 01.jpg|thumb|right|290px|The ''castillo Santa Rosa'' was a Spanish colonial fort used to defend [[Isla Margarita|Margarita Island]] from [[pirates]] and foreign invadors]]
New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army, he then led several countries to freedom and created a new republic called Colombia (also known as Great or Greater Colombia to differentiate it from the Republic of Colombia) consisting of what are now [[Colombia]], [[Panama]], [[Ecuador]] and Venezuela. He then led the army towards the south, liberating [[Peru]] and founding [[Bolivia]] (named after the Libertador, formerly a part of Peru, known as 'Alto Peru') from the Spaniards. [[Antonio José de Sucre]], who won many battles for Bolívar, was to become his natural successor, until he was murdered in Berruecos. Venezuela became, after the war of independence, along with Colombia and Ecuador, part of the [[Republic of Gran Colombia]] (''República de Gran Colombia'') until [[1830]], when the country separated through a rebellion led by [[José Antonio Páez]] and declared itself a sovereign [[republic]]. Páez became the first president of Venezuela.

Much of Venezuela's [[19th century|19th]]- and early [[20th century|20th-century]] history was characterized by political instability, political struggle and [[dictator]]ial rule.<ref name="LOC_2005_2-3">{{Harv|Library of Congress|2005|pp=2-3}}.</ref> Following the death of [[Juan Vicente Gómez]] in [[1935]] and the temporary demise of ''caudillismo'' (authoritarian rule), democratic struggles eventually forced the military to withdraw from direct involvement in national politics in [[1958]]. Since that year, Venezuela has enjoyed an unbroken tradition of democratic civilian rule, though even this has not been without conflict.

Venezuela is member of the [[South American Community of Nations]] ([[SACN]]). ''[[History of Venezuela|(more)]]''
''See also:'' [[Discoverer of the Americas]], [[President of Venezuela|List of Presidents of Venezuela]]

==Government and politics==

{{morepolitics|country=Venezuela}}
[[Image:National assembly building Caracas Venezuela.jpg|thumb|left|100px|The National Assembly Building in downtown [[Caracas]].]]
The [[President of Venezuela|Venezuelan president]] is elected by vote, with direct and [[universal suffrage]], and functions as both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]]. The term of office is six years, and a president may be re-elected to a single consecutive term. The president appoints the vice-president and decides the size and composition of the [[cabinet]] and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature. The president can ask the legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections.

The [[unicameral]] Venezuelan [[parliament]] is the [[National Assembly of Venezuela|National Assembly]] or ''Asamblea Nacional''. Its 167 deputies, of which three are reserved for indigenous peoples, serve five-year terms and may be re-elected for a maximum of two additional terms. They are elected by popular vote through a combination of party lists and single member constituencies. The highest [[judiciary|judicial]] body is the [[Supreme Tribunal of Justice (Venezuela)|Supreme Tribunal of Justice]] or ''Tribunal Supremo de Justicia'', whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single 12-year term. The [[National Electoral Council (Venezuela)|National Electoral Council]] (''Consejo Nacional Electoral'', or ''CNE'') is in charge of electoral processes; it is formed by five main directors elected by the National Assembly.

Venezuela abolished the [[capital punishment|death penalty]] in [[1863]], making it the country where this practice has been outlawed the longest.<ref>Amnesty International USA. [http://www.amnestyusa.org/abolish/abret2.html Abolitionist and Retentionist Countries.] Retrieved 19 August 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0777460.html The Death Penalty Worldwide.] InfoPlease. Retrieved 19 August 2006.</ref>
{{seealso|Current political events of Venezuela}}

===New flag and new coat of arms===
Recent political change has resulted in the [[flag of Venezuela]] being changed by the addition of an eighth star, symbolizing the Guayana's contributions to the independence of the nation. The [[coat of arms]] has been changed, with the horse facing to the left.

==Administrative divisions==
===States===
{{main|States of Venezuela}}
Venezuela is divided into 23 states (''estados''), a [[Venezuelan Capital District|capital district]] (''distrito capital'') correspondent to the city of [[Caracas]], the federal dependencies (''dependencias federales'') and Guayana Esequiba (border dispute/Guyana). Venezuela is further subdivided into 335 [[municipality|municipalities]] (''municipios''), and further subdivided into 1,084 [[parish]]es (''parroquias'').
[[Image:Estados_de_Venezuela.jpg|thumb|right|315px|Political Map of Venezuela]]
The [[States of Venezuela|states]] (with capitals in parentheses) include:
<table><td><ol>
<li>[[Amazonas State, Venezuela|Amazonas]] ([[Puerto Ayacucho]])
<li>[[Anzoátegui]] ([[Barcelona, Venezuela|Barcelona]])
<li>[[Apure (state)|Apure]] ([[San Fernando de Apure]])
<li>[[Aragua (state)|Aragua]] ([[Maracay]])
<li>[[Barinas (state)|Barinas]] ([[Barinas, Venezuela|Barinas]])
<li>[[Bolívar (state)|Bolívar]] ([[Ciudad Bolívar]])
<li>[[Carabobo]] ([[Valencia, Venezuela|Valencia]])
<li>[[Cojedes (state)|Cojedes]] ([[San Carlos, Cojedes|San Carlos]])
<li>[[Delta Amacuro]] ([[Tucupita]])
<li>[[Falcón (state)|Falcón]] ([[Coro]])
<li>[[Guárico (state)|Guárico]] ([[San Juan De Los Morros]])
<li>[[Lara (state)|Lara]] ([[Barquisimeto]])
</td></ol><td><ol start=13>
<li>[[Mérida State|Mérida]] ([[Mérida, Venezuela|Mérida]])
<li>[[Miranda (state)|Miranda]] ([[Los Teques]])
<li>[[Monagas (state)|Monagas]] ([[Maturín]])
<li>[[Nueva Esparta]] ([[La Asunción]])
<li>[[Portuguesa (state)|Portuguesa]] ([[Guanare]])
<li>[[Sucre (state)|Sucre]] ([[Cumaná]])
<li>[[Táchira (state)|Táchira]] ([[San Cristóbal, Táchira|San Cristóbal]])
<li>[[Trujillo (state)|Trujillo]] ([[Trujillo, Venezuela|Trujillo]])
<li>[[Yaracuy]] ([[San Felipe, Venezuela|San Felipe]])
<li>[[Vargas (state)|Vargas]] ([[La Guaira]])
<li>[[Zulia]] ([[Maracaibo]])
<li>[[Venezuelan Federal Dependencies|Federal Dependencies]]
</td></ol></table>

''Note: The [[Venezuelan Federal Dependencies]] are not a real state, but a special territorial subdivision.''

===Regions===
{{main|Regions of Venezuela}}
[[Image:Venezuela regiones administrativas.png|right|315px|thumb|Administrative regions.]]
The [[States of Venezuela|states]] are grouped into nine administrative regions (''regiones administrativas''), which were established by presidential [[decree]]. The [[Regions of Venezuela|regions]] are listed below along with the states:

'''Andean''' - [[Barinas (state)|Barinas]], [[Mérida (state)|Mérida]], [[Táchira]], [[Trujillo (state)|Trujillo]]; Páez Municipality of [[Apure]].

'''Capital''' - [[Miranda (state)|Miranda]], [[Vargas (state)|Vargas]], [[Venezuelan Capital District|Capital District (Caracas)]].

'''Central''' - [[Aragua (state)|Aragua]], [[Carabobo]], [[Cojedes (state)|Cojedes]].

'''Central-Western''' - [[Falcón]], [[Lara (state)|Lara]], [[Portuguesa (state)|Portuguesa]], [[Yaracuy]].

'''Guayana''' - [[Bolívar (state)|Bolívar]], [[Amazonas (Venezuelan State)|Amazonas]], [[Delta Amacuro]].

'''Insular''' - [[Nueva Esparta]], [[Federal Dependencies]].

'''Llanos''' - [[Apure]] (excluding Paez Municipality), [[Guárico]].

'''North-Eastern''' - [[Anzoátegui]], [[Monagas]], [[Sucre (state)|Sucre]].

'''Zulian''' - [[Zulia]].

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Venezuela}}

At 352,121 [[square miles|mi²]] (912,050 [[square kilometre|km²]]),<ref> CIA Factbook.[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Venezuela.] Accessed 20 September 2006.</ref> Venezuela is the world's 33rd-largest country (after [[Nigeria]]). It is comparable in size to [[Namibia]], and is about half the size of the US state of [[Alaska]].
[[Image:La Galera.jpg|thumb|right|200px|La Galera beach, [[Nueva Esparta]]]]
Venezuela is home to a wide variety of landscapes, such as the north-easternmost extensions of the [[Andes]] mountains in the northwest and along the northern [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] coast, of which the highest point is the [[Pico Bolívar]] at 4,981 metres (16,341 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]).

[[Image:Angel falls.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Angel Falls]] (''Salto Ángel''), world's highest waterfall]]

The center of the country is characterized by extensive plains known as the ''[[llanos]]'' that stretch from the Colombian border to the [[river delta]] of the [[Orinoco]] east. To the south are found the dissected [[Guiana|Guiana Highlands]], home to [[Angel Falls]], the world's highest [[waterfall]], <ref> Angel Falls. (2006). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved July 28, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9007543 </ref> and the northern edge of [[Amazon Basin|Amazonia]].

The country can also be divided into nine geographical areas, some corresponding to the natural regions, one being the [[Andes]] Range. The [[Lake Maracaibo]] region comprises the lowlands near the [[Gulf of Venezuela]]. The [[Coro System]], a mountainous block in the northern occidental territory, is the fount of several [[sierra]]s and valleys. The [[Central Range, Venezuela|Central Range]] is tied up with the coast and the hills surrounding [[Caracas]], while the [[Eastern Range]], separated from the Central by the [[Gulf of Cariaco]], covers all of [[Sucre State]] and northern [[Monagas State|Monagas]]. The [[Llanos]] Region involves a third part of the country's area, above the [[Orinoco River]]. Under it, is the [[South Orinoco Region]] (the Guianas, above described). The [[Insular Region (geographical)|Insular Region]] is formed by [[Nueva Esparta]] and the [[Federal Dependencies]]. The last geographical region is the [[Deltaic System]] which forms a pantanous triangle, covering [[Delta Amacuro]], with the Atlantic platform branching off the coast.
[[Image:Mt Kukenan in Venezuela 001.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Mt. Kukenan, [[Bolívar (state)|Bolívar]].]]
The [[Orinoco River]] is the largest and most important river of the country, originating one of the biggest [[drainage basin|watershed]]s in Latin America. Other important rivers are the [[Caroní River (Venezuela)|Caroní]] and the [[Apure River|Apure]].

The local [[climate]] is tropical and generally hot and humid, though more moderate in the highlands. The capital, [[Caracas]] is also the country's largest city. Other major cities include [[Maracaibo]], [[Barquisimeto]], [[Valencia, Venezuela|Valencia]], [[Maracay]], and [[Ciudad Guayana]].

Venezuela is one of the seventeen [[megadiverse countries]], for the great number of animal and vegetable species that habitate there. It also has one of the most endangered environments.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Venezuela}}
[[Image:Billete 50000 bolívares anverso.jpg|300px|thumb|Venezuelan 50,000 bolívares banknote]]
The petroleum sector dominates the economy, accounting for roughly a third of Venezuela's [[GDP]], around 80% of export earnings, and more than half of government revenues. The oil sector operates through the government-owned [[Petroleos de Venezuela]] (PDVSA), which among other things owns the US-based distributor [[CITGO]], with more than 14,000 retail gasoline outlets in the United States under its brand.

Venezuela also depends highly on the agricultural sector. Sectors with major potential for export-led growth are production of both [[coffee]] and [[cocoa]] crops. At one time, Venezuela ranked close to Colombia in coffee production, but in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s|70s]], as petroleum temporarily turned Venezuela into the richest country in South America, coffee was relegated to the economic back burner. Today, Venezuela produces less than one percent of the world's coffee and most of it is drunk by the Venezuelans themselves. However, some interesting Venezuelan coffees are again entering the North American specialty market. Venezuela's cocoa industry has decayed since the days of Spanish colonialism, when African slaves toiled in these sweltering, snake-infested estates. The focus of cocoa cultivation has long since moved to tropical West Africa and Venezuela now grows under one per cent of the world crop. However, in recent years there has been an attempt to resuscitate this industry, as its rare variety of [[cacao]] is considered the finest and most aromatic in the world and is used in certain single origin chocolates. The largest company of fine chocolate in Venezuela is [[El Rey Chocolates|El Rey]], though such companies as Chocovic also sell chocolate with Venezuelan cacao.

Venezuela is one of the five founding members of [[OPEC]]. The idea itself (an international oil cartel) was the initiative of [[Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo]], who proposed it as a response to low domestic and international oil prices in August [[1960]]. Since [[December 2005]], Venezuela has been a member of [[Mercosur]], joining with [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]] and [[Uruguay]], although it has yet to finalize policy changes in order to gain voting rights.

{{see also|List of Venezuelan companies}}

==Demographics==
[[Image:ChacaoAltamiraView2004-8.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Caracas]], the capital city of Venezuela]]
{{main|Demographics of Venezuela}}
A recent study on racial groups showed that 60% of the population are mestizo (mixed race between white, black and indian), 29% caucasian, 8% black, 1% native indian and 2% asian (China, Japan, Vietnam and Korea).
The Venezuelan people comprise a combination of heritages. The historically present [[Amerindian]]s, [[Spain|Spanish]] colonists and imported [[African]] slaves were joined by [[Italy|Italians]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]], [[Arab]]s, [[ethnic German|Germans]], and others from neighbouring countries in [[South America]] during waves of immigration in the 20th century. There are also various communities from eastern Europe such as Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Bulgaria, Croatia and Hungary. There are also communties from China and Vietnam. About 85% of the population live in urban areas in the northern portion of the country. While almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the [[Orinoco]] river, this region contains only 5% of the population.

The national and official language is [[Spanish language|Spanish]], but about 31 other indigenous languages also exist ([[Wayuu]], [[Pemon]], [[Warao]], [[Kariña]], [[Yanomami]], [[Guajibo]], etc), as do languages introduced by immigrants. 96% of the population is at least nominally [[Roman Catholic]]. Around 4% of the population adheres to other faiths.

{{see also|List of cities in Venezuela}}

==Public health==
[[Infant mortality]] in Venezuela stands at over 22 deaths per 1000 births, a rate that places Venezuela behind Mexico, Panama, Colombia and many other countries of its region; for comparison the infant death rate is about eight times as high as [[Sweden]]. Child [[malnutrition]] (for children under age five) stands at about 17 percent of the population classified as stunted or wasted, which are the official [[United Nations]] categories for malnutrition. Areas more affected by the stunting and wasting include some of the poorest areas: [[Delta Amacuro State|Amacuro Delta]] (30%) and [[Amazonas (Venezuelan state)|Amazonas]] (24%).<ref> FAO.org [http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/ven-e.stm Venezuela.] Accessed 20 September 2006.</ref>

According to the [[United Nations]], the fraction of population without adequate sanitation is 32 percent, with a majority of people in many rural areas lacking in this basic commodity.<ref>Unicef. [http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/venezuela_statistics.html Venezuela.] Accessed 20 September 2006.</ref> Travellers to Venezuela are advised to obtain vaccinations for a variety of diseases including [[typhoid]], [[yellow fever]], [[cholera]], [[hepatitis A]], [[hepatitis B]] and [[hepatitis D]].<ref> [http://travel.guardian.co.uk/countries/information/0,,818577,00.html Venezuela] Guardian. Accessed 20 September 2006.</ref> In a cholera epidemic of contemporary times in the [[Orinoco]] Delta, Venezuela's political leaders were accused of racial profiling of their own indigeneous people to deflect blame from the country's institutions, thereby aggravating the epicemic.<ref>http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio?inkey=62-0520230310-2</ref>.
Visitors to Venezuela are advised to drink only bottled water, due to the prevalence of cross contamination of [[drinking water]] with untreated [[sewage]]. In Venezuela only three percent of the sewage recieves treatment, and none of the following major cities have any wastewater treatment: [[Caracas]], [[Maracaibo]] and [[Valencia]]<ref>''Appropriate Technology for Sewage Pollution Control in the Wider Caribbean Region'', Caribbean Environment Programme Technical Report #40 1998</ref>. There are approximately 5,000,000 people in Venezuela living without access to safe [[drinking water]], resulting in a percentage of population ranking of Venezuela among the poorest in [[South America]].<ref> UNICEF. [http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/about/sgreport-pdf/03_SafeDrinkingWater_D7341Insert_English.pdf Safe Drinking Water.] Accessed 20 September 2006.</ref> As of the year 1999 there were an estimated 110,000 people in Venezuela living with [[HIV]].<ref>http://www.indexmundi.com/venezuela/hiv_aids_people_living_with_hiv_aids.html</ref>
<ref>''CIA World Factbook'', Accessed 20 September, 2006</ref>

==Military==
{{main|Military of Venezuela}}

==Culture & heritage==
[[Image:Joropo.jpg|thumb|200px|Venezuelan Joropo. Drawing by [[Eloy Palacios]] (1912)]]
{{main|Culture of Venezuela|Heritage of Venezuela}}

Venezuela's [[heritage]], [[art]] and cultural importance is primarily found within the collective [[cultural identity|identity]] of its people. In a larger context, the key elements of Venezuelan society have also been shaped and impacted by the historical evolutions of its [[Latin American]] counterparts. Venezuela's heritage may be defined in its inherited circumstances and benefits. Venezuelan heritage extends to its historic buildings, architecture and art{{fact}}, its landscape, boundaries and place within Latin America, and finally its monuments and items considered worthy of preservation. Hence, Venezuelan heritage is naturally connected and related to its culture, as culture defines a nation's intellectual and artistic endeavors. Through the collective customs, beliefs, practices and expressions of its people, a [[cultural identity]] is achieved. Together, Venezuelan heritage, art and [[culture]] represent the historic and contemporary elements of its society.

Venezuelan culture comes from a variety of heritages, mainly of the [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous populations]], [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[African]] provenance, dating from the [[Colony|Colonial Period]]. Before this period, indigenous cultural manifestations were expressed in art ([[petroglyph]]s), [[craft]]s, architecture (''[[shabono]]s'') and social organization. Aboriginal culture was subsequently assimilated by [[Spaniards]]; over the years, the [[hybrid]] culture had diversified by region.
[[Image:Dia Virgen del Valle 01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Worship of the Virgin of the Valley, [[Isla Margarita]]]]
[[Art of Venezuela|Venezuelan art]] is gaining attention within and outside the country. First dominated by religious motives, in the late [[19th century]] it changed to historical and heroic representations, led by [[Martín Tovar y Tovar]]. Modernism took over in the [[20th century]]. Some remarkable Venezuelan artists include [[Arturo Michelena]], [[Cristóbal Rojas]], [[Armando Reverón]], [[Manuel Cabré]], [[Jesús-Rafael Soto]], [[Carlos Cruz-Diez]] (who both contributed greatly to [[kinetic art]]) and [[Yucef Merhi]].


[[Venezuelan literature]] began developing soon after the [[Spanish conquest]], and it was dominated by [[Spanish culture]] and thinking. Following the rise of political literature during the [[Venezuelan War of Independence|Independence War]], then came [[Romanticism]], the first important genre in the region, whose great exponent was [[Juan Vicente González]]. Although mainly focused on [[narrative]], poets also figure with great importance, [[Andrés Eloy Blanco]] being the most famous of them, and also [[Fermín Toro]]. Major writers and novelists are [[Rómulo Gallegos]], [[Teresa de la Parra]], [[Arturo Uslar Pietri]], [[Adriano González León]], [[Miguel Otero Silva]] and [[Mariano Picón Salas]]. Another great poet and humanist was [[Andrés Bello]], besides being an educator and an intellectual.

Other philosophers and intellectuals, like [[Laureano Vallenilla Lanz]] and [[José Gil Fortoul]], along with many other writers, sustained the theory of [[Venezuelan positivism]].

The great architect of the Venezuelan Modern era was [[Carlos Raúl Villanueva]], who designed and built the [[Central University of Venezuela|Universidad Central de Venezuela]], ([[World Heritage Site]]) and its [[Aula Magna]]. Venezuelan architectural examples are the [[Capitolio(Venezuela)|Capitol]], the [[Baralt Theatre]], the [[Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex]], and the [[General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge]].

Indigenous musical styles are sort of a crucible of Venezuelan cultural inheritances, most exemplified by groups like [[Un Solo Pueblo]] and [[Serenata Guayanesa]]. The national musical instrument is the [[cuatro]]. The typical or representative musical styles are mainly from the [[llanos]] area and its surroundings, such as ''[[Alma Llanera]]'' (by [[Pedro Elías Gutiérrez]] and [[Rafael Bolivar Coronado]]), ''[[Florentino y el Diablo]]'' (by [[Alberto Arvelo Torrealba]]), ''Concierto en la llanura'' by [[Juan Vicente Torrealba]], and ''[[Caballo Viejo]]'' (by [[Simón Díaz]]). The [[Gaita (music style)]] is also a popular style, played generally during Christmas, typical of the [[Zulia]]n region. The national dance is the ''[[joropo]]''. [[Teresa Carreño]] was a world famous piano [[virtuoso|virtuosa]] during the late [[19th century]].

Venezuela is also known for their world famous baseball players, such as [[Luis Aparicio]], who is in the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] in [[Cooperstown, New York]] (USA), [[Dave Concepción|David Concepción]], [[Ozzie Guillén|Oswaldo Guillén]], [[Andrés Galarraga]], [[Omar Vizquel]], [[Luis Sojo]], [[Bobby Abreu]], and [[Johan Santana]], winner of the [[Cy Young Award]] in [[2004]]. Although [[baseball]] is tremendously popular (it's the national pastime), [[football (soccer)]] is also gaining popularity, due to the increasing performance of the [[Venezuela national football team]].

{{see also|Music of Venezuela|Cuisine of Venezuela|Venezuelan Spanish|List of Venezuelans|List of players from Venezuela in Major League Baseball}}

===Holidays===
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! Date !! Local Name !! English Name !! Remarks
|-
| [[January 1]]
| ''Día de Año Nuevo''
| [[New Year's Day]]
| Beginning of the [[Civil Year]]
|-
| [[January 6]]
| ''Día de Reyes''
| [[Epiphany]]
| [[Christian]] feast, the visit of the three [[Magi]] to [[Jesus]].
|-
| Monday and Tuesday before [[Ash Wednesday]]
| ''Carnaval''
| [[Carnival]]
| -
|-
| From [[Palm Sunday]] to [[Easter]]
| ''Semana Santa''
| [[Holy Week]]
| Commemoration of the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] and [[Resurrection]] of Christ.
|-
| [[March 19]]
| ''Día de San José''
| [[Saint Joseph's Day]]
| In honor of [[Saint Joseph]]
|-
| [[April 19]]
| ''19 de abril''
| [[Venezuela's first effective move towards emancipation on April 19, 1810|Beginning of the Independence Movement]]
| Remembering the [[1810]] coup and start of the [[Venezuelan Independence Movement|Venezuelan Independence]]
|-
| [[May 1]]
| ''Día del Trabajador''
| [[Labour Day]]
| -
|-
| [[June 24]]
| ''Batalla de Carabobo''
| [[Battle of Carabobo]]
| Ensurance of the Venezuelan Independence; tagged also as [[Army's Day]]
|-
| [[July 5]]
| ''5 de julio''
| [[Independence Day (Venezuela)|Independence Day]]
| Signing of the [[Venezuelan Declaration of Independence]]
|-
| [[July 24]]
| ''Natalicio del Libertador''
| Birth of [[Simón Bolívar]]
| Also tagged as [[Navy's Day]].
|-
| [[August 3]]
| '' Día de la Bandera''
| [[Flag Day]]
| Previously, in Venezuela the [[Flag Day]] was celebrated in [[March 12]], until [[August 3]], [[2006]], in honor of the disembarkation of [[Francisco de Miranda]] in [[Santa Ana de Coro|La Vela de Coro]], [[1806]].
|-
| [[October 12]]
| ''Día de la Resistencia Indígena''
| [[Day of Indigenous Resistance]]
| Previously, in Venezuela the holiday was called ''[[Día de la Raza]]'', conmemorating the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] to the [[Americas]].
|-
| [[November 1]]
| ''Día de Todos los Santos''
| [[All Saints Day]]
| -
|-
| [[November 17]] to [[November 19]]
| ''Feria de la Chinita''
| [[Feria of La Chinita]]
| Only in the [[Zulia]]n region; celebrating the miracle of [[Our Lady of Rosario of Chiquinquirá]].
|-
| [[December 8]]
| ''Inmaculada Concepción''
| [[Immaculate Conception]]
| Celebrating the preservance of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]] from the [[original sin]] by the Grace of [[God]].
|-
| [[December 24]]
| ''Nochebuena''
| [[Christmas Eve]]
| Birth of [[Jesus]] (''Divino Niño'').
|-
| [[December 31]]
| ''Nochevieja''
| [[New Year's Eve]]
| Final day of the [[Civil Year]]
|}

==National symbols==
[[Image:Araguaney.jpg|thumb|165px|Picture of an ''Araguaney'' flourishing.]]
Venezuela's national symbols are the [[Flag of Venezuela|the Flag]], the [[Coat of Arms of Venezuela|Coat of Arms]], and the [[Gloria al Bravo Pueblo|National Anthem]].<ref>[http://www.embavenez-us.org/?pagina=kids.venezuela/patriotic.symbols.htm&titulo=Travel%20Advisory Patriotic Symbols] ''Venezuelan Embassy in the United States'' Accessed 22 August 2006.</ref> Since the [[Flora (plants)|flora]] and [[Fauna (animals)|fauna]] of the territory are remarkable, the government also officially declared these national symbols:<ref>[http://www.embavenez-us.org/kids.venezuela/natural.symbols.htm National Symbols] ''Venezuelan Embassy in the United States'' Accessed 22 August 2006.</ref>

*The '''National Flower''' is the [[orchid]] ''(Cattleya mossiae)''. This kind of [[orchid]] is also known as ''Flor de Mayo'' (''May Flower''). It was first discovered in the northern land in [[1839]] and was given the status of [[National emblem|National Flower]] on [[23 May]] [[1951]].

*The '''National Tree''' is the ''[[Tabebuia|araguaney]]'' ''(Tabebuia chrysantha)''. Called ''aravanei'' by the ''[[caribes]]'', it can be found mostly in regions with temperate [[weather]]. It can reach a height between 6 and 12 m. The ''[[Tabebuia|araguaney]]'' flourishes within the period following a rainy season, mostly in the first months of the year. [[Rómulo Gallegos]] referred to these months as "''La primavera de oro de los araguaneyes''" (the golden spring of the ''araguaneyes''). Declared [[National emblem|National Tree]] on [[29 May]] [[1945]].

*The '''National Bird''' is the [[turpial]] ''(Icterus icterus)''. Fully coloured with yellow-orange tones except in the head and the wings, which are black with a few tones in white; also has a blue spot surrounding the eyes. It can be found in [[woods]], the ''[[llanos]]'', at the shores of [[jungles]], and in northern and southern [[Orinoco]]. The [[turpial]] is fairly appreciated due to its singing and was declared the [[National emblem|National Bird]] on [[23 May]] [[1958]].
 

==See also==
{{Topics related to Venezuela}}

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==References==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<div class="references-small">

* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Encyclopaedia Britannica
| Surname1 = EB
| Year = 2006
| Title = Venezuela - Country Fact Page
| Journal = Encyclopaedia Britannica Country Fact Page
| URL = http://www.britannica.com/nations/Venezuela
| Access-date = [[July 4]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Central Intelligence Agency
| Surname1 = CIA
| Year = 2005
| Title = Venezuela
| Journal = The World Factbook 2005
| URL = https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ve.html
| Access-date = [[January 22]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Bevilacqua
| Given1 = M
| Surname2 = Cardenas
| Given2 = L
| Surname3 = Flores
| Given3 = AL et al.
| Year = 2002
| Title = State of Venezuela's forests: A case study of the Guayana Region
| Journal = World Resources Institute
| URL = http://pubs.wri.org/pubs_content_text.cfm?ContentID=1607
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Dydynski
| Given1 = K
| Surname2 = Beech
| Given2 = C
| Year = 2004
| Title = Lonely Planet Venezuela
| Publisher = Lonely Planet
| ID = ISBN 1-74104-197-X
| URL = http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN174104197X&id=JDdb1alDGYIC
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Earth Trends
| Surname1 = Earth Trends
| Year = 2003
| Title = Biodiversity and Protected Areas — Venezuela
| Journal = EarthTrends Country Profiles
| URL = http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/bio_cou_862.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Earth Trends
| Surname1 = Earth Trends
| Year = 2003b
| Title = Coastal and Marine Ecosystems — Venezuela
| Journal = EarthTrends Country Profiles
| URL = http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/coa_cou_862.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Earth Trends
| Surname1 = Earth Trends
| Year = 2003c
| Title = Population, Health, and Human Well-Being — Venezuela
| Journal = EarthTrends Country Profiles
| URL = http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/pop_cou_862.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
</div>
{{col-2}}
<div class="references-small">
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = Library of Congress (Federal Research Division)
| Surname1 = Library of Congress
| Year = 2005
| Title = Country Profile: Venezuela
| Journal = Library of Congress
| URL = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Venezuela.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Peck
| Given1 = D
| Year = 2000
| Title = The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance: Venezuela
| Journal = The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
| URL = http://www.ramsar.org/profile/profiles_venezuela.htm
| Access-date = [[January 22]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = World Health Organization
| Surname1 = World Health Organization
| Year = 2004
| Title = Venezuela: 2004 Update
| Journal = WHO Epidemiological Fact Sheets
| URL = http://www.who.int/GlobalAtlas/predefinedReports/EFS2004/EFS_PDFs/EFS2004_VE.pdf
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author = World Resources Institute
| Surname1 = World Resources Institute
| Year = 2006
| Title = Venezuela: Overview
| Journal = Global Forest Watch
| URL = http://www.globalforestwatch.org/english/venezuela/
| Access-date = [[January 30]], [[2006]]
}}.
</div>
{{col-end}}

*Child, Jack. "The Politics and Semiotics of the Smallest Icons of Popular Culture: Latin American Postage Stamps." Latin American Research Review, 40:1 (2005) 108-137.

==External links==
{{portalpar|Venezuela|Angel falls.jpg|52px}}
{{sisterlinks|Venezuela}}

;Official
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.asambleanacional.gov.ve Asamblea Nacional] - Official Parliamentary Site.
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.cne.gov.ve National Electoral Council]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.gobiernoenlinea.ve Gobierno en Línea] - Official governmental portal.
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.fiscalia.gov.ve Ministerio Público]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.venezuela.gov.ve Presidencia de la República de Venezuela] - Official Presidential Site.
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.tsj.gov.ve - Tribunal Supremo de Justicia] Supreme Tribunal of Justice (TSJ)

;Media and communications
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.analitica.com Analítica]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.cadenaglobal.com Cadena Global]
* {{en_icon}} [http://www.thedailyjournalonline.com The Daily Journal] - 60 year old English language newspaper
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.el-nacional.com Diario El Nacional]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.talcualdigital.com Diario Tal Cual]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.eud.com Diario El Universal]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.globovision.com Globovisión] - 24 Hour News Channel
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.venevision.net/]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.noticiasdevenezuela.com.ve Agencia de Noticias de Venezuela]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.magicafm.com Mágica 99.1 FM]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.panodi.com Panorama] - [[Maracaibo]] based newspaper
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.rctv.net Radio Caracas Televisión]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.vtv.gov.ve/ Venezolana de Televisión]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.laverdad.com La Verdad]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.notisur.com/nts Notisur]
* {{es_icon}} [http://notiven.com Noticias de Venezuela]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.unionradio.com.ve Unión Radio]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.rnv.gov.ve/noticias/ Radio Nacional de Venezuela]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.trp.tv Televisora Regional de Portuguesa]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.abn.gob.ve Agencia Bolivariana de Noticias] - Government news agency
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.telesurtv.net Telesur] - State sponsored Latin American news agency
* {{en_icon}} [http://www.vheadline.com Vheadline.com]

;Culture, Images and Tourism
* [http://www.venezuelatuya.com/indexeng.htm Venezuela yours...] Pictures and information of the country.
* [http://www.llanera.com/regiones/venezuela/venezuela.php?ver=1 The llanos of Venezuela]
* [http://www.venezuelasights.com/ The Beauty of Venezuela in Pictures] Pictures of cities, landscapes, animals, plants, seas and mountains.
* [http://www.llanera.com/musica Music Llanera]

* {{wikitravel|Venezuela}}
* [http://www.margaritainfo.com Margarita Island Information] - Summarized Isla Margarita Information
* [http://www.discovervenezuela.com Discover Venezuela] - information and images.
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.efemeridesvenezolanas.com Efemérides Venezolanas]
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.marceloanelli.com/xoom/ Venezuela in Photographs]
* [http://www.turpial.org Venezuelan Picture Gallery] Pictures of cities, landscapes, animals and plants.

;Miscellaneous

* {{es icon}} [http://www.mipunto.com Mi Punto.com] - portal including news, entertainment, sports and miscellanea.
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Venezuela Encyclopaedia Britannica] Venezuela - Country Page
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Venezuela Open Directory Project] directory category (various languages)
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/venezuela Latin Business Chronicle] Venezuela Business Reports, Statistics and Links
* {{en icon}} [http://www.turbomaps.com.ar/english/venezuela.php Venezuela main cities satellite views]
* [http://www.idea.int/countryprofile.cfm?CountryCode=VE Voter turnout, Gender quotas, Electoral system design and Political party financing in Venezuela]

{{South_America}}
{{G15}}

[[Category:South American countries]]
[[Category:Venezuela]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]]
[[Category:G15 nations]]

[[af:Venezuela]]
[[ar:فنزويلا]]
[[an:Benezuela]]
[[ast:Venezuela]]
[[az:Venesuela]]
[[id:Venezuela]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Venezuela]]
[[bo:ཝེ་ནེ་ཟུའེ་ལ]]
[[bs:Venecuela]]
[[bg:Венецуела]]
[[ca:Veneçuela]]
[[cs:Venezuela]]
[[cy:Venezuela]]
[[da:Venezuela]]
[[de:Venezuela]]
[[et:Venezuela]]
[[es:Venezuela]]
[[eo:Venezuelo]]
[[eu:Venezuela]]
[[to:Venisuela]]
[[fa:ونزوئلا]]
[[fr:Venezuela]]
[[ga:Veiniséala]]
[[gl:Venezuela]]
[[ko:베네수엘라]]
[[hr:Venezuela]]
[[io:Venezuela]]
[[ilo:Venezuela]]
[[is:Venesúela]]
[[it:Venezuela]]
[[he:ונצואלה]]
[[ka:ვენესუელა]]
[[kw:Veneswela]]
[[lad:Venezuela]]
[[la:Venetiola]]
[[lv:Venecuēla]]
[[lt:Venesuela]]
[[hu:Venezuela]]
[[mk:Венецуела]]
[[nl:Venezuela]]
[[ja:ベネズエラ]]
[[no:Venezuela]]
[[nn:Venezuela]]
[[oc:Veneçuèla]]
[[ug:ۋېنېسۇئېلا]]
[[pam:Venezuela]]
[[pap:Venezuela]]
[[nds:Venezuela]]
[[pl:Wenezuela]]
[[pt:Venezuela]]
[[ro:Venezuela]]
[[rm:Venezuela]]
[[ru:Венесуэла]]
[[sa:वेनेज्वेला]]
[[sq:Venezuela]]
[[scn:Venezzuela]]
[[simple:Venezuela]]
[[sk:Venezuela]]
[[sl:Venezuela]]
[[sr:Венецуела]]
[[sh:Venezuela]]
[[fi:Venezuela]]
[[sv:Venezuela]]
[[tl:Venezuela]]
[[ta:வெனீசூலா]]
[[tet:Venezuela]]
[[th:ประเทศเวเนซุเอลา]]
[[vi:Venezuela]]
[[tg:Венесуэла]]
[[tr:Venezuela]]
[[uk:Венесуела]]
[[yi:װענעזװעלע]]
[[zh:委內瑞拉]]

Tanzania

2006-10-04T01:37:51Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Unreferenced}}
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = ''Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania'' |
conventional_long_name = United Republic of Tanzania |
common_name = Tanzania |
image_flag = Flag of Tanzania.svg |
image_coat = Tanzania coa.gif |
national_motto = Uhuru na Umoja ([[Swahili]]: Freedom and Unity) |
image_map = LocationTanzania.png |
national_anthem = [[Mungu ibariki Afrika]] (God Bless Africa) |
official_languages = [[Swahili language|Swahili]] ([[de facto]]) |
capital = [[Dodoma]] ([[Dar es Salaam]]) |
latd=6|latm=00|latNS=S|longd=35|longm=00|longEW=E|
government_type = [[Republic]] |
leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Tanzania|President]] |
leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Tanzania|Prime Minister]] |
leader_name1 = [[Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete]] |
leader_name2 = [[Edward Lowassa]]|
largest_city = [[Dar es Salaam]] |
area = 945,087 |
areami² = 364,898 |
area_rank = 31st |
area_magnitude = 1 E11 |
percent_water = 6.2% |
population_estimate = 38,329,000 1 |
population_estimate_year = July 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 32nd |
population_census = 34,443,603 |
population_census_year = 2002 |
population_density = 41 |
population_densitymi² = 106|
population_density_rank = 159th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $27.12 billion|
GDP_PPP_rank = 99th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $723 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 178th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.418 |
HDI_rank = 164th |
HDI_category = low |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
sovereignty_note = From the [[United Kingdom]] |
established_event1 = Tanganyika |
established_event2 = Zanzibar |
established_event3 = Merge |
established_date1 = [[December 9]], [[1961]] |
established_date2 = [[December 19]], [[1963]] |
established_date3 = [[April 26]] [[1964]]|
currency = [[Tanzanian shilling]] |
currency_code = tzs|
time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] |
utc_offset = +3 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DST = +3 |
cctld = [[.tz]] |
calling_code = 255 2 |
footnotes = 1.) Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. 2.) 007 from [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]]
}}
'''Tanzania''' {{IPA2|ˌtænzəˈniə}}, officially the '''United Republic of Tanzania''' (''Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania'' in [[Swahili]]), is a country on the east coast of [[Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]] on the north, [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on the west, and [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]] and [[Mozambique]] on the south. To the east it borders the [[Indian Ocean]]. The country is named after [[Tanganyika]], its mainland part, and the [[Zanzibar]] islands off its east coast. The country has been a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] since gaining [[National independence|independence]] in 1961. In 1964, Tanganyika united with Zanzibar, forming the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, later renamed to the United Republic of Tanzania. In 1996, Tanzania's [[capital city|capital]] was officially moved from [[Dar es Salaam]] to [[Dodoma]], although many [[government]] offices still remain in the old capital.

== History ==
{{main|History of Tanzania}}

A [[German East Africa|German colony]] from the 1880s until 1919, the area subsequently became a British trust territory from 1919 to 1961. It served as a military outpost during WWII and provided financial help as well as munitions. [[Julius Nyerere]] became Minister of British-administered [[Tanganyika]] in 1960 and continued as [[Prime Ministers of Tanzania|Prime Minister]] when Tanganyika became independent in 1961. Tanganyika and neighbouring [[Zanzibar]], which had become independent in 1963, merged to form the nation of Tanzania on [[26 April]] [[1964]]. Nyerere introduced [[African socialism]], or ''[[Ujamaa]]'', which emphasized justice and equality; it proved economically disastrous, leading to [[food shortage]]s as collective farms failed.

===Tanganyika (1815–1886)===
Tanganyika as a geographical and political entity did not take shape before the period of High Imperialism; its name only came into use after [[German East Africa]] was transferred to the United Kingdom as a mandate by the League of Nations in 1920. What is referred to here therefore is the history of the region that was to become [[Tanganyika]].

In 1698 and again in 1725 the [[Oman]]is had ousted the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] from the trading ports on [[East Africa]]'s coast, most notably from [[Kilwa]] and [[Zanzibar]]. During the 18th century, [[Zanzibar]] had emerged as the dominant port of the region. Trade in general had prospered, a chain of coastal trading towns, among them [[Tanga, Tanzania|Tanga]] and [[Bagamoyo]], had emerged. Bagamoyo means 'throw your heart away'; it was a port from where slaves were shipped.

In 1841, Sultan [[Sayyid Said]] moved his capital from [[Muscat]] to [[Zanzibar]]; with him came many Arabs who invigorated the economy. In 1856, the [[Sultanate of Zanzibar]] was separated from the [[Sultanate of Oman]]; to Zanzibar belonged the island of [[Pemba, Tanzania|Pemba]] as well as the coastal lands, including Kilwa. Arab traders established caravan routes into the interior, facilitating trades; the camel provided transportation. Slaves were among the most profitable trading goods.

The port of Zanzibar was visited by Dutch, English and French ships. The [[British East India]] Company had a representative on Zanzibar, who acted as an advisor to the sultan. In 1873 a British fleet forced Sultan Barghash to declare slave trade ended. Although reduced, an illegal [[slave trade]] continued.

In 1848 the [[German missionary]] [[Johannes Rebmann]] 'discovered' [[Mount Kilimanjaro]]; in 1858 [[Richard Burton]] and [[John Speke]] 'discovered' [[Lake Tanganyika]].

In 1877 the first of a series of Belgian expeditions arrived on Zanzibar. In the course of these expeditions, in 1879 a station was founded in [[Kigoma]] on the eastern bank of Lake Tanganyika, soon to be followed by the station of [[Mpala]] on the opposite western bank. Both stations were founded in the name of the [[Comite D'Etudes Du Haut Congo]], a predecessor organization of the [[Congo Free State]]. The fact that this station had been established and supplied from [[Zanzibar]] and [[Bagamoyo]] lead to the inclusion of [[East Africa]] into the territory of the [[Conventional Basin of the Congo]] at the [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885.

At the conference table in Berlin, contrary to widespread perception, Africa was not partitioned; rather rules were established amongst the colonial powers and prospective colonial powers as how to proceed in the establishment of colonies and protectorates. While the Belgian interest soon concentrated on the [[Congo River]], the British and Germans focussed on [[Eastern Africa]] and in 1886 partitioned continental East Africa amongst themselves; the Sultanate of Zanzibar, now reduced to the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, remained independent, for the moment.
The [[Congo Free State]] was eventually to give up its claim on [[Kigoma]] (its oldest station in Central Africa) and on any territory to the east of [[Lake Tanganyika]], to [[Germany]].

===The Maji Maji War===

All resistance to the [[Germans]] in the interior ceased and they could now set out to organize [[Deutsch Ost Afrika]].
They continued exercising their authority with such disregard and contempt for existing local structures and traditions and with such brutality that discontent was brewing anew and in 1902 a movement against forced labour for a cotton scheme rejected by the local population started along the [[Rufiji River]].

It reached a breaking point in July 1905 when the [[Matumbi]] of [[Nandete]] led by Kinjikitile Ngwale (traditional leader) chased their [[akida]] and suddenly the revolt grew wider from [[Dar es Salaam]] to the [[Uluguru]] Mountains, the [[Kilombero]] Valley, the [[Mahenge]] and [[Makonde]] Plateaux, the [[Ruvuma]] in the southernmost part and [[Kilwa]], [[Songea]], [[Masasi]], and from [[Kilosa]] to [[Iringa]] down to the eastern shores of [[Lake Nyasa]].

Known as the [[Maji Maji]] war with the main brunt borne by the [[Ngonis]], this was a merciless rebellion and by far the bloodiest in [[Tanganyika]].

Germans had occupied the area since 1897 and totally altered many aspects of everyday life. They were actively supported by the [[missionaries]] who destroyed all signs of [[indigenous beliefs]], notably by razing the 'mahoka' huts where the local population worshipped their ancestors' spirits and by ridiculing their rites, dances and other ceremonies. This would not be forgotten or forgiven; the first battle which broke out at [[Uwereka]] in September 1905 under the Governorship of Count [[Gustav Adolf von Götzen]] turned instantly into an all-out war with indiscriminate murders and massacres perpetrated by all sides against farmers, settlers, missionaries, planters, villages, indigenous people and peasants.

===Tanganyika, a British Mandate (1918–1939)===

The period of British rule began with the occupation of the island of Mafia by the [[Royal Navy]] in 1914. In 1916, the colony was occupied; German troops, commanded by able [[Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck]] continued to resist until the end of the war. In 1920, the League of Nations, granted the mandate to administrate the former German colony of [[German East Africa]], except [[Ruanda]] and [[Burundi]], to the [[United Kingdom]].

The colony was renamed [[Tanganyika Territory]] (1920). In 1921 the [[Belgians]] transferred the [[Kigoma district]], which they had administrated since the occupation, to British administration. The United Kingdom and Belgium signed an agreement regarding the border between Tanganyika and [[Ruanda-Urundi]] in 1924.

British policy was to rule indirectly, i.e. through [[African leaders]]. In 1926, a [[Legislative Council]] was established, which was to advise the governor. In 1928 the railway line [[Tabora-Mwanga]] was opened to traffic, the line from [[Moshi]] to [[Arusha]] in 1929.

In 1919 the population was estimated at 3,500,000. In 1931 a census established the population of [[Tanganyika]] at 5,022,640 natives, in addition to 32,398 Asians and 8,228 Europeans.

Under British rule, efforts were undertaken to fight the Tsetse fly ([[Charles Swynnerton]], since 1919), to fight [[Malaria]] and [[Bilharziasis]]; more hospitals were built.

In 1926, the Colonial administration provided subsidies to schools run by missionaries, and at the same moment established her authority to exercise supervision and to establish guidelines. Yet in 1935, the education budget for entire Tanganyika amounted to merely (US) $ 240,000, although it is unclear how much this represented at the time in terms of [[purchasing power parity]].

In 1933, [[Sir Horace Hector Hearne]] was appointed as [[Puisne Judge]], Tanganyika Territory, and acted as Chief Justice in 1935 and 1936. He held the post of [[Puisne Judge]] until 1936/1937 when he went on to be a [[Puisne Judge]] in [[Ceylon]].

===History of East Africa===

The mandate to administer the former German Colony was conferred to the United Kingdom under the terms of the [[Supreme Council of the League of Nations]]. The United Kingdom transferred the Provinces of [[Ruanda and Urundi]], in the N.W., to Belgium, with the concurrence of the Supreme Council. These Provinces contained three-sevenths of the population and more than half the cattle of the Colony.

Naval Defence. The boundaries of the [[East Indies]] Station, on the [[African]] coast, were enlarged in 1919, and include [[Zanzibar]] and what was the littoral of [["German" East Africa]].

[[Dar-es-Salaam]] remained the seat of Government of the conquered Colony. The first Administrator was [[Sir Horace Archer Byatt]], [[C.M.G]]. The native troops went back quietly to their villages and the few Germans that remained were reported as settling down under the new Administration.

===The War With Germany in East Africa===

At the outbreak of war the [[Germany|German]] authorities may have regarded the position of their premier Colony with considerable equanimity although it must inevitably be cut off from outside communication; for it had been organized against any attack that could be made without those extensive preparations for which, according to the German war programme, the essential factor of time would be lacking. Indeed for the first year of hostilities the Germans were strong enough to carry the war into their neighbours' territories and repeatedly attacked the railway and other points in [[British East Africa]].

The forces at the disposal of the German Command may never be accurately known. [[Lieutenant-General Smuts]] at one time estimated them at 2,000 Germans and 16,000 [[Askaris]], with 60 guns and 80 machine guns, but this should prove to be below the mark. The white adult male population in 1913 numbered over 3,500 (exclusive of garrison), a large proportion of these would be available for military duties. The native population of over 7,000,000, comprising practically all the warlike races of [[Central Africa]], formed a reservoir of man-power from which a force might be drawn limited only by the supply of officers and equipment. There is no reason to doubt that the Germans made the best of this material during the long interval of nearly eighteen months which separated the outbreak of war from the invasion in force of their territory.

In his final despatch of May, 1919, [[General van Deventer]] places the German forces, at the commencement of 1916, at 2,700 whites and 12,000 blacks. [[Lord Cranford]], in his foreword to Captain [[Angus Buchanan]]'s book on the war, writes - "At his strongest [[von Lettow]] probably mustered 25,000 to 30,000 rifles, all fighting troops", with 70 machine guns and 40 guns. After eighteen months of continuous fighting [[General van Deventer]] estimated the enemy's forces at 8,000 to 9,000 men.

Another point bearing on the war and duly emphasized by General Smuts in his lecture before the [[Royal Geographic Society]](Jan., 1918), was the extraordinary strength of the German frontier. The coast line offered few suitable points for landing and was backed by an unhealthy swamp belt. On the west the line of lakes and mountains proved so impenetrable that the Belgian forces from the [[Congo]] had, in the first instance, to be moved through Uganda. On the south the [[Ruvuma River]] was only fordable on its upper reaches. And the northern frontier was the most difficult of all. Only one practicable pass about five miles wide offered between the [[Pare Mountains]] and [[Kilimanjaro]], and here the German forces, amid swamps and forests, had been digging themselves in for eighteen months.

The Hon. [[H. Burton]], speaking in [[London]], Aug., 1918, said : "Nothing struck our commanders in the East African field so much as the thorough, methodical and determined training of the German native levies previous to the war".

The force which evacuated the Colony in Dec., 1917, was estimated at the time at 320 white and 2,500 black troops; 1,618 Germans were killed or captured in the last six months of 1917, 155 whites and 1,168 Askaris surrendered at the close of hostilities.

===Tanganyika Order in Council===

In 1920, by the Tanganyika Order in Council, 1920, the Office of Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Territory was constituted. The administration of the Territory continued to be carried out under the terms of the mandate until its transfer to the Trusteeship System under the Charter of the United Nations by the Trusteeship Agreement of December 13, 1946.

===The War Years===

A skilful and remarkably successful guerrilla campaign waged by the German Commander [[Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck]] kept the war in Tanganyika going for the entire length of the First World War.
A scorched earth policy and the requisition of buildings meant a complete collapse of the [[Government's education system]], though some mission schools managed to retain a semblance of instruction. Thus by 1920, the Education Department consisted of 1 officer and 2 clerks with a budget equal to 1% of the country's revenue, in fact less than the amount appropriated for the maintenance of Government House.

===British Administration===

The British Administration took measures to revive [[African institutions]] by encouraging limited local rule and authorized the formation in 1922 of political clubs such as the [[Tanganyika Territory African Civil Service Association]]. In 1926 some African members were unofficially admitted into the Legislative Council and in 1929 the Association became the [[Tanganyika African Association]] which would constitute the core of the nascent [[nationalist movement]]. In 1945 the first Africans were effectively appointed to the Governor's Legislative Council.

Tanganyika first achieved autonomy and (some months later) full independence from the United Kingdom in 1961, with the Republic of Tanganyika constituted in the following year. In 1963, Zanzibar achieved independence from the United Kingdom in the form of a constitutional monarchy under the sultan, but a popular revolt in 1964 against the sultan soon led to the unification of Zanzibar with Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanzania. The name Tanzania was derived as a [[portmanteau]] of Tanganyika and Zanzibar and previously had no significance.

===Recent History===

In 1979, Tanzania declared [[Uganda-Tanzania War|war on Uganda]] after Uganda invaded and tried to annex the northern Tanzanian province of [[Kagera]]. Tanzania not only expelled Ugandan forces, but, enlisting the country's population of Ugandan exiles, also invaded Uganda itself. On [[April 11]], 1979, [[Idi Amin]] was forced to quit the capital, Kampala. The Tanzanian army took the city with the help of the Ugandan and Rwandan guerrillas. Amin fled into exile.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/597725.stm]

Nyerere handed over power to [[Ali Hassan Mwinyi]] in 1985, but retained control of the ruling party, [[Chama cha Mapinduzi]] (CCM), as Chairman until 1990, when he handed that responsibility to Mwinyi. In October 1995, one-party rule came to an end when Tanzania held its first ever multi-party election. However, CCM comfortably won the elections and its candidate [[Benjamin Mkapa]] was subsequently sworn in as the new president of the United Republic of Tanzania on [[23 November]] [[1995]]. In December 2005, Jakaya Mrisho [[Kikwete]] was elected the 4th president for a five-year term.

One of the deadly [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] occurred in [[Dar es Salaam]]; the other was in [[Nairobi, Kenya]].
In 2004, the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|undersea earthquake]] on the other side of the [[Indian ocean]] caused tidal surges along Tanzania's coastline in which 11 people were killed. An [[oil tanker]] also temporarily ran aground in the [[Dar es Salaam]] harbor, damaging an [[oil pipeline]].
[[Image:Battle of tanga.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Tanga]], fought between the British and Germans during [[World War I]]]]

== Politics ==

{{morepolitics|country=Tanzania}}

Tanzania's president and National Assembly members are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for 5-year terms. The president appoints a prime minister who serves as the government's leader in the National Assembly. The president selects his cabinet from among National Assembly members. The Constitution also empowers him to nominate 10 non-elected members of Parliament, who also are eligible to become cabinet members. Elections for president and all National Assembly seats were held in December 2005.

The unicameral National Assembly elected in 2000 has 295 members. These 295 members include the Attorney General, five members elected from the Zanzibar House of Representatives to participate in the Parliament, the special women's seats which are made up of 20% of the seats a particular party has in the House, 181 constituents seats of members of Parliament from the mainland, and 50 seats from Zanzibar. Also in the list are 48 appointed for women and the seats for the 10 nominated members of Parliament. At present, the ruling
CCM holds about 93% of the seats in the Assembly. Laws passed by the National Assembly are valid for Zanzibar only in specifically designated union matters.

Zanzibar's House of Representatives has jurisdiction over all non-union matters. There are currently 76 members in the House of Representatives in Zanzibar, including 50 elected by the people, 10 appointed by the president of Zanzibar, 5 ex officio members, and an attorney general appointed by the president. In May 2002, the government increased the number of special seats allocated to women from 10 to 15, which will increase the number of House of Representatives members to 81. Ostensibly, Zanzibar's House of Representatives can make laws for Zanzibar without the approval of the union government as long as it does not involve union-designated matters. The terms of office for Zanzibar's president and House of Representatives also are 5 years. The semiautonomous relationship between Zanzibar and the union is a relatively unique system of government.

Tanzania has a five-level judiciary combining the jurisdictions of tribal, Islamic, and British common law. Appeal is from the primary courts through the district courts, resident magistrate courts, to the high courts, and Court of Appeals. Judges are appointed by the Chief Justice, except those for the Court of Appeals and the High Court who are appointed by the president. The Zanzibari court system parallels the legal system of the union, and all cases tried in Zanzibari courts, except for those involving constitutional issues and Islamic law, can be appealed to the Court of Appeals of the union. A commercial court was established in September 1999 as a division of the High Court.

For administrative purposes, Tanzania is divided into 26 regions — 21 on the mainland, 3 on Unguja, and 2 on Pemba (Unguja and Pemba make Zanzibar). Ninety-nine district councils have been created to further increase local authority. These districts are also now referred to as local government authorities. Currently there are 114 councils operating in 99 districts, 22 are urban and 92 are rural. The 22 urban units are classified further as city (Dar es Salaam and [[Mwanza]]), municipal (Arusha, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro, Shinyanga, Tabora, and Tanga), and town councils (the remaining 11 communities).

==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Tarangire-Natpark800600.jpg|thumb|[[Tarangire National Park]] in Tanzania]]
{{main|Regions of Tanzania}}

Tanzania is divided into 26 [[region]]s (''mkoa'') and subdivided into 98 ''wilaya'' (or [[district]]s).

The [[Regions of Tanzania|regions]] include: [[Arusha Region|Arusha]], [[Dar es Salaam Region|Dar es Salaam]], [[Dodoma Region|Dodoma]], [[Iringa Region|Iringa]], [[Kagera Region|Kagera]], [[Kigoma Region|Kigoma]], [[Kilimanjaro Region|Kilimanjaro]], [[Lindi Region|Lindi]], [[Manyara Region|Manyara]], [[Mara Region|Mara]], [[Mbeya Region|Mbeya]], [[Morogoro Region|Morogoro]], [[Mtwara Region|Mtwara]], [[Mwanza Region|Mwanza]], [[Pemba North]], [[Pemba South]], [[Pwani Region|Pwani]], [[Rukwa Region|Rukwa]], [[Ruvuma Region|Ruvuma]], [[Shinyanga Region|Shinyanga]], [[Singida Region|Singida]], [[Tabora Region|Tabora]], [[Tanga Region|Tanga]], [[Zanzibar Central/South Region|Zanzibar Central/South]], [[Zanzibar North Region|Zanzibar North]], [[Zanzibar Urban/West Region|Zanzibar Urban/West]]

The [[list of Tanzanian regions by area]] ranks the regions by their total area, land area, and water area.

For the districts, see [[Districts_of_Tanzania]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:Tz-map.png|thumb|Map of Tanzania]]
[[Image:Kibo summit of Mt Kilimanjaro 001.JPG|thumb|Summit of [[Mount Kilimanjaro]]]]
[[Image:Irenteviewpoint.jpg|thumb|200px|Irente viewpoint, Lushoto, [[Tanga Region]]]]
[[Image:Arusha-NatPark-Ngurdoto-Crater.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Ngurdoto Crater]] at [[Arusha National Park]] in Tanzania, East Africa.]]
{{main|Geography of Tanzania}}

At 364,875 [[square miles|mi²]] (945,087 [[square kilometre|km²]][https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html]), Tanzania is the world's 31st-largest country (after [[Egypt]]). It is comparable in size to [[Nigeria]], and is about half the size of the US state of [[Alaska]].

Tanzania is mountainous in the north-east, where [[Mount Kilimanjaro]], Africa's highest peak, is situated. To the north and west are the [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]] of [[Lake Victoria]] (Africa's largest lake) and [[Lake Tanganyika]]. Central Tanzania comprises a large plateau, with plains and arable land. The eastern shore is hot and humid, with the island of Zanzibar lying just offshore.

Tanzania contains many large and ecologically significant wildlife parks, including the famous [[Serengeti National Park]] in the north.

==Environment==

Tanzania has considerable land area of [[wildlife]] habitat, including much of the [[Serengeti]] plain, where [[Blue Wildebeest]] and other [[bovid]]s participate in a large scale annual migration. Up to 250,000 Blue Wildebeest perish each year in the long and arduous movement to find forage in the dry season.

Tanzania has developed a [[Biodiversity Action Plan]] to address species conservation.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Tanzania}}

The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, provides 85% of exports, and employs 90% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however, limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. Industry is mainly limited to processing agricultural products and light consumer goods. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania's deteriorated economic infrastructure. Tanzania has vast amounts of natural resources including gold deposits - gold mines such as that at Tulawaka have reserves of over 500,000 ounces of gold, at a grade of 12.2 grams per tonne.[http://www.pennysharesonline.com/Announcements/Articles/685363.asp]. It also has beautiful national parks that remain underdeveloped. Growth from 1991 to 1999 featured a pickup in industrial production and a substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Natural gas exploration in the Rufiji Delta looks promising and production has already started [http://www.gasandoil.com/goc/company/cna52112.htm]. Recent banking reforms have helped increase private sector growth and investment. Short-term economic progress also depends on curbing corruption and cutting on unnecessary public spending [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3719712.stm].

Prolonged drought during the early years of the 21st Century has severely reduced electricity generation capacity (some 60% of Tanzania's electricity supplies are generated by hydro electric schemes [http://www.tic.co.tz/IPA_Information.asp?hdnGroupID=26&hdnLevelID=2]. Plans to increase gas and coal fuelled generation capacity are likely to take some years to implement. In the meantime, economic growth forecasts are being reduced. [http://allafrica.com/stories/200604250048.html]

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Tanzania}}

Population distribution in Tanzania is extremely uneven. Density varies from 1 person per square kilometer (3/mi²) in arid regions to 51 per square kilometer (133/mi²) in the mainland's well-watered highlands to 134 per square kilometer (347/mi²) on Zanzibar. More than 80% of the population is rural. Dar es Salaam is the largest city; Dodoma, located in the center of Tanzania is the new capital.

The African population consists of [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania|more than 120 ethnic groups]], of which the [[Sukuma]], [[Haya]], Nyakyusa, [[Nyamwezi]], and [[Chaga]] have more than 1 million members. Other groups include the [[Pare]], Sambaa or [[Shambala]] and Ngoni. The majority of Tanzanians, including such large ethnic groups as the Sukuma and the Nyamwezi, have Bantu origins. Groups of Nilotic or related origin include the nomadic Masai and the Luo, both of which are found in greater numbers in neighboring Kenya. Two small groups speak languages of the Khoisan family peculiar to the people of the [[Kalahari]] in southern Africa. Cushitic-speaking peoples, originally from the Ethiopian highlands, reside in a few areas of Tanzania. Other Bantu groups were refugees from [[Mozambique]].

Although much of Zanzibar's African population came from the mainland, one group known as Shirazis claims its origins to be the supposed island's early Persian settlers. Non-Africans residing on the mainland and Zanzibar account for 1% of the total population. The Asian community, including Hindus, Sikhs, Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, and Goans, has declined by 50% in the past decade to 50,000 on the mainland and 4,000 on Zanzibar. An estimated 70,000 Arabs and 10,000 Europeans reside in Tanzania.

Each ethnic group has its own language. No language is [[de jure]] official, but [[Swahili]] is the national language, used for intertribal communication and for official matters; thus Swahili is [[de facto]] official. After independence, [[English language|English]], the language of colonial administration during the era of British rule, was still used for some official issues, and was thus considered de facto official alongside Swahili. As official usage of English has greatly deminished over the last decades, and is now practically absent, it is now more common to regard Swahili as the only de facto official language. Other spoken languages are Indian languages, especially [[Gujarati]], and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (both spoken by Mozambican blacks and Goans).

Tanzania is a religiously divided society. On the mainland, an estimated 40% of the population is [[Christianity|Christian]], 30% is [[Muslim]], and 30% adheres to traditional faiths. On Zanzibar, by contrast, the population is 99% Muslim.

== Culture ==
[[Image:Gnu head.jpg|thumb|The head of a [[wildebeest]] in Tanzania]]
[[Image:Bar in Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|A bar in [[Zanzibar]], Tanzania]]
{{main|Culture of Tanzania}}
{{main|Music of Tanzania}}

[[Taarab]] Music[http://www.mwambao.com/tarab.htm] is a fusion of Swahili tunes sung in rhythmic poetic style spiced with Arabic or, at times, Indian melodies. It is an extremely lively art form springing from a classical culture, still immensely popular with women, drawing all the time from old and new sources. Taarab forms a major part of the social life of the Swahili people along the coastal areas; especially Zanzibar, Tanga and even further in Mombasa and Malindi along the Kenya coast. Wherever the Swahili speaking people travelled, Tarabu culture moved with them. It has penetrated to as far as Uganda. Rwanda and Burundi in the interior of East Africa, where taarab groups compete in popularity with other western-music inspired groups.

These days a taarab revolution [http://www.swahilicoast.com/taarab_music_of_zanzibar.htm] is taking place and much heated debate continues about the music which has been changed drastically by the East African Melody phenomenon. Melody, as they are affectionately known by their mostly women fans, play modern taarab, which, for the first time, is 'taarab to dance to' and features direct lyrics, by- passing the unwritten laws of lyrical subtlety of the older groups such as Egyptian Musical Club and Al-Wattan Musical Club where meaning to their songs where only alluded to and never directly inferred. Today taarab songs are explicit sometimes even graphic in sexual connotation. Much of the music, today, of groups like Melody and Muungano is composed and played on keyboards, increasing portability, hence the group is much smaller in number than 'real taarab' orchestras and therefore more readily available to tour and play shows throughout the region and beyond.

[[Mbaraka Mwinshehe]] was the most popular and original musician of Tanzania, also there is a greater influx of musicians from the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (formerly Zaire), who were entering the country as refugees and made residence in the country. But in recent years, mainly from the mid-nineties, new generation of musicians has emerged and are coming up with popular tunes which are Tanzanian in composition. Bands like Twanga Pepeta have managed to curve a new tune distinct from imported Zairean tunes and are competing with Zairean bands in popularity and audience acceptance.

The Tanzanian artistes have devised a new style going by the name of "[[Bongo Flava]]", which is blend of all sorts of melodies, beats, rhythms and sounds. The trend among the Tanzanian music consumers has started changing towards favouring products from their local artists who sing in [[Swahili]], the national language.

The mushrooming of FM music stations and reasonable production studios has been a major boost to the music industry in the country. Contemporary artists like [[Juma Nature]], [[Lady Jaydee]], [[Mr. Nice]], [[Mr. II]], [[Cool James]], [[Dully Sykes]] and many others command a huge audience of followers in the country and neighbouring countries.

More information about Tanzanian music and events can be found on the various portals that have sprung up recently. Tanzania has an enormously high growth-rate for internet technologies, estimated at up to 500% per year. Because costs for computers are still quite high many users share connections at internet cafes or at work. [http://www.naomba.com naomba.com business directory], [http://www.tanzaniadirectory.info Movie and Sports information], [http://www.tanzaniayangu.com Arusha locality information] all are part of an increasing number of websites dedicated to the region.

==Education==
''Main article: [[Education in Tanzania]]

==Media==
The ''[[Daily News (Tanzania)|Daily News]]'' is the oldest [[newspaper]] in Tanzania and is state-run, while ''[[Televisheni ya Taifa]]'' is the state-run television network. ''[[Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam]]'' is Tanzania's state-run radio network. Tanzania also has many private-run media outlets, and broadcasts from the [[BBC Radio]], [[Voice of America]] and [[Deutsche Welle]] can also be heard in Tanzania. <ref name="bbc">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm |title=Country Profile: Tanzania |publisher=BBC News}}.</ref>

See media station websites at: External References - Media.

== See also ==
* [[Tanzanian elections, 2005]]
* [[Communications in Tanzania]].
* [[Foreign relations of Tanzania]]
* [[List of hospitals in Tanzania]]
* [[List of Tanzanian companies]]
* [[List of African writers (by country)#Tanzania|List of writers from Tanzania]]
* [[List of famous Tanzanians]]
* [[Military of Tanzania]]
* [[Stamps and postal history of Tanzania]]
* [[Transport in Tanzania]]
* [[Tanzania Scouts Association]]
* [[Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==References==
(also note external links)
*{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm |title=Country Profile: Tanzania |publisher=BBC News}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Tanzania}}

===Government===
*[http://www.tanzania.go.tz/ The United Republic of Tanzania] official site

===MDAs===
*[http://www.estabs.go.tz/ Public Service Management]

===Institutions===
*[http://www.ismoshi.org/ International School Moshi, Kilimanjaro & Arusha]
*[http://www.eachq.org/ The East African]
*[http://www.ndctz.com/ NDC]
*[http://www.tanapa.com/ TANAPA] Tanzania National Parks Authority
*[http://www.nlupc.co.tz/ National Land Use Planning Commission]
*[http://www.moct.go.tz/ict/ ICT]The National information and Communication Technologies
*[http://www.darstockexchange.com/ Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange]
*[http://www.dawasa.org/ DAWASA]
*[http://www.lvemp.org/ Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project]
*[http://www.tra.go.tz/ TRA] Tanzania Revenue Authority
*[http://www.nhctz.com/aboutus/ NHC] National Housing Corporation
*[http://www.aicc.co.tz/ AICC] Arusha International Conference Centre
*[http://www.tsed.org/ Tanzania Socio-economic Database]
*[http://www.tfda.or.tz/ TFDA] Tanzania Food and drugs authority
*[http://www.esrftz.org/ Economic and Social Research Foundation (ESRF)]
*[http://www.nbs.go.tz/ NBS] National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania
*[http://www.necta.go.tz/ NECTA] National Examinations Council of Tanzania
*[http://www.districthealthservice.com/index.htm District Health Service and Health Sector Reform Secretariat]
*[http://www.meteo.go.tz/ Tanzania Meteorological Agency]
*[http://www.tie.go.tz/ TIE]Tanzania Institute of Education
*[http://www.nacptz.org/ NACP] National AIDS Control Programme
*[http://www.repoa.or.tz/ REPOA] Research on Poverty Alleviation
*[http://www.hkmu.ac.tz/ HKMU] The Hubert Kairuki Memorial University

===News===
*[http://www.kikweteshein.com/ President Jakaya Kikwete] The Top headlines from the major Tanzanian
*[http://www.dailynews-tsn.com/ Daily News] Tanzania Standard
*[http://www.ippmedia.com/ IPP Media]
*[http://www.thisday.co.tz/ ThisDay]
*[http://www.arushatimes.co.tz/ Arusha Times]
*[http://allafrica.com/tanzania/ AllAfrica.com - ''Tanzania''] news headline links
*[http://www.theexpress.com/ The Express Online] weekly newspaper
*[http://www.tanzania-news.com/ Tanzania News] The Top headlines from the major Tanzanian newspapers.

===Media===
*[http://www.tvt.go.tz/ TVT] Televisheni ya Taifa
*[http://www.tvz.co.tz/ TVZ] Television Zanzibar
*[http://www.itv.co.tz/ ITV] Independent Television
*[http://www.startvtz.com/ StarTV] Star Television
*[http://www.channel5.co.tz/ 5EATV] Channel 5
*Tanga Television (TATV)
*Channel 10
*[http://www.tvt.go.tz/rtd.html/ RTD] Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam
*[http://www.radio1.co.tz/ Radio One]
*[http://www.eastafricafm.com East Africa Radio]
*[http://www.habaritanzania.com Habari Tanzania] Tanzania news in Swahili

===Business===
*[http://www.cti-tz.com/members2.htm Confederation of Tanzanian Industries]
*[http://www.tanzaniaeconomicforum.org Tanzania Economic Forum]

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072330.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Tanzania'']
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html CIA World Factbook - ''Tanzania'']
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Tanzania Open Directory Project - ''Tanzania''] directory category.
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/tz/ US State Department - ''Tanzania''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports.
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/tanzania_pol_2003.jpg Detailed map of Tanzania towns, rivers & lakes]: map at University of Texas (2003).

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

===Wildlife and Protected Areas===
*[http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/ Tanzania National Parks - TANAPA]
*[http://www.judysphotos.com/Wildlife-of-Tanzania-East-Africa Wildlife of Tanzania] - photos

{{Regions of Tanzania}}
{{Africa}}
{{UN Security Council}}

[[Category:Tanzania| ]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Geographic portmanteaus]]
[[Category:East Africa]]

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[[zh:坦桑尼亚]]

Sudan

2006-10-04T01:37:18Z

MelancholieBot: robot

:''For other uses, see [[Sudan (disambiguation)]].
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = جمهورية السودان ''Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān'' |
conventional_long_name = Republic of the Sudan |
common_name = Sudan |
image_flag = Flag of Sudan.svg |
image_coat = Sudan coa.gif |
national_motto = Al-Nasr Lana ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: "Victory is Ours") |
image_map = SudanWorldMap.png |
national_anthem = نحن جند للہ جند الوطن ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: "[[Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-watan|We Are the Army of God and of Our Land]]") |
official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[English language|English]] |
capital = [[Khartoum]]|
latd=15|latm=31|latNS=N|longd=32|longm=35|longEW=E|
government_type = [[Authoritarian]] [[regime]] |
leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Sudan|President]] |
leader_name1 = [[Omar al-Bashir]] |
largest_city = [[Omdurman]] |
area = 2,505,813 |
areami² = 967,495|
area_rank = 10th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 6% |
population_estimate = 36,992,490|
population_estimate_year = July 2006 |
population_estimate_rank = 33rd |
population_census = 24,940,683 |
population_census_year = 1993 |
population_density = 14 |
population_densitymi² = 36 |
population_density_rank = 194th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005|
GDP_PPP = $84.755 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 62nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,396 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 134th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.512 |
HDI_rank = 141st |
HDI_category = medium |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
sovereignty_note = From [[Egypt]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] |
established_event1 = Date |
established_date1 = [[January 1]], [[1956]] |
currency = [[Sudanese dinar]]|
currency_code = SDD |
time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] |
utc_offset = +3 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DST = +3 |
cctld = [[.sd]] |
calling_code = 249 |
footnotes =
}}
'''Sudan''' (officially the '''Republic of the Sudan''' or '''Republic of Sudan''') is the largest [[country]] by area in [[Africa]], situated in [[Northern Africa]]. The capital is [[Khartoum]]. It is bordered by [[Egypt]] to the north, the [[Red Sea]] to the northeast, [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]] to the east, [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]] to the southeast, [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Central African Republic]] to the southwest, [[Chad]] to the west, and [[Libya]] to the northwest. It is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|tenth largest country in the world]] by area.

In recent years, the [[definite article]] in the country's name has increasingly been dropped in common usage; i.e., it would be referred to as "Sudan" rather than "the Sudan."

==History==
{{main|History of Sudan}}
[[Image:Sudan n3.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Statue of a Nubian king, Sudan]]

===Early History of Sudan===
{{main| Early history of Sudan}}

Three ancient [[Kush]]ite [[kingdoms]] existed consecutively in northern Sudan. This region was also known as [[Nubia]] and [[Meroë]], and these civilizations flourished mainly along the Nile River from the first to the sixth cataracts. The kingdoms were influenced by, and in turn influenced [[Ancient Egypt|Pharaonic Egypt]]. In ancient times, Nubia was ruled by Egypt from 1500 BC, to around 1000BC when the Napatan Dynasty was founded under [[Alara]] and regained independence for the kingdom of [[Kush]] although borders fluctuated greatly.

[[Christianity]] was introduced by missionaries in the 3rd or 4th century, and much of the region was converted to [[Coptic Christianity]]. [[Islam]] was introduced in 640 AD with an influx of Muslim Arabs who had conquered Egypt, although the Christian Kingdoms of [[Nubia]] managed to persist until the 15th Century.

A merchant class of [[Arab]]s became economically dominant in [[Feudalism|feudal]] Sudan. An important kingdom in Nubia was the [[Makuria]], which reached its height in the 8th-9th centuries, and was of the [[Melkite]] Christian faith, unlike its Coptic neighbours, [[Nobatia]] and [[Alodia]].

===Kingdom of Sennar===
{{main|Kingdom of Sennar}}
During the 1500s peoples called the [[Funj]] conquered much of Sudan, establishing the [[Kingdom of Sennar]]. By the time the kingdom was conquered by Egypt in 1820, the government was substantially weakened by a series of succession arguments and coups within the royal family.

===Foreign Control: Egyptian and British===
In 1820, Northern Sudan came under Egyptian rule when [[Mehemet Ali]], the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[viceroy]] of [[Egypt]], sent armies led by his son [[Ismail Pasha]] and Mahommed Bey to conquer eastern Sudan. The Egyptians developed Sudan’s trade in ivory and slaves.

[[Ismail Pasha]], [[khedive]] of [[Egypt]] from 1863-1879, tried to extend Egyptian, and therefore British, influence south. This led to a revolt led by religious leader [[Muhammad ibn Abdalla]], the self-proclaimed [[Mahdi]] ([[Messiah]]), who sought to purify Islam in Sudan. He led a nationalist revolt against Egyptian/British rule culminating in the fall of [[Khartoum]] and the death of the British [[General Charles George Gordon]] in 1885. The revolt was successful and Egypt and the British abandoned Sudan, and the resulting state was a theocratic Mahdist state.

In the 1890s the British sought to regain control of Sudan. [[Horatio Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]] led military campaigns from 1896-98. An agreement was reached in 1899 establishing [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]], under which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. In reality, Sudan was a colony of Great Britain.

From 1924, until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate colonies, the south and the north.

===Independence===
{{sect-stub}}
The newly elected government went ahead with the process of Sudanization of the state's organs and bodies, with the help and supervision of an international committee. In November 1955, it declared the intentions of the Sudanese people to exercise their right to independence. This was duly granted and on the 1st of January 1956, Sudan was formally declared independent. In a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the British and Egyptian flags were brought down and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes, was raised in their place.

===First Sudanese Civil War===
{{main| First Sudanese Civil War}}
The year before independence, a [[civil war]] began between Northern and Southern Sudan. Southerners, who knew independence was coming, were afraid the new nation would be dominated by the North.

The North of Sudan had historically closer ties with Egypt and was predominately Arab and [[Muslim]]. The South of Sudan was predominately black, with a mixture of [[Christianity]] and [[Animism]]. These divisions had been further emphasized by the British policy of ruling Sudan’s North and South administratively separately. From 1924 it was illegal for people living above the 10th parallel to go further south, and people below the 8th parallel to go further north. The law was ostensibly enacted to prevent the spread of [[malaria]] and other [[tropical diseases]] that had ravaged British troops, as well as to prevent Northern Sudanese from raiding Southern tribes for slaves. Critics however, have stated that the law was enacted to prevent the spread of Islam and Arab influences south. The result was increased isolation between the already distinct north and south and arguably laid the seeds of conflict in the years to come.

The resulting conflict was known as the [[First Sudanese Civil War|civil war]] and lasted from 1955 to 1972. In 1972, the [[Addis Ababa Agreement]] led to a cessation of the north-south civil war and a degree of self-rule. This led to a ten-year hiatus in the civil war. Under the [[Addis Ababa Agreement]] Southern Sudan was given considerable [[autonomy]].

===Second Sudanese Civil War===
{{main|Second Sudanese Civil War}}
In 1983 the civil war was reignited following President [[Gaafar Nimeiry]]’s decision to circumvent the [[Addis Ababa Agreement]]. President Gaafar Nimeiry attempted to create a Federated Sudan including states in Southern Sudan, which violated the Addis Ababa Agreement which had granted the South considerable autonomy. The [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] formed in May 1983 as a result. Finally, in June 1983, the Sudanese Government under President Gaafar Nimeiry abrogated the Addis Ababa Peace Agreement (A.A.A.)[http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/anctoday/2005/at31.htm]. The situation was exacerbated after President Gaafar Nimeiry went on to implement [[Sharia Law]] in September of the same year [http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-13409.html].

The civil war went for more than 20 years, resulting in the deaths of 2.2 million [[Christians]] and [[Animists]], and displacing roughly 4.5 million people within Sudan and into neighbouring countries. It damaged Sudan’s economy and led to food shortages, resulting in starvation and malnutrition. The lack of investment during this time, particularly in the south, meant a generation lost access to basic health services, education, and jobs.

Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004. The peace was consolidated with the official signing by both sides of the Naivasha treaty on [[9 January]] [[2005]], granting [[Southern Sudan]] autonomy for six years, to be followed by a referendum about independence. It created a co-vice president position and allowed the north and south to split oil equally, but also left both the North's and South's armies in place. [[John Garang]], the south's elected co-vice president died in a helicopter crash on August 1, 2005, three weeks after being sworn in. This resulted in riots, but the peace was eventually able to continue.

The [[United Nations Mission In Sudan|United Nations Mission in Sudan]] (UNMIS) was established under UN Security Council Resolution 1590 of March 24, 2005. Its mandate is to support implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, and to perform functions relating to humanitarian assistance, and protection and promotion of human rights.

===Darfur Conflict===
[[Image:Darfur map.png|framed|Map of Darfur]]
{{main|Darfur conflict}}

Just as the decades long North-South civil war was reaching a resolution, a new rebellion in the western region of [[Darfur]] began in early 2003. The rebels accused the central government of neglecting the Darfur region, although there is uncertainty regarding the objectives of the rebels and whether they merely seek an improved position for Darfur within Sudan or outright secession. Both the government and the rebels have been accused of atrocities in this war, although most of the blame has fallen on Arab militias ([[Janjaweed]]) allied with the government. The rebels have alleged that these militias have been engaging in [[ethnic cleansing]] in Darfur, and the fighting has displaced hundreds of thousands of people, many of them seeking refuge in neighboring Chad. The government claimed victory over the rebels after capturing [[Tine (Sudan)|Tine]], a town on the border with Chad, in early 2004 the violence continued. But as of 2006, the War in Darfur continues with the situation getting worse.]]

There has been signed a Darfur Peace Agreement between some of the parties in Darfur. This agreement is supervised by African Union Mission in Sudan(AMIS).

The people in Darfur are predominately black and Muslim, whereas Janjaweed militias are black Arab Muslims.

===Chad-Sudan conflict===
{{main|Chad-Sudan conflict}}
The [[Chad-Sudan conflict]] officially started on [[December 23]], [[2005]], when the [[Politics of Chad|government of Chad]] declared a [[state of war]] with Sudan and called for the citizens of [[Chad]] to mobilize themselves against the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4556576.stm "common enemy,"]
which the Chadian government sees as the [[Rally for Democracy and Liberty]] (RDL) militants, Chadian rebels backed by the [[Sudanese]] government, and Sudanese militiamen. Militants have attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens, and burning houses. Over 200,000 refugees from the [[Darfur]] region of northwestern Sudan currently claim asylum in eastern Chad. [[Chadian]] president [[Idriss Déby]] accuses Sudanese President [[Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir]] of trying to "destabilize our country, to drive our people into misery, to create disorder and export the war from Darfur to Chad."

The incident prompting the declaration of war was an attack on the Chadian town of [[Adré]] near the Sudanese border that led to the deaths of either one hundred rebels (as most news sources reported) or three hundred rebels. The Sudanese government was blamed for the attack, which was the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4544352.stm second in the region in three days], but Sudanese foreign ministry spokesman [[Jamal Mohammed Ibrahim]] denied any Sudanese involvement, "We are not for any escalation with Chad. We technically deny involvement in Chadian internal affairs." The Adre attack led to the declaration of war by Chad and the alleged deployment of the [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/AB24F0A9-8145-4E1E-96C7-3D8FC9641CC6.htm Chadian airforce into Sudanese airspace, which the Chadian government denies].



==Politics==

{{morepolitics|country=Sudan}}
[[Image:Su-map.png|thumb|right|280px|Map of Sudan with Khartoum]]
Sudan has an authoritarian government in which all effective political power is in the hands of President Umar Hassan al-Bashir. Bashir and his party have controlled the government since he led the military coup on [[30 June]] [[1989]].

From 1983 to 1997, the country was divided into five regions in the north and three in the south, each headed by a military governor. After the [[April 6]], [[1985]] military coup, regional assemblies were suspended. The RCC was abolished in 1996, and the ruling [[National Islamic Front]] changed its name to the [[National Congress (Sudan)|National Congress Party]]. After 1997, the structure of regional administration was replaced by the creation of 26 states. The executives, cabinets, and senior-level state officials are appointed by the president, and their limited budgets are determined by and dispensed from Khartoum. The states, as a result, remain economically dependent upon the central government. [[Khartoum (state)|Khartoum state]], comprising the capital and outlying districts, is administered by a governor.

In December 1999, a power struggle climaxed between President al-Bashir and then-[[Speaker (politics)|speaker]] of parliament [[Hassan al-Turabi]], who was the NIF founder and an Islamist ideologue. Al-Turabi was stripped of his posts in the ruling party and the government, parliament was disbanded, the constitution was suspended, and a state of national emergency was declared by presidential decree. Parliament resumed in February 2001 after the December 2000 presidential and parliamentary elections, but the national emergency laws remain in effect. Al-Turabi was arrested in February 2001, and charged with being a threat to national security and the constitutional order for signing a memorandum of understanding with the [[SPLA]]. Since then his outspoken style has had him in prison or under house-arrest, his most recent stint beginning in March of 2004 and ending in June of 2005. During that time he was under house-arrest for his role in a failed coup attempt in September of 2003, an allegation he has denied. According to some reports, the president had no choice but to release him, given that a coalition of National Democratic Union (NDA) members headquartered in both Cairo and Eritrea, composed of the political parties known as the SPLM/A, Umma Party, Mirghani Party, and Turabi's own National People's Congress, were calling for his release at a time when an interim government was preparing to take over in accordance with the Naivasha agreement and the Machokos Accord.

''See also:'' [[List of Presidents of Sudan|Presidents of Sudan]]

==Foreign relations==
{{main|Foreign relations of Sudan}}
Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbors and much of the international community due to what is viewed as its aggressively Islamic stance. For much of the 1990s, [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]] and [[Ethiopia]] formed an ad-hoc alliance called the "Front Line States" with support from the [[United States]] to check the influence of the [[National Islamic Front]] government. During this period, Sudan supported anti-Uganda rebel groups such as the [[Lord's Resistance Army]] in retaliation for Ugandan support of the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]]. Beginning from the mid-1990s Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions as a result of increased US pressure following the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] and the new development of oil fields previously in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over the [[Hala'ib Triangle]]. Since 2003, the foreign relations of Sudan have centered on the support for ending the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]] and condemnation of government support for militias in the [[Darfur conflict]].

On [[December 23]], [[2005]] [[Chad]], Sudan's neighbor to the west, declared war on Sudan and accused the country of being the "common enemy of the nation (Chad)." This happened after the [[December 18]] attack on [[Adre]], which left about 100 people dead. A statement issued by Chadian government on [[December 23]], accused Sudanese militias of making daily incursions into Chad, stealing cattle, killing innocent people and burning villages on the Chadian border. The statement went on to call for Chadians to form a patriotic front against Sudan.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4556576.stm] The [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]](OIC) have called on Sudan and Chad to exercise self-restraint to defuse growing tensions between the two countries.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4559254.stm]

On December 27, 2005, Sudan became one of the few [[state]]s to recognize Moroccan sovereignty over [[Western Sahara]]. [http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765]

On June 20, 2006 President Omar al-Bashir told reporters that he would not allow any UN peacekeeping force into Sudan. President al-Bashir denounced any such mission as "colonial forces." [http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/africa/06/20/sudan.darfur.ap/]

==Human Rights==
{{main|Human rights in Sudan}}
There is an abundance of evidence since the early 1990s of oppression and persecution of Christians, including as reported by Sudan's own ''Sudan Human Rights Organization'', which in mid-1992 reported on forcible closure of churches, expulsion of priests, forced displacement of populations, forced [[Islamisation]] and [[Arabisation]], and other repressive measures of the Government. In 1994 it also reported on widespread torture, ethnic cleansing and crucifixion of pastors. [[Pax Christi]] has also reported on detailed cases in 1994, as has Africa Watch. Roman Catholic bishop Macram Max Gassis, Bishop of [[El Obeid]], also reported to the Fiftieth Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights, in Geneva, in February 1994 on accounts of widespread destrucution of hundreds of churches, forced conversions of Christians to Islam, [[concentration camps]], genocide of the [[Nuba]] people, systematic rape of women, enslavement of children, torture of priests and clerics, burning alive of pastors and catechists, crucifixion and mutiliation of priests.

In addition, it is estimated that over 1.5 million Sudanese have been killed during the civil war since 1984.

It should also be noted that Sudan's several so-called civil wars are often not only or purely religious in nature, but also ethnic, as many black Muslims, as well as Muslim Arab tribesmen, have also been killed in the conflicts. It is difficult to ascertain how many deaths are due to the conflict and how many are due to the numerous [[famines]] which have affected Sudan, costing thousands of lives.

==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Sudan political map 2000.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Political map of Sudan]]
''Main articles: [[States of Sudan]], [[Districts of Sudan]]''

Sudan is divided into 26 [[state]]s or ''[[wilaya]]t'', and subdivided into 133 [[district]]s.

The [[States of Sudan|states]] include: [[Al Jazirah, Sudan|Al Jazirah]], [[Al Qadarif (state)|Al Qadarif]], [[Bahr al Jabal]], [[Blue Nile, Sudan|Blue Nile]], [[East Equatoria]], [[Junqali]], [[Kassala (state)|Kassala]], [[Khartoum (state)|Khartoum]], [[Lakes, Sudan|Lakes]], [[North Bahr al Ghazal]], [[North Darfur]], [[North Kurdufan]], [[Northern, Sudan|Northern]], [[Red Sea, Sudan|Red Sea]], [[River Nile, Sudan|River Nile]], [[Sennar (state)|Sennar]], [[South Darfur]], [[South Kurdufan]], [[Unity, Sudan|Unity]], [[Upper Nile]], [[Warab]], [[West Bahr al Ghazal]], [[West Darfur]], [[West Equatoria]], [[West Kurdufan]], and [[White Nile, Sudan|White Nile]].

Districts: see [[Districts of Sudan]]
[[Image:Sudan_Jul06.png|thumb|200px|right|A map of Sudan's districts, with autonomous region and insurgent regions shown]]

==Autonomy, separation, and conflicts==
[[Southern Sudan]] is an autonomous region intermediate between the states and the national government. Southern Sudan is scheduled to have a referendum on independence in six years as of 2006.

[[Darfur]] is a region of three western states affected by the current [[Darfur conflict]]. There is also an insurgency in the east led by the [[Eastern Front (Sudan)|Eastern Front]].

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Sudan}}
{{MapLibrary|Sudan_sat.jpg|Sudan}}
[[Image:Africa Mt Dair.jpg|thumb|280px|right|The Mountain Dair in central Sudan]]
[[Image:Sudd swamp.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Swamp in southern Sudan]] Sudan is situated in Northern [[Africa]], bordering the [[Red Sea]], between [[Egypt]] and [[Eritrea]]. It is dominated by the River [[Nile]] and its tributaries. With an area of 2,505,810 [[square kilometre]]s (967,499 [[square mile|sq mi]]), it is the largest country in the continent and tenth largest in the world. The terrain is generally flat plains, though there are mountains in the east and west. The climate is tropical in the south; arid desert conditions in the north, with a rainy season from [[April]] to [[October]]. Soil erosion and desertification are environmental hazards.

''See also:'' [[List of cities in Sudan]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Sudan}}



Sudan has turned around a struggling economy with sound economic policies and infrastructure investments, but it still faces formidable economic problems as it must rise from a very low level of per capita output. Since 1997 Sudan has been implementing the macroeconomic reforms recommended by the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]. In 1999. Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus. Increased oil production,,(the current production is half a million barrels a day) revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones helped sustain GDP growth at 6.1% in 2003. These gains, along with improvements to monetary policy, have stabilized the exchange rate. Currently oil is Sudan's main export, and the production is increasing dramatically. With rising oil revenues the Sudanese economy is booming at a growth rate of nearly 7% in 2005.

Agriculture production remains Sudan's most important sector, employing 80% of the work force and contributing 39% of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Chronic instability — including the long-standing civil war between the Muslim north and the Christian/animist south, adverse weather, and weak world agricultural prices — ensure that much of the population will remain at or below the poverty line for years.

''See also:'' [[Communications in Sudan]], [[Transportation in Sudan]]

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Sudan|Social order of Sudan}}
In Sudan’s 1993 [[census]], the population was calculated at 25 million. No comprehensive [[census]] has been carried out since that time due to the continuation of the civil war. Current estimates from the [[United Nations]] as of 2006 estimate the [[population]] to be about 37 million. The population of metropolitan Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is growing rapidly and is estimated at about 5-6 million, including around 2 million displaced persons from the southern war zone as well as western and eastern drought-affected areas.

Sudan has two distinct major cultures--Arabs with Nubian (Kushite) roots and non-Arab Black Africans--with hundreds of ethnic and tribal divisions and language groups, which makes effective collaboration among them a major problem.

The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most of the urban centers. Most of the 22 million Sudanese who live in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority also use a traditional non-Arabic mother tongue — e.g., Nubian, Beja, Fur, Nuban, Ingessana, etc. Among these are several distinct tribal groups: the Kababish of northern Kordofan, a camel-raising people; the dongolese (الدنقلاويين),the Ga’alin (الجعلين), Rubatab (الرباطاب), [[Manasir]] (المناصير) and Shaiqiyah (الشايقيّة) of the tribes settling along the rivers; the seminomadic Baggara of [[Kurdufan]] and [[Darfur]]; the [[Beja people|Beja]] in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the northern Nile areas, some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara River. Shokrya in the [[Butana]] land, Bataheen bordering the Ga’alin and Shorya in the south west of [[Butana]]. Rufaa, Halaween and many other tribes in the Gazeera region and on the banks of the Blue Nile and the Dindir region. The Nuba of southern Kurdufan and Fur in the western reaches of the country.

The southern region has a population of around 6 million and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been affected by war for all but 10 years since independence in 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced or have become refugees as a result of the civil war and war-related impacts. Here a majority of the population practices traditional indigenous beliefs, although some practice [[Christianity]], partly a result of Christian [[missionary]] efforts and partly a holdover from earlier Christian Nubian civilizations. The south also contains many tribal groups and many more languages are used than in the north. The [[Dinka]], whose population is estimated at more than 1 million, are the largest of the many black African tribes of the Sudan. Along with the [[Shilluk]] and the [[Nuer]] they are [[Nilotic]] tribes. The [[Azande]], [[Bor]], and [[Jo Luo]] are “Sudanic” tribes in the west, and the [[Acholi]] and [[Lotuhu]] live in the extreme south, extending into [[Uganda]].

===People of Sudan===
*[[Ja'alein]]
*[[Arakeien]]
*[[Shigia]]
*[[Rubatab]]
*[[Shokrya]]
*[[Ababda]]
*[[Azande]]
*[[Baggara|Baggara peoples ]]
*[[Beja people|Beja tribe]]
*[[Dinka tribe]]
*[[Luo|Luo tribe]]
*[[Fulbe (Fulani) people]]
*[[Fur people]]
*[[Hawsa]]
*[[Horefaen]]
*[[Mahas]]
*[[Erik Carlsson er homofil|Manasir tribe]]
*[[Masalit]]
*[[Nuba|Nuba peoples]]
*[[Nuer tribe]]
*[[Rashaida people]]
*[[Zaghawa]]

(more, with rough locations)
*[[Acholi]] ''east''
*[[Ayuak]] ''south central''
*[[Barit]] ''[[Juba]]''
*[[Didiga]] ''east''
*[[Fulbe (Fulani) people]] ''Blue Nile, East and Tulus''
*[[Kakua]] ''southwest''
*[[Latuga]] ''east''
*[[Madi]] ''east''
*[[Shililuk]] ''east''
*[[Toposa]] ''east''

*many more

==Official languages==
According to the [[Constitution]] 2005, Official languages are the [[Arabic]] and [[English language|English]] languages.

article 8:

1) All indigenous languages of the Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted.

2) Arabic is a widely spoken national language in the Sudan.

3) Arabic, as a major language at the national level and English shall be the official working languages of the
national government and the languages of instruction for higher education.

4) In addition to Arabic and English, the legislature of any sub-national level of government may adopt any other national language as an additional official working language at its level.

5) There shall be no discrimination against the use of either Arabic or English at any level of government or stage of education.

==Culture==
[[Image:Sudan sufis.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A man falls into a religious trance during a [[Sufism|Sufi]] ceremony in [[Khartoum]]]]
*[[Culture of Sudan]]
*[[Music of Sudan]]
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Sudan|List of writers from Sudan]]
*[[Islam in Sudan]]

Sudan's largest Christian denominations are the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Episcopal Church of the Sudan]], the [[Presbyterian]] Church in the Sudan and the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].

==Education==
{{main|Education in Sudan}}
Institutions of higher education in the Sudan include:

*[[Academy of Medical Sciences (Sudan)|Academy of Medical Sciences]]
*[[Ahfad University for Women]]
*[[Bayan Science and Technology College]]
*[[Computerman College]]
*[[Omdurman Ahlia University]]
*[[Omdurman Islamic University]]
*[[University of Gezira]]
*[[University of Juba]]
*[[University of Khartoum]]
**[[Mycetoma Research Centre]]
*[[Sudan University of Science and Technology]]

==See also==
*[[List of Sudan-related topics]]
*[[List of cities in Sudan|Cities in Sudan, list of]]
*[[Education in Sudan]]
*[[Darfur conflict]]
*[[Human rights issues in Sudan]]
*[[Janjaweed]]
*[[Kush]]
*[[Lost Boys of Sudan]] (Docu-film)
*[[Merowe Dam|Merowe Dam Project]]
*[[Military of Sudan]]
*[[Nubia]]
*[[Butana]]
*[[Prime Ministers of Sudan]]
*[[Sudanese refugees in Egypt]]
*[[United Nations Mission In Sudan]]
*Patron saint: [[Josephine Bakhita]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
{{Sudan topics}}
* [[Sudan Boy Scouts Association]]

==References==
*''Islam's Dark Side - The Orwellian State of Sudan'', The Economist, 24 June 1995.
*''Sharia and the IMF: Three Years of Revolution'', SUDANOW, September 1992.
*''Final Document of the [[Synod]] of the Catholic Diocese of Khartoum'', 1991. [noting "oppression and persecution of Christians"]
*''[[Human Rights]] Voice'', published by the Sudan Human Rights Organization, Volume I, Issue 3, July/August 1992 [detailing forcible closure of churches, expulsion of priests, forced displacement of populations, forced [[Islamisation]] and [[Arabisation]], and other repressive measures of the Government].
*''Sudan - A Cry for Peace'', published by [[Pax Christi]] International, Brussels, Belgium, 1994
*''Sudan - Refugees in their own country: The Forced Relocation of Squatters and Displaced People from Khartoum'', in Volume 4, Issue 10, of News from Africa Watch, 10 July 1992.
*''Human Rights Violations in Sudan'', by the Sudan Human Rights Organisation, February 1994. [accounts of widespread torture, ethnic cleansing and crucifixion of pastors].
*''Pax Romana statement of Macram Max Gassis, Bishop of [[El Obeid]]''], to the Fiftieth Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights, Geneva, February 1994 [accounts of widespread destrucution of hundreds of churches, forced conversions of Christians to Islam, [[concentration camps]], genocide of the [[Nuba]] people, systematic rape of women, enslavement of children, torture of priests and clerics, burning alive of pastors and catechists, crucifixion and mutiliation of priests].

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Sudan}}

'''General information'''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/820864.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Sudan'']
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/su.html CIA World Factbook - ''Sudan'']
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Sudan Open Directory Project - ''Sudan''] directory category

*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=sudan&search_crit=subject&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form US Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports - ''Sudan'']
*[http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/su/ US State Department - ''Sudan''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports



'''Government'''
*[http://www.sudan.gov.sd/english.htm Sudan Government] official site
*[http://www.sudan-parliament.org/en/index.php official Parliament site in English]

'''News'''
*[http://www.sudan.net/ Sudan.Net - ''Sudan''] Latest news and press releases
*[http://allafrica.com/sudan/ AllAfrica.com - ''Sudan''] news headline links
*[http://www.fmreview.org/sudan.htm Forced Migration Review Sudan issue] analysis of peace process
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/sudan/0,14658,1235601,00.html Guardian Unlimited - ''Special Report: Sudan'']
*[http://www.suna-sd.net/Index_EN.htm Sudan News Agency (SUNA)] and [http://www.sunasms.com SunaSMS] government sites
*[http://news.yahoo.com/fc/world/sudan Yahoo! News Full Coverage - ''Sudan''] news headline links
*[http://www.sudantribune.com/sommaire.php3 Sudan Tribune] France-based (in English)
*[http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&cat=Sudan Diplomacy Monitor-Sudan]

'''Photos'''
*[http://www.nichollsphotography.com/newsudan.htm New Faces of Sudan]
*[http://www.nichollsphotography.com/earlysudan.htm More photos]

'''Tourism'''
*{{wikitravel}}

'''Books'''
*[http://www.thejourneyofthelostboys.com 2005: Joan Hecht, The Journey of the Lost Boys] A story of courage, faith, and the sheer determination to survive by a group of young boys called "The Lost Boys of Sudan". ISBN 0-9763875-0-6

'''Non-profit'''
*[http://www.allianceforthelostboys.com The Alliance for the Lost Boys of Sudan] A foundation that will help the Lost Boys and their families in the Jacksonville area, and their families back in Sudan
*[http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/ Human Rights First, formerly the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights] A leading human rights advocacy organization based in New York City and Washington, DC, founded in 1978.
*[http://www.sudancampaign.com The Sudan Campaign] "(Founded in 2000) A Coalition to Stop Genocide[,] Slavery, Starvation, and Religious Persecution"; Honorary Chairman, The Hon. Rev. [[Walter E. Fauntroy]]; President, Joseph E. Madison; Co-Chairmen, Dr. John Eibner, Dr. [[Charles Jacobs (political activist)|Charles Jacobs]], Faith McDonnell, Nina Shea; Executive Director, The Rev. Keith Roderick; Media Director, Joia Nuri. (Organization letterhead [2004] posted on official website.)
*[http://savedarfur.org Save Darfur Coalition] An advocacy group working on the crisis in Darfur.

{{Arab League}}
{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:North Africa]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]
[[Category:Sudan| ]]
[[Category:Military dictatorship]]
[[Category:Arabic-speaking countries]]

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[[lv:Sudāna]]
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[[th:ประเทศซูดาน]]
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[[zh:苏丹共和国]]

Sport

2006-10-04T01:36:52Z

MelancholieBot: robot

:''This page is for the general term sport. For the [[Huey Lewis and the News]] album, see [[Sports (album)]]''.

==History==
{{main|History of sport}}

The development of sports throughout history teaches us a great deal about social changes and also a lot about the nature of sport itself.

There are many modern discoveries in [[France]], [[Africa]], and [[Australia]] of [[cave art]] (see, for example, [[Lascaux]]) from prehistory that provide evidence of ritual ceremonial behavior. Some of these sources date from over 30,000 years ago, as established by carbon dating. Although there is scant direct evidence of sport from these sources, it is reasonable to extrapolate that there were activities during these times that would fit the modern definition of sport.

There are artifacts and structures that suggest that the [[China|Chinese]] engaged in sporting activities as early as [[4000 BC]]. Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a range of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt. Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional [[Iran]]ian martial art of [[Zourkhaneh]] had a close connection to the warfare skills. Among other sports that originate in [[Iran|Persia]] are [[polo]] and [[jousting]].

In Europe, ancient Irish legends show evidence of the ancestor of modern [[hurling]] being used as a means of preparing warriors for battle as far back as the 13th century BC.

A wide range of sports were already established at the time of Ancient Greece they were Wrestling, running, boxing, javelin, discus throwing, and chariot racing. This wide range of activities suggests that the military culture and the development of sports in Greece informed one another considerably. Sports became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the [[Olympic Games]], which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the [[Peloponnese|Peloponnesus]] called [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]].

Sports have been increasingly organized and regulated from the time of the Ancient Olympics up to the present century. Industrialization has brought increased leisure time to the citizens of developed and developing countries, leading to more time for citizens to attend and follow spectator sports, greater participation in athletic activities, and increased accessibility. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport's popularity, as sports fans began following the exploits of professional athletes through radio, television, and the internet--all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports.

Worldwide, soccer is the most popular sport of all. In the United States, baseball, basketball, and U.S. football are popular as well.

== Classification ==
{{main|List of sports}}

One system for classifying sports is as follows, based more on the sport's aim than on the actual mechanics. The examples given are intended to be illustrative, rather than comprehensive.

=== Opponent ===
* [[Combat]] ([[wrestling]], [[Judo]], [[karate]], [[boxing]], [[fencing]], [[taekwondo|tae kwon do]])
* Court ([[tennis]], [[shuttlecock sport]], [[badminton]], [[volleyball]], [[basketball]], [[table tennis]],[[dodgeball]], [[Netball]])
* Board ([[chess]], [[checkers]], [[go]], [[bridge]], [[blackjack]], [[monopoly]], [[shogi]]. Most of these may not be classified as sports but rather as games; hence the phrase ''board games''. Chess can be considered exempt because of the requisite skill required to play.

=== Achievement ===
* Target ([[archery]], [[shooting]], [[darts]], [[snooker]])
* Display ([[gymnastics]], [[bodybuilding]], [[equestrianism]], [[diving]], [[Marching Band]], [[cheerleading]])
* Strength ([[weight-lifting]], [[triple jump]], [[shot put]])
* Endurance ([[running]], [[cycling]], [[swimming]], [[triathlon]], [[orienteering]], [[cross-country skiing]])
* Experience ([[yachting]], [[gliding]])

=== Coverage ===
* Occasionally appearing on [[ESPN]] ([[chess]], [[spelling bees]])

=== Team sports ===
{{main|Team sports}}
'''Team sports''' refer to sports which are practiced between opposing teams, where the players interact directly and simultaneously between them to achieve the objective, such as [[football]] (in its various forms), [[cricket]],[[curling]], [[baseball]], [[handball]], [[hockey]], [[basketball]] or [[volleyball]]. The term is used to distinguish itself from ''[[individual sport]]s'' which are based on one-on-one direct confrontation (such as most [[raquet]] sports, [[boxing]], [[gymnastics]] or [[Martial arts]]) or timed races (such as [[athletics (track and field)|athletics]] or [[swimming]]),

===Spectator sports ===
{{main|Spectator sports}}
'''Spectator sports''' are ones that is characterized by the presence of spectators, or watchers, at its matches.
{{see also|Sports attendances}}

=== Other ===
* [[Bowling]]
* [[Curling]]
* [[Darts]]
* [[Fishing]]
* [[Golf]]
* [[Polo]] [http://usmpf.com]

==Sportsmanship==
{{main|Sportsmanship}}
{{seealso|Gamesmanship|Winning isn't everything; it's the only thing.}}
'''Sportsmanship''' is defined as "conduct and attitude considered as befitting participants, including a sense of fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, a striving spirit, and grace in losing."

The motivation for sport is often an elusive element. For example, beginners in sailing are often told that dinghy racing is a good means to sharpen the learner's sailing skills. However, it often emerges that skills are honed to increase racing performance and achievements in competition, rather than the converse. Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist [[Grantland Rice]], that it's “not that you won or lost but how you played the game," and the Modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder [[Pierre de Coubertin]]: "The most important thing . . . is not winning but taking part" are typical expressions of this sentiment.

But often the pressures of competition or an obsession with individual achievement—as well as the intrusion of technology—can all work against enjoyment and fair play by participants.

People responsible for leisure activities often seek recognition and respectability as sports by joining sports federations such as the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], or by forming their own regulatory body. In this way sports evolve from leisure activity to more formal sports: relatively recent newcomers are BMX cycling, snowboarding, and wrestling. Some of these activities have been popular but uncodified pursuits in various forms for different lengths of time. Indeed, the formal regulation of sport is a relatively modern and increasing development.

Sportsmanship, within any given game, is how each competitor acts before, during, and after the competition. Not only is it important to have good sportsmanship if one wins, but also if one loses. For example, in [[football (soccer)|football]] it is considered sportsmanlike to kick the ball out of play to allow treatment for an injured player on the other side. Reciprocally, the other team is expected to return the ball from the throw-in.

[[Violence in sports]] involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration.

==Professionalism and regulation ==
{{main|Professional sport}}
The entertainment aspect of sports, together with the spread of mass media and increased leisure time, has led to professionalism in sports. This has resulted in some conflict, where the [[wage|paycheck]] can be seen as more important than recreational aspects: or where the sports are changed simply to make it more profitable and popular therefore losing some of the traditions valued by some.

The entertainment aspect also means that sportsmen and women are often elevated to celebrity status, or in some cases near-god-like.

==Politics==
There have been many dilemmas for sports where a difficult political context is in place.

When [[apartheid]] was the official policy in [[South Africa]], many sportspeople adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects.

The [[1936 Summer Olympics]] held in [[Berlin]] was an [[illustration]], perhaps best recognised in retrospect, where an ideology was developing which used the event to strengthen its spread through propaganda.

In the history of [[Ireland]], Gaelic sports were connected with [[cultural nationalism]]. Until the mid [[20th century]] a person could have been banned from playing [[Gaelic football]], [[hurling]], or other sports administered by the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] (GAA) if she/he played or supported [[soccer]], or other games seen to be of [[United Kingdom|British]] origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of soccer and [[rugby union]] at Gaelic venues. This ban is still enforced, but has been modified to allow football and rugby be played in [[Croke Park]] while [[Lansdowne Road]] is being redeveloped. Until recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary|RUC]] from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the [[Good Friday Agreement]] in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban.

[[Nationalism]] in general is often evident in the pursuit of sports, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. These trends are seen by some as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sports being carried on for its own sake, for the enjoyment of its participants.

==Art==
Sports have many affinities with [[art]]. Ice skating and [[Tai chi]], for example, are sports that come close to artistic spectacles in themselves: to watch these activities comes close to the experience of spectating at a [[ballet]]. Similarly, there are other activities that have elements of sport and art in their execution, such as [[performance art]], [[artistic gymnastics]], [[Bodybuilding]], [[Parkour]], [[Yoga]], [[Bossaball]], [[dressage]], etc. Perhaps the best example is [[Bull-fighting]], which in Spain is reported in the arts pages of newspapers.

The fact that art is so close to sports in some situations is probably related to the nature of sports. The definition of "sports" above put forward the idea of an activity pursued not just for the usual purposes, for example, running not simply to get places, but running for its own sake, running as well as we can.

This is similar to a common view of [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] value, which is seen as something over and above the strictly functional value coming from an object's normal use. So an aesthetically pleasing car is one which doesn't just get from A to B, but which impresses us with its grace, poise, and charisma.

In the same way, a sporting performance such as jumping doesn't just impress us as being an effective way to avoid obstacles or to get across streams. It impresses us because of the ability, skill, and style which is shown.

Art and sports were probably more clearly linked at the time of Ancient Greece, when gymnastics and calisthenics invoked admiration and aesthetic appreciation for the physical build, prowess and 'arete' displayed by participants. The modern term 'art' as skill, is related to this ancient Greek term 'arete'. The closeness of art and sport in these times was revealed by the nature of the [[Olympic Games]] which, as we have seen, were celebrations of both sporting and artistic achievements, poetry, sculpture and architecture.

==Technology==

Technology has an important role in sports, whether applied to an athlete's health, the athlete's technique, or equipment's characteristics.

'''Equipment''' As sports have grown more competitive, the need for better equipment has arose. Golf clubs, baseball bats, soccer balls, hockey skates, and other equipment have all seen considerable changes when new technologies have been applied.

'''Health''' Ranging from nutrition to the treatment of injuries, as the knowledge of the human body has deepened over time, an athlete's potential has been increased. Athlete's are now able to play to an older age, recover more quickly from injuries, and train more effectively than previous generations of athletes.

'''Instruction''' Advancing technology created new opportunities for research into sports. It is now possible to analyse aspects of sports that were previously out of the reach of comprehension. Being able to use motion capture to capture an athlete's movement, or advanced computer simulations to model physical scenarios has greatly increased an athlete's ability to understand what they are doing and how they can improve themselves.

== Terminology ==
In [[Commonwealth English]], sporting activities are commonly denoted by the [[collective noun]] "sport". In [[American English]], "sports" is more common for this usage. In all English dialects, "sports" is the term used for more than one specific sport. For example, "[[football]] and [[swimming]] are my favourite sports", would sound natural to all English speakers, whereas "I enjoy sport" would sound less natural than "I enjoy sports" to many North Americans.

==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Sports}}
* [[History of sports]]
* [[List of sports]]
* [[List of sporting events]]
* [[List of sportspeople]]
* [[Sport governing bodies]]
* [[Olympic Games]]
* [[List of professional sports leagues]]
* [[Sports league attendances]]
* [[Sponsorship]]
* [[Sports club]]
* [[Sports coaching]]
* [[Sports equipment]]
* [[Sports injuries]]
* [[Sports terms named after people]]
* [[Sports timeline]]
* [[Spectator sports]]
* [[Multi-sport events]]
* [[Sports in film]]
* [[Disabled sports]]
* [[Female sports]]
* [[Nationalism and sports]]
* [[Sports broadcasting]]
* [[Fandom]]
* [[National sports]]

== Further reading ==
* ''The Meaning of Sports'' by Michael Mandel (PublicAffairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1).
* [http://www.humankinetics.com/JPS/index.cfm Journal of the Philosophy of Sport]

==External links==
* [http://dmoz.org/Sports/ Open Directory Project - Sports]
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Sports/ Yahoo! - Sports]
* [http://www.funlabo.com/ Sport Games (french)]

{{Technology-footer}}

[[Category:Games]]
[[Category:Sports|*]]

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[[zh:体育]]

Sid Vicious

2006-10-04T01:36:22Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Infobox Biography
| subject_name = Sid Vicious
| image_name = Vicious mugshot.jpg
| image_size = 215px
| image_caption = Sid Vicious in a [[1978]] mugshot related to his arrest for the murder of his girlfriend [[Nancy Spungen]]
| date_of_birth = [[May 10]], [[1957]]
| place_of_birth = [[London, England|London]], [[England]]
| date_of_death = [[February 2]], [[1979]]
| place_of_death = [[New York City]], [[New York]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]
}}
{{for|the professional wrestler|Sid Eudy}}
'''Simon John Ritchie-Beverly''' ([[May 10]], [[1957]] – [[February 2]], [[1979]]), better known as '''Sid Vicious''', was an [[England|English]] [[punk rock]] musician and bass player of the [[Sex Pistols]]. He died of a [[drug overdose]] at the age of 21.

==Life==
===Early years===
Ritchie was born in [[London]] to parents John (a former [[Grenadier Guards|grenadier guard]]) and Anne Ritchie. His father left shortly afterwards, and, during his early years, he moved with his mother to the [[Spain|Spanish]] island of [[Ibiza]], where she allegedly made a living selling drugs. The pair later moved back to England, where Anne married '''Christopher Beverly''' in 1965 before setting up a family home in [[Kent]], [[England]].

His stepfather died six months later, and by 1968 Ritchie and his mother were living in a rented flat in [[Tunbridge Wells]] where he attended Sandown Court School. In 1971 the pair moved to [[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]] in East London.

According to [[Lemmy Kilmister]] in an interview in [[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]], Ritchie at age fourteen was selling [[LSD]] at [[Hawkwind]] concerts.

By 1974 he had already begun using drugs intravenously with his mother, particularly
[[amphetamine]]s. By 1975, he had started to [[self harm]] and exhibited [[antisocial]] tendencies; some accounts of his life relate that he assaulted a [[pensioner]] around this time.

===Sid Vicious===
Described by peers as 'slender and likable', Ritchie took the stage name "Sid Vicious," which reportedly came from an [[irony|ironic]] joke involving the name of [[John Lydon]]'s pet [[hamster]] "Sid," which had apparently bitten Sid and subsequently been dubbed "Vicious" by him. It is also reported that the name "Vicious" came from the Lou Reed song of the same name. Although Simon was his real first name, he often referred to himself as "John." At the time, he was [[squatting]] with John Lydon, John Wardle ([[Jah Wobble]]) and John Gray. (The four were sometimes referred to as ''The Four Johns'').

Sid reportedly made a deliberate effort to match the media myths that grew up around him and his name, although John Lydon ([[Johnny Rotten]]) reportedly commented, "Sid couldn't punch his way out of a bag of crisps!"

===The Bromley Contingent, Flowers of Romance, and the Banshees===
Vicious began his musical career as a member of [[The Flowers of Romance (band)|The Flowers of Romance]] along with former co-founding member of The Clash [[Keith Levene]] (who later co-founded John Lydon's post-Pistols project [[Public Image Limited]]). He had loose associations with [[The Bromley Contingent]], the fashion [[avant garde]] that followed the Sex Pistols, and appeared with [[Siouxsie & the Banshees]], playing drums at their notorious first gig at the [[100 Club Punk Festival]] in London's [[Oxford Street]].

According to the band's photographer [[Dennis Morris]], Vicious was "deep down, a shy person," but he was renowned for a violent streak. At the 100 Club punk festival, a beer glass thrown at a pillar shattered and hit a young girl, who subsequently lost her sight in one eye. Ritchie is widely believed to have been responsible, but this was never proven. At the same event, he assaulted [[NME]] journalist [[Nick Kent]] with a motorcycle chain and on another occasion, threatened [[BBC]] DJ and [[Old Grey Whistle Test]] presenter [[Bob Harris (radio)|Bob Harris]] at a [[London]] nightclub.

==Sex Pistols==
Already known as "the ultimate Sex Pistols fan," and a close friend of vocalist [[Johnny Rotten]], Vicious was asked to join the group after [[Glen Matlock]]'s departure in February [[1977]]. Manager [[Malcolm McLaren]] once claimed: ''If Rotten is the voice of punk, then Vicious is the look''. His punk character was considered far more helpful than any knack for playing, as he was not renowned for his playing skills, though he did have some ability, as was later shown when he composed the track "[[Belsen Was A Gas]]" entirely by himself. [[Jon Savage]]'s biography of the Sex Pistols, ''England's Dreaming'', recounts that most of the bass parts on the band's later recordings were played by guitarist [[Steve Jones (rock musician)|Steve Jones]] and at later live performances Sid's amplifier was sometimes switched off. Sid is said to have asked [[Lemmy Kilmister]] from [[Motörhead]] to teach him how to play bass with the words, "I can't play bass." Kilmister's reply was (according to Kilmister himself) "I know." In his autobiography ''No Irish, No Blacks, No Dogs'', Lydon writes, "he wasn't too bad at all for three-chord songs." Sid played his first gig with the Pistols on April 3, 1977, at the [[Screen on the Green]] in London. His debut was filmed by [[Don Letts]] and appears in ''[[Punk Rock Movie]]''.

===Nancy Spungen and the end of the Pistols===
In November 1977 Sid met American groupie [[Nancy Spungen|Nancy Laura Spungen]] and they immediately began a relationship (Spungen had come to London looking for [[Jerry Nolan]] of [[The Heartbreakers]]). She was a [[heroin]] addict, and inevitably Sid, who already believed in his own "live fast, die young" image, soon shared the dependence. Although deeply in love, their often violent and rocky relationship had a disastrous effect on the Sex Pistols. Both the group and Sid visibly deteriorated during their [[1978]] American tour. The Pistols broke up in [[San Francisco]] after their concert at the [[Winterland Ballroom]] on January 14, 1978. With Spungen acting as his "manager" he embarked on a solo career during which he performed with musicians including [[Mick Jones (The Clash)|Mick Jones]] of [[The Clash]], original Sex Pistols bassist [[Glen Matlock]], [[Rat Scabies]] of [[The Damned]] and the [[New York Dolls]]' [[Arthur Kane]], [[Jerry Nolan]], and [[Johnny Thunders]].

==Deaths of Sid and Nancy==
Meanwhile Ritchie and Spungen had become locked in their own world of drug addiction and self-destruction. Interview footage shows the couple attempting to answer questions from their bed: Spungen is barely coherent while Ritchie lapses in and out of [[consciousness]]. He also came very close to death following a heroin overdose and was hospitalized for a time.

On the morning of [[October 12]] [[1978]] Ritchie allegedly awoke from a drugged stupor to find Spungen crumpled dead on the bathroom floor of their room (room 100) in the [[Hotel Chelsea]] in [[New York]]. She had received a single stab wound to her abdomen and apparently bled to death. Ritchie was arrested and charged with her murder although he said he had no memory of having done so. However, he later claimed to have "killed her because I'm a dirty dog." There are several theories that Spungen was murdered by someone else, usually said to be one of the two drug dealers who visited the apartment that night, and involving a possible robbery as certain items (including a substantial bankroll) were claimed to be missing from the room.

After appearing in court over Spungen's death, a television journalist briefly interviewed Ritchie (the footage appears in ''The Filth and the Fury''). Ritchie was shaking slightly and appeared sober, morose, and withdrawn:

:'''Interviewer:''' Are you having fun at the moment?
:'''Ritchie:''' Are you kidding? No, I am not having fun at all.
(''long pause'')
:'''Interviewer:''' Where would you like to be?
:'''Ritchie:''' Under the ground.
:'''Interviewer:''' Are you serious?
:'''Ritchie:''' (quietly, and sad) Yeah.

[[Bail]] of $50,000 was put up by Virgin Records at McLaren's request. The plan was for Vicious to record an album with fellow Pistols Steve Jones and Paul Cook in order to raise funds for his defense. This was to be a collection of standards including (according to McLaren) ''[[White Christmas (song)|White Christmas]]'' and ''[[Mack the Knife]]''. Although more likely, and according to Paul Cook, the album was to be a selection of Sid's favourite songs and would no doubt have included tracks from The Stooges, The Ramones, The New York Dolls and The Heartbreakers {{fact}}. In February [[1979]], a party to celebrate his release was held at the home of his new girlfriend Michelle Robinson. During his time at [[Rikers Island]] prison, Ritchie had undergone drug rehabilitation therapy and was supposedly clean. However at the party he obtained some heroin from his mother, and was discovered dead the following morning, having taken a large overdose. Speculation has persisted that Ritchie, unable to live without his beloved Nancy, committed [[suicide]]. He wrote the following [[poem]] about her:

:''You were my little baby girl,''
:''And I shared all your fears.''
:''Such joy to hold you in my arms''
:''and kiss away your tears.''
:''But now you're gone, there's only pain''
:''and nothing I can do.''
:''And I don't want to live this life,''
:''If I can't live for you.''
:''To my beautiful baby girl.''
:''Our love will never die...''

Another theory forwarded by police investigator Richard Houseman and writer Alan Parker in the recent [[Discovery Channel]] documentary [[Final 24]] suggests that Ritchie's mother was responsible for administering the fatal overdose of heroin. Moreso, as a regular heroin user herself, it is believed that the administration of a lethal dose was intentional.

After Ritchie's death, his mother phoned [[Deborah Spungen]], Nancy's mother, to request that he be buried next to her, but Deborah Spungen declined. There are several myths about what happened to Ritchie's remains but one of the most persistent is that late one night, "Sid's mother jumped the graveyard fence where Nancy was buried and scattered his ashes over his beloved for them to be together for all time."

According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', "It's more likely that Ma Vicious arrived back at [[Heathrow]] with his remains. [[Malcolm McLaren]] claims she knocked them over in the arrivals lounge; hence the fanciful myth that Sid's essence still circulates, wafting through the air vents and moving among the travellers." [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/omm/story/0,13887,1415153,00.html]

''[[Sid Sings]]'' was released posthumously by Virgin Records. This was a collection of mostly cover versions recorded live at his gigs at Max's Kansas City in September 1978. Tracks included "C'mon Everybody" and "[[Something Else (song)|Something Else]]" by [[Eddie Cochran]] along with material by [[Iggy Pop]] and [[Johnny Thunders]] and a rendition of the [[Paul Anka]] / [[Frank Sinatra]] standard "[[My Way (song)|My Way]]". Striking footage of Vicious performing this song in Paris provides the closing sequence for [[Julien Temple]]'s film ''[[The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle]]''. Also included on [[Sid Sings]] was a cover of the [[The Heartbreakers]]' "Born to Lose", which was recorded at the [[Sex Pistols]] last British gig at Ivanhoe's in [[Huddersfield]] on Christmas Day 1977, with Sid on vocals.

== Discography ==
===Charted releases===
'''Singles'''
* June 30, 1979 – ''[[My Way (song)|My Way]]'' # 6 UK
* February 9, 1979 – ''[[Something Else (song)|Something Else]]'' # 3 UK
* June 22, 1979 – ''C'mon Everybody'' # 7 UK

'''Album'''
* December 15, 1979 - ''[[Sid Sings]]'' # 30 UK

===Various pressings and bootlegs===
* ''[[My Way (song)|My Way]]/[[Something Else (song)|Something Else]]/C’mon Everybody'' (1979, 12”, Barclay, Barclay 740 509)
* ''Live'' (1980, LP, Creative Industry Inc., JSR 21)
* ''Vicious Burger'' (1980, LP, UD-6535, VD 6336)
* ''Love Kills N.Y.C.'' (1985, LP, Konexion, KOMA 788020)
* ''The Sid Vicious Experience – Jack Boots and Dirty Looks'' (1986, LP, Antler 37)
* ''The Idols With Sid Vicious'' (1993, CD, Last Call Records, LC22289)
* ''Never Mind the Reunion Here’s Sid Vicious'' (1997, CD)
* ''Sid Dead Live'' (1997, CD, Anagram, PUNK 86)
* ''Sid Vicious Sings'' (1997, CD)
* ''Vicious & Friends'' (1998, CD, Dressed To Kill Records, Dress 602)
* ''Better (to provoke a reaction than to react to a provocation)'' (1999, CD, Almafame, YEAAH6)
* ''Probably His Last Ever Interview'' (2000, CD, OZIT, OZITCD62)
* ''Better'' (2001, CD)
* ''Vive Le Rock'' (2003, 2CD)
* ''Too Fast To Live...'' (2004, CD)
* ''Naked & Ashamed'' (7”, Wonderful Records, WO-73)
* ''Sid Live At Max’s Kansas City'' (LP, JSR 21)
* ''Sid Vicious'' (LP, Innocent Records, JSR 23)
* ''Sid Vicious McDonald Bros. Box'' (3CD, Sound Solutions)

'''Sid Vicious & Friends'''
* ''(Don’t You Gimme) No Lip/(I’m Not Your) Steppin’ Stone'' (1989, 7”, SCRATCH 7)
* ''Sid Vicious & Friends'' (1998, CD, Cleopatra, #251, ASIN: B0000061AS)

'''Sid Vicious/[[Eddie Cochran]]'''
* ''Sid Vicious v’s Eddie Cochran – The Battle Of The Rockers'' (LP, Jock, LP 7)

'''Sid Vicious/[[Elvis Presley]]'''
* ''Cult Heroes'' (1993, CD)

== Films that include Sid Vicious ==
* ''Sex Pistols Number One'' (1976, dir. [[Derek Jarman]])
*[[Julien Temple|Julian Temple's]]''[[The Great Rock N' Roll Swindle]]'' features famous Sid Vicious footage, such as his videos for "My Way" and "Something Else", along with various live Sex Pistols footage. There is also a video for "C'mon Everybody", of which only snippets are shown in the film.
* ''Will Your Son Turn into Sid Vicious?'' (1978)
* ''[[The Punk Rock Movie]]'' (1979, dir. Don Letts)
* ''Dead on Arrival'' (1981, dir. [[Lech Kowalski]])
* ''[[The Filth And The Fury]]'' (2000, dir. Julien Temple, VHS/NTSC)

A somewhat fictionalised film about the relationship between Vicious and Spungen, ''[[Sid and Nancy]]'', was made by director [[Alex Cox]] in [[1986]], starring [[Gary Oldman]] as Sid.

==Further reading==

* Anne Beverley, ''The Sid Vicious Family album'' (1980, Virgin Books)
* Gerald Cole, ''Sid And Nancy'' (1986, Methuen)
* [[Alex Cox]] & Abbe Wool, ''Sid And Nancy'' (1986, Faber and Faber)
* Keith Bateson and Alan Parker, ''Sid’s Way'' (1991, Omnibus Press)
* Tom Stockdale, ''Sid Vicious. They Died Too Young'' (1995, Parragon)
* Malcolm Butt, ''Sid Vicious. Rock‘n’Roll Star'' (1997, Plexus)
* David Dalton, ''El Sid'' (1998, St. Martin’s Griffin)
* Sid Vicious, ''Too Fast To Live...Too Young to Die'' (1999, Retro Publishing)
* Alan Parker, ''Vicious. Too Fast To Live...'' (2004, Creation Books)
* Mark Paytress, ''Sid Vicious. The Art of Dying Young'' (2004, Sanctuary Publishing)
*Spungen's mother, [[Deborah Spungen|Deborah]], wrote a book about her daughter and her involvement with Vicious in ''[[And I Don't Want to Live This Life]]''.
*[[Dee Dee Ramone]], bassist for the punk band [[The Ramones]] was a friend of Sid's. Dee Dee, who died of heroin toxicity in 2002, penned a novel entitled ''Chelsea Horror Hotel'' in which Dee Dee and his wife move into the Chelsea Hotel and believe they are staying in the same room where Sid killed Nancy. In the book, Dee Dee is revisited by the ghost of Sid as well as other dead punk rock friends Johnny Thunders and Stiv Bators.

==Sid Vicious in pop culture==
*[[Professional wrestler]] [[Sid Eudy]] used the name '''Sid Vicious''' as one of his wrestling names.
*A co-founder of American [[hacker group]] [[Cult of the Dead Cow]] used the name '''Sid Vicious'''.
*The hit song "Butterfly" by [[Crazy Town]] contains a line which refers to Sid and Nancy's relationship.
*The hit Japanese song "Koko de Kiss Shite" by [[Shiina Ringo]] refers to Sid Vicious: "I'm the only one who could put handcuffs to a modern Sid Vicious." She also titled one of her songs "Daydreaming with Sid," another reference to him.
*[[Dir en grey]]'s song "JESSICA" has a line "Sid Vicious and Nancy, where can I meet you." Also, Hydra contains "Sid Vicious" in its lyrics.
*The Japanese band [[BUCK-TICK]] has a song called "Sid Vicious ON THE BEACH."
*The [[Ramones]]' songs "I Don't Want to Live This Life (Anymore)" and "Love Kills" are about Sid Vicious and Nancy Spungen. The latter is sung by Dee Dee Ramone.
*The song "Chickenshit Conformist" by the [[Dead Kennedys]] contains the line "Imagine Sid Vicious at 35".
*The [[Joe Strummer]] song Love Kills is also about Sid Vicious and Nancy Spungen.
*Japanese rocker [[Tomoyasu Hotei]] references Sid and Nancy in his song "Psychobilly and Pussycat".
*In the [[anime]], [[Beck (manga)|Beck]], all the band members have a dream where Sid Vicious and other deceased rock stars clean up after a concert. He also appears in the end credits.
*[[Bon Jovi]]'s song "Captain Crash and the Beauty Queen From Mars" has a line "We're Sid and Nancy".
*British artist [[Gavin Turk]] cast himself in a sculpture as Sid.
*[[The Exploited]] wrote a song called "Sid Vicious Was Innocent" about Vicious and Spungen's deaths.
*[[Johnny Thunders]] song "Sad Vacation" is about Sid Vicious, the lyrics contain lines relating to Sid's songs. The two were friends and planned to form a band together, though it didn't work out because Thunders "''couldn't put up with his girlfriend (Spungen)''".[http://youtube.com/watch?v=dROVF2viW9k]
*In the manga [[Nana]] by [[Ai Yazawa]], there is a character Ren, based on Sid Vicious.
*Chinese rock band [[Silver Ash]] made a song called [[Feeling Dizzy]] which refers to Sid Vicious as the sad punk.
*In the episode "[[Degrassi: The Next Generation episode guide|Girls Just Wanna Have Fun]]" of the [[Canada|Canadian]] TV series ''[[Degrassi: The Next Generation]]'', [[Craig Manning]] dresses as Sid Vicious for an eighties-themed dance, even though Sid's death predates the decade by almost an entire year.
*In the pilot episode of [[Mission Hill]], Andy mentions that Sid Vicious was rumored to have thrown up in his bathtub.
*In [[Martin Scorsese]]'s film [[Goodfellas]], Sid's cover of My Way plays over the end credits.
*In Season Six of Dawson's Creek, Pacey and Audrey dress up as Sid and Nancy for a Hallowe'en party
*In [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]], at the end of the episode "Lover's Walk", Spike is singing along to Sid Vicious' version of "My Way". Spike was frequently compared to Sid Vicious, and he was one of the inspirations for Spike's character.
*In [[Gangster No. 1]], there is an episode of retrospection, the main character talking about his history, where Sid appears as a symbol of the year 1977.
*In "Stunts - 4D Sports Car Driving" computer game top AI driver's name is "Skid Vicious".

==External links==

* [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/vicious/vicious.html Vicious' confession to the NYPD and other documents]
* [http://www.theviciousfiles.co.uk/frame1.html Site with pictures of the murder scene]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=3675 Sid Vicious' Photo & Death Certificate]

[[Category:Accidental deaths|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:Bass guitarists|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:Drug-related deaths|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:English bass guitarists|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:English drummers|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:English male singers|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:People known by pseudonyms|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:Sex Pistols|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:1957 births|Vicious, Sid]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Vicious, Sid]]

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[[zh:席德·维瑟斯]]

Seoul

2006-10-04T01:35:50Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Seoul

{{infobox Korean city|
full_name=Seoul Metropolitan City
|image = [[Image:Seoul Namdaemun gate at night.JPG|225px]] 
Seoul's ancient [[Sungnyemun]]
|rr = Seoul Teukbyeolsi
|mr = Sŏul T'ŭkpyŏlsi
|hangul = 서울특별시
|hanja = 서울特別市
|short_name = Seoul (Sŏul; 서울)
|population = 10,297,004 (2005) [http://english.seoul.go.kr/today/about/about_01quick.htm]
(Metro area c. 23,000,000 [[List of metropolitan areas by population|Ranked 2nd in the world]])
|area=605.41 km² [http://english.seoul.go.kr/today/about/about_01quick.htm]
|mayor = [[Oh Se-hoon]]
|government = Special City, Capital of Republic of Korea ([[South Korea]])
|divisions = 25 wards (Gu)
|region = [[Seoul National Capital Area|Sudogwon]]
|dialect = [[Seoul Dialect|Seoul]]
|map=[[Image:Seul_mapa.png|Map of location of Seoul]]}}

'''Seoul''' (''Sŏul'' 서울) {{Audio|ko-Seoul.ogg|listen}}) is the [[capital]] and largest city of [[South Korea]] (Republic of Korea). The city's name derives from the ancient [[Korean language|Korean]] word ''Seorabeol'' or ''Seobeol'', meaning "capital city". The city has been known in the past by the successive names ''Wiryeseong'' (위례성; {{lang|ko|慰禮城}}; [[Baekje]]), ''Hanyang'' (한양; {{lang|ko|漢陽}}) and ''Hanseong'' (한성; {{lang|ko|漢城}}; [[Goryeo]] and [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]]). The city served as the capital during the [[Baekje]] and [[Joseon]] Dynasties. Upon the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948, Seoul became the capital once again and was designated the nation's only [[Special Cities of Korea|Special City]].

With over ten million people living within its city limits, Seoul is one of the [[List of cities by population|most populous cities in the world]]. However, with an area of only 605 square kilometres, it is also one of the smallest and most densely populated major cities. Seoul's population density has allowed it to become one of the world's most digitally-connected cities. It also has more than three million registered vehicles which often cause widespread traffic jams.

The larger [[Seoul National Capital Area]] and commuter belt, which includes the major port city of [[Incheon]], has over twenty-one million residents. This makes it the third most populous metropolitan area in the world, after [[Greater Tokyo Area|Greater Tokyo]] and [[Mexico City]]. About one-half of South Korea's entire population live in Seoul and its environs. The city is the country's political, cultural, social, and economic center, as well as an international center for many financial and business organizations, and is considered one of the top 20 [[global city|"world-class cities"]].

As the symbol of the "[[Miracle on the Han River]]", Seoul has played a key role in South Korea's economic development. In recent years, the metropolitan government has carried out an extensive cleanup of the city's air and water pollution. The revival of [[Cheonggyecheon]], a stream that used to flow through downtown Seoul, has been lauded as a major success in urban renewal and beautification.

Seoul is located in the northwest of South Korea on the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]], only about 30 miles (~50 km) from the [[Korean Demilitarized Zone|de-militarized zone (DMZ)]] border shared with [[North Korea]].

==History==
{{main|History of Seoul}}

The '''History of Seoul''' can be traced back as far as [[18 BCE]], with a recorded history of over 2000 years. It has been the capital of various states on the [[Korean Peninsula]] since it was established.

==Geography and climate==
{{sectstub}}

=== Cityscape ===
[[Image:Seoul Cheonggyecheon night.jpg|right|thumb|275px|Commercial District of Seoul]]
The traditional heart of Seoul is the old [[Joseon Dynasty]] city, which is now the downtown area, where most palaces, government offices, corporate headquarters, hotels, and traditional markets are located. This area occupies the valley of [[Cheonggyecheon]], a stream that runs from west to east through the valley before emptying into the Han River. For many years, the stream had been covered by concrete, but was recently restored through an urban revival project. To the north of downtown is [[Bukhan Mountain]], and to the south is the smaller [[Namsan (Seoul)|Namsan]].

Further south are the old suburbs of Yongsan-gu and Mapo-gu, and the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]]. Across the Han River are the newer and wealthier areas of Gangnam-gu and surrounding neighborhoods. The World Trade Center of Korea is located in Gangnam-gu and this is where many expositions and conferences are held. Also in Gangnam-gu is the [[COEX Mall]], a large indoor shopping and entertainment complex. [[Yeouido]] is an island in the middle of the Han River, downstream from Gangnam-gu, and is home to the National Assembly, major broadcasting studios, and a number of large office buildings, as well as the Korea Finance Building and the world's largest Pentecostal church. The Olympic Stadium, Olympic Park, and [[Lotte World]] are located in Songpa-gu, on the south side of the Han River, upstream from Gangnam-gu. South of the sprawling [[Gangnam]] area are [[Namhan Mountain]] and [[Gwanak Mountain]].

Major buildings include the [[Korea Finance Building]], [[Seoul Tower]], the [[World Trade Center Seoul|World Trade Center]], the six-skyscraper residence [[Tower Palace]], and [[I-Park Apartments]]. These and various high-rise [[office building]]s, like the [[Seoul Star Tower]] and [[Jongro Tower]], dominate city's skyline. Seoul has the greatest number of skyscrapers in Asia. Seoul is now planning on building a 580-metre business center in Sangam Digital Media City district and planning on an 800-metre Lotte World 2 Tower in Jamsil (pronounced "Jam-shil") district.

Urban and civil planning was a key concept when Seoul was first designed to serve as a capital in the 14th century. The Royal Palaces of the Joseon Dynasty still remain in Seoul, with the main palace ([[Gyeongbokgung]]) currently being restored to its original form. Today, there are nine major subway lines stretching for more than 250 kilometers, with a tenth line being planned.

The most historically significant street in Seoul is [[Jongno]], meaning "Bell Street". The bell signaled the different times of the day and therefore controlled the four gates to the city. It is still intact in its original form, and hit ceremonially at 0:00 every New Year's Day. Seoul's most important streetcar line ran along Jongno until it was replaced by Line 1 of the [[Seoul subway]] system in the early 1970s. Other notable streets in downtown Seoul include [[Euljiro]] (을지로; {{lang|ko|乙支路}}), [[Sejongno]] (세종로; {{lang|ko|世宗路}}, [[Chungmuro]] (충무로; {{lang|ko|忠武路}}), [[Yulgongno]] (율곡로; {{lang|ko|栗谷路}}), and [[Toegyero]] (퇴계로; {{lang|ko|退溪路}}).

== Government and politics ==
Seoul is divided into 25 [[Administrative divisions of South Korea#Gu|gu]] ("districts"), which are sub-divided into 522 [[Administrative divisions of South Korea#Dong|dong]], which are sub-divided into 13,787 ''tong'', which are further divided into 102,796 ''ban'' in total.

[[Image:Map Seoul districts de.png|thumb|right|400px|Seoul Districts]]
* [[Dobong-gu]] (도봉구; {{lang|ko|道峰區}})
* [[Dongdaemun-gu]] (동대문구; {{lang|ko|東大門區}})
* [[Dongjak-gu]] (동작구; {{lang|ko|銅雀區}})
* [[Eunpyeong-gu]] (은평구; {{lang|ko|恩平區}})
* [[Gangbuk-gu]] (강북구; {{lang|ko|江北區}})
* [[Gangdong-gu]] (강동구; {{lang|ko|江東區}})
* [[Gangnam-gu]] (강남구; {{lang|ko|江南區}})
* [[Gangseo-gu (Seoul)|Gangseo-gu]] (강서구; {{lang|ko|江西區}})
* [[Geumcheon-gu]] (금천구; {{lang|ko|衿川區}})
* [[Guro-gu]] (구로구; {{lang|ko|九老區}})
* [[Gwanak-gu]] (관악구; {{lang|ko|冠岳區}})
* [[Gwangjin-gu]] (광진구; {{lang|ko|廣津區}})
* [[Jongno-gu]] (종로구; {{lang|ko|鍾路區}})
* [[Jung-gu (Seoul)|Jung-gu]] (중구; {{lang|ko|中區}})
* [[Jungnang-gu]] (중랑구; {{lang|ko|中浪區}})
* [[Mapo-gu]] (마포구; {{lang|ko|麻浦區}})
* [[Nowon-gu]] (노원구; {{lang|ko|蘆原區}})
* [[Seocho-gu]] (서초구; {{lang|ko|瑞草區}})
* [[Seodaemun-gu]] (서대문구; {{lang|ko|西大門區}})
* [[Seongbuk-gu]] (성북구; {{lang|ko|城北區}})
* [[Seongdong-gu]] (성동구; {{lang|ko|城東區}})
* [[Songpa-gu]] (송파구; {{lang|ko|松坡區}})
* [[Yangcheon-gu]] (양천구; {{lang|ko|陽川區}})
* [[Yeongdeungpo-gu]] (영등포구; {{lang|ko|永登浦區}})
* [[Yongsan-gu]] (용산구; {{lang|ko|龍山區}})

== Demographics ==
Nearly all of Seoul's residents are [[Korean]], with some small [[Chinese people|Chinese]] and [[Japanese people|Japanese]] minorities. Today, there are an estimated more than 200,000 foreign nationals living in Seoul. These include people from [[South Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], [[Central Asia]], and parts of [[Africa]]. In addition, there are many language instructors from English-speaking countries such as [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], [[United States]], and the [[United Kingdom]]. Two major religions in Seoul are [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]] (both slightly less than 50%). Other religions include [[Shamanism]], [[Confucianism]], etc.

==== Hanja transcription of "Seoul" ====
[[Image:Seoul Chinese name advertisement.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Advertisement in a subway station announcing the newly achieved name change of the South Korean capital in Chinese in 2005.]]

Unlike most place names in Korea, "Seoul" has no corresponding [[hanja]] ([[Chinese characters]] used in the [[Korean language]]), and Chinese-speaking countries have continued to refer to the city by its former name "Hànchéng" ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]]: {{lang|zh-tw|漢城}}; [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]]: {{lang|zh-cn|汉城}}; Korean: "Hanseong"). In January 2005, the [[Seoul Metropolitan Government]] requested that the Chinese name of the city be changed to "Shǒu'ěr" ({{lang|zh-tw|首爾}}/{{lang|zh-cn|首尔}}; Korean: "Su-i"). This is a close transliteration of Seoul in Mandarin Chinese, where {{lang|zh-tw|首}} (shǒu) can also mean "first" or "capital". Chinese communities have gradually adopted this new name. This change was intended for speakers of Chinese only and has no effect on the Korean language name, and unlike standard hanja, the Chinese characters were chosen to best represent the Korean pronunciation of a pure Korean word.

==Economy==

{{Unreferenced}}

With a [[GDP]] of almost $1 trillion in exchange rate terms, South Korea ranks as the 12th highest GDP in the world (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_estimates_for_2007_%28nominal%29). GDP is a good indication of wealth and status of a country, so this indicates that South Korea is a thriving nation and is no longer a third world nation. The reason for this is South Korea’s ability to keep pace with the ICT, Information, Communication, and Technology, race and stay in the service sector rather than the manufacturing sector.
Before emphasis was placed on information and technology, the road to development for third world nations was thought to lie in [[manufacturing]]. Jobs would be supplied from manufacturing goods to be used predominantly in the developed world. The sale of the goods as exports, along with the creation of the manufacturing jobs, was thought sufficient to bring development to struggling nations; however, with the shift of manufacturing jobs going to poorer nations, the service sector, which provides higher wage jobs, remained in the wealthier nations. It is now believed that in order for a country to develop, it must create more service jobs(Sassen 1994), which Seoul and South Korea have done with much success.
As headquarters for some of the world’s top corporations such as [[Samsung]], [[Hyundai]], and [[Kia Motors]], the service sector in Seoul has thrived, bringing development and a healthy economy to the country as a whole. South Korea derives 63.2% of its GDP from the service sector, which is above the average for the upper income nations(World Bank 2004). The major exports are electronics, automobiles, and machinery. This economic development has also helped keep unemployment low at around 3.4% and ensured that the informal economy of Seoul is negligible. Foreign direct investment is also high at around $2 billion(World Bank 2004); however, South Korea is threatened with a slowing economy which could hurt it and its development.
Compared to years past, South Korea is facing a slowing economy. As one of the [[East Asian Tigers|Four Tiger nations]], it experienced rapid growth in the [[1990s]]. Now, economic growth has declined from close to 10% to 3.1%(CIA Factbook 2005). While this is still a steady and respectable growth rate, foreign direct investment is also down by 75% from 1999 to 2002(World Bank 2004). Consumer consumption is down and expected to stay low in 2005, contributing to the slowing economy. This could also mean that recovery and another economic boom could be far off(EIU ViewsWire 2005). This means that the economy could become stagnant and leave South Korea and Seoul lagging in development. If consumer consumption and corporate investment were to increase, the economy could stabilize and get out of the recession.
Seoul and South Korea have a thriving economy that helps to make South Korea a major player in the world economy. As the center of the service sector for South Korea, Seoul is the hub around which the economic growth and health of the country reside in order to ensure the continuing growth of the nation. While past developments helped the nation to grow rapidly, the current economic outlook brings questions as to the sustainability of the continuing economic development.

== Education ==
:''See also: [[Education in South Korea]], [[List of universities in Seoul]]''

There are a large number of [[university|universities]] in Seoul. Most of the country's most prestigious universities are located in Seoul, including the so-called [[SKY (schools)|"SKY" schools]] [[Seoul National University]], [[Korea University]], and [[Yonsei University]].

== Culture ==

{{ImageStackRight|270|
[[Image:Seoul_COEX_Mall.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[COEX Mall]] entrance]]
[[Image:Seoul Gyeongbok-gung-3.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Gyeongbukgung throne hall]]
[[Image:Seoul Biwon.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The pavilion Buyong-jeon in the secret garden Biwon in Changdeokgung]]
}}

=== Annual cultural events and fairs ===
{{sectstub}}

=== Historical structures and museums ===
The [[Joseon Dynasty]] built "Five Grand Palaces" in Seoul:
* [[Changdeokgung]] (창덕궁; {{lang|ko|昌德宮}})
* [[Changgyeonggung]] (창경궁; {{lang|ko|昌慶宮}})
* [[Deoksugung]] (덕수궁; {{lang|ko|德壽宮}})
* [[Gyeongbokgung]] (경복궁; {{lang|ko|景福宮}})
* [[Gyeonghuigung]] (경희궁; {{lang|ko|慶熙宮}})

This is a relatively minor palace:
* [[Unhyeongung]] (운현궁; {{lang|ko|雲峴宮}})

=== Museums ===
* [[National Museum of Korea]]
* [[National Folk Museum of Korea|National Folk Museum]]
* [[War Memorial (Seoul)|War Memorial]]

Outside the metropolitan area:
* [[Samjeondo Monument]]
* [[Namhansanseong]]
* [[Bukhansanseong]]
* [[Namsan Park]]
* [[Sungjoon Park]]

=== Temples and shrines ===
* [[Culture of Korea#Jongmyo Shrine|Jongmyo]]
* [[Dongmyo]]
* [[Munmyo]]
* [[Jogyesa]]
* [[Hwagyesa]]

=== Media ===
{{sectstub}}

=== Parks and outdoor attractions ===
Due to the efforts of the government in regard with the environment, Seoul's air pollution levels are now on par with those of Tokyo and far lower than those of Beijing. Seoul's metropolitan area accommodates six major parks, including [[Seoul Forest]], which opened in mid-2005. The Seoul Metropolitan Area is also surrounded by a green belt aimed to prevent the city from sprawling out over the neighboring Gyeonggi Province. These lush green areas are frequently sought after by people resting on the weekend and during vacations.

In addition, the Seoul area is also home to three amusement parks: [[Lotte World]], Seoul Land, and [[Everland]] (located in the nearby suburb of [[Yongin]]). Of these, Lotte World is the most frequently visited. Other recreation centres include the former [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] and [[Seoul World Cup Stadium|World Cup]] stadium, the Korea Finance Building, and the City Hall's public lawn.

=== Sports ===
{{sectstub}}

Seoul hosted the [[1988 Summer Olympics|1988 Olympic Games]] and also served as one of the host cities of the [[FIFA World Cup 2002|2002 FIFA World Cup]].

The city is the home of two [[baseball]] teams in the [[Korean Baseball Organization|KBO]]: the [[Doosan Bears]] and the [[LG Twins]]

==Transportation==
Seoul's transportation boom dates back to the era of the [[Korean Empire]], when the first streetcar lines were laid and a railroad linking Seoul and Shinuiju was completed. Today, as a result of the diversification of Seoul's transportation network, it has become a great transportation hub for Asia.

====Airports====
[[Image:Incheon International Airport-2.jpg|thumb|left|Incheon International Airport]]
There are two [[airport|airports]] that serve Seoul. [[Gimpo International Airport]], formerly in [[Gimpo City|Gimpo]] but now annexed to Seoul, was the only airport for Seoul from its original construction during the [[Korean War]]. Multiple airports were built in and around Seoul immediately before, during, and after the war. The most famous was on Yoido, which once served as the country’s gateway to the world.

Upon opening in March 2001, [[Incheon International Airport]] on [[Yeongjong]] island near [[Incheon]] has changed the role of Gimpo Airport significantly. Incheon is now responsible for almost all international flights and some domestic flights, while Gimpo serves only domestic flights with the exception of flights to [[Haneda Airport]] in [[Tokyo]]). This has led to a significant drop in flights from Gimpo Airport. Meanwhile, Incheon International Airport has become, along with Hong Kong and Singapore, a major transportation centre for East Asia. It was recently voted by the [[IATA]] as the world's best airport in service and quality. The two airports are linked to Seoul by a highway, and Gimpo is also linked by subway.

====Bus====
:''See also: [[Seoul Buses]]''
Seoul's bus system is operated by the Seoul Metropolitan Government, with four primary bus configurations available servicing most of the city.

====Subway====
[[Image:Seoul Subway Map.jpg|300px|right|Seoul Subway Map]]
Seoul has nine [[Seoul Metro|subway lines]], nearly two hundred bus routes and six major highways that interlink every district of the city with one another and with the surrounding area. The majority of the population now uses the public transportation system due to its convenience and low cost. With more than 8 million passengers a day Seoul has one of the busiest subway systems in the world. In addition, in order to cope with all of these transportation modes, Seoul's metropolitan government employs several mathematicians to coordinate the subway, bus, and traffic schedules into one timetable.

====Train====
Seoul is also linked to several other major South Korean cities by the [[KTX]] bullet train, currently Asia's fastest high-speed train, making commuting between cities extremely convenient for commuters and domestic tourists.

==Sister cities==
Seoul has many [[sister city|sister cities]]. Washington, D.C. is the latest to become a sister city of Seoul.<ref>Seoul Metropolitan Government website''International Cooperation''.[http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html]</ref> The year each relationship was formed is shown in parentheses below.

{|
| valign="top" |
*[[Image:Flag of the Republic of China.svg|20px|]] [[Taipei]], [[Republic of China]] (1968)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Turkey.svg|20px|]] [[Ankara]], [[Turkey]] (1971)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Guam.svg|20px|]] [[Guam]] ([[United States]]) (1973)
*[[Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg|20px|]] [[Honolulu]], [[Hawaiʻi]], [[United States]] (1973)
*[[Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg|20px|]] [[San Francisco]], [[California]], [[United States]] (1976)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Brazil.svg|20px|]] [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]] (1977)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Colombia.svg|20px|]] [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]] (1982)
*[[Image:Flag of Indonesia.svg|20px|]] [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]] (1984)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Japan.svg|20px|]] [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] (1988)
*[[Image:Flag of Russia.svg|20px|]] [[Moscow]], [[Russia]] (1991)
*[[Image:Flag of France.svg|20px]] [[Paris]], [[France]] (1991)
| valign="top" |
*[[Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg|20px|]] [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] (1991)
*[[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|20px]] [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China]] (1992)
*[[Image:Flag of Mongolia.svg|20px]] [[Ulaanbaatar]], [[Mongolia]] (1995)
*[[Image:Flag of Vietnam.svg|20px]] [[Hanoi]], [[Vietnam]] (1996)
*[[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|20px]] [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] (1996)
*[[Image:Flag of Egypt.svg|20px]] [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] (1997)
*[[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|20px]] [[Rome]], [[Italy]] (2000)
*[[Image:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg|20px]] [[Astana]], [[Kazakhstan]] (2004)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Greece.svg|20px|]] [[Athens]], [[Greece]] (2006)
*[[Image:Flag of Thailand.svg|20px]] [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]] (2006)
*[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|20px]] [[Washington, D.C]], [[United States]] (2006)
|}

==Gallery==
<div align="center">
<gallery>
Image:Cheonggyecheon-night.jpg|Cheonggyecheon at night
Image:Korean royal palace entrance.jpg|Royal palace entrance
Image:Seoulolympicstadium2005.JPG|A stadium built for [[1988 Summer Olympics|1988 Olympics]]
Image:Korea gyeongbokgung.jpg|[[Gyeongbokgung]] palace, main and largest palace of [[Joseon Dynasty]]
Image:Wtc coex seoul.jpg|[[World Trade Center Seoul]]
Image:Seoul-01 (xndr).jpg|[[Cheonggyecheon]] stream flowing through Seoul
Image:Seoul Station Train Tracks.jpg|[[Seoul Station]]
Image:An interesting perspective of the gate.jpg|Changdeokgung
Image:Seoul Gyeongbokgung Blue House Bukhansan.jpg|[[Gyeongbokgung]] and [[Cheong Wa Dae]]
Image:Seoul 63 Building.jpg|[[63 Building]], the third tallest building in Korea
Image:Downtownseoul.JPG|Skyline of Seoul
Image:View of YangJe-Cheon.jpg|Yangjaecheon stream and skyline
Image:Seoul Tower by night.jpg|Tower in Seoul
</gallery>
</div>

==See also==
* [[Geography of South Korea]]
* [[Large Cities Climate Leadership Group]]

* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
* [[List of cities in South Korea]]
* [[Names of Asian cities in different languages]]
* [[Seoul National Capital Area]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
{{commons|Seoul}}
===Official sites===
* [http://english.seoul.go.kr/ Seoul Metropolitan Government]
===Tourism and living information===
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.GoSeoulCity.com Go Seoul City]: Comprehensive guide to this great city.
* [http://english.tour2korea.com/sightseeing/destination/seoul/city_seoul.asp Highlights of Seoul]: by Korean National Tourism Organization
* [http://www.seoulstyle.com Seoul Style - "Hip tips on life in Seoul"]
* [http://wiki.galbijim.com/Seoul Galbijim wiki page on Seoul]

===Maps and images===
* [http://www.globalphotos.org/seoul.htm Seoul Photo Gallery]
* [http://dhclub.org/hanafos/map/seoul_map.jpg Map of Seoul (in Korean)]
* [http://www.seoulsearching.com/grfx/maps/centralseoul.jpg Map of Central Seoul]
* [http://www.seoulmetro.co.kr/data/map/map_english.zip Seoul subway map](.zip file)
* [http://www.megacities.uni-koeln.de/documentation/seoul/map/Seoulmap.jpg Map of Seoul and environs]
* [http://www.jennyhouse.info Architecture and Skyscraper Community of Korea]
{{Geolinks-cityscale|37.541|126.986}}

===Others===
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/South_Korea/Seoul/ Open Directory category]

{{South Korea}}
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}
{{Seoul}}

[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in South Korea]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Seoul| ]]



{{Link FA|de}}

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[[ja:ソウル特別市]]
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[[zh:首爾]]

Somalia

2006-10-04T01:34:55Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Infobox Country |
native_name = ''Soomaaliya'' الصومال Somalía |
common_name = Somalia |
image_flag = Flag of Somalia.svg|
image_coat = Coat of arms of Somalia.png|
national_motto = None |
image_map = LocationSomalia.png |
national_anthem = [[Soomaaliyeey Toosoow]] |
official_languages = [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Arabic]], [[Italian language|Italian]] (as a language of administration)|
capital = [[Mogadishu]] |
latd=2|latm=02|latNS=N|longd=45|longm=21|longEW=E|
government_type = Interim Transitional Government |
leader_title1 = [[Interim President of Somalia|President]] |leader_title2 = [[Interim Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]] |
leader_name1 =[[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]] |
leader_name2 = [[Ali Mohammed Ghedi]]|
largest_city = [[Mogadishu]] |
area = 637,657 |
areami² = 246,201 |
area_rank = 42nd |
area_magnitude = 1 E11 |
percent_water = 1.6% |
population_estimate = 8,228,000 |
population_estimate_year = July 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 91st |
population_census = 7,114,431 |
population_census_year = 1987 |
population_density = 13 |
population_densitymi² = 34|
population_density_rank = 198th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $4.809 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = not ranked |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = 600 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = not ranked |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = NA |
HDI_rank = unranked |
HDI_category = NA |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
sovereignty_note = From [[United Kingdom]], [[Italy]] |
established_event1 = Date |
established_date1 = [[July 1]], [[1960]] |
cctld=[[.so]]|
calling_code=252|
time_zone=[[East Africa Time|EAT]]|
utc_offset=+3|
time_zone_DST=not observed|
utc_offset_DST=+3|
currency = [[Somali shilling|Shilling]] |
currency_code = SOS |Third world country
}}[[Image:Canadian Military in Somalia 1992.jpg|thumb|[[Canadian Forces|Canadian Military]] in Somalia, 1992|right]]
[[Image:Black Hawk Down Super64 over Mogadishu coast.jpg|thumb|[[United States Army|US Army]] helicopter shortly before [[Battle of Mogadishu]], 1993|right]]
'''Somalia''' ([[Somali language|Somali]]: ''Soomaaliya''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الصومال, ''As-Suumaal''), formerly known as the '''Somali Democratic Republic''', is a coastal nation at the [[Horn of Africa]] in [[East Africa]]. Continentally, it is entirely surrounded by [[Ethiopia]] to the west, [[Djibouti]] on the north and mid-west, by [[Kenya]] on its south-west, and by the [[Gulf of Aden]] on its north, and the [[Indian Ocean]] at its eastern border. The Somalian [[state]] currently exists solely in a ''[[de jure]]'' capacity; Somalia has no recognized central government authority nor any other feature associated with an established independent state. [[De facto]] authority resides in the hands of the governments for the unrecognized entities of [[Somaliland]], [[Puntland]], the [[Supreme Islamic Courts Council]] and the weak, but [[United Nations]]-recognized, Interim transitional government in [[Baidoa]] about 250 kilometers north-west of the capital Mogadishu. Violence has plagued Somalia since warlords ousted former dictator [[Siad Barre|Mohamed Siad Barre]] in [[1991]].<ref name=reuter090906>[http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=reutersEdge&storyID=2006-09-09T061747Z_01_L09446351_RTRUKOC_0_US-SOMALIA.xml Somali Islamists to ask AU to end peace force plan], Reuters, September 9, 2006</ref>

==History==
{{Main article|History of Somalia}}

The independence of the [[British Somaliland Protectorate]] from the [[United Kingdom]] was proclaimed on June 26, 1960. On July 1, 1960, unification of the [[British Empire|British]] and ex-[[Italian Somaliland]] took place. The government was formed by Abdullahi Issa. [[Aden Abdullah Osman Daar]] was appointed as [[President of Somalia|President]] and [[Abdirashid Ali Shermarke]] as [[Prime Minister of Somalia|Prime Minister]]. Later, in [[1967]], Mohammed [[Ibrahim Egal]] became Prime Minister in the government appointed by Abdirishid Ali Shermarke. Egal was later chosen as President of the self-declared independent [[Somaliland]]. He died in a hospital in [[Pretoria]] on May 3, 2002.

In late 1969, a [[military government]] assumed power following the assassination of Shermarke, who had been chosen, and served as, President from 1967–1969. [[Siad Barre|Mohamed Siad Barre]], a [[General]] in the armed forces, became the President in 1969 following a [[coup d'état]]. The revolutionary army leaders, headed by Siad Barre, established large-scale public works programmes. They also successfully implemented an urban and rural [[literacy]] campaign, in which they helped to dramatically increase the literacy rate from a mere 5% to 55% by the mid-[[1980s]].

In the meantime, Barre assassinated a major figure in his cabinet, Major General Gabiere, and two other officials. Intermittent [[civil war]] has been a fact of life in Somalia since 1977. In 1991, first insurgent forces led by [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]], leader of the (SSDF), and President Ali Mahdi Mohamed officially was unrecognised head of the government. The same year, the northern portion of the country declared its independence as [[Somaliland]]; although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government.

Following the failure of [[Operation Restore Hope]] and beginning in 1993, a two-year [[United nations|UN]] effort (primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions. The UN contingent included some US troops, 18 of whom were killed in fighting after a helicopter was shot down in Mogadishu (as shown in the film "[[Black Hawk Down]]").

The UN withdrew in [[Operation United Shield]] by March 3, 1995, having suffered significant casualties, and the rule of government has not yet been restored.

Yet another [[secession]] from Somalia took place in the northeastern region. The self-proclaimed state took the name [[Puntland]] after declaring "temporary" independence in [[1998]], with the intention that it would participate in any Somali reconciliation to form a new central government.

A third secession occurred in July 2006 with the declaration of the state of [[Jubaland]]. The territory of Jubaland is now declared its Regional Autonomy by its people. Col. Barre Aden Shire Hiiraale, chairman of the Administration of Jubba Valley Alliance [[Dooxada Jubba]]is the most powerful leader there.

A fourth self-proclaimed entity led by the [[Rahanweyn Resistance Army]] (RRA) was set up in 1999. This "temporary" secession was reasserted in 2002, leading to de facto autonomy of Southwestern Somalia. The RRA had originally set up an autonomous administration over the [[Bay, Somalia|Bay]] and [[Bakool]] regions of south and central Somalia in 1999.

Somalia was one of the many countries affected by the [[tsunami]] which struck the [[Indian Ocean]] coast following the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]], destroying entire villages and killing an estimated 300 people.

The [[2nd Battle of Mogadishu]] started in May 2006. The battle is being fought between the [[Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism]] or "ARPCT" and militia loyal to [[Islamic Courts Union]] or "ICU". The conflict began in mid-February. As of June 5th, at least 350 people, mostly civilians, have died caught in the crossfire. Mogadishu residents described it as the worst fighting in more than a decade of lawlessness. The Islamists blame the [[United States|U.S.]] for funding warlords in an attempt to prevent them gaining power in the lawless country through its [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. The U.S. government and the CIA have neither admitted nor denied these allegations. A few emails describing covert illegal operations by private military companies in breach of UN regulations have been reported <ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/world/story/0,,1868920,00.html US accused of covert operations in Somalia] The Observer, September 10, 2006 </ref> by the UK sunday newspaper [[The Observer]].

The Somali transitional government president [[Abdullahi Yusuf]] told the BBC the alliance of warlords is not fighting on behalf of the government.

On June 5, 2006 it was reported that the Islamic Militia had taken control of Mogadishu, and Prime Minister [[Ali Mohammed Ghedi]] was seeking to open a dialog with them. Four powerful warlords who had been serving as ministers had been sacked.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/5047766.stm Islamists claim Mogadishu victory''], BBC, June 5, 2006</ref> On 14 June 2006 the last ARPCT stronghold in the south, the town of [[Jowhar]], fell with little resistance to the ICU. Reports had the remaining ARPCT forces fleeing to the east. As of this date the alliance appears near collapse with three warlords having withdrawn . The transitional government has approved the intervention of foreign peacekeepers.

Somali Islamist leaders expect to lobby [[African Union]] (AU) member states at an AU ceremony in [[Libya]] on [[September 9]] [[2006]] to abandon a plan to send peacekeepers to Somalia, one of the leaders said. The Islamists are fiercely opposed to foreign troops -- and particularly [[Ethiopia|Ethiopians]] -- in Somalia.<ref>[http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=reutersEdge&storyID=2006-09-09T061747Z_01_L09446351_RTRUKOC_0_US-SOMALIA.xml Somali Islamists to ask AU to end peace force plan], Reuters, September 9, 2006</ref>

Islamists seized the Somalia port in the town of Kismayo; the last remaining port held by the government on [[September 25]] [[2006]]. <ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/africa/09/25/somalia.ap/index.html Islamists seize Somalia port''], CNN, September 25, 2006</ref>

==Politics==
[[Image:Somalia_Sep30-2006.gif|left|300px]]

{{morepolitics|country=Somalia}}
Somalia has had no effective national government since 1991, though there is an internationally recognized government in Baidoa. This government, called the ''Transitional National Government'', controls only Baidoa, and is not domestically recognized by most Somalis to be legitimate. In the northwest, there is the breakaway republic of [[Somaliland]], which declared its independence in 1991. [[Puntland]] in the northeast declared itself autonamous in 1998 and has not joined the Transitional Government, though the former president of Puntland is now the president of the Baidoa government and Puntland has stated its desire to join a future theoretical federated state. In the southeastern interior, [[Jubaland]] and [[Southwestern Somalia]] have both joined the Baidoa government, and its leaders are part of the Baidoa parliament. The other half of the country, with the bulk of the population, is controlled by the [[Supreme Islamic Courts Council]], which controls the critically important cities of Mogadishu and, since September 24th, Kismayo.

On October 14, 2004 Somali [[members of parliament]] elected warlord [[Abdullahi Yusuf]], previously president of Puntland, to be the next president. Because of the situation in Mogadishu, the election was held in a sports centre in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]. Yusuf was elected transitional President by [[Transitional Federal Parliament|Somalia's transitional parliament]]. He won 189 of the 275 votes from members of parliament. The session of Parliament was also held in neighbouring Kenya. His government is recognized by most western nations as legitimate, although his actual authority is questionable.

Many other small political organizations exist, some clan-based, others seeking a Somalia free from clan-based politics (such as the [[United-SF|United Somali Front]]). Many of them have come into existence since the new president was chosen.

As of late [[2006]], however, the ''Transitional National Government'' remains in control of only a relatively small portion of the country - by some accounts its control barely extends beyond the limits of its capital city of [[Baidoa]]. In addition, the political situation remains unstable; for example, on [[September 18]], [[2006]] Abdullah Yusuf barely survived a suicide attack on his convoy in Baidoa, although twelve other people were killed. <ref>
{{cite news
| last =Gettleman
| first =Jeffrey
| title =Somali President Survives Suicide Bomb; 8 Others Are Killed
| publisher =[[The New York Times]]
| date =2006-09-18
| url =http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/19/world/africa/19somalia.html?ex=1316318400&en=71813932881e45e7&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
| accessdate =2006-09-19 }}</ref>

''See also [[List of notable Somali leaders]].''

 

==Geography==
[[Image:Somalia&land_map.png|thumb|Map of Somalia including the self-proclaimed boundary of Somaliland]]
{{MapLibrary|Somalia sat.png|Somalia}}
{{main|Geography of Somalia}}

Somalia is located on the east coast of Africa on and north of the Equator between the [[Gulf of Aden]] on the north and [[Indian Ocean]] on the east. Together with Ethiopia and Djibouti it is often referred to as the [[Horn of Africa]]. It borders [[Djibouti]] on the northwest, [[Ethiopia]] on the west, and [[Kenya]] on southwest. Somalia comprises Italy's former [[Italian Somaliland|Trust Territory of Somalia]] and the former [[British Somaliland|British Protectorate of Somaliland]] (now seeking recognition as an independent state). The coastline extends 3,025 kilometres (1,880 [[mile|mi]]) -- the longest coastline in Africa.

At 246,184 [[square miles|mi²]] (637,657 [[square kilometre|km²]]), Somalia is the world's 42nd-largest country (after [[Afghanistan]]). It is comparable in size to the [[Central African Republic]], and is somewhat smaller than the US state of [[Texas]].

The northern part of the country is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 metres (3,000 ft.-7,000 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level. The central and southern areas are flat, with an average altitude of less than 180 metres (600 ft). The [[Juba River|Juba]] and the [[Shabele River|Shebelle]] Rivers rise in Ethiopia and flow south across the country towards the Indian Ocean. The Shebelle, however, does not reach the sea except during seasons of high rain.

Major climatic factors are a year-round hot climate, seasonal monsoon winds, and irregular rainfall with recurring droughts. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 30°C to 40°C (85°F-105°F), except at higher elevations and along the east coast. Mean daily minimums usually vary from about 15°C to 30°C (60°F-85°F). The southwest monsoon, a sea breeze, makes the period from about May to October the mildest season at Mogadishu. The December-February period of the northeast monsoon is also relatively mild, although prevailing climatic conditions in Mogadishu are rarely pleasant. The "tangambili" periods that intervene between the two monsoons (October-November and March-May) are hot and humid.

==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Somalia pol02.jpg|thumb|250px|This 2002 [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] map shows the [[Regions of Somalia]].]]
''Main articles: [[Regions of Somalia]], [[Districts of Somalia]]''

Somalia is divided into 18 [[region]]s (sing. ''[[gobolka]]'', pl. ''gobollada''), and subdivided into [[district]]s.

The [[Regions of Somalia|regions]] are:
<table><td><ol>
<li>[[Awdal]]
<li>[[Bakool]]
<li>[[Banaadir]]
<li>[[Bari, Somalia|Bari]]
<li>[[Bay, Somalia|Bay]]
<li>[[Galguduud]]
<li>[[Gedo]]
<li>[[Hiiraan]]
<li>[[Jubbada Dhexe]]
</td></ol><td><ol start=10>
<li>[[Jubbada Hoose]]
<li>[[Mudug]]
<li>[[Nugaal]]
<li>[[Sanaag]]
<li>[[Shabeellaha Dhexe]]
<li>[[Shabeellaha Hoose]]
<li>[[Sool]]
<li>[[Togdheer]]
<li>[[Woqooyi Galbeed]]
</td></ol></table>

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Somalia}}
[[Image:Somali cattle.JPG|300px|right|thumb|A Somali rancher herds cattle in Kismayo. Livestock accounts for about 40% of Somalia's GDP]]
Since the collapse of the state, Somalia has transformed from what Mohamed Siad Barre referred to as "scientific socialism" to a [[free market economy]]. It has long been one of the world's poorest and least developed countries and has relatively few natural resources. Somalia's poverty was even further aggravated by the hostilities of the civil war started in 1991. Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock accounting for about 40% of GDP and about 65% of export earnings. Nomads and semi-nomads, who are dependent upon livestock for their livelihood, make up a large portion of the population. After livestock, [[banana]]s are the principal export; [[sugar]], [[sorghum]], [[maize]], and [[fish]] are products for the domestic market. The small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of GDP. Somalia continues to have one of the highest [[child mortality]] rates in the world, with 10% of children dying at birth and 25% of those surviving birth dying before age five. The international aid group, [[Medecins Sans Frontieres]] (Doctors Without Borders) has further stated that the level of daily violence due to the lack of government is "catastrophic." According to a report in the APC-EC Courier, published in 1997 by the [[Commission of the European Communities]] in Brussels, "The outside world’s picture of Somalia has been distorted by the natural tendency of the foreign media to focus on bad news” and that "[p]eace reigns in most of the country " and "as a result regional and local governments have been able to resume working in many areas." The article quotes former Somalia ambassador to Washington, Omar Mohalim Mohamoud as "Somalis consider themselves born free. To them, the State equals registration, regulation and restriction" and attributes this prejudice against a new central government to the nomadic culture and the bad experiences of the Barre regime. The article concludes by stating that "Somalia can only deal with its massive material and social problems once the pieces of the jigsaw have been fitted back together."<ref>Horner, Simon. ''Somalia: Can The Jigsaw be Pieced Together'', Africa, Caribbean, Pacific Courier, Commission of the European Communities in Brussels, No. 162, pp. 46 - 66.</ref>

There are signs of growth in Somalia. The [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/so.html#Econ CIA Factbook] says:
"Despite the seeming anarchy, Somalia's service sector has managed to survive and grow. Mogadishu's main market offers a variety of goods from food to the newest electronic gadgets. Hotels continue to operate, and militias provide security." Infrastructure, such as roads are as numerous as those in neighboring countries but of much lower quality. A [[World Bank]] report states that the private sector has found it too hard to build roads due to high transaction costs and the fact that those who pay road fees are not the only ones using the road (see [[free rider problem]]), presenting a problem with recuperation of investment. The thriving telecommunications industry is private, offering wireless service and [[internet café]]s. Competing phone companies have agreed on interconnection standards, which were brokered by the [[United Nations]] funded [[Somali Telecom Association]]. [[Electricity]] is furnished by entrepreneurs, who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors. In 1989, before the collapse of the government, the national airline had only one airplane. Now there are approximately 15 airlines, over 60 aircraft, 6 international destinations, and more domestic routes. According to a World Bank report, the "private airline business in Somalia is now thriving with more than five carriers and price wars between the companies." The owner of Daallo Airlines says, "Sometimes it's difficult without a government and sometimes it's a plus," but "Corruption is not a problem, because there is no government."<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/SOMALIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20398872~menuPK:367671~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:367665,00.html ''Africa Open for Business''], World Bank, March 18, 2005</ref>

The private sector also supplies water. However, a statistic from 2000 indicated that only 21% of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time. With the collapse of the central government, the education system is now private. A World Bank study reports "modest gains in education." As last measured in 2001, primary school enrollment, which stood at 17%, was nearly at pre-war levels, and secondary school enrollment had been increasing since 1998. However, "adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of 24% in 1989 to 17.1% in 2001." [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf] A more recent 2003 study reported that the literacy rate had risen to 19%. [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf] In comparison, literacy is at 49% in wealthier West Africa and 35% among its neighbours. Higher education ended completely in the civil war of 1991, but [[Mogadishu University]] reopened in 1998 and its first class graduated in 2001. Other universities have opened in other cities. In addition to customer fees, much of the funding for the education system comes from international Islamic charities such as [[Al-Islah]].[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35382.htm]

[[Image:MogadishuCoke.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Some signs of investment. The [[Coca-Cola]] bottling plant opened a new coke company in Mogadishu in 2003.]]
The main problem affecting economic growth is the lack of stability, or the perception of it. For businesses to operate, it is necessary to provide some level of security and internationally recognized governments are widely perceived as being more reliable in this than the traditional tribal leadership that currently holds sway in Somalia. However, investors are feeling more comfortable lately; for example, a [[Coca-Cola]] bottling plant opened in Mogadishu in 2004.<ref>BBC News, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3865595.stm ''Coca-Cola Makes Somalia Return''] by Grant Ferrett</ref>
Remittance services has become a large industry in Somalia. Successful people from the world-wide [[diaspora]] who fled because of the war contribute to the economy around $2 billion annually. In the absence of a formal banking sector, money exchange services have sprouted throughout the country, handling between $500 million and $1 billion in remittances annually. Wireless communications has also become a giant economic force in Somalia. Because of the war, nobody really knows the size of the economy or how much it is growing.

References:
*[http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope without Government?]

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Somalia}}

[[Image:Somalia pop 2002.jpg|thumb|350px|This 2002 [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] map shows population density throughout Somalia.]]

Somalia has a population of around 8,591,000. However, estimates are very difficult because of the political situation and the mostly nomadic nature of the Somalis. The last census was in [[1975]]. Most outside analysts use this estimate but Somalia is one of the fastest growing countries in Africa and the world. Some estimates range between 15 and 25 million{{citation needed}}.

Today, about 60% of all Somalis are [[nomadic]] or semi-nomadic pastoralists who raise [[cattle]], [[camel]]s, [[sheep]], and [[goat]]s. About 25% of the population are settled farmers who live mainly in the fertile agricultural region between the [[Juba River|Juba]] and [[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] rivers in southern Somalia. The remainder of the population (15%-20%) is urban.

Because of the war, Somalia has a large [[diaspora]] community, one of the largest of the whole continent. There are over a million Somalis (including the minorities) outside Africa.

By far the largest ethnic group within Somalia is the [[Somali people]]. The [[Somali clan]] structure is extremely important to their identity and way of life.

Other ethnic groups in the country include:
*[[Bajuni people]] who live in the coastal settlements and [[Bajuni Islands|islands]] south of [[Kismayu|Kismayo]] and are of East African Swahili origin
*[[Bravanese]] who live in [[Barawa|Brawa]] and are believed to be of mixed [[Arab]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and other descent
*[[Benadiri]] (Reer Hamar), an urban people of East African Swahili origin who live in cities in the [[Benadir]] coastal region
*[[Bantu]] agricultural workers who live along the [[Juba River]]
*several thousand [[Arab]]s
*some hundreds of [[India]]ns and [[Pakistan]]is

A population of [[Italian people|Italian descent]], which dated back to Somalia's colonial era, began to emigrate following independence and by the outbreak of war most Italian Somalis had left the country.

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Somalia}}

Nearly all inhabitants speak [[Somali language|Somali]], the official language. This standard was based on dialects from the Mudug province. The Bajuni people speak Kibajuni and the [[Bravanese]] speak Chimwiini. Both of these are dialects of [[Swahili language|Swahili]]. Maay, a language closely related to Somali is spoken by the [[Rahanweyn]].

The Somali language was not used extensively for writing until [[1973]], when a standard orthography using the [[Latin alphabet]] was decreed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC). Somali is now the language of instruction in schools, although these are few.

[[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[English language|English]], and [[Italian language|Italian]] are also used extensively.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Somalia]]''
*[[Islam in Somalia]]
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Somalia|List of writers from Somalia]]
*[[Music of Somalia]]

==Telecommunications==
[[Image:SomaliaInternet.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An internet service provider in Mogadishu]]
Somalia's public telecommunications system was almost completely destroyed or dismantled; however, private wireless companies exist in most major cities and actually provide better services than in neighbouring countries, despite (or perhaps due to) Somalia's lack of government. Somalia has the cheapest cellular calling rates in Africa, with some companies charging less than a cent a minute. ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm ''Telecoms thriving in lawless Somalia''])
Companies providing telecommunication services are:
*[[Golis Telecom]]
*[[SOMTEL]]
*[[Galkom]]
*[[Global Internet Company]]
*[[Hormuud]]
*[[Telcom]]
*[[Nationlink]]
*[[Netco]]
*STG
*[[Dahabshiil]]

==References==

<div style="font-size: 90%">
<references/>
</div>

==See also==
*[[Battle of Mogadishu]]
*[[Second Battle of Mogadishu]]
*[[Building block theory]]
*[[Communications in Somalia]]
*[[Foreign relations of Somalia]]
*[[List of notable Somali leaders]]
*[[List of Somali companies]]
*[[List of Somalia-related topics]]
*[[Military of Somalia]]
*[[Scouting in Somalia]]
*[[Transportation in Somalia]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Somalia}}{{wiktionary}}
===Government===
*[http://www.somali-gov.info Official Website of the Federal Government of Somalia]

===News===
*[http://somalism.com/news.Gnews.somalia.html Somalia: Counter-terrorism Alliance militiamen surrendered to Islamic courts.]
*[http://www.shabellenews.com/news/ne1022.htm Malaria Kills dozens in Somalia Gedo region]
*[http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/africa/05/19/somalia.hyenas.reut/index.html Hyenas killing people in Somaliland]
*[http://allafrica.com/somalia/ AllAfrica.com - ''Somalia''] news headline links
*[http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/41/ International Freedom of Expression eXchange: Somalia]

===General information===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072592.stm BBC News Country Profile - Somalia]
*[http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2004/somalia/default.stm BBC News In Depth - Somalia: Emerging from Ruins?]
*[http://politicalworld.wordpress.com/2006/09/13/somalia-no-government-no-peace/ Somalia: No Government, No Peace]
*[http://english.pravda.ru/usa/2002/02/28/26693.html The case of the unwanted US Somalis - Somalia]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Somalia Open Directory Project - Somalia] directory category
*[http://www.somplanet.com Somali Planet Networks]
*[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-71-723/conflict_war/somalia/ CBC Digital Archives - The Somalia Affair]
*[http://www.hornafrik.com/ HornAfrik] Widely-listened-to private FM radio station in Mogadishu
*[http://www.somaliaonline.com/ News and Discussions] News and Discussions
{{Africa}}
{{Arab League}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:Divided regions]]
[[Category:East Africa]]
[[Category:Somalia| ]]

[[af:Somalië]]
[[am:ሶማሊያ]]
[[ar:الصومال]]
[[an:Somalia]]
[[id:Somalia]]
[[ms:Somalia]]
[[bn:সোমালিয়া]]
[[zh-min-nan:Somalia]]
[[bs:Somalija]]
[[bg:Сомалия]]
[[ca:Somàlia]]
[[cs:Somálsko]]
[[da:Somalia]]
[[de:Somalia]]
[[et:Somaalia]]
[[el:Σομαλία]]
[[es:Somalia]]
[[eo:Somalio]]
[[eu:Somalia]]
[[fa:سومالی]]
[[fr:Somalie]]
[[gd:Somalia]]
[[gl:Somalia - Soomaaliya]]
[[ko:소말리아]]
[[hi:सोमालिया]]
[[hr:Somalija]]
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[[ilo:Somalia]]
[[is:Sómalía]]
[[it:Somalia]]
[[he:סומליה]]
[[ka:სომალი]]
[[kw:Somali]]
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[[ku:Somaliya]]
[[la:Somalia]]
[[lv:Somālija]]
[[lt:Somalis]]
[[hu:Szomália]]
[[mk:Сомалија]]
[[nl:Somalië]]
[[ja:ソマリア]]
[[no:Somalia]]
[[nn:Somalia]]
[[oc:Somalia]]
[[ug:سومالى]]
[[pam:Somalia]]
[[nds:Somalia]]
[[pl:Somalia]]
[[pt:Somália]]
[[ro:Somalia]]
[[rm:Somalia]]
[[ru:Сомали]]
[[sa:सोमालिया]]
[[sq:Somalia]]
[[simple:Somalia]]
[[sk:Somálsko]]
[[sl:Somalija]]
[[so:Soomaaliya]]
[[sr:Сомалија]]
[[sh:Somalija]]
[[fi:Somalia]]
[[sv:Somalia]]
[[tl:Somalia]]
[[th:ประเทศโซมาเลีย]]
[[vi:Somalia]]
[[tg:Сумолӣ]]
[[tr:Somali]]
[[uk:Сомалі]]
[[zh:索马里]]

Saint-Dié-des-Vosges

2006-10-04T01:31:57Z

MelancholieBot: robot Modifying: sr:Сен Дије де Вогез

[[Image:Blason Saint-Dié-des-Vosges.png|80 px|left]]
{{French commune|
nomcommune=Saint-Dié-des-Vosges [[Image:StDie88Catherale.jpg|300px]] Cathedral of Saint-Dié-des-Vosges|
région=[[Lorraine (région)|Lorraine]] |
département=[[Vosges]]|
arrondissement=Saint-Dié-des-Vosges|
canton=Chief town of 2 cantons |
insee=88413 |
cp=88100 |
maire=[[Christian Pierret]]|
mandat= |
intercomm= |
longitude=06° 57' 00" E|
latitude=48° 17' 06" N|
alt moy=343 m |
alt mini=310 m|
alt maxi=901 m|
hectares=4,615|
km²=46.15|
sans=22 569|
date-sans=1999|
dens=489 |
date-dens=1999}}
'''Saint-Dié-des-Vosges''', commonly referred to as '''Saint-Dié''', is a [[commune in France|commune]] of northeastern [[France]].

It is located in the [[Vosges]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', of which it is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]''.

==Geography==
Saint-Dié is located 38 m. northeast of [[Épinal]] by rail. It is situated on the [[Meurthe River|Meurthe]] river in a basin surrounded by well-wooded hills.

==Features==
The town, part of which was laid out in a uniform style after the fire of [[1757]], is built largely of red [[sandstone]]. Its [[cathedral]] has a Romanesque [[nave]] (12th century) and a Gothic choir; the portal of red stone dates from the 18th century. A fine cloister (13th century), containing a stone pulpit, communicates with the Petite-Eglise or Notre-Dame, a well-preserved specimen of Romanesque architecture (12th century).

The hôtel-de-ville contains a theatre, a library with some valuable manuscripts, and a museum of antiquities. There is a monument by Merci to [[Jules Ferry]], born in the town in 1832.

==Economy==
The town benefited from the immigration of [[Alsace|Alsatians]] after the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of [[1870]]-[[1871]], and its industries include the spinning and weaving of cotton, bleaching, wire-drawing, metal-founding, and the manufacture of hosiery, woodwork of various kinds, machinery, iron goods and wire-gauze.

==History==
St Die ([[Deodatum]], [[Theodata]], S. Deodati Fanum) is named after a saint who grew up around a [[monastery]] later bearing his name founded in the [[7th century]] by [[Saint Deodatus]] of [[Nevers]], and gave up his episcopal functions to retire to this place. In the [[10th century]] the community became a chapter of canons; among those who subsequently held the rank of [[provost]] or [[dean (religion)|dean]] were [[Giovanni de Medici]], afterwards [[Pope Leo X]], and several princes of the [[Duke of Lorraine|ducal House of Lorraine]]. Among the extensive privileges enjoyed by them was that of coining money.

Though they co-operated in building the [[town wall]]s, the canons and the dukes of Lorraine soon became rivals for the authority over St Die. Towards the end of the [[15th century]] one of the earliest [[printing press]]es of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] was founded at St Die. The institution of a town council in [[1628]], and the establishment in [[1777]] of a [[bishopric]] which appropriated part of their spiritual jurisdiction, contributed greatly to diminish the influence of the canons; and with the [[French Revolution]] they were completely swept away.

During the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries the town was repeatedly sacked. It was also partially destroyed by fire in [[1065]], [[1155]], [[1554]] and [[1757]]. Funds for the rebuilding of the portion of the town destroyed by the last fire were supplied by [[Stanislaus I of Poland|Stanislas]], last duke of Lorraine.

==Ecclesiastcial history==
The Saint-Dié diocese was erected in the [[1777]], but suppressed in 1801 by the Holy See in accordance with the Napoleonic [[Concordat]] of 1802, and later restored nominally by the Concordat of 1817, and in fact by a papal Bull of 6 October, 1822, and a royal ordinance of 13 January, 1823, as a suffragan of Besançon. According to a principle sanctioned by that Concordat, the diocesan boundaries were realigned, however, to follow those of the civil department of the [[Vosges]], which since [[1801]] had formed part of the [[diocese of Nancy]]. The diocese established in the area by the [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] in [[1790]] had indeed been of Vosges, which was sometimes referred to at that period as the diocese of Saint-Dié, after its episcopal seat.
The Franco-German [[Treaty of Frankfort]] (1871) cut eighteen communes from the Department of the Vosges, and added them to the [[Diocese of Strasburg]].

The Diocese of St-Dié originated in the celebrated abbey of that name. St. Deodatus (Dié) (b. towards the close of the sixth century; d. 679) came from Le Nivernais, or, according to some authorities, from Ireland; attracted by the reputation of St. Columbanus he withdrew to the Vosges, sojourning at Romont, and Arentelle, and made the acquaintance of Sts Arbogast and Florentius. For some time he was a solitary at Wibra, doubtless the present Katzenthal on Alsace, but being persecuted by the inhabitants, he went to the Vosges and founded a monastery, which he named Galilée on lands (called "Juncturae") given to him by Childeric II. The town of St-Dié now stands on this site. At the same time, Leudin Bodo, Bishop of Toul, founded to the north of Galilée the monastery of Bonmoutier and to the south that of Etival; Saint Gondelbert, perhaps after resigning the Archbishopric of Sens, had just founded the monastery of Senones to the east. These four monasteries formed, by their geographical position the four extremities of a cross : Later, [[Saint Hidulphus]], [[Bishop of Treves]] (d 707), erected between them at the intersection. of the two arms of the cross, the monastery of Moyenmoutier. Villigod and Martin (disciples of St-Dié), Abbot Spinulus (Spin), John the priest, and the deacon Benignus (disciples of St. Hidulphus) are honoured as saints. in the tenth cent of the Abbey of St-Dié grew lax, a Frederick I, Duke of Lorraine, expelled the Benedictines, replacing them by the Canons Regular of St Augustine. Gregory V, in 996, agreed to the change and decided that the grand preévôt, the principal dignitary of the abbey should depend directly upon the Holy See.

During the sixteenth century, profiting by the long vacancy of the see of Toul, the abbots of the several monasteries in the Vosges, without actually declaring themselves independent of the diocese of Toul, claimed to exercise a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction as to the origin of which, however, they were not agreed; in the eighteenth century they pretended to be [[nullius dioceseos]]. In 1718, Thiard de Bissy, [[Bishop of Toul]], requested the election of a see at St-Dié; [[Leopold Duke of Lorraine]], was in favour of this step, but the King of France opposed it; the Holy See refrained for the time from action. In 1777 a [[Papal Bull]] of [[Pius VI]] erected the abbey of St-Dié into an episcopal see, and cut off from the [[Diocese of Toul]] the new Diocese of St-Dié, which, until the end of the old régime, was a suffragan of Trier. Louis Caverot, who died as Cardinal Archbishop of Lyons, was Bishop of St-Dié from 1849 to 1876.

The Abbey of Remiremont was founded about 620 by Saint Romaric, a lord at the court of [[Clotaire II]], who, having been converted by Saint Amé, a monk of [[Luxeuil]], took the habit at Luxeuil; it comprised a monastery of monks, among whose abbots were Saint Amé (570-625), Saint Romaric (580-653) and Saint Adelphus (d. 670), and a monastery of nuns, which numbered among its abbesses Saints Mactefelda (d. about 622), Claire (d. about 652) and Gébétrude (d. about 673). At a later period the Benedictine nuns were replaced by a chapter of ninety-eight canonesses who had to prove 200 years of nobility, and whose last abbess, under the old régime, was the Princess de Bourbon Condé, sister of the [[Duke of Enghien]]; she was prioress of the Monastery of the Temple at her death.

Besides the saints mentioned above and some others, bishops of Nancy and Toul, the, following are honoured in a special manner in the Diocese of St-Dié; [[Saint Sigisbert]], Merovingian King of [[Austrasia]] (630-56); St. Germain, a hermit near Remiremont, a martyr, who died [[Abbot of Grandval]], near Basle (618-70); [[St. Hunna]], a penitent at St-Dié (d. about 672); [[St. Dagobert]], another King of Austrasia, slain by his servant Grimoald (679) and honored as a martyr; St. Modesta, a nun at [[Remiremont]], afterwards foundress and abbess of the monastery of Horren at [[Trier]] (seventh century); [[St. Goéry]], Bishop of Metz (d. about 642), whose relics are preserved at Epinal and who is the patron of the butchers of the town; St. Simeon, Bishop of Metz (eighth century), whose relics are preserved at Senones; Saint. William and Achery, hermits near Ste. Marie aux Mines (ninth wife of Charles the Fat, who died as Abbess of Andlau in Alsace; Blessed Joan of Arc, b. at Domremy in the diocese; Venerable Mére Alix le Clerc (b. at Remiremont, 1576; d. 1622) and St. Peter Fourier (b. at Mericourt, 1565; d. 1640), curé of Mattaincourt, who founded the Order of Notre-Dame. Elizabeth de Ranfaing (born at Remiremont, 1592; died 1649) founded in the [[Diocese of Toul]] the [[congregation of Our Lady of Refuge]]; Catherine de Bar (b. at St-Dié, 1614; d. 1698), known as Mére Mechtilde of the Blessed Sacrament, at first an [[Annunciade]] nun and then a Benedictine, founded at Paris, in 1654, the [[Order of the Benedictines of the Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament]]. Elizabeth Brem (1609-68, known as Mother Benedict of the Passion), a [[Benedictine]] nun at [[Rambervillers]], established in that monastery the [[Institute of the Perpetual Adoration]]. The remains of Brother [[Joseph Formet]] (1724-84, known as the hermit of [[Ventron]]), are the object of a pilgrimage. Venerable [[Jean Martin Moye]] (1730-93), founder in Lorraine of the [[Congrégation de la Providence]] for the instruction of young girls and apostle of [[Su-Tchuen]], was director for a brief period of the seminary of St-Dié, and established at [[Essegney]], in the diocese, one of the first novitiates of the [[Soeurs de la Providence]] (hospitallers and teachers), whose mother-house at [[Portieux]] ruled over a large number of houses before the Law of 1901. Grandclaude, a village teacher who was sent to the Roman College in 1857 by Bishop Caverot, contributed, when a professor in the grand seminaire of St-Dié, to the revival of canon law studies in France.

The principal pilgrimages of the diocese are: Notre-Dame de St-Dié, at St-Dié, at the place where St. Dié erected his first sanctuary; Notre-Dame du Trésor, at Remiremont; Notre-Dame de Consolation, at [[Epinal]]; Notre-Dame de la Brosse, at Bains; Notre-Dame de Bermont, near [[Domrémy]], the sanctuary at which [[Joan of Arc]] prayed; and the tomb of [[St. Peter Fourrier]] at [[Mattaincourt]].

There were in the diocese before the application of the Law of 1901 against the congregations: Augustianian [[Canons of Lateran]]; [[Clerks Regular of Our Saviour]]; [[Eudistes]]; [[Franciscans]], [[Fathers of the Holy Ghost and the Holy Heart of Mary]] and various teaching orders of brothers. Among the congregations of nuns founded in the diocese may be mentioned besides the [[Sisters of Providence]], the [[Soeurs du Pauvre Enfant Jésus]] (also known as the [[Soeurs de la bienfaisance chrétienne]]), teachers and hospitallers, founded in 1854 at [[Chemoy l'Orgueilleux]]; the mother-house was transferred to Remiremont.

At the close of the nineteenth century the religious congregations in the diocese directed 7 créchés, 55 day nurseries, 1 orphanage for boys and girls; 19 girls' orphanages, 13 workshops, 1 house of refuge; 4 houses for the assistance of the poor, 36 hospitals or hospices, 11 houses of nuns devoted to the care of the sick in their own homes and 1 insane asylum. The diocese of St-Dié had in 1905 (at the time of the rupture of the Concordat), 421,104 inhabitants in 32 parishes, 354 succursal parishes and 49 vicariates supported by the State.

==Cosmography==
Vautrin Lud, Canon of St-Dié and chaplain and secretary of René II, Duke of Lorraine, set up a printing-establishment at St-Dié in which two Alsatian geographers, [[Martin Waldseemüller]] and Mathias Ringmann, began at once to produce an edition of a Latin translation of Ptolemy's "Geography". In 1507 René II received from Lisbon the abridged account in French of the four voyages of [[Amerigo Vespucci]]. Lud had this translated into Latin by Basin de Sandaucourt. The printing of the translation dedicated to [[Emperor Maximilian]] was completed at St-Dié on 24 April, 1507; it was prefaced by a short explanatory booklet, entitled ''[[Cosmographiae Introductio]]'', certainly the work of Waldseemüler, an introduction to [[cosmography]] that can be seen as the baptismal certificate of the New Continent. Indeed Waldseemüller and the scholars of the [[Vosgean Gymnasium]] then made a capital decision writing : "...And since Europe and Asia received names of women, I do not see any reason not to call this latest discovery Amerige, or America, according to the sagacious man who discovered it".

A second edition appeared at St-Dié in August 1507, a third at Strasburg in 1509, and thus the name a of America was spread about. Thus Saint-Dié-des-Vosges is honored today with the title of "godmother of America", the city that named America. The work was re-edited with an English version by Charles Herbermann (New York, 1907). M Gallois proved that in 1507 Waldseemüller inserted this name in two maps, but that in 1513, in other maps Waldseemüller, being better informed, inserted the name of Columbus as the discoverer of America. But it was too late; the name of America had been already firmly established.

In [[1507]], Martin Waldseemüller produced in St Dié also a world globe bearing the first use of the name "America".

==Born in Saint-Dié-des-Vosges==
[[Image:JacquesAugustinSelfportrait1796.jpg|thumb|100 px|Jacques Augustin (Self-portrait)]]
* [[Vautrin Lud]] (1448-1527), canon and creator of the [[Vosgean Gymnasium]]
* [[Jacques Augustin]] (1759-1832), miniaturist painter
* [[Jules Ferry]] (1832-1893), lawyer and politician
* [[Ferdinand Brunot]] (1860-1938), academic (linguistics)
* [[Fernand Baldensperger]] (1871-1958), academic (literature)
* [[Yvan Goll]] (1891-1950), poet and novelist
* [[Jacques Brenner]] (1922-2001), writer and critic

==Higher education==
[[Image:IUTSaintDie.JPG|thumbnail|250 px|Institut universitaire de technologie]]
University Institute of Technology : IUT (Institut universitaire de technologie)
*[[Robotics]]
*[[Electronics]]
*[[Computing]]
*[[Internet]]
*[[Graphic design]]
*[[Communication]]

==Twin cities==
* [[Arlon]] ([[Belgium]])
* [[Cattolica]] ([[Italy]])
* [[Crikvenica]] ([[Croatia]])
* [[Friedrichshafen]] ([[Germany]])
* [[Lowell]] ([[United States of America|United States]])
* [[Meckhe]] ([[Senegal]])
* [[Lorraine, Quebec|Ville de Lorraine]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Zakopane]] ([[Poland]])

==External links==
{{commons|Saint-Dié-des-Vosges}}
* [http://www.ville-saintdie.fr City council website]
* [http://www.iutsd.uhp-nancy.fr University Institute of Technology website]

==Sources and references==
*{{1911}}
*{{Catholic}}

[[Category: Communes of Vosges]]
[[Category: Sous-préfectures]]

[[af:Saint-Dié-des-Vosges]]
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Togo

2006-10-04T01:31:25Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{POV}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = République Togolaise
|conventional_long_name = Togolese Republic
|common_name = Togo
|image_flag = Flag_of_Togo.svg
|image_coat = Togocoa.png
|symbol_type = Coat of Arms
|image_map = LocationTogo.png
|national_motto = Travail, Liberté, Patrie ([[French language|French]]: Work, Liberty, Homeland)
|national_anthem = ''[[Salut à toi, pays de nos aïeux]]'' (Hail to thee, land of our forefathers)
|official_languages = [[French language|French]]
|capital = [[Lomé, Togo|Lomé]]
|latd=6 |latm=7 |lats=55 |latNS=N |longd=1 |longm=13 |longs=22 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Lomé, Togo|Lomé]]
|government_type = Republic under transition to multiparty democratic rule
|leader_title1 = [[President of Togo|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Faure Gnassingbé]]
|leader_title2 = [[Heads of Government of Togo|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Yawovi Agboyibo]]
|area_rank = 125th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area= 56,785
|areami²= 21,925
|percent_water = 4.2
|population_estimate = 5.5 million
|population_estimate_rank = 110th *
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 108
|population_densitymi² = 280
|population_density_rank = 93rd **
|GDP_PPP = $8.965 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 144th *
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,700
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 193rd *
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_event1 = From [[France]]
|established_date1 = [[April 27]], [[1960]]
|HDI = 0.512
|HDI_rank = 143rd
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = medium
|currency = [[CFA franc]]
|currency_code = XOF
|country_code =
|time_zone = [[GMT]]
|utc_offset = +0
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.tg]]
|calling_code = 228
|footnotes = * Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. Rankings based on 2005 figures [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/to.html CIA World Factbook - ''Togo''] ** Rankings based on 2005 figures (Source Unknown)
}}

'''Togo''', officially the '''Togolese Republic''', is a country in [[West Africa]] bordering [[Ghana]] in the west, [[Benin]] in the east and [[Burkina Faso]] in the north. In the south, it has a short [[Gulf of Guinea]] coast, on which the capital [[Lomé]] is located.
== History ==
''Main Article: [[History of Togo]]''

Western history does not record what happened in Togo before the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] arrived in the late 15th century. Various tribes moved into the country from all sides - the [[Ewé]] from [[Nigeria]] and [[Benin]] and the [[Mina]] and [[Guin]] from [[Ghana]]. The leader of the revolution was Treb Mrebino and he made a popular new type of currency called trebels.

===European Colony===
[[Image:Stamp Togo 1916 5c.jpg|thumb|left|90px|1916 stamp]]
When the slave trade began in the 16th century, several of the tribes - especially the Mina - became agents for European traders, travelling inland to buy slaves from the Kabyé and other northern tribes. [[Denmark]] staked a claim on Togo in the 18th century, but in 1884, [[Germany]] signed a deal with a local king, [[Mlapa III]], and [[Togoland]] became a [[List of former German colonies|German colony]]. It was named after the town of Togo (now [[Togoville]]) where the deal took place. The Germans brought scientific cultivation to the country's main export crops (cacao, coffee and cotton) and developed its infrastructure to the highest level in Africa. Still, in 1914, Togo was occupied by French and British forces. Togo was split between the British and the French by League of Nations mandates after [[World War I]] ended in 1918.

===Independence===
During the colonial period, the Mina grew in political and economic influence, by virtue of their coastal position and long association with Europeans. The Ewé, by contrast, were divided with the dissection of [[Togoland]], and political groups on both sides began to agitate for reunification. Hopes for unity were dashed when [[British Togoland]] voted to be incorporated into Ghana, then on the brink of independence. After the expiration of the [[France|French]]-administered UN trusteeship on [[April 27]] [[1960]], the French side declared its independence, with French Togoland becoming Togo.

===Economic expansion===
It was, however, only a perfunctory strike against [[colonialism]]: Togo remained heavily dependent on the West. From the late 1960s to 1980, Togo experienced a booming economy, built largely on its phosphate reserves. [[Gnassingbé Eyadéma]], who became president in 1967, tried to mould the country into a traveller's and investor's paradise. His plans proved overly ambitious, and when the recession of the early 1980s hit and phosphate prices plummeted, Togo's economy fell into ruin. The government was plagued by numerous coup attempts. Eyadéma himself fired many of the shots that killed 13 attackers in a 1986 coup.

===Fight for democracy===
In the early 1990s, the international community began putting pressure on Eyadéma to democratize, a notion he resisted with a few waves of his trademark iron fist. Pro-democracy activists - mainly southern Mina and Ewé - were met with armed troops, killing scores of protesters in several clashes. The people of France and Togo were furious, and under their backlash Eyadéma gave in. He was summarily stripped of all powers and made president in name only. An interim prime minister named Jomo Amadi was elected to take over command, but his fight for the truth was stalled four months later when his private residence was shelled with heavy British-made artillery by Eyadéma's army. His wife was murdered two months later and some attribute the killing to Eyadema's followers. These hardball tactics continued into 1993.

Terror strikes against the independent press and political assassination attempts became commonplace, while the promised 'transition' to democracy came to a standstill. The opposition continued to call general strikes, leading to further violence by the army and the exodus of hundreds of thousands of southerners to Ghana and Benin. Using intimidation tactics and clever political machinations that disqualified one opposition party and caused another to refuse to participate, Eyadéma won the 1993 presidential elections with more than 96% of the vote. In the years following, opposition parties have lost most of their steam and Eyadéma's control has become almost as firm as before the crisis began.

In August 1996, Prime Minister [[Edem Kodjo]] resigned, and the planning minister, [[Kwassi Klutse]], was appointed prime minister. Eyadéma won another five-year term in June 1998 with 52% of the vote, nearly being defeated by [[Gilchrist Olympio]], son of Sylvanus Olympio. Later investigations revealed widespread human rights abuses.

In 2002, in what critics called a 'constitutional coup', the national assembly voted unanimously to change the constitution and allow Eyadéma to 'sacrifice himself again' and run for a third term during the 2003 presidential elections. The constitutional change eliminated presidential term limits. Meanwhile, [[Gilchrist Olympio]]'s attempts to beat the man who overthrew his father were scuppered yet again when he was banned from running on a tax-law technicality.

Despite allegations of electoral fraud, Eyadéma won 57% of the votes in the 2003 elections, which international observers from the [[African Union]] described as generally free and transparent. For many Togolese, there was little optimism for the future and a prevailing sense of déjà vu as Eyadéma extended his record as Africa's longest-serving ruler.

== Geography ==
[[Image:To-map.png|left|200px]]
{{MapLibrary|Togo_sat.png|Togo}}
''Main article: [[Geography of Togo]]''

Togo is a small, thin sub-Saharan nation. It borders the [[Bight of Benin]] in the south. [[Ghana]] lies to the west, [[Benin]] to the east. To the north Togo is bound by [[Burkina Faso]].

In the north the land is characterized by a gently rolling savannah in contrast to the center of the country, which is characterized by hills. The south of Togo is characterized by a plateau which reaches to a coastal plain with extensive lagoons and marshes. The land size is 21,925 [[square mile]]s (56,785 km²), with an average population density of 253 people per square mile (98/km²).

== Administrative Divisions ==
''Main Article: [[Regions of Togo]], [[Prefectures of Togo]]''

Togo is divided into 5 regions, which are then subdivided into 23 prefectures. From north to south the regions are [[Savanes Region, Togo|Savanes]], [[Kara Region|Kara]], [[Centrale Region|Centrale]], [[Plateaux Region, Togo|Plateaux]], [[Maritime Region|Maritime]].

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Togo]]''

This small [[Sub-Saharan Africa|Sub-Saharan]] economy is heavily dependent on both commercial and subsistence [[agriculture]], which provides employment for 65% of the labor force. [[Cocoa]], [[coffee]], and [[cotton]] together generate about 30% of export earnings. Togo is self-sufficient in basic foodstuffs when harvests are normal, with occasional regional supply difficulties. In the industrial sector, [[phosphate]] mining is by far the most important activity, although it has suffered from the collapse of world phosphate prices and increased foreign competition. Togo's GNI per capita is US $380. (World Bank, 2005)

Togo serves as a regional commercial and trade center. The government's decade-long effort, supported by the [[World Bank]] and the [[IMF]], to implement economic reform measures, encourage foreign investment, and bring revenues in line with expenditures, has stalled. Political unrest, including private and public sector strikes throughout 1992 and 1993, jeopardized the reform program, shrank the tax base, and disrupted vital economic activity. The [[12 January]] [[1994]] devaluation of the currency by 50% provided an important impetus to renewed structural adjustment; these efforts were facilitated by the end of strife in 1994 and a return to overt political calm. Progress depends on following through on privatization, increased openness in government financial operations (to accommodate increased social service outlays), and possible downsizing of the [[military]], on which the regime has depended to stay in place. Lack of aid, along with depressed cocoa prices, generated a 1% fall in GDP in 1998, with growth resuming in 1999. Assuming no deterioration of the political atmosphere, growth should rise to 5% a year in 2000-2001. {{update}}

== Religion ==

According to the CIA Factbook, 51% of the Togolese people follow indigenous, African beliefs. The second largest religious group in Togo is the Christians who make up 29% of the population. The other 20% follow Islam.
In reality, most people identify themselves as either Christian or Muslim as well as the local anamist beliefs.

== Politics ==

{{morepolitics|country=Togo}}

Togo's transition to democracy is stalled. Its democratic institutions remain nascent and fragile. President Eyadéma, who ruled Togo under a one-party system for nearly 25 of his 37 years in power, died of a heart attack on [[February 5]], [[2005]]. Under the constitution, the speaker of parliament, [[Fambaré Ouattara Natchaba]], should have become president, pending a new election. Natchaba was out of the country, returning on an Air France plane from Paris. The Togolese army closed the nation's borders, forcing the plane to land in nearby Benin. With an engineered power vacuum, the army announced that Eyadéma's son [[Faure Gnassingbé]], also known as Faure Eyadéma, who had been the communications minister, would succeed him. The constitution of Togo declared that in the case of the president's death, the speaker of Parliament takes his place, and has 60 days to call new elections. However, on February 6th, Parliament retroactively changed the Constitution, declaring that Faure would hold office for the rest of his father's term, with elections deferred until 2008. The stated justification was that Natchaba was out of the country. [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1107659938613]. The government also moved to remove Natchaba as speaker [http://www.republicoftogo.com/fr/news/news.asp?rubID=4&srubID=75&themeID=1&newsID=9170] and replaced him with Faure Gnassingbé, who was sworn in on [[February 7]], [[2005]], despite the international criticism of the succession. [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/afp/20050207/wl_afp/togopolitics_050207180309]

The African Union described the takeover as a military [[coup d'état]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4241001.stm] International pressure came also from the [[United Nations]]. Within Togo, opposition to the takeover culminated in riots in which several hundred died. In the village of Aného reports of a general civilian uprising followed by a large scale massacre by government troop went largely unreported. In response, Gnassingbé agreed to hold [[Togo presidential election, 2005|elections]] and on [[February 25]], Gnassingbé resigned as president, but soon afterwards accepted the nomination to run for the office in April. On [[April 24]], 2005, Gnassingbé was elected president of Togo, receiving over 60% of the vote according to official results. However fraud was suspected as cause of his election, due to a lack of presence of the European Union or other such oversight. See the History section of this article for details. Parliament designated Deputy Speaker [[Bonfoh Abbass]] as interim president until the inauguration of the election winner.[http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/n/a/2005/02/25/international/i180735S60.DTL]

===Current political situation===
On [[May 3]], [[2005]], Gnassingbé was sworn in as the new president. Disquiet has continued however with the opposition declaring the voting rigged, claiming the military stole ballot boxes from various polling stations in the South, as well as other election irregularities, such as telecommunication shutdown. [http://www.scidev.net/gateways/index.cfm?fuseaction=readitem&rgwid=4&item=Opinions&itemid=401&language=1] The European Union has suspended aid in support of the opposition claims, while the African Union and the United States have declared the vote "reasonably fair" and accepted the outcome. The Nigerian president and Chair of the AU, [[Olusegun Obasanjo]], has sought to negotiate between the incumbent government and the opposition to establish a coalition government, but surprisingly rejected an AU Commission appointment of former [[Zambia|Zambian]] president, [[Kenneth Kaunda]], as special AU envoy to Togo ([http://allafrica.com/stories/200506060694.html] and [http://allafrica.com/stories/200507040093.html]). Th

== Culture and Sport ==

Togo's [[culture]] reflects the influences of its 37 tribal ethnic groups, the largest and most influential of which are the [[Ewe]], [[Mina]], and [[Kabre]]. [[French language|French]] is the official language of Togo, but many native [[African]] languages are spoken there as well. Despite the influences of Christianity and Islam, over half of the people of Togo follow native [[animistic]] practices and beliefs.

[[Ewe]] statuary is characterized by its famous [[statuettes]] which illustrate the worship of the twins, the [[ibéji]]. Sculptures and hunting trophies were used rather than the more ubiquitous African masks. The wood-carvers of [[Kloto]] are famous for their "chains of marriage": two characters are connected by rings drawn from only one piece of wood.

The dyed fabric [[batik]]s of the artisanal center of [[Kloto]] represent stylized and coloured scenes of ancient everyday life. The loincloths used in the ceremonies of the tisserands of [[Assahoun]] are famous. Works of the painter [[Sokey Edorh]] are inspired by the immense arid extents, swept by the harmattan, and where the laterite keeps the prints of the men and the animals. The plastics technician [[Paul Ahyi]] is internationally recognized today. He practises the "[[zota]]", a kind of pyroengraving, and his monumental achievements decorate [[Lome]].

===Football===
As in much of [[Africa]], [[football (soccer)|football]] is the most popular sporting pursuit. Up until [[2006]], Togo was very much a minor force in world football, but like fellow West African nations such as [[Senegal national football team|Senegal]], [[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] before them, the [[Togo national football team|Togolese national team]] finally qualified for a [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]]; in this case the [[2006 FIFA World Cup|2006 tournament]] in [[Germany]]. The team's star player is [[Emmanuel Adebayor]], who currently plays for [[FA Premier League|English Premiership]] club, [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]. Togo was knocked out of the tournament in the group stage after losing to [[South Korea]], [[Switzerland]] and [[France]]. [image:http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Togo-nationalmannschaft.jpg Photo of the team]

Togo's 2006 World Cup appearance was marred by a dispute over financial bonuses, a situation that almost led to the team boycotting their match against [[Switzerland]]. Eventually, Togo did fulfil all three fixtures, failing to qualify for the second round of the competition.

===See also===
[[Music of Togo]], [[List of African writers (by country)#Togo|List of writers from Togo]]

== See also ==
* [[Cokossian Monarchy]]
* [[Communications in Togo]]
* [[Demographics of Togo]]
* [[Foreign relations of Togo]]
* [[List of former German colonies]]
* [[Transport in Togo]]
* [[Buranda]] (cf. ''[[Yes Minister]]'')
* [[Association Scoute du Togo]]
* [[Togo national football team]]

==References==
{{factbook}}

* Schnee, Dr. Heinrich, (former Governor of [[German East Africa]]), ''German Colonization, Past and Future - The Truth about the German Colonies'', [[George Allen & Unwin]], London, 1926.

* Bullock, A.L.C., ''Germany's Colonial Demands'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1939.

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Togo}}

===Government===
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.republicoftogo.com/ Republic of Togo] official site
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.assemblee-nationale.tg/ National Assembly of Togo] official site

===News===
* [http://allafrica.com/togo/ AllAfrica.com - ''Togo''] news headline links
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/65/ IFEX - ''Togo''] alerts, news articles and dossiers

===Overviews===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064470.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Togo'']
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Togo Encyclopaedia Britannica, Country Page - ''Togo'']
* [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/to.html CIA World Factbook - ''Togo'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Togo Open Directory Project - ''Togo''] directory category
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/to/ US State Department - ''Togo''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

===Sports===
* [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Togo-nationalmannschaft.jpg Photo of the national football team]

===Tourism===
* {{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}

{{Link FA|ro}}

[[Category:Togo]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]
[[Category:French-speaking countries]]
[[Category:La Francophonie]]

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[[vi:Togo]]
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[[tr:Togo]]
[[uk:Тоґо]]
[[zh:多哥]]

Nile

2006-10-04T01:30:54Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Nil

== Headline text ==

== Headline text ==
vafdlgvahfdjl
fbvfdabnsgf
ns
gfn
sgfn
sgf
n
sfg
nsf
gn
sg
fh
fsgh

sgfhn
sgfh\
== Headline text ==

== Headline text ==

== Headline text ==
:''For alternative meanings of "Nile," see [[Nile (disambiguation)]]''

{{Infobox_river | river_name = Nile
| image_name = Egypt_Nil.jpg
| caption = The River Nile in Egypt
| origin = [[Africa]]
| mouth = [[Mediterranean Sea]]
| basin_countries = [[Sudan]], [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Egypt]]
| length = 6,695 km (4,160 mi)
| elevation = 1,134 m (3,721 ft)
| discharge = 2,830 m³/s (99,956 ft³/s)
| watershed = 3,400,000 km² (1,312,740 mi²)
}}

The '''Nile''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: النيل ''an-nīl'', Egyptian ''iteru'') is a [[river]] in [[Africa]], often regarded as the [[River lengths|longest river]] on Earth, although some sources claim the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] in South America is longer.<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/text_761569915__1/River.html River] ''[[Encarta]]'' (Accessed 3 October 2006)</ref> The Nile has two major [[tributary|tributaries]], the [[White Nile]] and [[Blue Nile]], the latter being the source of most of the Nile's water, but the former being the longer of the two. The White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa, with the most distant source in southern [[Rwanda]] {{coor dms|2|16|55.92|S|29|19|52.32|E|}}, and flows north from there through [[Tanzania]], [[Lake Victoria]], [[Uganda]] and southern [[Sudan]], while the Blue Nile starts at [[Lake Tana]] in [[Ethiopia]], flowing into Sudan from the east. The two sections meet near [[Khartoum]].

The northern section of the river flows almost entirely through desert, from Sudan into [[Egypt]], a country whose civilization has depended on the river since ancient times. Most of the population of Egypt and all of its cities, with the exception of those near the coast, lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of [[Aswan]]; and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of [[Ancient Egypt]] are found along the banks of the river.

The Nile ends in a large [[River delta|delta]] that flows into the [[Mediterranean Sea]].

==Etymology of the word Nile==
[[Image:Iteru.png|thumb|right|hieroglyphs spelling out "itrw", transliterated as ''iteru''.]]The word "Nile" (Arab. 'nīl) comes from the Greek word ''Neilos'' (Νειλος), meaning river valley.

==Branches==
[[Image:River Nile route.jpg|thumb|left|East Africa, showing the course of the River Nile, with the "Blue" and "White" Niles marked in those colours]]
The [[drainage basin]] of the Nile covers 3,254,555 km², about 10% of the area of Africa [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.php?map_select=299&theme=2].

There are two great branches of the Nile: the [[White Nile]], beginning in equatorial East Africa, and the [[Blue Nile]], beginning in [[Ethiopia]]. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift, the southern part of the [[Great Rift Valley]].

===White Nile===
The source of the Nile is sometimes considered to be [[Lake Victoria]], but the lake itself has feeder rivers of considerable size. The most distant stream emerges from [[Nyungwe Forest]] in [[Rwanda]], via the Rukarara, Mwogo, Nyabarongo and [[Kagera]] rivers, before flowing into Lake Victoria in [[Tanzania]] near the town of [[Bukoba]].

The Nile leaves Lake Victoria at Ripon Falls, near [[Jinga]], [[Uganda]], as the [[Victoria Nile]]. It flows for approximately 500 km (300 miles) farther, through [[Lake Kyoga]], until it reaches [[Lake Albert]]. After leaving Lake Albert, the river is known as the [[Albert Nile]]. It then flows into [[Sudan]], where it becomes known as the [[Bahr al Jebel]]. At the confluence of the Bahr al Jebel with the [[Bahr el Ghazal]], itself 720 km (445 miles) long, the river becomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the [[White Nile]], from the clay suspended in its waters. From there, the river flows to [[Khartoum]].

===Blue Nile===
The [[Blue Nile]] (''Tiqur Abbay'' (Black [[Abay River|Abay]]) to [[Ethiopia]]ns; ''Bahr al Azraq'' to Sudanese) springs from [[Lake Tana]] in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 km (850 miles) to [[Khartoum]], where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the "Nile proper". 90% of the water and 96% of the transported sediment carried by the Nile<ref>Marshall et al., {{PDFlink|[http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf Late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental and climatic change from Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile]|32KB}}, 2006</ref> originates in Ethiopia, but this runoff happens only in summer, when the great rains fall on the [[Ethiopian Highlands|Ethiopian Plateau]]; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile (Sobat, Blue Nile, and [[Atbara]]) flow weakly, or are dry.

[[Image:Nile composite NASA.jpg|right|thumb|160px|[[Composite image|Composite]] satellite image of the White Nile (see also the [[:Image:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|Nile delta]])]]

===The Nile River===
After the Blue and White Niles merge, the only remaining major tributary is the [[Atbara River]], which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is approximately 800 km (500 miles) long. It joins the Nile approximately 300 km (200 miles) past Khartoum. The Nile is also unusual in that its last tributary (the Atbara) joins it approximately halfway to the sea. From that point north, the Nile diminishes because of evaporation.

The Nile in Sudan is distinctive for two reasons: 1) it flows over [[Cataracts of the Nile|6 groups of cataracts]], from the first at Aswan to the sixth at Sabaloka (just north of Khartoum); and 2) it reverses direction for much of its course, flowing back toward the southwest before returning to flow north again to the sea. This is called the `"Great Bend of the Nile."'

==History==
[[Image:KageraRuvubu.jpg|thumb|225px|left|The confluence of the [[Kagera river|Kagera]] and [[Ruvubu river|Ruvubu]] rivers near [[Rusumo Falls]], part of the Nile's upper reaches.]]
The Nile (''iteru'' in [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]) was the lifeline of the [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] civilization, with most of the population and all of the cities of [[Egypt]] resting along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of [[Aswan]]. The Nile has been the lifeline for [[Egypt|Egyptian]] culture since the [[Stone Age]]. Climate change, or perhaps [[desertification|overgrazing]], [[desiccation|desiccated]] the [[pastoralism|pastoral]] lands of Egypt to form the [[Sahara]] desert, possibly as long ago as [[8000 BC]], and the inhabitants then presumably migrated to the river, where they developed a settled [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[economics|economy]] and a more centralized [[society]].

===Role in the founding of Egyptian civilization===
Sustenance played a crucial role in the founding of Egyptian civilization. The Nile was an unending source of sustenance. The Nile made the land surrounding it extremely fertile when it flooded or was inundated annually. The Egyptians were able to cultivate wheat and crops around the Nile, providing food for the general population. Also, the Nile’s water attracted game such as [[water buffalo]]; and after the Persians introduced them in the 7th century BC, [[camel]]s. These animals could be killed for meat, or could be captured, tamed and used for ploughing — or in the camels' case, travelling. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient way of transportation for people and goods.

Egypt’s stability was one of the best structured in history. In fact, it might easily have surpassed many modern societies. This stability was an immediate result of the Nile’s fertility. The Nile also provided [[flax]] for trade. Wheat was also traded, a crucial crop in the Middle East where famine was very common. This trading system secured the diplomatic relationship Egypt had with other countries, and often contributed to Egypt's economic stability. Also, the Nile provided the resources such as food or money, to quickly and efficiently raise an army, whether the army was to take on a defensive or offensive role is unknown.

The Nile played a major role in politics and social life. The Pharaoh would supposedly flood the Nile, and in return for the life-giving water and crops, the peasants would cultivate the fertile soil and send a portion of the resources they had reaped to the Pharaoh. He or she would in turn use it for the wellbeing of Egyptian society.

The Nile was a source of spiritual dimension. The Nile was so significant to the lifestyle of the Egyptians, that they created a god dedicated to the welfare of the Nile’s annual inundation. The god’s name was [[Hapi]], and both he and the Pharaoh were thought to control the flooding of the Nile River. Also, the Nile was considered as a causeway from life to death and afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god [[Ra]], the [[sun]], underwent birth, death, and resurrection each time he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were located west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they must be buried on the side that symbolized death.

The Greek historian, [[Herodotus]], wrote that ‘Egypt was the gift of the Nile’, and in a sense that is correct. Without the Nile River, Egyptian civilization would probably have been short-lived. The Nile provided the elements that make a vigorous civilization, and contributed much to its lasting three thousand years.

===Discoveries===
[[Image:ISS006-E-43181.jpg|left|thumb|The Great Bend of the Nile in Sudan, looking north across the Sahara Desert towards Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt.]]

The [[Ishango Bone|Ishango bone]], possibly the earliest known indication of [[Ancient Egyptian multiplication]], was discovered along the headwaters of the [[Nile River]] (near [[Lake Edward]], in northeastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]), and was carbon-dated to [[Upper Paleolithic|20,000 BC]].

Despite the attempts of the [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Rome|Romans]] (who were unable to penetrate the [[Sudd]]), the upper reaches of the Nile remained largely unknown. Various expeditions had failed to determine the river's source, thus yielding classical Hellenistic and Roman representations of the river as a male god with his face and head obscured in drapery. [[Agatharcides]] records that in the time of [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the [[Blue Nile]] to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the [[Ethiopian highlands]], but no European in Antiquity is known to have reached [[Lake Tana]], let alone retraced the steps of this expedition farther than [[Meroe]].

The White Nile was even less understood, and the ancients mistakenly believed that the [[Niger River]] represented the upper reaches of the White Nile; for example, [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower [[Mauretania]]", flowed above ground for "many days" distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the [[Masaesyles]], then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians" ([[Natural History|N.H.]] 5.10). A merchant named [[Diogenes (explorer)|Diogenes]] reported the Nile’s water attracted game such as [[water buffalo]]; and after the Persians introduced them in the 7th century BC, [[camel]]s.

Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in [[1858]] when the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[List of explorers|explorer]] [[John Hanning Speke]] reached its southern shore whilst on his journey with [[Richard Francis Burton]] to explore central Africa and locate the great Lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this ''vast expanse of open water'' for the first time, Speke named the lake after the then [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]]. Burton, who had been recovering from illness at the time and resting further south on the shores of [[Lake Tanganyika]], was outraged that Speke claimed to have proved his discovery to have been the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A very public quarrel ensued, which not only sparked a great deal of intense debate within the scientific community of the day, but much interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke's discovery. The well known British explorer and missionary [[David Livingstone]] failed in his attempt to verify Speke's discovery, instead pushing too far west and entering the [[Congo River]] system instead. It was ultimately the American explorer [[Henry Morton Stanley]] who confirmed the truth of Speke's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at [[Rippon Falls]] on the Lake's northern shore. It was on this journey that Stanley was said to have greeted the British explorer with the famous words ''Dr. Livingstone, I presume?'', upon discovering the Scotsman ill and despondent in his camp on the shores of Lake Tanganyika.

The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendri Coetzee, was to become the first to navigate the Nile in its entire length. The expedition took off from The Source of the Nile in Uganda on [[January 17]], [[2004]] and arrived safely at the Mediterranean in [[Rosetta]], 4 months and 2 weeks later. [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] released a feature film about the expedition towards in late 2005 entitled ''The Longest River''.

On [[April 28]] [[2004]], geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker [[Gordon Brown (cinematographer)|Gordon Brown]] became the first people to navigate the Blue Nile, from [[Lake Tana]] in [[Ethiopia]] to the beaches of [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] on the [[Mediterranean]]. Though their expedition included a number of others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to remain on the expedition for the entire journey. They chronicled their adventure with an [[IMAX]] camera and two handheld video cams, sharing their story in the IMAX film "''[[Mystery of the Nile]]''," and in a book of the same title. Despite this attempt, the team was forced to use outboard motors for most of their journey, and it was not until [[January 29]], [[2005]], when [[Canadian]] Les Jickling and [[New Zealand]]er Mark Tanner reached the Mediterranean Sea, that the river had been paddled for the first time under human power.

On [[30 April]] [[2005]], a team led by South Africans Peter Meredith and Hendri Coetzee became the first to navigate the most remote headstream, the true source of the Nile — the Akagera river which starts as the Rukarara in Nyungwe forest in Rwanda.

On [[March 31]] [[2006]], three explorers from Britain and New Zealand claimed to have been the first to travel the river from its mouth to a new "true source" deep in [[Rwanda]]'s Nyungwe rainforest. {{coor dms|2|16|55.92|S|29|19|52.32|E|}}.

The topographical and climatic features of Ancient Egypt influence its historical development. Ancient Egypt had a great location and great resources which affected its historical development. Some topographical and climatic features of Ancient Egypt that impact the historical development would be the Nile River’s natural resources and transportation; the Nile River over-flowing and being predictable; and lastly Ancient Egypt’s natural boundaries.

[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060401/ts_nm/rwanda_expedition_dc_3]

==The river today==
<div style="float:left;width:275px;">
[[Image:Nile.jpg|none|thumb|250px|View of the Nile from a cruiseboat, between Luxor and Aswan in Egypt]]
[[Image:EternalNile.JPG|none|thumb|250px|The Eternal Nile]]
</div>
The Nile still supports much of the population living along its banks, with the Egyptians living in otherwise inhospitable regions of the [[Sahara]]. The river flooded every summer, depositing fertile soil on the fields. The flow of the river is disturbed at several points by [[Cataracts of the Nile|cataracts]], which are sections of faster-flowing water with many small islands, shallow water, and rocks, forming an obstacle to navigation by [[boat]]s. The sudd in the Sudan also forms a formidable obstacle for navigation and flow of water, to the extent that Egypt had once attempted to dig a canal (the Jongeli Canal) to improve the flow of this stagnant mass of water (also known as Lake No).

The Nile was, and still is, used to transport goods to different places along its long path; especially since winter winds in this area blow up river, the ships could travel up with no work by using the sail, and down using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the construction of the [[Aswan High Dam]] (finished in 1970) to provide hydroelectricity ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil.

Cities on the Nile include [[Khartoum]], [[Aswan]], [[Luxor]] ([[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]), and the [[Giza]]–[[Cairo]] conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at [[Aswan]] to the north of the [[Aswan Dams]]. The Nile north of Aswan is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as [[felucca]]s. In addition, many "floating hotel" cruise boats ply the route between [[Luxor]] and [[Aswan]], stopping in at [[Edfu]] and [[Kom Ombo]] along the way. It used to be possible to sail on these boats all the way from [[Cairo]] to [[Aswan]], but security concerns have shut down the northernmost portion for many years.

 

==Flooding of the Nile==
The annual cycles of the Nile were very important to the lives of ancient Egyptians. During inundatle’s water attracted game such as [[water buffalo]]; and after the Persians introduced them in the 7th century BC, [[camel]]s. These animals could be killed for meat, or could be captured, tamed and used for ploughing — or in the camels' case, travelling. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient way of transportation for people and goods.

Egypt’s stability was one of the best structured in history. In fact, it might easily have surpassed many modern societies. This stability was an immediate result of the Nile’s fertility. The Nile also provided [[flax]] for trade. Wheat was also traded, a crucial crop in the Middle East where famine was very common. This trading system secured the diplomatic relationship Egypt had with other countries, and often contributed to Egypt's economic stability. Also, the Nile provided the resources such as food or money, to quickly and efficiently raise an army, whether the army was to take on a defensive or offensive role.

The Nile played a major role in politics and social life. The Pharaoh would supposedly flood the Nile, and in return for the life-giving water and crops, the peasants would cultivate the fertile soil and send a portion of the resources they had reaped to the Pharaoh. He or she would in turn use it for the wellbeing of Egyptian society.

The Nile was a source of spiritual dimension. The Nile was so significant to the icial means, the water of the Nile to the meadows on its banks—if this be the inundation that is meant, it is true; any other is false; it is not an inundating river."

More recently, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan but Egypt was protected from drought by water impounded in [[Lake Nasser]]. Beginning in the 1980s techniques of analysis using [[hydrology transport model]]s have been used in the Nile to analyze water quality.

==The Eonile==
The present Nile is at least the fifth river that has flowed north from the Ethiopian Highlands. [[Satellite imagery]] was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. An Eonile canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents an ancestral Nile called the '''Eonile''' that flowed during the later [[Miocene]]. The Eonile transported [[Clastic|clastic sediments]] to the Mediterranean, where several gas fields have been discovered within these sediments. South of Cairo, the sand-filled canyon can reach a depth of up to 1400 meters.

During the late-Miocene [[Messinian Salinity Crisis]], when the [[Mediterranean Sea]] was a closed basin and sealevel in the sea dropped approximately 1500 m, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred feet below world ocean level at [[Aswan]]. This huge canyon is now full of later sediment.

Formerly, [[Lake Tanganyika]] drained northwards into the Nile, until the [[Virunga Mountains|Virunga]] Volcanoes blocked its course in [[Rwanda]]. That would have made the Nile much longer, with its longest headwaters in northern [[Zambia]].
==See also==
[[New Valley Project]]

==References==

<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==External links==
{{commons|Nile}}
*[http://www.visiting-uganda.com/album/Uganda/index3.html Photographs of the Nile in Uganda]
*[http://www.ppl.nl/bibliographies/all/?bibliography=water Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law] See '''Nile River'''. Peace Palace Libray
*[http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=299&theme=2 Information and a map of the Nile's watershed]
*[http://www.utdallas.edu/dept/geoscience/remsens/Nile/index.html Geology and History of the Nile]
*[http://www.waterandnature.org/eatlas/html/af15.html Map of the Nile River basin at Water Resources eAtlas]
*[http://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/river-nile-facts.html Facts About The Nile River]
*[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_nile_delta.html Nile Delta from Space]
*[http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/Egypt/NileCruise/slideshow2.htm Photo Gallery from a cruise between Luxor and Aswan]
*[http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/Inscrutable%20Nile1.pdf Essay: The Inscrutable Nile at the Beginning of the New Millennium]
*[http://www.aber.ac.uk/~qecwww/tana/geology.htm Nile paleogeography]
*[http://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=27.547242,31.047363&spn=14.058159,20.43457&t=k&om=1 Link to Google Maps to see the Nile]

{{Ancient Egypt}}

[[Category:Nile|*]]
[[Category:Nile basin|*]]
[[Category:Rivers of Egypt]]
[[Category:Rivers of Sudan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uganda]]

{{Link FA|ru}}

[[ar:النيل]]
[[id:Sungai Nil]]
[[bn:নীল নদ]]
[[br:Nil]]
[[bg:Нил]]
[[ca:Nil]]
[[cs:Nil]]
[[cy:Afon Nîl]]
[[da:Nilen]]
[[de:Nil]]
[[et:Niilus]]
[[el:Νείλος]]
[[es:Nilo]]
[[eo:Nilo]]
[[eu:Nilo ibaia]]
[[fa:نیل]]
[[fr:Nil]]
[[ga:An Níl]]
[[gl:Río Nilo]]
[[ko:나일 강]]
[[hr:Nil]]
[[is:Níl]]
[[it:Nilo]]
[[he:נילוס]]
[[sw:Nile]]
[[kg:Nilo]]
[[lv:Nīla]]
[[lb:Nil]]
[[lt:Nilas]]
[[hu:Nílus]]
[[mk:Нил]]
[[nl:Nijl]]
[[ja:ナイル川]]
[[no:Nilen]]
[[nn:Nilen]]
[[pl:Nil]]
[[pt:Rio Nilo]]
[[ro:Nil]]
[[rm:Nil]]
[[ru:Нил (река)]]
[[sq:Nili]]
[[scn:Nilu]]
[[simple:Nile]]
[[sk:Níl]]
[[sl:Nil]]
[[sr:Нил]]
[[sh:Nil]]
[[fi:Niili]]
[[sv:Nilen]]
[[tl:Ilog Nile]]
[[ta:நைல்]]
[[vi:Sông Nin]]
[[tg:Дарёи Нел]]
[[tr:Nil]]
[[uk:Ніл]]
[[zh:尼罗河]]

Chad

2006-10-04T01:30:24Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{OtherUses}}
{{Infobox_Country 
|native_name = جمهورية تشاد ''République du Tchad''
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Chad
|common_name = Chad
|image_flag = Flag of Chad.svg
|image_coat = Chad coa.png
|symbol_type=Coat of arms
|image_map = LocationChad.png
|national_motto = Unité, Travail, Progrès ([[French language|French]]: Unity, Work, Progress)
|national_anthem = [[La Tchadienne]]
|official_languages = [[French language|French]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
|capital = [[N'Djamena]]
|latd=12 |latm=06 |latNS=N |longd=15 |longm=02 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[N'Djamena]]
|government_type = [[Republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[Heads of state of Chad|President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Chad|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name1 = [[Idriss Déby]]
|leader_name2 = [[Pascal Yoadimnadji]]
|area_rank = 21st
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area= 1,284,000
|areami²= 495,753 
|percent_water = 1.9%
|population_estimate = 9,749,000
|population_estimate_rank = 82nd
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_census = 6,279,921
|population_census_year = 1993
|population_density = 7.6
|population_densitymi² = 19.7 
|population_density_rank = 212th
|GDP_PPP = $13.723 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 128th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,519
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 155th
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Chad|Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = From [[France]]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 =[[August 11]], [[1960]]
|HDI = 0.341
|HDI_rank = 173rd
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = low
|currency = [[CFA franc]]
|currency_code = XAF
|country_code = TCD
|time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|utc_offset_DST = +1
|cctld = [[.td]]
|calling_code = 235
|footnotes =
}}
'''Chad''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]:'''تشاد ''', ''Tašād''; [[French language|French]]: ''Tchad''), officially the '''Republic of Chad''', is a [[landlocked]] country in [[central Africa]]. It borders [[Libya]] to the north, [[Sudan]] to the east, the [[Central African Republic]] to the south, [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]] to the southwest, and [[Niger]] to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely [[desert]] climate, the country is sometimes referred to as the "dead heart of Africa".<ref>''Diercke Landerlexicon'', 1983</ref> In the north, it contains the [[Tibesti Mountains]], the largest mountain chain in the [[Sahara desert]]. Chad was formerly part of the [[Federation of French Equatorial Africa]].

==History==
{{main|History of Chad}}
The area that is Chad today was once inhabited by politically disconnected groups and tribes. Humanoid skulls and cave paintings of great antiquity have been found there. Relatively weak local kingdoms which developed gradually in the region were later overtaken by the larger and more powerful [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]]. From the [[Middle Ages]] onwards, Chad was a crossroads for [[Sahara|trans-Saharan]] trade and East-West migration.

In [[1900]], after the [[battle of Kousséri]], Chad became a part of [[French colony|France's colonial system]]; the French mostly exploiting the south, inhabited predominantly by [[animist|animists]], where they promoted [[cotton]] farming and introduced [[Christianity]], while governing the [[Muslim]] north through [[indirect rule]].

After [[World War II|WWII]] a process of [[decolonization]] began, in which the southern-dominated [[Chadian Progressive Party]] prevailed. Its leader, [[François Tombalbaye]], became the country's first president when independence was proclaimed on [[August 11]] [[1960]].

In [[1965]], Muslim dissatisfaction with Tombalbaye, who was perceived as discriminating against them in favour of southerners, erupted in [[Chadian Civil War|civil war]], beginning a conflict that was to continue without interruption until [[1993]]. This, combined with a severe drought, undermined Tombalbaye's rule and led to the [[Chadian coup of 1975|1975 coup]] in which the President was killed and replaced by a military junta headed by the southerner [[Felix Malloum]]. After a failure to reach an accord with the insurgents, the rebels conquered the capital in [[1979]] and the state crumbled, leading to the most anarchic phase of the [[Chadian Civil War]].

As a further complication, [[Libya]],under [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]], invaded Chad in [[1980]] to support the pro-Libyan [[Goukouni Oueddei]] against his former ally [[Hissène Habré]] and to promote an expansionist policy that sought to unify Libya and Chad politically. France and the United States responded, in an attempt to contain Libya's regional ambitions, by aiding Habré, who, in [[1982]], conquered the capital, ousted Oueddei, and assumed overall control of the country.

Despite this victory, Habré's government was weak, accused of brutality and corruption, and seemingly disliked by a majority of Chadians. He was deposed by another Libyan-supported rebel leader [[Idriss Déby]] on [[December 1]], [[1990]]. Threatened by constant insurgent activity and several failed coups, Déby attempted national reconciliation, and most rebel groups disbanded. A constitution was approved in [[1995]], and a year later, Déby won the [[Chadian presidential election, 1996|first multi-party elections]] in Chad's history. He won [[Chadian presidential election, 2001|a second term]] five years later.

The security situation worsened in [[1998]], when a new armed insurgency began in the north, led by President Déby's former defence chief, [[Youssouf Togoïmi]], who posed a serious threat to Déby. Weakening of the regime brought coup attempts [[2004 Chadian coup d'état attempt|in 2004]] and [[2006 Chadian coup d'état attempt|March 2006]], and then, in April, the rebels attacked N'Djamena and were repulsed only after a pitched battle in the streets of the capital. The government also faces widespread opposition following the decision to amend the constitution, so that Déby could run for a third term. In response, all main opposition parties boycotted the [[Chadian presidential election, 2006|May 2006 elections]].

There is a major risk that the [[Darfur conflict]] in [[Sudan]] will spead into Chad, with both governments accusing each other of supporting the other's rebels. On [[December 23]], [[2005]], Chad announced that it was in a [[Chad-Sudan conflict|"state of war" with Sudan]].<ref>{{cite news | first=Stephanie | last=Hancock | title= Chad in 'state of war' with Sudan | date=[[December 23]], [[2005]] | publisher=[[BBC]] | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4556576.stm }}</ref>; but a peace agreement has been [[Dakar Accord|signed at Dakar]] in July 2006, paving the way for the normalization of Chadian-Sudanese relations.

==Politics==
[[Image:chadidriss.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The President of Chad, Idriss Déby]]

{{morepolitics|country=Chad}}
Politics of Chad takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Chad]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The political system operates under a constitution established in [[1996]], but a strong executive branch headed by president [[Idriss Déby]] has held power since [[1990]].

==Administrative divisions==
''Main articles: [[Regions of Chad]], [[Departments of Chad]]''

Since 2002, Chad has been divided into 18 [[region]]s, which are subdivided into 52 [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]] and further divided into 348 sub-prefectures. Implementation of the new plan has been slow on the ground, however. The regions approximately correspond with [[Prefectures of Chad|14 prefectures]] which existed up to 1999.

The [[Regions of Chad|regions]] include: [[Batha Region|Batha]], [[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region|Bourkou-Ennedi-Tibesti]], [[Chari-Baguirmi Region|Chari-Baguirmi]], [[Guéra Region|Guéra]], [[Hadjer-Lamis]] (previously part of the [[Chari-Baguirmi Prefecture]]), [[Kanem Region|Kanem]], [[Lac Region|Lac]], [[Logone Occidental Region|Logone Occidental]], [[Logone Oriental Region|Logone Oriental]], [[Mandoul]] (previously part of the [[Moyen-Chari Prefecture]]), [[Mayo-Kebbi Est]] (previously part of [[Mayo-Kébbi Prefecture|Mayo-Kebbi]]), [[Mayo-Kebbi Ouest]] (previously part of Mayo-Kebbi), [[Moyen-Chari Region|Moyen-Chari]], [[Ndjamena]], [[Ouaddaï Region|Ouaddaï]], [[Salamat Region|Salamat]], [[Tandjilé Region|Tandjilé]], and [[Wadi Fira]] (previously [[Biltine Prefecture|Biltine]]).

==Geography==
{{MapLibrary|Chad_sat.jpg|Chad}}
{{main|Geography of Chad}}

At 495,722 [[square miles|mi²]] (1,284,000 [[square kilometre|km²]][https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html]), Chad is the world's 21st-largest country (after [[Peru]]). It is comparable in size to [[Niger]], and is nearly twice the size of the US state of [[Texas]].

Chad is a landlocked country in north central Africa, lying south of Libya. The country shares 5,968 [[kilometer]]s (3,708 [[mile|mi]]) of border with [[Cameroon]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Libya]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], and Sudan. Chad has four climatic zones: it has broad, arid plains in the center, desert in the north, dry [[mountain]]s in the northwest, and tropical lowlands in the south. Only 3% of Chad is [[arable land]] and none of it has [[permanent crop]]s. Environmental hazards in Chad include hot, dry, dusty [[harmattan]] winds in the north, periodic [[drought]]s, and [[locust]] plagues. [[Lake Chad]], which is in Chad and Cameroon, was once the second-largest lake in Africa but has shrunk dramatically during the last few decades and is now down to less than 10% of its former size. The people of Chad are known as Chadian.
[[Image:Cd-map.png|thumb|Map of Chad]]

==Terrain==
{{main|Geology of Chad}}
Chad's terrain is dominated by the low-lying [[Chad Basin]] (elevation about 250 m / 820 ft), which rises gradually to mountains and plateaus on the north, east, and south. In the east heights of more than 900 [[metre]]s (3,000 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) are attained in the [[Ennedi plateau|Ennedi]] and [[Ouaddaï plateau]]s. The greatest elevations are reached in the [[Tibesti massif]] in the north, with a maximum height of 3,415 metres (11,204 ft) at [[Emi Koussi]]. The northern half of the republic lies in the [[Sahara]]. The only important rivers, the [[Logone River|Logone]] and [[Chari River|Chari]] (Shari), are located in the southwest and flow into [[Lake Chad]]. The lake doubles in size during the rainy season.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Chad}}
Chad's primarily [[agricultural]] economy is being boosted by major [[petroleum|oilfield]] and pipeline developments that began in 2000. Over 80% of Chad's population continues to rely on [[subsistence farming]] and [[stock raising]] for its livelihood. [[Cotton]], and, in a far lesser measure, cattle and [[gum arabic]], have, until recently, provided the bulk of Chad's export earnings, but Chad began to export oil in 2003 from three oilfields near [[Doba]]. It has been estimated that income from oil increased Chad's per capita GDP by 40% in [[2004]], and may double it in [[2005]].

Chad's economy has long been handicapped by its landlocked position, poor internal communications, high energy costs, scarce water resources and a history of instability. Until now, Chad has relied on foreign assistance and foreign capital for most public and private sector investment projects but oil income will transform government finances.

A consortium, led by [[ExxonMobil]] (US), and with the participation of [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] (US) and [[Petronas]] ([[Malaysia]]), invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at 1 billion barrels (0.2 km³) in southern Chad, and Chad became an oil-producing country in [[2003]], with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the [[World Bank]]) linking its southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast via neighbouring [[Cameroon]]. Chad hopes to avoid the waste and corruption experienced in some other African oil-producing countries; as a condition of its assistance, the World Bank has insisted on a new law which requires that 80% of oil revenues will be spent on development projects. However, in January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan program to Chad, in reaction to the Chadian decision to "relax" laws governing the spending of oil money. Chad's response is that the World Bank is using Chad as a test subject for different management styles. This suspension of loans further exacerbated Chad's financial problems, which have seen multiple strikes by government workers, teachers and doctors, leading to drastically-shortened school years and a shortage of health care in recent years. In an attempt to address the problem, on July 14, 2006, representatives from the World Bank and the Government of Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad committed 70 percent of its budget spending to priority poverty reduction programs, and provided for long-term growth and opportunity by creating a stabilization fund. The government pledged to enhance transparency and accountability with a new pledge of support for the role of the Collège, Chad's independent oil revenue oversight authority.<ref>{{cite news | title=World Bank Press Release No:2007/19/EXC | date=[[July 14]] [[2006]] | url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20994138~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html}}</ref>

Provided stability is maintained, the outlook for Chad's economy is now better than it has ever been, although government corruption and continued lack of pay to government-employed fonctionnaires still pose significant obstacles to the country's development. It is known that further reserves of oil exist within the country, in addition to the oilfields that are already being exploited.

On [[August 26]], [[2006]], Chad ordered two oil companies, [[United States|US]] [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] and [[Malaysia]]'s [[Petronas]] which combined handle over 60 percent of Chad's oil, out of the country, claiming that they refused to pay their taxes, in the amount of 250 billion [[CFA Franc]]s (450 million US dollars). <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/5289580.stm?ls "Chad orders foreign oil firms out"], ''[[BBC]]'', [[August 26]], [[2006]]</ref> Chadian president, Idriss Déby, said that "Chad with Exxon will manage its oil while waiting to find a solution with the two other partners." A new Chadian national oil company was set to become a partner in the [[ExxonMobil]]-Chevron-Petronas [[consortium]], with ExxonMobil's share at 40 percent, Petronas at 35 percent, Chevron at 25 percent and Chad at 12.5 percent (as well as taxes). <ref>[http://today.reuters.com/news/articleinvesting.aspx?view=CN&storyID=2006-08-26T165416Z_01_L26795314_RTRIDST_0_ENERGY-CHAD-COMPANIES-UPDATE-3.XML&rpc=66&type=qcna "Chad president orders Chevron, Petronas to leave"], ''[[Reuters]]'', [[August 26]], [[2006]]</ref> Chad's 12.5 percent share of its multibillion oil industry compares poorly with the 80 percent oil proceeds seen by countries such as [[Nigeria]]. <ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0905/p04s01-woaf.html "Chad eyes bigger share of its oil profits"], ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', [[September 5]], [[2006]]</ref>
On [[August 28]], Déby suspended Oil Minister Mahmat Hassan Nasser, Planning Minister Mahmat Ali Hassan and Livestock Minister Mockhtar Moussa for their involvement in negotiating the terms of the agreements with Chevron and Petronas. <ref>[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/LAC.20060828.IBCHAD28/TPStory/Business "Chad tightens grip on oil resources"], ''[[Reuters]]'', [[August 28]], [[2006]]</ref> Earlier in August, Chad broke its ties with [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] and established relations with the [[People's Republic of China]], a move considered related to bringing investments from Chinese oil companies to the country. <ref>[http://za.today.reuters.com/news/NewsArticle.aspx?type=businessNews&storyID=2006-08-28T153154Z_01_BAN855909_RTRIDST_0_OZABS-ENERGY-CHAD-COMPANIES-20060828.XML "Fate of Chevron, Petronas in Chad still unclear"], ''[[Reuters]]'', [[August 28]], [[2006]]</ref>

On [[September 12]], Chevron has agreed to pay an additional tax in order to maintain its presence in Chad's oil industry. <ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/200609/12/eng20060912_301854.html "Chevron to pay additional tax to maintain presence in Chad"], ''[[People's Daily]]'', [[September 12]], [[2006]]</ref> On that day, US Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for the [[Bureau of African Affairs]] [[Don Yamamoto]] met Prime Minister [[Pascal Yoadimnadji]] to discuss the oil dispute as well as the escalating [[Darfur conflict]]. <ref>[http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=worldNews&storyID=2006-09-12T110610Z_01_L12767311_RTRUKOC_0_US-CHAD-USA-YAMAMOTO.xml&archived=False "U.S. envoy in Chad talks on democracy, oil and Darfur"], ''[[Reuters]]'', [[September 12]], [[2006]]</ref>

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Chad}}
There are more than 200 ethnic groups in Chad. Those in the north and east are generally [[Muslim]]; most southerners are [[animist]]s or [[Christianity|Christians]], although such a north/south division glosses over the complex and nuanced tribal and religious relationships in Chad. Through their long religious and commercial relationships with [[Sudan]] and [[Egypt]], many of the peoples in Chad's eastern and central regions have become more or less [[Arabization|Arabized]], speaking Chadian Arabic (see below) (although typically not literary Arabic) and engaging in many other Arab cultural practices as well. More than three-quarters of the Chadian population is rural.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Chad}}
[[Image:Girlchad.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[Ouaddai]] Chadian girl smiles]]
[[Image:Chadgirl.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Nilotic]] Chadian girl smiles]]
Chad is a very culturally diverse nation. Among the manifestations of this diversity is the extremely large number of languages spoken there. Although the only official languages in Chad are [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[French language|French]], there are also more than 100 tribal languages spoken and a dialect of Arabic known as [[Chadian Arabic]] is the closest thing the country has to a national trade language. Chadian Arabic is a mix of "literary" Arabic, French and local dialects. It differs from the country's official language, literary Arabic, and, while literary Arabic speakers can often understand Chad Arabic, the inverse is not true. Government schools are taught in the official languages, with French typically the language of instruction. Few Chadians other than the educated/traveled elite speak literary Arabic.

The largest ethnic group in Chad, the Christian/animist [[Sara people]]s living in the south, only makes up 20% of the population. In central Chad, people are mostly nomadic and pastoralist. The mountainous north has a sparse, mostly [[Muslim]] population of mixed backgrounds. Each society in Chad (smaller than the groups described above) has developed their own religion, music, and folklore.

The largest Christian churches are the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the
[[Assemblées Chrétiennes du Tchad]], the [[Association of Baptist Churches of Chad|Eglise Baptiste du Tchad]] and the [[Eglises Evangeliques au Tchad]].
{{seealso|music of Chad}}
[[List of African writers (by country)#Chad|List of writers from Chad]], [[Day (language)]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Communications in Chad]]
*[[Fédération du Scoutisme Tchadien]]
*[[Foreign relations of Chad]]
*[[Holidays in Chad]]
*[[Islam in Chad]]
*[[Languages of Chad]]
*[[Military of Chad]]
*[[Roman Catholicism in Chad]]
*[[Transport in Chad]]

==References==
{{unreferenced}}
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Chad}}

===Government===
*[http://www.primature-tchad.com/ Official site of the government] (in French)

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/chad/ AllAfrica.com—''Chad''] news headline links
*[http://www.africatime.com/tchad/ News and links]

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068700.stm BBC News country profile—''Chad'']
*[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Chad Encyclopaedia Britannica's ''Chad'' country page]
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cd.html CIA World Factbook—''Chad'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/cd/ US State Department—''Chad''] includes background notes, country study, and major reports
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/CHADEXTN/0,,menuPK:349901~pagePK:141132~piPK:141109~theSitePK:349862,00.html World Bank—Chad summary data, statistics and sources]
*[http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?CCODE=TCD&PTYPE=CP World Bank—Chad data profile]

===Directories===
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Chad.html Columbia University Libraries—''Chad''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Chad/ Open Directory Project—''Chad''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/chad.html Stanford University—Africa South of the Sahara: ''Chad''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Chad/ Yahoo!—''Chad''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

===Other===
*[http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Ryan Spencer Reed] - photojournalist's images of Sudan's displaced in Eastern Chad
*[http://www.travelblog.org/Africa/Chad/blog-7921.html Chad Travel Blog] - penetrating narrative of travel through Chad
* [http://mostlymoving.com/Chad.html Chad : articles]

{{Africa}}
[[Category:Chad| ]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:French-speaking countries]]
[[Category:Arabic-speaking countries]]
[[Category:La Francophonie]]

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[[am:ቻድ]]
[[ang:Chad]]
[[ar:تشاد]]
[[an:Chad]]
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[[ast:Chad]]
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[[bn:চাদ]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tchad]]
[[be:Чад]]
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[[kw:Chad]]
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[[zh:乍得]]

Mount Everest

2006-10-04T01:28:50Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Mt. Everest

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Mount Everest
| Photo = Everest kalapatthar crop.jpg
| Caption =Everest from [[Kala Patthar]] in Nepal
| Elevation = 8,848 meters (29,028 feet) <ref>Based on elevation of snow cap, not rock head. For more details, see [[#measurement]] section.</ref> [[Eight-thousander|Ranked 1st]]
| Location = [[Nepal]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] ([[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]])
| Range = [[Himalaya|Khumbu Himal]]
| Prominence = 8,848 meters (29,028 feet)
| Coordinates = {{coor dms|27|59|17|N|86|55|31|E|type:mountain}}<ref>The [[WGS84]] coordinates given here were calculated using detailed topographic mapping and are in agreement with [http://www.adventurestats.com/tables/8000erbasics.htm adventurestats]. They are unlikely to be in error by more than 2". Coordinates showing Everest to be more than a minute further east that appeared on this page until recently, and still appear in Wikipedia in several other languages, are incorrect.</ref>
| First ascent = [[May 29]], [[1953]], by [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Tenzing Norgay]]
| Without oxygen bottles = 1978, by [[Reinhold Messner]] and [[Peter Habeler]]
| Solo ascent = 1980, by [[Reinhold Messner]]
| Easiest route = [[South Col]] (Nepal)
}}
{{Redirect|Everest}}

'''Mount Everest''' is the [[Extremes of Altitude|highest point]] on [[Earth]], as measured by the height of its [[Topographical summit|summit]] above [[sea level]]. The mountain is located on the border between [[Nepal]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]].

== Naming ==
In Nepal, the mountain is called '''Sagarmatha''' (सगरमाथा, [[Sanskrit]] for "Goddess of the Sky"); this name was invented in the early 1960s (by Baburam Acharya) when the Nepalese government realized that Mount Everest had no Nepalese name. This was because the mountain was not known and named in ethnic Nepal (the Kathmandu valley and surrounding areas). The Sherpa/Tibetan name ''Chomolangma'' was not acceptable, as it would have been against the idea of unification (Nepalization) of the country. However, the ancient name for the mountain is '''Devgiri''' (in Sanskrit, it means "holy mountain") or '''Devadurga''' (the English pronounced it as ''deodungha'' in the 1800s); please refer to the [http://www.harappa.com/engr/darjeeling.html#everest Harrapan archaeology site] for more on the history behind the name. In [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] it is '''Chomolungma''' or '''Qomolangma''' (ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ) ("Mother of the Universe"), or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 珠穆朗瑪峰 ({{zh-p|p=Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng}}) or 聖母峰 (Shèngmǔ Fēng).

The mountain was given its [[English language|English]] name in 1865 by [[Andrew Scott Waugh|Andrew Waugh]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[:Category:Surveyors General of India|surveyor-general of India]]. With both Nepal and [[Tibet]] closed to foreign travel, he wrote:
<blockquote>
''…I was taught by my respected chief and predecessor, Colonel Sir [[George Everest|Geo. Everest]] to assign to every geographical object its true local or native appellation. … But here is a mountain, most probably the highest in the world, without any local name that we can discover, whose native appellation, if it has any, will not very likely be ascertained before we are allowed to penetrate into Nepal.… In the meantime the privilege as well as the duty devolves on me to assign…a name whereby it may be known among citizens and geographers and become a household word among civilized nations.''
</blockquote>
Hence Waugh chose to name the mountain after [[George Everest]], first using the spelling '''Mont Everest''', and then '''Mount Everest'''. However, the modern pronunciation of Everest – [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ˈɛvərɪst]}} or {{IPA|[ˈɛvərɨst]}} (EV-er-est) – is different from Sir George's own pronunciation of his surname, which was {{IPA|[ˈiv;rɪst]}} (EAVE-rest).

In 2002, the Chinese ''[[People's Daily]]'' newspaper published an article attacking the continued use of the English name for the mountain in the [[Western world]], insisting that it should be referred to by its Tibetan name. Chinese marked the location Mount Qomolangma on their map more than 280 years ago, named after a Tibetans' Goddess Qomolangma, which gains ground as the peak's original name.<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/200211/19/eng20021119_107017.shtml Web Reference]</ref>

== Measurement ==
[[Image:Mt Everest Aerial.jpg|thumb|300px|Aerial view of Mount Everest.]]
[[Image:Mt Everest aerial 2005.jpg|thumb|300px|Aerial view of Mount Everest, behind [[Lhotse]], from the south.]]
[[Radhanath Sikdar]], an Indian mathematician and surveyor from [[Bengal]], was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak in 1852, using trigonometric calculations based on measurements of "Peak XV" (as it was then known) made with [[theodolite]]s from 240 km (150 miles) away in India. Measurement could not be made from closer due to a lack of access to Nepal. "Peak XV" was found to be exactly 29,000 feet (8,839 m) high, but was publically declared to be 29,002 feet (8,840 m). The arbitrary addition of 2 feet (0.6 m) was to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29,000 feet was nothing more than a rounded estimate.

The mountain is approximately [[1 E3 m|8,848 m]] (29,028 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) high, although there is some variation in the measurements. The mountain [[K2]] comes in second at 8,611 m (28,251 feet) high. On [[May 22]], [[2005]], the People's Republic of China's Everest Expedition Team ascended to the top of the mountain. After several months' complicated measurement and calculation, on [[October 9]], [[2005]], the PRC's State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping officially announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m ± 0.21 m (29,017.16 ± 0.69 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). They claimed it was the most accurate measurement to date.[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/09/content_3597013.htm]. But this new height is based on the actual highest point of rock and not on the snow and ice that sits on top of that rock on the summit, so, in keeping with the practice used on [[Mont Blanc]] and [[Khan Tangiri Shyngy]], it is not shown here. The Chinese also measured a snow/ice depth of 3.5 m,<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_1478658.htm abc.au article]</ref> which implies agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m. But in reality the snow and ice thickness varies, making a definitive height of the snow cap, and hence the precise height attained by summiteers without sophisticated GPS, impossible to determine.

The elevation of 8,848 m (29,028 ft) was first determined by an Indian survey in 1955, made closer to the mountain, also using [[theodolite]]s. It was subsequently reaffirmed by a 1975 Chinese measurement [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_1478658.htm]. In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. In May 1999 an American Everest Expedition, directed by [[Bradford Washburn]], anchored a [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 feet), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device [http://www.alpineresearch.ch/alpine/en/presse1.html]. Nepal, however, did not officially recognize this survey, and the discrepancy with the above mentioned 2005 Chinese survey is significantly greater than the surveys' claimed accuracy.

It is thought that the [[plate tectonics]] of the area are adding to the height and moving the summit north-eastwards. Two accounts, [http://www.alpineresearch.ch/alpine/en/presse1.html], [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/99/everest/roof_content.html] suggest the rates of change are 4 mm per year (upwards) 3-6 mm per year (northeastwards), but this account[http://www.mos.org/Everest/exhibit/platetectonics.htm] mentions more lateral movement (27 mm), and even shrinkage has been suggested [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4204539.stm].

Everest is the mountain whose summit attains the greatest distance above [[sea level]]. Two other mountains are sometimes claimed as alternative "tallest mountains on Earth". [[Mauna Kea]] in [[Hawaii]] is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over 10,203 m (about 6.3 [[mile|mi]]) when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level. The summit of [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] in [[Ecuador]] is 2,168 m (7,113 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) farther from the Earth's centre (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 [[mile|mi]]) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km or 3,965.8 [[mile|mi]]), because the Earth bulges at the Equator. However, Chimborazo attains a height of 6,267 m (20,561 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level, and by this criterion it is not even the highest peak of the [[Andes]].

The deepest spot in the ocean is deeper than Everest is high: the [[Challenger Deep]], located in the [[Mariana Trench]], is so deep that if Everest were to be placed into it there would be more than 2 km (1.25 [[mile|mi]]) of water covering it.

The Mount Everest region, and the [[Himalayas]] in general, are thought to be suffering ice-melt due to [[global warming]]. The exceptionally heavy Southwest summer [[monsoon]] of 2005 is consistent with continued warming and augmented convective uplift on the [[Tibetan plateau]] to the north.

== Climbing routes ==
{{unreferenced|section}}
[[image:himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|250px|Southern and northern climbing routes as seen from the [[International Space Station]].]]

Mt. Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeast ridge from Nepal and the northeast ridge from [[China]], as well as [http://www.everesthistory.com/routes.htm 13] other less frequently climbed routes. Of the two main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easier and is the more frequently-used route. It was the route used by Hillary and Tenzing in 1953 and the first recognised of fifteen routes to the top by 1996. This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design as the Chinese border was closed to foreigners in 1949. [[Reinhold Messner]] (Italy) summited the mountain solo for the first time, without supplementary oxygen or support, on the more difficult Northwest route via the North Col to the North Face and the Great Couloir, on August 20th 1980. He climbed for three days entirely alone from his base camp at 6500 meters without the use of supplementary oxygen via the North Col/North Face route. This route has been noted as the 8th climbing route to the summit.

Most attempts are made during April and May before the summer [[monsoon]] season. A change in the [[jet stream]] at this time of year reduces the average wind speeds high on the mountain. While attempts are sometimes made after the monsoons in September and October, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons makes climbing more difficult.

=== Southeast ridge ===
The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at 5,380 m (17,600 ft) on the south side of Everest in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly
into [[Lukla]] (2,860 m) from [[Kathmandu]] and pass through [[Namche Bazaar]]. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatization in order to prevent [[altitude sickness]]. Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by [[yak]]s, [[dzo|dzopkyos]] (yak hybrids) and human [[Porter (carrying)|porter]]s to Base Camp on the [[Khumbu Glacier]]. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, they started from Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time.

[[Image:Everest base camp.jpg|thumb|600px|A view of Everest southeast ridge base camp. The [[Khumbu Icefall]] can be seen in the left. In the center are the remains of a helicopter that crashed in 2003.]]

Climbers will spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatizing to the altitude. During that time, [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]]s and some expedition climbers will set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous [[Khumbu Icefall]]. [[Serac]]s, crevasses and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers will usually begin their ascent well before dawn when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) at 6,065 m (19,900 ft).

From Camp I, climbers make their way up the [[Western Cwm]] to the base of the [[Lhotse]] face, where Camp II is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a relatively flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral [[crevasse]]s in the centre which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right near the base of [[Nuptse]] to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The [[high altitude]] and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.

From Camp II, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes up to a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp III on the [[South Col]] at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: The Geneva Spur and The Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock named by a 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in [[scrambling]] over this snow covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of [[sedimentary]] [[sandstone]] which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it.

[[Image:Mt_Everest_cropped_els_1991.jpg|thumb|250px|West shoulder of Everest and the [[Khumbu Icefall]]]]

On the South Col, climbers enter the [[death zone]]. Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or three days they can endure at this altitude for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.

From Camp IV, climbers will begin their summit push around midnight with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers will first reach "The Balcony" at 8,400 m (27,700 ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early dawn light. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into waist deep snow, a serious [[avalanche]] hazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized dome of ice and snow marks the South Summit.

From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse" where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (8,000 ft) down the southwest face while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,000 ft) [[Kangshung face]]. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (40 ft) rock wall called the "[[Hillary Step]]" at 8,760 m (28,750 ft).

Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step and they did it with primitive ice climbing equipment and without fixed ropes. Nowadays, climbers will ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes - though the exposure on the ridge is extreme especially while traversing very large cornices of snow. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a very loose and rocky section that has a very large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers will typically spend less than a half-hour on "top of the world" as they realize the need to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in or afternoon weather becomes a serious problem.

=== Northeast ridge ===
The northeast ridge route begins from the north side of Everest in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the [[Rongbuk Glacier]], setting up Base Camp at 5,180 m (17,000 ft) on a gravel plain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of [[Changtse]] at around 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Camp III (ABC - Advanced Base Camp) is situated below the [[North Col]] at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). To reach Camp IV on the north col, climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at 7,010 m (23,000 ft). From the North Col, climbers ascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around 7,775 m (25,500 ft). The route goes up the north face through a series of gullies and steepens into downsloping slabby terrain before reaching the site of Camp VI at 8,230 m (27,000 ft). From Camp VI, climbers will make their final summit push. Climbers must first make their way through three rock bands known as First Step, Second Step and Third Step. Once above these steps, the final summit slopes (50 to 60 degrees) to the top.

==Ascents==
[[Image:Mount Everest from Rombok Gompa, Tibet.jpg|frame|150px|Mount Everest as seen from the [[Rongbuk Monastery]].]]

On [[June 8]], [[1924]], [[George Mallory]] and [[Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)|Andrew Irvine]], both of the [[United Kingdom]], made an attempt on the summit from which they never returned. [[Noel Odell]], the expedition's [[geologist]], wrote in his diary that he "saw M&I on the ridge, nearing base of final pyramid" at 12:50 p.m. that day. In 1979 climber [[Wang Hongbao]] of [[China]] revealed to a companion that he had discovered a body in 1975 thought at the time to be Irvine's, but he was killed in a fall the next day before he could provide precise details to anyone else.

In 1999, however, the [[Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition]] found Mallory's body in the predicted search area near the old Chinese camp. Controversy has raged in the [[mountaineering]] community as to whether the duo may have summited 29 years before the confirmed ascent (and of course, safe descent) of Everest by Sir [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Tenzing Norgay]] in 1953. The general [[consensus]] among climbers has been that they did not, though recent findings may indicate otherwise. Though there is no physical evidence of either man above the [[Second Step]], there is speculation that if Mallory had made it that far he likely summitted, as there are no difficult technical climbs further up. The leading theory amongst those supporting the summit theory has Mallory tackling the sheer face of the Second Step by standing on Irvine's shoulders. Armed with Irvine's spare oxygen tanks he could have summitted late in the day. Descending in darkness he may have decided to take the Norton Couloir rather than attempt down-climbing the Second Step in the dark. Almost everyone agrees Mallory died in a short fall during his descent through the couloir, where his body was found. Irvine probably briefly survived him as he awaited his companion's return, at the foot of the Second Step, but died later of exposure. Irvine's body was probably found by another Chinese climber in 1960 (nowhere near Mallory's, proving the two had separated) but has not been rediscovered since, despite several searches in 2004.

Mallory had gone on a speaking tour of the [[United States]] the year before in 1923; it was then that he exasperatedly gave the famous reply, "Because it is there," to a [[New York]] [[journalism|journalist]] in response to hearing the question, "Why climb Everest?" for seemingly the thousandth time. Comprehensive information is available at [http://www.everestnews2004.com/malloryandirvine2004/malloryandirvine2004.htm Mallory and Irvine: The Final Chapter] including critical opposing viewpoints.

In 1995, [[George Mallory II]] of [[South Africa]] (his grandson) reached the summit of Everest.

===1933-1953===
In 1933, [[Lady Houston]], a [[millionaire]] ex-[[showgirl]], funded ''the Houston Everest Flight of 1933'', which saw a formation of [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]]s led by the [[Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton|Marquess of Clydesdale]] fly over the summit in an effort to deploy the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Union Jack]] flag at the top.

After taking part in the 1935 reconnaissance expedition, the prolific mountaineering explorer [[Bill Tilman]] was appointed leader of the 1938 Everest expedition which attempted the ascent via the north west ridge. They reached over 27,000 ft (8,200 m) without supplemental oxygen before being forced down due to bad weather and sickness.

Early expeditions ascended the mountain from [[Tibet]], via the north face. However, this access was closed to western expeditions in 1950, after the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] reasserted control over Tibet. However, in 1950, [[Bill Tilman]] and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south.

===Tenzing and Hillary===
During 1951, a British expedition led by [[Eric Shipton]] and including [[Edmund Hillary]], travelled into Nepal to survey a new route via the southern face.

Taking their cue from the British, in 1952 a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] expedition attempted to climb via the southern face, but the assault team of [[Raymond Lambert]] and [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]] [[Tenzing Norgay]] turned back 200 meters short of the summit. The Swiss attempted another expedition in the autumn of 1952; this time a team including Lambert and Tenzing turned back at an earlier stage in the climb.

In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt of Llanfair Waterdine|John Hunt]], returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs to attempt to reach the summit. The first pair turned back after becoming exhausted high on the mountain. The next day, the expedition made its second and final assault on the summit with its fittest and most determined climbing pair. The summit was eventually reached at 11:30 am local time on [[May 29]], [[1953]] by the [[New Zealand]]er [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]] [[Tenzing Norgay]] from Nepal climbing the South Col Route. At the time, both acknowledged it as a team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing revealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot on the summit first. They paused at the summit to take photographs and buried a few sweets and a small [[cross]] in the snow before descending. News of the expedition's success reached [[London]] on the morning of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]'s [[coronation]]. Returning to [[Kathmandu]] a few days later, Hillary and Hunt discovered that they had been promptly [[Knighthood|knighted]] for their efforts.

===1996 disaster===
During the 1996 climbing season, nineteen people died trying to reach the summit, making it the deadliest single year in Everest history. That year, [[May 10]] was the deadliest day in Everest history, when a storm stranded several climbers near the summit (on the Hillary Step), killing eight. Among those who died were experienced climbers [[Rob Hall]] and [[Scott Fischer]], both of whom were leading paid expeditions to the summit. The disaster gained wide publicity and raised questions about the commercialization of Everest.

Journalist [[Jon Krakauer]], on assignment from ''[[Outside (magazine)|Outside]]'' magazine, was also in Hall's party, and afterwards published the bestseller ''[[Into Thin Air]]'' which related his experience. [[Anatoli Boukreev]], a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer's book, co-authored a rebuttal book called ''[[The Climb]]''. The dispute sparked a large debate within the climbing community.  In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the [[University of Toronto]], told ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on that day suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge by around 14%.

During the same season, climber and filmmaker [[David Breashears]] and his team filmed the [[IMAX]] feature ''[[Everest (movie)|Everest]]'' on the mountain (some climbing scenes were later recreated for the film in [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]]). The 70 mm IMAX camera was specially modified to be lightweight enough to carry up the mountain, and to function in the extreme cold with the use of particular greases on the mechanical parts, plastic bearings and special batteries. Production was halted as Breashears and his team assisted the survivors of the May 10 disaster, but the team eventually reached the top on [[May 23]] and filmed the first large format footage of the summit. On Breashears' team was [[Jamling Tenzing Norgay]], the son of [[Tenzing Norgay]], following in his father's footsteps for the first time.

===Facts===
* [[As of 2003|As of the end of the 2003 climbing season]], 1,919 people had reached the summit (829 of them since 1998) and 179 people died while summitting. The conditions on the mountain are so difficult that most of the corpses have been left where they fell; some of them are easily visible from the standard climbing routes.

* Most expeditions use [[oxygen]] [[mask]]s and tanks <ref>[http://classic.mountainzone.com/everest/98/climb5-21oxygen.html Mountainzone article.]</ref> above 26,000 feet (8,000 m); this region is known as the [[death zone]]. Everest can be climbed without supplementary oxygen but increases the risk to the climber. Humans do not think clearly with low oxygen, and the combination of severe [[weather]], low [[temperature]]s, and steep slopes often require quick, accurate decisions.

* Mountain climbers are a significant source of [[tourist revenue]] for Nepal; they range from experienced [[mountaineer]]s to relative [[novice]]s who count on their paid guides to get them to the top. The Nepalese government also requires a permit from all prospective climbers; this carries a heavy fee.{{fact}}

===Timeline===

:''Main article: [[Timeline of climbing Mount Everest]]''

==Death zone==
:''Main article: [[Death zone]]''

While the normal conditions for any area classified as a death zone apply for Mount Everest (altitudes higher than 8,000 meters), it is significantly more difficult for a climber to survive at the death zone on Mount Everest. Temperatures can dip to very low levels, resulting in [[frost bite]] of any body part that is exposed to the air. Because the temperatures are so low, snow is well-frozen in certain areas and death by slipping and falling can also occur. High winds at these altitudes on Everest are also a potential threat to climbers. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everest is about one-third of the sea level pressure, and this means that there is about one third as much oxygen available to breathe as there is at sea level.<ref>[http://www.altitudephysiology.org/oxygenphysiology/mounteverest/airpressurehighaltitude.htm Online high altitude oxygen calculator]</ref>

== Bottled oxygen controversy ==
The use of bottled oxygen to ascend Mount Everest has been controversial. [[George Mallory]] himself described the use of such oxygen as unsportsmanlike, but later concluded that it would be impossible to summit without it, and consequently used it.{{fact}} When [[Tenzing Norgay|Tenzing]] and Hillary made the first successful summit in 1953, they used bottled oxygen. For the next twenty-five years, [[Diving cylinder|bottled oxygen]] was a standard necessity for any successful summit.

[[Reinhold Messner]] was the first climber to break the bottled oxygen tradition and in 1978, with [[Peter Habeler]], made the first successful oxygenless climb. Although critics alleged that he sucked mini-bottles of oxygen - a claim that Messner has denied - Messner silenced them when he summited the mountain, without oxygen or support, on the more difficult Northwest route, in 1980. In the aftermath of Messner's two successful ascents, the debate on bottled oxygen usage continued. Critics have made the assertion that Messner's many high-altitude sorties have resulted in real brain damage from [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] due to pushing himself too hard.{{fact}}

The aftermath of the [[#1996 disaster|1996 Mount Everest]] disaster further intensified the debate. [[Jon Krakauer]]'s ''[[Into Thin Air]]'' (1997) expressed the author's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxygen. Krakauer wrote that the usage of bottled oxygen allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit, leading to dangerous situations and more deaths. The [[May 10]] disaster was partially caused by the sheer number of climbers (33 on that day) attempting to ascend, causing bottlenecks at Hillary Step and delaying many climbers, most of whom summited after the usual 2pm turnaround time. He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases, arguing that this would both decrease the growing trash on Everest and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain.

The 1996 disaster also introduced the issue of the guide's role in using bottled oxygen.<ref name="salon">The debate between G. Weston DeWalt and Jon Krakauer on bottled oxygen and Boukreev's actions can be found in the [http://www.salon.com/wlust/feature/1998/08/07featurea.html Salon debates]</ref>
Guide [[Anatoli Boukreev]]'s decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharply criticized by Jon Krakauer. Boukreev's supporters (who include G. Weston DeWalt, who co-wrote ''[[The Climb]]'') state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security.{{fact}} Krakauer and his supporters point out that, without bottled oxygen, Boukreev was unable to directly help his clients descend.<ref name="salongarner">http://www.salon.com/wlust/feature/1998/08/cov_03feature3.html Coming Down page 3] DWIGHT GARNER ''salon.com'' 1998 August</ref> They state that Boukreev said that he was going down with client Martin Adams<ref name="salongarner"/>, but when Adams slowed down{{fact}}, Boukreev later descended faster and left him behind.<ref name="salongarner"/>

While some climbers in the mountaineering community support Krakauer's point of view, others feel that there is a small set of climbers such as [[Anatoli Boukreev]] and [[Ed Viesturs]] who can climb without oxygen and still function well.{{fact}} Most climbers agree that a guide cannot directly help clients if he or she cannot concentrate or think clearly (which happens with the very thin atmosphere above) and this may be an argument for the use of bottled oxygen by them.

==David Sharp controversy==
Double-amputee climber [[Mark Inglis]] revealed in an interview with the press on [[May 23]], [[2006]], that his climbing party, and many others, had passed a distressed climber, [[David Sharp]], sheltering under a rock overhang 450 meters below the summit without attempting a rescue. The revelation sparked wide debate on climbing ethics, especially as applied to Everest.

As this debate raged, Australian climber [[Lincoln Hall (Climber)|Lincoln Hall]] was found alive, after being declared dead, by a party of four climbers ([[Dan Mazur]], Andrew Brash, Myles Osborne and Jangbu Sherpa) who giving up their own summit attempt, stayed with Hall and descended with him and a party of 12 Sherpas sent up to carry him down. Hall later fully recovered.

==Life-threatening thefts==
Other climbers have reported life-threatening thefts from supply caches. [[Vitor Negrete]], the first Brazilian to climb Everest without oxygen and part of David Sharp's party, died during his descent, and theft from his high-altitude camp may have contributed.<ref>[http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=2092 Mounteverest.net article]. See also [http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=2069 second article.]</ref>

==Life forms==
''[[Euophrys omnisuperstes]]'', a minute black [[jumping spider]], has been found at elevations as high as 6,700 meters, possibly making it the highest known permanent resident on earth. They lurk in crevices and possibly feed on frozen insects that have been blown there by the wind.

==See also==
{{commons|Mount Everest}}
*[[List of highest mountains|Highest mountains of the world]]
*[[North Col]]
*[[South Col]]
*[[Rongbuk Glacier]]
*[[Rongbuk Monastery]]
*[[Kangshung Face, Mount Everest]]
*[[Geography of China]]
*[[Sagarmatha National Park]]
*[[Geology of the Himalaya]]

==Image gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Mount Everest from Rongbuk may 2005.JPG|View on the majestic Mount Everest from the Rongbuk Monastery
Image:Everest nubtse.jpg|Mount Everest and Nubtse from Kala Patthar
Image:Sagarmatha ck Oct18 2002.jpg|Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) as seen from Kala Pattar
Image:MT Everest88.jpg|Mount Everest
</gallery>

==External links==
* [http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150230/everest.html Summitpost: Lots of info and photos]
* [http://www.armyoneverest.mod.uk The Army On Everest, The British Army's West Ridge Expedition Site]
* [http://www.therestofeverest.com The Rest of Everest Video Podcast, An Almost Unabridged Expedition Experience]
* [http://www.everytrail.net/everest2006 Everest blogs by climbers]
* [http://www.everytrail.net/everest2006/everest-map.php Everest Interactive map]
* [http://www.everest-pixel-dream.com A fundraising expedition planned for spring 2007]
* [http://www.everesthistory.com/ EverestHistory.com], [http://www.everesthistory.com/time3.htm Mt. Everest timeline]
* [http://www.mounteverest.net/ MountEverest.net]
* [http://travel.desktop-wallpaper-photo.com/pict01.htm Mount Everest Photograph]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/ NOVA site on Mt. Everest], [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/history/highpioneers.html Climbing pioneer history]
* [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/everest/ ''National Geographic'''s page on Mt. Everest]
* [http://www.tilman.tv/ The Life of Bill Tilman, leader of the 1938 Expedition on Everest]
*[http://www.gonomad.com/alternatives/0602/everest.html Hiking to the base of Mt. Everest, GoNOMAD feature article]
* [http://thegreatindian.tripod.com/mountEverest.htm Mount Everest Image by Roddy Mackenzie who climbed the mountain in 1989]
*[http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=80 Mount Everest at Peakware]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=27.976628,86.933302&t=k&om=0&spn=0.003515,0.006432 ''Google Maps'' satellite image]
*[http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen2/full22.html Panorama from the top of Mt.Everest]
* Computer-generated annotated virtual panoramas [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ASIA/Everest-North.gif North] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ASIA/Everest-South.gif South] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html Index], can be compared with above link
*[http://bau2.uibk.ac.at/sg/python/Scripts/TheHairDressersonMtEverest The Hairdressers' Ascent up Mount Everest] sketch from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile4574/Mt.-Everest-Basecamp.htm Very close view to the Mount Everest Basecamp with ''Google Earth'' (KMZ File)]
* [http://www.xtreme-everest.co.uk/ Xtreme Everest 2007], An expedition to study human physiology at altitude, spring 2007
* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13001760 " 'Naked' climber on Everest sparks anger"], ''[[MSNBC]]''
* [http://www.8000metres.com/mountains/everest/external-references/ List of Mount Everest Resources]
* [http://www.WayToEverest.de/ www.WayToEverest.de], An interactive fine-art panorama photobook about the way to the Everest (100p.)

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
*[http://www.everesthistory.com/everestsummits/summitsbyyear.htm Summits and deaths per year]

{{Eight-thousander}}
{{Seven Summits}}

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[[Category:Extreme points of the world]]

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Tenzing Norgay

2006-10-04T01:28:22Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Tenzing Norgay

[[Image:norgay.gif|thumb|right]]
'''Tenzing Norgay''' ([[29 May]](?) [[1914]] – [[9 May]] [[1986]]), often referred to as '''Sherpa Tenzing''', was a [[Nepal]]ese [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]] [[mountaineer]]. He and Sir [[Edmund Hillary]] were the first men to reach the summit of [[Mount Everest]] on [[29 May]] [[1953]].

==Early life==
Tenzing came from a peasant family from [[Khumbu]] in [[Nepal]], very near Mount Everest, which the Sherpas called ''Chomolungma''. At the time he climbed Everest it was generally believed that he was born there, but in the 1990s it emerged that he was actually born and spent part of his early life in the Kharta Valley region in [[Tibet]] to the east of Mount Everest, but this had been kept secret for political reasons.

He was originally called "Namgyal Wangdi", but as a child his name was changed on advice from the head [[lama]] and founder of the famous Rongbuk Monastery - Ngawang Tenzin Norbu. Tenzing Norgay translates as "wealthy-fortunate-follower-of-religion". His father, a yak herder, was Ghang La Mingma (who died in 1949) and his mother was Dokmo Kinzom (who lived to see him climb Everest); he was the 11th of 13 children, most of whom died young.

His exact date of birth is uncertain, but he knew it was late May from the weather and the crops. Later, he decided to treat [[29 May]] as his birthday, as this was the date he climbed Everest.

He ran away to [[Kathmandu]] twice as a boy, and, at age 19, eventually settled in the Sherpa community in Too Song Bhusti in [[Darjeeling]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]].

==Mountaineering==
He took part as a high-altitude porter in three official British attempts to climb Everest from the northern [[Tibet]]an side in the 1930s.

Tenzing also took part in other climbs in various parts of the Indian subcontinent, and for a time in the early 1940s he lived in what is now [[Pakistan]]; he said that the most difficult climb he ever took part in was on [[Nanda Devi|Nanda Devi East]], where a number of people were killed.

In 1947, he took part in an unsuccessful summit attempt. An eccentric Englishman Earl Denman, Ange Dawa Sherpa, and himself entered Tibet illegally to attempt the mountain; the attempt ended when a strong storm at 22,000 ft pounded them. Denman admitted defeat and all three turned around and safely returned.

In 1952, he took part in two Swiss expeditions led by [[Raymond Lambert]], the first serious attempts to climb Everest from the southern Nepalese side, during which he and Lambert reached the then record height of 8,599 m (28,215 ft).

==Success on Mount Everest==
In 1953, he took part in Sir [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt of Llanfair Waterdine|John Hunt]]'s expedition, his own seventh expedition to Everest, in which he and Hillary became the first to reach the summit. Afterwards he was met with adulation in India and Nepal, and even literally worshipped by some people who believed he must be an incarnation of [[Buddha]] or [[Shiva]].

Tenzing and Hillary were the first people to conclusively set their feet on the summit of Mount Everest, but journalists were persistently repeating the question which of the two men had the right to the glory of being the first one, and who was merely the second, the follower.

Tenzing stressed the unity of such teams and of their achievements, shrugged off the allegation of being ever pulled by anyone, but disclosed that Hillary was the first to put his foot on the summit. He concluded: "If it is a shame to be the second man on Mount Everest, then I will have to live with this shame."

==Family life==
Tenzing was married three times. His first wife, Dawa Phuti, died young in 1944. With her he had a son, Nima Dorje, who died at the age of four, and two daughters: Pem Pem, who had a son [[Tashi Tenzing]] who climbed Everest, and Nima, who married a Filipino graphic designer, Noli Galang. His second wife was Ang Lahmu, a cousin of his first wife. They had no children, but she acted as stepmother to his daughters. His third wife was Daku, whom he married while his second wife was still alive, as allowed by Sherpa custom, and with her he had his sons [[Jamling Tenzing Norgay|Jamling]] and Norbu. Other relatives include his nephews, [[Nawang Gombu]] and Topgay, who took part in the 1953 Everest expedition.

==After Everest==
Tenzing later became director of field training for the [[Himalayan Mountaineering Institute]] in [[Darjeeling]]. In 1978, he founded a company, [[Tenzing Norgay Adventures]], that offers [[trekking]] in the [[Himalaya]]. As of 2003, the company was run by his son [[Jamling Tenzing Norgay]], who himself reached the summit of Everest in 1996. Tenzing died in [[Darjeeling]] (now [[Darjiling]]), [[West Bengal]], [[India]] in 1986. 

== References==
*Tenzing Norgay and [[James Ramsey Ullman]], ''Man of Everest'' (1955, first published as ''Tiger of the Snows'')
*Tenzing Norgay and Malcolm Barnes ''After Everest'' (1978)
*''Everest Exposed'' (an account of the 1953 expedition)
*[[Tashi Tenzing]] and Judy Tenzing, ''Tenzing Norgay and the Sherpas of Everest''
*Ed Webster, ''Snow in the Kingdom'' (2000)

== External links==
* [http://imagingeverest.rgs.org/Concepts/Virtual_Everest/-116.html article] on him from [[Royal Geographical Society]]
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/388/000094106/ entry] from people database
* [http://www.tenzing-norgay.com/ Tenzing Norgay Adventures]

[[Category:1914 births]]
[[Category:1986 deaths]]
[[Category:Nepalese mountain climbers]]

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[[fr:Tensing Norgay]]
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Jerusalem

2006-10-04T01:26:46Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Jerusalem

{{otheruses}}
{| align="right" style="float;"
|
{{Infobox Israel muni
|name=Jerusalem
|image=Jerusalem emblem.png
|imgsize=100
|arname=commonly القـُدْس (''Al-Quds''); officially in Israel أورشليم القدس (''Urshalim-Al-Quds'')
|hebname=יְרוּשָׁלַיִם (''Yerushalayim'')
|meaning=Hebrew: "City of Peace", Arabic: "The Holiness"
|founded=
|type=city
|typefrom=
|stdHeb=Yerushalayim or Yerushalaim
|altOffSp=
|altUnoSp=
|district=jerusalem
|population=724,000
|popyear=2006
|area=123,000
|areakm=123
|mayor=[[Uri Lupolianski]]
}}
|-
| {{Jerusalem}}
|}
'''Jerusalem''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{Audio|He-Jerusalem.ogg|יְרוּשָׁלַיִם}}, ''Yerushaláyim'' or ''Yerushalaim''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{Audio|ArAlquds.ogg|القُدس}}, ''al-Quds''; official Arabic in Israel: أورشليم القدس, ''Urshalim-Al-Quds'') is [[Israel]]'s [[capital]] and largest city, with a population of 724,000 (as of [[May 24]] [[2006]] <ref name=cbs>[http://www.cbs.gov.il/hodaot2006n/11_06_106b.pdf Central Bureau of Statistics 2006 Report] {{PDFlink}}</ref>) contained in 123 km². An ancient [[Middle East]]ern city on the [[Drainage basin|watershed]] between the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Dead Sea]] at an elevation of 650-840 metres (about 2000-2500 feet), Jerusalem is located southeast of [[Tel Aviv]], south of [[Ramallah]], west of [[Jericho]] and north of [[Bethlehem]].

Jerusalem is the holiest city of [[Judaism]] (since the 10th century BCE) and some denominations of [[Christianity]] (since the 5th century CE) and, after [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]], the third holiest city of [[Islam]] (since the 7th century CE).
A [[heterogeneous]] city, Jerusalem represents a wide range of national, religious, and socioeconomic groups. The section called the "Old City" is surrounded by [[Jerusalem's Old City walls|walls]] and consists of four quarters: [[Armenian Quarter|Armenian]], [[Christian Quarter|Christian]], [[Jewish Quarter|Jewish]], and [[Muslim Quarter|Muslim]]. The status of united Jerusalem as Israel's capital is not widely recognised by the international community (see [[Positions on Jerusalem]]), and Israel's annexation of [[East Jerusalem]] is particularly controversial.

The current [[List of mayors of Jerusalem|mayor of Jerusalem]] is [[Uri Lupolianski]], the first [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] to ever hold this position.

==Name==
{{main|Names of Jerusalem}}
[[Image:View of Jerusalem (small).jpg|thumb|A view of the Old City of Jerusalem taken from the Jewish Cemetery on the [[Mount of Olives]].]]
[[Image:Jerusalem from mt olives.jpg|thumb|Closeup]]
The origin of the name of the city is uncertain. It is possible to understand the name ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Yerushalayim'') as either "Heritage of Salem" or "Heritage of Peace" – a contraction of "heritage" (''yerusha'') and either [[Salem]] (''Shalem'' literally "whole" or "in harmony") or ''[[shalom]]'' ("peace"). (See the Biblical commentator [[Ramban]] for explanation.) "Shalem" is the name used in [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 14:18 for the city. Similarly the [[Amarna Letters]] call the city ''Urušalim'' in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], a cognate of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ir Shalem'' ("city of Salem"). Some consider a connection between the name and ''Shalim'' - the deity personifying dusk known from [[Ugarit|Ugaritic]] myths and offering lists. The ending ''-ayim'' or ''-im'' has the appearance of the Hebrew dual or pluralis. It has been argued that it is a dual form representing the fact that the city lies on two hills however the treatment of the ending as a suffix makes the rest of the name incomprehensible in Hebrew. A [[Midrash]]ic interpretation comes from [[Genesis Rabba]], which explains that Abraham came to "Shalem" after rescuing [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]]. Upon arrival, he asked the king and high priest [[Melchizedek]] to bless him, and Melchizedek did so in the name of the Supreme God (indicating that he, like Abraham, was a monotheist). According to exegetes, God immortalizes this encounter between Melchizedek and Abraham by renaming the city in honor of them: the name "Yeru" (derived from "Yireh", the name Abraham gives to [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]] after unbinding [[Isaac]], and explained in Genesis as meaning that God will be revealed there) is placed in front of "Shalem". The plural ending implies the community of all believers in the One God who testify to the city's holiness.

==History==
{{main|History of Jerusalem}}

[[Image:Jerusalem Ugglan 1.jpg|225px|thumb|Reconstruction of the First Temple]]

Archaeological findings indicate the existence of a settlement in Jerusalem in the 3rd millennium BCE. The earliest written record of the city to [[Egypt|Egyptian]] records of the [[Bronze Age]] in the 2nd millennium BCE.

The city is believed to have been first built and founded by [[Canaan|Canaanite]] peoples (possibly, but not necessarily the [[Jebusites]] who occupied the city during the late [[Bronze Age]]). During this Canaanite period, Jerusalem had the name ''Urušalim'', meaning "the city of peace". From about 1600 to 1300 BCE, the city came under [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[suzerainty]] and was governed by Canaanite rulers who paid tribute to the [[Pharaoh]]s. {{citation needed}} During this period, the city increasingly came under attacks from the [[Habiru]], who possibly were the ancestors of the [[Hebrews]]. {{citation needed}}

[[Image:Kaulbach Zerstoerung Jerusalems durch Titus.jpg|225px|thumb|left|Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (W. Kaulbach)]]

According to [[Midrash]], Jerusalem was founded by [[Shem]] and [[Eber]], ancestors of [[Abraham]]. Further, the [[Hebrew Bible|Bible]] mentions that the city was controlled by the [[Jebusites]] until its conquest by [[David]], at a date subsequently placed at about 1000 BCE.

David expanded the city to the south, and declared it the capital city of the united [[Kingdom of Israel]]. It thus became the capital of the Jewish kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]], [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Kingdom of Judea|Judea]] in the [[First Temple]] and [[Second Temple]] periods.

In about 960 BCE, [[Solomon]] built the [[Temple in Jerusalem|First Jewish Temple]]. For about four centuries after the [[ten tribes]] split off to form the northern [[Kingdom of Israel]], Jerusalem served as the capital of the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]].

By the end of the First Temple period, Jerusalem was the sole acting religious shrine in the kingdom, and a center of regular pilgrimage. Historical records corroborate some of the Biblical history from around the 9th century BCE, and attest the significance of the Temple in Jewish religious life. In 597 BCE, the city was overcome by the [[Babylonia]]ns under [[Nebuchadrezzar]], and in 586 BCE, the city's walls were ruined and the Temple was burnt. After several decades of [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|captivity]], the Jews were allowed by [[Cyrus II of Persia]] to return to Judah and rebuild the city and the Temple. It continued to be the capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship for another four centuries under the [[Hasmonean|Hasmonean Kingdom]].

[[Image:Jerusalem1099.jpg|225px|thumb|Capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099 (a medieval manuscript)]]
By 19 BCE, the [[Temple Mount]] was elevated and the [[Second Temple]] was expanded under [[Herod the Great]], a Jewish client-king under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule. In 6 CE, the city and [[Iudaea Province]] came under direct Roman rule. The [[Great Jewish Revolt]] resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The city served as the national capital again for almost 3 years during the [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] against Rome; it was sacked in 135 CE. For almost two millennia thereafter, Jerusalem did not serve as the national capital of any independent state, until the renewed independence of [[Israel]] in [[1948]].

The city remained under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule, until it was taken by the advancing Muslim forces in 638. The rights of the non-Muslims under Islam were governed by the [[Pact of Umar]], and Christians and Jews living in the city were granted autonomy in exchange for a required [[poll tax]]. Whereas the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Christian authorities had not tolerated the presence of Jews within the walls of the city, the Muslim rulers allowed the reestablishment of a Jewish community.<ref>Peter, 186</ref>
After the treaty of Capitulation signed with the Byzantines, Umar ordered the Patriarch [[Sophronius]] to guide him and those who accompanied him to the sanctuary of King David, where he later decided to build a mosque in front of the Rock.The mosque became known as Masjid Umar.

[[Image:Hartmann-schedel-hierosolima-1493 2-BW-1147x965.jpg|225px|thumb|left|The oldest printed prospect of Jerusalem (Hartmann Schedel, Nürnberg 1493)]]
In 1099, the city was conquered by the [[First Crusade]]rs, who slaughtered most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. A series of conquests followed: in 1187 the city was taken from the Crusaders by [[Saladin]]. From 1228 to 1244, it was given by Saladin's descendant [[al-Kamil]] to the Holy Roman Emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]].

Jerusalem fell again to the [[Ayyubids]] of Egypt in 1244. The Ayyubids were replaced in 1260 by the [[Mamelukes]], and in 1517, Jerusalem and its environs fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]].

In 1917, the [[British Army]] led by [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|General Allenby]] captured the city. Under the [[League of Nations]] [[British Mandate of Palestine|Mandate]], Britain was entrusted with establishing a Jewish National Home in Palestine. This period saw the construction of new garden suburbs in the western part of the city and establishment of institutions of learning such as the [[Hebrew University]], founded in 1925.

As the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] was expiring, the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] (Part III) recommended that "The City of Jerusalem shall be established as a ''corpus separatum'' under a special international regime and shall be administered by the United Nations." However, this plan was never implemented and at the end of the 1948-49 war, Jerusalem found itself divided between Israel and [[Jordan]] (then known as Transjordan).

The [[1949 Armistice Agreements|1949 cease-fire line]] between Israel and Jordan, which was part of the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]], cut through the center of the city from 1949 until 1967, during which time west Jerusalem was part of Israel and [[East Jerusalem]] was part of Jordan. From 1950 to 1967, the capital declared by Israel comprised of western Jerusalem. Ever since Israel captured eastern Jerusalem from Jordan in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Israel has administered and asserted [[sovereignty]] over the entire city. The international community has not accepted this claim.

Israel's 1980 ''[[Jerusalem Law|Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel]]'' declared Jerusalem to be the 'eternal, undivided' capital of Israel, while East Jerusalem is being claimed as the intended capital of a future Palestinian state. The status of the city and of its holy places is disputed.

==Status of Jerusalem==
===Religious significance===
{{main|Religious significance of Jerusalem}}

Jerusalem plays an important role in three [[Major world religions|major religions]]: [[Religious significance of Jerusalem#Jerusalem in Judaism|Judaism]], [[Religious significance of Jerusalem#Jerusalem in Christianity|Christianity]], and [[Religious significance of Jerusalem#Jerusalem in Islam|Islam]], as well as in a number of smaller religious groups. A large number of places have religious significance for these religions, among which the [[Temple Mount]] and its [[Western Wall]] for Jews, the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] for Christians and the [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] and [[Dome of the Rock]] for Muslims.
<gallery>
Image:Western wall jerusalem night.jpg|The [[Western Wall]]
Image:Holy sepulchre exterior.jpg|Main entrance to the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]
Image:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg|The [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]]
</gallery>

===Jerusalem as the capital of Israel===
{{seealso|Positions on Jerusalem}}
{{Israelis}}
Israel proclaimed Jerusalem as its [[capital]] in 1950 and all the branches of Israeli government (Presidential, Legislative, Judicial and Administrative) are seated in Jerusalem. In 1950, given that the city was divided between Israel and Jordan, this proclamation related only to western Jerusalem. Immediately after the [[Six Day War]] in [[1967]], Israeli legislation incorporated East Jerusalem into Israel, annexing it to the municipality of Jerusalem, and making it a ''de facto'' part of its capital. Israel enshrined the status of united Jerusalem, west and east, as its undivided capital, in Israel's 1980 ''[[Jerusalem Law|Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel]]''. [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 478]] declared that this law was 'null and void and must be rescinded forthwith' and advised member states to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city as a punitive measure, which most of the few countries with embassies in Jerusalem did, relocating their embassies to Tel Aviv.

Most UN member states already located their embassy in Tel Aviv prior to Resolution 478. Currently, only two UN member states have located their embassies within the city limits of Jerusalem, Costa Rica and El Salvador, with the embassies of Bolivia and Paraguay to be found in Mevasseret Zion, a suburb of Jerusalem. On August 16, 2006, the newly elected Costa Rican president stated the intention to relocate its embassy to Tel Aviv.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1154525889070&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull
|title=Costa Rica to move embassy from J'lem
|publisher=Jerusalem Post
|date=Aug. 17, 2006 }}</ref> 9 days later, El Salvador followed with a similar statement.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1154525945429&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull
|title=El Salvador will move embassy to Tel Aviv
|publisher=Jerusalem Post
|date=Aug. 25, 2006 }}</ref>

Jerusalem is home to a number of key Israeli government buildings, including the [[Knesset]], the [[Israeli Supreme Court]] and the houses of the [[President of Israel|President]] and [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]]. With the exception of the house of the premier, these buildings can be toured.

Much of the [[international community]] argues that Israel's annexation of the eastern part of Jerusalem after the [[Six-Day War]] was in violation of international law, and that the final issue of the status of East Jerusalem should be determined in future Israeli-Palestinian negotiations. Therefore, although all ambassadors and other official diplomats submit their accreditation to the President of Israel in his house at Jerusalem, nearly all countries maintain their embassies in [[Tel Aviv]], Israel's economic and financial center.<ref>[http://cia.gov./cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html CIA World Factbook]</ref>

<gallery>
Image:Knesset in Jerusalem Israel.jpg|The [[Knesset]] building, Israel's parliament
Image:SupremeCourtIsrael ST 06.jpg|Frontal view of [[Supreme Court of Israel|The Supreme Court]] building
Image:Governmentsquare.jpeg|"Government Campus" consisting of the office building of [[Prime Minister of Israel]], the building of Israeli [[Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel|Foreign Affairs Ministry]], [[Finance Minister of Israel|Finance Ministry]] and Ministry of Interior
</gallery>

===Palestinian claims===
[[Image:800px-OrientHouse.jpg|thumb|The [[Orient House]] formerly used by the Palestinian Authority]]
The [[Palestinian National Authority]] asserts that the capital of a future Palestinian state will be situated in East Jerusalem. According to the [[Oslo Agreements]] the final status of Jerusalem should be determined by peaceful negotiation. The most notable "official" [[Palestinian]] presence in the city is the [[Orient House]], which has been subject to strict monitoring by the Israeli authorities and since August 2001 has been occupied by the Israeli security services. The Palestinian flag has since been taken down from it.

==Physical geography==
Jerusalem is situated in {{coor dms|31|46|45|N|35|13|25|E|}}, upon the southern spur of a plateau the eastern side of which slopes from 2,460 ft. above sea-level north of the [[Temple Mount]] to 2,130 ft. at the southeastern extremity. The western hill is about 2,500 ft. high and slopes southeast from the Judean plateau.

===Topography===
Jerusalem is surrounded upon all sides by valleys, of which those on the north are less pronounced than those on the other three sides. The principal two valleys start northwest of the present city. The first runs eastward with a slight southerly bend (the present Wadi al-Joz), then, deflecting directly south, the [[Kidron Valley|Kidron]] (Hebrew) Valley or Wadi Sitti Maryam (Arabic), divides the [[Mount of Olives]] from the city. The second runs directly south on the western side of the city, turns eastward at its southeastern extremity, then runs directly east, and joins the first valley near Bir Ayyub ("Job's Well"). This valley is called the [[Valley of Hinnom]] or [[Ge-Hinnom]] in Hebrew, and Wadi al-Rababi in Arabic.
[[Image:JPF - Old City From Mount Scopus.jpg|thumb|A view from [[Mount Scopus]]]]
A third valley, commencing in the northwest where is now the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly down to the [[Pool of Siloam]], and divided the lower part into two hills (the lower and the upper cities of Josephus). This is probably the later [[Tyropoeon Valley|Tyropoeon ("Cheese-makers'") valley]]. A fourth valley led from the western hill (near the present Jaffa Gate) over to the Temple area: it is represented in modern Jerusalem by David Street. A fifth cut the eastern hill into a northern and a southern part. Later Jerusalem was thus built upon four spurs. Today, neighboring towns are [[Bethlehem]] and [[Beit Jala]] at the southern city border, [[Abu Dis]] and [[Ma'ale Adummim]] to the East, [[Mevaseret Zion]] to the West, [[Giv'at Ze'ev]] to the North.
{{seealso|List of places in Jerusalem}}

==Climate and environment==
[[Image:JerusalemCoveredInSnow.jpg|thumb|180px|February 2003 in Jerusalem]]
Jerusalem is situated at a relatively high altitude and experiences cold, wet winters with an average of 9 °C. The average annual precipitation is about 600 [[mm]] (24 inches). Snowfalls, when they occur, are generally mild. Summers in Jerusalem are dry and often hot with temperatures averaging around 26 °C.

There is almost no industrial pollution in Jerusalem. Most pollutants are the product of heavy bus and personal vehicle traffic, especially along the arterial roads, and a by-product from heavy building. With this exception, air pollution is low.

The building code in Jerusalem prescribes that all buildings should be covered with native [[Jerusalem stone]].<ref>[http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_12.html The British Mandate] from "Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City". Online course material from the Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel</ref> Although this increases building costs somewhat, it gives the city a very distinct look in comparison with other cities. Since the 1950s only a small number of buildings have been constructed in Jerusalem which do not conform to this code.

With the exception of the central plateau, many neighborhoods are divided by deep valleys, which are the natural green areas of the city. To the west of the city is the larger [[Jerusalem Forest]]. Especially in open spaces near major roads, large parks were developed. To the east and the southeast of the Old City, where little grows without constant irrigation, promenades with parks were developed, which allow walkers to enjoy the view of the Old City, the Judean Desert, the irrigated vegetation, and - depending on location and weather conditions - the [[Dead Sea]] and [[Jordan]]ian mountains.

==People and culture==
===Demography===
{{main|Demographics of Jerusalem}}

When it first appears in historical records, Jerusalem was inhabited by a [[Canaan|Canaanite]] tribe. The Bible specifies them as the [[Jebusite]]s, and says they ruled it until its conquest by King [[David]]. After taking control of the city from the Canaanites, Jews formed the majority of the population for 1,200 years, until Jerusalem's destruction by Rome in the second century. Subsequent demographic changes are uncertain, although the city's population probably attained a Muslim majority by the time of the [[Crusades]]. An official 16th century survey confirms that the city was largely Muslim. By 1844, Jews were once again the largest single ethnic group in the city and formed a majority by the late 19th century.{{verify source}}

As of May 24, 2006, Jerusalem's population is 724,000 (about 10% of the total population of Israel), of which 65.0% were Jews (approx. one-quarter of whom live in [[East Jerusalem]]), 32.0% Muslim (almost all of whom live in [[East Jerusalem]]) and 2% Christian. 35% of the city's population were children under age of 15. In 2005, the city had 18,600 newborns. <ref name=cbs/>

It should be noted that these official Israeli statistics refer to the expanded Israel municipality of Jerusalem. This includes not only the area of the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities, but also outlying Palestinian villages and neighbourhoods to the north-east of the city which were not part of the Jordanian municipality of [[East Jerusalem]] prior to 1967. A reasonable assumption is that all or part of these may not remain part of Jerusalem when its final status is established, but rather be returned to the [[West Bank]] as part of the Palestinian state. Some of these villages and neighbourhoods have already been returned to the West Bank ''de facto'' by way of the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]], although formally, their legal status has not been reverted.

===Culture===

Jerusalem houses many museums. The [[Israel Museum]] is one of the most famous. It
includes a large collection of art and archaeological artifacts. In the "Shrine of the Book", it exhibits the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. The [[Rockefeller Museum]] is the city's specific museum for archeology. The [[Ticho House]] provides an art collections in a historical building. The [[Tower of David]] Museum is the main municipal museum, it includes models of the city and changing exhibits. [[Yad Vashem]] is the national Holocaust museum and monument. The Islamic Museum in the Old City and Islamic Art Museum near the President's house both have collections of Islamic art, holy scripts and artifacts.

The city has two professional orchestras, the [[Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra-IBA]] and the [[Israel Camerata Jerusalem]]. In walking distance from the old city (southwest) is a cluster of cultural institutions. Theaters include the [[Khan Theater]], Jerar Bachar, Beit Shmuel, Beit Agron and [[Jerusalem's Theatre]]. The [[Jerusalem Cinematheque]] is the venue in Jerusalem to watch non-commercial movies. It houses annually an international film festival and a Jewish film festival. In the [[Sultan Pool]] open air concerts are held, by Israeli artists and guests from abroad. The [[Jerusalem Music Center]] in [[Mishkenot Sha’ananim]] hosts chamber music concerts and workshops.

Adjacent to the [[Hebrew University]]’s Givat Ram campus are the [[Jerusalem Botanical Gardens]]. The Givat Ram campus is also the home to the [[Jewish National and University Library]], itself home to the [[Albert Einstein]] archives and the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection.
The Synagogue of the [[Hadassah Medical Center]] is home to the [[Marc Chagall]] stained glass windows depicting the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]]. Another theater, the [[Palestinian National Theatre]] is located next to [[Orient House]].

The main cultural event of the year is the [[Israel Festival]], with international and local street performances and repertory and alternative musicians and theater groups.
<gallery>
Image:Israel - Jerusalem - Shrine of the Book.jpg|[[Shrine of the Book]]
Image:Jerusalem-TowerOfDavid 004.jpg|[[Tower of David|The David Tower Museum]]
Image:HUJI2.jpg|[[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], Givat Ram campus
Image:Khanjerusalem.jpeg|The Khan Theater in Jerusalem
Image:Jerusalem-MulinoMontefiori.jpg|Old gristmill in [[Mishkenot Sha’ananim]]
Image:Eurovisionisrael.jpeg|The hall of [[Binyanei Hauma]] hosted the Eurovision in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979|1979]] and [[Eurovision Song Contest 1999|1999]]
</gallery>

==Economy==
Heavy industry is discouraged in Jerusalem, leaving Jerusalem's economy as mainly service-based. While [[Tel Aviv]] remains Israel's financial capital, almost half of Jerusalem's residents work in government, public service, or tourism, although there has been an increasing number of high-technology start-ups in the city, as well.

The civilian labor force of Jerusalem was 183,000 (48.1%) out of 384,000 persons ages 15+. This is low in comparison to Tel Aviv and Haifa, 58.0% and 52.4% respectively. This reflects a higher percentage of one income households, especially among the Arab and [[Haredi]] populations. According to the [[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]], the average wage for a Jerusalem worker was NIS 5,568 in 2000. In Tel Aviv the income was 17.8% higher and in Haifa 14.1% higher. Income in Jerusalem was on average lower both for wage-earners and self-employed people. <ref name=cbs/>

The population of Jerusalem is poorer in comparison to Israeli national figures. This is also often attributed to large Arab and [[Haredi]] population segments. In 1995 25% of the city population and 37% of its children lived below poverty level, as compared to 17% of all Israelis and 23% of Israeli children. <ref name=cbs/>

==Tourism==
[[Image:Aroma on Hilel Street, Jerusalem - Point of Sale.jpg|150px|thumb|Coffee shop in Jerusalem's centre]]
[[Image:Midrachov jerusalem mozesy2.jpg|thumb|150px|Nightlife in Jerusalem centre]]
Jerusalem is home to many attractions. Some of these include:

*The [[Old City]] of Jerusalem
*Jerusalem Centre around Jaffa and Ben Yehuda streets
*The various [[Jerusalem#Museums|Museums]]
*The [[Biblical ZOO, Jerusalem|Biblical Zoo]]
*The [[City of David]]
*Quaint neighbourhoods such as [[Mishkenot Sha’ananim]], [[Ein Kerem]], [[Mea Shearim]] and [[German Colony]]
*[[Malcha]] Center
*Main nightlife in Jerusalem around the [[Russian Compound]], Nachalat Shivaa, ShlomZion and [[Talpiot]]
*[[Talpiot#HThe hass promenade|The Haas Promenade]]

''See also {{Wikitravel|Jerusalem}}.''

==Transportation==
===Roads===
[[Begin Expressway|Begin Boulevard]] is western Jerusalem's inner city [[expressway]]. It runs south to north from [[Manahat|Manahat (Malcha)]] to [[Ramot]], where it merges into the [[Modi'in]]-[[Tel Aviv]] highway ([[Highway 443 (Israel)|Highway 443]]). Other major north-south arteries include: the [[Talpiot]]-[[Atarot]] route ([[Route 60 (Israel)|Route 60]]), which traverses the city center and roughly separates East and West Jerusalem; and Herzl Boulevard, which begins at the northern entrance of the city and continues south via [[Mount Herzl]] and the [[Yad VaShem]] [[Holocaust]] memorial. It then merges into additional routes that lead to the southwestern quarters. The Golomb-Herzog-Ben-Zvi route also links the southern quarters with the city center.

Running east through the city center, Jaffa Road connects the [[The Jaffa Gate|Jaffa Gate]] of the Old City as well as East Jerusalem with the northwestern city entrance and [[Highway 1 (Israel)|Highway 1]]. Yigal Yadin Boulevard serves as a northern bypass of the city center, and links [[Ma'ale Adummim]] and the northeastern neighborhoods to Begin Boulevard near Ramot.

A future ring-road would include Yadin and Begin boulevards as the respective north and west sectors. <ref>[http://cache5.imente.com/vcache.cgi?cc=&clau=11377594941118393427&plt=17HQiTECha&m=1&catg=1115196882 Running rings around us] by Nathan Burstein (''Jerusalem Post'', January 19, 2006)</ref>

===Buses===
[[Image:Jersualem-CBS.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[Jerusalem Central Bus Station]]]]
[[Jerusalem Central Bus Station]] is Jerusalem's intercity [[bus]] [[bus station|station]]. It is served mainly by [[Egged]] buses and by a single joint Egged - [[Dan Bus Company|Dan]] bus line, while [[Superbus]] and [[Margalit]], serving [[Modi'in]], have their stops close by. City buses in the Jewish and Israeli areas are run by Egged, which runs close to 100 bus lines throughout the city and its suburbs.

Palestinian-run buses serve the city's Arab neighborhoods as well as Palestinian towns in the West Bank and Israeli Arab towns. This system is based out of the East Jerusalem Central Bus Station on Sultan Suleiman Street, though buses also leave from outside the [[Damascus Gate]] of the [[Old City]].

The Egged and Palestinian city bus networks are almost completely separated. There are only a handful of bus stops that both companies serve. Arab residents of Jerusalem do use Egged buses frequently, but Jewish residents rarely use the Palestinian buses, in part because while Arabs do regularly visit the Israeli center of town, Jews frequently do not come to the Arab parts of the city.

===Railway===
[[Israel Railways]] operates train service to Southern Jerusalem with 2 stops: [[Jerusalem Malcha Train Station|Jerusalem Malcha]] near the [[Jerusalem Shopping Mall|Malcha Mall]] and the [[Jerusalem Biblical Zoo|Biblical Zoo]]. Very few trains stop at the latter stop. The line was out of use for seven years because of deteriorating conditions and was restored on [[April 9]] [[2005]]. Jerusalem Malcha is the new station, which replaces the historical [[Khan Station]] at [[Remez Square]] near the [[Jerusalem's Old City|Old City]]. The train ride from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem takes about 80 minutes.

The existing rail line serving Jerusalem began operating in [[1892]]. A brand new high-speed electrified rail link is currently under construction, which will run from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem via Ben Gurion Airport and terminate at a new underground station - ''Binyanei HaUmah'', located between the Jerusalem Central Bus Station and the International Convention Centre. It is anticipated that the new rail link will open in 2011, with an expected transit time from Tel Aviv of less than 30 minutes.
[[Image:Rakevetkala.jpeg|thumb|220px|Wall painting on Jaffa Road of the future light rail network in Jerusalem]]
A local [[light rail]] network is being planned and has already been partially constructed. The first line is at the height of its construction and is slated to begin operating from [[Pisgat Ze'ev]] in the northeast through the [[French Hill]] and through Yaffo Street to the Central Bus Station and the southwestern neighborhoods around 2008. <ref>[http://www.rakevetkala-jerusalem.org.il/images/Eng_brochure.pdf Jerusalem Light Rail – Mass Transit System] (PDF)</ref> Unusually, for a city with a population of over 700,000, Jerusalem never had a previous first generation [[tram|tramway]] network, although, before the war, one was proposed but was cancelled for political reasons.

===Airports===
[[Atarot Airport]] is Jerusalem's airport, but was closed to civilian traffic in 2000 due to security concerns arising from the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]]<ref>[http://www.jewishjournal.com/home/preview.php?id=6648 An Intifada Casualty Named Atarot] Larry Derfner, ''The Jewish Journal'', 23 March 2001</ref>, and was later placed under IDF control during 2001.<ref>[http://www.kokhavivpublications.com/2001/israel/jul/27/0107272234s.html Jerusalem's Atarot Airport handed over to the IDF] Zohar Blumenkrant, ''Ha'aretz'', 27 July 2001</ref> [[Ben Gurion International Airport]], 40 km northwest of the city, serves as the primary international air transport hub for both Jerusalem and [[Tel Aviv]].

==Sports==
[[Image:TeddyKStadium.JPG|thumb|right|220px|Teddy Stadium]]
The most popular sport in Jerusalem is [[football (soccer)]]. The city has two major teams, the yellow [[Beitar Jerusalem FC]] and the red [[Hapoel Jerusalem FC]]. Beitar plays in the Premier League, was 4 times Israeli champion (1986, 1993, 1997 and 1998) and has won the national cup 5 times. Hapoel currently plays in the Leumit or second league and has won one national cup, in 1973. In basketball, however, [[Hapoel Jerusalem (basketball)|Hapoel Jerusalem]] has the upperhand. In a league dominated by [[Maccabi Tel Aviv (basketball)|Maccabi Tel Aviv]] it never won a championship, yet twice won the Israeli Cup, in 1996 and 1997. In 2004 it won the [[Europe|European]] [[ULEB|ULEB Cup]].

A marathon is held in the streets of Jerusalem every year and the popular Jerusalem hike starts west of the city and ends in its streets. The municipality, universities, schools, clubs and businesses operate over a thousand sport facilities throughout the city. The largest sports facility is the [[Teddy Kollek Football Stadium|Teddy Kollek Stadium]] in [[Manahat|Malcha]], a football stadium with 21,000 seats. Major basketball games are held at the [[Strauss Arena]].

== Education==
* [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]
* [[Al-Quds University]]
* [[Jerusalem College of Technology]]
* [[Bezalel Academy of Art and Design]]
* [[Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance]]
* [[Mir yeshiva]]
* [[Ohr Somayach, Jerusalem]]
* [[Brisk yeshiva]]
* [[Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center]]
* [http://198.62.75.4/opt/xampp/custodia/tsancta/00sbf.php Studium Biblicum Franciscanum]
* [http://www.ebaf.edu/ École Biblique et Archéologique Française]

== Museums==
* [[Israel Museum]]
* [[Rockefeller Museum]]
* [[Yad Vashem]]
* [[Ticho House]]
* [http://198.62.75.4/www1/ofm/sbf/SBFmuse.html The Archaeological Museum of the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum]
* [http://www.blmj.org/ The Bible Lands Museum Jerusalem]
* [http://www.towerofdavid.org.il/ The Tower Of David Museum]
* [http://www.time-elevator-jerusalem.co.il The Time Elevator]

==Born in Jerusalem==

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
*[[Saint Angelus]] (Catholic saint)
*[[Fathi Arafat]] (physician)
*[[Suha Arafat]] (public figure)
*[[Shlomo Zalman Auerbach]] (rabbi)
*[[Mili Avital]] (actress)
*[[Yosef Avni]] (activist)
*[[Chaim Joseph David Azulai]] (author)
*[[Yossi Banai]] (performer)
*[[Mustafa Barghouti]] (politician)
*[[Elisha Ben Abuyah]] (heretic)
*[[Mordechai Eliyahu]] (rabbi)
*[[Saeb Erekat]] (politician)
*[[Yuval Gabay]] (drummer)
*[[Yehoram Gaon]] (performer)
*[[Eliezer Goldberg]] (judge)
*[[David Grossman]] (author)
*[[Eran Groumi]] (swimmer)
*[[Mordechai Gur]] "Motta" (general)
*[[Michael Halika]] (swimmer)
*[[Tzahi Hanegbi]] (politician)
*[[Amira Hass]] (journalist)
*[[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni]] (commander)
*[[Amin al-Husayni]] (public figure)
*[[Eliahu Inbal]] (orchestral conductor)
*[[Flavius Josephus]] (historian)
*[[Yousef Al-Khalidi]] (politician)
*[[George Khoury]] (murder victim)
*[[Amos Kollek]] (film director)
*[[Moshe Levinger]] (rabbi, activist)
*[[Isaac Luria]] (scholar)
{{col-break}}
*[[Raphael Maklouf]] (sculptor)
*[[Uri Malmilian]] (football player)
*[[Yoav Meiri]] (swimmer)
*[[Dorrit Moussaieff]] (first lady)
*[[Shlomo Moussaieff]] (businessman)
*[[Al-Muqaddasi]] (geographer)
*[[Nathan (son of David)]] (prince)
*[[Solomon]] (King of Israel)
*[[Yitzhak Navon]] (president)
*[[Sari Nusseibeh]] (academic)
*[[Shaike Ofir]] (actor)
*[[Eli Ohana]] (football player)
*[[Amos Oz]] (author)
*[[Nehemiah Persoff]] (actor)
*[[Natalie Portman]] (actress)
*[[Ibn Qudamah]] (scholar)
*[[Yitzhak Rabin]] (prime-minister)
*[[Reuven Rivlin]] (politician)
*[[Edward Said]] (literary theorist)
*[[Sirhan Sirhan]] (assassin)
*[[Eliezer Waldenberg]] (rabbi)
*[[Ayelet Waldman]] (author)
*[[William of Tyre]] (archbishop)
*[[Yigael Yadin]] (archeologist)
*[[A. B. Yehoshua]] (novelist)
*[[Eli Yishai]] (politician)
*[[Munib Younan]] (bishop)
*[[Nurit Zarchi]] (actress)
*[[Nissim Zeev]] (politician)
*[[Rehavam Zeevi]] (politician)

{{col-end}}

==Sister cities==
* {{flagicon|USA}} '''[[New York City]]''', [[USA]] ''(1993)''
* {{flagicon|Spain}} '''[[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]''', [[Spain]]

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
* [[Jerusalem Day]]
* [[East Jerusalem]]
* [[Eurovision Song Contest 1979]] and [[Eurovision Song Contest 1999]]
* [[Jerusalem syndrome]]
* [[List of holy cities]]
* [[Melchizedek]]
* [[Old City]]

==External reference and links==
{{commons|Category:Jerusalem}}
===Official site===
*[http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/f1_main.asp?lng=2/ Official website of the Municipality of Jerusalem]
*{{Wikitravel}}

===Culture, events===
* [http://www.jlm.israel.net/ Jerusalem Art, Music and Culture Events] updated daily
* [http://www.gojerusalem.com/ "Go Jerusalem" Tourism Portal]
* [http://www.imj.org.il/ Israel Museum]
* [http://www.yadvashem.org/ Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial]
* [http://www.writingtogod.com/ Placing notes between the stones of the Western Wall]
* [http://www.pnt-pal.org/index.php Palestinian National Theatre]

===Photographs===
* [http://haqaonline.lightuponlight.com/pg/thumbnails.php?album=19 Pictures of the Mosques in Jerusalem]
* [http://www.jerusalem-archives.org/index1.html Jerusalem archives], historical photographs of Jerusalem focusing mainly on the experience of the Jews.
* Portal of [http://www.jerusalemshots.com/en Jerusalem Photos]
* [http://www.igor-schestkow.de/de/fotos/thumbs.php?c=05jerusalem Jerusalem Photos by Igor Schestow]
* [http://www.picturesofislam.com/dome.html Pictures Dome of Rock]
* [http://www.muslimphotos.net/gallery/thumbnails-7.html muslimphotos.net: Pictures of Jerusalem]
* [http://www.rahatt.com/panorama.php 16X zoomable panoramic view of Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives]
* [http://www.nylocations.com/qtvr/jerusalem/index.php Panoramic Tour of the Old City of Jerusalem]

===Maps===
*[http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_sys/map2000_eng/first1.asp Clickable street map of Jerusalem]
*[http://www.usm.maine.edu/~maps/exhibit1/ University of Maine Historical Map Collection], features European, Arab, and Jewish maps of the city dating back over 600 years. Highlights the role of Jerusalem in the history of map-making.
*[http://maps-of-jerusalem.huji.ac.il/ Ancient maps of Jerusalem] The Eran Laor Cartographic Collection of The Jewish National and University Library & The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/1631/madaba_map.html The Madaba Map] is a mosaic is part of a mosaic on the floor of a church built in the town of Madaba, in what is present-day Jordan, in the 6th century. Jerusalem is depicted in the map and is one of the few parts that are undamaged.
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=Jerusalem,+Israel&ie=UTF8&t=k&om=1&ll=31.778088,35.22294&spn=0.039255,0.079308 Jerusalem on google maps] View Jerusalem and surrounding area via satellite images & maps

===Status of the city===
*[http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/palestine/ch12.pdf UN document on the question of Palestine and the United Nations on the Status of Jerusalem]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/v3_israel_palestinians/maps/html/1967_and_now.stm Jerusalem before 1967 and now] BBC site showing two maps with a brief commentary on the status of Jerusalem for each.
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1980_1989/Basic%20Law-%20Jerusalem-%20Capital%20of%20Israel Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel, Government of Israel], the Israeli law making Jerusalem the capital of Israel.
*[http://www.pna.gov.ps/Jerusalem/index.asp Palestinian position on Jerusalem] from the Palestinian National Authority
*[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/jerutoc.html Jewish Position on Jerusalem]

===History===
*[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=562&rsid=478 Resources > Jerusalem ]The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Jerusalem_Jebusites.html/ Ancient Jerusalem (Jebusites) - The History of the Ancient Near East]
*[http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/Jerusalem_history.htm Importance of Jerusalem in Jewish and Israeli history]
* [http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/jerusalem/ History Channel site on the history of Jerusalem]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/jeruhistoc.html Articles on the history of Jerusalem] from the Jewish Virtual Library
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2001/israel_and_the_palestinians/issues/1682594.stm BBC article on Jerusalem]
*[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/Printer&cid=1123640629316&p=1006953079845 Shards of evidence] [[The Jerusalem Post]], [[August 11]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.world-religion.org/articles/j/j1855.php Jerusalem in the Qur'an]
*[http://www.mythsandfacts.com/NOQ_OnlineEdition/Chapter3/jerusalem1.htm One Nation’s Capital throughout History]

===News and media===
* [http://www.jpost.com The Jerusalem Post], oldest and largest Israeli daily newspaper in English, previously the Palestine Post
* [http://www.jmcc.org/ Jerusalem Media and Communications Centre], group of Palestinian reporters with daily news reports from East Jerusalem
* [http://www.themedialine.org/news/index.asp The MediaLine]

===Universities===
* [http://www.alquds.edu/index.php Al Quds Arab University of Jerusalem]
* [http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/ Hebrew University of Jerusalem]

===Books===
* Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem. Harvard University Press.
* Wasserstein, Bernard (2002). ''Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City''. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09730-1.
* Cline, Eric (2004). Jerusalem Besieged : From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11313-5.
* Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988) O Jerusalem!, Simon and Shuster, N.Y. ISBN 0-671-66241-4

{{coor title dm|31|46|N|35|14|E|}}

[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Jerusalem|*]]
[[Category:Orthodox Jewish communities]]
[[Category:Cities in Israel]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[ar:القدس]]
[[arc:ܘܪܫܠܡ]]
[[an:Cherusalén]]
[[ast:Xerusalén]]
[[id:Yerusalem]]
[[ms:Baitulmuqaddis]]
[[bn:জেরুসালেম]]
[[jv:Yerusalem]]
[[be:Ерусалім]]
[[bg:Йерусалим]]
[[ca:Jerusalem]]
[[cs:Jeruzalém]]
[[cy:Jeriwsalem]]
[[da:Jerusalem]]
[[de:Jerusalem]]
[[et:Jeruusalemm]]
[[el:Ιερουσαλήμ]]
[[es:Jerusalén]]
[[eo:Jerusalemo]]
[[eu:Jerusalem]]
[[fa:اورشلیم]]
[[fr:Jérusalem]]
[[ga:Iarúsailéim]]
[[sm:Ierusalema]]
[[gd:Ierusalem]]
[[gl:Xerusalén]]
[[got:𐌹𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌿𐍃𐌰𐌿𐌻𐍅𐌼𐌰]]
[[ko:예루살렘]]
[[hi:येरुशलम]]
[[hr:Jeruzalem]]
[[io:Jerusalem]]
[[it:Gerusalemme]]
[[he:ירושלים]]
[[ka:იერუსალიმი]]
[[lad:Yerushalayim]]
[[la:Hierosolyma]]
[[lv:Jeruzāleme]]
[[lb:Jerusalem]]
[[lt:Jeruzalė]]
[[hu:Jeruzsálem]]
[[fj:Jerusalemi]]
[[nl:Jeruzalem]]
[[ja:エルサレム]]
[[no:Jerusalem]]
[[nn:Jerusalem]]
[[ug:يېرۇسالېم]]
[[pl:Jerozolima]]
[[pt:Jerusalém]]
[[ro:Ierusalim]]
[[rm:Jerusalem]]
[[ru:Иерусалим]]
[[sq:Jeruzalemi]]
[[scn:Girusalemmi]]
[[simple:Jerusalem]]
[[sk:Jeruzalem]]
[[sl:Jeruzalem]]
[[sr:Јерусалим]]
[[sh:Jeruzalem]]
[[fi:Jerusalem]]
[[sv:Jerusalem]]
[[tl:Lungsod ng Jerusalem]]
[[th:เยรูซาเลม]]
[[vi:Jerusalem]]
[[tg:Иерусалим]]
[[tpi:Yerusalem]]
[[tr:Kudüs]]
[[tw:Yerusalem]]
[[uk:Єрусалим]]
[[vo:Hierusalem]]
[[wa:Djeruzalem]]
[[yi:ירושלים]]
[[yo:Jerúsálẹ́mù]]
[[zh:耶路撒冷]]

Mexico

2006-10-04T01:24:36Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{sprotect}}


{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos''|
conventional_long_name = United Mexican States |
common_name = Mexico |
image_flag = Flag_of_Mexico.svg |
image_coat = Mexico coat of arms.png |
symbol_type=Coat of arms |
image_map = MexicoWorldMap.png |
national_anthem = ''[[Himno Nacional Mexicano]]'' |
national_motto = |
official_languages = [[Languages of Mexico|None at federal level]] [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ([[de facto]])|
capital = [[Mexico City]] |
latd=19|latm=03|latNS=N|longd=99|longm=22|longEW=W|
government_type = [[Federal Republic]] |
leader_title1 = [[President of Mexico|President]] |
leader_name1 = [[Vicente Fox ]]  |
largest_city = [[Mexico City]] |
area = 1,972,550 |
areami²= 758,249 |
area_rank = 15th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 2.5% |
population_estimate = 107,029,000 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 11th |
population_census = 101,879,171 |
population_census_year = 2000 |
population_density = 55 |
population_densitymi² =142 |
population_density_rank = 142nd |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $1.073 trillion|
GDP_PPP_rank = 13th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $10,186 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 64th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.814 |
HDI_rank = 53rd |
HDI_category = high |
sovereignty_type = [[Mexican War of Independence|Independence]] |
sovereignty_note = From [[Spain]] |
established_event1 = Declared |
established_event2 = Recognized |
established_date1 =[[September 16]], [[1810]] |
established_date2 = [[September 27]], [[1821]] |
currency = [[Mexican peso|Peso]] |
currency_code = MXN |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = -8 to -6 |
time_zone_DST = varies |
utc_offset_DST = |
cctld = [[.mx]] |
calling_code = 52 |
footnotes= |
}}

The '''United Mexican States''' ({{lang-es|Estados Unidos Mexicanos}}, translated ''United Mexican States''), generally known as '''Mexico''' (Spanish: ''México'') is a [[country]] located in [[North America]], bordered at the north by the [[United States]], and at the south by [[Guatemala]] and [[Belize]], in [[Central America]]. It is the northernmost and westernmost country in [[Latin America]], and also the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world.

The site of advanced Mesoamerican or Amerindian civilizations, the land that currently makes up Mexico existed under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence early in the 19th century. The first century of independence was tumultuous, culminating in the decade-long [[Mexican Revolution]], followed by roughly seventy years of rule by the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party]] (PRI).

A devaluation of the peso in late 1994 threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession in over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressive recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time since the 1910 Mexican Revolution that the opposition defeated the (PRI) and [[Vicente Fox]] of the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]] (PAN) was sworn in as [[President of Mexico|President]] on [[1 December]] [[2000]].

Mexico is a powerful and influential neighbor of the United States, in terms of trade, culture, diplomacy, with a history of emigration of Mexicans into the U.S. since the early 1900's.

==History==
{{main|History of Mexico}}
Although there are tantalizing fragments of evidence suggesting human habitation of Mexico more than 20,000 years ago (''see [[Tlapacoya (archaeology)|Tlapacoya archaeological site]]''), there is no uncontested evidence that humans arrived in Mexico earlier than ~15,000 [[Before present|BP]]. One of those asserting a date of 28,000 years is archaeologist [[Michael D. Coe]] of Yale University (see ''Mexico: From The Olmecs To The Aztecs, 5th Edition'' published by Thames and Hudson).

Ancient Mexicans began to selectively breed corn plants around 8,000 [[B.C.]] Evidence shows an explosion of pottery works by 2300 B.C. and the beginning of intensive corn farming between 1800 and 1500 B.C.

===Pre-Columbian civilizations===
[[Image:Yaxchilan 1.jpg|thumb|right||220px|An image of one of the pyramids in the upper level of [[Yaxchilán]]]]
[[Image:Telamones Tula.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Toltec warrior columns at [[Tula, Hidalgo|Tollan (Tula)]], [[Hidalgo]]]]

Between 1800 and 300 [[BC]], complex cultures began to form. Many matured into advanced [[Pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]]n civilizations such as the: [[Olmec]], [[Izapa]], [[Teotihuacan]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[Zapotec]], [[Mixtec]], [[Huaxtec]], [[Purepecha]], [[Toltec]] and [[Aztec|Mexica]] (Aztecs), which flourished for nearly 5,000 years before first contact with Europeans. {{cn}}

====Accomplishments====

These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions in: building pyramid-temples, mathematics, [[astronomy]], medicine, [[writing]], highly accurate calendars, fine arts, intensive agriculture, engineering, an [[abacus]] calculator ([[Nepohualtzitzin]]), a complex theology, and the wheel. Without any draft animals to do labor, however, the wheel had limited applications and was primarily used for art and toys. [[Metallurgy]] focused on copper, gold, and silver.

Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of [[Nuevo León]]) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in Mexico. These very early and ancient count-markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mexican natives, even before they possessed [[urbanization]].

Many of the later Mexican based civilizations would carefully build their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events. [[Astronomy]] and the notion of human observation of celestial events would become central factors in the development of religious systems, writing systems, fine arts, and architecture. Prehistoric Mexican astronomers set in motion a tradition of obsessive observing, recording, and commemorating astronomical events that later become a hallmark of Mexican civilized achievements. [[Cities]] would be founded and built on astronomical principles, leaders would be appointed on celestial events, wars would be fought according to solar calendars, and a complex theology using astronomical metaphors would organize the daily lives of millions of people.

At different points in time, three different Mexican cities were the largest cities in the world: [[Teotihuacan]], [[Tenochtitlan]], and [[Cholula]]. These cities, among several others, blossomed as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology. In turn, they radiated influence outwards onto nearby neighboring cultures in central Mexico.

====Major civilizations====

While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mexico can be said to have had five major civilizations: The [[Olmec]], [[Teotihuacan]], the [[Toltec]], the [[Aztec|Mexica]] (Aztecs) and the [[Maya civilization|Maya]]. These civilizations (with the exception of the politically-fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mexico, and beyond, like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these five civilizations over the span of nearly 4,000 years. Many made war with them. But almost all found themselves within these five spheres of influence.

=====Olmec=====
{{main|Olmec}}
The earliest known Mexican civilization is the Olmec. This civilization established the cultural blueprint which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in Mexico and Central America. The roots of Olmec civilization began around 2300 B.C. (according to ''Arqueologia Mexicana'', the Mexican archaeology journal) with the production of pottery in abundance, a major sign of urbanization. The first signs of Olmec civilization are in [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán]], near the coast in south-east [[Veracruz]]. Widely known today for their colossal sculpted heads, the Olmec influence extended across Mexico, into Central America, and along the Gulf of Mexico. They established new forms of government, pyramid-temples, writing, astronomy, art, mathematics, trade, and religion. Their achievements would pave the way for the later Maya civilization in the east, and the many civilizations to the west in central Mexico.

[[Image:Mexico0047.jpg|thumb|right|220px|View of Avenue of the Dead from Pyramid of the Moon]]

=====Teotihuacan=====
{{main|Teotihuacan}}
The decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum was Teotihuacan, first settled in 300 B.C. By 150 A.D., it had grown to become the first true [[metropolis]] of what is now called North America. Teotihuacan established a new economic and political order never before seen in Mexico. Its influence stretched across Mexico into Central America, founding new dynasties in the Mayan cities of [[Tikal]], [[Copan]], and [[Kaminaljuyú]].

Teotihuacan's influence over the Maya civilization cannot be overstated: it transformed political power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan was a diverse and cosmopolitan population. Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city, such as [[Zapotec]]s from the Oaxaca region. They lived in apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city's economic and cultural prowess.

By 500 A.D., Teotihuacan had become the largest city in the world. Teotihuacan's economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power about 650 A.D., but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around 950 A.D.

=====Maya=====
{{main|Maya civilization}}
[[Image:Uxmal-mexico.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Mayan architecture at [[Uxmal]]]]
Contemporary with Teotihuacan's ascendancy was the rise of the Maya civilization. The period between 250 A.D. and 850 A.D. saw an intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While the many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico and Central America. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent, and made innovations in mathematics, [[astronomy]], and writing that became the pinnacle of Mesoamerican scientific achievements.

The collapse of the Maya civilization in the ninth century in the lowland areas of present day Guatemala and the Peten region of Mexico is thought to have resulted from the effects of long term droughts, soil exhaustion and inter-city warfare among the city states, leading to the eventual decline of political and social cohesion during the ninth century A.D. After that time most sites were abandoned and the peoples appear to have dissolved into the countryside.

However the Maya culture continued to predominate and flourish in northern Yucatan until about the thirteenth century. The last known Maya holdout was the city of Tayasal on the western side of Lake Peten-Itza, which did not succumb to the Spanish invasion until 1697.

Much of the history of Mayan culture is lost. What little is known has been gleaned from carved stone hieroglyphic writings. The Spaniards burned all known Maya manuscripts (excepting four meager surviving codices) in an auto-da-fe conducted by the Bishop of Merida, Diego de Landa, in the late sixteenth century.

The most famous cities (Maya cities are more ritual, religious and administrative centers than social centers such as ancient Rome) that have been discovered and extensivley explored are (in the lowlands)Tikal, Calakmul, Caracol and Palenque, and, in northern Yucatan, Uxmal, Chichen Itza and Sayil. However, there remain many cities, possibly hundreds, that are still buried under the jungle awaiting archeological exploration.

=====Toltec=====
{{main|Toltec}}
Just as Teotihuacan had emerged from a power vacuum, so too did the Toltec civilization, which took the reigns of cultural and political power in Mexico from about 700 A.D. Many of the Toltec peoples were comprised of northern desert peoples, often called [[Chichimeca]] in Mexico's [[Nahuatl]] language. They fused their desert heritage with the mighty civilized culture of Teotihuacan. This new heritage would give rise to a new empire in Mexico. Tula was their capital, and the Toltec empire would reach as far south as Central America, and as far north as the [[Anasazi]] corn culture in the Southwestern United States.

The Toltec established a prosperous [[turquoise]] trade route with the northern civilization of [[Pueblo Bonito]], in modern-day New Mexico. Toltec traders would trade prized bird feathers with Pueblo Bonito, while circulating all the finest wares that Mexico had to offer with their immediate neighbors. In the Mayan area of [[Chichen Itza]], the Toltec civilization spread and the Maya were once again powerfully influenced by central Mexicans. The Toltec political system was so influential that any serious Maya dynasty would later claim to be of Toltec descent. In fact, it was this prized Toltec lineage that would set the stage for Mexico's last great indigenous civilization.

=====Mexica (Aztec)=====
{{main|Aztec}}
With the decline of the Toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the [[Valley of Mexico]]. Into this new game of political contenders to the Toltec throne stepped outsiders: the [[Mexica]] (or Aztecs as they were subsequently labeled by European anthropologists) . They were a proud desert people, one of seven groups who formerly called themselves [[Chichimecs]], "descendants of dogs", but changed their name at the direction of their tribal god (see "Mectli" below) after years of wandering. Newcomers to the Valley of Mexico, they were seen as crude and unrefined in the ways of the prestigious [[Nahua]] civilizations, such as the fallen Toltec empire.

[[Image:Florentine Codex IX Aztec Warriors.jpg|left|400px|thumb|Aztec warriors as shown in the [[Aztec codices#Florentine Codex|Florentine Codex]].]]Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Mexica never thought of themselves as equals to the prestigious civilizations that had preceded them, such as did [[Charlemagne]] with respect to the fallen [[Roman Empire]], but they did take great pains to try to legitimize their right to rule by recasting tales of their tribe's early travels and rise to rule as consequences of their carrying on of the banner and policies of the Toltecs. This was not unusual - nearly all the peoples of the central plateau claimed some legitimacy via the Toltecs, whether by direct descent or by tribal claims of having travelled through ancient sites such as Teotihuacan and Tula on the way to the central plateau.

In 1428, the Mexica led a war of liberation against their rulers from the city of [[Azcapotzalco]], which had subjugated most of the Valley of Mexico's peoples. The revolt was successful, and the Mexica, through cunning political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills, managed to pull off a true "rags-to-riches" story: they became the rulers of central Mexico as the head of the [[Aztec Triple Alliance|Triple Alliance]].

This Triple Alliance was composed of the city-states of [[Tenochtitlán]], [[Texcoco]], and [[Tlacopan]]. At their peak, 300,000 Mexica (Aztecs) presided over a wealthy tribute-empire comprising approximately 10 million people (out of 24 million within the region). This empire stretched from ocean to ocean, and extended into Central America.

By 1519, the Mexica capital, [[Tenochtitlán]], was the largest city in the world with a population of around 350,000 (although some estimates range as high as 500,000). By comparison, the population of London in 1519 was 80,000 people. Tenochtitlán is the site of modern-day [[Mexico City]].

======Legacy======
The Mexica left a deep and durable stamp upon Mexican culture. Much of what is considered Mexican culture today derives from this Mexica civilization: place-names, words, food, art, dress, symbols, and even the name "Mexican". (''See also [[Mexico#Origin and history of the name|Origin and history of the name "Mexica"]]'').

For much of its history, the majority of Mexico's population lived an urban lifestyle: cities, towns, and villages. Only a fraction of the population was tribal and wandering. Most people were permanently settled, agriculturally based, and identified with an [[urban culture|urban identity]], as opposed to a tribal identity. Mexico has long been an urban land, which was graphically reflected in the writings of the Spaniards who encountered them.

===Spanish conquest===
{{main|Spanish Conquest of Mexico}}

Europeans first reached Mexico in [[1517]] with the explorations of [[Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (discoverer of Yucatán)|Francisco Hernández de Córdoba]] who visited the shores of southern Mexico, followed by [[Juan de Grijalva]] in [[1518]].

In 1519, the native civilizations of Mexico were invaded by [[Spain|Spanish]] troops numbering about a mere 600 soldiers led by the [[conquistadores]], [[Hernán Cortés]] who entered the country from a native coastal town which he renamed "Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz" (present day [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]]). He brought with them superior weaponry and other things not known in Americas at that time, such as horses, basic objects like the [[wheel]] and old world diseases. The Spaniards took advantage of the widespread resentment of brutal Aztec rule, making alliances with other indigenous tribes who were dominated by the Aztecs. This tactic allowed them to fullfill their conquest, despite their small numbers. Two years later in 1521, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (present day [[Mexico City]]) was conquered. It is said that the dead from [[smallpox]] filled the streets and canals. Hundreds of thousands of Aztecs died of disease.

Spain did not conquer all of Mexico when Cortés destroyed the city of [[Tenochtitlan]] in 1521. It would take another two centuries after the [[Siege of Tenochtitlan]] before the [[Conquest of Mexico]] would be complete, as sporadic and ineffective rebellions, attacks, and wars against the Spaniards by other indigenous tribes continued . Disease ran rampant throughout Mexico, reducing the population from about eight million to two million by 1600.

===Colonial period===
{{main|Colonial Mexico}}
The [[Spanish Conquest of Mexico|Spanish defeat of the Mexica]] in 1521 marked the beginning of the 300 year-long colonial period of Mexico. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it would take decades of sporadic warfare to pacify the rest of Mesoamerica. Particularly fierce were the "[[Chichimeca]] wars" in the north of Mexico (1576–1606).

During the colonial period, which lasted from 1521 to 1810, Mexico was known as "Nueva España" or "[[New Spain]]", whose territories included today's Mexico, [[Central America]] as far south as [[Costa Rica]], and the area comprising today's southwestern [[United States]], as well as the [[Philippines]] and coastal areas of [[Alaska]], [[British Columbia]], and [[Oregon]].

===Mexican war of independence===
{{main|Mexican War of Independence}}
[[Image:Map of Mexico 1847.jpg|left|230px|thumb|Map of Mexico, 1847]]
[[Image:Acta_de_Independencia_del_Imperio_Mexicano.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire (1821) donated by [[Pedro Thomas Ruiz de Velasco]] to the citizens of Mexico.]]

After [[Napoleon I]] invaded [[Spain]] and put his brother on the Spanish throne, Mexican Conservatives and rich landowners who supported Spain's [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] royal family objected to the comparatively more liberal Napoleonic policies. Thus an unlikely alliance was formed in Mexico: ''liberales'', or Liberals, who favored a [[republic|republican]] Mexico, and ''conservadores'', or Conservatives, who favored Mexico ruled by a Bourbon monarch who would restore the old status quo. These two elements agreed only that Mexico must achieve independence and determine her own destiny.

Taking advantage of the fact that Spain was severely handicapped under the occupation of Napoleon's army, [[Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla]], a Catholic priest of Spanish descent and progressive ideas, declared Mexico's independence from Spain in the small town of [[Dolores Hidalgo|Dolores]] on [[September 16]], [[1810]]. This act started the long [[Mexican War of Independence|war]] that eventually led to the official recognition of independence from Spain in 1821 with the [[Treaty of Córdoba]]. As with many early leaders in the movement for Mexican independence, Hidalgo was captured by opposing forces and executed.

After no European monarch accepted its throne, the [[First Mexican Empire|newly independent Mexico]] was ruled by [[Agustín de Iturbide]]. After his coronation as [[Emperor]] of Mexico he became known as Agustin I, and ruled until his overthrow by republican forces led by [[Guadalupe Victoria]] and [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]][http://achedhost.com.ar .]
 

===War with the United States===
[[Image:Santaanna1.JPG|thumb|200px|right|[[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], Former President of Mexico]]
{{main|Mexican-American War}}
A dominant figure of the second quarter of that century was the dictator [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]], who was president seven different times. Many of his terms were unsuccessful.

During this period, many of the mostly unsettled territories in the north were lost to the [[United States]]. Santa Anna was Mexico's leader during the conflict with [[Texas]], which declared itself independent from Mexico in 1836 by defeating Santa Anna and the Mexican army. As president, Santa Anna tried to rule during the disastrous [[Mexican-American War]] (1846–1848). The U.S. government sent troops to Texas in order to secure the territory ignoring Mexican demands for U.S. withdrawal. Mexico saw this as a U.S. intervention in internal affairs by supporting a "rebel" province.

In the war that ensued, the [[United States]] acquired over half of Mexico's territory, including land comprising the states of [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]], [[Nevada]], and [[Utah]]. Mexico lost nearly 2,000,000 km² after the war. In return for this vast territory, the United States gave $15,000,000 and assumed responsibility for paying $3,000,000 in claims of American citizens against the Mexican Government. In 1852 American James Gadsden agreed to pay Santa Anna $10,000,000 for a strip of territory south of the Gila River and lying in what is now southwestern New Mexico and southern Arizona to build a railroad route through the South. That last deal defined the current border between Mexico and the United States.

===French intervention and Emperor Maximiliano I, [[Second Mexican Empire]]===
[[Image:Maximilian emperor of Mexico.jpg|thumb|left|Emperor Maximilian of Mexico]]
[[Image:Juarez.JPG|thumb|right|180px|[[Benito Juárez]], The only [[Indigenous]] President of Mexico]]
{{main|French intervention in Mexico}}

In the 1860s, the country again suffered a military occupation, this time by [[France]], seeking to establish the [[Habsburg]] Archduke [[Maximilian of Mexico|Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria]] as Emperor of Mexico, with support from the [[Roman Catholic]] [[clergy]] and conservative elements of the upper class, as well as some indigenous communities. The [[Second Mexican Empire]] was then overthrown by President [[Benito Juárez]], with diplomatic and logistical support from the United States and the military expertise of General [[Porfirio Díaz]]. General [[Ignacio Zaragoza]] defeated the largely unsupported French Army in Mexico at the city of [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]] on [[May 5]], [[1862]], celebrated as ''[[Cinco de Mayo]]'' ever since. However, after his death, the city was lost in early 1863, following a renewed French attack which penetrated as far as Mexico City, forcing Juárez to organize a new itinerant government.

===Díaz dictatorship===
[[Image:PDiaz.JPG|thumb|left|180px|[[Porfirio Díaz]], President of Mexico]]
After the victory, there was resentment by Conservatives against Juárez, who they thought concentrated too much power and desired to be re-elected, to the point that an army general, [[Porfirio Díaz]], rebelled against the government with the proclamation of the Plan de Tuxtepec in 1876.

Díaz became the new president. During a period of more than thirty years (1876–1911) while he was the strong man in Mexico, the country's infrastructure improved greatly thanks to investments from other countries. This period of relative prosperity and peace is known as the ''Porfiriato''. However there was discontent amongst the people during the Porfiriato due to foreign investors paying workers very low wages, which produced a very steep social division: only a small group of investors (domestic and foreign) were getting rich, but the vast majority of the people remained in abject poverty. Democracy was completely suppressed, and dissent was dealt with in repressive, often brutal ways ''(see, for example, [[Nogales, Veracruz]])''.

===Mexican Revolution===
{{main|Mexican Revolution}}
The Mexican Revolution, sometimes called the Mexican Revolution of 1910, was a violent social and cultural movement, colored by socialist, nationalist, and anarchist tendencies. It began with the popular rejection of dictator Porfirio Díaz Mori in 1910 and continued even after the promulgation of a new constitution in 1917.
The main problem at the beginning was the dictatorship of Diaz since 1884 and the plight of farm workers, who had been stripped of their wealth and lands. In 1909, [[Francisco I. Madero]] proposed returning the land to the people. When Madero won the elections, he said that the process of returning the lands was going to take time; as a result he was the object of several conspiracies until his assassination in 1913.

===Mexican economic miracle===
During the next four decades, Mexico experienced impressive economic growth (from a very low base); some historians call this period "El Milagro Mexicano", the Mexican Miracle. This was in spite of falling foreign confidence in investment during the worldwide [[great depression]]. The assumption of mineral rights and subsequent nationalization of the oil industry into [[Pemex|PEMEX]] during the presidency of [[Lázaro Cárdenas del Río]] was a popular move that sparked a diplomatic crisis with those countries whose citizens had lost businesses expropriated by the Cárdenas government.

However, the chronic weakness of Mexico's [[economy]] in the 1970s and 1980s included [[peso]] [[devaluation]] and price [[inflation]], creating a strong need for tens of millions of poor Mexicans to migrate north to the [[United States]]. Many came illegally to obtain jobs and sent money back to family or relatives. Economic disparity between poor and rich, instability for middle-class Mexicans, and state economic [[socialism]] protected by an [[elitism]] of Spanish colonial times brought an end to the rewards of "El Milagro".

===NAFTA===
On [[January 1]] [[1994]], Mexico became a full member of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], joining the [[United States of America]] and [[Canada]] in a large economic bloc. On [[March 23]] [[2005]], the [[Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America]] was signed by the elected leaders of those countries.

===The Zapatista conflict===
{{main|Zapatista Army of National Liberation}}
[[Image:Subcomandante_Marcos.jpg|thumb|Subcomandante Marcos in [[Chiapas]]]]
In the twentieth century people in [[Chiapas]] felt that their poor and largely [[Agriculture|agricultural]] area had been ignored by the government since enactment of the [[Constitution of Mexico|constitution of 1917]]. One of the chief complaints was that many Indian farmers were required to pay rent to absentee landlords, despite the fact that since the 1920s the Mexican government had been promising the peasants ownership of the land they had farmed and lived on for generations. Article 27 of the 1917 constitution guaranteed [[indigenous peoples]] the right to an "[[ejido]]" or communal land. As Mexico restructured its economy after the 1982 financial crisis the state sector shrank due to privatizations and reorganization while land reform became less of a priority (it had long since been completed in most of the country, with Chiapas as a notable exception). The Mexican government under President [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]], an avid [[neoliberal]], sought to modernize the traditionally closed and state dominated economy and increase its openness to trade. As part of this process Mexico repealed the constitutional guarantee of communally owned ejidos for rural communities. As the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] came into effect on January 1, 1994, the indigenous peoples of Chiapas - struggling to make a living with few resources - felt increasingly left behind.

Such dissatisfaction led to the rise of the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]] (Zapatistas, or ''Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional),'' which began an armed rebellion against the federal government on [[January 1]], [[1994]].

The Zapatistas were in principle a peaceful movement that was pushed to use the force of arms to guarantee the indigenous right to ejidos. [[Subcomandante Marcos]], the face of the Zapatistas, succeeded in attracting international attention, with the innovative use of modern information and communication technologies for the struggle of the indigenous peoples in Chiapas.

===The end of the PRI's hegemony===
While frequently accused of corruption, influence peddling and blatant election fraud, the PRI managed to retain a firm grip on political power in Mexico until the end of the 20th century. Almost all public offices were held by members of the PRI, which also exerted power through the unions associated with the [[Mexican Confederation of Workers]].

It was not until the 1980s that the PRI lost the first [[List of Mexican state governors|state governorship]], an event that marked the beginning of the party's loss of hegemony. Through the electoral reforms started by president [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]] and consolidated by president [[Ernesto Zedillo]], by the mid 1990s the PRI had lost its majority in [[Congress of Mexico|Congress]]. In 2000, after seventy years, the PRI lost a presidential election to [[Vicente Fox]], candidate of the [[Alliance for Change]]. In the [[Mexican general election, 2006|2006 general elections]], the PRI candidate failed to carry a single state and obtained considerably fewer votes than the PAN and PRD candidates (who were almost tied). The PRI lost half of its representation in the [[Chamber of Deputies of Mexico|Chamber of Deputies]], and 22 of the 60 seats it had held in the [[Senate of Mexico|Senate]].

===Recent problems with the United States: Immigration and Drugs===
Although hardly new, the issue of illegal immigration has acquired an increased relevance after the implementation of the [[NAFTA]] agreement in 1994. NAFTA became promptly an economic agreement of controversial results which may have increased Mexican unemployment by debilitating domestic industries within Mexico. The traditional safety valve for poor economic conditions in Mexico has been the massive manual labor demand across the border in the United States. A sensitive point which has soured relations between President [[George W. Bush|George Bush]] and President [[Vicente Fox]], illegal immigration has reached crisis levels during the first decade of the 21st century.

The increasing drug trafficking, mainly involving the smuggling of cocaine across the Mexican border into the United States, is the other huge problem between the two countries. After the invasion of [[Panama]] in 1989 to oust General [[Manuel Noriega]] because of his links to the drug trade, the United States saw, if any, only a temporary decrease in narcotics influxes from Colombia, the main cocaine exporter. The drug smuggling routes shifted from the Caribbean to Mexico and the long Mexican - U. S. border, involving innovative methods which include underground tunnels. The drug trade has converted Mexican cities along the border into virtual war zones where the drug cartels operate with surprising impunity. The Fox administration has tried, with limited success, to curb the power of the drug criminal organizations.

===Protests over the disputed election of 2006===
{{main|Mexican general election 2006 controversies}}
After the [[Mexican general election, 2006|2006 Mexican general election]] in July 2006 one of the main streets of downtown Mexico City (Avenida Reforma) was occupied by sympathisers of [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]], presidential candidate of the political alliance ''"Por el bien de todos"'' (For the good of all), amidst allegation that electoral fraud had been perpetrated. The protesters set up tents on the street and pledged to remain there in support of their candidate until the votes were recounted. Nevertheless, on September 15, they decided to stop the blockading in order to allow the annual Independence Day Military Parade.

Protesters also attempted to blockade the entrance to the Chamber of Deputies main building, however they were removed by the federal police.

The protests caused traffic disruption and economic loss to the businesses of the affected area. The government of the Federal District, on the hands of the same party as Lopez Obrador, was criticized for not taking action against the protesters.

The Electoral Court investigated the alleged electoral fraud but, after rejecting most of the proofs presented by López Obrador's party and other members of public universities and other groups, claiming that these were "notably improcedent" ("notoriamente improcedente") and without giving more arguments, failed to find any major irregularities. However the Electoral Court noted on its final ruling, that certain actions taken by President Fox and illegal TV spots payed by the ''Consejo Coordinador Empresarial'' (Business Coordinating Council) risked the election by preventing fairness and equity of all the contenders. López Obrador did not accept the decision of the electoral courts and stated that will continue to protest against the president elect [[Felipe Calderón]].

==Government and politics==

{{morepolitics|country=Mexico}}

The [[Constitution of Mexico|1917 Constitution]] provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Historically, the executive is the dominant branch, with power vested in the president, who promulgates and executes the laws of the Congress. Congress has played an increasingly important role since 1997, when opposition parties first formed a majority in the legislature.

Government and politics of Mexico takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Mexico]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. The President is both the head of state and head of government, as well as the commander-in-chief of the military. The president is elected directly from eligible votes and serves for six years, called a ''sexenio.'' [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of the [[Congress of Mexico|Congress of the Union]]. The powers of the congress include the right to pass laws, impose taxes, declare war, approve the national budget, approve or reject treaties and conventions made with foreign countries, and ratify diplomatic appointments. The Senate addresses all matters concerning foreign policy, approves international agreements, and confirms presidential appointments. The Chamber of Deputies, addresses all matters pertaining to the government's budget and public expenditures.

The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

There are three important [[Political party|political parties]] in Mexico:

*[[National Action Party (Mexico)|PAN]]: the National Action Party (Partido Acción Nacional). The PAN is a [[liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] party. President Vicente Fox is a member of the PAN.
*[[Institutional Revolutionary Party|PRI]]: the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional). When it was founded it was somewhat [[socialism|socialist]], currently it's a [[liberalism|liberal]] party.
*[[Party of the Democratic Revolution|PRD]]: the Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolución Democrática). The PRD is a [[left wing]], somewhat [[socialist]] party. Important members of the PRD are [[Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas]], the son of Lázaro Cárdenas, and Andrés Manuel López Obrador.

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) is the Mexican political party that wielded hegemonic power in the country—under a succession of names—for more than 70 years.
New hopes for democratic development were given rise by the electoral defeat of the long governing political party, [[Partido Revolucionario Institucional|PRI]], in 2000, by Vicente Fox from the center-right party [[National Action Party (Mexico)|PAN]].
In 2006, [[Felipe Calderón|Felipe Calderón Hinojosa]] of the PAN faced [[Andrés Manuel López Obrador]] of the PRD in a very close, election. As of August 2006, the results of this election remain disputed and a series of leftist protests remain underway despite the calls of President Vicente Fox for an end to the protests.
On September 6th, 2006, [[Felipe Calderón|Felipe Calderón Hinojosa]] was declared President Elect by the electoral tribunal.

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|States of Mexico}}
{{see also|Mexican state name etymologies}}

Mexico is divided into 31 [[State (subnational)|states]] (''estados'') and a [[federal district]]. Each state has its own constitution and its citizens elect a [[List of Mexican state governors|governor]] as well as representatives to their respective state congresses.

{| width="100%"
|width="25%"|
#[[Aguascalientes]]
#[[Baja California]]
#[[Baja California Sur|Baja California Sur]]
#[[Campeche]]
#[[Chiapas]]
#[[Chihuahua]]
#[[Coahuila]]
#[[Colima]]
|width="25%"|
<ol start=9>
<li>[[Durango]]
<li>[[Guanajuato]]
<li>[[Guerrero]]
<li>[[Hidalgo]]
<li>[[Jalisco]]
<li>[[Mexico (state)|México]]
<li>[[Michoacán]]
<li>[[Morelos]]
|width="25%"|
<ol start=17>
<li>[[Nayarit]]
<li>[[Nuevo León|Nuevo León]]
<li>[[Oaxaca]]
<li>[[Puebla]]
<li>[[Querétaro]]
<li>[[Quintana Roo|Quintana Roo]]
<li>[[San Luis Potosí|San Luis Potosí]]
<li>[[Sinaloa]]
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
<ol start=25>
<li>[[Sonora]]
<li>[[Tabasco]]
<li>[[Tamaulipas]]
<li>[[Tlaxcala]]
<li>[[Veracruz]]
<li>[[Yucatán]]
<li>[[Zacatecas]]
</ol>
|-
|colspan="4" style="text-align: center; padding: 8px;"|[[Image:States of Mexico.png|center|450px|States of Mexico (excluding the islands)]]
|}

The [[Mexican Federal District|Federal District]] is a special political division in Mexico, where the national capital, Mexico City, is located. It enjoys more limited local rule than the nation's "free and sovereign states": only since 1997 have its citizens been able to elect a [[Head of Government of the Federal District|Head of Government]]. Much of the capital city's metropolitan area overflows the limits of the Federal District.

===Major cities===
The following is a list of the principal [[Metropolitan Areas of Mexico]] in order of population as reported in the 2005 census <ref>http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/proyectos/conteos/conteo2005/bd/consulta2/pt.asp?c=6796</ref>:

[[Image:Angel_of_Independence.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Mexico City]], [[Mexican Federal District|DF]]]]
[[Image:Mty139.JPG|right|thumb|200px|[[Monterrey]], [[Nuevo Leon]]]]
[[Image:Guadalajara001.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]], [[Jalisco]]]]

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right; margin-right:60px"
|-
! Rank
! City
! State
! Population
! Region
|-
|align=center | 01 ||align=left | [[Mexico City]] ||align=left|[[Mexican Federal District|Federal District]] and [[Mexico (state)|State of Mexico]] ||19.23 million ||align=center | Center South
|-
|align=center | 02 ||align=left | [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]] ||align=left|[[Jalisco]] || 4.10 million ||align=center | West
|-
| align=center | 03 ||align=left | [[Monterrey]] ||align=left|[[Nuevo Leon]] || 3.66 million ||align=center | North East
|-
| align=center | 04 ||align=left | [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]] ||align=left|[[Puebla]] || 2.11 million ||align=center | East
|-
| align=center | 05 ||align=left | [[Toluca]] ||align=left|[[Mexico (state)|México]] || 1.61 million ||align=center | Center South
|-
| align=center | 06 ||align=left | [[Tijuana]] ||align=left|[[Baja California]] || 1.48 million ||align=center | North West
|-
| align=center | 07 ||align=left | [[León, Guanajuato|León]] ||align=left|[[Guanajuato]] || 1.43 million ||align=center | Center
|-
| align=center | 08 ||align=left | [[Ciudad Juárez]] ||align=left|[[Chihuahua]] || 1.31 million ||align=center | North West
|-
| align=center | 09 ||align=left | [[Torreón]] ||align=left|[[Coahuila]] || 1.11 million ||align=center | North East
|-
| align=center | 10 ||align=left | [[San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí|San Luis Potosí]] ||align=left|[[San Luis Potosí]] || 0.96 million ||align=center | Center
|-
| align=center | 11 ||align=left | [[Santiago de Querétaro|Querétaro]] ||align=left|[[Querétaro]] || 0.92 million ||align=center | Center
|-
| align=center | 12 ||align=left | [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]] ||align=left|[[Yucatán]] || 0.90 million ||align=center | South East
|-
| align=center | 13 ||align=left | [[Mexicali]] ||align=left |[[Baja California]] || 0.85 million ||align=center | North West
|-
| align=center | 14 ||align=left | [[Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes|Aguascalientes]] ||align=left|[[Aguascalientes]] || 0.81 million ||align=center | Center
|-
| align=center | 15 ||align=left | [[Tampico]] ||align=left|[[Tamaulipas]] || 0.80 million ||align=center | North East
|-
| align=center | 16 ||align=left | [[Cuernavaca]] ||align=left|[[Morelos]] || 0.79 million ||align=center | Center
|-
| align=center | 17 ||align=left | [[Acapulco]] ||align=left |[[Guerrero]] || 0.79 million ||align=center | South
|-
| align=center | 18 ||align=left | [[Chihuahua, Chihuahua|Chihuahua]] ||align=left|[[Chihuahua]] || 0.78 million ||align=center | North East
|-
| align=center | 19 ||align=left | [[Culiacán]] ||align=left |[[Sinaloa]] || 0.76 million ||align=center | North West
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Mexico}}
[[Image:Mexico.DF.Chapultepec.02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Looking along Reforma from Chapultepec Castle]]According to the [[World Bank]], Mexico ranks [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|13th in the world in regard to GDP]] and has the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|fourth largest per capita income in Latin America]] just after [[Argentina]], [[Chile]] and [[Costa Rica]], and it is firmly established as an upper middle-income country. Since the [[1994 economic crisis in Mexico|economic crisis]] of 1994–1995 the country has made an impressive economic recovery. According to the director for Colombia and Mexico of the [[World Bank]], the population below the poverty level has decreased from 24.2% to 17.6% in the general population and from 42% to 27.9% in rural areas from 2000-[[2004]] [http://estadis.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/301198.html].

Mexico has a [[mixed economy]] that recently entered the trillion dollar class. It contains a mixture of modern and outmoded [[industry]] and [[agriculture]], increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico has fallen from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 100 in 2005. Recent administrations have expanded competition in seaports, railroads, [[telecommunications]], [[electricity]] generation, [[natural gas]] distribution, and [[airport]]s. Mexico is also the fourth largest oil producer in the world.

A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the recovery in 1996–1999. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth, accompanied by increased employment and higher wages. Its proximity to the world's largest automobile market has meant that companies like Volkswagen and others have located assembly plants in Northern Mexico to serve that market. In addition there is a large television industry providing programming for both Mexicans and the large Spanish speaking population (44 million out of 285 million) in the United States.

Mexico has entered a new era of macroeconomic stability. Following a 4.1% growth in 2004, real [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] grew 3% in 2005. According to the [[Bank of Mexico]] recent economic developments include a record-low inflation of 3.3% in 2005, low interest rates, a lower [[External debt]] to GDP ratio (8.9%) and a strong [[Mexican peso|peso]]. Trade with the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] has tripled since [[NAFTA]] was implemented in 1994.

Mexico has opened its markets to free trade like few other countries have done, lowering its trade barriers with more than 40 countries in 12 [[Foreign affairs of Mexico|Free Trade Agreements]], including [[Japan]] and the [[European Union]]. However more than 85% of the trade is still done with the United States. Government authorities expect that by putting more than 90% of trade under free trade agreements with different countries Mexico will lessen its dependence on the United States. The government is seeking to sign an additional agreement with [[Mercosur]].

Mexico still needs to overcome many structural problems as it strives to modernize its economy and raise living standards. Ongoing economic concerns include low real wages, [[underemployment]] for a large segment of the population, inequitable [[income distribution]] (top 20% of income earners account for 55% of income), and few advancement opportunities for the largely [[Amerindian]] population in the impoverished southern states. If municipalities of Mexico were classified as countries in the [[Human Development Index|HDI World Ranking]], [[San Pedro Garza Garcia]] in the State of Nuevo Leon, and [[Benito Juárez, D.F.|Benito Juárez]], one of the districts in [[Mexican Federal District|the Distrito Federal]], would have a similar level of development to that of [[Italy]], whereas Metlatonoc, [[Guerrero]], would have an HDI similar to that of [[Malawi]] [http://hdr.undp.org/docs/reports/national/MEX_Mexico/Mexico_2004_sp.pdf].

The country has continued to struggle with such issues as economic control and development, especially with the [[petroleum]] sector and the evolution of trade relations with the [[United States]]. Corruption at certain levels of the administration and crime continue to be chronic problems.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Oaxaca-009.jpg|thumb|[[Zócalo]], [[Oaxaca de Juárez]]]]
[[Image:Chiapas street.jpg|thumb|Indigenous Mexicans on a lower class [[Chiapas]] street]]
{{main|Demographics of Mexico}}
{{seealso|Indigenous peoples of Mexico}}
With an estimated 2005 population of about [http://estadis.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/127113.html 106.5 million], Mexico is the most populous [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking country in the world.

Mexico is a racially and ethnically diverse country. Its three main ethnic groups are [[mestizo]]s (mixed European and Amerindian), [[Amerindian]]s, and [[Europe]]ans. European Mexicans, which make up about [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-27384 15%] of the population, are mostly [[Spanish people|Spanish]]. There are also [[German people|German]], [[French people|French]], [[Italian people|Italian]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Poles|Polish]], [[Russian people|Russian]], [[British people|British]], and [[Swedish people|Swedish]] immigrants. The remaining minority is largely comprised of [[Afro-Mexican]], [[Middle East]]ern, and [[East Asian]] people. A large [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] community exists in [[Mexicali]], [[Baja California]] and a historic small influx of [[Filipino people|Filipinos]] have come to Mexico since the late 16th century.

About 800,000 American expatriates live in Mexico as retirees or businessmen. Mexico is also home for many other Latin American emigrants, including most numerously [[Argentina|Argentines]] — Mexico being home to the largest Argentine population outside of Argentina, an estimated 150,000 (excluding those born in Mexico) in 2005. [http://www.lanacion.com.ar/coberturaespecial/argentinos/mexico/NotaMostrar.asp?nota_id=517497] — [[Cuba]]ns, [[Brazil]]ians, [[Chile]]ans, other [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]]ns. The PRI governments in power for most of the 20th century had a policy of granting asylum to fellow Latin Americans fleeing political persecution in their home countries. Large numbers of Chileans arrived in Mexico and nearby [[California]], especially in the 1850's [[gold rush]] though California was annexed by the U.S. Over 100,000 [[Central America]]n immigrants came legally in Mexico since the 1970's, while illegal entries hardly get passed through the southern border with [[Guatemala]], mainly are destined for the [[United States]].

According to the ''Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas'' ("National Council for the Development of Indigenous Peoples"), the culturally and linguistically affiliated Amerindian population in Mexico is approximately [http://estadis.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/127113.html 12.7 million]. However, the Mexican government does not collect racial information during censuses. In 2004, the [[National Institute of Statistics, Geography, and Data Processing]] had estimated this figure to be 12,089,094 (~11.4% of Mexico's population) of indigenous people of which, more than one million do not speak Spanish and almost five million are bilingual ([http://www.inegi.gob.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/integracion/sociodemografico/mujeresyhombres/2004/myh_2004.pdf INEGI, 2004]).

Judging by the proportion of people speaking indigenous languages, the states with the highest proportion of indigenous people are [[Yucatán]] (37.3%), [[Oaxaca]] (37.1%), [[Chiapas]] (24.6%) and [[Quintana Roo]] (23%). The states of [[Aguascalientes]] (0.2%), [[Coahuila]] (0.2%), [[Zacatecas]] (0.2%) and [[Nuevo León]] (0.5%) have the lowest proportion of speakers of indigenous languages (INEGI, 2004). The large-scale [[Germany|German]] settlement period of the mid 19th century in Northeast Mexico has blended in with the local culture, thus usage of the [[German language]] has declined there. The German and Northern Mexican cultural bond with [[Texas]] remains alive.

The greatest number of U.S citizens living outside U.S. territory reside in Mexico. This may be due to the growing economic and business interdependence of the two countries under [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA]], and also that Mexico is considered an excellent choice for retirees. A clear example of the latter phenomenon is provided by [[San Miguel de Allende]] and many towns along the [[Baja California peninsula]] and around [[Guadalajara, Jalisco]]. The official figures for foreign-born citizens in Mexico are 493,000 (since 2004), with a majority (86.9%) of these born in the United States (with the exception of Chiapas, where the majority of immigrants are from Central America). The five states with the most immigrants are Baja California (12.1% of total immigrants), Mexico City or ''Federal District'' (11.4%), Jalisco (9.9%), Chihuahua (9%) and Tamaulipas (7.3%). More than 54.6% of the immigrant population are 15 years old or younger, while 9% are 50 or older. The large number of children may be because of the Central American population, or the American population consisting largely of Hispanics, or Americans taking advantage of lower costs of living to raise larger families. 4.2% of male immigrants and 3.8% of female immigrants did not have formal education while 20.2% of male immigrants and 17.7% of female immigrants had a college degree (INEGI, 2004).

Ironically, because of its reputation as a major source of undocumeted immigrants to the United States in ''el Norte'', Mexico itself experiences this kind of immigration from Central America because of similar differences in wages and poverty between countries of origin and Mexico; analogous to the economic differential between the U.S. and Mexico. Many undocumented Central American immigrants in Mexico ultimately try to enter the United States, though some decide to stay.

Life expectancy in Mexico increased from 34.7 for men and 33 years for women in 1930 to 72.1 for men and 77.1 years for women in 2002. The states with the highest life expectancy are Baja California (75.9 years) and Nuevo Leon (75.6 years). The Federal District has a life expectancy of the same level as Baja California. The lowest levels are found in Chiapas (72.9), Oaxaca (73.2) and Guerrero (73.2 years), although the first two have had the highest increase (19.9 and 22.3% respectively).

The mortality rate in 1970 was 9.7/1000 people and by 2001 the rate had dropped to 4.9/1000 for men and 3.8/1000 for women. The most common reasons for death in 2001 were heart problems (14.6% for men 17.6% for women) and cancer (11% for men and 15.8% for women).

==Culture==
[[Image:Bailando.jpg|thumb|200px|A woman dancing folklórico in the traditional dress of Jalisco]]
Mexicans are people oriented, and they will put friends, family and relatives before work or business matters. They are not stoic when it comes to passion for the honor of their mothers, sisters, wives or daughters. Family values in Mexico were preserved, even in the era of industrialization and social change, because the traditional family serves as protection and release from the troubling outside world. Religion has been a factor in the country's high birth rate and opposition of [[birth control]], until recently the government supported the use of birth control acceptable to a mostly Catholic society.

===Social stratification and racism===
Mexico boasts a wealth of regional cultures that is unique in America. Every region in the country has a distinct culture, languages, and arts that create a huge mosaic as a whole.

Traditionally, Mexicans have struggled with the creation of a united identity. The issue is the main topic of "Labyrinth of Solitude" by Mexican [[Nobel Prize]] winner [[Octavio Paz]]. Mexico is a large country, therefore having many regional cultural traits. The north of Mexico, because of its historically high proportion of non-Spanish immigrants, is the least tradionally Mexican and most cosmopolitan of them all, making it a less exciting destination for foreign travelers. Central and southern Mexico is where many well-known traditions find their origin, therefore the people from this area are in a way the most traditional, but their collective personality can't be generalized. People from [[Puebla]], for instance, are thought to be conservative and reserved, and just a few kilometers away, the people from [[Veracruz]] have the fame of being very outgoing and liberal. The México City middle classes are believed to be arriviste and prone to debt, or crime-prone if talking about the poor. The regiomontanos (from Monterrey) are thought to be cocky regardless of their social status, due to Northern prosperity. Different accents are used in almost every state in Mexico, making it fairly easy to distinguish the origin of someone by their distinct use of language.

Pure pre-Hispanic Americans also known as "Native Americans, or Indians are likely to be perceived as inferior, even though this rarely reaches the level of aggressive racism. It's a rarity to see pre-hispanic Americans in high positions. This hidden racism is latent in the use of the word "indio" as an insult for the darker skinned, which is even used between indigeneous people to offend each other. Racism against those of African ancestry is said less prevalent than in the U.S., but some Mexicans of African descent have protested against negative racial stereotypes.

Mexicans living in the [[United States of America|United States]], legally or illegally, are looked down upon by most middle class and high class Mexicans, since they feel they are creating a bad [[reputation]] for the rest of the Mexicans. Many terms that refer to Mexicans in the U.S.A. exist, but Chicano, (a person born in the U.S.A. of Mexican descent) or Pocho ( a person born in the U.S.A. with one parent Mexican and the other Anglo-American, and those who speak broken Spanish, or "Spanglish") are the most popular. In central and southern Mexico, these terms are used as a derogatory description. The majority of Mexican men or families that pursue a life in the U.S. come from the lowest economic stratus of society in Mexico, and have created a culture [[unique]] to them.

===Standard of living===
The standard of living in Mexico is higher than most of other countries in [[Latin America]] drawing people from places like Argentina, Brazil or Cuba to the country in search for better opportunities. With the recent economic growth, most middle and high income families live in single houses, commonly found within a walled village, called "fraccionamiento". The reason these places are the most popular among the middle and upper classes is that they offer a sense of security, since most of them are within walls and have survelliance, and living in one also provides social status, due to the infrastructure of most of these villages. Swimming pools or golf clubs, and/or some other commodities are found in these fraccionamientos. Houses inside them tend to be of higher quality, and larger than other homes, most of them with at least three or four bedrooms and even maid quarters and laundry. However, the poorer Mexicans live a harsh life. Poverty is specially poignant in the countryside.
In the larger towns, hiring housekeepers or maids is not as common as in the past, but there are still many families that are willing to pay a person, generally a middle aged woman, to come help with the house chores once or twice a week. The gender roles for [[women]] in Mexico are generally strict, although this has lessened in the country's [[upper-class]]es influenced by Anglo cultural trends and some Mexican women are challenging [[patriarchal]] societal mores where males continue to practice "[[machismo]]", a major Latin American cultural norm (yet is stereotyped) of men are strong, self-reliant and aggressive.

===Leisure===
Dancing and singing are commonly part of family gatherings, bringing the old and young together, no matter what kind of music is being played, like [[cumbia]], [[salsa music|salsa]], [[merengue]] or the more Mexican [[banda]]. Dancing is a strong part of the culture, and visitors will find that even people who were thought to be unlikely to dance, do so. Singing enjoys the same popularity and Mexicans will sing when they are depressed, in a cantina to a [[mariachi]] song, or when they are very happy.

Mexicans in places like [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]], [[Puebla]], [[Monterrey]], [[Mexico City]], and most middle sized cities, enjoy a great variety of options for leisure. Shopping centers are a favorite among families, since there has been an increasing number of new [[malls]] that cater to people of all ages and interests. A large number of them, have multiplex cinemas, international and local restaurants, food courts, cafes, bars, bookstores and most of the international renowned clothing brands are found too. Mexicans are prone to travel within their own country, making short weekend trips to a neighbouring city or town.

===Broadcast media===

Two of the major television networks based in Mexico are [[Televisa]] and [[TV Azteca]]. [[Soap opera]]s ([[telenovela]]s) are translated to many languages and seen all over the world with renown names like [[Verónica Castro]], [[Lucía Méndez]], [[Lucero]], and [[Thalía]]. Even [[Gael García Bernal]] and [[Diego Luna]] from [[Y tu mamá también]] and current [[Zegna]] model have appeared in some of them. Some of their TV shows are modeled after American counterparts like ''[[100 Mexicanos Dijeron|Family Feud]]'' (''100 Mexicanos Dijeron'' or "A hundred Mexicans said" in Spanish) and [[Que Dice la Gente]], ''[[Big Brother (TV series)|Big Brother]]'', ''[[American Idol]]'', ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' and others. Nationwide news shows like ''[[Las Noticias por Adela]]'' on Televisa resemble a hybrid between ''[[The Phil Donahue Show|Donahue]]'' and ''[[Nightline]]''. Local news shows are modeled after American counterparts like the ''[[Eyewitness News]]'' and ''[[Action News]]'' formats. Border cities receive American [[television]] and [[radio]] stations, while [[satellite]] and [[cable]] subscription is common for the upper-classes in major cities, often watch American movies and TV shows.

===Sports===
[[Image:Luis_Hernandez.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Mexico.]]
The favorite sport remains [[football (soccer)]], while [[baseball]] is also popular, especially in the Gulf of Mexico and the border states in the NW. The season runs from March to July with playoffs held in August. The Mexican professional league is named the [[Liga Mexicana de Beisbol]].

Exhibitions like bull fighting are still practiced and professional wrestling as shown on shows like [[Lucha libre]]. [[American football]] is practiced at the major northern universities like [[UNAM]], [[UDLA]] (University of the Americas), [[UANL]] ([[Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León]]).

[[Rugby football|Rugby]] is played at the amateur level throughout the country with the majority of clubs in Mexico City and others in [[Monterrey]], [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]], Celaya, Guanajuato and Oaxaca.

The national sport of Mexico is [[Charreria]]. Ancient Mexicans played a ball game which still exists in Northwest Mexico (Sinaloa, the game is called [[Ulama game|Ulama]]), though it is not a popular sport any more. [[Bullfighting]] is also a popular sport in the country. Almost all large cities have bullrings. ''[[Plaza México|La Monumental]]'' in [[Mexico city]], has the largest bullring in the world, which seats 55,000 people.

===Languages===
[[Image:Palenque Relief.jpg|thumb|200 px|right|A stucco relief in the Palenque museum, [[Palenque]], Chiapas, Mexico]]
{{main|Languages of Mexico}}

Compared to the other North American nations, the Mexican Constitution does not mention the existence of an "[[official language]]" just like the United States but unlike Canada, but it is mentioned in the treaty of Las Tres garantias, where Agustin de Iturbide declares the unity of all Mexicans the Spanish as the offcial language of Mexico. Although [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is considered to be the "common" language of the country, used in all sorts of documents and spoken by the majority of the population, about 7% of the population speak an American dialect. The government officially recognizes 62 American languages. Of these, [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] and [[Maya language|Maya]] are each spoken by 1.5 million, while others, such as [[Lacandon]], are spoken by fewer than 100. The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual education programs in indigenous rural communities. A few tribes, such as the [[Kickapoo]] and the [[Cherokee]], came to the state of [[Coahuila]] in the 19th century to escape U.S. army raids and are said to maintain their language and culture to a certain extent.

Although Spanish is the common language of Mexico, [[English language|English]] is widely used in business. As a result, English language skills are much in demand and can lead to an increase in the salary offered by a company. It is also spoken along the [[United States-Mexico border|U.S.A. border]], in big cities, and in beach resorts. Also, the majority of private schools in Mexico offer bilingual education, both in Spanish and English. English is the main language spoken in U.S.A. expatriate communities such as those along the coast of [[Baja California]], [[Jalisco]] and the town of [[San Miguel de Allende]].

With respect to other European languages brought by immigrants, the case of [[Chipilo]], in the state of [[Puebla]], is unique, and has been documented by several linguists such as Carolyn McKay. The immigrants that founded the city of [[Chipilo]] in 1882 came from the [[Veneto]] region in northern [[Italy]], and thus spoke a northern variant of the [[Venetian language|Venetian]] dialect. While other European immigrants assimilated into the [[Culture of Mexico|Mexican culture]], the people of Chipilo retained their language. Nowadays, most of the people who live in the city of Chipilo (and many of those who have migrated to other cities) still speak the unaltered Veneto dialect spoken by their great-grandparents making the Veneto dialect an unrecognized minority language in the city of [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]]. In [[Huatusco]] and [[Colonia Gonzalez]], [[Veracruz]], [[Veneto]] is still heard too.

A similar case is that of the [[Plautdietsch]] language, spoken by the descendants of [[German people|German]] and [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Mennonite]] immigrants in the states of [[Chihuahua]] and [[Durango]]. Other German communities lie in [[Puebla]], [[Mexico City]], [[Sinaloa]] and [[Chiapas]], with the largest German school outside of [[Germany]] being in Mexico City (Alexander von Humboldt school), these represent the large German populations where they still try to preserve the German culture and language. Other strong [[German people|German]] communities lie in [[Sinaloa]] ([[Mazatlan]]), Nuevo Leon, Chiapas ([[Tapachula]]) and other parts of Puebla ([[Nueva Necaxa]]) where the German culture and language have been preserved to different extents.

[[French language|French]] is also heard in the state of [[Veracruz]] in the cities of [[Jicaltepec]], [[San Rafael]] and [[Mentideros]], where the architecture and food is also very [[French people|French]]. These [[French people|French]] immigrants came from [[Haute-Saône]] département in [[France]], especially from [[Champlitte]] and [[Borgonge]]. Another important French group were the "[[Barcelonette]]'s" from the [[Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]] département, who migrated specifically to Mexico to find jobs and work in merchandising and are well known in [[Mexico City]], [[Puebla]], and [[Veracruz]]. Another important [[French people|French]] village in Mexico is [[Santa Rosalía]] in [[Baja California Sur]], where [[French language|French]] language and culture/architecture are still found.

[[Scandinavia]]n languages and traditions can also be heard in [[Chihuahua]], such as [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] in [[Nueva Escandinavia]] and other [[Scandinavia]]n colonies in the north of the country. [[Russian language|Russian]] is heard in the [[Baja California]] region of [[Valle de Guadalupe]], thanks to the immigrants from southern [[Russia]] who settled these areas. They are the [[Molokans]] or "milk eaters", and they preserve their culture in [[Baja California]], with the architecture in their houses and museums, they produce fine [[wine]] (Along with the large [[Italian people|Italian]] community that lives near them) and their language and traditions, as well as dresses and festivities. Other [[Russians]] belong to a more recent wave of immigration from mainly [[Russia]] and [[Poland]] and the [[Ukraine]] along other Eastern Europeans, who settle mainly in [[Mexico City]] and [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]].

The wave of [[Armenians]], [[Lebanese]], [[Syrians]] and [[Greeks]] came to Mexico in the early 20th century, mainly settled in urban areas and [[Baja California]] and [[Sinaloa]], especially [[Greeks]] in the city of [[Culiacan]], in proximity to relatives in [[California]], U.S. is one notable migration. [[The Lebanese]] have settled in the urban areas such as [[Mexico City]], [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]], [[Monterrey]], and [[Puebla]]. [[Cornish language|Cornish]] dialect of [[Cornwall]], [[England]] disappeared from Mexico in the state of [[Hidalgo]] in the early 20th century, especially in the cities of [[Pachuca]] and [[Real del Monte]], but the [[Cornish people|Cornish]] culture still survives in the architecture, sports, food and many aspects of these cities in central Mexico.

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Mexico}}
[[Image:Catedral de Guadalajara.jpg|right|thumb|330px|Guadalajara Cathedral by night]]Mexico is predominantly [[Catholic Church in Mexico|Roman Catholic]] (about 89% of the population). It is the nation with the second largest Catholic population, behind [[Brazil]]. Also, 6% of the population adheres to various [[Protestant]]/[[Restoration]] faiths (e.g. [[Latter-day Saints]], [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]]), etc. Mexico is the nation with the second largest LDS population, 1,043,718, (a little less than 1%),just behind the USA (5,690,672). The remaining 5% of the population adhere to other religions or profess no [[religion]]. Some of the country's Catholics (notably those of indigenous background) [[syncretic|syncretize]] Catholicism with various elements of [[Aztec]] or [[Mayan people|Mayan]] religions. The [[Our Lady of Guadalupe|Virgin of Guadalupe]] has long been a symbol enshrining the major aspirations of Mexican society. According to anthropologist [[Eric Wolf|Eric R. Wolf]], the Guadalupe symbol links family, politics, and religion; the colonial past and the independent present; and the indigenous and the Mexican. [http://countrystudies.us/mexico/61.htm]
[[Judaism]] has been practiced in Mexico for centuries. Many are descended of Jewish people who were converted forcibly to Catholicism in [[1492]] or earlier, and were forced to practice their religion in secret until the [[Inquisition]] was abolished in Mexico and they were free again to practice their ancestral faith openly. There are estimated to be more than 45,000-50,000 (some estimates say 60,000) Jews in Mexico today. <ref>{{es icon}} "[http://148.245.26.68/lastest/2002/Agosto/11Ago2002/11pr07a.htm Advierten una reducción en el número de mexicanos que profesan la religión católica]", ''El Informador'', [[11 August]] 2002. Retrieved [[15 May]] 2006.</ref> [[Islam]] has 318,608 adherents, according to official data, and is mostly practiced by Mexicans of [[Arab]] (mainly [[Syrian]]) and [[Turkish people|Turkish]] descent, though there is a very small percentage of the indigenous population in [[Chiapas]] state who adhere to Islam. Mexico has a very tiny [[Sikh]] population in the country of [[east Indian]] origin. The small number of [[Asian]] ethnic groups in [[Baja California]] have introduced [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], but their members are generally small segments of Mexico's religious profile.

===Education===
{{main|Education in Mexico}}
[[Image:ITESM_Entrada_principal.JPG|left|thumb|ITESM, Main Campus]]
Mexico has made impressive improvements in [[education]] in the last two decades. In 2004, the literacy rate was at 92.2%, and the youth [[literacy]] rate (ages 15-24) was 96%. Primary and secondary education (9 years) is free and mandatory. Even though different bilingual education programs have existed since the 1960s for the indigenous communities, after a constitutional reform in the late 1990s, these programs have had a new thrust, and free text books are produced in more than a dozen indigenous languages.

In the 1970's, Mexico became the first country to establish a system of "distance-learning" . Schools that use this system are known as ''[[telesecundaria]]s'' in Mexico. The Mexican [[distance education|distance learning]] secondary education is also transmitted to some [[Central America]]n countries and to Colombia, and it is used in some southern regions of the [[United States]] as a method of bilingual education.

The largest university in Mexico is the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]] ([[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]]) UNAM, founded in 1551. Most of the Mexican Presidents in the modern history and three Nobel Laureates are among its former students. UNAM conducts 50% of Mexico's scientific research. The second largest university is the [[Instituto Politécnico Nacional|National Polytechnic Institute]] (IPN). These institutions are not self-sufficient. Several problems have arose with their semi-socialist system mainly in the area of high rates of absence from faculty employees and constant strikes by both, students and faculty. To obtain a 4-year degree students can spend up to ten years inside classrooms without penalty. The National Autonomous University of Mexico occupies the 96th place in the Top 200 World University Ranking published by The Times Higher Educaction Supplement in 2005, making it the highest ranked Spanish-speaking university in the world as well as the first Latin American university. The most important private universities are [[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey|Monterrey's Technological and Higher Education Institute]] (ITESM) (which has 32 secondary campuses, apart from the Monterrey Campus), [[Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México|Mexico's Autonomous Technological Institute]] (ITAM), [[UDLAP|Universidad de las Américas Puebla]] (UDLAP), the Ibero-American University ([[Universidad Iberoamericana]]).

===Crime and poverty===
{{main|Crime in Mexico}}
[[Image:Cocaine bricks scorpion logo.jpg|float|thumb|right|200px|Bricks of cocaine, a form in which it is commonly transported.]]
There is a great economic polarization between the rich and the poor. There are also high crime rates in some parts of the country. Mexican drug cartels deliver more than half of the [[methamphetamine]] supply into the United States. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8444216/site/newsweek/from/RL.3/] The persistence of corruption at certain levels of the government and the police has prevented effective crime control efforts.

Police [[Police corruption|corruption]] remain as a large problem in Mexico, and are mostly fueled by the lucrative drug trade and migrant smuggling. Between January and June 2006, drug wars between cartels claimed 1,003 victims. The problem is especially dangerous in the border city of [[Tijuana]] and in the coastal city of [[Acapulco]], which is a key link to the United States and México City. [http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/07/30/news/mexico.php]

Mexico City continues to experience major crime problems, particularly with street crime and kidnappings, and also a new type of kidnapping called "Express kidnapping" usually in which the victim is carjacked and beaten. It is estimated that there are between 2000 and 3000 crimes committed on the streets of Mexico City every day. Approximately 600 are reported (2000 average). Most of these are muggings, although the breakdown of the figures runs the gamut of criminal activity. Murders are not a significant part of the problem. These average around 2.5 per day which, given the size of the population, is relatively few. To put it in context, Washington, D.C. has a murder rate per capita around 5 times higher.

==Origin and history of the name==
{{IPA notice}}
Mexico is named after its capital city, whose name comes from the Aztec city Mexico-Tenochtitlan that preceded it. The ''Mexi'' part of the name may have been derived from Mexitli, a tribal war god whose name may have been dervied from the words ''metztli'' (the moon) and ''xictli'' (navel) and may mean "navel (possibly implying 'child') of the moon", or from Mectli, a goddess known to the early wandering pre-aztecs peoples and whose name can be translated as "navel of the maguey" or "maguey grandmother" (in several sources, it was she who first sent the ancestors of the Mexica on their trek southwards into empire and history). Mexico is the home of the people of Mexitli or Mectli (the Mexicas), ''co'' meaning "place" and ''ca'' meaning "people". Mexico can also be translated as "the place of Mectli's people near the nopal cactus." The symbol in myth of Tecnochtitlan's founding, an eagle perched on a nopal cactus which arose from the lake on which the city was built, is still found on Mexico's national flag today.

When the Spaniards conquered Mexico and imposed their own language (Spanish), they naturally did so according to the spelling rules of the [[Castilian language]] of the time. The [[Nahuatl language]] had a {{IPA|/ʃ/}} sound (like English "shop"), and this sound was written ''x'' in Spanish (e.g. ''Ximénez''); consequently, the letter ''x'' was used to write down words like ''Mexitli''. Meanwhile, the letter ''j'' (or, rather, the letter ''i'' when used as a consonant, since ''j'' was not yet in common usage) was used for the {{IPA|/ʒ/}} sound (as in "vision"), as was ''g'' before ''e'' or ''i''. These old pronunciations of ''j'' and ''x'' are still found in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and [[Ladino language|Ladino]].

Over the centuries, the pronunciation of Spanish changed. Words like ''Ximénez'', ''exercicio'', ''xabón'' and ''perplexo'' started to be pronounced with a {{IPA|/x/}} (this [[International Phonetic Alphabet|phonetic symbol]] represents the sound in the word "loch"). The {{IPA|/ʒ/}} sound also started to be pronounced this way. The coalescence of the two phonemes into a single new one encouraged scholars to use the same letter for the sound, regardless of its origin (Spanish scholars have always tried to keep the orthography of their language faithful to the spoken tongue). It was ''j''/''g'' that was chosen. So, modern Spanish has ''ejercicio'', ''ejército'', ''jabón'', ''perplejo'', etc. (Another example is the old spelling of ''[[Don Quixote]]'' which is now ''Don Quijote''. The old pronunciation is maintained in Portuguese "Quixote" and in French "Quichotte", and the English word "[[quixotic]]" maintains the spelling while pronouncing it with its English value.) In modern Spanish, ''x'' is used to represent the {{IPA|/ks/}} consonant cluster in words derived from [[Latin language|Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]].

Proper nouns and their derivatives are optionally allowed to break this rule. Thus, although ''xabón'' is now incorrect and archaic, alongside many millions of people called "Jiménez", there also are plenty called "Giménez" or "Ximénez" — a matter of personal choice and tradition.

In Mexico, it has become almost a matter of national pride to maintain the ''x'' spelling in the name of the country. It is regarded as more authentic and less jarring to the reader's eye. Mexicans have tended to demand that other Spanish-speakers use this spelling, rather than following Spaniard rules, and the demand has largely been respected. The [[Real Academia Española]] states that both spellings are correct, and most dictionaries and guides recommend ''México'' first, and present ''Méjico'' as a variant. Today, even outside of the country, ''México'' is preferred over ''Méjico'' by ratios ranging from 15-to-1 (in [[Spain]]) to about 280-to-1 (in [[Costa Rica]]). Also, in the local placenames "[[Oaxaca]]" and "[[Xalapa]]" or former territories like "[[Texas]]"; in places like "[[Xochimilco]]", however, the ''x'' represents a {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.

A cultural side-effect of the fact that Mexicans use ''México'' {{IPA|/'mexiko/}} and Spaniards sometimes use ''Méjico'' to represent the same pronunciation. The mere act of using the ''j'' spelling is interpreted by some as a form of colonial aggression{{fact}}. On the other hand, some Peninsular scholars (such as [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]]) preferred to apply the general spelling rule, arguing that the spelling with an ''x'' could encourage non-native students of Spanish to mispronounce ''México'' as {{IPA|/'meksiko/}}.

In the [[Nahuatl language]], from which the name originally derived, the name for Mexico is '''Mexihco''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet]] {{IPA|/meː.ɕiʔ.ko/}}).

==Further reading==
*James D. Cockcroft, ''Mexico's Hope: An Encounter with Politics and History'', 320 pages, Monthly Review Press 1999, ISBN 0-85345-925-8 – leftist view of Mexican history
*Enrique Krauze, ''Mexico: Biography of Power. A history of Modern Mexico 1810-1996'', 896 pages – Perennial 1998, ISBN 0-06-092917-0, standard work by a renowned Mexican author.
*Julia Preston and Samuel Dillon, ''Opening Mexico: The Making of a Democracy'', Farrar Straus and Giroux, 2004, hardcover, 608 pages, ISBN 0-374-22668-7 – recent history since the [[Tlatelolco massacre]] of 1968 told by two journalists
*Joanne Hershfield, David R. Maciel, ''Mexico's Cinema: A Century of Film and Filmmakers'', SR Books 1999, ISBN 0-8420-2682-7 – comprehensive survey
*Michael C. Meyer, William H. Beezley, editors, ''The Oxford History of Mexico'', 736 pages, Oxford University Press 2000, ISBN 0-19-511228-8 – 20 essays, also covers cultural history
*Kernecker, Herbert. "When in Mexico, Do as the Mexicans Do." In depth information about life in Mexico, including culture, history, economy, language and more in 176 comprehensive pages..ISBN 0-8442-2783-8.
*[http://wild-net.com.au/mexico/html/san_cristobal_political.phtml San Cristobal : The Political climate] - A brief description of the situation in the town of San Cristobal.
*[http://www.edhelper.com/ReadingComprehension_Geography_9_1.html Mexico] - A description of Mexico's geographical situation by Ekaterina Zhdanova-Redman.
*[http://www.pittstate.edu/services/scied/Staff/Shoberg/History/wwi/zimmer.htm The Zimmerman Telegram] - A translation of the Zimmerman Telegram to English.

== See also ==
=== Geography, history and politics ===
*[[Location of Mexico]]
*[[Foreign affairs of Mexico]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[List of cities in Mexico]]
*[[Military of Mexico]]
*[[U.S.-Mexico border]]
*[[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico]]

=== Culture and education ===
*[[Culture of Mexico]]
*[[Education in Mexico]]
*[[List of universities in Mexico]]
*[[List of Mexicans]]
*[[Music of Mexico]]
*[[List of Latin American artists]]
*[[Sport in Mexico]]
*[[Postage stamps and postal history of Mexico]]

=== Communications and transportation ===
* [[Automóvil Panamericano]]
* [[Excélsior]]
* [[El Universal (Mexico City)|El Universal]]
* [[Reforma]]
* [[Universal Stereo]]
* [[Cars in Mexico]]
* [[Salón Internacional del Automóvil México]]
* [[Transportation in Mexico]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==External links==
*[http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/searchSimpleResults/iw/1/keyword/Mexico%20and%20election%20and%20obrador Public Opinion in Mexico]
*[http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/11395 All you need to know about Mexico's election]
{{sisterlinks|Mexico}}
{{portal}}
* [http://www.accionporlajusticia.com AXJ]: Political Information about Mexico
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Mexico Encyclopaedia Britannica] Mexico - Country Page
* [http://fortravel.net/mexico_travel_information.htm Mexico Update]
* [http://www.turbomaps.com.ar/english/mexico.php Mexico main cities satellite views]
* [http://tides.sfasu.edu/AN18/SHHIX_8.php?culture=2&chrono=5&index=0 1837 Map of Texas, Mexico, and the U.S.] From [http://tides.sfasu.edu/ Texas Tides]
* [http://www.marcasmexico.com Trademarks and Patents in México] Information about Intellectual Property in México

===Travel===
* {{wikitravel}}

===Government===
* [http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/en/ Presidencia]: Presidency of the Republic
* {{es icon}} [http://www.gob.mx Gob.mx]: Governmental portal
* {{es icon}} [http://www.directorio.gob.mx Directorio.gob.mx]: Official web directory of the Mexican Presidency
* {{es icon}} [http://www.cddhcu.gob.mx Cámara de Diputados]: Chamber of Deputies
* {{es icon}} [http://www.senado.gob.mx/index.php?lng=en Cámara de Senadores]: Senate
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Information about Mexico===
* {{es icon}} [http://www.inegi.gob.mx INEGI]: National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Information
* {{es icon}} [http://www.consejomexicano.org.mx/ Mexican Council for Economic and Social Development]
* {{es icon}} [http://www.cenam.mx/husos-horarios.htm Time zones in Mexico]
* {{es icon}} [http://www.portaldeldesarrollo.org/ Mexico Development Gateway]
* [http://www.elbalero.gob.mx/index_kids.html Mexico for kids]

{{col-2}}

===Mexican newspapers and news agencies===
* {{es icon}} [http://www.biznews.com.mx ''Biznews'']
* {{es icon}} [http://mexico.indymedia.org/ ''IMC Mexico'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.reforma.com ''Reforma'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.informador.com.mx ''El Informador'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.eluniversal.com.mx ''El Universal'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.elnorte.com ''El Norte'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.frontera.info ''Frontera'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.diariomonitor.com.mx ''Diario Monitor'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.jornada.unam.mx ''La Jornada'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.elimparcial.com ''El Imparcial'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.mural.com ''Mural'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.debate.com.mx ''El Debate'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.imagen.com.mx ''Imagen Informativa'']
* {{en icon}} [http://www.mexiconews.com.mx/ ''Herald'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.milenio.com ''Milenio'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.cronica.com.mx ''La Crónica'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.enmexico.com/noticias.htm''Mexican Newspapers'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.am.com.mx ''AM Bajío'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.notimex.com.mx ''Notimex'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx ''El Financiero'']
* {{es icon}} [http://www.eleconomista.com.mx ''El Economista'']
{{col-end}}

{{States of Mexico}}
{{North America}}
{{G15}}

[[Category:Mexico|A]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]]
[[Category:Nahuatl words]]
[[Category:G15 nations]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[af:Meksiko]]
[[ar:المكسيك]]
[[an:Mexico]]
[[ast:México]]
[[id:Meksiko]]
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[[th:ประเทศเม็กซิโก]]
[[vi:Mexico]]
[[tg:Мексика]]
[[tr:Meksika]]
[[uk:Мексика]]
[[vec:Mèsico]]
[[yi:מעקסיקע]]
[[zh-yue:墨西哥]]
[[zh:墨西哥]]

Leif Erikson

2006-10-04T01:23:26Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Leif Eriksson Modifying: cy:Leif Eriksson

{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Viking at MN Capitol.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A statue of '''Leif''' near the [[Minnesota State Capitol]] in [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] dedicated on [[October 9]], [[1949]].]]

'''Leif Ericson''' ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]: '''Leifr Eiríksson''')<ref>In [[Icelandic language|modern Icelandic]] the first name is '''Leifur''' and in [[Norwegian language|modern Norwegian]] '''Leiv'''. The [[patronym]] is Anglicized in various ways, such as '''Ericson''', '''Eriksson''', '''Ericsson''', '''Erickson''', '''Erikson''' and '''Eiriksson'''.</ref> (''[[circa|c.]]'' [[980]] – ''c.'' [[1020]]) was an [[Iceland]]ic explorer and the first European definitively known to have landed in [[North America]]—more specifically, the region that would become [[Newfoundland]] and, by later extension, [[Canada]]. His exploration resulted in several settlements, with some evidence suggesting that later Norseman may eventually have penetrated as far as [[Minnesota]], either coming down from Hudson Bay or going west through the Great Lakes.

==Biography==

[[Image:Leifr_Eiriksson.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A statue of Leif outside [[Hallgrímskirkja]] in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]. It was a gift from the [[United States]] government.]]

It is believed that Leif was born about [[980]] in [[Iceland]], the second son of [[Erik the Red]] ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]: ''Eiríkr rauði''), a [[Norway|Norwegian]]-Icelandic [[outlaw]] and himself the son of another Norwegian outlaw, [[Þorvaldr Ásvaldsson]]. Leif's mother was Thorhild (''Þjóðhildr'').<ref>Sanderson, Jeanette. (2002) ''Explorers'', Teaching Resources/Scholastic. p. 14. ISBN 0-439-25181-8.</ref> Erik the Red had founded two Norse colonies in Greenland, the Western Settlement and the Eastern Settlement, as he had named them. Apparently, Leif Ericson had two brothers, [[Thorvald Eriksson|Þorvaldr]] and [[Thorstein Eiríksson|Þorsteinn]], and one half-sister, [[Freydís Eiríksdóttir|Freydís]]. Leif married a woman named Þórgunnr, and they had one son, [[Thorkell Leifsson|Þorkell Leifsson]].

During a stay in Norway, Leif converted to [[Christianity]], like many Norse of that time. He also went to Norway to serve the [[List of Norwegian monarchs|King of Norway]], [[Olaf I of Norway|Olaf Tryggvason]]. When he returned to Greenland, he bought the boat of [[Bjarni Herjólfsson]] and set out to explore the land that Bjarni had found, which was in fact the mainland of North America.

The ''[[Saga of the Greenlanders]]'' tells that Leif set out about [[1000]] to follow Bjarni's route with 35 crew members, but in the opposite direction.<ref>Another saga, ''[[The Saga of Eric the Red]]'', relates that it Leif discovered the American mainland while returning from Norway to Greenland in [[1000]] or thereabouts, but does not mention any attempts to settle there. However, the ''Saga of the Greenlanders'' is considered to be the more reliable of the two.</ref> The first land he encountered was covered with flat rocks (Old Norse: ''hellur''). He therefore called it [[Helluland]] ("Land of the Flat Stones"). Probably it was the present day [[Baffin Island]]. Next he came to a land that was flat and wooded, with white sandy beaches. He called [[Markland]] ("Wood-land"), and it is usually assumed to have been [[Labrador]].

When Leif and his crew left Markland and found land again, they landed and built some houses. They found the area pleasant: there were plenty of [[salmon]] in the river and the climate was mild, with little frost in the winter and green grass year-round. They remained at this place over the winter. The sagas mention that one of Leif's men, Tyrkir, possibly a German, found wild [[grape]]s, and that Leif accordingly named the country [[Vinland|Vínland]] after them.

On the return voyage, Leif rescued an Icelandic castaway named Þórir and his crew — an incident that earned Leif the [[nickname]] 'Leif the Lucky' (Old Norse: ''Leifr hinn heppni'').

Research done in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] by explorer [[Helge Ingstad]] and his wife, archaeologist [[Anne Stine Ingstad|Anne Stine]], strongly suggests that the settlement of Leif Ericson and his party in Vínland was actually at the tip of Newfoundland, later known as [[L'Anse aux Meadows]].

In [[1964]], [[President of the United States]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] declared [[October 9]] to be "[[Leif Erikson Day]]" in the [[United States]].
[[Image:Vikings-Voyages.png|right|thumb|150px|Map]]

==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==See also==
*[[Brendan|St. Brendan]]
*[[Olaf the Black]]
*[[Vinland]]
*[[John Cabot]]
*[[Matthew (ship)]]

==External links==
{{commons|Leifr Eiríksson}}
*[http://www.reportret.info/gallery/leifericsson1.html A reconstructed portrait of Leif Ericsson] – Based on historical sources, in a contemporary style; from Reportret: gallery of reconstructed portraits
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34468 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://www.mnc.net/norway/Leif.htm Leif Ericson Homepage] – From the Great Norwegians webpages, hosted by Metropolitan News Company's website MNC Online.
* [http://www.vikingship.org Leif Ericson Viking Ship] LEVS is a 501(c) 3 nonprofit educational organization dedicated to the study, education and promotion of the fact that Leif Ericson was the first European to set foot upon and explore the North American Continent and of Vikings in general, their times and travels throughout the world.

[[Category:11th century deaths]]
[[Category:980s births]]
[[Category:Explorers of Canada]]
[[Category:Icelandic Canadians]]
[[Category:Icelandic historical figures|Leifur Eiríksson]]
[[Category:Icelandic explorers|Leifur Eiríksson]]
[[Category:Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[Category:Viking exploration of North America]]

{{Link FA|la}}

[[id:Leif Eriksson]]
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Ticino

2006-10-04T01:20:28Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Infobox Canton|short_name=Ticino|
local_names=Ticino|
coa_img_path=Tessin-coat of arms.svg|
locatormap_img_path=Swiss_Canton_Map_TI.png|
cantonalmap_img_path=Map_of_Canton_Ticino.png|
capital=[[Bellinzona]]|
area=2812|area_rank=5th|area_scale=9|
population=319800|population_rank=8th|population_asof=2004|
population_density=114|
since=1803|
abbr=TI|
languages=[[Italian language|Italian]] (official); [[Lombard language|Lombard]] varieties (no written standard)|
executive=Consiglio di Stato|executive_members=5|
legislative=[[Gran Consiglio]]|parliament_members=90|
highest=Adula (Rheinwaldhorn)|highest_m=3402|
municipalities_number=195|
districts_designation=distretti|districts_number=8|}}
{{Otheruses4|the swiss '''canton Ticino'''|the river Ticino|Ticino river}}

'''Canton Ticino''' or '''Ticino''' is the southernmost [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]] of [[Switzerland]]. The written language is [[Italian language|Italian]] in almost the entire [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]] (except the [[Walser]] [[municipality]] of [[Bosco/Gurin]], where it is [[German language|German]]). It surrounds the [[Italy|Italian]] enclave of [[Campione d'Italia]]. Together with areas of the canton of [[Graubünden]] it makes up the so-called ''Svizzera Italiana'' (Italian-speaking Switzerland). [[Lombard language|Lombard]] dialects ([[Ticinese]]) are still widely spoken, especially in the valleys, but they have no official status.

Named after the [[Ticino river]], the canton is called ''Ticino'' in Italian, and ''Tessin'' in German and French (with different pronunciation).

==Geography==
The canton of Ticino is located in the south of Switzerland. It is almost entirely surrounded by [[Italy]] which lies to its east, west and south. To the north lie the cantons of [[Valais]] and [[Canton of Uri|Uri]], to the northeast the canton of [[Graubünden]].

Its area is 2,812 km², of which about three quarters are considered productive. Forests cover about a third of the area, but also the lakes [[Lake Maggiore|Maggiore]] and [[Lake Lugano|Lugano]] make up a considerable part of the total area. These lakes are known with the above listed names, but are officially named Lake Verbano and Lake Ceresio.

The canton is split geographically in two parts by the [[Monte Ceneri]] pass. The northern, more mountainous part, called ''Sopraceneri'', is formed by the two major Swiss valleys around the lake Maggiore: Ticino Valley and Maggia Valley. The southern part, called ''Sottoceneri'', is the region around the Lake Lugano.

The [[River Ticino]] is the largest river in the canton. It drains most of the canton, flowing from the northwest through the [[Bedretto Valley]] and the [[Leventina]] valley to enter the lake near [[Locarno]]. Its main tributaries are the [[Brenno]] in the [[Blenio Valley]] and the [[Moesa]] in the [[Mesolcina Valley]] in [[Graubünden]]. The lands of the canton are shaped by the river, which in its mid portion forms a wide valley, commonly known as the ''Riviera''.

The western lands of the canton, however, are drained by the [[River Maggia]]. The [[Verzasca Valley]] is located between the Ticino river and the Maggia river. There is also a smaller area that drains directly into the [[Lake Lugano]]. Most of the land is considered within the [[Alps]], but a small area is part of the plain of the [[River Po]] which drains the north of [[Italy]].

==History==
In ancient times the area of what is today Ticino was settled by te [[Lepontii]], a [[Celt]]ic tribe. Later, probably around the rule of [[Augustus]], it became part f the [[Roman Empire]]. After the fall of the Western Empire, was ruled by the [[Ostrogoths]], the [[Lombards]] and the [[Franks]]. Around 1100 CE it was the centre of struggle between the free communes of [[Milan]] and [[Como]]: in the 14th centry it was definitively acquired by the [[Visconti]], Dukes of [[Milan]]. In the [[15th century]] the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] Confederates conquered the valleys south of the Alps in three separate conquests.

The [[Canton of Uri]] conquered the [[Leventina Valley]] in [[1440]]. Between [[1403]] and [[1422]] some of these lands were already annexed by forces from Uri, but subsequently lost. In a second conquest Uri, [[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]] and [[Nidwalden]] gained the town of [[Bellinzona]] and the Riviera in [[1500]]. Some of the land and the town Bellinzona itself were previously annexed by Uri in [[1419]] but lost again in [[1422]]. The third conquest was fought by troops from the entire Confederation (at that time constituted by 12 cantons). In [[1512]] [[Locarno]], the [[Maggia Valley]], [[Lugano]] and [[Mendrisio]] were annexed. Subsequently, the upper valley of the [[Ticino River]], from the [[St. Gotthard]] to the town of Biasca ([[Leventina Valley]]) was part of Canton [[Canton of Uri|Uri]]. The remaining territory (''Baliaggi Ultramontani'', ''Ennetbergische Vogteien'', the Bailiwicks Beyond the Mountains) was administered by the Twelve Cantons.

The lands of the canton of Ticino are the last lands to be conquered by the Swiss Confederation. (After the battle of [[Marignano]] in [[1515]] the king of [[France]] [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] defeated the Confederates, and they gave up any further conquests.) In February [[1798]] an attempt of annexation by the [[Cisalpine Republic]] was repelled by a volunteer militia in [[Lugano]]. Between [[1798]] and [[1803]], during the [[Helvetic Republic]], the districts of [[Canton of Bellinzona|Bellinzona]] and [[Canton of Lugano|Lugano]] were separate cantons, but in [[1803]] the two were unified to form the canton of Ticino that joined the Swiss Confederation as a full member in the same year. During the Napoelonic Wars, many Ticinese (as was the case for other [[Swiss]]) served in Swiss military units allied with the [[France|French]].

Until [[1878]] the three largest cities, Bellinzona, Lugano and Locarno, alternated as capital of the canton. In [[1878]], however, Bellinzona became the only and permanent capital.

The actual constitution[http://www.ti.ch/CAN/argomenti/legislaz/rleggi/rl/dati_rl/f/f01_06.htm] dates [[1997]]. The previous constitution, heavily modified, dates from [[1830]], nearly 20 years before the constitution of actual [[Swiss Confederation]].

==Government==
The cantonal [[parliament]] is the ''Grand Council'' (Italian: ''Gran Consiglio''), with 90 members and the government (''Consiglio di Stato'') has 5 members (''Consiglieri di Stato''). In the both councils the members are elected with the [[Proportional representation|proportional]] [[electoral system]]. The canton sends two deputies to the [[Swiss Council of States]], and eight deputies to the [[Swiss National Council|National Council]].

==Agriculture==
{{See also|Ticino (wine region)}}
The main agricultural production is [[wine]], mostly [[merlot]], a type of red wine. It is followed by [[horticulture]], [[milk]] and [[cheese]] production.

==Economy==
The hilly slopes of the canton are used extensively for the production of hydroelectricity. The electricity produced is used at home and sold for export. There is cattle breeding in the northern areas. The production of wine is important in the canton and exported to mainly other areas in [[Switzerland]]. The vineyards are mostly concentrated in the southern half of the canton where the climate is warmer. Other agricultural produce includes corn (maize), potatoes, tobacco and vegetables.

The weather in the canton is often inverse to that north of the [[Alps]]. This, and a warmer climate in general, attracts many tourists from other Swiss cantons. The lakes together with the sunshine are considered attractive. Tourism is the single most important economic factor in the canton.

There is also light industry, mostly concentrated around the three largest towns of Lugano, Locarno and Bellinzona.

The canton is well connected to the rest of Switzerland. There are tunnels underneath the [[St. Gotthard Pass|Gotthard]] massive, both for rail and road. The canton of Grisons (Graubünden) is connected with a direct coach link, whereas the canton of Valais is connected by rail through a tunnel at the [[Simplon Pass]]. There are good rail links to [[Milan]] and [[Rome]] in [[Italy]] as well as [[Germany]] via [[Basel]] and [[Zürich]].

Because of the tourist trade there are a number of small railways in scenic areas in the mountains. Winter sports is important, despite being less developed.

There are two major centres of education and research located in the canton of Ticino. The [[University of Italian speaking Switzerland]] (USI, Università della Svizzera Italiana) is the only Swiss university teaching in [[Italian language|Italian]]. The [[University of Applied Sciences of Italian speaking Switzerland]] (SUPSI, Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera Italiana) on the other hand is a professional training college focused on a practical method of teaching in the areas of applied art, economy, social work, technology and production science.

Three daily newspapers are published in Ticino: Corriere del Ticino, La Regione, and Giornale del Popolo. These represent the only [[Italian language|Italian]] daily publications in [[Switzerland]].

==Language==
The official language, and the one used for most written communication, is [[Italian language|Italian]]. In oral communication Western [[Lombard language|Lombard]] ([[Ticinese]]) [[variety (linguistic)|varieties]], although receding in favour of [[Italian language|Italian]] (especially in the cities of [[Lugano]], Ascona and [[Locarno]] and among the younger generations), are still well preserved. These are further subdivided into local variations, with the northern valleys speaking a dialect more closely aligned with Romansch, Switzerland's fourth official language. There is a certain amount of popular literature (poems, comedies, etc.) in [[Ticinese]], and the national radio and televisions trasmit regularly program in Ticinese (mainly comedies).
[[Image:Ascona.lago.jpg|thumb|320px|Lago Maggiore from Locarno.]]

==Religion==
The population is mostly [[Roman Catholic]].
The most populous city is [[Lugano]]. Other major towns of the canton of Ticino are [[Locarno]], [[Mendrisio]], [[Bellinzona]] and [[Chiasso]]. A major tourist spot with a rich cultural history is [[Ascona]].

==Districts==
The Canton of Ticino is divided into 8 [[district]]s (''distretti'') and 38 [[Circle (subnational entity)|circles]] (''circoli''):

*[[Mendrisio (district)|Distretto di Mendrisio]]
*[[Lugano (district)|Distretto di Lugano ]]
*[[locarno (district)|Distretto di Locarno ]]
*[[Vallemaggia (district)|Distretto di Vallemaggia ]]
*[[Bellinzona (district)|Distretto di Bellinzona ]]
*[[Riviera (district)|Distretto di Riviera ]]
*[[Blenio (district)|Distretto di Blenio ]]
*[[Leventina (district)|Distretto di Leventina ]]

==Municipalities==
There are 195 [[Municipalities of the canton of Ticino|municipalities in the canton]] ([[As of 2006|as of February 2006]]). These municipalities (''comuni'') are grouped in 38 ''circoli'' (circles or sub-districts) which are in turn grouped into districts (''distretti''). Since late 1990 there is an ongoing project of aggregate some municipalities.

*''For the changes see the article:'' [[Municipalities of the canton of Ticino#Changes|Municipalities of the canton of Ticino]]
*''See also:'' [[Municipalities of Switzerland]]

==See also==
*''[[Corriere del Ticino]]''
*''[[Giornale del Popolo]]''
*''[[laRegione Ticino]]''
*''[[Tessiner Zeitung]]''
*[[Azienda Elettrica Ticinese]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ti.ch Cantone Ticino], official site in [[Italian language|Italian]].
* [http://www.statistik.admin.ch/stat_ch/ber00/ekan_ti.htm Official Statistics]
* [http://www.ticino-tourism.ch/control;?language=3 Tourism office], official tourism office of Ticino.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CH, Ethnologue report for Switzerland], Ethnologue language report.

{{Switzerland}}

[[Category:Ticino|*]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]

[[als:Kanton Tessin]]
[[an:Cantón d'o Tesino]]
[[bg:Тичино (кантон)]]
[[ca:Ticino]]
[[cs:Kanton Ticino]]
[[de:Kanton Tessin]]
[[es:Cantón del Tesino]]
[[eo:Kantono Tiĉino]]
[[fr:Tessin]]
[[it:Canton Ticino]]
[[la:Ticinum (pagus)]]
[[nl:Ticino (kanton)]]
[[ja:ティチーノ州]]
[[pl:Tessyn]]
[[pt:Tessino]]
[[ro:Cantonul Ticino]]
[[rm:Tessin]]
[[ru:Тичино]]
[[scn:Ticinu (cantuni)]]
[[fi:Ticino]]
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[[zh:提契諾州]]

Uganda

2006-10-04T01:16:09Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Republic of Uganda Jamhuri ya Uganda|
common_name = Uganda|
image_flag = Flag of Uganda.svg|
image_coat = Uganda Coat of Arms large.jpg|
image_map = LocationUganda.png|
national_motto = "For God and My Country" |
national_anthem = "[[Oh Uganda, Land of Beauty]]" |
official_languages = [[English language|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]]|
capital = [[Kampala]] |
latd=0|latm=19|latNS=N|longd=32|longm=35|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Kampala]]|
government_type= [[Democracy|Democratic]] multi- party [[republic]] |
leader_title1 = [[President of Uganda|President]] |
leader_name1 = [[Yoweri Museveni]] |
area_rank = 81st |
area_magnitude = 1 E11|
area= 236,040 |
areami²= 91,136 |
percent_water = 15.39|
population_estimate_year = July 2005|
population_estimate_rank = 39th |
population_estimate = 27,616,000 1|
population_census=24,442,084|
population_census_year=2002|
population_density = 119|
population_densitymi² =308  |
population_density_rank = 82nd 2|
GDP_PPP_year= 2005|
GDP_PPP = $45.97 billion|
GDP_PPP_rank = 83rd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,700|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 153rd |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.508 |
HDI_rank = 144th |
HDI_category = medium |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]] |
established_event1 = Republic |
established_date1 = [[October 9]], [[1962]] |
currency = [[Ugandan shilling|Shilling]]|
currency_code = UGX |
time_zone= [[East Africa Time|EAT]] |
utc_offset= +3|
time_zone_DST= not observed |
utc_offset_DST= +3|
cctld= [[.ug]] |
calling_code = 2563|
footnotes = 1.) Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. 2.) Rank based on 2005 figures. 3.) 006 from [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]]
}}

'''Uganda''', officially the '''Republic of Uganda''', is a country in [[East Africa]], bordered on the east by [[Kenya]], on the north by [[Sudan]], on the west by the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], on the southwest by [[Rwanda]], and on the south by [[Tanzania]]. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of [[Lake Victoria]], within which it shares borders with Kenya and Tanzania. Uganda takes its name from the [[Buganda]] kingdom, which encompasses a portion of the south of the country including the capital [[Kampala]].

== History ==
{{main|History of Uganda}}
The earliest human inhabitants in contemporary Uganda were hunter-gatherers. Between about 2000 and 1500 years ago [[Bantu]] speaking populations, who were probably from [[Central Africa|central]] and [[West Africa|western Africa]], migrated into the southern parts of the country.<ref name="living_enc">[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/uethnic.htm "East Africa Living Encyclopedia - Ethnic Groups"], ''African Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania''</ref><ref name="phil">Phyllis Martin and Patrick O'Meara. ''Africa. 3rd edition''. Indiana University Press, 1995.</ref> These settlers brought and developed agriculture, ironworking skills and new ideas of social and political organization. The Kingdom of Buganda and that of Bunyoro-Kitara represent some of the earliest forms of formal organization. By the [[15th century|15th]] or [[16th century]] there were centralized kingdoms in [[Buganda]], [[Bunyoro|Bunyoro-Kitara]] and [[Ankole]]. Other kingdoms developed by way of secession, such as [[Toro (kingdom)|Toro]], while other groups were organized as fiefdoms of clans, such as the [[Busoga]].

[[Nilotic]] people including [[Luo]] and [[Ateker]] entered the area from the north, probably beginning about [[Anno Domini|A.D.]] 100. They were cattle herders and subsistence farmers who settled mainly the northern and eastern parts of the country. Some Luo invaded the area of Bunyoro and assimilated with the Bantu there, establishing the Babiito dynasty of the current ''[[Omukama of Bunyoro|Omukama]]'' (ruler) of Bunyoro-Kitara.<ref name="babito">[http://www.bunyoro-kitara.com/history2.htm#The%20Babiito "Origins of Bunyoro-Kitara Kings"], ''Bunyoro-Kitara website''</ref> Luo migration proceeded until the 16th century, with some Luo settling amid Bantu people in Eastern Uganda, with others proceeding to the western shores of [[Lake Victoria]] in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]]. The Ateker ([[Karimojong]] and [[Teso]]) settled in the north-eastern and eastern parts of the country, and some fused with the Luo in the area north of [[Lake Kyoga]].

[[Arab]] traders moved inland from the [[Indian Ocean]] coast of [[East Africa]] in the 1830s. They were followed in the 1860s by British explorers searching for the source of the [[Nile]]. [[Protestantism|Protestant]] missionaries entered the country in 1877, followed by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] missionaries in 1879.<ref name="state_dept">[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2963.htm#history "Background Note: Uganda"], ''[[U.S. State Department]]''</ref> The [[United Kingdom]] placed the area under the charter of the [[British East Africa Company]] in 1888, and ruled it as a [[protectorate]] from 1894. As several other territories and chiefdoms were integrated, the final protectorate called Uganda took shape in 1914.

[[Image:Uganda-Amin-10-Shillings-cr.jpg|thumb|left|[[Idi Amin]] on a ten shilling note]]Uganda became an independent nation in 1962, with [[Mutesa II of Buganda|Edward Muteesa II]], the ''[[Kabaka of Buganda|Kabaka]]'' (King) of Buganda as the President and Commander in Chief of the armed forces, and [[Milton Obote]] as [[Prime Minister of Uganda|Prime Minister]]. In 1966, Obote overthrew the constitution and declared himself [[President of Uganda|president]], ushering in an era of [[coup]]s and counter-coups which would last until the mid-1980s. Obote was deposed twice from office, both times by military coup d'etat.

[[Idi Amin]] took power in [[1971]], ruling the country with the military for the coming decade.<ref name="loc">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ugtoc.html "A Country Study: Uganda"], ''[[Library of Congress]] Country Studies''</ref>
Idi Amin's rule cost an estimated 300,000 Ugandans' lives. He forcibly removed the entrepreneurial [[India]]n minority from Uganda, decimating the economy. His reign was ended after an invasion by Tanzanian forces aided by Ugandan exiles in [[1979]]. The situation improved little with the return of Obote, who was deposed once more in 1985 by General [[Tito Okello]]. Okello ruled for six months until he was overthown after the so called "[[Ugandan Bush War|bush war]]" by the [[National Resistance Army]] (NRM) operating under the leadership of the current president, [[Yoweri Museveni]].

Museveni has been in power since 1986. In the mid to late 1990s, he was lauded by [[Western world|the West]] as part of a [[new generation of African leaders]]. His presidency has been marred, however, by involvement in [[Second Congo War|civil war in the Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC) and other [[Great Lakes (Africa)|Great Lakes region]] conflicts, not to mention widespread accusations of endemic corruption. [[Lord's Resistance Army|Rebellion in the north]] continues to perpetuate one of the world's worst humanitarian emergencies.

== Politics ==
[[Image:Yoweri Museveni.jpg|thumb|left|[[Yoweri Museveni]], [[President of Uganda]]]]

{{main|Politics of Uganda}}
The [[President of Uganda]], currently Yoweri Museveni, is both [[head of state]] and head of government. The president appoints a [[Prime Minister of Uganda|prime minister]] who aids him in his tasks. The current prime minister is [[Apolo Nsibambi]]. The parliament is formed by the National Assembly, which has 303 members. 86 of these members are nominated by interest groups, including women and [[Uganda People's Defence Force|the army]]. The remaining members are elected for five-year terms during [[elections in Uganda|general elections]].

In a measure ostensibly designed to reduce sectarian violence, [[political party|political parties]] were restricted in their activities from [[1986]]. In the [[non-partisan democracy|non-party]] "Movement" system instituted by Museveni, political parties continued to exist but could not campaign in elections or field candidates directly (although electoral candidates could belong to political parties). A [[Uganda multiparty referendum, 2005|constitutional referendum]] cancelled this 19-year ban on multi-party politics in July [[2005]].

The presidential elections were held in February [[2006]]. Museveni ran against several candidates, the most prominent of whom was exiled Dr. [[Kizza Besigye]]. Museveni was declared the winner in the elections, which were predominantly free and fair according to international and national observers.{{fact}} Despite technically democratic elections, harassment of opposition had started months earlier in the form of disturbing of opposition campaign, detention of activists, rape and other criminal allegations against Besigye and use of state funds for electoral campaigning.{{fact}}

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Uganda}}
Although landlocked, Uganda has access to several large water bodies, including [[Lake Victoria]], [[Lake Albert]], [[Lake Kyoga]] and [[Lake Edward]]. The country is located on the East African [[plateau]], averaging about 900 metres (2,950 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level. Although generally tropical in nature, the climate differs between parts of the country. Uganda includes several offshore islands in Lake Victoria. Most important cities are located in the south, near Lake Victoria, including the capital [[Kampala]] and the nearby city of [[Entebbe]].

== Administrative divisions ==
{{main|Districts of Uganda|Counties of Uganda}}
[[Image:Ug-map.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of Uganda]]
Uganda is divided into [[Districts of Uganda|70 districts]], spread across four administrative regions: Northern, Eastern, Central and Western. The districts are subdivided into [[Counties of Uganda|counties]]. A number of districts have been added in the past few years, and eight others were added on [[July 1]], [[2006]].<ref name="district">[http://www.newvision.co.ug/D/8/26/449320 "Can Uganda’s economy support more districts?"], ''[[New Vision]]'', 8 August, 2005</ref> Most districts are named after their main commercial and administrative towns. Each district is divided into sub-districts, counties, sub-counties, [[parish]]es and [[village]]s.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Uganda}}
Uganda has substantial natural resources, including fertile soils, regular rainfall, and sizable [[mineral]] deposits of [[copper]] and [[cobalt]]. [[Agriculture]] is the most important sector of the economy, employing over 80% of the work force, with [[coffee]] accounting for the bulk of export revenues. Since 1986, the government - with the support of foreign countries and international agencies - has acted to rehabilitate an economy decimated during the regime of [[Idi Amin]] and subsequent civil war.

During 1990-2001, the economy turned in a solid performance based on continued investment in the rehabilitation of infrastructure, improved incentives for production and exports, reduced inflation, gradually improved domestic security, and the return of exiled Indian-Ugandan entrepreneurs. Ongoing Ugandan involvement in the war in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], corruption within the government, and slippage in the government's determination to press reforms raise doubts about the continuation of strong growth. In 2000, Uganda qualified for the enhanced [[Heavily Indebted Poor Countries]] (HIPC) debt relief initiative worth $1.3 billion and [[Paris Club]] debt relief worth $145 million. These amounts combined with the original HIPC debt relief added up to about $2 billion. Growth for 2001-02 was solid despite continued decline in the price of coffee, Uganda's principal export. <ref name="factbook">[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ug.html "The World Factbook - Uganda"], ''[[CIA]]'', 2006</ref> According to IMF statistics, in 2004 Uganda's GDP per-capita reached 300 dollars, a much higher level than in the Eighties but still at half of Sub-Saharan African average income of 600 dollars per year. Total GDP crossed the 8 billion dollar mark in the same year.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:Languages of Uganda.png|thumb|250px|right|Ethnolinguistic map of Uganda.]]
{{main|Demographics of Uganda}}
{{seealso|Languages of Uganda}}

Uganda is home to many different ethnic groups, none of whom form a majority of the population. Around forty different languages are regularly and currently in use in the country. [[English language|English]] became the official language of Uganda after independence.

The most widely spoken language in Uganda is [[Luganda language|Luganda]], spoken predominantly in the urban concentrations of Kampala, the capital city, and in towns and localities in the [[Buganda]] region of Uganda which encompasses [[Kampala]]. This is also the primary language through which commercial transactions are coordinated, in large part because over 50% of Ugandan commerce is transacted in Kampala. The [[Ateso language]] follows, spoken by about 4.2 million people covering seven Districts in the Eastern part of the country.

[[Swahili]], a widely used language throughout eastern and central Africa, has had little relevance in Uganda where it has been used primarily in military circles and in the police. Though important in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]], Swahili has not been accepted in Uganda. The decision by Parliament to make Swahili a second official national language was perhaps motivated by the intentions of some politicians, as few people in Uganda speak it -- despite the fact that for the past 40 years, efforts have been made to compel Ugandans to speak it. Uganda's [[1995]] constitution did not originally recognize the official and national status of Swahili as it was controversial and many delegates voted it down, though many people made attempts to introduce it as a second national language. The parliament voted in September [[2005]] to once again make [[Swahili]] the country's second official national language.

The average age in Uganda is 15, the lowest in the world.

== Religion ==
[[Islam|Muslim]] traders and [[christianity|Christian]] missionaries first arrived in the [[1860s]], attempting to convert the Bugandan king.{{citation needed}}

The National Census of October 2002 resulted in the clearest and most detailed information yet gathered on the religious composition of Uganda. According to the Census, Christians of all denominations made up 85.1% of Uganda's population. The Catholic Church has the largest number of adherents (41.9%), followed by the Church of Uganda—a local Anglican denomination—(31.9%). Minor Christian groups include Pentecostals (4.6%) and Seventh-Day Adventists (1.5%), while 1.0% were grouped under the category 'Other Christians'.

The second most popular religion of Uganda is Islam, with Muslims representing 12.1% of the population, according to the Census. The CIA Factbook estimate for the number of Muslims is 16%. While Muslims today appear to be experiencing some degree of discrimination, they were in the seventies the most favoured group under the rule of President Idi Amin, himself a Muslim, under whose government the number of Muslims had significantly grown.{{fact}}

Only 1% of Uganda's population follow Traditional Religions and 0.7% are classified as 'Other Non-Christians'.

One of only seven [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] [[Bahá'í House of Worship|Houses of Worship]], known as Mother Temple of Africa, is located on the outskirts of Kampala.

[[Judaism]] is also practiced in Uganda by a small number of native Ugandans known to most people as the [[Abayudaya]]. However, their population, estimated at 750 is insignificant and many Ugandans are not aware of the presence of this Jewish community in the country. Initially numbering as many as 3,000 individuals, the community drastically shrunk in size to 300 when Idi Amin came to power and outlawed Judaism, destroying all the synagogues in the country. Since then, the community has established links to Jews worldwide and has grown in size and strength. They operate several schools which enroll Muslim, Jewish and Christian students.

==AIDS-prevention==
:''See also: [[AIDS in Africa]]''

Uganda has been hailed as a rare success story in the fight against HIV and AIDS, widely being viewed as the most effective national response to the pandemic in [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. President Museveni established the AIDS Control Program (ACP) within the Ministry of Health (MOH) to create policy guidelines for Uganda’s fight against HIV/AIDS. Uganda quickly realized that HIV/AIDS was more than a ‘health’ issue and in 1992 created a “Multi-sectoral AIDS Control Approach.” In addition, the Uganda AIDS Commission, also founded in 1992, has been instrumental in developing a national HIV/AIDS policy. A variety of approaches to AIDS education have been employed, ranging from the promotion of condom use to 'abstinence only' programmes. To further Uganda's efforts in establishing a comprehensive HIV/AIDS program, in 2000 the MOH set up a PMTCT pilot program in three districts of Uganda. The services included are: VCT, ANC, administration of ARVs, modifications of birth practicies and safe infant feeding counseling. According to the WHO, around 41,000 women received PMTCT services in 2001. [http://www.ari.ucsf.edu?ARI/policy/profiles/Uganda.pdf] Uganda was the first country to open a VCT clinic in Africa and pioneered the concept of voluntary HIV testing centers in Sub-Saharan Africa. The scope of Uganda's success has come under scrutiny from new research. Research published in ''[[The Lancet]]'' medical journal in 2002 questions the dramatic decline reported. It is claimed statistics have been distorted through the inaccurate extrapolation of data from small urban clinics to the entire population, nearly 90 per cent of whom live in rural areas.[http://www.overpopulation.com/articles/2002/000075.html] Also, recent trials of the HIV drug [[nevirapine]] have come under intense scrutiny and criticism; see this excerpt of an article from ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'': [http://www.mindfully.org/Health/2006/AIDS-Medical-Corruption1mar06.htm Out of Control].

[[United States|US]]-sponsored abstinence promotions have received recent criticism from observers for denying young people information about any method of HIV prevention other than sexual abstinence until marriage. [[Human Rights Watch]] says that such programmes "leave Uganda’s children at risk of HIV".<ref name="abstinence">[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/03/30/uganda10380.htm "Uganda: 'Abstinence-Only' Programs Hijack AIDS Success Story"], ''[[Human Rights Watch]]'', 30 March, 2005</ref> Alternatively, [[Human Life International]] says that "condoms are adding to the problem, not solving it" and that "The government of Uganda believes its people have the human capacity to change their risky behaviors."<ref name="abstinence2">
[http://www.catholicexchange.com/vm/index.asp?vm_id=1&art_id=34228 "An open letter to Melinda Gates"], ''[Human Life International]'', 29 August, 2006</ref>

== Culture and sport ==
[[Image:Bicycle-taxi-2.jpg|thumb|Bicycle-taxi in Uganda]]
{{main|Culture of Uganda}}

Due to the large number of ethnic communities, culture within Uganda is diverse. Many [[Asia]]ns (mostly from [[India]]) who were expelled during the regime of Amin have returned to Uganda.
*[[Music of Uganda]]
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Uganda|List of writers from Uganda]]

==Human rights==
{{main|Human rights in Uganda}}

Respect for [[human rights]] in Uganda has been advanced significantly since the mid-1980s. There are, however, numerous areas which continue to attract concern.

Conflict in the northern parts of the country continues to generate reports of abuses by both the rebel [[Lord's Resistance Army]] and the [[Uganda People's Defence Force|Ugandan army]]. Torture continues to be a widespread practice amongst security organisations. Attacks on political freedom in the country, including the arrest and beating of opposition Members of Parliament, has led to international criticism, culminating in May 2005 in a decision by the British government to withhold part of its aid to the country. The arrest of the main opposition leader [[Kizza Besigye]] and the besiegement of the [[High Court (Uganda)|High Court]] during a hearing of Besigye's case by a heavily armed security forces – before the [[Ugandan general election, 2006|February 2006 elections]] – led to condemnation.<ref name="hrw1">[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/12/19/uganda12321.htm "Uganda: Respect Opposition Right to Campaign"], ''[[Human Rights Watch]]'', 19 December, 2005</ref>

==References==
<references/>

== See also ==
[[Image:Two Ugandan men.jpg|thumb|300px|Two Ugandan men]]
* [[Islam in Uganda]]
* [[List of national parks of Uganda]]
* [[List of Ugandan companies]]
* [[The Uganda Scouts Association]]

==External links==
;News
* [http://allafrica.com/uganda/ allAfrica.com - ''Uganda''] news headline links
* [http://www.monitor.co.ug/ Monitor] independent national newspaper
* [http://www.myuganda.co.ug/ My Uganda] news and community
* [http://www.newvision.co.ug/ New Vision] government-owned national newspaper
* [http://www.ugpulse.com UGPulse.com] News and articles on various subjects

;Overviews
*[http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/countries/atlas/uganda.html Geography Site Profile - ''Uganda'']
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1069166.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Uganda'']
* [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ug.html CIA World Factbook - ''Uganda'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Uganda Open Directory Project - ''Uganda''] directory category
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ug/ US State Department - ''Uganda''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

{{portal}}
;Government
* [http://www.parliament.go.ug/ Parliament of the Republic of Uganda] official site
* [http://www.statehouse.go.ug/ State House of the Republic of Uganda] official site
* [http://www.udg.or.ug/DIP/ District Information Portal]
* [http://www.visituganda.com/ Uganda Tourist Board] official site
* [http://www.ubos.org/ Uganda Bureau of Statistics] official site

{{sisterlinks|Uganda}}
;Tourism
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.visituganda.com/ Uganda Tourist Board]
*[http://www.aboutuganda.com/ Uganda Travel Directory]

;Other
* [http://www.ugandacan.org/ Uganda Conflict Action Network] working for peace in northern Uganda
* [http://mostlymoving.com/Uganda.html Uganda Articles]
* [http://www.refugeelawproject.org Refugee Law Project] An organisation working with refugees and the conflict in northern Uganda
* [http://www.gypafrica.org/ Global Youth Partnership for Africa]
* [http://www.invisiblechildren.com/home.php Invisible Children of Uganda]
* [http://www.ugandaonline.net/ Uganda Business Links,Websites]
* [http://www.ugandarising.com/home.html Uganda Rising] A documentary about the suffering of the Acholi people in northern Uganda

{{Uganda}}
{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Uganda| ]]
[[Category:East Africa]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries]]

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[[hi:युगांडा]]
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Paraguay

2006-10-04T01:15:24Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Paraguay

{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = ''República del Paraguay Tetã Paraguái''
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Paraguay
|common_name = Paraguay
|image_flag = Flag of Paraguay.svg
|image_coat = Paraguay_coa.png
|image_map = LocationParaguay.png
|national_motto = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Paz y justicia'' ([[English language|English]]: "Peace and justice")
|national_anthem = ''[[Paraguayos, República o Muerte]]''
|official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]]
|capital = [[Asunción]]
|latd=25 |latm=16 |latNS=S |longd=57 |longm=40 |longEW=W |
|largest_city = [[Asunción]]
|government_type = [[Presidential republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[List of Presidents of Paraguay|President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Vice President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Nicanor Duarte Frutos]]
|leader_name2 = [[Luis Castiglioni Joria]]
|area_rank = 59th
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area= 406,752
|areami²=157,047 
|percent_water = 2.3%
|population_estimate = 6,158,000
|population_estimate_rank = 101st
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 15
|population_densitymi² =39 
|population_density_rank = 192nd
|GDP_PPP = $28.342 billion 
|GDP_PPP_rank = 96th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,555
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 107th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = From [[Spain]]
|established_event1 = Declared
|established_date1 = [[May 14]], [[1811]]
|HDI = 0.755
|HDI_rank = 88th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = medium
|currency = [[Paraguayan guaraní|Guaraní]]
|currency_code = PYG
|country_code = PRY
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = -4
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = -3
|cctld = [[.py]]
|calling_code = 595
|footnotes =
}}
'''Paraguay''', officially the '''Republic of Paraguay''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: República del Paraguay, [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika del para'ɣwaj]}}, [[Guarani language|Guarani]]: ''Tetã Paraguái''), is a [[landlocked]] country in [[South America]]. It lies on both banks of the [[Paraguay River]], bordering [[Argentina]] to the south and southwest, [[Brazil]] to the northeast, and [[Bolivia]] to the northwest, and is located in the very heart of South America. 'Paraguay' is derived from the Guaraní word 'Pararaguay', meaning, 'From a Great River'. The 'Great River' is the [[Paraná River]], which produces the greatest amount of hydroelectric power in the world.

== History ==
{{main|History of Paraguay}}
[[Europeans]] first arrived in the area in the early 16th century and the settlement of Asunción was founded on [[August 15]], [[1537]], by the Spanish explorer [[Juan de Salazar]]. The city eventually became the centre of a [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonial province]], as well as a primary site of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missions and settlements in South America in the 18th century. Paraguay declared its independence by overthrowing the local Spanish authorities on [[May 14]], [[1811]].

In the disastrous [[War of the Triple Alliance]] (1865–1870), Paraguay lost 140,000 square kilometres (54,000 [[square mile|sq mi]]) of territory (e.g. the [[Misiones Province|Misiones region]]) and suffered a huge loss of its male population. Tradition holds that up to two thirds or more of the adult male population was killed, but some argue that, upon analysis from historic records and census reports, this figure is greatly exaggerated.

Paraguay gained a large part of its current territory at the expense of [[Bolivia]], in the aftermath of the [[Chaco War]], the culmination of a long series of border disputes between the two countries. They tried to settle their claims diplomatically along the second half of the 19th century. Successive negotiations failed to produce a definitive agreement, and Paraguay established its jurisdiction by encouraging the settlement of the largely unpopulated Chaco area. By 1935, Bolivia had regrouped and was able to stop the advance of the Paraguayan army. Exhausted by a long war, and having expanded its territory considerably, Paraguay accepted the mediation of the League of Nations.

== Politics ==

{{morepolitics|country=Paraguay}}
Politics of Paraguay takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Paraguay]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of the [[Congress of Paraguay|National Congress]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Departments of Paraguay}}

Paraguay is divided into 17 [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]], each with its own administrative capital, and one capitol district. The capitals of the departments are provided in parentheses.
{| border="0"
|width="35%"|
#[[Alto Paraguay Department|Alto Paraguay]] ([[Fuerte Olimpo|Fuerte Olimpo]])
#[[Alto Paraná Department|Alto Paraná]] ([[Ciudad del Este|Ciudad del Este]])
#[[Amambay Department|Amambay]] ([[Pedro Juan Caballero, Paraguay|Pedro Juan Caballero]])
#[[Asunción Capital District]] ([[Asunción]])
#[[Boquerón Department|Boquerón]] ([[Filadelfia]])
#[[Caaguazú Department|Caaguazú]] ([[Coronel Oviedo|Coronel Oviedo]])
#[[Caazapá Department|Caazapá]] ([[Caazapá]])
#[[Canindeyú Department|Canindeyú]] ([[Salto del Guairá|Salto del Guairá]])
#[[Central Department|Central]] ([[Areguá]])
|width="35%"|
<ol start=10>
<li>[[Concepción Department|Concepción]] ([[Concepción, Paraguay|Concepción]])
<li>[[Cordillera Department|Cordillera]] ([[Caacupé]])
<li>[[Guairá Department|Guairá]] ([[Villarrica, Paraguay|Villarrica]])
<li>[[Itapúa Department|Itapúa]] ([[Encarnación (Paraguay)|Encarnación]])
<li>[[Misiones Department|Misiones]] ([[San Juan Bautista, Paraguay|San Juan Bautista]])
<li>[[Ñeembucú Department|Ñeembucú]] ([[Pilar, Paraguay|Pilar]])
<li>[[Paraguarí Department|Paraguarí]] ([[Paraguarí]])
<li>[[Presidente Hayes Department|Presidente Hayes]] ([[Pozo Colorado|Pozo Colorado]])
<li>[[San Pedro Department (Paraguay)|San Pedro]] ([[San Pedro, Paraguay|San Pedro]])
|width="210" style="vertical-align: middle;"|[[Image:Paraguay departements.png|right|200px|Map of Paraguay]]
|}

==Geography==
[[Image:Pa-map.png|thumb|300px|Map of Paraguay]]
[[Image:Calle palma asuncion.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Traditional buildings in Calle Palma]]

{{main|Geography of Paraguay}}
The southeastern border is formed by the [[Parana River]], containing the [[Itaipu]] dam shared with [[Brazil]]. It is currently the largest [[hydroelectric]] power plant in the world, generating nearly all of Paraguay's electricity.

The local [[climate]] ranges from [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] to [[temperate climate|temperate]], with substantial rainfall in the eastern portions, though becoming semi-arid in the far west.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Paraguay}}
Paraguay has a [[market economy]] marked by a large [[informal sector]] that features both re-export of imported consumer goods to neighbouring countries as well as the activities of thousands of microenterprises and urban street vendors. A large percentage of the population derive their living from [[agriculture|agricultural]] activity, often on a subsistence basis.

Paraguay's economic potential is strengthened geographically by its access via the [[Paraná River]] to [[Buenos Aires]], [[Montevideo]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Meanwhile, Paraguay's economy is very dependent on [[Brazil]], Paraguay's neighbour in the [[east]], as the government created a free port on the Brazilian Atlantic coast at [[Paranaguá]] and developed a route linking the port to Paraguay. The project of the Bridge of Friendship that now spans the Paraná River between [[Ciudad del Este]] and the Brazilian city of [[Foz do Iguaçu]]. The bridge carries about 40,000 travelers daily. The selling of cheaper goods is another important source of revenue and it is still a common habit in Brazil to go to Paraguay and buy electronics there. About 60% of the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] is from commerce with Brazil. Despite difficulties arising from political instability, corruption and slow structural reforms, Paraguay has been a member of the free trade bloc [[MERCOSUR]] since [[1991]].

== Demographics ==
[[Image:Paraguay-001.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Asunción, the capital of Paraguay]]
{{main|Demographics of Paraguay}}
Ethnically, culturally, and socially, Paraguay has one of the most homogeneous populations in [[Latin America]]. About 95% of the people are [[mestizo]]s of mixed Spanish and [[Guaraní]] Indian descent. The only trace of the original Guaraní culture is the [[Guaraní language]], spoken by 94% of the population. About 75% of all Paraguayans can speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Guaraní and Spanish are both official languages. Small groups of Ethnic [[Italian people|Italians]], [[German people|Germans]], [[Japan]]ese, [[Korea]]ns, [[China|Chinese]], [[Arabs]], [[Brazil]]ians, and [[Argentina|Argentines]] settled in Paraguay and they have to an extent retained their respective languages and culture particularly the Brazilians.

Paraguay's population is distributed unevenly throughout the country. About 56% of Paraguayans live in urban areas. The vast majority of the people live in the eastern region near the capital and largest city, Asuncion, that accounts for 10% of the country's population. The Chaco, which accounts for about 60% of the territory, is home to less than 2% of the population.

The country is predominantly [[Roman Catholic]], with some [[Mennonite]] and other [[Protestant]] minorities.

== Culture ==

[[Image:Chaco_Boreal_Paraguay.jpg|thumb|220px|Landscape in the Gran Chaco, Paraguay]]

Paraguayans express their culture in arts such as embroidery (''aho poí'') and lace making (''ñandutí''). Their music, which consists of lilting polkas, bouncy ''galopas,'' and languid ''guaranías'' played on the native harp. They also enjoy eating sopa paraguaya which is like a thick corn bread. It consists of many cheeses, onions, bell peppers, cottage cheese, yellow cornmeal, milk, seasonings, butter, eggs and fresh corn kernals.

The 1950s and 1960s saw the flowering of a new generation of Paraguayan novelists and poets such as [[José Ricardo Mazó]], [[Roque Vallejos]], and [[Augusto Roa Bastos]].

The nation's upper classes are, typically, only a generation or two from the peasantry. That does not mean there is no social hierarchy, for the usual distinctions between town and country dweller, employer and laborer, and mental and manual worker still apply. But there is a fairly high degree of mobility between classes, and even the poorest peasant displays a strong degree of personal pride.{{fact}}

Social life revolves largely around an extended family of parents, children and blood relations as well as godparents. The Paraguayans' chief loyalty is to their family, and it, in turn, is their haven and support. Family interests determine to a large extent which party they will join, to whom they will marry, what sort of job they will get, whether they will win a lawsuit, and—in some cases—whether they would be wise to emigrate for a time. Anyone outside the family, except for an old and trusted friend, is viewed with indifference, if not with suspicion.{{fact}}

Inside the family, conservative values predominate. Children must be obedient to their parents, and women are supposed to be subservient to their menfolk. Godparents have a special relationship to the family, since usually they are chosen because of their favorable social position, in order to provide extra security for the children. Particular respect is owed them, in return for which the family can expect protection and patronage.

== See also ==
* [[Communications in Paraguay]]
* [[Foreign relations of Paraguay]]
* [[Guaraní mythology]]
* [[Guaraní language]]
* [[List of cities in Paraguay]]
* [[List of Paraguayans]]
* [[Military of Paraguay]]
* [[Music of Paraguay]]
* [[Public holidays in Paraguay]]
* [[Transportation in Paraguay]]
* [[:Category:Sport in Paraguay|Sports in Paraguay]]
* [[Asociación de Scouts del Paraguay]]

== Further reading ==
* ''At the Tomb of the Inflatable Pig : Travels Through Paraguay'' John Gimlette
* ''Lonely Planet Guide: Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay'' Sandra Bao, Ben Greensfelder and Carolyn Hubbard

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Paraguay}}
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Paraguay Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Paraguay''] Complete guide to Paraguay's history and culture
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Paraguay/ Open Directory Project - ''Paraguay''] directory category
* [http://www.thowra.com/paraguay.html Living in Paraguay] A point of view: Asuncion and Paraguay
* [http://www.meucat.com/album.html Paraguay de Antes] Old pictures and postcards from Paraguay
* [http://laca.com.au/telelatina/chipas.html Recipes for Chipas], a cheese and cornmeal bread
* [http://vlib.iue.it/history/americas/Paraguay/ WWW-VL: History: Paraguay]
* [http://www.turbomaps.com.ar/english/paraguay.php Paraguay main cities satellite views]

== Search Engine ==
* [http://www.buscar.com.py/ Buscador Paraguayo]

{{South America}}

[[Category:Paraguay| ]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]]

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[[hr:Paragvaj]]
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[[kw:Paragway]]
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[[hu:Paraguay]]
[[mk:Парагвај]]
[[nl:Paraguay]]
[[ja:パラグアイ]]
[[no:Paraguay]]
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[[ug:پاراگۋاي]]
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[[pl:Paragwaj]]
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[[qu:Parawayi]]
[[ru:Парагвай]]
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[[ur:پیراگوۓ]]
[[fiu-vro:Paraguay]]
[[yi:פאראגוויי]]
[[zh:巴拉圭]]

Internet

2006-10-04T01:14:10Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Sprotected}}
{{dablink|For the more general networking concept, see [[computer networking]] and [[internetworking]].}}

{{portal}}


The '''Internet''' is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected [[computer network]]s that transmit [[Data (computing)|data]] by [[packet switching]] using the standard [[Internet Protocol]] (IP). It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various [[information]] and services, such as [[electronic mail]], [[online chat]], [[Computer file|file]] transfer, and the interlinked [[Web page]]s and other documents of the [[World Wide Web]].

Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the [[World Wide Web]] are not synonymous: the Internet is a collection of interconnected ''computer networks'', linked by [[copper]] wires, [[optical fiber|fiber-optic]] cables, [[wireless]] connections, etc.; the Web is a collection of interconnected ''documents'', linked by [[hyperlink]]s and [[URL]]s. The World Wide Web is accessible via the Internet, as are many other services including [[e-mail]], [[file sharing]], and others described below.

==Creation of the Internet==
{{details|History of the Internet}}

The [[USSR]]'s launch of [[Sputnik]] spurred the [[United States]] to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later known as the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]], or DARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead. ARPA created the [[Information Processing Technology Office]] (IPTO) to further the research of the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment]] program, which had networked country-wide radar systems together for the first time. [[J. C. R. Licklider]] was selected to head the IPTO, and saw universal networking as a potential unifying human revolution.

In [[1950]], Licklider moved from the Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory at [[Harvard University]] to [[MIT]] where he served on a committee that established [[MIT Lincoln Laboratory]]. He worked on a Cold War project known as [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] designed to create computer-based air defense systems. In [[1957]] he became a Vice President at [[BBN]], where he bought the first production [[PDP-1]] computer and conducted the first public demonstration of [[time-sharing]].

Licklider recruited [[Lawrence Roberts (scientist)|Lawrence Roberts]] to head a project to implement a network, and Roberts based the technology on the work of [[Paul Baran]] who had written an exhaustive study for the U.S. Air Force that recommended [[packet switching]] (as opposed to [[Circuit switching]]) to make a network highly robust and survivable. After much work, the first node went live at [[UCLA]] on [[October 29]], 1969 on what would be called the [[ARPANET]], one of the "eve" networks of today's Internet. Following on from this, the [[General Post Office (United Kingdom)|British Post Office]], [[Western Union|Western Union International]] and [[Tymnet]] collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the [[International Packet Switched Service]] (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981.

The first [[TCP/IP]] wide area network was operational by 1 January 1983, when the United States' [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF) constructed a university network backbone that would later become the [[NSFNet]]. (This date is held by some to be technically that of the birth of the Internet.) It was then followed by the opening of the network to commercial interests in 1985. Important separate networks that offered gateways into, then later merged into the NSFNet include [[Usenet]], [[Bitnet]] and the various commercial and educational [[X.25]] [[Compuserve]] and [[JANET]]. [[Telenet]] (later called Sprintnet), was a large privately-funded national computer network with free dialup access in cities throughout the U.S. that had been in operation since the 1970s. This network eventually merged with the others in the 1990s as the TCP/IP protocol became increasingly popular. The ability of TCP/IP to work over these pre-existing communication networks, especially that of the international X.25 IPSS network, allowed for a great ease of growth. Use of the term "Internet" to describe a single global TCP/IP network originated around this time.

The network gained a public face in the 1990s. On August 6th, 1991 [[CERN]], which straddles the border between [[France]] and [[Switzerland]] publicized the new World Wide Web project, two years after [[Tim Berners-Lee]] had begun creating [[HTML]], [[HTTP]] and the first few Web pages at [[CERN]].

An early popular Web browser was ''[[ViolaWWW]]'' based upon [[HyperCard]]. It was eventually replaced in popularity by the [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic Web Browser]]. In 1993 the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] released version 1.0 of ''Mosaic'' and by late 1994 there was growing public interest in the previously academic/technical Internet. By 1996 the word "Internet" was common public currency, frequently misused to refer to the [[World Wide Web]].

Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously existing public computer networks (although some networks such as [[FidoNet]] have remained separate). This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.

==Today's Internet==
Aside from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (for example [[peering agreement]]s), and by technical specifications or [[Communications protocol|protocol]]s that describe how to exchange [[data]] over the network. Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined by its interconnections and routing policies.

As of June 30th, 2006, over 1.04 billion people use the Internet according to [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats].

===Internet protocols===
{{details|Internet Protocols}}
In this context, there are three layers of protocols:
* At the lowest level is '''[[Internet Protocol|IP]]''' (Internet Protocol), which defines the datagrams or [[packet]]s that carry blocks of data from one node to another. The vast majority of today's Internet uses version four of the IP protocol (i.e. [[IPv4]]), and although [[IPv6]] is standardised, it exists only as "islands" of connectivity, and there are many ISPs who don't have any IPv6 connectivity at all. [http://www.livinginternet.com]
* Next come '''[[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]]''' (Transmission Control Protocol) and '''[[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]''' (User Datagram Protocol) - the protocols by which one host sends data to another. The former makes a virtual 'connection', which gives some level of guarantee of reliability. The latter is a best-effort, connectionless transport, in which data packets that are lost in transit will not be re-sent.
* On top comes the '''[[Application layer|application protocol]]'''. This defines the specific messages and data formats sent and understood by the applications running at each end of the communication.

=== Internet structure ===

There have been many analyses of the Internet and its structure. For example, it has been determined that the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of [[scale-free network]]s.

Similar to how the commercial Internet providers connect via [[Internet exchange point]]s, research networks tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as:

*[[GEANT]]
*[[GLORIAD]]
*[[Internet2]]
*[[JANET]] (the UK's Joint Academic Network aka UKERNA)

These in turn are built around relatively smaller networks. See also the list of [[:Category:Academic computer network organizations|academic computer network organizations]]

In network [[schematic]] diagrams, the Internet is often represented by a [[cloud]] symbol, into and out of which network communications can pass.

===ICANN===
{{details|ICANN}}
'''The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)''' is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers. A globally unified namespace (i.e., a system of names in which there is one and only one holder of each name) is essential for the Internet to function. ICANN is headquartered in Marina del Rey, California, but is overseen by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and non-commercial communities. The US government continues to have the primary role in approving changes to the root zone file that lies at the heart of the domain name system. Because the Internet is a distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet, as such, has no governing body. ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body on the global Internet, but the scope of its authority extends only to the Internet's systems of domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers.

On Nov. 16, 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.

[[Image:WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png|thumb|300px|Graphic representation of a very small part of the [[World Wide Web|WWW]], representing some of the [[hyperlink]]s]]

===The World Wide Web===
{{details|World Wide Web}}
Through [[keyword (Internet search)|keyword]]-driven [[Internet research]] using [[search engine]]s, like [[Google (search engine)|Google]], millions worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to [[encyclopedia]]s and traditional [[library|libraries]], the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.

Many individuals and some companies and groups have adopted the use of "Web logs" or [[blog]]s, which are largely used as easily-updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is [[Microsoft]], whose product [[developer]]s publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work.

For more information on the distinction between the World Wide Web and the Internet itself — as in everyday use the two are sometimes confused — see [[Dark internet]] where this is discussed in more detail.

===Remote access===
The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world.
They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.

This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An [[Accountancy|accountant]] sitting at home can [[audit]] the books of a company based in another country, on a [[Server (computing)|server]] situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working book-keepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private, [[leased line]]s would have made many of them infeasible in practice.

An office worker away from his desk, perhaps the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a [[Remote Desktop Protocol|remote desktop]] session into his normal office PC using a secure [[Virtual Private Network]] (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives him complete access to all his normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while he is away.

This concept is also referred to by some network security people as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into its employees' homes; this has been the source of some notable security breaches, but also provides security for the workers.

===Collaboration===
{{POV-section}}
{{seealso|Collaborative software}}

The low-cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made [[collaboration|collaborative]] work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and test, but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups to easily form in the first place, even among niche interests. An example of this is the [[Free/Libre/Open-Source Software]] (FLOSS) movement in software development, such as [[Linux]], [[Mozilla]], and [[OpenOffice.org]]. Cooperation has been greatly eased in other fields, as well.

===File-sharing===
{{details|File sharing}}

A [[computer file]] can be [[Electronic mail|e-mailed]] to customers, colleagues and friends as an [[E-mail attachment|attachment]]. It can be uploaded to a [[Web site]] or [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] server for easy download by others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a [[file server]] for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "[[mirror (computing)|mirror]]" servers or [[peer-to-peer]] networks.
In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user [[authentication]]; the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by [[encryption]] and money may change hands before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example a [[credit card]] whose details are also passed - hopefully fully encrypted - across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by [[digital signature]]s or by [[MD5]] or other message digests.

These simple features of the Internet, over a world-wide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of office documents, publications, software products, [[music]], photography, video, animations, graphics and the other arts. This in turn is causing seismic shifts in each of the existing industry associations, such as the [[RIAA]] and [[MPAA]] in the United States, that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products in that country.

===Streaming media===
Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet 'feeds' of their live audio and video streams (for example, the [[BBC#Internet|BBC]]). They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet 'broadcasters' who never had on-air licences. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a [[TV]] or [[radio]] receiver. The range of material is much wider, from [[pornography]] to highly specialised technical Web-casts. [[Podcasting]] is a variation on this theme, where—usually audio—material is first downloaded in full and then may be played back on a computer or shifted to a [[digital audio player]] to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material on a worldwide basis.

[[Webcam]]s can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full frame rate video, the picture is usually either small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the [[Panama Canal]], the traffic at a local roundabout or their own premises, live and in real time. Video [[chat rooms]], [[video conferencing]], and remote controllable webcams are also popular. Many uses can be found for personal webcams in and around the home, with and without two-way sound.

=== VoIP ===
{{details|VoIP}}
VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where [[Internet Protocol|IP]] refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the [[Instant Messaging]] systems that took off around the year 2000. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a normal telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on [[ADSL]] or [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] Internet connections.

Thus VoIP is maturing into a viable alternative to traditional telephones. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple inexpensive VoIP modems are now available that eliminate the need for a PC.

Voice quality can still vary from call to call but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls.

Remaining problems for VoIP include [[emergency telephone number]] dialing and reliability. Currently a few VoIP providers provide some 911 dialing but it is not universally available. Traditional phones are line powered and operate during a power failure, VoIP does not do so without a [[Uninterruptible power supply|backup power source]] for the electronics.

Most VoIP providers offer unlimited national calling but the direction in VoIP is clearly toward global coverage with unlimited minutes for a low monthly fee.

VoIP has also become increasingly popular within the gaming world, as a form of communication between players. Popular gaming VoIP clients include [[Ventrilo]] and [[Teamspeak]], and there are others available also.

===Language===
{{details|English on the Internet}}
The most prevalent language for communication on the Internet is [[English language|English]]. This may be a result of the Internet's origins, as well as English's role as the [[lingua franca]]. It may also be related to the poor capability of early computers to handle characters other than those in the basic [[Latin alphabet]]. {{further|[[Unicode]]}}

After English (30% of Web visitors) the most-requested languages on the [[World Wide Web]] are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] 14%, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 8%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 8%, [[German language|German]] 6%, and [[French language|French]] 4% (from [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm Internet World Stats], updated June 30, 2006).


By continent, 37% of the world's Internet users are based in [[Asia]], 28% in [[Europe]], and 22% in [[North America]] ([http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm] updated June 30, 2006).


The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years that good facilities are available for development and communication in most widely used languages. However, some glitches such as ''[[mojibake]]'' (incorrect display of foreign language characters, also known as ''krakozyabry'') still remain.

===Internet and the workplace===
The Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections and [[Web applications]].

The Internet has given employees a forum from which to voice their opinions about their jobs, employers and co-workers, creating a massive amount of [[information]] and [[data]] on work that is currently being collected by the [http://www.worklifewizard.org Worklifewizard.org] project run by [http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/lwp Harvard Law School's Labor & Worklife Program].

==Censorship==
{{details|Internet censorship}}

Some governments, such as in [[Iran]] and [[China]] restrict what people in their countries can access on the Internet, especially political and religious content, through software that filters domains and content, so that they may not be easily accessed or obtained without elaborate circumvention.

Many countries have enacted laws making the possession or distribution of certain material, such as [[child pornography]], illegal, but do not use filtering software.

There are many free and commercially available software programs with which a user can choose to block offensive Web sites on individual computers or networks, such as to limit a child's access to pornography or violence. See ''[[Content-control software]]''.

==Internet access==
{{details|Internet access}}
[[Image:Internet-users-public-access-xi-unctad.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Internet public access point.]]
{{wikibookspar||Online linux connect}}
Common methods of home access include [[Dial-up access|dial-up]], landline [[Broadband Internet access|broadband]] (over coaxial cable, fibre optic or copper wires), [[Wi-Fi]], [[Satellite Internet|satellite]] and [[mobile phone|cell phones]].

[[Public place]]s to use the Internet include [[libraries]] and [[Internet cafe]]s, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web [[payphone]]". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee based.

[[Wi-Fi]] provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself. [[Hotspot (Wi-Fi)|Hotspots]] providing such access include [[Wi-Fi#Commercial Wi-Fi|Wi-Fi-cafes]], where a would-be user needs to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a [[laptop]] or [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDA]]. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. The whole campus or park, or even the entire city can be enabled. [[Grassroots]] efforts have led to [[wireless community network]]s. Commercial WiFi services covering large city areas are in place in [[London]], [[Vienna]], [[San Francisco]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Chicago]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]] and other cities, including [[Toronto]] by the end of 2006. The Internet can then be accessed from such places as a park bench.<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000082&sid=aQ0ZfhMa4XGQ&refer=canada "Toronto Hydro to Install Wireless Network in Downtown Toronto"]. Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 19-Mar-2006.</ref>

Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like [[Ricochet (internet service)|Ricochet]], various high-speed data services over cellular phone networks, and fixed wireless services.

High-end mobile phones such as smartphones generally come with Internet access through the phone network. Web browsers such as [[Opera (browser)|Opera]] are available on these advanced handsets, which can also run a wide variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have Internet access than PCs, though this is not as widely used. An internet access provider and protocol matrix differentiates the methods used to get online.

==Leisure==
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social experiments such as [[MUDs]] and [[MOO]]s being conducted on university servers, and humor-related [[Usenet]] groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many [[Internet forum]]s have sections devoted to games and funny videos; short cartoons in the form of [[Flash movie]]s are also popular.

The [[pornography]] and [[gambling]] industries have both taken full advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other Web sites. Although many governments have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the Internet, this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity. A song in the [[Broadway musical]] show [[Avenue Q]] is titled "[[The Internet is for Porn]]" and refers to the popularity of this aspect of the internet.

One main area of leisure on the Internet is [[multiplayer gaming]]. This form of leisure creates communities, bringing people of all ages and origins to enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from [[MMORPG]] to [[first-person shooter]]s, from [[computer role-playing game|role-playing games]] to [[online gambling]]. This has revolutionized the way many people interact and spend their free time on the Internet.

While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with services such as [[GameSpy Arcade|GameSpy]] and [[MPlayer.com|MPlayer]], which players of games would typically subscribe to. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of gameplay or certain games.

Many use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. As discussed above, there are paid and unpaid sources for all of these, using centralised servers and distributed, peer-to-peer technologies. Discretion is needed as some of these sources take more care over the original artists' rights and over copyright laws than others.

Many use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book holidays and to find out more about their random ideas and casual interests.

People use [[Internet Relay Chat|chat]], [[Instant messaging|messaging]] and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had [[pen pal]]s. Social networking Web sites like [[Friends Reunited]] and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for their enjoyment.

[[Cyberslacking]] has become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spends 57 minutes a day surfing the Web at work, according to a study by [[Peninsula Business Services]][http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=914&id=1001802003].

==Complex Architecture ==
Many computer scientists see the Internet as a "prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly [[complex system]]" (Willinger, et al). The Internet is extremely heterogeneous. (For instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely.) The Internet exhibits [[Emergence|"emergent phenomena"]] that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity.

{{section-stub}}

==Marketing==

The Internet has also become a large market for companies; some of the biggest companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient nature of low-cost [[advertising]] and [[commerce]] through the Internet; also known as [[e-commerce]]. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast amount of people simultaneously. The Internet has also subsequently revolutionized [[shopping]]—for example; a person can order a [[Compact disc|CD]] online and receive it in the [[mail]] within a couple of days, or [[download]] it directly in some cases. The Internet has also greatly facilitated [[personalized marketing]] which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a specific group of people more so than any other advertising medium.

Examples of personalized marketing include online communities such as [[Myspace]], [[Friendster]], and others which thousands of Internet users join to advertise themselves and make friends online. Many of these users are young teens and adolescents ranging from 13 to 25 years old. In turn, when they advertise themselves they advertise interests and hobbies, which online marketing companies can use as information as to what those users will purchase online, and advertise their own companies' products to those users.

{{section-stub}}

==The name Internet==
{{details|Internet capitalization conventions}}

''Internet'' is traditionally written with a [[majuscule|capital]] first letter, as it is a [[proper noun]]. The [[Internet Society]], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]], the [[ICANN|Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]], the [[World Wide Web Consortium]], and several other Internet-related organizations use this convention in their publications.

Many newspapers, newswires, periodicals, and technical journals capitalize the term. Examples include the ''[[New York Times]]'', the ''[[Associated Press]]'', ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', ''[[The Times of India]]'', ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', and ''[[Communications of the ACM]]''.

Others assert that the first letter should be written [[minuscule|small]] (''internet''). A significant number of publications use this form, including ''[[The Economist]]'', the ''[[Financial Times]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'', ''[[The Times]]'', and ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]''. As of 2005, many publications using ''internet'' appear to be located outside of [[North America]]—although one U.S. news source, ''[[Wired News]]'', has adopted the lower case spelling.

Historically, ''Internet'' and ''internet'' have had different meanings, with ''internet'' being a contraction of ''internetwork'' or ''internetworking'' and ''Internet'' referring to the worldwide network. Under this distinction, the Internet is a particular internet, but the reverse does not apply. The distinction was evident in many RFCs, books, and articles from the 1980s and early 1990s (some of which, such as [[RFC 1918]], refer to "internets" in the plural), but has recently fallen into disuse{{fact}}.

==Significant Internet events==
===Malfunctions and attacks===
*[[SQL slammer (computer worm)|SQL Slammer worm]] — [[January 24]], [[2003]]
*[[2002 DNS Backbone DDoS]] — [[October 22]], [[2002]]
*UUNet/Worldcom backbone difficulties — [[October 3]], [[2002]]
*[[Morris worm]] — [[November 2]], [[1988]]

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Internet}}
* [[List of Internet topics]]

===Major aspects and issues===
* [[Internet democracy]]
* [[History of the Internet]]
* [[Net neutrality]]
* [[Internet privacy|Privacy on the Internet]]

===Functions===
* [[E-mail]]
* [[File-sharing]]
* [[Instant messaging]]
* [[Internet fax]]
* [[Search engine]]
* [[Web browser]]

===Underlying infrastructure===
* [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP)
* [[Internet Service Provider]] (ISP)
* [[Web hosting]]
* [[World Wide Web]] (WWW)

===Regulatory bodies===
* [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA)
* [[Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]] ([[ICANN]])

==References==
===Citations and notes===

<div class="references-small";>
<references/>
</div>

===General===
*[http://www.livinginternet.com Living Internet] — Internet history and related information, including information from many creators of the Internet.
*[http://www.firstmonday.org/ First Monday] peer-reviewed journal on the Internet
* Walter Willinger, Ramesh Govindan, Sugih Jamin, Vern Paxson, and Scott Shenker. (2002). [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/suppl_1/2573 Scaling phenomena in the Internet]. In ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99'', suppl. 1, 2573 – 2580.

==External links==
===General===
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=internet&search_crit=subject&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the Internet]
*[http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/ Glossary of Computer and Internet Terms]
*[http://scoreboard.keynote.com/scoreboard/Main.aspx?Login=Y&Username=public&Password=public Internet Health Report] from Keynote
*[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats]

===Articles===
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/29/business/net.php "EU and U.S. clash over control of the Net" - International Herald Tribune article by Tom Wright]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/intro.html "10 Years that changed the world" - WiReD looks back at the evolution of the Internet over last 10 years]
*[http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/net-explained-1.php Internet Explained] Seven part article explaining the origins to the present and a summary for future of the Internet.
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/digital-imprimatur/ John Walker: The Digital Imprimatur]
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm How Stuff Works explanation of the Infrastructure of the Internet]
*[http://ocportal.com/site/pg/how_internet_works/index.php&wide_high=1 How the Internet actually works] An article summarising the core Internet technologies, written for non-experts
*[http://tech2.blogsome.com/2006/09/16/p757/ Personal internet use at work costs £200 billion] Survey by PandaLabs shows that almost 40 per cent of internet browsing at work is personal

===History===
*The Dream Machine: J.C.R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal M. Mitchell Waldrop
*[http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml The Internet Society History Page]
*[http://www.internetvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.txt How the Internet Came to Be]
*[http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/ Hobbes' Internet Timeline v8.1]
*[http://www.ciolek.com/PAPERS/e-scholarship2000.html Futures and Non-futures for Scholarly Internet. ]
*[http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/internet_history.html History of the Internet links]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc801.txt RFC 801, planning the TCP/IP switchover]
*[http://www.maniacworld.com/internet-revolution.htm Video of a report on the Internet - before the Web]
*[http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/lazowska/cra/networks.html Vinton Cerf's short history of the Internet]
*[http://www.archive.org/Internet Archive] - A searchable database of old cached versions of Web sites dating back to 1996
*[http://www.livinginternet.com/ A comprehensive history with people, concepts and many interesting quotations ]
*[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1738/science_technology/internet/ CBC Digital Archives – Inventing the Internet Age]
* A list of lectures, some of which relate to the Internet, from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] is available [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Comparative-Media-Studies/CMS-930Media--Education--and-the-MarketplaceFall2001/VideoLectures/index.htm here]. Of particular interest is lecture #3 ''The Next Big Thing: Video Internet'' which is delivered in [[Real Player]] format. The lecture gives a brief history of networking; discusses convergence between the Internet/telephone/television networks; the expansion of broadband access; makes predictions about the future of delivery of video over the Internet.

[[Category:Internet]]

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Mont Blanc

2006-10-04T01:12:49Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Mont Blanc

{{this|the mountain|Mont Blanc (disambiguation)}}

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Mont Blanc
| Photo = Mont Blanc and Dome du Gouter.jpg
| Caption = Mont Blanc and Dôme du Goûter
| Elevation = 4,808 metres (15,774 feet)
| Location = [[Italy]]-[[France]]
| Range = [[Graian Alps]]
| Prominence = 4,695 [[metre|m]] [[List of peaks by prominence|ranked 11th]]
| Coordinates = {{coor dm|45|55|N|6|55|E|type:mountain_region:IT}}
| First ascent = August 8, 1786 by [[Jacques Balmat]] and [[Michel-Gabriel Paccard]]
| Easiest route = Basic snow/ice climb
}}

'''Mont Blanc''' ([[French language|French]] for ''white mountain'') or '''Monte Bianco''' ([[Italian language|Italian]], same meaning) also known as "La Dame Blanche" ([[French language|French]], ''the white lady''), in the [[Alps]], is the highest [[mountain]] in [[ Europe]] excluding the [[Caucasus Mountains]].

The mountain lies between the regions of [[Aosta Valley]], [[Italy]] and [[Haute-Savoie]], [[France]]. The location of the [[topographical summit|summit]] itself is a subject of controversy between the two countries, and each tends to place it within its own boundaries on [[maps]]. In a convention between France and [[Kingdom of Sardinia]], in [[Turin]] (1861), the border [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:1823_Mont_Blanc_1.jpg] was fixed on the highest point of Mont Blanc and this was the last official definition of this border, but often the French maps do not agree about this solution.

The two most famous towns near Mont Blanc are [[Chamonix]], in Haute-Savoie, France (site of the first [[Winter Olympic Games]] in [[1924 Winter Olympics|1924]]) and [[Courmayeur]], in the Aosta Valley in Italy.

Begun in 1957 and completed in 1965, the 11.6 [[kilometre|km]] (7.25 [[mile]]) [[Mont Blanc Tunnel]] runs beneath the mountain between these two cities and is one of the major trans-Alpine transport routes.

The Mont Blanc [[massif]] is popular for [[mountaineering]], [[hiking]], and [[skiing]].

==History of Mont Blanc==
===First ascents===
The first recorded ascent of Mont Blanc was on August 8 1786 by [[Jacques Balmat]] and the doctor [[Michel-Gabriel Paccard|Michel Paccard]]. This climb, initiated by [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]], who gave a reward for the successful ascent, traditionally marks the start of modern mountaineering. The first woman to reach the summit was [[Marie Paradis]] in 1808. [[United States]] president to-be [[Theodore Roosevelt]] also led an expedition, reaching the summit while on his honeymoon in 1886.

Now the summit is ascended by an average 20,000 mountaineer-tourists each year and could be considered an easy, yet long, ascent for someone who is well trained and used to the [[altitude]]. This impression is reinforced by the fact that from l'[[Aiguille du Midi]] (where the cable car stops) Mont Blanc seems quite close, being merely 1000 m higher.

However every year the Mont Blanc [[massif]] takes many victims, and in peak weekends (normally around August) the local [[rescue]] service flies an average of 12 missions, mostly directed towards people in trouble on one of the normal routes of the mountain. These are courses that require knowledge of high-altitude mountaineering, a guide (or at least a veteran mountaineer), and proper equipment. It is a long course that includes delicate passages and the hazard of rock slides. Also, at least one night at the refuge is required to get used to the altitude; less could lead to [[altitude sickness]] and possible death.

===Who owns the summit of Mont Blanc?===
Since the [[French Revolution]] this question has spurred many debates. Before this event the whole mountain was in the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] for several centuries.

The first treaty to define a border in the region is dated 15 May 1796. In this treaty the Sardinian king was forced by [[Napoleon]] to cede [[Savoie]] and [[Nice]]'s territories to the [[French Republic]], and in article 4 of this treaty it says: "The border between the Sardinian kingdom and the departements of the French Republic will be established on a line determined by the most advanced points on the [[Piedmont]] side, of the summits, peaks of mountains and other locations subsequently mentioned, as well as the intermediary peaks, knowing: starting from the point where the borders of [[Faucigny]], the [[Duke of Aosta|Duchy of Aoust]] and the [[Valais]], to the extremity of the glaciers or the [[Monts-Maudits]]: first the peaks or plateaus of the Alps, to the rising edge of the [[Col-Mayor]]".
This act is even more confusing, because it states that the border should be visible from the town of [[Chamonix]] and [[Courmayeur]]. The summit is not visible from Courmayeur, because part of the mountain lower down obscures it. Already inaccurate at the time, this treaty is no longer valid, because it was replaced by a later legal act.

This act was signed in [[Turin]] on 24 March, 1860 by [[Napoleon III]] and [[Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy]], and deals with the annexation of [[Savoie]]. A demarcation agreement, signed on 7 March, 1861, defines the "new border".

One of the prints from the [[Sarde Atlas]],[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:1823_Mont_Blanc_1.jpg] made in 1823 and positions the border exactly on the summital edge of the mountain (and measures it to be 4,804 m high.

The convention of 7 March 1861 recognizes this, through an attached map, but takes into consideration the limits of the massif, and draws the border on the icecap of the Mont Blanc, and therefore makes it both French and Italian. Watershed analysis of modern topographic mapping not only places the main summit on the border, but also suggests that the border should follow a line northwards from the main summit towards Mont Maudit, leaving the south east ridge to Mont Blanc de Courmayeur wholly within Italy.

Despite the fact that the Franco-Italian border was redefined in both 1947 and 1963, the commission, made up of both Italians and French, tactfully ignored the Mont Blanc issue.

===The Vallot cabin===
The first real scientific investigations on the summit were conducted by the [[botanist]]-[[meteorologist]] [[Joseph Vallot]] at the end of the [[19th century]]. He wanted to stay near the top of the summit, so he had to build his own permanent cabin.

===The Janssen Observatory===
In 1891, [[Pierre Janssen]], a scientific academic, envisaged the construction of an [[observatory]] at the summit of Mont Blanc. [[Gustave Eiffel]] agreed to take on the project, provided he could find strong foundations. The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] surveyor Imfeld dug down 15 m but found nothing solid, so Eiffel gave up.

Despite this, the observatory was built in 1893. Levers attached to the ice supported the observatory. This worked to some extent until 1906, when the building started leaning heavily. The movement of the levers corrected the lean slightly, but three years later (two years after [[Joseph Janssen|Jannsen’s]] death) a crevasse started opening under the observatory and it was abandoned. Eventually the building fell, and only the tower could be saved ''in extremis''.

==The altitude of Mont Blanc==
[[Image:Mont_Blanc_003.jpg|left|thumb|The Mer de Glace glacier can be seen slowly streaming down the flanks of Mont Blanc on the left side of the image]]
The summit of Mont Blanc is a thick, perennial ice and snow dome whose thickness varies, so no exact and permanent summit altitude can be determined. But accurate measurements have been made.

For a long time its official altitude was 4,807 [[metre|m]]. Then in 2002, the [[Institut géographique national (France)|IGN]] and expert surveyors, with the aid of [[GPS]] technology, measured it to be 4,810.40 [[metre|m]].

After the [[2003 heatwave]] in Europe, a team of scientists re-measured the height on the 6th and 7th of September. The team was made up of the glaciologist [[Luc Moreau]], two surveyors from the GPS Company, three people from the [[Institut géographique national (France)|IGN]], seven expert surveyors, four mountain guides from [[Chamonix]] and [[Saint-Gervais]] and four students from various institutes in France. This team noted that the altitude was 4,808.45 m, and the peak was 75 [[centimetre|cm]] away from where it had been in 2002.

After these results were published, more than 500 points were measured, to assess the effects of climate change, and the fluctuations in the height of the mountain at different points. From then on the altitude of the mountain has been measured every two years.

The interpretation that the heatwave had caused this fluctuation is disputed, because the heatwave is known not to have significantly affected the glaciers above 4000 m. The height and position of the summit could have been moved by general glacial forces. At this [[altitude]], the temperatures rarely rise above 0[[Celsius|°C]]. During the summer of 2003, the temperature did rise to 2°C, and even 3°C, but this would not have been enough for the ice, which stayed at -15°C, to melt.

The summit was measured again in 2005, and the results of were published on 16 December 2005. The height was found to be 4,808.75 m, 30 cm more than the previous recorded height.

The actual rock summit is at 4,792 m, and is 40 m away from the ice-covered summit.

==Mont Blanc climbing routes==
There are a few 'classic' climbing routes of Mont Blanc:

* The most popular route to climb Mont Blanc is '''The Voie des Critalliers''', also known as '''Voie Royale'''. Starting from Saint-Gervais the Tramway du Mont-Blanc (TMB) is taken to get to the Nid d'Aigle. The ascent then begins in the direction of the ''Tête Rouge cabin'' and then through the ''Goûter Corridor'', considered very dangerous because of frequent rock-falls, leading to ''Goûter cabin'' for night shelter. The next day the route leads to the Dôme du Goûter, the ''Vallot cabin'' and L'arrête des Bosses.

* '''La Voie des 3 Monts''' is also known as '''La Traversée'''. Starting from [[Chamonix]], the Téléphérique de l'Aiguille du Midi is taken towards the Col du Midi. The ''Cosmiques cabin'' is used to spend the night. The next day the ascent continues through Mont Blanc du Tacul and Mont Maudit.

* The '''historic itinerary''' through the Grand Mulets, which is most frequently traversed in winter by skis or in summer to go down to Chamonix.

* The '''normal Italian itinerary''' is also known as '''La route des Aiguilles Grises'''. After crossing the Miage glacier, the night is spent at the ''Gonella cabin''. The next day proceeds through the Col des Aiguilles Grises and then the Dôme du Goûter, concluding at L'arrête des Bosses.

* '''The Miage - Bionnassay - Mont Blanc crossing''' is usually done in three days. The route begins from Contamines-Montjoie, with the night spent in the ''Conscrits cabin''. The following day, the Dômes de Miages is crossed and the night spent at the ''Durier cabin''. The third day proceeds through l'Aiguille de Bionnassay and then the Dôme du Goûter.

From the summit of Mont Blanc on a clear day, the [[Jura mountains|Jura]], the [[Vosges]], the [[Black Forest]] and the [[Massif Central]] mountain ranges can be seen, as well as the principal summits of the Alps.

==Exploits==
* In 1960, the airplane pilot [[Henri Giraud]] landed on the summit, which is only 30 m long.
* In 1990, the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Pierre-André Gobet]], leaving from [[Chamonix]], completed the ascent and descent in 5 hours, 10 minutes and 14 seconds.
* On 30 May 2003, [[Stéphane Brosse]] and [[Pierre Gignoux]] try to beat the record by ski-walking. They went up in 4 hours and 7 minutes, and came back down in 1 hour and 8 minutes. In total they did the ascent and descent in 5 hours and 15 minutes.
* On 13 August 2003 seven [[France|French]] hang-gliders landed on the summit. They reached a peak altitude of 5,200 m, thanks to the hot weather conditions, which provided strong hot air currents. Five had left from [[Planpraz]], one from [[Rochebrune]] at [[Megève]] and the last from [[Samoëns]].

==Mont Blanc in cultural works==
===Cinema and television===
* ''La Terre, son visage'', is a documentary by [[Jean-Luc Prévost]] and published by Édition Société national de télévision française, released in [[1984]]. It is part of the ''Haroun Tazieff raconte sa terre, vol. 1'' series. In it he talks about the west-east crossing of Mont Blanc.
* The film ''Malabar Princess''.
* The television-film ''Premier de cordée''.

===In literature===
* ''Premier de cordée''.
* ''Hugo et le Mont Blanc'' (by [[Colette Cosnie]] – [[Édition Guérin]]).
* ''Frankenstein''.

==Protection of Mont Blanc==
The Mont Blanc [[massif]] is being put forward as a potential [[World Heritage Site]] because of its uniqueness and its cultural importance, considered the birthplace and symbol of modern [[mountaineering]]. However not everyone shares this goal and it would require the three governments of [[Italy]], [[France]] and [[Switzerland]] to make a request to [[UNESCO]] for it to be listed.

Mont Blanc is one of the most visited tourist destinations in the world, and for this reason, it is threatened. Pro-Mont Blanc (an international collective of associations for the protection of Mont Blanc) published in 2002 the book ''Le versant noir du mont Blanc'' (The black hillside of Mont Blanc), which exposes current and future problems in conserving the site.

==See also==
* [[Mont Blanc Tunnel]]
* [[Mont Blanc Tramway]]
* [[Haute Route]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
{{commons|Massif du Mont Blanc|Mont Blanc}}
* [http://www.club4000.it/Articoli/MonteBianco.pdf Reasoning about the border between France and Italy by Umberto Pellazza] (PDF, Italian)
* [http://www.ign.fr/telechargement/Pi/C_PRESSE/CP_Mt_Blanc_2003.pdf Official paper of the French surveying board] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=184 Mont Blanc on Peakware]
* [http://www.summitpost.org/show/mountain_link.pl/mountain_id/63 Mont Blanc on Summitpost]
* [http://www.diealpen.at Mont-blanc on dieAlpen.at] - online encyclopedia of the Alps
* [http://www.photoglobe.info/db_chamonix/index.html Mont Blanc Massif] Several photos of the Mont Blanc massif including GPS coordinates of the photo locations
* [http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_mont_blanc.html Mont Blanc from Space]
* [http://france-for-visitors.com/alps/mont-blanc/index.html Visiting Mont Blanc] - in English
* [http://terragalleria.com/mountain/mountain.mont-blanc.html Photos of Mont Blanc - Terra Galleria] Taken by an alpinist on each of the five faces of the mountain
* [http://album.club-internet.fr/album/disp_serie.phtml?user=burdalet&cid=249795&id_album=21979 Pictures of Mont Blanc mountain range area]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/mtblanc/ Descent Into the Ice] - Companion web site to the PBS NOVA program which follows a glaciologist and an adventurer into the glacier caves of France's Mt. Blanc
* [http://www.fotogalerien.ch/index.php?gallery=55&&lang=2&pct=15 Mont Blanc from Pointe de Drône]
* [http://www.pro-mont-blanc.org/en_index.php proMONT-BLANC English Site]
* [http://www.markseaton.com/mountaineering.htm Why you might not want to climb Mont Blanc] - the "mountaineering" page on this site has an informative PDF document from the local guide bureau.
* [http://www.montebianco.com/Index.asp Funivie Monte Bianco ]
* [http://www.planetware.com/map/chamonix/mont-blanc/chamonix-mont-blanc-map-f-cham.htm Chamonix-Mont-Blanc Map ]
{{Seven Summits}}

[[Category:Mountains of France|Blanc, Mont]]
[[Category:Mountains of Italy|Mont Blanc]]
[[Category:Mountains of the Alps|Mont Blanc]]
[[Category:Seven Summits|Mont Blanc]]

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Mount Everest

2006-10-04T01:12:15Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Mount Everest

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Mount Everest
| Photo = Everest kalapatthar crop.jpg
| Caption =Everest from [[Kala Patthar]] in Nepal
| Elevation = 8,848 meters (29,028 feet) <ref>Based on elevation of snow cap, not rock head. For more details, see [[#measurement]] section.</ref> [[Eight-thousander|Ranked 1st]]
| Location = [[Nepal]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] ([[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]])
| Range = [[Himalaya|Khumbu Himal]]
| Prominence = 8,848 meters (29,028 feet)
| Coordinates = {{coor dms|27|59|17|N|86|55|31|E|type:mountain}}<ref>The [[WGS84]] coordinates given here were calculated using detailed topographic mapping and are in agreement with [http://www.adventurestats.com/tables/8000erbasics.htm adventurestats]. They are unlikely to be in error by more than 2". Coordinates showing Everest to be more than a minute further east that appeared on this page until recently, and still appear in Wikipedia in several other languages, are incorrect.</ref>
| First ascent = [[May 29]], [[1953]], by [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Tenzing Norgay]]
| Without oxygen bottles = 1978, by [[Reinhold Messner]] and [[Peter Habeler]]
| Solo ascent = 1980, by [[Reinhold Messner]]
| Easiest route = [[South Col]] (Nepal)
}}
{{Redirect|Everest}}

'''Mount Everest''' is the [[Extremes of Altitude|highest point]] on [[Earth]], as measured by the height of its [[Topographical summit|summit]] above [[sea level]]. The mountain is located on the border between [[Nepal]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]].

== Naming ==
In Nepal, the mountain is called '''Sagarmatha''' (सगरमाथा, [[Sanskrit]] for "Goddess of the Sky"); this name was invented in the early 1960s (by Baburam Acharya) when the Nepalese government realized that Mount Everest had no Nepalese name. This was because the mountain was not known and named in ethnic Nepal (the Kathmandu valley and surrounding areas). The Sherpa/Tibetan name ''Chomolangma'' was not acceptable, as it would have been against the idea of unification (Nepalization) of the country. However, the ancient name for the mountain is '''Devgiri''' (in Sanskrit, it means "holy mountain") or '''Devadurga''' (the English pronounced it as ''deodungha'' in the 1800s); please refer to the [http://www.harappa.com/engr/darjeeling.html#everest Harrapan archaeology site] for more on the history behind the name. In [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] it is '''Chomolungma''' or '''Qomolangma''' (ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ) ("Mother of the Universe"), or in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 珠穆朗瑪峰 ({{zh-p|p=Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng}}) or 聖母峰 (Shèngmǔ Fēng).

The mountain was given its [[English language|English]] name in 1865 by [[Andrew Scott Waugh|Andrew Waugh]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[:Category:Surveyors General of India|surveyor-general of India]]. With both Nepal and [[Tibet]] closed to foreign travel, he wrote:
<blockquote>
''…I was taught by my respected chief and predecessor, Colonel Sir [[George Everest|Geo. Everest]] to assign to every geographical object its true local or native appellation. … But here is a mountain, most probably the highest in the world, without any local name that we can discover, whose native appellation, if it has any, will not very likely be ascertained before we are allowed to penetrate into Nepal.… In the meantime the privilege as well as the duty devolves on me to assign…a name whereby it may be known among citizens and geographers and become a household word among civilized nations.''
</blockquote>
Hence Waugh chose to name the mountain after [[George Everest]], first using the spelling '''Mont Everest''', and then '''Mount Everest'''. However, the modern pronunciation of Everest – [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ˈɛvərɪst]}} or {{IPA|[ˈɛvərɨst]}} (EV-er-est) – is different from Sir George's own pronunciation of his surname, which was {{IPA|[ˈiv;rɪst]}} (EAVE-rest).

In 2002, the Chinese ''[[People's Daily]]'' newspaper published an article attacking the continued use of the English name for the mountain in the [[Western world]], insisting that it should be referred to by its Tibetan name. Chinese marked the location Mount Qomolangma on their map more than 280 years ago, named after a Tibetans' Goddess Qomolangma, which gains ground as the peak's original name.<ref>[http://english.people.com.cn/200211/19/eng20021119_107017.shtml Web Reference]</ref>

== Measurement ==
[[Image:Mt Everest Aerial.jpg|thumb|300px|Aerial view of Mount Everest.]]
[[Image:Mt Everest aerial 2005.jpg|thumb|300px|Aerial view of Mount Everest, behind [[Lhotse]], from the south.]]
[[Radhanath Sikdar]], an Indian mathematician and surveyor from [[Bengal]], was the first to identify Everest as the world's highest peak in 1852, using trigonometric calculations based on measurements of "Peak XV" (as it was then known) made with [[theodolite]]s from 240 km (150 miles) away in India. Measurement could not be made from closer due to a lack of access to Nepal. "Peak XV" was found to be exactly 29,000 feet (8,839 m) high, but was publically declared to be 29,002 feet (8,840 m). The arbitrary addition of 2 feet (0.6 m) was to avoid the impression that an exact height of 29,000 feet was nothing more than a rounded estimate.

The mountain is approximately [[1 E3 m|8,848 m]] (29,028 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) high, although there is some variation in the measurements. The mountain [[K2]] comes in second at 8,611 m (28,251 feet) high. On [[May 22]], [[2005]], the People's Republic of China's Everest Expedition Team ascended to the top of the mountain. After several months' complicated measurement and calculation, on [[October 9]], [[2005]], the PRC's State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping officially announced the height of Everest as 8,844.43 m ± 0.21 m (29,017.16 ± 0.69 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). They claimed it was the most accurate measurement to date.[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/09/content_3597013.htm]. But this new height is based on the actual highest point of rock and not on the snow and ice that sits on top of that rock on the summit, so, in keeping with the practice used on [[Mont Blanc]] and [[Khan Tangiri Shyngy]], it is not shown here. The Chinese also measured a snow/ice depth of 3.5 m,<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_1478658.htm abc.au article]</ref> which implies agreement with a net elevation of 8,848 m. But in reality the snow and ice thickness varies, making a definitive height of the snow cap, and hence the precise height attained by summiteers without sophisticated GPS, impossible to determine.

The elevation of 8,848 m (29,028 ft) was first determined by an Indian survey in 1955, made closer to the mountain, also using [[theodolite]]s. It was subsequently reaffirmed by a 1975 Chinese measurement [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_1478658.htm]. In both cases the snow cap, not the rock head, was measured. In May 1999 an American Everest Expedition, directed by [[Bradford Washburn]], anchored a [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] unit into the highest bedrock. A rock head elevation of 8,850 m (29,035 feet), and a snow/ice elevation 1 m (3 ft) higher, were obtained via this device [http://www.alpineresearch.ch/alpine/en/presse1.html]. Nepal, however, did not officially recognize this survey, and the discrepancy with the above mentioned 2005 Chinese survey is significantly greater than the surveys' claimed accuracy.

It is thought that the [[plate tectonics]] of the area are adding to the height and moving the summit north-eastwards. Two accounts, [http://www.alpineresearch.ch/alpine/en/presse1.html], [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/features/99/everest/roof_content.html] suggest the rates of change are 4 mm per year (upwards) 3-6 mm per year (northeastwards), but this account[http://www.mos.org/Everest/exhibit/platetectonics.htm] mentions more lateral movement (27 mm), and even shrinkage has been suggested [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4204539.stm].

Everest is the mountain whose summit attains the greatest distance above [[sea level]]. Two other mountains are sometimes claimed as alternative "tallest mountains on Earth". [[Mauna Kea]] in [[Hawaii]] is tallest when measured from its base; it rises over 10,203 m (about 6.3 [[mile|mi]]) when measured from its base on the mid-ocean floor, but only attains 4,205 m (13,796 ft) above sea level. The summit of [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] in [[Ecuador]] is 2,168 m (7,113 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) farther from the Earth's centre (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 [[mile|mi]]) than that of Everest (6,382.3 km or 3,965.8 [[mile|mi]]), because the Earth bulges at the Equator. However, Chimborazo attains a height of 6,267 m (20,561 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level, and by this criterion it is not even the highest peak of the [[Andes]].

The deepest spot in the ocean is deeper than Everest is high: the [[Challenger Deep]], located in the [[Mariana Trench]], is so deep that if Everest were to be placed into it there would be more than 2 km (1.25 [[mile|mi]]) of water covering it.

The Mount Everest region, and the [[Himalayas]] in general, are thought to be suffering ice-melt due to [[global warming]]. The exceptionally heavy Southwest summer [[monsoon]] of 2005 is consistent with continued warming and augmented convective uplift on the [[Tibetan plateau]] to the north.

== Climbing routes ==
{{unreferenced|section}}
[[image:himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|250px|Southern and northern climbing routes as seen from the [[International Space Station]].]]

Mt. Everest has two main climbing routes, the southeast ridge from Nepal and the northeast ridge from [[China]], as well as [http://www.everesthistory.com/routes.htm 13] other less frequently climbed routes. Of the two main routes, the southeast ridge is technically easier and is the more frequently-used route. It was the route used by Hillary and Tenzing in 1953 and the first recognised of fifteen routes to the top by 1996. This was, however, a route decision dictated more by politics than by design as the Chinese border was closed to foreigners in 1949. [[Reinhold Messner]] (Italy) summited the mountain solo for the first time, without supplementary oxygen or support, on the more difficult Northwest route via the North Col to the North Face and the Great Couloir, on August 20th 1980. He climbed for three days entirely alone from his base camp at 6500 meters without the use of supplementary oxygen via the North Col/North Face route. This route has been noted as the 8th climbing route to the summit.

Most attempts are made during April and May before the summer [[monsoon]] season. A change in the [[jet stream]] at this time of year reduces the average wind speeds high on the mountain. While attempts are sometimes made after the monsoons in September and October, the additional snow deposited by the monsoons makes climbing more difficult.

=== Southeast ridge ===
The ascent via the southeast ridge begins with a trek to Base Camp at 5,380 m (17,600 ft) on the south side of Everest in Nepal. Expeditions usually fly
into [[Lukla]] (2,860 m) from [[Kathmandu]] and pass through [[Namche Bazaar]]. Climbers then hike to Base Camp, which usually takes six to eight days, allowing for proper altitude acclimatization in order to prevent [[altitude sickness]]. Climbing equipment and supplies are carried by [[yak]]s, [[dzo|dzopkyos]] (yak hybrids) and human [[Porter (carrying)|porter]]s to Base Camp on the [[Khumbu Glacier]]. When Hillary and Tenzing climbed Everest in 1953, they started from Kathmandu Valley, as there were no roads further east at that time.

[[Image:Everest base camp.jpg|thumb|600px|A view of Everest southeast ridge base camp. The [[Khumbu Icefall]] can be seen in the left. In the center are the remains of a helicopter that crashed in 2003.]]

Climbers will spend a couple of weeks in Base Camp, acclimatizing to the altitude. During that time, [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]]s and some expedition climbers will set up ropes and ladders in the treacherous [[Khumbu Icefall]]. [[Serac]]s, crevasses and shifting blocks of ice make the icefall one of the most dangerous sections of the route. Many climbers and Sherpas have been killed in this section. To reduce the hazard, climbers will usually begin their ascent well before dawn when the freezing temperatures glue ice blocks in place. Above the icefall is Camp I or Advanced Base Camp (ABC) at 6,065 m (19,900 ft).

From Camp I, climbers make their way up the [[Western Cwm]] to the base of the [[Lhotse]] face, where Camp II is established at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). The Western Cwm is a relatively flat, gently rising glacial valley, marked by huge lateral [[crevasse]]s in the centre which prevent direct access to the upper reaches of the Cwm. Climbers are forced to cross on the far right near the base of [[Nuptse]] to a small passageway known as the "Nuptse corner". The Western Cwm is also called the "Valley of Silence" as the topography of the area generally cuts off wind from the climbing route. The [[high altitude]] and a clear, windless day can make the Western Cwm unbearably hot for climbers.

From Camp II, climbers ascend the Lhotse face on fixed ropes up to a small ledge at 7,470 m (24,500 ft). From there, it is another 500 metres to Camp III on the [[South Col]] at 7,920 m (26,000 ft). From Camp III to Camp IV, climbers are faced with two additional challenges: The Geneva Spur and The Yellow Band. The Geneva Spur is an anvil shaped rib of black rock named by a 1952 Swiss expedition. Fixed ropes assist climbers in [[scrambling]] over this snow covered rock band. The Yellow Band is a section of [[sedimentary]] [[sandstone]] which also requires about 100 metres of rope for traversing it.

[[Image:Mt_Everest_cropped_els_1991.jpg|thumb|250px|West shoulder of Everest and the [[Khumbu Icefall]]]]

On the South Col, climbers enter the [[death zone]]. Climbers typically only have a maximum of two or three days they can endure at this altitude for making summit bids. Clear weather and low winds are critical factors in deciding whether to make a summit attempt. If weather does not cooperate within these short few days, climbers are forced to descend, many all the way back down to Base Camp.

From Camp IV, climbers will begin their summit push around midnight with hopes of reaching the summit (still another 1,000 metres above) within 10 to 12 hours. Climbers will first reach "The Balcony" at 8,400 m (27,700 ft), a small platform where they can rest and gaze at peaks to the south and east in the early dawn light. Continuing up the ridge, climbers are then faced with a series of imposing rock steps which usually forces them to the east into waist deep snow, a serious [[avalanche]] hazard. At 8,750 m (28,700 ft), a small table-sized dome of ice and snow marks the South Summit.

From the South Summit, climbers follow the knife-edge southeast ridge along what is known as the "Cornice traverse" where snow clings to intermittent rock. This is the most exposed section of the climb as a misstep to the left would send one 2,400 m (8,000 ft) down the southwest face while to the immediate right is the 3,050 m (10,000 ft) [[Kangshung face]]. At the end of this traverse is an imposing 12 m (40 ft) rock wall called the "[[Hillary Step]]" at 8,760 m (28,750 ft).

Hillary and Tenzing were the first climbers to ascend this step and they did it with primitive ice climbing equipment and without fixed ropes. Nowadays, climbers will ascend this step using fixed ropes previously set up by Sherpas. Once above the step, it is a comparatively easy climb to the top on moderately angled snow slopes - though the exposure on the ridge is extreme especially while traversing very large cornices of snow. After the Hillary Step, climbers also must traverse a very loose and rocky section that has a very large entanglement of fixed ropes that can be troublesome in bad weather. Climbers will typically spend less than a half-hour on "top of the world" as they realize the need to descend to Camp IV before darkness sets in or afternoon weather becomes a serious problem.

=== Northeast ridge ===
The northeast ridge route begins from the north side of Everest in Tibet. Expeditions trek to the [[Rongbuk Glacier]], setting up Base Camp at 5,180 m (17,000 ft) on a gravel plain just below the glacier. To reach Camp II, climbers ascend the medial moraine of the east Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of [[Changtse]] at around 6,100 m (20,000 ft). Camp III (ABC - Advanced Base Camp) is situated below the [[North Col]] at 6,500 m (21,300 ft). To reach Camp IV on the north col, climbers ascend the glacier to the foot of the col where fixed ropes are used to reach the North Col at 7,010 m (23,000 ft). From the North Col, climbers ascend the rocky north ridge to set up Camp V at around 7,775 m (25,500 ft). The route goes up the north face through a series of gullies and steepens into downsloping slabby terrain before reaching the site of Camp VI at 8,230 m (27,000 ft). From Camp VI, climbers will make their final summit push. Climbers must first make their way through three rock bands known as First Step, Second Step and Third Step. Once above these steps, the final summit slopes (50 to 60 degrees) to the top.

==Ascents==
[[Image:Mount Everest from Rombok Gompa, Tibet.jpg|frame|150px|Mount Everest as seen from the [[Rongbuk Monastery]].]]

On [[June 8]], [[1924]], [[George Mallory]] and [[Andrew Irvine (mountaineer)|Andrew Irvine]], both of the [[United Kingdom]], made an attempt on the summit from which they never returned. [[Noel Odell]], the expedition's [[geologist]], wrote in his diary that he "saw M&I on the ridge, nearing base of final pyramid" at 12:50 p.m. that day. In 1979 climber [[Wang Hongbao]] of [[China]] revealed to a companion that he had discovered a body in 1975 thought at the time to be Irvine's, but he was killed in a fall the next day before he could provide precise details to anyone else.

In 1999, however, the [[Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition]] found Mallory's body in the predicted search area near the old Chinese camp. Controversy has raged in the [[mountaineering]] community as to whether the duo may have summited 29 years before the confirmed ascent (and of course, safe descent) of Everest by Sir [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Tenzing Norgay]] in 1953. The general [[consensus]] among climbers has been that they did not, though recent findings may indicate otherwise. Though there is no physical evidence of either man above the [[Second Step]], there is speculation that if Mallory had made it that far he likely summitted, as there are no difficult technical climbs further up. The leading theory amongst those supporting the summit theory has Mallory tackling the sheer face of the Second Step by standing on Irvine's shoulders. Armed with Irvine's spare oxygen tanks he could have summitted late in the day. Descending in darkness he may have decided to take the Norton Couloir rather than attempt down-climbing the Second Step in the dark. Almost everyone agrees Mallory died in a short fall during his descent through the couloir, where his body was found. Irvine probably briefly survived him as he awaited his companion's return, at the foot of the Second Step, but died later of exposure. Irvine's body was probably found by another Chinese climber in 1960 (nowhere near Mallory's, proving the two had separated) but has not been rediscovered since, despite several searches in 2004.

Mallory had gone on a speaking tour of the [[United States]] the year before in 1923; it was then that he exasperatedly gave the famous reply, "Because it is there," to a [[New York]] [[journalism|journalist]] in response to hearing the question, "Why climb Everest?" for seemingly the thousandth time. Comprehensive information is available at [http://www.everestnews2004.com/malloryandirvine2004/malloryandirvine2004.htm Mallory and Irvine: The Final Chapter] including critical opposing viewpoints.

In 1995, [[George Mallory II]] of [[South Africa]] (his grandson) reached the summit of Everest.

===1933-1953===
In 1933, [[Lady Houston]], a [[millionaire]] ex-[[showgirl]], funded ''the Houston Everest Flight of 1933'', which saw a formation of [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]]s led by the [[Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton|Marquess of Clydesdale]] fly over the summit in an effort to deploy the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Union Jack]] flag at the top.

After taking part in the 1935 reconnaissance expedition, the prolific mountaineering explorer [[Bill Tilman]] was appointed leader of the 1938 Everest expedition which attempted the ascent via the north west ridge. They reached over 27,000 ft (8,200 m) without supplemental oxygen before being forced down due to bad weather and sickness.

Early expeditions ascended the mountain from [[Tibet]], via the north face. However, this access was closed to western expeditions in 1950, after the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] reasserted control over Tibet. However, in 1950, [[Bill Tilman]] and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south.

===Tenzing and Hillary===
During 1951, a British expedition led by [[Eric Shipton]] and including [[Edmund Hillary]], travelled into Nepal to survey a new route via the southern face.

Taking their cue from the British, in 1952 a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] expedition attempted to climb via the southern face, but the assault team of [[Raymond Lambert]] and [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]] [[Tenzing Norgay]] turned back 200 meters short of the summit. The Swiss attempted another expedition in the autumn of 1952; this time a team including Lambert and Tenzing turned back at an earlier stage in the climb.

In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt of Llanfair Waterdine|John Hunt]], returned to Nepal. Hunt selected two climbing pairs to attempt to reach the summit. The first pair turned back after becoming exhausted high on the mountain. The next day, the expedition made its second and final assault on the summit with its fittest and most determined climbing pair. The summit was eventually reached at 11:30 am local time on [[May 29]], [[1953]] by the [[New Zealand]]er [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]] [[Tenzing Norgay]] from Nepal climbing the South Col Route. At the time, both acknowledged it as a team effort by the whole expedition, but Tenzing revealed a few years later that Hillary had put his foot on the summit first. They paused at the summit to take photographs and buried a few sweets and a small [[cross]] in the snow before descending. News of the expedition's success reached [[London]] on the morning of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]'s [[coronation]]. Returning to [[Kathmandu]] a few days later, Hillary and Hunt discovered that they had been promptly [[Knighthood|knighted]] for their efforts.

===1996 disaster===
During the 1996 climbing season, nineteen people died trying to reach the summit, making it the deadliest single year in Everest history. That year, [[May 10]] was the deadliest day in Everest history, when a storm stranded several climbers near the summit (on the Hillary Step), killing eight. Among those who died were experienced climbers [[Rob Hall]] and [[Scott Fischer]], both of whom were leading paid expeditions to the summit. The disaster gained wide publicity and raised questions about the commercialization of Everest.

Journalist [[Jon Krakauer]], on assignment from ''[[Outside (magazine)|Outside]]'' magazine, was also in Hall's party, and afterwards published the bestseller ''[[Into Thin Air]]'' which related his experience. [[Anatoli Boukreev]], a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer's book, co-authored a rebuttal book called ''[[The Climb]]''. The dispute sparked a large debate within the climbing community.  In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the [[University of Toronto]], told ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on that day suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge by around 14%.

During the same season, climber and filmmaker [[David Breashears]] and his team filmed the [[IMAX]] feature ''[[Everest (movie)|Everest]]'' on the mountain (some climbing scenes were later recreated for the film in [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]]). The 70 mm IMAX camera was specially modified to be lightweight enough to carry up the mountain, and to function in the extreme cold with the use of particular greases on the mechanical parts, plastic bearings and special batteries. Production was halted as Breashears and his team assisted the survivors of the May 10 disaster, but the team eventually reached the top on [[May 23]] and filmed the first large format footage of the summit. On Breashears' team was [[Jamling Tenzing Norgay]], the son of [[Tenzing Norgay]], following in his father's footsteps for the first time.

===Facts===
* [[As of 2003|As of the end of the 2003 climbing season]], 1,919 people had reached the summit (829 of them since 1998) and 179 people died while summitting. The conditions on the mountain are so difficult that most of the corpses have been left where they fell; some of them are easily visible from the standard climbing routes.

* Most expeditions use [[oxygen]] [[mask]]s and tanks <ref>[http://classic.mountainzone.com/everest/98/climb5-21oxygen.html Mountainzone article.]</ref> above 26,000 feet (8,000 m); this region is known as the [[death zone]]. Everest can be climbed without supplementary oxygen but increases the risk to the climber. Humans do not think clearly with low oxygen, and the combination of severe [[weather]], low [[temperature]]s, and steep slopes often require quick, accurate decisions.

* Mountain climbers are a significant source of [[tourist revenue]] for Nepal; they range from experienced [[mountaineer]]s to relative [[novice]]s who count on their paid guides to get them to the top. The Nepalese government also requires a permit from all prospective climbers; this carries a heavy fee.{{fact}}

===Timeline===

:''Main article: [[Timeline of climbing Mount Everest]]''

==Death zone==
:''Main article: [[Death zone]]''

While the normal conditions for any area classified as a death zone apply for Mount Everest (altitudes higher than 8,000 meters), it is significantly more difficult for a climber to survive at the death zone on Mount Everest. Temperatures can dip to very low levels, resulting in [[frost bite]] of any body part that is exposed to the air. Because the temperatures are so low, snow is well-frozen in certain areas and death by slipping and falling can also occur. High winds at these altitudes on Everest are also a potential threat to climbers. The atmospheric pressure at the top of Everest is about one-third of the sea level pressure, and this means that there is about one third as much oxygen available to breathe as there is at sea level.<ref>[http://www.altitudephysiology.org/oxygenphysiology/mounteverest/airpressurehighaltitude.htm Online high altitude oxygen calculator]</ref>

== Bottled oxygen controversy ==
The use of bottled oxygen to ascend Mount Everest has been controversial. [[George Mallory]] himself described the use of such oxygen as unsportsmanlike, but later concluded that it would be impossible to summit without it, and consequently used it.{{fact}} When [[Tenzing Norgay|Tenzing]] and Hillary made the first successful summit in 1953, they used bottled oxygen. For the next twenty-five years, [[Diving cylinder|bottled oxygen]] was a standard necessity for any successful summit.

[[Reinhold Messner]] was the first climber to break the bottled oxygen tradition and in 1978, with [[Peter Habeler]], made the first successful oxygenless climb. Although critics alleged that he sucked mini-bottles of oxygen - a claim that Messner has denied - Messner silenced them when he summited the mountain, without oxygen or support, on the more difficult Northwest route, in 1980. In the aftermath of Messner's two successful ascents, the debate on bottled oxygen usage continued. Critics have made the assertion that Messner's many high-altitude sorties have resulted in real brain damage from [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] due to pushing himself too hard.{{fact}}

The aftermath of the [[#1996 disaster|1996 Mount Everest]] disaster further intensified the debate. [[Jon Krakauer]]'s ''[[Into Thin Air]]'' (1997) expressed the author's personal criticisms of the use of bottled oxygen. Krakauer wrote that the usage of bottled oxygen allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit, leading to dangerous situations and more deaths. The [[May 10]] disaster was partially caused by the sheer number of climbers (33 on that day) attempting to ascend, causing bottlenecks at Hillary Step and delaying many climbers, most of whom summited after the usual 2pm turnaround time. He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases, arguing that this would both decrease the growing trash on Everest and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain.

The 1996 disaster also introduced the issue of the guide's role in using bottled oxygen.<ref name="salon">The debate between G. Weston DeWalt and Jon Krakauer on bottled oxygen and Boukreev's actions can be found in the [http://www.salon.com/wlust/feature/1998/08/07featurea.html Salon debates]</ref>
Guide [[Anatoli Boukreev]]'s decision not to use bottled oxygen was sharply criticized by Jon Krakauer. Boukreev's supporters (who include G. Weston DeWalt, who co-wrote ''[[The Climb]]'') state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security.{{fact}} Krakauer and his supporters point out that, without bottled oxygen, Boukreev was unable to directly help his clients descend.<ref name="salongarner">http://www.salon.com/wlust/feature/1998/08/cov_03feature3.html Coming Down page 3] DWIGHT GARNER ''salon.com'' 1998 August</ref> They state that Boukreev said that he was going down with client Martin Adams<ref name="salongarner"/>, but when Adams slowed down{{fact}}, Boukreev later descended faster and left him behind.<ref name="salongarner"/>

While some climbers in the mountaineering community support Krakauer's point of view, others feel that there is a small set of climbers such as [[Anatoli Boukreev]] and [[Ed Viesturs]] who can climb without oxygen and still function well.{{fact}} Most climbers agree that a guide cannot directly help clients if he or she cannot concentrate or think clearly (which happens with the very thin atmosphere above) and this may be an argument for the use of bottled oxygen by them.

==David Sharp controversy==
Double-amputee climber [[Mark Inglis]] revealed in an interview with the press on [[May 23]], [[2006]], that his climbing party, and many others, had passed a distressed climber, [[David Sharp]], sheltering under a rock overhang 450 meters below the summit without attempting a rescue. The revelation sparked wide debate on climbing ethics, especially as applied to Everest.

As this debate raged, Australian climber [[Lincoln Hall (Climber)|Lincoln Hall]] was found alive, after being declared dead, by a party of four climbers ([[Dan Mazur]], Andrew Brash, Myles Osborne and Jangbu Sherpa) who giving up their own summit attempt, stayed with Hall and descended with him and a party of 12 Sherpas sent up to carry him down. Hall later fully recovered.

==Life-threatening thefts==
Other climbers have reported life-threatening thefts from supply caches. [[Vitor Negrete]], the first Brazilian to climb Everest without oxygen and part of David Sharp's party, died during his descent, and theft from his high-altitude camp may have contributed.<ref>[http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=2092 Mounteverest.net article]. See also [http://www.mounteverest.net/news.php?id=2069 second article.]</ref>

==Life forms==
''[[Euophrys omnisuperstes]]'', a minute black [[jumping spider]], has been found at elevations as high as 6,700 meters, possibly making it the highest known permanent resident on earth. They lurk in crevices and possibly feed on frozen insects that have been blown there by the wind.

==See also==
{{commons|Mount Everest}}
*[[List of highest mountains|Highest mountains of the world]]
*[[North Col]]
*[[South Col]]
*[[Rongbuk Glacier]]
*[[Rongbuk Monastery]]
*[[Kangshung Face, Mount Everest]]
*[[Geography of China]]
*[[Sagarmatha National Park]]
*[[Geology of the Himalaya]]

==Image gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Mount Everest from Rongbuk may 2005.JPG|View on the majestic Mount Everest from the Rongbuk Monastery
Image:Everest nubtse.jpg|Mount Everest and Nubtse from Kala Patthar
Image:Sagarmatha ck Oct18 2002.jpg|Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) as seen from Kala Pattar
Image:MT Everest88.jpg|Mount Everest
</gallery>

==External links==
* [http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150230/everest.html Summitpost: Lots of info and photos]
* [http://www.armyoneverest.mod.uk The Army On Everest, The British Army's West Ridge Expedition Site]
* [http://www.therestofeverest.com The Rest of Everest Video Podcast, An Almost Unabridged Expedition Experience]
* [http://www.everytrail.net/everest2006 Everest blogs by climbers]
* [http://www.everytrail.net/everest2006/everest-map.php Everest Interactive map]
* [http://www.everest-pixel-dream.com A fundraising expedition planned for spring 2007]
* [http://www.everesthistory.com/ EverestHistory.com], [http://www.everesthistory.com/time3.htm Mt. Everest timeline]
* [http://www.mounteverest.net/ MountEverest.net]
* [http://travel.desktop-wallpaper-photo.com/pict01.htm Mount Everest Photograph]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/ NOVA site on Mt. Everest], [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/history/highpioneers.html Climbing pioneer history]
* [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/everest/ ''National Geographic'''s page on Mt. Everest]
* [http://www.tilman.tv/ The Life of Bill Tilman, leader of the 1938 Expedition on Everest]
*[http://www.gonomad.com/alternatives/0602/everest.html Hiking to the base of Mt. Everest, GoNOMAD feature article]
* [http://thegreatindian.tripod.com/mountEverest.htm Mount Everest Image by Roddy Mackenzie who climbed the mountain in 1989]
*[http://www.peakware.com/peaks.html?pk=80 Mount Everest at Peakware]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=27.976628,86.933302&t=k&om=0&spn=0.003515,0.006432 ''Google Maps'' satellite image]
*[http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen2/full22.html Panorama from the top of Mt.Everest]
* Computer-generated annotated virtual panoramas [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ASIA/Everest-North.gif North] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ASIA/Everest-South.gif South] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html Index], can be compared with above link
*[http://bau2.uibk.ac.at/sg/python/Scripts/TheHairDressersonMtEverest The Hairdressers' Ascent up Mount Everest] sketch from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile4574/Mt.-Everest-Basecamp.htm Very close view to the Mount Everest Basecamp with ''Google Earth'' (KMZ File)]
* [http://www.xtreme-everest.co.uk/ Xtreme Everest 2007], An expedition to study human physiology at altitude, spring 2007
* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13001760 " 'Naked' climber on Everest sparks anger"], ''[[MSNBC]]''
* [http://www.8000metres.com/mountains/everest/external-references/ List of Mount Everest Resources]
* [http://www.WayToEverest.de/ www.WayToEverest.de], An interactive fine-art panorama photobook about the way to the Everest (100p.)

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
*[http://www.everesthistory.com/everestsummits/summitsbyyear.htm Summits and deaths per year]

{{Eight-thousander}}
{{Seven Summits}}

[[Category:Eight-thousanders|Everest]]
[[Category:Mountains of Nepal|Everest]]
[[Category:Mountains of Tibet|Everest]]
[[Category:Seven Summits|Everest]]
[[Category:Extreme points of the world]]

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Mount Kilimanjaro

2006-10-04T01:11:28Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Kilimandscharo

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Mount Kilimanjaro
| Photo = Kibo_summit_of_Mt_Kilimanjaro_001.JPG
| Caption = Kibo Summit of Kilimanjaro
| Elevation = 5,895 metres (19,340 feet)
| Location = [[Tanzania]]
| Prominence =5,885 m [[List of peaks by prominence|Ranked 4th]]
| Coordinates = {{coor dms|03|04|33|S|37|21|12|E|type:mountain}}
| Type=[[Stratovolcano]]
| Age=
| Last eruption=None in recorded history
| First ascent = [[1889]] by Hans Meyer, [[Ludwig Purtscheller]], Johannes Kinyala Lauwo
| Easiest route =[[hiking|hike]]
}}
:''For the album by The Teardrop Explodes, see [[Kilimanjaro (album)]].''

'''Kilimanjaro''' (or Kilima Njaro, which means "shining mountain" in [[Swahili]]),
<ref name=NASAnjaro>
"SRTM TANZANIA IMAGES" (Kilimanjaro or Kilima Njaro description),
[[NASA]], August 28, 2005, webpage:
[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/tanzania.htm NASA-Tanzania].
</ref>
<ref>
"Kilima-Njaro" (alternate name in 1907), ''The Nuttall Encyclopædia'', 1907,
FromOldBooks.com, 2006, webpage:
[http://www.fromoldbooks.org/Wood-NuttallEncyclopaedia/k/kilima-njaro.html FOB-Njaro].
</ref>
formerly '''Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze''', is a [[mountain]] in northeastern [[Tanzania]]. Kilimanjaro is the tallest free-standing mountain rise in the world,<ref name=NASAnjaro/> rising 4600 [[meter]]s (15,000 [[ft]]) from the base, and includes the [[Extremes of Altitude|highest peak]] in [[Africa]] at 5,895 meters (19,340 ft), providing the dramatic view from the surrounding plains. Kilimanjaro is a giant [[stratovolcano]], not currently active, with [[fumarole]]s that emit gas in the crater on the main summit of Kibo. Scientists concluded in [[2003]] that molten [[magma]] is just 400 meters below the summit [[Volcanic crater|crater]]. Although new activity is not expected, there are fears the volcano may collapse, causing a major eruption similar to [[Mount St. Helens]]. Several collapses and landslides have occurred on Kibo in the past, one creating the area known as the [[western breach]]. Although there is no recorded history of eruptions, local legend speaks of activity around 170 years ago.

==Description==

The highest point is Uhuru Peak on the volcano Kibo, [[1 E3 m|5,895 metres]]. As the highest point in Africa, Uhuru Peak is one of the [[Seven Summits]]. The summit was first reached by the Marangu army scout, Johannes Kinyala Lauwo, who climbed it nine times before realising there was a crater. Lauwo served as a guide for the first ascent by nonindigenous climbers, [[Germany|German]] [[Hans Meyer]] and [[Austria]]n [[Ludwig Purtscheller]], on [[October 6]] [[1889]]. Two other peaks are also extinct volcanoes: Mawenzi (5,149 metres), the third highest peak in Africa (after [[Mount Kenya]]) and Shira (3,962 m). Johannes' Notch is named after Lauwo. In 1989 Lauwo was presented with a house at Ashira Marangu by the West German government in recognition of his role on the Meyer expedition. His relative, Trilas Lauwo (1952- ) was the first Tanzanian woman to reach the summit via the Mweka route in 1972.

An ascent of Mawenzi requires rock climbing and/or snow/ice climbing skills. The climb to Uhuru Peak is considered to be a relatively straightforward endeavour; however, ample time must still be provided for proper [[acclimatization]] to prevent [[altitude sickness]]. The three easiest routes, Marangu, Rongai and Machame can be climbed by a person of good health, and require no [[mountaineering]] experience. Many who climb employ altitude-sickness medication and find this to be helpful in preventing the pounding headaches that plague many travellers. Those who travel on the Marangu route usually take 4-5 days to complete their climb. Huts with cooking facilites, bathrooms, and (sometimes) electricity are available at the end of each day's journey. The final part of the climb, from Kibo hut at 15,500 ft. to the summit, is generally undertaken at night, because the [[scree]] is frozen together, making the climb significantly easier. Gilman's Point, on the rim of the crater, but about 1½ hours hike from Uhuru, is attained at 5:00 - 6:00 am; those who have the strength to continue may then hike on to Uhuru in the growing sunlight and rising temperatures. Another route is the Western Breach, which is much more technical in nature. Annually, approximately 15,000 people attempt to climb the mountain, of whom 40% reach the summit.
[[Image:Glacier at summit of Mt Kilimanjaro 001.JPG|thumb|left|250px|The rapidly retreating [[Furtwängler Glacier]] is near the summit.]]
At the summit, there is a sign posted by the Tanzanian government. The sign (printed in English only) reads "Congratulations! You are now at Uhuru Peak, Tanzania, 5,895 m. [[AMSL]]. Africa's Highest Point. World's Highest Free-Standing Mountain. One of World's Largest Volcanos. Welcome." The sign is covered in travel stickers from past trekkers who have left their mark on the top of the peak. Near this famous sign is a box containing a log that many climbers have signed.

Due to the equatorial location as well as huge height, climbers can experience almost every [[Köppen climate classification|climate type]] on earth during the journey to the top.

Kilimanjaro is also the highest point in the world to be covered by a [[GSM]] [[mobile phone]] network. The service is provided by [[Vodacom]].

[[Image:JRO-climber.jpg|thumb|250px|Tanzania's Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs with a guide at the summit.]]
== Current conditions ==

While the volcano appears to be dormant on the inside, events on top of the mountain have been drawing global attention recently. The glaciers that have covered the top of the mountain for the past 11,700 years are [[retreat of glaciers since 1850|rapidly disappearing]]. Over the past century, the ice cap volume has dropped by more than 80%[http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/stories/kilimanjaro_20021216/index.html]. In [[2002]], a study led by [[Ohio State University]] ice core [[paleoclimatology|paleoclimatologist]] [[Lonnie Thompson]] [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/sci;298/5593/518] predicted that ice on top of Africa's tallest peak would be gone between 2015 and 2020 [http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/kilicores.htm] [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/298/5593/589]. In March [[2005]], it was reported that the peak was now almost bare, for the first time in 11,000 years [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1437549,00.html]. A comparison of ice core records from Kilimanjaro suggests that conditions similar to those of today have not existed since then. Though the cause of the reduction in ice volume is in dispute, the loss of the Kilimanjaro ice fields will carry significant [[climatology|climatological]] and hydrological implications for local populations who depend on water from the ice fields during the dry seasons and monsoon failures.

[[As of 2006|As of January 2006]], the Western Breach route has been closed by the Tanzanian government following a rockslide which killed four people at Arrow Glacier Camp. The rockslide is believed to have been caused by [[frost action]] in an area which is no longer permanently frozen.

After the Western Breach route was closed in January 2006, many expeditions that had intended to use this route have instead used the Lemosho/Barafu route. As the Western Breach route, this route starts to the west and goes up the Shira Ridge towards Lava Tower. Instead of going up to Arrow Glacier camp and the breach, however, this route goes around the southern edge of Kili towards Barafu camp. From Barafu Camp, around 15,200 altitude, a nighttime summit attempt is usually attempted.
[[Image:Mount_Kilimanjaro_Tanzania-NASA.jpg|thumb|left|800px|Mount Kilimanjaro - with Landsat Overlay. Heights two times exaggerated.]]
 

== Climbing routes ==
[[Image:Forest in Marangu route in Kilimanjaro area 001.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Forest along the Marangu climbing route.]]
[[Image:Shira_moorlands_on_Kilimanjaro.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Moorlands on the Shira plateau.]]

There are several routes officially sanctioned for climbing Kilimanjaro. These are:
*Machame
*Marangu
*Rongai
*Lemosho
*Umbwe
*Mweka (descent only)


===Machame route===
The Machame route as of 2006 is described here. The route is typically done on a 6 or 7 day hike.

The campsites and gates (with corresponding elevations) are as follows: [http://7summits.com/kilimanjaro/waypoints.php]
*Machame Gate (start of trek) (5718 ft/1738 m)
*Machame (9927 ft/3018 m)
*Shira (12355 ft/3756 m)
*Barranco (13066 ft/3972 m)
*Karanga (optional camp, used by 6-day climbers)
*Barafu (high camp before summit) (15239 ft/4633 m)
*Mweka (descent) (10204 ft/3102 m)
*Mweka Gate (end of trek) (5423 ft/1649 m)

(The given altitudes are sourced from a GPS device and are accurate to a few hundred feet.)

One benefit of the Machame route is its quick rise to relatively high elevations (~10000 ft, or ~3040 metres), and a short ascent to the Lava Tower site (~15,000 ft/~4560 m) before descending back to Barranco Camp (12,700 ft) on the same day. This follows the climber's adage 'climb high, sleep low', and helps [[Altitude sickness#Altitude acclimatisation|altitude acclimation]]. The initial steep ascent also helps climbers acclimate.

The Machame route starts from Machame Gate and travels upwards through the montane [[rainforest]], characterized by dense vegetation, a muddy trail and short sections of steep climbs. The first campsite, Machame Camp, is right after the dense tree cover in an area with lower but still thick bushlands.

The second day continues through increasingly sparse trees and bushes into moorlands. Picturesque hanging mosses often cover trees and offer an ethereal quality to the landscape. The day finishes with Shira Camp, which is on a small plateau in the high moorlands, and features views of Kibo in the northwest and [[Mount Meru, Tanzania|Mount Meru]] towards the east. [[White-necked Raven|White necked ravens]] can be seen throughout the day. There is also a set of small caves a short walk from the campsite known as the Shira Caves.

[[Image:Garden_of_the_senecias.jpg|thumb|left|Garden of the Senecias, with part of Kibo in the background.]]

The third day starts in the [[moorland]]s and moves into alpine desert, with less trees and more rocks. The highest point is the base of the Lava Tower, after which the trail descends into the Barranco Valley. More vegetation is present in this zone, especially the area just before the campsite. This area is called the 'Garden of the Senecias' which features many of the huge [[senecia]] plants. Shorter [[lobelia]] plants are also present.

The fourth day starts with the ascent of the Barranco Wall, which is considered a [[Scrambling|scramble]] in climbing terms. The top of the Wall has attractive vistas of Kibo and the surrounding landscape. The trail continues with many up and down sections across small streams and rivulets, and finally crosses the Karanga River to the Karanga campsite.

The fifth day follows the path up and across a rocky zone, finishing at the high camp Barafu. Very little vegetation can be found on the inhospitable terrain. A field of sedimentary rocks litters the ground like many broken mirrors. (Note - the 6 day trek omits the Karanga campsite, and climbers continue directly to Barafu on the same day)

The summit is usually attempted on the very early morning of the 6th day (around midnight). Barafu is also used as a summit campsite for the Umbwe route. Climbers typically take somewhere between 5-7 hours to ascend, using headlamps and cold weather gear. The first milestone is Stella Point (18652 ft/5685 m), which is on the crater rim. Following Stella Point, the trail continues for another 30 mins to the summit - Uhuru Peak.

The descent back to Barafu takes roughly 4 hours. Some climbers '[[scree]] slide' down the slope, which entails skidding/running down the loose gravel at medium speed. From Barafu, climbers typically take a short break, and continue downwards through the alpine desert and ensuing [[moorland]]s to Mweka Camp.

The 7th and final day has trekkers continue through the montane forest to Mweka Gate. Troops of black-and-white [[Colobus|colobus monkeys]] can often be seen in the dense growth.

A travelogue of the Machame route can be viewed here.[http://www.summitpost.org/trip-report/169501/kilimanjaro-climb-2004-june-machame-route.html]

[[Image:Elephants Kili 2.jpg|thumb|290px|right|Kilimanjaro viewed from [[Amboseli National Park]]]]

==In the arts==
*Mount Kilimanjaro was the inspiration and backdrop for [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s classic short story ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' (1936). He also wrote a non-fiction account of his safari experiences in the 1950's, posthumously published as ''[[Under Kilimanjaro]]'' (2005).

*Mount Kilimanjaro is mentioned in [[Toto]]'s 1982 hit, [[Africa (song)|Africa]] ("I know that I must do what's right, sure as Kilimanjaro rises like Olympus above the Serengeti").

==See also==
*[[Kilimanjaro National Park]]
*[[Chaga]] - a [[Bantu|Bantu-speaking]] indigenous African tribe; third largest group in Tanzania.
*[[Maasai]] - an indigenous African ethnic group of semi-nomadic people in [[Kenya]] and northern [[Tanzania]].
*[[Pare]] - an ethnic group inhabiting the Pare Mountains, in Kilimanjaro Administrative Region.
*[[Moshi]] - town, east of [[Arusha]], along the southern slopes of Kilimanjaro.
*[[Tanzania]] - the nation containing Kilimanjaro, bordering on [[Kenya]].
*[[Mount Kenya]] - a larger, collapsed [[stratovolcano]] 200 miles due north, in Kenya.

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links==
{{clearright}}
{{commons|Kilimanjaro}}
*{{cite web
| author=Charles A. Wood
| year=
| title=Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
| work=Volcano World, Department of Space Studies, University of North Dakota
| url=http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/img_kilimanjaro.html
| accessdate=February 25
| accessyear=2006}}
*[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/kilicores.htm Ohio State University study expedition to Kilimanjaro's glaciers]
*[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=10856 NASA Earth Explorer page]
*[http://www.georgefisher.com/Personal/Kilimanjaro.htm Climbing Kilimanjaro]
*[http://www.thisisthelife.com/en/amazing-views/kilimanjaro-africa.htm View from the top of Kilimanjaro]
*[http://www.seabhcan.com/travel_stories/kili_files/pan.html 360 Panoramic View from the top, with Map]
* ''Kilimanjaro - A Climber's Journal'' by Brad Wermers. [http://home.mchsi.com/~bwerm/ Journal]
*[http://www.kilimanjaroblog.com/photos/v/Mount+Kilimanjaro+Photos/ Kilimanjaro Machame Route Photos]
*[http://www.acrossthedivide.com/wilkpedia/kilimanjaro.htm Kilimanjaro Rongai Route Photos]
*[http://www.basecamptanzania.com/NP_Kilimanjaro.htm KILIMANJARO NATIONAL PARK - History & Information]
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1784320856605323476&q=kilimanjaro+climb&pr=goog-sl/ Video of Kilimanjaro AIDS climb via Arrow Glacier and Western Breach]

{{Seven Summits}}

[[Category:Mountains of Tanzania|Kilimanjaro]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Tanzania|Kilimanjaro]]
[[Category:Great Rift Valley|Kilimanjaro]]
[[Category:Seven Summits|Kilimanjaro]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes|Kilimanjaro]]

[[ar:جبل كيليمانجارو]]
[[bn:কিলিমাঞ্জারো]]
[[bs:Kilimandžaro]]
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[[it:Kilimanjaro]]
[[he:קילימנג'רו]]
[[ka:კილიმანჯარო]]
[[sw:Kilimanjaro (mlima)]]
[[mk:Килиманџаро]]
[[nl:Kilimanjaro (berg)]]
[[ja:キリマンジャロ (山)]]
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[[zh:乞力马扎罗山]]

Switzerland

2006-10-04T01:09:23Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{dablink|"Swiss" redirects here. For other uses, see [[Swiss (disambiguation)]] and [[Switzerland (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Country |common_name = Switzerland
|native_name = ''Confoederatio Helvetica'' ''Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft'' ''Confédération suisse'' ''Confederazione Svizzera'' ''Confederaziun svizra'' Swiss Confederation
|image_flag = Flag of Switzerland.svg|image_coat = Coat of Arms of Switzerland.svg
|symbol_type = Coat of arms
|image_map = LocationSwitzerland.png
|national_anthem = [[Swiss Psalm]]
|national_motto = [[Latin]]: ''[[Unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno]]'' (traditional)<ref>The motto is traditional; it does not have an official status that was defined by the Swiss constitution or a Swiss law. See [[Unus pro omnibus, omnes pro uno]] for more information.</ref> ([[English language|English]]: "One for all, all for one")
|official_languages = [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Romansh language|Romansh]]<ref>[http://www.oefre.unibe.ch/law/icl/sz00000_.html Switzerland Constitution], article 70, "Languages": (1) The official languages of the Federation are German, French, and Italian. Romansh is an official language for communicating with persons of Romansh language. (2) The Cantons designate their official languages. In order to preserve harmony between linguistic communities, they respect the traditional territorial distribution of languages, and take into account the indigenous linguistic minorities.</ref>
|common_languages = [[Serbo-Croatian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]] <ref>http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/bevoelkerung/sprachen__religionen/blank/medienmitteilungen.Document.24786.html </ref>
|capital = [[Bern]] (federal capital) |latd=46|latm=57|latNS=N|longd=7|longm=27|longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Zürich]]
|government_type = [[Direct democracy]], [[Federal republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council]]
|leader_name1 = [[Moritz Leuenberger]] ([[President of the Confederation (Switzerland)|Pres. 06]]) [[Pascal Couchepin]] [[Samuel Schmid]] [[Micheline Calmy-Rey]] (V[[President of the Confederation (Switzerland)|P 06]]) [[Christoph Blocher]] [[Hans-Rudolf Merz]] [[Doris Leuthard]]
|area = 41,285
|areami²=15,940 
|area_rank=136th|area_magnitude=1 E10|percent_water=4.2
|population_estimate = 7,252,000|population_estimate_year=July 2005|population_estimate_rank=95th
|population_density = 182
|population_densitymi² =472 
|population_density_rank=61st
|population_census = 7,288,010|population_census_year=2000
|GDP_PPP = $264.1 billion|GDP_PPP_year=2005|GDP_PPP_rank=39th
|GDP_nominal = $309 billion|GDP_nominal_year=2003|GDP_nominal_rank=17th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $35,300|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=10th
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $50,524|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank=4th
|HDI_year=2003|HDI=0.947|HDI_rank=7th |HDI_category=high
|sovereignty_type =[[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = [[Federal Charter of 1291|Federal Charter]]
|established_event1 = Declared
|established_event2 = Recognised
|established_event3 = Federal state
|established_date1 = [[August 1]], [[1291]]
|established_date2 = [[October 24]], [[1648]]
|established_date3 = 1848
|currency = [[Swiss franc]]|currency_code=CHF
|time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset=+1
|time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST=+2
|cctld = [[.ch]] |calling_code = 41
|footnotes =
}}
[[Image:Stumpf-Chronik-Zug.png|right|292px|thumb|1548 view of [[Zug]]]]
{{portalpar|Switzerland}}
'''Switzerland''' ([[German language|German]]: ''die Schweiz'', [[French language|French]]: ''la Suisse'', [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Svizzera'' and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]: ''Svizra''), officially the '''Swiss Confederation''', is a [[landlocked]] [[Alpine country]] in [[Central Europe]]. A male native of Switzerland is said to be a ''Schweizer'' and a female is a ''Schweizerin'' in [[German language|German]]; ''Suisse'' (male) or ''Suissesse'' (female) in [[Swiss French]] and ''svizzero'' (male) or ''svizzera'' (female) in [[Italian language|Italian]].

The country, which borders [[Germany]] to the north, [[France]] to the west, [[Italy]] to the south, and [[Austria]] and [[Liechtenstein]] to the east, was historically a [[confederation]], and has been a [[federation]] since 1848. Switzerland has a strong [[economic system|economy]] in [[finance]] and [[bank]]ing, and a long and strong tradition of [[neutral country|political and military neutrality]]. This background allows Switzerland to host various international co-operations and organizations.

''Confoederatio Helvetica'', the country's official [[Latin]] name, means [[Helvetii|Helvetic]] [[Confederation]]. The use of [[Latin]] avoids having to favour one of the four national languages. The abbreviation (CH) is used for the same reason. The titles commonly used in French (''Confédération suisse''), Italian (''Confederazione Svizzera'') and Romansh (''Confederaziun svizra'') translate as "Swiss Confederation", while the German name of ''Schweizerische [[Eidgenossenschaft]]'' translates literally as "Swiss Oath Fellowship" or "Swiss Commonwealth of the Covenant".

== History ==
{{main|History of Switzerland}}

=== Early history ===

Switzerland is a federation of relatively autonomous [[Cantons of Switzerland|canton]]s, some of which have a history of confederacy that goes back more than 700 years, arguably putting them among the world's oldest surviving [[republic]]s.

Historically, in [[1291]], representatives of the [[three forest cantons]] of [[Canton of Uri|Uri]], [[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]], and [[Unterwalden]] signed the [[Federal Charter of 1291|Federal Charter]]. The charter united the involved parties in the struggle against the rule by the [[Habsburg]]s, the family then holding the Duchy of Austria in the Holy Roman Empire. At the [[Battle of Morgarten]] on [[November 15]], [[1315]], the Swiss defeated the Habsburg army and secured existence of the Swiss Confederation within the Holy Roman Empire.

By [[1353]], the three original cantons had been joined by the cantons of [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]] and [[Canton of Zug|Zug]] and the city states of [[Lucerne]], [[Zürich]] and [[Berne]], forming the "Old Federation" of eight states that persisted during much of the 15th century (although [[Zürich]] was expelled from the confederation during the 1440s due to a territorial conflict) and led to a significant increase of power and wealth of the federation, in particular due to the victories over [[Charles the Bold]] of [[Burgundy]] during the 1470s, and the success of the [[Swiss mercenaries]]. The traditional listing order of the [[cantons of Switzerland]] reflects this state, listing the eight "Old Cantons" first, with the city states preceding the founding cantons, followed by cantons that joined the federation after 1481, in historical order. The Swiss victory in the [[Swabian War]] against the [[Swabian League]] of [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] in [[1499]] amounted to ''de facto'' independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

In [[1506]], [[Pope Julius II]] engaged the [[Swiss Guard]] that continues to serve the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] to the present day. The expansion of the federation, and the reputation of invincibility acquired during the earlier wars, suffered a first setback in [[1515]] with the Swiss defeat in the [[Battle of Marignano]]. The success of [[Zwingli]]'s [[Reformation]] in some cantons led to inter-cantonal wars in [[1529]] and [[1531]] (''Kappeler Kriege''). The [[conflict]] between [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] cantons persisted, erupting in further violence at the [[battles of Villmergen]] in [[1656]] and [[1712]]. Under the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in [[1648]], [[Europe]]an countries recognised Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its [[neutral country|neutrality]] (''ancien régime'').

=== French invasion of 1798 ===

In 1798, the armies of the [[French Revolution]] conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country and effectively abolished the cantons. The new [[regime]] was known as the [[Helvetic Republic]] and was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army, had destroyed centuries of tradition, including the right to worship, and had made Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. Uprisings were common and only the presence of French troops kept them from succeeding. The brutal French suppression of the [[Nidwalden]] revolt in September was especially infamous.

When war broke out between France and other countries Switzerland found itself being invaded by other outside forces from [[Austria]] and [[Russia]]. The Swiss were divided mainly between "Republicans" who were in favour of a centralised government, and "Federalists" who wanted to restore autonomy to the cantons. In [[Paris]] in [[1803]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides. The result was the [[Act of Mediation]] which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 Cantons. From then on much of Swiss politics would be about balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government. The [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to permanently recognise the Swiss neutrality. At this time, the territory of Switzerland was increased for the last time, by the new cantons of [[Valais]], [[Canton of Neuchâtel|Neuchâtel]] and [[Canton of Geneva|Geneva]].

=== Constitution of 1848 ===

In 1845, a civil war broke out between the Catholic and the Protestant cantons (''Sonderbundskrieg''). The Catholics disliked the moves towards a more united Switzerland which the Radical Party, then in government, was promoting. The Catholics therefore came up with a 'special treaty' (''[[Sonderbund]]'') which the Radicals objected to. The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties. Apart from small riots, this was the most recent armed conflict on Swiss territory.

As a consequence of the civil war, Switzerland adopted the use of [[referendum|referendu]] and a [[Swiss Federal Constitution|federal constitution]] in 1849. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. The constitution was ammended extensively in 1872 in order to take into account the rise in population, the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the settling of a [[single currency]]. It also established federal responsibility for defence, trade, and legal matters.

In 1893, the constitution was revised with unusually strong elements of [[direct democracy]], which remains unique even today. Since then, continued political, economic, and social improvement has characterised Swiss history.

=== 20th century ===
[[Image:ZurichNight.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The [[Grossmünster]] of [[Zurich]] during Christmas Season]]
In 1920, Switzerland joined the [[League of Nations]], and in 1963 the [[Council of Europe]]. Switzerland proclaimed neutrality in [[World War I]] and was not involved militarily in the conflict. Neutrality was again proclaimed in [[World War II]], and although a German intervention was both planned and anticipated, it ultimately did not occur. The massive mobilisation of Swiss armed forces under the leadership of General [[Henri Guisan]] is often cited as a decisive factor that the German invasion was never initiated. Modern historical findings, such as the research done by the [[Bergier commission]], suggest that another major factor may have been the alleged trade by [[Swiss bank]]s with [[Nazi Germany]]. It has since been suggested that Switzerland's neutrality was compromised, as some Swiss citizens may have helped to launder the wealth allegedly stolen in the [[Holocaust]].[http://www.giussani.com/holocaust-assets/]. On the other hand, during the war, Switzerland became a hub for spying activities against Germany and the Axis Powers, which helped to bring about their defeat.

Women were granted the right to vote in the first cantons in 1959, at the federal level in 1971, and in the last canton, [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]], in 1990. In 1979, parts of the canton of [[Bern]] attained independence, forming the new [[canton of Jura]]. On [[April 18]], [[1999]] the Swiss population and the cantons voted in favour of a completely revised federal [[constitution]].

=== 21st century ===

In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the [[United Nations]], leaving the [[Holy See|Vatican]] as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the [[European Free Trade Association|EFTA]], but is not a member of the [[European Economic Area]]. An application for membership in the [[European Union]] was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referenda on the EU issue, but, as these are initiated by marginal groups within the country they have never been supported by the government. However, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU and the government has signed a number of [[Bilateralism|bilateral agreements]] with the European Union. Switzerland, together with [[Liechtenstein]], has been completely bordered by the EU since [[Austria|Austria's]] membership in 1995. On [[June 5]], [[2005]], Swiss voters agreed, by a 55% majority, to join the [[Schengen treaty]], a result that was welcomed by EU commentators as a sign of goodwill by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as [[Isolationism|isolationist]].

==Politics==
[[Image:Curia Confoederationis Heleticae - Swiss parliament and government.jpg|right|300px|thumb|''[[Bundeshaus|Federal Palace]]'' in [[Bern]]]]

{{morepolitics|country=Switzerland}}
The [[bicameralism|bicameral]] Swiss [[parliament]], the Federal Assembly, is the primary seat of power, apart from the Federal Council. Both houses, the [[Swiss Council of States|Council of States]] and the [[National Council of Switzerland|National Council]], have equal powers in all respects, including the right to introduce legislation.

Under the 1999 [[constitution]], cantons hold all powers not specifically delegated to the federation.

The 46 members of the Council of States (two from each canton and one from former half cantons) are directly elected in each canton, whereas the 200 members of the National Council are elected directly under a system of [[proportional representation]]. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. Through [[referenda]], citizens may challenge any law voted by federal parliament and through [[initiative]]s introduce amendments to the federal constitution, making Switzerland a [[direct democracy]].

The top [[executive (government)|executive]] body and collective [[Head of State]] is the [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council]], a collegial body of seven members. Although the constitution provides that the Assembly elects and supervises the members of the Council, the latter (and its administration) has gradually assumed a pre-eminent role in directing the [[legislative]] process as well as executing federal laws. The [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of the Confederation]] is elected from the seven to assume special representative functions for a one-year term.

From 1959 to December 2003, the four major parties were represented in the Federal Council according to the "magic formula", proportional to their representation in federal parliament: 2 [[Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland|Christian Democrats (CVP/PDC)]], 2 from the [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland|Social Democrats (SPS/PSS)]], 2 [[Radical Free Democratic Party of Switzerland|Free Democrats (FDP/PRD)]], and 1 from the [[Swiss People's Party|Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC)]]. This traditional distribution of seats, however, is not backed up by any law, and in the 2003 elections to the Federal Council the CVP/PDC lost their second seat to the SVP/UDC.

The function of the [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland|Federal Supreme Court]] is to hear appeals of cantonal courts or the administrative rulings of the federal administration. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms.

''See also:'' [[International relations of Switzerland]], [[Voting in Switzerland]]

===Direct democracy===
Switzerland features a system of government not seen at the national level any other place on Earth: [[direct democracy]], sometimes called half-direct democracy (this could, or could not be correct as theoretically, one could state that the people have full power over the law). Referenda on the most important laws have been used since the 1848 constitution.

Any citizen may challenge a law that has been passed by parliament. If he is able to gather 50,000 signatures against the law within 100 days, a national vote has to be scheduled where voters decide by a [[simple majority]] whether to accept or reject the law.

Also, any citizen may seek a decision on an [[constitutional amendment|amendment]] they want to make to the constitution. For such an amendment initiative to be organised, the signatures of 100,000 voters must be collected within 18 months. Such a [[popular initiative]] may be formulated as a general proposal or - much more often - be put forward as a precise new text whose wording can no longer be changed by [[parliament]] and the government. After a successful vote gathering, the federal council may create a counterproposal to the proposed amendment and put it to vote on the same day. Such counterproposals are usually a compromise between the [[status quo]] and the wording of the initiative. Voters will again decide in a national vote whether to accept the initiative amendment, the counterproposal put forward by the government or both. If both are accepted, one has to additionally signal a preference. Initiatives have to be accepted by a [[double majority]] of both the popular votes and a majority of the states.

===Energy politics===
The [[energy]] generated in Switzerland comprises around 40% [[nuclear power]] and 60% from [[hydroelectricity]].

On [[May 18]], 2003, two [[referenda]] regarding the future of nuclear power in Switzerland were held. The referendum ''Electricity Without Nuclear'' asked for a decision on a [[nuclear power phase-out]] and ''Moratorium Plus'' asked about an extension of an existing law forbidding the building of new [[nuclear power plants]]. Both were turned down: Moratorium Plus by a margin of 41.6% for and 58.4% opposed, and Electricity Without Nuclear by a margin of 33.7% for and 66.3% opposed. The former ten-year [[moratorium]] on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a [[initiative|citizens' initiative]] voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes (see [[Nuclear power phase-out#Switzerland|Nuclear power phase-out in Switzerland]] for details).

==Cantons (states)==
[[Image:Schweiz graubuenden sent.jpg|right|225px|thumb|Wintertime view of [[Sent]], in the eastern canton of [[Graubünden]]]]
{{main|Cantons of Switzerland}}

The Swiss Confederation consists of 26 [[canton (subnational entity)|canton]]s:
{| border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|- valign=top
| width=33% |
*[[Aargau]]
*[[Appenzell Innerrhoden]]*
*[[Appenzell Ausserrhoden]]*
*[[Basel-Stadt]]*
*[[Basel-Landschaft]]*
*[[Canton of Bern|Bern]]
*[[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]]
*[[Canton of Geneva|Geneva]]
*[[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]]
| width=33% |
*[[Graubünden]]
*[[Canton of Jura|Jura]]
*[[Canton of Lucerne|Lucerne]]
*[[Canton of Neuchâtel|Neuchâtel]]
*[[Nidwalden]]*
*[[Obwalden]]*
*[[Canton of Schaffhausen|Schaffhausen]]
*[[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]]
*[[Canton of Solothurn|Solothurn]]
| width=33% |
*[[Canton of St. Gallen|St. Gallen]]
*[[Thurgau]]
*[[Ticino]]
*[[Canton of Uri|Uri]]
*[[Valais]]
*[[Vaud]]
*[[Canton of Zug|Zug]]
*[[Canton of Zürich|Zürich]]
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>These cantons are represented by only one councillor in the [[Swiss Council of States|Council of States]].

Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km² (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km² (Graubünden). The Cantons comprise a total of [[municipalities of Switzerland|2,889 municipalities]].

The following are [[enclave]]s within Switzerland: [[Büsingen]] is territory of [[Germany]], [[Campione d'Italia]] is territory of [[Italy]].

In a referendum held in the [[Austria|Austrian]] state of [[Vorarlberg]] on 11 May 1919 over 80% of those voting supported a proposal that the state should join the Swiss Confederation. However, this was prevented by the opposition of the [[Austrian First Republic|Austrian Government]], the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]], [[Liberalism and radicalism in Switzerland|Swiss liberals]], the Swiss-Italians and the [[Romandy|Swiss-French]].<ref>http://c2d.unige.ch/int/voteres.php?entit=10&vote=101&lang=</ref>

==Geography==
[[Image:Map-of-Switzerland.png|300px|thumb|Map of Switzerland (overview)]]
{{main|Geography of Switzerland}}

With an area of 41,285 [[square kilometre]]s (15,940 [[square mile|sq mi]]), Switzerland is a relatively small country. The population is about 7.4 million, resulting in a [[population density]] of 182 people per square kilometre (472/sq mi).

Switzerland comprises three basic topographical areas: the [[Swiss Alps]], the [[Swiss plateau]], and the [[Jura mountains]].The [[Alps]] are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country. Among the high peaks of the [[Swiss Alps]], the highest of which is the [[Dufour Peak]] at 4,634 metres (15,203 ft), are found countless valleys, some with [[glacier]]s. From these the headwaters of several major European rivers such as the [[Rhine]], the [[Rhone River|Rhône]], the [[Inn River|Inn]], the [[Aare]] or the [[Ticino River|Ticino]], flow down into lakes such as [[Lake Geneva]], [[Lake Zürich]], [[Lake Neuchâtel]], and [[Lake Constance]].

[[Image:swissmap.png|300px|thumb|left|Map of Switzerland (detailed)]]

The northern, more populous part of the country is more open, but can still be mountainous, for example, in the [[Jura Mountains]], a smaller range in the northwest. The Swiss [[climate]] is generally [[temperate climate|temperate]], but can vary greatly between the localities, from harsh conditions on the high mountains to the often pleasant [[Mediterranean climate]] at Switzerland's southern tip.

A zoomable map of Switzerland is available at either [http://www.swissinfo-geo.org www.swissinfo-geo.org] or [http://www.swissgeo.ch www.swissgeo.ch]; a zoomable satellite picture is at [http://map.search.ch/ map.search.ch].

 

''See also:'' [[Swisstopo]] topographical survey, [[List of lakes of Switzerland]], [[List of rivers of Switzerland]], [[List of mountain passes in Switzerland]].

[[Image:Saas-Grund.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A view of [[Saas-Grund]] (right) and [[Saas-Fee]] (left) in southern Switzerland]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Switzerland}}

Switzerland is a prosperous and stable modern market economy, with a nominal per capita [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] that is higher than those of the big western European economies, [[United States]] and [[Japan]], though on a PPP basis, it ranks tenth. For much of the 20th century, Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin. However, since the early 1990s it has suffered from slow growth and, as of 2005, fell to fourth among European states with populations above one million in terms of nominal [[Gross Domestic Product]] per capita behind [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] and to the tenth position in terms of [[Gross Domestic Product]] per capita at [[purchasing power parity]] (also behind the European countries [[Austria]] and [[Iceland]], (see [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|list]]). Switzerland is a member of the [[European Free Trade Association]].

In recent years, the Swiss have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with those of the European Union, in an effort to enhance their international competitiveness, but this has not produced strong growth. Full EU membership is a long-term objective of the Swiss government, but there is considerable popular sentiment against this. Hardly surprising, considering the source of much of their (obviously "legitimate") money. To this end, it has established an [http://www.europa.admin.ch/e/index.htm Integration Office] under the Department of Foreign and Economic Affairs. To minimise the negative consequences of Switzerland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Bern and [[Brussels]] signed seven agreements, called bilateral agreements, to further liberalise trade ties. These agreements were signed in 1999 and took effect in 2001. This first series of bilateral agreements included the free movement of persons. A second series covering nine areas was signed in 2004 and awaits ratification. The second series includes the [[Schengen treaty]] and the [[Dublin Convention]]. They continue to discuss further areas for cooperation. Preparatory discussions are being opened on four new areas: opening up the electricity market, participation in the European GPS system [[Galileo positioning system|Galileo]], cooperating with the European centre for disease prevention and recognising certificates of origin for food products. Switzerland voted against membership in the [[European Economic Area]] in December 1992 and has since maintained and developed its relationships with the European Union and European countries through bilateral agreements. A full report on the potential advantages and inconveniences of full EU membership is expected to be published in June 2006 by the Department of Foreign affairs. EU membership supporters hope this report could help reopen the internal debate, which has been dormant since March 2001, when the Swiss people refused in a popular vote to start accession negotiations with the EU.

''See also:'' [[List of Swiss companies]], [[Swiss bank]], [[Merchant Marine of Switzerland]]

==Demographics==
[[Image:Map Languages CH.png|300px|thumb|Main languages in Switzerland<ref>[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/bevoelkerung/sprachen__religionen/blank/kennzahlen0/sprachen.html Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Federal Population Census 2000]</ref>: [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Romansh language|Romansh]]]]
{{main|Demographics of Switzerland}}

Switzerland sits at the crossroads of several major European cultures that have heavily influenced the country's languages and culture. Switzerland has four ''official languages'': [[German language|German]] (64%) in the north and centre; [[French language|French]] (19%) to the west; [[Italian language|Italian]] (8%) in the south; and [[Romansh language|Romansh]] (a [[Romance language]]), that is spoken locally by a small minority (< 1%) in the southeastern canton of [[Graubünden]]. (Some dialects of [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]] have speakers in rural communities in the region where [[French language|French]] is spoken. This language has no legal status.) The federal government is obliged to communicate in the four official languages. In the federal parliament, German, French, Italian and Romansh are the official languages and simultaneous translation is provided. The German spoken in Switzerland is predominantly a group of [[dialect]]s collectively known as [[Swiss German]], but written communication and broadcasts typically use standard German. Similar there are some dialect in the other speaking part of Switzerland, called [[Swiss French]] and [[Ticinese]]. Also the official languages (German, French and Italian) take use some terms not understood outside of Switzerland, i.e. terms from other languages (German ''Billette'' [http://mct.sbb.ch/mct/reisemarkt/billette/online-ticket.htm] from French), from similar term in an other language (Italian ''azione'' used not as ''act'' but as ''discount'' from German ''Aktion''). Learning one of the other national languages at school is obligatory for all Swiss, so most Swiss are supposed to be at least [[Multilingualism|bilingual]].

Resident foreigners and temporary foreign workers make up about 21% of the population. Most of these are from European Union countries (Italians being the largest group, at 4%), with smaller numbers from the rest of the world, including refugees from the former Yugoslavia (5%) and Turks (1%).
{{see|List of Swiss people}}

===Religion===
[[Image:FischenthalKirche.JPG|thumb|right|250px]]
Switzerland has no country-wide [[state religion]], though most of the [[cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] (except for [[Canton of Geneva|Geneva]] and [[Canton of Neuchâtel|Neuchâtel]]) financially support through taxation either the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], or the [[Swiss Reformed Church]].<ref>http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35487.htm</ref>

The most popular religion in Switzerland is [[Roman Catholic Church in Switzerland ]] (44% of the population). There are various [[Protestant]] denominations (38.5%), while immigration has brought [[Islam]] (4.3%) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] (1.8%) as sizeable minority religions [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sz.html#People]. The stability and prosperity of Switzerland, combined with a linguistically diverse population, has led some to describe the country as a consensus, or [[consociational state]].

The country is historically about evenly balanced between Catholic and Protestant, with a confusing patchwork of majorities over most of the country. Some cantons, such as Appenzell, are even officially divided into Catholic and Protestant sections, and many villages have the predominant religion posted on the signs leading into them, stating in effect "this is a Catholic/Protestant village". However, there are some overall patterns. Among the larger cities, the capital Bern, the banking centre Zürich, and Basel are predominately Protestant, whereas others such as Luzern are mostly Catholic. Geneva is famous as an early Calvinist centre, and a majority of Swiss French are Protestant, in contrast to French elsewhere in the world who are mainly Catholic. On the other hand, the founding core of Switzerland, the German-speaking cantons of Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, are mainly Catholic, as is Italian-speaking Ticino.

{{see|Reformation in Switzerland}}
{{see|Buddhism in Switzerland}}
{{see|Islam in Switzerland}}
{{see|History of the Jews in Switzerland}}

==Culture==
[[Image:Danse-helvetique-p1000764.jpg|300px|thumb|Folkloric dance demonstration in [[Lausanne]]]]
{{main|Culture of Switzerland}}

The culture of Switzerland is influenced by its neighbours, but over the years a distinctive culture with strong regional differences has developed.

A number of culturally active Swiss have chosen to move abroad, probably given the limited opportunities in their homeland. At the same time, the neutrality of Switzerland and the low taxes have attracted many creative people from all over the world. In war times the tradition of [[political asylum]] helped to attract [[artist]]s, whilst recently low taxes seem predominant.

Strong regionalism in Switzerland makes it difficult to speak of a homogeneous Swiss culture. The influence of German, French and Italian culture on their neighbouring parts and the influence of Anglo-American culture cannot be denied. The Rhaeto-Romanic culture in the eastern mountains of Switzerland is robust.

''See also:'' [[Music of Switzerland]], [[Swiss cuisine]], [[SRG SSR idée suisse]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==References==
*Clive H. Church (2004). ''The Politics and Government of Switzerland''. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-69277-2.
*Dieter Fahrni (2003). ''An Outline History of Switzerland. From the Origins to the Present Day''. 8th enlarged edition. Pro Helvetia, Zurich. ISBN 3-908102-61-8
*[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index.html Swiss Statistics], official website of the Swiss Federal Statistical Office.
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sz.html CIA World Factbook - Switzerland]

==See also==
*[[2004 in Switzerland]], [[2005 in Switzerland]]
*[[Communications in Switzerland]]
*[[Data codes for Switzerland]]
*[[Education in Switzerland]]
*[[Enlargement of the European Union#Switzerland|Enlargement of the European Union - Switzerland]]
*[[Foreign relations of Switzerland]]
*[[List of cities in Switzerland]]
*[[List of Swiss people]]
*[[Military of Switzerland]]
*[[Public holidays in Switzerland]]
*[[Swiss citizenship]]
*[[Transportation in Switzerland]]
*[[List of Swiss companies]]
*[[List of Switzerland-related topics]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Switzerland}}

;official Switzerland
*[http://www.admin.ch/ The Federal Authorities of the Swiss Confederation ]
**[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index.html Swiss Federal Statistical Office]
**[http://www.admin.ch/ch/e/schweiz/index.html Switzerland – a brief guide]

;history
*[http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Switzerland:_Primary_Documents History of Switzerland: Primary Documents]
*[http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/index.php Historical Dictionary of Switzerland] in German, French and Italian

;reference
*[http://map.search.ch/ online map]
*[http://www.directories.ch The official Telephone Directory]

;media
*[http://nzz.ch/eng/index.html English Window] - [[NZZ]] online

;tourism
*[http://www.myswitzerland.com Switzerland Tourism] - national tourism organization
*[http://www.theswissholidays.com The Swiss Holidays] - Your Swiss Trip Advisor
;pictures
*[http://www.schweizbilder.ch schweizbilder] - more than 10'000 pictures from switzerland

{{Switzerland}}
{{Europe}}

[[Category:Switzerland|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:French-speaking countries]]
[[Category:German-speaking countries]]
[[Category:Italian-speaking countries]]
[[Category:La Francophonie]]

[[af:Switserland]]
[[als:Schweiz]]
[[am:ስዊዘርላንድ]]
[[ang:Swissland]]
[[ar:سويسرا]]
[[arc:ܣܘܣܪܐ]]
[[an:Suiza]]
[[frp:Suisse]]
[[ast:Suiza]]
[[az:İsveçrə]]
[[id:Swiss]]
[[ms:Switzerland]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sūi-se]]
[[be:Швайцарыя]]
[[bs:Švicarska]]
[[bg:Швейцария]]
[[ca:Suïssa]]
[[cv:Швейцари]]
[[cs:Švýcarsko]]
[[cy:Y Swistir]]
[[da:Schweiz]]
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[[et:Šveits]]
[[el:Ελβετία]]
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[[eo:Svislando]]
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[[fur:Svuizare]]
[[ga:An Eilvéis]]
[[gd:An Eilbheis]]
[[gl:Suíza - Schweiz]]
[[ko:스위스]]
[[hy:Շվեյցարիա]]
[[hi:स्विट्स़रलैंड]]
[[hr:Švicarska]]
[[io:Suisia]]
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[[ia:Suissa]]
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[[it:Svizzera]]
[[he:שווייץ]]
[[ka:შვეიცარია]]
[[kw:Swistir]]
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[[ku:Swîsre]]
[[la:Helvetia]]
[[lv:Šveice]]
[[lb:Schwäiz]]
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[[nds:Swiez]]
[[pl:Szwajcaria]]
[[pt:Suíça]]
[[ro:Elveţia]]
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[[ru:Швейцария]]
[[sq:Zvicra]]
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[[tet:Suisa]]
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[[vi:Thụy Sĩ]]
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[[zh:瑞士]]

Portugal

2006-10-04T01:07:10Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{coor title dm|38|42|N|9|11|W|type:country}}
{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = ''República Portuguesa''
|conventional_long_name = Portuguese Republic
|common_name = Portugal
|image_flag = Flag of Portugal.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Portugal.png
|symbol_type=Coat of arms
| image_map = LocationPortugal.png
|national_anthem = [[A Portuguesa]]
|national_motto = ''none''
|official_languages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]1
|capital = [[Lisbon]]
|latd=38 |latm=42 |latNS=N |longd=9 |longm=11 |longEW=W |
|largest_city = [[Lisbon]]
|government_type = [[Parliamentary democracy]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Portugal|President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Portugal|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name1 = [[Aníbal Cavaco Silva]]
|leader_name2 = [[José Sócrates]]
|accessionEUdate = [[January 1]], [[1986]]
|area_rank = 110th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area= 92,391
|areami²= 35,672
|percent_water = 0.5%
|population_estimate = 10,605,870
|population_estimate_year = July 2006
|population_estimate_rank = 75th
|population_census = 10,148,259
|population_census_year = 2001
|population_density = 114
|population_densitymi² =295 
|population_density_rank = 87th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP = $203.4 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 41st
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $19,335
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 37th
|sovereignty_type = Formation
|sovereignty_note = 868
|established_event1 = Independence
|established_event2 = Recognized
|established_date1 = [[June 24]], [[1128]]
|established_date2 = [[October 5]], [[1143]]
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.904
|HDI_rank = 27th
|HDI_category = high
|currency = [[Euro]] (€)2
|currency_code = EUR
|country_code = PRT
|time_zone = [[Western European Time|WET]]3
|utc_offset =
|time_zone_DST = [[Western European Summer Time|WEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +1
|cctld = [[.pt]]<ref> the [[.eu]] domain is also used, as it is shared with other [[European Union]] member states.</ref>
|calling_code = 351
|footnotes = 1[[Mirandese language|Mirandese]] and [[Portuguese Sign Language]] are officially recognized and protected. 2Prior to 1999: [[Portuguese escudo]] 3[[Azores]]: [[UTC]]-1; UTC in [[European Summer Time|summer]]
}}

[[Image:Pt-gmr-castelo.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Castle of Guimarães]], known as the 'Cradle of Portugal'.]]

[[Image:Lisbon monument.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Padrão dos Descobrimentos]]'', [[Lisbon]]]]

'''Portugal''', officially the '''Portuguese Republic''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''República Portuguesa''; [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ʁɛ'publikɐ puɾtu'gezɐ]}}) is located in southwestern [[Europe]] on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], and is the westernmost country of mainland Europe. Portugal is bordered by [[Spain]] to the north and east and by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west and south. The [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] [[archipelago]]s of the [[Azores Islands|Azores]] and [[Madeira]], are also part of Portugal.

Portugal has witnessed a constant flow of different [[civilization]]s during the past 3,100 years, including [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]], [[Moors|Moorish]] and [[Pre-Roman Portugal|others]], who all made an imprint on the country's culture, history, language and ethnic make-up. During the 15th and 16th centuries, its vast [[Portuguese Empire|transcontinental empire]] made Portugal one of the world's major economic, political, and cultural powers. Portugal is a [[developed country]], member of the [[European Union]] since [[1986]] and member of the [[Eurozone]] since [[2001]].

==History==
{{Main|History of Portugal}}

[[Image:PortugueseFlag1095.svg|thumb|left|150px|The first Portuguese flag.]]

Portugal as an independent nation started on [[June 24]] [[1128]], when the Count of Portugal, [[Afonso Henriques]] proclaimed himself as king. In [[October 5]] [[1143]], [[Alfonso VII]], King of León and Castile, recognized the independence of the County of Portugal, with [[Afonso I of Portugal|Afonso I]] as its King. Afonso and his successors, aided by the military [[Christian monasticism|monastic Orders]], pushed southwards to wrest more land from the Moors, as Portugal started with about half its present area. In 1249 the Portuguese [[Reconquista]] ended when it reached the southern coast of the [[Algarve]].

In 1383, the King of Castile claimed the right to the throne of Portugal, as he was married to the daughter of the King of Portugal who had died with no male heir. The ensuing popular revolt led to the [[1383-1385 Crisis]]. A faction of petty noblemen and common folk, led by John of Aviz (later [[John I of Portugal|John I]]), seconded by general [[Nuno Álvares Pereira]], defeated the Castilians on the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]], the most celebrated battle in Portuguese history and still a symbol of the struggle for independence from neighbour Spain.

In 1373 Portugal made an [[Anglo-Portuguese Alliance|alliance with England]], probably the longest in History as it still stands today. In the following decades, Portugal spearheaded the exploration of the world and started the [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|Age of Discovery]]. Prince [[Henry the Navigator]], son of King John I, took on the role of main sponsor and patron of this endeavour.

In 1415, the [[Portuguese Empire]] began when a Portuguese fleet conquered [[Ceuta]], a rich Islamic trade centre in North [[Africa]]. There followed the first discoveries in the Atlantic: [[Madeira]] and the [[Azores]], which led to the first [[colonialism|colonization]] movements.

Throughout the 15th century, the Portuguese Explorers sailed down the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts along the way, while they were looking for the route to India, land of the spices, which were very coveted and precious in Europe. In 1498, [[Vasco da Gama]] finally arrived in India by sea, and economic prosperity ensued for Portugal, then with a population of one million, one-tenth the present number.

[[Image:Belem tower 002 cc.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Belém Tower]], in [[Lisbon]], symbol of the [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|Age of Discovery]].]]

In 1500, [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] landed on [[Brazil]] and claimed it for the Portuguese Crown. Ten years later, [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] conquered [[Goa]], in [[India]], [[Ormuz]] in the Persian Straight, and [[Malacca]] in modern day [[Malaysia]]. Thus, the Portuguese Empire had the dominion of the commerce in the [[Indian Ocean]] and in the South Atlantic.

The independence of Portugal was interrupted from 1580 to 1640. As King [[Sebastião of Portugal|Sebastian]] died in a battle in Morocco leaving no heir, [[Philip II of Spain]] claimed the throne and got it, becoming Philip I of Portugal. Although Portugal did not lose its formal indepence as a kingdom, the fact is that it was governed by same king that governed Spain, forming a Union of Kingdoms; but not for long: in 1640, [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]] spearheded a rebellious uprising backed by disgruntled Portuguese nobles, and was acclaimed King, starting the long-lasting [[House of Braganza|dynasty of Braganza]]. By this time, however, the Portuguese Empire was already under severe attack from the ambitions of other countries, namely Britain and the Netherlands, and Portugal entered a slow but inexorable decline until the 20th century, especially after the independence of Brazil in 1822, entering a [[History of Portugal (1834-1910)|period of political chaos and civil wars]].

In 1910, a republican revolution deposed the [[Portuguese monarchs|Portuguese monarchy]]. But the chaos continued and considerable economic problems aggravated by a disastrous [[Portugal in the Great War|military intervention in the First World War]] led to a [[28th May 1926 coup d'état|military coup d'état in 1926]]. This led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of [[António de Oliveira Salazar]]. In the early 1960s, independence movements in the colonies of [[Angola]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Portuguese Guinea]] originated the [[Portuguese Colonial War]], weakening the regime. In 1974, a bloodless left-wing [[Carnation Revolution|military coup]] led the way for the democratic regime of today. Membership in the [[European Union]] was achieved in 1986 and since then Portugal has been engaged in a process of convergence with its EU counterparts.

==Government and Politics==



{{morepolitics|country=Portugal}}

[[Image:Assembleia Republica Portugal 3.JPG|thumb|150px|left|[[Assembly of the Republic]]]]
Portugal is a democratic republic ruled by the [[Portuguese Constitution of 1976|Constitution of 1976]].

The four main organs of Portuguese politics are the [[List of Presidents of Portugal|President of the Republic]], the [[Assembly of the Republic]], the [[Government of Portugal|Government]], and the Courts. The Constitution grants the complete separation between the three powers: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial.

The President of the Republic, which is elected to a five year term by [[universal suffrage]], has a supervising, non-executive role. The Assembly of the Republic is a [[unicameral]] parliament composed of 230 deputies elected by universal suffrage for four year terms.

The Government is headed by the [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister]], who chooses his Council of Ministers, made of Ministers and their assistants, the Secretaries of State. The national and regional governments are dominated by two political parties, the [[Socialist Party (Portugal)|Socialist Party]] and the [[Social Democratic Party (Portugal)|Social Democratic Party]].

The [[Courts]] are organized into several categories, including judicial, administrative and fiscal. The [[Portuguese Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]s are the courts of last appeal. A nine-member [[Portuguese Constitutional Court|Constitutional Court]] oversees the constitutionality of legislation.

==Foreign Relations and Military==

{{main|Foreign relations of Portugal|Military of Portugal}}

[[Image:F16am-5z.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]] from the [[Portuguese Air Force]]]]

Portugal is a member of [[NATO]] since 1949, of the [[European Union]] since 1986, and of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] since 1996. There is a friendship alliance and [[dual citizenship]] treaty with Brazil. Portugal also has very good relations with the USA, UK, [[PRC|China]] (due to [[Macau]]), as well as the other [[European Union]] countries, and centuries-old diplomatic ties with [[Morocco]]{{fact}}.

Portugal's only international dispute concerns the municipality of [[Olivenza]], which Spain received in 1801 under the [[War of the Oranges|Treaty of Badajoz]] and has since administered, but is claimed back by Portugal since 1815 under the [[Congress of Vienna|Treaty of Vienna]]. Nevertheless, diplomatic relations between the two countries within the European Union have not been strained.

The Portuguese Armed Forces are divided into three branches: [[Portuguese Army|Army]], [[Portuguese Navy|Navy]], and [[Portuguese Air Force|Air Force]]. In the 20th century, Portugal engaged in two major military interventions: the [[Portugal in the Great War|First Great War]] and the [[Portuguese colonial war|Colonial war]] (1961-1974). Portugal has participated in several peacekeeping missions abroad, namely [[East Timor]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Kosovo]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Iraq]], and [[Lebanon]]. Draft service was abolished in 2003.

==Administrative Divisions==

{{main|Political divisions of Portugal}}

[[Image:Portugal NUTS II.svg|thumb|right|Map of [[Mainland Portugal]] and the two [[autonomous regions of Portugal]].]]

Portugal has an administrative structure based on 308 [[municipalities of Portugal|municipalities]] (Portuguese singular/plural: ''concelho/concelhos''), which are subdivided into more than 4,000 civil parishes (''freguesia/freguesias''). Municipalities are grouped for administrative purposes into superior units, the most significant being the classification since 1976, into either [[Mainland Portugal]] (''Portugal Continental'') or the [[autonomous regions of Portugal]] ([[Azores]] and [[Madeira]]).

==Geography and Climate==

{{main|Geography of Portugal|Conservation areas of Portugal}}

Continental Portugal is split in two by its main river, the [[Tagus]] (''Tejo''). Northern landscape is mountainous in the interior areas, with plateaus indented by river valleys that allow the development of relevant agricultural areas. The South area between the Tejo and the Algarve (the Alentejo) features mostly rolling plains with a climate somewhat warmer and drier than the cooler and rainier north. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo by mountains, enjoys a [[Mediterranean climate]] comparable with Morocco or Southern Spain.

The islands of the Azores and Madeira are located in the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. Some of these islands have had recent volcanic activity, as recently as 1957. Portugal's highest point is [[Mount Pico]] in [[Pico Island]], an ancient volcano, at 2,351 metres (7,713 ft).

Portugal's climate can be classified as [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]]. One of the warmest European countries, Yearly temperature averages in [[Mainland Portugal]] are 15 °C (55 °F) in the north and 18 °C (64 °F) in the south. Madeira and Azores have a narrower temperature range. Spring and Summer months are sunny, Autumn and Winter are rainy and windy.

==Economy==

{{main|Economy of Portugal}}

[[Image:Parquenaçoesestatua.JPG|thumb|right|Modern ''Parque das Nações'', where [[Expo'98]] took place.]]

Portugal joined the [[European Union]] in 1986 and started a process of modernization in a very stable environment. It achieved a healthy level of growth in terms of modernization. Successive governments have implemented various reforms and privatised many state-controlled firms and liberalised key areas of the economy. Portugal was one of the founding countries of the [[euro]] in 1999.

Major industries include [[oil refineries]], [[automotive]], [[cement]] production, [[pulp and paper industry]], [[textile]], [[footwear]], [[furniture]], and [[cork]] (the world leader productor). {{Inote|''Grande Enciclopédia Universal'', page 10543, "Portugal", paragraph 4}}Agriculture no longer represents most of the economy but the [[portuguese wines]], namely [[Port Wine]] and [[Madeira Wine]] are still exported worldwide. [[Tourism]] is also an important activity, specially in the [[Algarve]] (south) and [[Madeira Islands]] regions.

==Energy, Transportation and Communications==
{{main|Transportation in Portugal|Communications in Portugal}}
[[Image:tap.a330-200.cs-toe.arp.jpg|thumb|right|An [[Airbus A330]]-200 from national airline [[TAP Portugal]].]]
As of 2006, 55% of Portuguese energy production is made by coal and fuel powerplants.
The other 40% is produced by [[hydroelectric]]s and 5% by [[wind energy]]. The government is trying to invest in alternative types of energy exploring the wind and the sun.

Transportation was seen as a priority in the 1990s, pushed by the growing use of automobiles and industrialization. The country has a 68,732 km (42,708 mi) network of roads, of which 2,000 km (1,240 mi) in 44 [[motorway]]s.

The two principal metropolitan areas have subway systems: [[Lisbon Metro]] and [[Porto Metro]], each with more than 35 kilometres (22 mi) of lines. Construction of a high-speed [[TGV]] line connecting Porto and Lisbon, and Lisbon with Madrid will begin in 2008, replacing the current [[Pendolino]]s. A new Airport for Lisbon will be built at the same time in [[Ota, Portugal|Ota]].

Portugal has one of the highest [[mobile phone]] penetration rates in the [[world]]. As of March 2006, 30% of homes had high-speed internet services and 78% of companies had Internet access. Most Portuguese watch television through cable (June 2004: 73.6% of households).

The most important airports are in [[Portela Airport|Lisbon]], Faro, [[Francisco Sá Carneiro Airport|Oporto]], Funchal (Madeira), and Ponta Delgada (Azores).

==Demographics==

{{main|Demographics of Portugal}}

Portugal is a fairly homogeneous country linguistically and religiously. The native [[Portuguese people]] are ethnically a combination of pre-Roman [[Iberians|Iberian]] and [[Celts|Celtic]] tribes with some [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[Germanic tribes]].

In the 2001 Census, Portugal had a population of 10,356,117, of which 51.7% female. By the end of 2003, legal immigrants represented 4.2% of the population, and the largest communities were from: [[Ukraine]], [[Brazil]], [[Cape Verde]], and [[Angola]] but there were also immigrants from other parts of [[Latin America]] and [[Eastern Europe]]. The great majority of the Portuguese population is [[Catholic Church in Portugal|Roman Catholic]]. The biggest metropolitan areas are [[Lisbon]], [[Oporto]], [[Braga]], [[Coimbra]] and [[Aveiro]].

==Ethnic Minorities and persons with disabilities==

[[Anti-racism]] laws prohibit and penalize racial [[discrimination]] in [[housing]], [[business]], and [[health]] services. Approximately 500,000 legal immigrants live in the country, representing approximately 5% of the population. The country also has a resident [[Roma]] population of approximately 50,000 people.

Discrimination against persons with disabilities in employment, education, access to health care, or the provision of other [[state services]] is illegal. The law mandates access to public buildings and to newly-built private buildings for such persons.

==Education==
{{main|Education in Portugal}}
[[Image:Coimbra University Tower 2.jpg|right|thumb|The tower of the famous [[University of Coimbra]]]]

The education system of Portugal is divided into Pre-schooling (children until aged six), Basic Education (nine years in three stages and [[compulsory]]), [[Secondary Education]] (three years) and [[Higher Education]] ([[University]] and [[Polytechnic]]).

Portuguese Universities exist since 1290. They are divided into [[faculty (university)|faculties]]. The [[Bologna process]] is being adopted to become effective before 2011.

==Law==

{{main|Portuguese legal system}}

The [[Portuguese legal system]] is part of the civil law or continental family of legal systems. Up to the end of the 19th century [[France|French]] law was the main influence, but since then the major influence has been [[German legal system|German law]]. The main laws include the [[Constitution]] (1976, as amended), the [[Civil Code]] (1966, as amended) and the [[Penal Code]] (1982, as amended). Other relevant laws are the [[Commercial Code]] (1888, as amended) and the [[Civil Procedure Code]] (1961, as amended). Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence. This includes for example the legal system of Macau

==Culture==

{{main|Culture of Portugal}}

[[Image:F606re2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Manueline exterior of the [[Jerónimos Monastery]] in [[Lisbon]].]]

Portugal has developed a specific culture while being influenced by the various civilizations that crossed the Mediterranean and those that were discovered during the [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|Age of Discovery]].

[[Portuguese literature]] is one of the earliest Western literatures, developed through texts and songs. Until 1350, the [[Portuguese-Galician]] [[troubadour]]s spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula {{Inote|''Poesia e Prosa Medievais'', page 9, paragraph 4}}. [[Gil Vicente]] (c.1465 - c.1536) was one of the founders of both Portuguese and Spanish dramatic traditions. Adventurer and poet [[Luís de Camões]] (c.1524 - 1580) wrote the epic poem ''[[The Lusiads]]'', with [[Virgil]]'s [[Aeneid]] as main model. Modern Portuguese poetry is essentially rooted in neo-classic and contemporary styles, as execplified by [[Fernando Pessoa]] (1888 – 1935). Modern literature became internationally known through the works of, among others, [[Almeida Garrett]], [[Camilo Castelo Branco]], [[Eça de Queirós]], [[Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen]], [[António Lobo Antunes]], and [[1998]] [[Nobel Prize for literature|Nobel prize]] winner, [[José Saramago]].

[[Music of Portugal|Portuguese music]] encompasses a wide variety of genres. The most renowned is [[Fado]], a melancholic urban music, usually associated to the [[Portuguese guitar]] and to ''saudade'', the feeling of missing someone. Some of its most internationally notable performers are [[Amália Rodrigues]], [[Mariza]], [[Mísia]], and [[Madredeus]]. Apart from these acts, one of the most notable Portuguese acts outside, specially in [[Germany]], is the gothic-metal band [[Moonspell]], even though the genre is not very common in Portugal as it is on other European countries.
Despite fado and folk, Portuguese youngsters seem to enjoy rock, pop and other modern types of music like [[hip-hop tuga]]. The Portuguese organize every year several festivals like [[Zambujeira do Mar]], [[Paredes de Coura]], [[Rock in Rio Lisboa]], [[MTV Europe Music Awards]] in 2005 among many others.

Portuguese traditional architecture is distinct due to the variety of influences it features. Modern Portugal has given the world renowned architects [[Eduardo Souto de Moura]] and [[Álvaro Siza Vieira]]. Prominent international figures in visual arts include painters [[Vieira da Silva]] and [[Paula Rego]].

Since the 1990s, Portugal has increased the number of public cultural facitilies, in addition to the [[Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation]] established in 1956. These include the Belém Cultural Center in Lisbon, Serralves Foundation and the House of Music, both in [[Oporto]].

==Cuisine==
{{main|Portuguese cuisine|Portuguese wines}}
[[Image:Cozido.jpg|thumb|150px|''[[Cozido à portuguesa]]'']]
[[Image:Pasteis.jpg|thumb|150px|''[[Pastéis de nata]]'' (cream custards)]]
Portuguese cuisine is particularly diverse; various recipes of rice, potatoes, bread, meat, sea-food, and fish are the staple foods in the country. The Portuguese have a reputation for loving [[cod]] dishes (''[[bacalhau]]'' in Portuguese), for which it is said that there are 365 ways (one for each day of the year) of cooking it: [[Pastéis de Bacalhau]], [[Bacalhau à Brás]] and [[Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá]] are some of the most popular ones. Other fish recipes are popular like the grilled [[sardines]] and [[Caldeirada]]. The art of [[pastry]], having its origins in old and rich conventual pastry recipes, is very popular across the entire country. [[Desserts]] and [[cake]]s, such as Lisbon's [[Pastéis de Nata]] (best eaten with a strong [[coffee]]), Aveiro's [[Ovos-Moles]], and many other, are very appreciated. Portugal has its own adaptation of fast-food; one of the most popular is Porto's [[Francesinha]]. Other recipes include the [[Feijoada]], made with pieces of meat, sausages and beans served with white and dry rice, the [[Cozido à Portuguesa]], made with various kinds of meat, rice, potatoes and other vegetables, all boiled, and the [[Espetadas]].

Portuguese wines have been exported since Roman times. The Romans associated Portugal with [[Bacchus]], their god of Winery and Feast. Today the country is known by wine lovers, and its wines have won several international prizes. Many famous Portuguese wines are known as some of the world's best: [[Vinho Verde]], [[Vinho Alvarinho]], [[Vinho do Douro]], [[Vinho do Alentejo]], [[Vinho do Dão]], [[Vinho da Bairrada]] and the sweet: [[Port Wine]], [[Madeira wine]] and the [[Moscatel]]s of [[Setúbal]] and [[Favaios]] (Douro). Porto Wine is widely exported, followed by Vinho Verde. Exports of Vinho Verde are increasing rapidly, in response to the growing international demand.

==Sports and games==
{{main|Culture of Portugal#Sports and games}}
[[Image:Dragão selecção (7) by senalbuquerque.jpg|left|thumb|Luís Figo: Portugal captain.]]
[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is the most known, loved and practiced sport in Portugal. [[Luís Figo]] was one of the world's top players, but the legendary [[Eusébio]] is still a major symbol of Portuguese football.

The [[Portugal national football team|Portuguese national team]], or ''Selecção Nacional'', has won two [[FIFA World Youth Championship]]s and several other [[UEFA]] youth championships. After a third place in the [[1966 FIFA World Cup]], they finished in fourth place at the [[2006 FIFA World Cup]], losing to [[Germany]] in the third-place match. In addition, they finished second in [[2004 European Football Championship|Euro 2004]], their best ever result in this competition.

[[FC Porto]], [[SL Benfica]] and [[Sporting Clube de Portugal]] are the main clubs, often known as "''os três grandes''" ([[Big Three (Portugal)|"the big three"]]). While Benfica has played in the [[UEFA Champions League]] final (then the UEFA Champions Cup) seven times and has two titles, FC Porto has two titles from two finals (1987 and 2004) in that competition alongside two [[European/South American Cup|Intercontinental Cup]]s, a [[UEFA Super Cup]] (1987), and is the only Portuguese team to have won a [[UEFA Cup]] (2003). Although Benfica was the most popular and successful Portuguese club in Europe in the past, FC Porto's success in the European competitions has put them in the Top 10 World Clubs. By dominating the national competition since the late 1980s, FC Porto is the only Portuguese team to ever achieve five [[Portuguese Football Championship]] titles in a row (1995-1999). Sporting Clube de Portugal has won an European [[Cup Winners' Cup]].

The country has an ancient [[martial art]] known as "[[Jogo do Pau]]" (Stick Game), used for self-protection and for duels between young men in disputes over young women. Having its origin in the Middle Ages, Jogo do Pau uses wooden sticks as combat weapons. The modern variety uses smaller sticks approximately 0.60 to 0.80 m (2.0 to 2.6 ft).

Portugal is probably best known for its [[rink hockey]] team, with 15 world titles. The most important Portuguese hockey clubs in the European championships are [[SL Benfica]], [[FC Porto]], [[UD Oliveirense]] and [[Óquei de Barcelos]].

==Festivals and Holidays==
{{main|Culture of Portugal#Festivals and holidays}}
Festivals play a major role in Portugal's summers. Almost every city, town and village has its own festivals. The Summer festivities are very popular. Among these festivities are the June festivities dedicated to three saints known as ''Santos Populares'' (popular saints) that take place all over Portugal. Why the populace associated the saints with these pagan festivities is not known. The practice is possibly related to [[Roman Empire|Roman]] or local deities before Christianity spread into the region. The three saints are [[Anthony of Padua|Saint Anthony]], [[John the Baptist|Saint John]] and [[Saint Peter]]. A common denominator in these festivities generally includes the wine and ''água-pé'' (a watered kind of wine), traditional bread along with grilled [[sardine]]s, [[pimba]] music, traditional street dances, fireworks, religious [[procession]]s and celebration.

==Facts and figures==
*Official [[Calendar date|date format]]: YYYY/MM/DD (ex. 2006/09/08)
*Common [[Calendar date|date format]]: DD/MM/YYYY (ex. 06/09/2006), dates are written out as ''DD de MM de YYYY'' (ex. ''1 de Janeiro de 2005'')
*[[Decimal]] separator is a comma: 123,45
*Thousands are officially separated by a space — 10 000 — although the point is still used — 10.000.
*The currency is the [[euro]], abbreviation [[Euro sign|€]], divided into 100 ''cêntimos'' (main article: [[Linguistic issues concerning the euro#Portuguese]]).
*The euro sign is commonly placed either before or after the amount, with the separator either a comma or a point: 10,95 € - € 10,95 - € 10.95 - 10.95 €
*Postal code: 4+3 digits, separated by a hyphen (main article: [[Postal code#Portugal]]).

==See also==
{{Portugal topics}}

== Notes and References ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
* {{note|language}} Portuguese has been the official language of Portugal since 1296, replacing [[Classical Latin]], the official language since independence. Portuguese descends from [[Vulgar Latin]]. In Portugal, the local Vulgar Latin was known as Vulgar Language before it was renamed Portuguese. [[Mirandese]], a related [[Romance languages|Romance language]], is officially recognized in the municipality of [[Miranda do Douro]], and spoken in the villages of the municipality.

==References==
{{explain-inote}}
*Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano ''História de Portugal I - A Formação do Território'' QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-106-6)
*Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano ''História de Portugal II - A Afirmação do País'' QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-107-4)
*de Macedo, Newton & Saraiva, José Hermano ''História de Portugal III - A Epopeia dos Descobrimentos'' QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-108-2)
*de Macedo, Newton & Saraiva, José Hermano ''História de Portugal IV - Glória e Declínio do Império'' QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-109-0)
*Ribeiro, Ângelo & Saraiva, José Hermano ''História de Portugal V - A Restauração da Indepêndencia'' QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-110-4)
*Saraiva, José Hermano ''História de Portugal X - A Terceira República'' QuidNovi, 2004 (ISBN 989-554-115-5)
*Loução, Paulo Alexandre: ''Portugal, Terra de Mistérios'' Ésquilo, 2000 (third edition; ISBN 972-8605-04-8)
*Muñoz, Mauricio Pasto: ''Viriato, A Luta pela Liberdade'' Ésquilo, 2003 (third edition; ISBN 972-8605-23-4)
*''Grande Enciclopédia Universal'' Durclub, 2004
*''Constituição da República Portuguesa'', VI Revisão Constitucional, 2004
*''Programa do Movimento das Forças Armadas'', 1974[http://www.uc.pt/ihti/proj/docs25a/MFA1-1.HTM]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Portugal}}
{{portal}}
*[http://www.visitportugal.com/Cultures/en-US/default.html Official travel and tourism office website]
*[http://www.portugal.gov.pt/Portal/EN/ Official Portuguese Government website]
*[http://www.parlamento.pt/ingles/index.html Official Parliament website]
*[http://wikitravel.org/en/Portugal Wikitravel guide to Portugal]



 
{{EU_countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
{{Portuguese international ties}}


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[[Category:Portuguese-speaking countries]]
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[[Category:Seafaring nations]]

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Peru

2006-10-04T01:06:21Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Peru

{{dablink|For other senses of the name "Peru", see [[Peru (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox_Country
|native_name =''República del Perú''
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Peru
|common_name =Peru
|image_coat =Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
|image_flag =Flag of Peru (state).svg
|image_map =LocationPeru.png
|national_motto = "Firme y Feliz Por La Unión"
|national_anthem =''[[Somos libres, seámoslo siempre]]'' "We are free, let us remain so forever"
|official_languages =[[Spanish language|Spanish]]1
|capital =[[Lima]]
|latd=12 |latm=2.6 |latNS=S |longd=77 |longm=1.7 |longEW=W
|largest_city =[[Lima]]
|government_type =Constitutional republic
|leader_title1 =[[List of Presidents of Peru|President]]
|leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Peru|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name1 =[[Alan García Pérez]]
|leader_name2 = [[Jorge del Castillo]]
|area_rank =20th
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area=1,285,216
|areami²= 496,222 
|percent_water =8.80%
|population_estimate = 27,968,000 
|population_estimate_rank = 41st
|population_estimate_year =July 2005
|population_census =27,219,266
|population_census_year =2005
|population_density =22
|population_densitymi² =57 
|population_density_rank =183rd
|GDP_PPP = $167.21 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank =50th
|GDP_PPP_year=2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,983
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 97th
|sovereignty_type =[[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = from [[Spain]]
|established_event1 =Declared
|established_date1 = [[28 July]] [[1821]]
|HDI =0.762
|HDI_rank = 79th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category =medium
|currency = [[Peruvian nuevo sol|Nuevo Sol]]
|currency_code = PEN
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = -5
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.pe]]
|calling_code = 51
|footnotes = 1.) [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]] and other regional languages are also official in the areas where they are predominant.
}}

'''Peru''', officially the '''Republic of Peru''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Perú'' or ''República del Perú'' [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'pu.βli.ka del pe'ɾu]}}, [[Quechua language|Quechua]]: ''Piruw''), is a country in western [[South America]], bordering [[Ecuador]] and [[Colombia]] to the north, [[Brazil]] to the east, [[Bolivia]] to the south-east, [[Chile]] to the south, and the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the west.

In addition to being known as the cradle of the [[Inca empire]], Peru is the home of many [[amerindians|indigenous ethnic groups]]. It is therefore a country with major historical and cultural standing.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Peru]]''
{{confusing}}
{{copyedit}}

=== Ancient cultures ===
Archaeological evidence present in sites located in the caves of [[Piquimachay]] ([[Ayacucho]]), [[Chivateros]], [[Lauricocha Culture|Lauricocha]], [[Paijan]], and [[Toquepala]] indicate that hunters and gatherers inhabited Peru for about 20,000 years. Some of the oldest notable civilizations appeared ca. [[6000 B.C.]] in the coastal provinces of [[Chilca]] and [[Paracas]] and in the highlands province of [[Callejon de Huaylas]].

Over the following 3000 years inhabitants switched to cultivating land, as evidence from sites such as [[Kotosh]] and [[Huaca Prieta]] shows. Cultivation of plants such as [[Maize|corn]] and [[Gossypium|cotton]] (Gossypium Barbadense) began, as well as the domestication of animals. Inhabitants practiced domestic crafts such as [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]] and [[knitting]] of cotton and wool, [[Basket weaving|basketry]] and [[pottery]]. Some of the more advanced Andean civilizations that appeared in [[900 B.C.]] were:

*[[Caral]]
*[[Chavín culture|Chavin]] – the Peruvian Mother Culture, according to [[Julio C. Tello]]
*[[Paracas culture|Paracas]]
*[[Mochica Culture|Mochica]]
*[[Ica-Nazca culture|Nazca]]
*[[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco]]
*[[Huari Culture|Wari]]
*[[Chimú Culture|Chimu]]

These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of [[Tillage|cultivation]], gold and silver craft, [[pottery]], [[metallurgy]] and [[knitting]]. Around [[700 BCE]] they also developed systems of social organization that were the precursors of the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] civilization.

Minor civilizations on the edge of the eastern Andes that were largely assimilated into the Incan empire include:
*Malbecs
*Hu-Tyus
*Punos
*Mari-Tiu-Tie
*Olbraqeus

Not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the Incas as they expanded their empire, and many were openly hostile. The people of the [[Chachapoyas culture]] were such a case, but were eventually conquered and integrated into the Inca Empire.

=== The Incas ===
''Main article: [[Inca Empire]]''
[[Image:Representación_del_Zapa_Inca.jpg|thumb|200px|The Inca, ruler of the Tahuantinsuyo]]
The [[Inca Empire|Incas]] created the most vast and powerful empire of [[Pre-Columbian|pre-Columbian America]]. The Tahuantinsuyo -which is derived from [[Quechua]] for "The Four United Regions"- reached its greatest extension at the beginning of [[16th century|XVI century]]. It dominated a territory that included from north to south [[Ecuador]], part of [[Colombia]], the northern half of [[Chile]] and the north-east part of [[Argentina]]; and from west to east, from [[Bolivia]] to the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazonian forests]].

The empire originated from a tribe based in [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], which became the capital. Pachacuti was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]] state. His offspring later ruled an empire by both violent and peaceful conquest.

In [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], the royal city was created to resemble a [[puma]]; the head, the main royal structure, formed what is now known as Sacsayhuaman. The Empire's administrative, political and military center was located in [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]]. The empire was divided into four quarters: Chinchasuyo, Antisuyo, Contisuyo and Collasuyo.

[[Quechua]] was the official language, imposed on the citizens. It was the language of a tribe neighbouring the original tribe of the empire. Conquered populations—tribes, kingdoms, states and cities—were allowed to practice their own religions and lifestyles, but had to recognize Inca cultural practices as superior to their own. Inti, the sun god, was to be worshipped as one of the most important gods of the empire. His representation on earth was the "Inca", the Emperor.

The [[Inca Empire|Tahuantinsuyo]] was organized in “señoríos” (dominions) with a stratified society, in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by an economy based on the collective property of the land. In fact, the [[Inca Empire]] was conceived like an ambitious and audacious civilizing project, based on a mythical thought, in which the harmony of the relationships between the human being, nature and [[Inca mythology|Gods]] was truly essential.

Many strange and interesting customs were observed, for example the extravagant feast of Inti Raymi which gave thanks to Inti, and the young women who comprised the Virgins of the Sun, sacrificial virgins devoted to the sun god, Inti. The empire, being quite large, also had an impressive transportation system of roads to all points of the empire called the [[Inca road system|Inca Trail]], and [[chasquis]], message carriers who relayed information from anywhere in the empire to Cuzco.

From the European rationalist perspective, the [[Inca Empire]] has been seen like the utopia state. Nevertheless, this pragmatic interpretation tends to forget that the collision between two antithetic [[World view|Weltanschauungs]] had a destructive impact on the harmony of the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] [[World view|Weltanschauung]]. superiority, who took advantage of the Inca civil war triggered by two pretenders to the throne.

=== Colonial Peru (Spanish rule) ===
''Main article: [[Viceroyalty of Peru|The Viceroyalty of Peru]]''
[[Image:Pizarro_in_Lima.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Pizarro and his followers in Lima in 1535]]
[[Francisco Pizarro]] and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. In [[1531]], they arrived in the country, which they called Peru. (The forms ''Biru'', ''Pirú'', and ''Berú'' are also seen in early records.) According to [[Raul Porras Barrenechea]], Peru is not a [[Quechua|Quechuan]] nor [[Caribbean Spanish|Caribbean]] word, but [[Indo-Hispanic languages|Indo-Hispanic]] or hybrid.

At that moment, the [[Inca Empire]] was sunk in a five years civil war between two princes, [[Huáscar]] and [[Atahualpa]]. Taking advantage of this, [[Pizarro]] carried out a “[[coup d’état]]”. On [[November 16]], [[1532]], while the natives were in a celebration in [[Cajamarca (city)|Cajamarca]], the Spanish in a surprise move captured the [[Atahualpa|Inca Atahualpa]] during the [[Battle of Cajamarca]], causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huascar was killed, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the murder, executing him by strangulation.

For a period, [[Pizarro]] maintained the ostensible authority of the [[Inca]], recognizing [[Tupac Huallpa]] as the [[Inca]] after Atahualpa's death. But the conqueror’s abuses made this façade too obvious. Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily repressed. The situation was complicated by a power struggle between the [[Pizarro]] family and [[Diego de Almagro]]. A long civil war developed, from which Pizarros emerged victorious.

Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Its most significant milestone was the foundation of [[Lima]] in January, [[1535]], from which the political and administrative institutions were organized. The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these territories, led to the creation of a [[Audiencia|Real Audiencia]] (Royal Audience). In [[1542]], the Spanish created the [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Viceroyalty of New Castilla]], that shortly after would be called [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]. Nevertheless, the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] was not organized until the arrival of the Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] in [[1572]].

[[Francisco de Toledo|Toledo]] ended the indigenous state of [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]], executing the [[Tupac Amaru|Inca Tupac Amaru]]. He also seeked economic development through commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from argentiferous mines of [[Potosí]]. He exploited the [[Inca]] institution called “[[Mita (Inca)|mita]]”, that is mandatory public service, to put the native communities under a cruel economic enslavement.

The [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] became the richest and most powerful Spanish [[Viceroyalty]] of America in the [[XVIII century]]. The creation of the Viceroyalties of [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] and [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Rio de la Plata]] (at the expense of its territory), the duty exemptions that moved the commercial center from [[Lima]] to [[Caracas]] and [[Buenos Aires]], and the decrease of the mining and textile production determined the progressive decay of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]. These events created a favorable climate so that emancipating ideas developed between the [[Spanish Criollo peoples|Creoles]].

=== Wars of independence ===
[[Image:Smartin.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Don Jose de San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28, 1821.]]
''Main article: [[The Independence of Peru|Independence of Peru]]''

The economic crisis favored the indigenous rebellion from [[1780]] to [[1781]]. This rebellion was headed by [[Túpac Amaru II|Tupac Amaru II]]. At this time, the [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Napoleonic invasion]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the degradation of the Royal power took place. The Creole rebellion of [[Huánuco (Department of Peru)|Huánuco]] arose in [[1812]] and the rebellion of [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]] arose between [[1814]] and [[1816]]. These rebellions defended the liberal principles sanctioned by the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of Cadiz]] of [[1812]].

Supported by the power of the Creole oligarchy, the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] became the last redoubt of the Spanish dominion in [[South America]]. This Viceroyalty succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of [[Simón Bolívar|Simón Bolivar]] and [[José de San Martín|Jose de San Martin]]. [[José de San Martín|San Martin]], who had displaced the realists of Chile after the magnificent battle of the Andes, and who had disembarked in [[Paracas Peninsula|Paracas]] in [[1819]], proclaimed the independence of Peru in [[Lima (Department of Peru)|Lima]] on [[July 28]], [[1821]]. Three years later, the Spanish dominion was eliminated definitively after the battles of [[Battle of Junín|Junín]] and [[Battle of Ayacucho|Ayacucho]]. Its first elected president, however, wasn't in power until [[1827]].

=== Early republican period ===
The conflict of interests that faced different sectors of the Creole society and the particular ambitions of the [[caudillo]]s, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three [[civilian]]s: [[Manuel Pardo]], [[Nicolás de Piérola]] and [[Francisco García Calderón]] could accede to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of independent life.

After the splitting of the Alto Peru in [[1815]], the [[Bolivia|Republic of Bolivia]] was created. In [[1828]] Peru fought a war against [[Gran Colombia]] over control of [[Jaén]] and [[Maynas Province|Maynas]] territory called the [[Gran Colombia-Peru War]]. After the war, Peru retained control over the territory. This was its first international conflict as a new nation. In [[1837]], the [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]] was also created but, it was dissolved two years later due to the [[Chile]]an military intervention. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was lead by Andrés de Santa Cruz.

Between these years, political unrest continued, and the Army was an important political force. Peru initiated a period of political and economic stability in the middle of the [[XIX century]], under the General [[Ramón Castilla|Ramon Castilla]]'s caudillista hegemony. The complete depletion of the [[guano]], main foreign currency source, and the [[war of the Pacific]] with [[Chile]] because of the dispute of the [[saltpeter]] deposits of [[Tarapacá Region|Tarapacá]], caused the economic bankruptcy and activated the social and political agitation of the country.

In 1864, Spain organised a so-called naval science expedition, whose main objective was to recover control of its former colonies. Spain started occupying the Chinchas Islands and arresting Peruvian citizens in 1864, claiming that Spaniards were mistreated on Peruvian ground. After that, the Spaniard Fleet destroyed the Chilean harbour of Valparaiso. Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru signed an alliance to defeat Spain by the end of December 1865. The Spanish Fleet tried to destroy the harbour of Callao, but failed. Main naval battles fought were the [[Battle of Papudo]] in 1865, [[Battle of Abtao]] and [[Battle of Callao]] in 1866.

=== War and reconstruction ===
In 1879 Peru entered the [[War of the Pacific]] which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on April 5, 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the toss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region.

After the war, an extraordinary effort of reconstruction began. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. The [[Civilista Party|civilist movement]] headed by [[Nicolás de Piérola|Nicolas de Piérola]] opposed the [[Caudillo|military caudillismo]] that arose from the warlike defeat and the economic collapse. He arrived to power with the [[1895]] revolution. The reformist character of [[Nicolás de Piérola|Pierola]]’s dictatorship had continuity in [[Augusto B. Leguía|Augusto B. Leguía’s]].

During [[Augusto B. Leguía|Leguia’s]] government periods ([[1908]]-[[1912]] and [[1919]]-[[1930]], this last one was well-known as “the Oncenio” – The eleventh), the entrance of American capitals became general and the [[bourgeoisie]] was favored. This politics along with the increase of the foreign capital dependency, contributed to generate opposition focuses between the landowner oligarchy as much as the most progressive sectors of the Peruvian society.

In 1929 Peru and Chile signed a final peace treaty, [[Treaty of Ancon]] by which Tacna returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the rich provinces of Arica and Tarapaca, but kept certain rights to the port activities in Arica and decisions of what Chile can do on those territories.

After the world-wide crisis of [[1929]], numerous brief governments followed one another. The [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance|APRA party]] had the opportunity to cause system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not successful. By this time, it begins a sudden population growth and an urbanization increase. During World War II, Peru was the first South American nation to align with the United States and its allies against Germany and Japan.

Between these two periods of time, it should be underlined the constitution of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] (APRA). This is a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist headed by [[Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre|Victor Raul Haya de la Torre]] in [[1924]]. The [[communist party]] was created four years later and it was led by [[José Carlos Mariátegui|Jose C. Mariategui]].

=== Modern politics===
[[Image:Palace_of_Government.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Government Palace (Peru)|Casa de Pizarro]], Peru's Government Palace in [[Lima]]]]
General [[Manuel A. Odría]] lead a dictatorial military government that lasted for eight years ([[1948]]–[[1956]]). Inequitable land tenure (''latifundia'') and wide-spread social marginalization provided the impetus in the early 1960s for the emergence of Peru's armed left.

Meanwhile, the reformist attempt of [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry|Fernando Belaunde Terry’s]] first government failed to address the structural nature of social pathology, which continues to plague Peru. Belaunde's Government embraced numerous projects, including the ''Carretera Marginal de la Selva'', a highway linking Chiclayo on the Pacific coast with previously "isolated" northern regions of [[Amazonas Region|Amazonas]], [[San Martín Region|San Martín]] and [[Loreto]]. However, Belaunde was saddled with the popular perception that he was too close to foreign capital, moreover his economic decisions lead to the [[devaluation]] of the [[Sol (currency)|sol]], and generalized unrest - both in the countryside and in Lima.

In [[1968]], General [[Juan Velasco Alvarado|Juan Velasco Alvarado’s]] lead a coup d'etat replacing the Belaunde government. Under the title of "President of the Revolutionary Government", the nationalist and left-leaning tone of [[Juan Velasco Alvarado|Velasco]] was manifest by his government's promulgation of Peru's first substantial agrarian reform, which was aimed at stemming the tide of civil unrest, particularly in the Andes where land ownership patterns were profoundly inequitable. Velasco's government is credited with promoting peasant's rights, including the recognition of [[Quechua]] as a national language, communal land ownership, and populist social mobilization (SINAMOS).

Invariably, this gave rise to conflict with Peru's small elite, those with foreign capital interests and local [[oligarchs]]. Velasco's failing health, changed global conditions and poor planning resulted in a counter-reaction to Velasco's nationalist program. In 1975 General [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez|Francisco Morales Bermúdez’s]] lead a coup d’etat, replacing Velasco as President. Morales Bermúdez's regime was characterized by a return to elite oriented politics, which did little to stem civil unrest from a populace largely excluded from the social benefits of ''national'' citizenship.

Frustrated by their inability to "rule" Peru, the Peruvian Armed Forces were forced to call for elections. [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] was re-elected in [[1980]] to the Presidency. However, by the end of his term in [[1985]], Peru yet again faced a crisis that has gripped Peru for the past two decades: mounting [[external debt]] has stymied the actions of successive Peruvian governments. Moreover, Belaúnde was impotent in halting the progressive impoverishment of the vast majority of population, and incapable of halting the massive increase in [[Illegal drug trade|drug trafficking]] operations, or the [[insurgent]] revolts of the [[Shining Path]] (''Sendero Luminoso'') and the [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement|Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA).

With much optimism, the leader of Peru's APRA Party, [[Alan García|Alan Garcia]] was elected President in [[1985]]. After a promising start, the Peruvian economy was crippled by [[hyperinflation]], isolated from the international financial community, and was in the throes of a bloody civil-war pitting the [[Shining Path]] and the [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement|Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] against the State and its allies. In a climate of generalized chaos, terror and political violence, the electoral victory of [[Alberto Fujimori]] took place in [[1990]], when the virtually unknown University Rector narrowly defeated the famous Peruvian novelist and cultural icon [[Mario Vargas Llosa]]. Like his predecessor, García relinquished power leaving the country in a worse state than when he entered office.

Two years after he was elected; and in constant deadlocks with the Parliament, President [[Alberto Fujimori]] summarily closed [[Congress]] and convened a [[referendum]] for elaborating a new [[Peruvian Constitutional Crisis of 1992|Constitution (1992).]] Credited by sectors of Peruvian society and the international financial community with restoring [[macroeconomic]] "stability" to Peru after the turbulent Garcia years, Fujimori was widely criticized for what his opponents describe as an [[authoritarian]] regime, aided by the now imprisoned [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], the former head of SIN.

Following a controversial third "re-election", mounting corruption, wide-spread political violence and gross human rights violations, Fujimori was forced to call for early elections. After his party lost control of the Peruvian Parliament, he was forced to resign from the Presidency of Peru. Returning from the [[APEC]] summit in [[Brunei]], Fujimori requested political asylum in [[Japan]] on the grounds of his [[Japan|Japanese]] citizenship.

In the turmoil following Fujimori's precipitous fall from power, [[Valentín Paniagua]] was selected as the ''transitional'' President. Following a hotly contested election, [[Alejandro Toledo]] became President (2001-2006), narrowly defeating [[Alan García]] (2006).

In [[2006]], [[Alan García]] was once again elected President, defeating nationalist candidate [[Ollanta Humala]]. After his political defeat, Ollanta Humala has faced several trials for his involvement in the fight against [[Sendero Luminoso]] and his role as opposition leader has faded away. Former President Alberto Fujimori (currently in [[Chile]]) is awaiting extradition proceedings against him by the Peruvian government [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4994908.stm], while at the same time his political party [[Alliance for the Future (Peru)|Alliance for the Future]] gathered an important number of parliament members in the last elections. Former Presidents [[Alejandro Toledo]] and [[Valentín Paniagua]] are represented in congress with the [[Peru Possible]]-[[Center Front]] Alliance.
gotta represent

==Politics of Peru==
{{main|Politics of Peru}}
The formal politics of Peru takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Peru]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Congress of Peru|Congress]]. The [[Judiciary]] is supposed to be independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Subdivisions of Peru}}
[[Image:Peru Regions.png|thumb|right|350px|Regions of Peru]]
Peru is divided into 26 [[Regions of Peru|regions]] (''regiones''; sg. – ''región''), and subdivided into 180 [[Provinces of Peru|provinces]], and 1,747 [[Districts of Peru|districts]].

The [[Lima Region]] is located in the central coast of the country, is unique in that it doesn't belong to any of the other regions. The city of [[Lima]] is located in this province, which is also known as ''Lima Metropolitana'' ([[Lima Metropolitan Area]]).

Until [[2002]], Peru was divided into 24 [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]] (''departamentos'') plus one constitutional province (Callao), and many people still use this term when referring to today's regions, although it is now obsolete.

<table><td><ol>
<li> [[Amazonas Region|Amazonas]] ([[Chachapoyas, Peru|Chachapoyas]])
<li> [[Ancash Region|Ancash]] ([[Huaraz]])
<li> [[Apurímac Region|Apurímac]] ([[Abancay]])
<li> [[Arequipa Region|Arequipa]] ([[Arequipa]])
<li> [[Ayacucho Region|Ayacucho]] ([[Ayacucho]])
<li> [[Cajamarca Region|Cajamarca]] ([[Cajamarca (city)|Cajamarca]])
<li> [[Callao Region|Callao]] ([[Callao]])
<li> [[Cusco Region|Cusco]] ([[Cusco]])
<li> [[Huancavelica Region|Huancavelica]] ([[Huancavelica]])
<li> [[Huánuco Region|Huánuco]] ([[Huánuco]])
<li> [[Ica Region|Ica]] ([[Ica (city)|Ica]])
<li> [[Junín Region|Junín]] ([[Huancayo]])
<li> [[La Libertad Region|La Libertad]] ([[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]])
</td></ol><td><ol start=14>
<li> [[Lambayeque Region|Lambayeque]] ([[Chiclayo]])
<li> [[Lima Region|Lima]] ([[Huacho]])
<li> [[Lima Metropolitan Area|Lima Metropolitana]] ([[Lima]])
<li> [[Loreto Region|Loreto]] ([[Iquitos]])
<li> [[Madre de Dios Region|Madre de Dios]] ([[Puerto Maldonado]])
<li> [[Moquegua Region|Moquegua]] ([[Moquegua]])
<li> [[Pasco Region|Pasco]] ([[Cerro de Pasco]])
<li> [[Piura Region|Piura]] ([[Piura]])
<li> [[Puno Region|Puno]] ([[Puno]])
<li> [[San Martín Region|San Martín]] ([[Moyobamba]])
<li> [[Tacna Region|Tacna]] ([[Tacna]])
<li> [[Tumbes Region|Tumbes]] ([[Tumbes]])
<li> [[Ucayali Region|Ucayali]] ([[Pucallpa]])
</td></ol></table>
{{clear}}
==Cities==
[[Image:Peru-CIA_WFB_Map.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of Peru]]
The primary urban centers include:
*[[Lima]] (the capital and the primary economic and cultural center)
*[[Arequipa]]
*[[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]]
*[[Chiclayo]]
*[[Callao]] (the largest port)
*[[Cusco]] (the modern capital of the ancient [[Inca Empire]])
*[[Piura]]
*[[Tacna]]
*[[Ica]]
*[[Puno]]
*[[Chimbote]]
*[[Huancayo]]
*[[Huacho]]
*[[Cajamarca (city)|Cajamarca]]
*[[Pucallpa]]
*[[Iquitos]]
*[[Yurimaguas]]
*[[Tarapoto]]
*[[Moyobamba]]

==Geography==
[[Image:Peru_meander1.jpg|180px|thumb|left|Peruvian [[Amazon Basin]]]]
{{main|Geography of Peru}}

At 1,285,220 [[square kilometre|km²]][https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html] (496,193 [[square miles|mi²]]) , Peru is the world's 20th-largest country (after [[Mongolia]]). It is comparable in size to [[Chad]], and is nearly twice the size of the US state of [[Texas]].

Peru's territory has an area of 1,285,216 km². It is bordered by [[Ecuador]] and [[Colombia]] on the north, [[Brazil]] and [[Bolivia]] to the east, and finally [[Chile]] and [[Bolivia]] to the south. To the west lies the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Its population has more than 27 million inhabitants that speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]], with others bilingual in [[Quechua]] or [[Aymara language|Aymara]] and other native languages.

Eastern Peru consists mostly of the moist tropical jungles of the [[Amazon Rainforest]], the largest on Earth. In the southeast along the border with [[Bolivia]] lies [[Lake Titicaca]] — the highest navigable lake in the world. The [[Altiplano]] plateau is a dry basin located along the slopes of the Andes in southeastern Peru. Along the border with Chile, the [[Atacama Desert]] is the driest place on the planet.
[[Image:ValleColca_lou.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Colca Canyon|Valle del Colca]], [[Arequipa]]]]

The [[Pacific Ocean|Peruvian Sea]] is home to a large amount and variety of fish life. The [[Sechura Desert]] is located in northwestern Peru along the Pacific coastline.

The main rivers of Peru include the [[Ucayali]], [[Marañón River (Peru)|Marañón]], [[Amazon River|Amazon]] (which is formed by the confluence of the Marañón and the Ucayali), [[Içá|Putumayo]], [[Pastaza]], [[Napo River|Napo]], [[Jurua]], and the [[Purus]].
[[Image:Punta Sal, Peru.jpg|thumb|left|180px|View of the beach in [[Contralmirante Villar Province|Punta Sal]]]]

===Physiographic regions===

When the Spanish arrived, they divided Peru (because of political reasons) into three main regions: the [[Coastal]] region, which is bounded by the [[Pacific Ocean]]; the [[Highland (geography)|Highlands]], that is located in the [[Andes|Andean Heights]], and the [[Jungle]], which is located on the [[Amazon Basin|Amazonian Jungle]]. These words are still used in Peru. However, [[Javier Pulgar Vidal]], a geographer who studied the biogeographic reality of the Peruvian territory for a long time, proposed the creation of eight Natural Regions. In 1941, the III General Assembly of the [[Pan-American Institute of Geography and History]] approved this motion.
[[Image:Peruvian_Physiographic_Regions_1.png|thumbnail|320px|Peruvian Physiographic Regions]]

These eight Peruvian regions are:
* [[Chala|Chala or Coast]] (a subtropical desert in the central and southern coast and a changing tropical ''savanna'' in the north coast)
* [[Yunga]] (consisting of subtropical arid fertile valleyes)
* [[Quechua (Geography)|Quechua]]
* [[Suni (Geography)|Suni or Jalca]]
* [[Puna (Geography)|Puna]]
* [[Janca]]
* [[Rupa-Rupa|Rupa - Rupa or High Jungle]]
* [[Omagua|Omagua or Low Jungle]]

=== Natural and cultural Peruvian heritage ===
The [[Constitution of Peru|Peruvian constitution]] of 1993 recognised the [[natural resources]] and [[ecosystem]] variety of its country as a heritage. In 1900, the National System of Natural Areas that are protected by the Peruvian Government (SINANPE) was created. This entity depends on the National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA). They also created a map of protection and preservation of historical – cultural heritage and nature.

This map has 49 natural areas (13% of the country surface) that are preserved by the [[Peruvian Government|Government]]: 8 national parks, 8 national reservations, 6 national sanctuaries, 3 historical sanctuaries, 4 national forests, 6 protection forests, 1 communal reservation, 2 hunting enclosed lands and 11 reserved zones.

National Parks are places where the wild [[flora]] and [[fauna]] are protected and preserved. Natural resources exploitation and human settlements are forbidden.

==== National parks ====
* [[Cutervo National Park|Cutervo]] It is the oldest Peruvian National Park. It was created in 1961 and is located in [[Cajamarca (Department of Peru)|Cajamarca]]. There are many caves in this park such as San Andres Cave, where the [[Oilbird|guacharo]] lives - a bird in danger of extinction.
* [[Tingo Maria National Park|Tingo Maria]] It is located in [[Huánuco (Department of Peru)|Huanuco]]. Its principal attraction is the [[Cueva de las Lechuzas]] ([[Burrowing Owl|Owl]] Cave) where the [[Oilbird|guacharos]] live.
* [[Manú National Park|Manu]] It is located in [[Madre de Dios (Department of Peru)|Madre de Dios]] and [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]]. Its the most representative area of the Amazon biodiversity. In 1977, [[UNESCO]] recognised it as a Reserve of Biosphere and in 1987, it was pronounced as Natural Heritage of Humanity.
* [[Huascarán National Park|Huascaran]] It is located in [[Ancash (Department of Peru)|Ancash]]. It was also pronounced as Natural Heritage of Humanity and recognised as Reserve of Biosphere Core. The highest snow-covered mountain is here (which name is also [[Huascarán|Huascaran]] and has 6 768 m.). This park is the habitat of the [[Puya Raimondi (Puya raimondii)|Puya Raimondi]], [[Puma|the American panther or puma]], the [[jaguar]], the [[llama]], the [[guanaco]], the [[Marsh Deer]], the [[Brazilian Tapir|Peruvian tapir]], the [[Peruvian Piedtail (Phlogophilus harterti)|Peruvian Piedtail]], a [[hummingbird]] species, and many kinds of [[Peruvian duck (Netta erythropthalma)|duck]]s.
* [[Cerros de Amotape National Park|Cerros de Amotape]] (Amotape Hills) It is located in [[Piura (Department of Peru)|Piura]] and [[Tumbes (Department of Peru)|Tumbes]]. It has a lot of dry-climate forests and some endangered species like the [[American Crocodile]].
* [[Rio Abiseo National Park|Abiseo River]] It is located in [[San Martín (Department of Peru)|San Martín]]. [[UNESCO]] pronounced it as Natural and Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
* [[Yanachaga–Chemillen National Park|Yanachaga-Chemillen]] It is located in [[Pasco (Department of Peru)|Pasco]]. It is a preservation zone of tropical forests that are at 4 800 m. The [[Palcazu river]], [[Huancabamba river]], [[Pozuzo river]] and their affluents flows through this National Park. Some native communities still live in here. There are also some archaeological fields from the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] and [[Yanesha]] cultures.
* [[Bahuaja-Sonene National Park|Bahuaja-Sonene]] It is located in [[Madre de Dios (Department of Peru)|Madre de Dios]]. It has the tropical forests of [[Puno (Department of Peru)|Puno]], the [[Heath Pampas]] and a part from the Reservation Zone [[Tambopata-Candamo]].

==== National reservations, protection and spreading areas of wild fauna ====
[[Image:Lomas_de_Lachay2.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The National Reservation of the Lomas de Lachay, Lima, Peru.]]
* [[Pampa Galeras – Barbara D’Achille]] It is located in [[Ayacucho (Department of Peru)|Ayacucho]] and it is the habitat of the [[vicuña]].
* [[Junin National Reservation|Junin]] It is located in [[Junín (Department of Peru)|Junin]]. One of its main purposes is to protect the ecosystem and biodiversity of [[Junin lake]].
* [[Paracas National Reservation|Paracas]] It is located in [[Ica (Department of Peru)|Ica]]. Its main purpose is to preserve the sea ecosystem and protect the historical - cultural heritage.
* [[Lomas de Lachay|Lachay]] It is located in [[Lima (Department of Peru)|Lima]]. Its main purpose is to restore and protect the ecosystem of the [[Lomas de Lachay]] (Lachay hills).
* [[Pacaya–Samiria National Reservation|Pacaya-Samiria]] It is located in [[Loreto (Department of Peru)|Loreto]]. Its main purpose is to preserve the ecosystems of the [[Omagua]] Region and to promote the indigenous towns.
* [[Salinas and Aguada Blanca National Reservation|Salinas and Aguada Blanca]] They are located in [[Arequipa (Department of Peru)|Arequipa]] and [[Moquegua (Department of Peru)|Moquegua]]. Their main purpose is to preserve the [[flora]], [[fauna]] and the landscapes formation.
* [[Calipuy National Reservation|Calipuy]] It is located in [[La Libertad (Department of Peru)|La Libertad]]. Its main purpose is to protect the [[guanaco]]’s populations.
* [[Titicaca National Reservation|Titicaca]] It is located in [[Puno (Department of Peru)|Puno]]. Its main purpose is to preserve the ecosystems and landscapes of the [[Lake Titicaca|Titicaca lake]].

==== National sanctuaries ====
* [[Huayllay National Sanctuary|Huayllay]]
* [[Calipuy National Sanctuary|Calipuy]]
* [[Lagunas de Mejia National Sanctuary|Lagunas de Mejia]] (The Mejia lagoon)
* [[Ampay National Sanctuary|Ampay]]
* [[Manglares de Tumbes National Sanctuary|Manglares de Tumbes]] (The mangrove swamps of Tumbes)
* [[Manglares de Vice]], found in the Sechura Province of [[Piura Region]] (smaller than the Manglares de Tumbes National Sanctuary, are the southernmost mangrove swamp system in the Pacific region)
* [[Tabacones Namballe National Sanctuary|Tabacones Namballe]]

==== Historical sanctuaries ====
* [[Chacramarca Historical Sanctuary|Chacramarca]]
* [[Pampas de Ayacucho Historical Sanctuary|Pampas de Ayacucho]] (The Pampas of Ayacucho)
* [[Machu Picchu]]

==== National forests ====
* [[Biabo Cordillera Azul National Forest|Biabo Cordillera Azul]] (The Biabo Blue Mountain Range)
* [[Mariscal Cáceres National Forest|Mariscal Cáceres]]
* [[Pastaza–Morona–Marañon National Forest|Pastaza–Morona–Marañon]]
* [[Alexander von Humboldt National Forest|Alexander von Humboldt]]

==== Protection forests ====
* [[Aledaño Bocatoma del Canal Nuevo Imperial Protection Forest|Aledaño Bocatoma del Canal Nuevo Imperial]] (Aledaño Intake of the New Imperial Canal)
* [[Puquio Santa Rosa Protection Forest|Puquio Santa Rosa]] (Santa Rosa spring of water)
* [[Pui–Pui Protection Forest|Pui–Pui]]
* [[San Matías–San Carlos Protection Forest|San Matías–San Carlos]]
* [[Alto Mayo Protection Forest|Alto Mayo]]
* [[Pagaibamba Protection Forest|Pagaibamba]]

==== Communal reservation ====
* [[Yanesha Communal Reservation|Yanesha]]

==== Hunting enclosed lands ====
* [[Sunchubamba Hunting enclosed land|Sunchubamba]]
* [[El Angolo Hunting enclosed land|El Angolo]]

==== Reserved zones ====
* [[Manú National Park|Manu]]
* [[Laquipampa Reserved Zone|Laquipampa]]
* [[Apurimac Reserved Zone|Apurimac]]
* [[Pantanos de Villa Reserved Zone|Pantanos de Villa]] (The swamps of Villa)
* [[Tambopata–Candamo Reserved Zone|Tambopata–Candamo]]
* [[Batán Grande Reserved Zone|Batán Grande]]
* [[Algarrobal El Moro Reserved Zone|Algarrobal El Moro]] (El Moro carob tree groved)
* [[Tumbes Reserved Zone|Tumbes]]
* [[Güeppí Reserved Zone|Güeppí]]
* [[Chancaybaños Reserved Zone|Chancaybaños]]
* [[Aymuru Lupaca Reserved Zone|Aymuru Lupaca]]

==Economy==
{{unsourced}}
{{main|Economy of Peru}}
[[Image:Sanisidro_12.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Buildings in [[San Isidro District|San Isidro]], [[Lima]]'s largest financial district]]
[[Image:La_Punta_aerial_view.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Aerial view of [[La Punta]], [[Callao]]]]

Since [[1990]], the Peruvian economy has undergone considerable free market reforms, from legalizing parts of the [[informal sector]] to significant privatizations in the mining, electric/power, and telecommunications industries. Aided by foreign investment and cooperation between the former [[Fujimori]] administration, the [[IMF]], and the [[World Bank]], [[economic growth]] was rapid in [[1994]]–[[1997|97]] and inflation was kept low.

Still, some say that Peru's reforms have not led to sustained economic progress. According to the [[Center for Economic and Policy Research]], a U.S.-based [[think tank]], "Income per person in Peru – the most basic economic measure of living standards – is currently about the same as it was 25 years ago. This is a remarkable long-term economic failure."[http://www.cepr.net/publications/peru_background_2006_04.pdf]

In [[1998]], [[El Niño]]'s impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in [[Asia]], and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth. [[1999]] was another lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of [[El Niño]] and the [[Asian financial crisis]] having an avdersely effect on the market economy. Lima did manage to complete negotiations for an Extended Fund Facility with the [[IMF]] in June [[1999]], although it subsequently had to renegotiate the targets. Pressure on spending grew in the run-up to the [[2000]] elections.


Growth up to the year [[2005]] has been realized by construction, investment, domestic demand and exports. Peru's economy has become one of the most liberal market economies in Latin America. The country's petroleum, natural gas and power industries are expected to increase due to relatively high domestic and foreign influx of capital in the tourism, agriculture, mining and construction sectors since 1995.

In April 2006, Peru signed a [[trade agreement]] with the United States (known as the [[Peru Trade Promotion Agreement]], becoming the first country in the Andean Community of Nations ([[Andean Community of Nations|Comunidad Andina de Naciones]],[[Andean Community of Nations|CAN]]) to sign it.[http://ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2006/April/United_States_Peru_Sign_Trade_Promotion_Agreement.html] As of June 2006, Peru's Congress has already approved the agreement and the pact awaits approval by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]]. Peru is currently negotiating [[trade agreements]] with [[Chile]], [[Mexico]], [[Singapore]] and [[India]].

Peru has free trade agreements with the [[Andean Community]], which is composed of [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]] and [[Venezuela]]. It also has free trade agreements with many of the countries in [[Mercosur]] as well as [[Thailand]], and during the recent [[APEC]] summit, Peru declared intentions to sign free trade agreements with [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[South Korea]].

Peru is also seeking a free trade agreement with the [[European Union]]. These negotiations will greatly expand the markets in which the Peruvian products are traded. Peru has potential to export agricultural products, textiles, clothing, shoes, petroleum derivatives, natural gas, minerals, as well as fish and seafood products, tourism, and manufactured goods.

In 2005 Peruvian exports were worth US$ 17.1 billion (an increase of 34.6% compared to 2004) and it is expected to grow 35% for this year reaching US$ 23.5 billion at the end of 2006. The markets of Peru have grown in all sectors (energy, construction, commerce, fishing, manufacturing, tourism, etc) in 2005 growing over 6.67% (one the fastest growth rates of market economies in South America) and it is projected to grow 7% for 2006.

For the next five years (until 2010) the Peruvian government has registered more than US$ 10 billion in private investment (both domestic and foreign) in the mining and energy sectors, as well as investments of US$ 15 billion in other sectors such as industry, commerce, tourism, seafood and agriculture, which will keep the economy growing annually at levels of 5% or more.

[[Poverty]] in Peru is high, with a [[poverty threshold]] level of 48% of the total population. However, the level is reducing slowly and it is expected to diminish to 20% of the population within 10 years.

==Military==
{{main|Military of Peru}}
<table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="margin-left:1em">
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd>'''Peruvian Armed Forces'''
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center> [[Image:DivisionBlindada.jpg]] ''[[T-55]] Tanks from the Armored Division''
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military manpower'''
<tr><td>Military age<td>18 years of age for non-compulsory military service (1999)
<tr><td>Availability<td>males age 18-49: 6,647,874 females age 18-49: 6,544,408 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Fit for military service<td>males age 18-49: 4,938,417 females age 18-49: 5,278,511 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Reaching military age annually<td>males: 277,105 females: 269,799 (2005 est.)
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military expenditures'''
<tr><td>Dollar figure<td> $829.3 million (2003 est.)
<tr><td>Percent of GDP<td> 1.4% (2003 est.)
</table>

'''The Military branches of the Republic of Peru are as follows:'''

* ''Ejército del Perú'' ([[Peruvian Army]])
* ''Marina de Guerra del Perú'' ([[Peruvian Navy]], includes Naval Air, Naval Infantry and Coast Guard)
* ''Fuerza Aérea del Perú'' ([[Peruvian Air Force]])

The '''Peruvian Armed Forces''' is the second most powerful millitary in [[South America]][http://americas.irc-online.org/am/165]. In the last few years social stability has brought the army back to its original objectives - control of the national sovereignty on the sea, land and air, as well as to protect the people, economy, and infrastructure from threats from both inside and outside of the country.

===Peruvian Army===
{{Main|Peruvian Army}}

Headquartered in [[Lima]], it has a strength of 75 thousand troops divided in four military regions with headquarters in [[Piura]], [[Lima]], [[Arequipa]] and [[Iquitos]]. Every military region assigned several [[brigade]]s of which there are different types, including [[infantry]], [[cavalry]] and [[armored]]. There are also several groups and battalions which operate independently.

The equipment of the Peruvian Army includes several types of [[tank]]s ([[T-55]] and [[AMX-13]]),[[armoured personnel carrier]]s ([[M-113]], [[UR-416]]), [[artillery]] ([[2A18|D30 howitzer]], [[M101 howitzer]], [[M109 howitzer]], [[M114 howitzer]]), antiaircraft systems ([[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]]) and helicopters ([[Mil Mi-2]], [[Mil Mi-17]]).

===[[Peruvian Navy]]===
{{Main|Peruvian Navy}}
[[Image:BAP Grau Unitas 45-04.jpg|left|thumb|[[De Zeven Provinciën class cruiser|De Ruyter class]] [[cruiser]] ''[[BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81)|Almirante Grau]]'' (CLM 81)'']]

Peruvian Navy (Marina de Guerra del Perú) is organized in five naval zones headquartered in [[Piura]], [[Lima]], [[Arequipa]], [[Iquitos]] and [[Pucallpa]]. It has a strength of around 3 troopers divided between the Pacific Operations and the Amazon Operations General Commands and the Coast Guard.

The Pacific fleet [[flagship]] is the cruiser [[BAP Grumete Grau (CLM-81)]], named for the XIX-century Peruvian Admiral which fought in the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879-1883). The fleet also includes 8 [[Lupo class frigate|''Lupo'' class]] frigates (two of which were built in Peru during the 80's), 1 [[Daring class destroyer (1949)|''Daring'' class]] destroyer, 6 [[PR-72P class corvette|''PR-72'' class]] corvettes, 4 ''Terrebonne Parish'' class landing ships, 6 [[Type 209 submarine|''Type 209/1200'']] class German-built diesel submarines (the biggest submarine force in South America), as well as patrol vessels, tankers and cargo ships.

Peruvian Navy has also a [[naval aviation]] force, several naval infantry battalions and special forces units.

===[[Peruvian Air Force]]===
{{Main|Peruvian Air Force}}

On [[May 20]], [[1929]], the aviation divisions of the Peruvian army and navy were merged into the Peruvian Aviation Corps (CAP, Cuerpo de Aviación del Peru). In [[1950]], the corps was reorganized again and became the Peruvian Air Force (FAP, Fuerza Aerea del Peru).

The Peruvian Air Force (Fuerza Aerea del Peru - FAP) is divided into 6 wing areas, headquartered in Piura, [[Chiclayo]], Lima, Arequipa, [[Rioja]] and Iquitos. With a strength of 35 thousand troops, the FAP counts in its arsenal [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MiG-29]], [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25|MiG-25]], [[Dassault-Breguet Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000]], [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage M5]] and [[Sukhoi Su-17|SU-22]] supersonic aircraft.

Also, it has [[Sukhoi Su-25|SU-25]] antitank aircraft, as well as [[Mil Mi-24|MI-24]] antitank helicopters, [[Mil Mi-8|MI-8]], [[Mil Mi-17|MI-17]] transport helicopters, and [[Aermacchi]], [[Cessna T-37|A-37 Cessna]] and SuperTucano [[Embraer]] subsonic aircraft.

In [[1995]], the FAP took part in the [[Cenepa War]] against [[Ecuador]] covering operations by the army and navy. After the war, the FAP began acquiring new material, especially [[MiG-29]] fighters and [[Su-25]] attack fighters which are, along with the [[Mirage 2000]] fighters, the main combat elements of the FAP.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Peru}}

=== Cultural diversity ===
[[Image:Procesión del Señor de los Milagros.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''El Señor de los Milagros'' [[Procession]]]]
[[Image:Urarina_shaman_B_Dean.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Urarina [[shaman]], 1988]]
Peru is one of only four [[Latin America]]n countries whom have large population segments consisting of indigenous [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]], with around 46% of all Peruvians classified as such. Most are found in the southern [[Andes]], though a large portion are also to be found in the southern and central coast due to the massive internal labor migration from remote Andean regions to coastal cities, especially [[Lima]], during the past four decades. While the Andes are the "heart" of indigenous Peru, the country's [[Amazonia]]n region represents nearly 60% of Peruvian national territory and harbours a wide variety of indigenous groups that is rivaled only by its [[biodiversity]]. These tropical lowlands, however, are sparesly populated.

The two major [[indigenous]] or [[ethnic]] groups are the various [[Quechua|Quechua-speaking]] populations, followed closely by the [[Aymara|Aymará]] which are mostly found in the extreme southern Andes. A large proportion of the indigenous population who live in the Andean highlands still speak [[Quechua]] or [[Aymara]], and have vibrant cultural traditions, some which were part of the [[Inca Empire]], arguably the most advanced agricultural civilisation in the world. Literally dozens of indigenous cultures are also dispersed throughout the country beyond the [[Andes Mountains]] and in the [[Amazon basin]].

Peru's [[Amazonia]]n region is rapidly becoming urbanized. Important urban centers include [[Iquitos]], [[Nauta]], [[Puerto Maldonado]], [[Pucallpa]] and [[Yurimaguas]]. This region is home to numerous [[indigenous people]]s, though they do not not constitute a large proportion of the total population. Examples of indigenous peoples residing in eastern Peru include the [[Shipibo]], [[Urarina]], [[Cocama]], and [[Aguaruna]], to name just a few.

At the national level, [[mestizos]] constitute the largest segment of the population at 49% of the total population. The term denotes people of mixed [[European]] and [[Amerindian]] ancestry (around 75% of the total mestizo group) and als the ethnical mix of those groups with [[African]] inherithence such as [[zambos]], [[mulatos]] and [[cuarterons]] (around 25% of the mestizo group). Most of the [[mestizos]] are urban dwellers and can be seen in coastal cities of the north coast, where they show stronger Spanish inheritance, the central coast like [[Lima Region]], [[Cajamarca Region]], and also [[Arequipa Region]].

Around 17% of the population is classified as "[[White (people)|White]]", and they are for the most part [[Criollo (people)|criollos]], the relatively unmixed descendants of the colonial [[Spaniards|Spanish]] colonizers. The descendants of [[Italians|Italian]] are also important in the coast, and there are ather small group of [[Germans|German]], [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavs]] and other Europeans descendants whom represent a relatively smaller proportion of the overall White population. The majority of the White ''creoles'' live in the largest cities, concentrated usually the northern coastal citites of [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], [[Chiclayo]], [[Piura]], and of course the capital [[Lima]]. The only southern city with a significant White population is [[Arequipa]]. To the north [[Cajamarca (city)|Cajamarca]] and [[San Martin]] are also cities with a strong spanish influence.

The remaining 3% of the poluation is of black [[African]] ancestry The Afro-Peruvians, a legacy of Peru's history as an importer of slaves during the colonial period. Today also [[mulatto]]s (mixed African and European) and [[zambos]] (mixed African and Amerindian) constitude an important part of the population as well, especially in [[Piura]], [[Tumbes]], [[Lambayeque]], [[Lima]] and [[Ica]] regions.

The Afro-Peruvian population is concentrated mostly in coastal cities south of Lima, such as that of those found in the [[Ica Region]], in cities like [[Cañete Province|Cañete]], [[Chincha]], [[Ica]], [[Nazca]] and [[Acari]] in the border with the [[Arequipa Region]]. Other large but poorley promoted segement of Afro-Peruvian presence is in the ''Yunga'' regions (west and just below the Andean chain of northern Peru) where sugarcane, lemon and mango production is still of importance, that is [[Piura]] and [[Lambayeque]]. Important communities are found all over the [[Morropon Province]], such as in the city of [[Chulucanas]], [[Yapatera]] town of the same city, and other even smaller farming towns like [[Pabur]] or [[La Matanza]] and even in the mountainous region near [[Canchaque]]. Further south, the colonial city of [[Zaña]] or farming towns like [[Capote]] and [[Tuman]] in [[Lambayeque]] are also important regions with Afro-Peruvian presence.

There is also a large presence of Asians (mainly Chinese and also Japanese) that constitute a total of 3% of the population, the largest of any [[Latin American]] nation.

Peru has the second largest population of people of Japanese descent in Latin America after [[Brazil]] and the largest population of Cantonese descent in [[Latin America]]. Historic communities inhabited by people of Chinese descent are found throughout the Peruvian [[upper Amazon]], including cities such as [[Yurimaguas]], [[Nauta]], [[Iquitos]] and the north central coast (Lambayeque and Trujillo). In contrast to the Japanese community in Peru, the [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] appear to have intermarried much more since they came to work in the [[rice fields]] during the Viceroyalty and to replace the [[African]] slaves, during the abolition of slavery itself.

=== Language ===
Peru's official languages are [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and, according to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, [[Amerindian languages]] such as [[Quechua]], [[Aymara]] and other such indigenous languages in areas where they predominate. Today, Spanish is spoken by some 80.3% of the population, and is the language used by government, media, and in education and formal commerce. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken.

According to official sources, the use of Spanish has increased while the knowledge and use of indigenous languages has decreased considerably during the last four decades ([[1960]]-[[2000]]). At the beginning of the [[1960s]] some 39% of the total Peruvian population were registered as speakers of indigenous languages, but by the [[1990s]] the figures show a considerable decline in the use of Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages, when only 28% is registered as Quechua-speaking (16% of whom are reported to be bilingual in Spanish) and Spanish-speakers increased to 72%.

For 2005, government figures place Spanish as being spoken by 80.3% of the population, but among Amerindian languages another decrease is registered. Of the indigenous languages, Quechua remains the most spoken, and even today is used by some 16.2% of the total Peruvian population, or a third of Peru's total indigenous population. The number of Aymara-speakers and other indigenous languages is placed at 3%, and foreign languages 0.2%.

The drastic decline in use and knowledge of indigenous languages is largely attributed to the recent demographic factors. The urbanization and assimilation of Peru's Amerindian plurality into the Hispanic-mestizo culture, as well as the new socioeconomic factors associated with class structure have given privilege to the use of Spanish at the expense of the Amerindian languages which were spoken by the majority of the population less than a century ago.

The major obstacle to a more widespread use of the Quechua language is the fact that multiple dialects of this language exist. The variations among these Quechua dialects are as pronounced as - for example - the differences between Spanish, Portuguese and Italian. Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, was originally and remains essentially an oral language. Therefore, there is a lack of modern media which use it: for example books, newspapers, software, magazines, technical journals, etc. However, non-governmental organizations as well as state sponsored groups are involved in projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language; for instance, in late 2005 a superb version of Don Quixote was presented in Quechua.

The percentage of native speakers of Quechua who are illiterate has been decreasing lately, as 86.87% of the Peruvian population is literate. More encouraging, nationwide literacy rate of youth aged 15 to 24 years is 96.8%.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Peru}}
Like its rich national history, the popular culture of contemporary Peru is the result of a fusion of cultures, constituted primarily from the cultural legacy of the indigenous groups, and Spanish and African colonists. This cultural mixture has been further enriched by the contributions of other immigrant groups, particularly Asians and non-Iberian Europeans.

===Peruvian artistic creation===
[[Image:Pachacamac_Temple.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Pachacamac Temple. The photo was taken in 2002.]]
[[Image:Panoramic Cusco from Sacsayhuaman.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Panoramic View of Cusco from Sacsayhuaman]]
Peruvian cultural patrimony has its origin in the magnificent [[Peruvian Ancient Cultures|Andean civilizations]], which flourished before the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spaniards’ arrival]]. Peru's [[List of archaeological world treasures (major and minor)|archaeological treasures]] are evidence of many significant achievements comparable to those of other great civilizations.

Some of the first artistic manifestations reflecting more advanced intellectual and technological evolution are artifacts found in the deposits of [[Chavín de Huantar|Chavín de Huántar]] and [[Cupisnique]]. These are examples of symbolic and religious art including [[gold and silver work]], [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]],[[architecture]] and [[Sculptured stones|stone sculpture]]. These sites date as far back as the [[14th century BC]] and [[11th century BC]], respectively.

Between the [[8th century BC]] and [[1st century]] AD, the [[Paracas]] Cavernas and [[Paracas]] Necrópolis cultures developed. The [[Paracas]] Cavernas culture produced beautiful polychrome ceramics with religious representations as well as monochrome ceramics. The [[Paracas]] Necrópolis culture is characterized by its delicate fabrics in complex styles.

In the period between the [[3rd century BC]] and [[7th century]] AD, the urban culture known as [[Moche|Mochica]] developed in [[Lambayeque (Department of Peru)|Lambayeque]]. [[Nazca culture]] also developed in this period in the valley of [[río Grande (Peru)|río Grande]], in [[Ica (Department of Peru)|Ica]]. In [[Moche|Mochica culture]], the magnificent [[Huaca del Sol]] and [[Huaca de la Luna]] and the [[Huaca Rajada]] of [[Sipán|Sipan]] are worth mentioning. They are notable for their [[Terrace (agriculture)|cultivation in terraces]] and [[hydraulic engineering]], as well as some of the most original ceramics, textiles, and pictorial and sculptural art in the Andean world.

The [[Huari Culture|Wari civilization]], which flourished between the [[8th century]] and [[12th century]] AD, was based in [[Ayacucho (Department of Peru)|Ayacucho]]. This civilization may have been the first Andean culture to define a planned urban layout. Such a concept was later expanded to zones like [[Pachacamac]], [[Cajamarquilla]], [[Wari Willca]] and others. [[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco culture]] developed by the borders of [[lake Titicaca]] between the [[9th century]] and [[13th century]] AD. This culture introduced monumental lithic architecture and sculpture as well as military urbanism. These advances in [[architecture]] were possible thanks to the discovery of [[bronze]] for making tools.

The [[Chimú Culture|Chimú town]] improvement on the principle of urban architecture. This civilization built the city of [[Chan Chan]] in the valley of the [[Moche river]], in [[La Libertad (Department of Peru)|La Libertad]], between the [[14th century|14th]] and [[15th century|15th]] centuries AD. The [[Chimú Culture|chimú]] were also skillful [[goldsmith]]s and made remarkable works of [[hydraulic engineering]].

The [[Inca Empire|Inca Civilization]] incorporated, and in many cases perfected, many of the cultural techniques of the civilizations that preceded it. There are many examples of original Inca architecture and engineering that have outlasted later Spanish colonial structures. In this regard, the rich Inca heritage can still be observed in cities like [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], the fortress of [[Sacsayhuamán|Sacsahuaman]], Ollantaytambo, [[Machu Picchu]], and extensive stone roads that united [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]] with the four cardinal points of the [[Inca Empire]]. The Spanish conquest displaced, not without violence, native artistic practices and concepts, although in many cases, it made for enriching hybrids of traditional Spanish and native art.

===Architecture===
[[Image:Cathedral_aqp.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa]] (1621-1656)]]
Peruvian architecture is a conjunction of European styles exposed to the influence of indigenous imagery. Two of the most well-known examples of the [[Renaissance|Renaissance period]] are [[Cathedral of Cusco|the Cathedral]] and the [[church of Santa Clara of Cuzco]]. After this period, the mestization reached its richer expression in the [[Baroque]]. Some examples of this [[Baroque|Baroque period]] are the [[Convento de San Francisco|convent of San Francisco de Lima]], the [[Iglesia de la Compañía|church of the Compañía]] and the facade of the [[National University of San Antonio Abad in Cuzco|University of Cuzco]] and, overall, the churches of [[Iglesía de San Agustín|San Agustín]] and [[Iglesía de Santa Rosa|Santa Rosa]] of [[Arequipa (Department of Peru)|Arequipa]], its more beautiful exponents.

The [[The Independence of Peru|independence war]] left a creative emptiness that [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassicism]] of French inspiration could just fill. The [[20th century|XX century]] is characterized by the [[eclecticism]], to which the [[Functionalism (architecture)|constructive functionalism]] has been against. The most considerable example is [[San Martin Plaza]] in [[Lima]].

===Sculpture and painting===
[[Image:Lima_Cathedral.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Cathedral of Lima]] facing the Plaza de Armas]]
Peruvian [[sculpture]] and [[painting]] began to define themselves from the [[Studio|ateliers]] founded by [[monk]]s, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian [[Contemporary Baroque Art|Baroque School]]. In this background, the stalls of the [[Lima Cathedral|Cathedral]] choir, the fountain of the [[Plaza de Armas|Main Square]] of [[Lima District|Lima]] and great part of the colonial production were registered.

The artistic crossbreeding was more intense in the pictorial creation. This crossbreeding gathered, without ambages, the native heritage and materialized, without incisions, the historical continuity. You are able to see this in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, from [[Diego de Mora]], or in the linens of the Italians [[Mateo Pérez de Alesio]] and [[Angelino Medoro]], the Spanish [[Francisco Bejarano]] and [[J. de Illescas]] and the Creole [[J. Rodriguez]].

During [[17th century|XVII]] and [[18th century|XVIII centuries]], the [[Baroque]] also dominated the field of [[plastic arts]]. In the [[19th century|XIX century]], the [[French Rococo and Neoclassicism|French neoclassic]] and [[Romanticism|romantic currents]] found his best representatives in [[L. Montero]], the [[Ignacio Merino]] and [[Francisco Masias]].

In the [[20th century|XX century]], the establishment of the [[Escuela de Bellas Artes de Lima|Fine Arts School of Lima]] ([[1919]]) printed the decisive impulse on Peruvian sculpture and painting. In [[sculpture]], we have some remarkable names like [[Luis Agurto]], [[L. Valdettaro]], [[Joaquin Roca Rey]], [[J. Piqueras]], [[Alberto Guzmán]], [[Victor Delfín]] and [[F. Sánchez]]. Between the painters, we have [[Daniel Hernández (painter)|Daniel Hernández]], [[R. Grau]], [[Cesar Quispez Asin]] and [[Jose Sabogal]]. [[Jose Sabogal|Sabogal]] headed the indigenous movement. This movemevent was one of the props of the Peruvian contemporary painting, which more representative names are [[Fernando de Szyszlo]], [[Alberto Davila (Peru)|Alberto Davila]], [[Armando Villegas]], [[Sabino Springett]], [[Victor Humareda]], [[M. A. Cuadros]], [[Angel Chavez]], [[Milner Cajahuaringa]], [[Arturo Kubotta]], [[Venancio Shinki]], [[Alberto Quintanilla]], [[G. Chavez]], [[Tilsa Tsuchiya]], [[David Herskowitz]], [[Oscar Allain]] and [[Carlos Revilla]].

===Literature===
In the history of [[Peruvian literature]], the oral [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] tradition and the technical resources of writing (incorporated by Spaniards) converge in each other. From the beginning, it was possible to gather and to express the different and complex cultural realities that entered in conflict immediately after [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|the conquest]].

[[Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]] literature was transmitted in an oral way. It was linked to religious, agrarian, affectionate, festive or funeral [[rite]]s. These characteristics became into certain forms of [[poetry]] or [[prose]], as it is observed in the first historical [[chronicle]]s of the [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]] ([[Comentarios Reales de los Incas|Los comentarios reales]]) or [[Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala]] ([[la Nueva crónica y buen gobierno]]) and in the identification between the [[yaravi|yaravies]] and the patriotic and romantic poetry. One of the most outstanding exponents here was [[Mariano Melgar]].

Later, the [[hegemony]] of Creole [[oligarchy]] in the Peruvian society favored the abandonment of the indigenous forms in favor of the European ones. Then the [[Neoclassicism|neoclassicists]] arose like [[Manuel Asencio y Segura]] and [[Felipe Pardo y Aliaga]]. They held themselves almost until the end of the [[19th century|XIX century]]. At this time, the [[Romanticism|romantic current]] was imposed thanked to the works of [[Carlos Augusto Salaverry]] and [[Jose Arnaldo Marquez]], between others. The general crisis derived from the [[War of the Pacific]] gave place to the [[Modernism]]. Its best exponents were [[Jose Santos Chocano]] and [[José María Eguren]]. After them, the [[Avant-garde|Avant-gardism]] current popped up strongly impelled by the magazines: [[Colónida magazine|Colónida]] and [[Amauta magazine|Amauta]]. [[Amauta magazine]] was founded in [[1926]] by [[José Carlos Mariátegui]]. Between its collaborators was [[César Vallejo]]. Meanwhile the [[Indigenous current]] in [[poetry]] was reborn thanked to [[Luis Fabio Xammar]]. The [[Avant-garde|avant-gardist]] writers were fragmenting in different [[Lyric poetry|lyric]] proposals like the ones of [[Xavier Abril]], [[Alberto Hidalgo]], [[Sebastian Salazar Bondy]], [[Carlos Germán Belli]], and others. They were opening new and diverse expressive fields.

In the [[19th century|XIX century]], Peruvian prose passed from the [[costumbrismo current]]: [[Manuel Ascensio Segura]] and [[Ricardo Palma]], to the [[Modernist literature|Modernism current]]: [[Manuel González Prada]] and [[José Santos Chocano]]. In the [[20th century|XX century]], the indigenous prose reached some of its culminating moments with [[Ciro Alegría]] and [[José María Arguedas]], [[Sebastián Salazar Bondy]], [[Manuel Scorza]] and [[Julio Ramón Ribeyro]]. Without leaving the [[Realism (arts)|realistic]] approach, [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] and [[Alfredo Bryce|Alfredo Bryce Echenique]] incorporated new [[narrative]] techniques. Some of the most remarkable names in [[poetry]] are [[Emilio Adolfo Westphalen]], [[Jorge Eduardo Eielson]], [[Carlos Germán Belli]], [[Antonio Cisneros]], [[Wáshington Delgado]], [[Marco Martos]], [[Carmen Ollé]] and in [[narrative]]: [[Miguel Gutiérrez]], [[Gregorio Martínez]], [[Alonso Cueto]], [[Guillermo Niño de Guzmán]], between others.

===Art===
[[Image:La_Compania_Cusco_.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Iglesia de la Compañía'', [[Cuzco]]]]
[[Image:Sacsayhuaman (pixinn.net).jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Inca stonghold of [[Sacsayhuaman]] near [[Cuzco]]]]
The art of Peru was shaped by the melting between [[Culture of Spain|Spanish]] and [[Amerindian]] cultures. During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the major centers of artistic expression in [[The Americas]], where [[Pre-Inca cultures]], such as [[Chavin culture|Chavín]], [[Moche]], [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], [[Huari]] (Wari), [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], [[Chimu]], and [[Tiahuanaco]] developed high-quality [[pottery]], [[textile]]s, [[jewelry]], and [[sculpture]].

Drawing upon earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these crafts but made even more impressive achievements in architecture. The mountain town of [[Machu Picchu]] and the buildings at [[Cuzco]] are excellent examples of [[Tahuantinsuyu|Inca]] architectural design.

During the colonial period, Spanish [[baroque]] fused with the rich Inca tradition to produce [[mestizo]] art. The Cuzco school of largely anonymous Indian artists followed the Spanish baroque tradition with influence from the Italian, Flemish, and French schools.

Painter Francisco Fierro made a distinctive contribution to this school with his portrayals of typical events, manners, and customs of mid-19th-century Peru. Francisco Lazo, forerunner of the indigenous school of painters, also achieved fame for his portraits.

Peru has passed early 20th century brought "indigenismo," expressed in a new awareness of Indian culture. Since [[World War II]], Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals such as [[Cesar Vallejo]] and [[José María Arguedas]] have participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends.

In the decade after [[1932]], the "indigenous school" of painting headed by [[José Sabogal]] dominated the cultural scene in Peru. A subsequent reaction among Peruvian artists led to the beginning of modern Peruvian painting. Sabogal's resignation as director of the National School of Arts in [[1943]] coincided with the return of several Peruvian painters from Europe who revitalised "universal" and international styles of painting in Peru.

During the 1960s, Fernando de Szyszlo, an internationally recognised Peruvian artist, became the main advocate for abstract painting and pushed Peruvian art toward modernism. Peru remains an art-producing center with painters such as Fernando de Szyslo, Gerardo Chavez, José Tola, Alberto Quintanilla, and José Carlos Ramos, along with sculptor Victor Delfín, gaining international stature.

Promising young artists continue to develop now that Peru's economy allows more promotion of the arts.

===Crafts===

Between the most spread crafts in Peru, there are the [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]] (either artistic or utilitarian), the [[Wood carving|carving]], the [[silversmith]]s' work, the leather [[Repoussé and chasing|repoussage]], the straw [[weaving]], and of course the [[textile]] work, emphasizing the colorful [[weaving]]s made of [[alpaca]]'s wool.

==Folkloric expressions==
[[Peruvian Ancient Cultures|Pre-Hispanic Peruvian Andean cultures]] were especially bound to musical artistic expressions. In fact, almost all agricultural communal works were accompanied by [[music]] and [[singing]]s (generically called in [[Quechua|Quechua language]]: [[taqui]]). The ethnic diversity of ancient Peru made diverse [[tradition]]s and customs coexist across the time. They were strongly determinants of the rich development of Post-Hispanic Peruvian folklore.

At the present time, different musical expressions ([[dance]]s and [[song]]s), folkloric festivities (religious or not), [[arts and crafts]], [[gastronomy]] and other activities (that varies according to different regions) are important expressions of Peruvian and Latin-American cultural heritage.

===Music===
{{main|Music of Peru}}
[[Image:PICT0001.JPG|thumb|150px|left|The ''Quena'', a Peruvian wind instrument typical of Andean music]]
Like its geography (28 of 32 world climates), its cuisine and its various ethnicities, Peruvian music is very diverse. Much of Peru's music is derived from [[Andean]], Andalusian [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[African]] roots. Modern Peruvian music and Amazon influenced music is also common in Peru.

The Pre-Hispanic Andean musicians mostly used [[wind instrument]]s such as the [[quena]], the [[pinkillo]], the [[erke]], the [[Siku (panpipe)|antara]] or [[Siku (panpipe)|siku]] (also called [[panpipe|zampoña]]), the [[pututo]] or [[pututo|pototo]], etc. They also used diverse [[Membranophone|membranophone instruments]] such as the [[tinya]] (hand drum), the [[wankar]], instrument of big dimensions, the [[pomatinya]]s - made of [[puma]]'s skin-, and the [[runatinya]]s - made of human's skin-. The [[runatinya]] was also used in battles.

With the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish conquest]], new [[Musical instrument|instruments]] arrived like [[harp]]s, [[guitar]]s, [[vihuela]]s, [[bandurria]]s, [[lute]]s, etc. Due to these [[Musical instrument|instruments]], new crossbred Andean instruments appeared. These crossbred instruments are still in used nowadays: the [[Andean harp]] and the [[charango]]. The [[sounding box]] of the [[charango]] is made of the [[armadillo]]'s shell.

The cultural crossbreeding did not limit itself to the contact of [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] and [[Neolithic Europe|European cultures]]. The [[Slavery|African slaves]]' contribution was demonstrated in [[rhythm]]s and [[percussion instrument]]s. This influence is visible in musical forms like [[festejo]], [[zamacueca]], etc.

Coastal music is rooted in the haciendas and the ''callejones'' of cities such as Lima, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Tumbes and Ica.
It involves a creole version of the [[Spanish guitar]] and the famous Peruvian instrument [[Cajon]] drum.

====Andean Peruvian music====
Andean music is rooted in the traditional ''native music'', the [[Spanish orquestal]] and [[European Church]] musicals. The southern Andean region is famous for the [[Huayno]], a mestizo happy chant that involves [[Charango]] guitar, beautifully-toned lamenting vocals and sometimes the [[Harp|Andean Harp]]. The Huayno Ayacuchano is probably the most famous of its styles since it is played on creole and even Spanish guitar, adding to its feel an even a more soulful and romantic expression.

[[Cusco]], [[Puno]] and [[Apurimac]] have a more pure native feel to their music whom even incorporate violins. Famous tuens are the [[Muliza]] and [[Valicha]] ''Cusqueña'', whom are also very romantic and melancolic. Other Andean rhythms involve a fusion of European Church music and Huaynos such as the known song "[[El Cóndor Pasa]]", a traditional Peruvian song popularized in the United States by the folk duo [[Simon & Garfunkel]] and featured in the movie
"[[The Graduate]]". The original composition consists of a Yaraví, followed by an Inca "[[Pasacalle]]" and a Huayno fugue, three traditional Inca rhythms.

[[Jorge Bravo de Rueda]]'s famous "Vírgenes del Sol" was popularized in 1951 by [[Yma Súmac]].

[[Arequipa]] is region that probably that resembles best the mixing of the [[Spain|Spanish]] and the [[Andean]] cultures. [[Arequipa]] city is the proud creator of the famous [[Yaraví]], a melancholy style that involves Spanish or ''creole'' guitar that is sung [[A Capella]]. It has been popularized to the rest of the Andean communities after the [[Pacific War]] in honor of
[[Mariano Melgar]] (local hero). The music evokes to the solitude of the mountains, the miners and the Andean farmer. It is a mix of gypsy [[Zards]] and [[Huayno]].

The [[Huaylas]] of the central Andes, by contrast, is a cheery, rhythmic style mostly popular around [[Cerro de Pasco]], [[Huanuco]] [[Huaraz]].

====Coastal Peruvian music====
[[Image:1316535-1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Aerial view of Costa Verde, [[Miraflores District|Miraflores]]]]
The coast has a different feel to its music than its Andean counterpart. It is called ''musica criolla'' and its rooted in a fusion that evokes to traditional [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Gypsy]] (Roma People) and [[African]] influence.

It combines traditional European rhythms, strong gypsy emotional flair deriving from [[Flamenco]] and eastern European [[Zards]], and also [[African]] based chorus and percussion.

This mixture is rooted especially in the central and northern coast, and has provided the wide range of dance and musical styles we hear today. [[Lima]] for example, is most well known musical style [[Peruvian Waltz]] known elsewhere as ''valse peruano'' and ''valsesito peruano''. The rhythm involves a singer, a chorus, creole [[Guitarr]], Peruvian [[Cajón]] and spoon players.
It is widely popularised by the great ''Chabuca Granda'', who is considered the most important composer of ''coastal creole'' music, with such songs as ''La Flor de La Canela'', ''Fina Estampa'', and ''José Antonio''. Other commonly known ''Peruvian valse'' tunes are ''Alma Corazon y Vida'', ''Odiame'', ''Propiedad Privada'', ''El Plebeyo'', and ''El Rosario de Mi Madre'', some of these songs are twisted to Bolero or Salsa version by [[Caribbean]] artists.

Afro Peruvian music is commonly performed by duos of creole guitars, the [[Cajon]], [[Cajita]] and the peculiar [[Quijada de Burro]].

Examples of these dances are the ''Festejo'' and ''Landó'', which are common to ''Afro-Peruvian'' communities of the southern coast. [[Susana Baca]] is a renowned singer and composer of Afro Peruvian music. She won a Grammy award in 2002 for her album ''Lamento Negro''.

The [[Marinera]] or [[Zamacueca]] of the central coast [[Lima]] is the current National Dance of Peru, named in honour of the marines who fought against the Chilean military in the [[War of the Pacific]]. Among Peruvians of the coast, it is considered as traditional and representative as the [[Tango]] is to [[Argentina]]. The dance evokes from a mixture of Eastern European [[gypsy]], flamenco and the elegance of the [[Peruvian Paso Horse]]. Many people take classes and look forward to the annual Marinera Festival held in the city of [[Trujillo]] every July, with thousands in attendance.

In the northern coast especially [[Lambayeque]] and [[Piura]], the people are most famous for the [[Cumananas]] and the [[Tondero]] dance. These are the oldest and most mestizo expressions of Peruvian music and derive from the encountered mixture of the [[Gypsies]], [[Africans]] slaves and migrant [[Andean]] cultures.

Peruvian coastal music has in its rich structure the participation of a local instrument called the cajón. This instrument has been mistaken very frequently with an Spanish origin (the cajon was introduced in Spain around the 1980's by Paco de Lucia, but the truth is that the cajon has been utilized in Peruvian music since the colonial times. Although it might also have ''gypsy'' influence it has been prooved that the instrument is strictly of Peruvian origin since it is rooted in the Tondero, the Zamacueca, the Resabalosa and Peruvian coastal creole rhythms before any other expressions.

===Dances===
[[Image:Marinera_Norteña.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Marinera Norteña, the most representative dance in the coast of Peru.]]
Between Dances of Native origin, there are the ones that are related to the [[Agriculture|agricultural work]], [[hunting]] and [[war]]. Some [[Choreography|choreographies]] show certain Christian influence. Two of the most representative Andean dances are the [[kashua]] and the [[Huayno|wayno]] or [[huayno]]. The [[kashua]] has a communal character and it is usually danced in groups in the country or open spaces. The [[huayno]] is a "salon ball". It is danced in couples and in closed spaces. The [[yaravi]] and the [[triste (Peruvian dance)|triste]] have also an Andean origin. They are usually songs with very emotional lyrics.

Dances of Ritual character are the [[achocallo]], the [[pinkillada]], the [[llamerada]] (dance that imitates the [[llama]]'s walk), the [[kullawada]] (the [[spinner (occupation)|spinners]]' dance), etc. Between the Hunting dances, it can be mentioned: the [[llipi-puli]] and [[choq'elas]]. They are dances from the [[altiplano]] related to the [[vicuña]]'s hunting.

There are some Dances of War like the [[Chiringuano (Dance)|chiriguano]] that has an [[Aymara]] origin; the [[chatripuli]] that satirizes the Spanish Realist soldiers, and the [[kenakenas]] that is about the Chilean soldiers who occupied Peru during the [[War of the Pacific]] ([[1879]]). There are also [[Carnival]] Dances. A [[Carnival]] is a western holiday that, in the Peruvian [[Andes]], is celebrated simultaneously with the [[Agriculture|crops time]]. Many [[Types of rural communities|rural communities]] celebrate the youths' initiation during these holidays with ancestral rites and crossbred dances. New couples might be established.

The most attractive and internationally known Love Dance in Peru is the [[Marinera Norteña]]. This dance represents a man's courting to a young woman. There are local variants of this dance in [[Lima Region|Lima]] and the other regions of the country.

===Popular celebrations===

Popular celebrations are the product of every town's [[tradition]]s and [[legend]]s. These celebrations gather [[music]], [[dance]]s, [[meal]]s and typical [[drink]]s. In addition to the religious celebrations like [[Christmas]], [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] or [[Holy Week]], there are others that express the [[syncretism]] of the [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples']] beliefs with the [[Christian]]s'. An example of this kind of celebration is the [[Alasitas]] (an [[Aymara language|Aymara]] word that, according to some studious people, would mean «buy me») that combines a [[craft]]s and [[Figurine|miniature]]s [[fair]] with [[dance]]s, [[meal]]s and a [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]]. Another example is the peregrination of the [[Q'oyllor-riti]] ([[Cusco Region|Cuzco]]), that gathers the ancient [[cult]] to the [[apu (God of the Mountains)|apu]]s (tutelary divinities of the mountains) with a peregrination to a Christian Sanctuary in a [[Hiking|long trek]] to the top of a [[mountain]], of more than 5000 m. at sea level, that is covered with snow.

==Transportation==
Peru has a network of [[Highways of Peru|national highways]] maintained by the ''Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones'' (Ministry of Transportation and Communication) government agency. The [[Pan-American Highway]] is the most important highway in Peru, connecting the northern and southern portions of the country as well as connecting Peru with Ecuador to the north and Chile to the south.

==Cuisine==
{{main|Peruvian cuisine}}
[[Image:Ceviche.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Ceviche]]]]
There is a big variety of food, like [[maize]], [[tomato]], [[potato]]es, [[Ají (Capsicum pubescens)|uchu]] or [[Ají (Capsicum pubescens)|ají]] ([[Capsicum]] pubescens), [[oca]], [[ulluco]], [[avocado]] (palta), fruits like [[chirimoya]], [[lúcuma]] and [[pineapple]] (anana), and animals like [[taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis)]] (similar to the [[little red brocket]]), [[llama]] and [[Guinea pig]] (cuy). After the combination of the [[South American cuisine|American]], [[European cuisine|European]] and [[Moors|Moorish]] culinary traditions, appeared new [[meal]]s and ways of preparing them. The successive arrivals of the Africans and the Chineses also influenced in the development of the [[Peruvian cuisine|Creole cuisine]], that is so diverse and succulent nowadays.

Peruvian cuisine, for years unnoticed abroad, has recently exploded onto the world gastronomic scene. Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish roots, but has also been influenced by other groups, including Africans, Italians, Chinese and Japanese, all of whom have added their own ingredients and traditions to the mix.

Peru's many climate zones also make it possible to grow a wide range of crops. There are the dozens of native [[potato]], [[maize]] and [[chile pepper]] varieties from the [[Andes]] being [[Rocoto]] one of the most popular, to the plentiful fish and seafood from the Pacific coast, mangoes and limes from the coastal valleys, and bananas and manioc from the [[Amazon jungle]].

Between the most typical dishes of the Peruvian cuisine, we have the [[Ceviche|cebiche]], which is also spelled "ceviche" ([[fish]] and [[shellfish]] marinated in [[lime]] juice not lemon juice as commonly mistaken for the Spanish word ''Limòn'' meaning lime), the [[chupe de camarones]] (a [[soup]] made of [[shrimps (Cryphiops caementarius)]]), the [[anticuchos]] (a [[beef]]'s heart roasted in [[brochette]]s), the olluco con charqui (a casserole dish made of [[ulluco]] and [[charqui]]), the [[Pachamanca|Andean pachamanca]] ([[meat]]s, [[tuber]]s and [[Vicia faba|broad beans]] cooked in a stone oven), the [[lomo saltado (cuisine)]] (meat fried lightly with [[tomato]] and [[onion]], served with [[French fries]] and [[rice]]) that has a Chinese influence, and the [[picante de cuy]] (a casserole dish made of fried [[guinea pig]] with some [[spice]]s). Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the [[chicha de jora]] (it's a [[chicha]] made of tender [[maize|corn]] dried by the sun). This drink has a very low alcoholic graduation. There are also [[chicha]]s made of [[purple maize|purple corn]] or [[peanut]]. They are very refreshing and do not have any alcoholic content.

The most popular ceviche is a type of seafood cocktail where the fish has been marinated in lime with onions and hot peppers, but not cooked. The lime's acid precipitates the protein and hence turns the fish white, "cooking" it. There are several types of ceviche that include fish only, mixed seafood, mussels, etc. Other typical food include staples from the Andes; [[humita]]s ([[tamale]]s), roasted cuy [[guinea pig]], [[papa a la Huancaina]], [[Jalea de Mar]], [[Chilcano]], [[Sudado]], [[Aguadito]], Tallarin Saltado, [[Aji de Gallina]], [[Arroz con Pollo]], [[Seco de Res]], [[Chicharrones]], [[Tacu Tacu]], [[Carapulcra]] (Dry potato), [[choncholi]], [[Salchipapas]], [[Mondonguito a la Italiana]], [[Chanfainita]], [[Ocopa]], different [[Chifa]] dishes (Chinese food made with Peruvian ingredients), Estofado, Bistec a la Pobre, Arroz con Pato, [[Rocoto Relleno]], [[Empanadas]], [[Pollo a la Brasa]], [[Lechon]], Picante de Mariscos, Arroz con Leche, Turron de Doña Pepa.

[[Caramel]], also known as [[Manjar Blanco]] in Peru, is a very popular dessert. Also [[Crema Chantilly]] in very popular in cakes. Other desserts include [[Mazamorra Morada]], [[Arroz con Leche]], [[Flan]], [[Picarones]], [[Crema Volteada]], [[Leche Asada]], [[Torta Helada]].

The most popular soft drink is called [[Inca Kola]], which is a yellowish cream soda, but other sodas are popular too, such as [[Kola Inglesa]], [[Guarana Backus]], and other very common fruit sodas like oranges, pineapple, and lemon. Peru's most well known beverage is the [[Pisco]] which originated in the Peruvian department of Ica.

{{sisterlinks|Peru}}
{{Wikitravel}}

==Sports==
'''Chess''': [[Julio Granda]] is the most famous Peruvian chess player. His epic battle in 1998 with Jorge Useche was one of Peru's most riveting chess matches.

'''Football''': The most popular Peruvian sport is football (soccer) World Cup appearances: 1930, 1970 (quarterfinalists), 1978 (quarterfinalists), 1982 and two [[Copa America]] trophies). Most of the population of Peru follow the World Cup tournament on television. Soccer legends from Peru include [[Hugo Sotil]], [[Cesar Cueto]], [[Roberto Challe]], and [[Teofilo Cubillas]]: Peru's best striker in the World Cup Finals with 10 goals. Current renowned players include midfielder [[Nolberto Solano]] ([[Newcastle United]]), and strikers [[Claudio Pizarro]], [[Jose Paolo Guerrero]] ([[SV Hamburg]]) and [[Jefferson Farfán]] ([[PSV Eindhoven]]). [[Universitario de Deportes]], [[Alianza Lima]], [[Sporting Cristal]], and [[Cienciano]] are the biggest teams in Peru. In 2003, Cienciano won the [[South American Cup|Copa Sudamericana]].

'''Volleyball''': Other popular sport is Women’s Volleyball (Silver medal in Seoul 1988 Olympic Games, Runners-up in World Championship in 1982 and 12 times South American champion).

'''Surfing''': [[Felipe Pomar]], 2nd World Surfing Championship, Peru 1965, [[Sofia Mulanovich]], Women’s World Surf Champion in 2004 and 2005.

'''Sailing''': Peru is the only country of the region that has won for six consecutive years the world Cup in the ''Sunfish'' Class. In addition, Peru has won the Central American, South American & Caribbean Championships for the same category. In the Optimist Class, it was three times World Champion in ''Team-Racing'' in 1997, 1998, and 1999.

'''Shooting''': Peruvian shooters have won 3 of Peru's 4 [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] medals. Edwin Vásquez won Peru's only gold medal in London 1948 Olympic Games, while Francisco Boza (Los Angeles 1984), and Juan Giha (Barcelona 1992) both won silver medals.

'''Tennis''': [[Luis Horna]] and [[Jaime Yzaga]] are the most famous Peruvian tennis players. Tennis Hall of Famer and Davis Cup and Wimbledon winner Alejandro Olmedo was born in Peru but he played for the United States.

===Paleta Fronton===

[[Image:Paleta Fronton.jpg|thumb|right|Two men playing Paleta Fronton in Lima, Peru]]

[[Paleta Fronton]] is a Peruvian sport born in Lima officially in 1945 in "Regatas Lima" Club. This sport has its roots in the "Pelota Vasca" brought by the spanish Conquerors and the domestic "Pelota Mano" wrongly called at that time "Handball" because of the english influence.

Paleta Fronton is played with a wood, graphite or carbon blade and a black rubber ball. The court consists of a concrete wall of 5 meters in height and 6 meters in width with lines on the floor limiting the court and marking the reception zones like in Tennis.

==See also==
{{portal}}
* [[Communications in Peru]]
* [[Foreign relations of Peru]]
* [[List of famous Peruvians]]
* [[Military of Peru]]
* [[Miss Peru]]
* [[Peruvian nationality law]]
* [[Public holidays in Peru]]
* [[Transport in Peru]]
* [[Asociación de Scouts del Perú]]

==External links==
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Peru Open Directory Project - ''Peru''] directory category
* [http://www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ Peru Links Directory]
* [http://www.peruanosenelexterior.info/ Peruvian in the world]
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Peru Ena Britannica - Peru's Country Page]
* [http://www.peruanos.net/ Peruvians in Germany]
* [http://www.alltravelperu.com/ Peru Travel]
* [http://www.travel-to-peru.org/ Peru Facts and General Information]
* [http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/petoc.html Peru country-data.com page]

'''Archaeology'''
*[http://www.inkanatura.com/aboutculturesandarchaeologicalsites.asp Archaeological information from the North of Peru]

'''Nature'''

'''Politics'''
*[http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/searchSimpleResults/iw/1/keyword/flores%20nano%20or%20humala%20or%20alan%20garc%C3%ADa Public Opinion in Peru]
* [http://www.crlp.org/pdf/wowlac_pr00_peru.pdf Center for Reproductive Rights Report] (PDF format)
*[http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/9797 All you need to know about Peru's election]
* [http://www.citymayors.com/government/peru_government.html Local government in Peru]
* [http://www.cfr.org/publication/10093/ Council on Foreign Relations: Peru's Elections]
* [http://www.universidadperu.com/elecciones-peru-2006-x-minuto.php Peru's 2006 Elections]

'''Sports'''
* [http://www.fedperufronton.com Official Webpage of Paleta Fronton]

'''Peru maps'''
*[http://www.inkanatura.com/maps.asp Peru maps]

{{UN Security Council}}
{{South America}}
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[[Category:Peru| ]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]]
[[Category:G15 nations]]

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[[gl:Perú]]
[[ko:페루]]
[[hi:पेरू]]
[[hr:Peru]]
[[io:Peru]]
[[ilo:Peru]]
[[is:Perú]]
[[it:Perù]]
[[he:פרו]]
[[ka:პერუ]]
[[ks:Pēru]]
[[kw:Perou]]
[[la:Peruvia]]
[[lv:Peru]]
[[lt:Peru]]
[[hu:Peru]]
[[mk:Перу]]
[[nah:Incatlān]]
[[nl:Peru]]
[[ja:ペルー]]
[[no:Peru]]
[[nn:Peru]]
[[nrm:Pérou]]
[[oc:Peró]]
[[ug:پېرۇ]]
[[pam:Peru]]
[[nds:Peru]]
[[pl:Peru]]
[[pt:Peru]]
[[ro:Peru]]
[[rmy:Peru]]
[[rm:Peru]]
[[qu:Piruw]]
[[ru:Перу]]
[[sa:पेरु]]
[[sq:Peru]]
[[scn:Perù]]
[[simple:Peru]]
[[sk:Peru]]
[[sl:Peru]]
[[sr:Перу]]
[[sh:Peru]]
[[fi:Peru]]
[[sv:Peru]]
[[tl:Peru]]
[[ta:பெரு]]
[[tet:Perú]]
[[th:ประเทศเปรู]]
[[vi:Peru]]
[[tg:Перу]]
[[tr:Peru]]
[[uk:Перу]]
[[yi:פערו]]
[[zh:秘鲁]]

Email

2006-10-04T01:05:12Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{portalpar|Internet}}
'''Electronic mail''' (abbreviated "'''e-mail'''" or, more commonly, "'''email'''") is a [[store and forward]] method of composing, sending, storing, and receiving messages over [[electronics|electronic]] communication systems. The term "e-mail" (as a noun or verb) applies both to the [[Internet]] e-mail system based on the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP) and to [[intranet]] systems allowing users within one organization to e-mail each other. Often these [[workgroup]] [[collaboration]] organizations may use the [[Internet protocols]] for internal e-mail service.

==Origins of e-mail==
E-mail predates the Internet; existing e-mail systems were a crucial tool in creating the Internet.
The [[Compatible Time-Sharing System]] (CTSS) was begun at MIT in 1961.
<ref>
"CTSS, Compatible Time-Sharing System" (September 4, 2006),
University of South Alabama, web:
[http://www.cis.usouthal.edu/faculty/daigle/project1/ctss.htm USA-CTSS].
</ref>
It allowed multiple users to log into the IBM 7094
<ref>
Tom Van Vleck, "The IBM 7094 and CTSS" (September 10, 2004), ''Multicians.org''
([[Multics]]), web: [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/7094.html Multicians-7094].
</ref>
from remote dial-up terminals, and to store files online on disk. This new ability encouraged users to share information in new ways.
E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a [[time-sharing]] [[mainframe computer]] to communicate. Although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were [[System Development Corporation|SDC]]'s [[Q32]] and [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[CTSS]].

E-mail was quickly extended to become ''network e-mail'', allowing users to pass messages between different computers. The messages could be transferred between users on different computers by 1966, but it is possible the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] system had something similar some time before.

The [[ARPANET]] [[computer network]] made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html] which indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after its creation, in 1969. [[Ray Tomlinson]] initiated the use of the [[@|@ sign]] to separate the names of the user and their machine in 1971 [http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html]. The [[ARPANET]] significantly increased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the [[Killer application|killer app]] of the ARPANET.

==Growing popularity==
{{limitedgeographicscope}}
As the utility and advantages of e-mail on the ARPANET became more widely known, the popularity of e-mail increased, leading to demand from people who were not allowed access to the ARPANET. A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as [[UUCP]] and [[IBM]]'s [[VNET]] e-mail system.

Since not all [[computer]]s or [[computer network|networks]] were directly inter-networked, e-mail addresses had to include the "route" of the message, that is, a path between the computer of the sender and the computer of the receivers. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including the [[ARPANET]], [[Bitnet|BITNET]], and [[NSFNET]], as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP.

The route was specified using so-call "bang path" addresses, specifying hops to get from some assumed-reachable location to the addressee, so called because each hop is into a form understandable by another vendor.

The [[ITU-T|CCITT]] developed the [[X.400]] standard in the 1980s to allow different e-mail systems to interoperate. Roughly at the same time, the [[IETF]] developed a much simpler protocol called the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) which has become the [[de facto]] standard for e-mail transfer on the Internet. With the advent of widespread use of home personal computers connected to the Internet, interoperability via SMTP-based Internet e-mail has become a critical feature for all e-mail systems.

In 1969 US Air Force users were sending text messages by keypunching cards with long text messages using one card for each 80 character line and transmitting them as card decks from one computer to another. By 1979, US Air Force users were logging onto central computers k within hours. By the end of 1983 US Air Force users were using user names like alclark@vax1.mil to send e-mail between a nationwide linkup of [[VAX]] computers. By 1984 these same users were using personal computers for same.

In 1973, David Woolley developed the "notes" bulletin board for the [[PLATO]] educational software system, and in 1974 Kim Mast extended that to a "personal notes" facility.
<ref>
David R. Woolley,
web: [http://thinkofit.com/plato/dwplato.htm PLATO: The Emergence of an On-line Community],
retrieved on 20 September 2006.
</ref>

In 1979, the US Post Office bought a computer specifically for e-mail, but wound up selling it to private industry.

In 1982 the [[White House]] adopted a prototype e-mail system from IBM called the Professional Office System, or PROFs for the [[National Security Council]] (NSC) staff. By April 1985, the system was fully operational within the NSC with home terminals for principals on the staff. By November of 1986 the rest of the White House came online, first with the PROFs system, and later (by the end of the 1980s) through a variety of systems including [[VAX]] A-1 ("All in One"), and [[ccmail]].

In 1991, the first e-mail from [[outer space|space]] was sent from aboard the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis]], mission [[STS-43]], using [[AppleLink]] running on a [[Macintosh Portable]].

==Modern Internet e-mail==
===How Internet e-mail works===
[[Image:How e-mail works.png|center|How e-mail works]]

The diagram above shows a typical sequence of events that takes place when Alice composes a message using her [[E-mail client|mail user agent]] (MUA). She types in, or selects from an address book, the '''e-mail address''' of her correspondent. She hits the "send" button. Her MUA formats the message in [[#Internet e-mail format|Internet e-mail format]] and uses the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP) to send the message to the local [[mail transfer agent]] (MTA), in this case <tt>smtp.a.org</tt>, run by Alice's [[Internet Service Provider]] (ISP).
# The MTA looks at the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the message header), in this case <tt>bob@b.org</tt>. A modern Internet e-mail address is a string of the form <tt>localpart@domain.example</tt>, creating a [[Fully Qualified Domain Address]] (FQDA). The part before the @ sign is the '''local part''' of the address, often the [[username]] of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a [[domain name]]. The MTA looks up this domain name in the [[Domain Name System]] to find the [[mail exchange server]]s accepting messages for that domain.
# The [[DNS server]] for the <tt>b.org</tt> domain, <tt>ns.b.org</tt>, responds with an [[MX record]] listing the mail exchange servers for that domain, in this case <tt>mx.b.org</tt>, a server run by Bob's ISP.

# <tt>smtp.a.org</tt> sends the message to <tt>mx.b.org</tt> using SMTP, which delivers it to the mailbox of the user <tt>bob</tt>.
# Bob presses the "get mail" button in his MUA, which picks up the message using the [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3).

This sequence of events applies to the majority of e-mail users. However, there are many alternative possibilities and complications to the e-mail system:

* Alice or Bob may use a client connected to a corporate e-mail system, such as [[IBM]]'s [[Lotus Notes]] or [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Exchange Server|Exchange]]. These systems often have their own internal e-mail format and their clients typically communicate with the e-mail server using a vendor-specific, proprietary protocol. The server sends or receives e-mail via the Internet through the product's Internet mail gateway which also does any necessary reformatting. If Alice and Bob work for the same company, the entire transaction may happen completely within a single corporate e-mail system.
* Alice may not have a MUA on her computer but instead may connect to a [[webmail]] service.
* Alice's computer may run its own MTA, so avoiding the transfer at step 1.
* Bob may pick up his e-mail in many ways, for example using the [[Internet Message Access Protocol]], by logging into <tt>mx.b.org</tt> and reading it directly, or by using a [[webmail]] service.
* Domains usually have several mail exchange servers so that they can continue to accept mail when the main mail exchange server is not available.

It used to be the case that many MTAs would accept messages for any recipient on the Internet and do their best to deliver them. Such MTAs are called ''[[open mail relay]]s''. This was important in the early days of the Internet when network connections were unreliable. If an MTA couldn't reach the destination, it could at least deliver it to a relay that was closer to the destination. The relay would have a better chance of delivering the message at a later time. However, this mechanism proved to be exploitable by people sending [[e-mail spam|unsolicited bulk e-mail]] and as a consequence very few modern MTAs are open mail relays, and many MTAs will not accept messages from open mail relays because such messages are very likely to be spam.

Note that the people, e-mail addresses and domain names in this explanation are fictional: see [[Alice and Bob|''Alice and Bob'']].

===Internet e-mail format===
The format of Internet e-mail messages is defined in RFC 2822 and a series of [[Request for Comments|RFCs]], RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called [[MIME|Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions]] (MIME). Although as of [[July 13]] [[2005]] (see [http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt]) RFC 2822 is technically a proposed IETF standard and the MIME RFCs are draft IETF standards, these documents are the de facto standards for the format of Internet e-mail. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 in 2001 the format described by RFC 822 was the de facto standard for Internet e-mail for nearly two decades; it is still the official IETF standard. The IETF reserved the numbers 2821 and 2822 for the updated versions of RFC 821 (SMTP) and RFC 822, honoring the extreme importance of these two RFCs. RFC 822 was published in 1982 and based on the earlier RFC 733.

Internet e-mail messages consist of two major sections:

* Header - Structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail
* Body - The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a [[signature block]] at the end

The header is separated from the body by a blank line.

====Internet e-mail header====
The message header consists of fields. Each header field has a name and a value. RFC 2822 specifies the precise syntax. Informally, the field name starts in the first character of a line, followed by a ":", followed by the value which is continued on non-null subsequent lines that have a space or tab as their first character. Field names and values are restricted to 7-bit [[ASCII]] characters. Non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME [[MIME#Encoded-Word|encoded words]]. Messages usually have at least four fields in the header:

# From: The e-mail address, and optionally name, of the sender of the message
# To: The e-mail addresses, and optionally names, of the receiver of the message
# Subject: A brief summary of the contents of the message
# Date: The local time and date when the message was originally sent

Note however that the "To" field in the header is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the message is delivered. The actual delivery list is supplied in the SMTP protocol, not extracted from the header content. The "To" field is similar to the greeting at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope. Also note that the "From" field does not have to be the real sender of the e-mail message. It is very easy to fake the "From" field and let a message seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to [[Digital signature|digitally sign]] e-mail, which is much harder to fake. Some [[Internet service provider]]s do not relay e-mail claiming to come from a domain not hosted by them, but very few (if any) check to make sure that the person or even e-mail address named in the "From" field is the one associated with the connection. Some internet service providers [[Sender id|digitally sign e-mail being sent through their MTA]] to allow other MTAs to detect forged spam that might apparently appear to be from them.

Other common header fields include:

# Cc: Courtesy copy (See also [[carbon copy]].)
# Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message
# Content-Type: Information about how the message has to be displayed, usually a [[MIME]] type

Many e-mail clients present "Bcc" (Blind courtesy copy, recipients not visible in the "To" field) as a header field. Since the entire header is visible to all recipients, "Bcc" is not included in the message header. Addresses added as "Bcc" are only added to the SMTP delivery list, and do not get included in the message data.

====E-mail content encoding====
E-mail was originally designed for 7-bit [[ASCII]]. Much e-mail software is [[8-bit clean]] but must assume it will be communicating with 7-bit servers and mail readers. The [[MIME]] standard introduced charset specifiers and two content transfer encodings to encode 8 bit data for transmission: [[quoted printable]] for mostly 7 bit content with a few characters outside that range and [[base64]] for arbitrary binary data. The [[8BITMIME]] extension was introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings but many mail transport agents still don't support it fully. For international [[character set]]s, [[Unicode]] is growing in popularity.

===Saved message file extension===
Different applications save e-mail files with different [[filename extension]]s.
;<tt>.eml</tt>
:This is used by [[Outlook Express|Microsoft Outlook Express]] and is the default e-mail extension for [[Mozilla Thunderbird]].
;<tt>.emlx</tt>
:Used by [[Mail (application)|Apple Mail]].
;<tt>.msg</tt>
:Used by [[Microsoft Outlook|Microsoft Office Outlook]].

==Messages and mailboxes==
Messages are exchanged between hosts using the [[SMTP|Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] with software like [[Sendmail]]. Users download their messages from servers usually with either the [[Post Office Protocol|POP]] or [[IMAP]] protocols, though in a large [[corporation|corporate]] environment users are likely to use some [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] protocol such as [[Lotus Notes]] or [[Microsoft Exchange Server]]s.

Mail can be stored either on the [[client (computing)|client]] or on the [[Server (computing)|server]] side. Standard formats for mailboxes include [[Maildir]] and [[mbox]]. Several prominent e-mail clients use their own proprietary format and require conversion software to transfer e-mail between them.

When a message cannot be delivered, the recipient MTA must send a [[bounce message]] back to the sender, indicating the problem.

==Spamming and e-mail worms==
The usefulness of e-mail is being threatened by three phenomena: [[E-mail spam|spamming]], [[phishing]] and [[e-mail worm]]s.

Spamming is unsolicited commercial e-mail. Because of the very low cost of sending e-mail, spammers can send hundreds of millions of e-mail messages each day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Hundreds of active spammers sending this volume of mail results in [[information overload]] for many computer users who receive tens or even hundreds of junk messages each day.

E-mail worms use e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first e-mail worm affected [[UNIX]] computers, the problem is most common today on the more popular [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system.

The combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk e-mail, which reduces the usefulness of e-mail as a practical tool.

A number of [[stopping e-mail abuse|technology-based initiatives]] mitigate the impact of spam. In the [[United States]], [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has also passed a law, the [[Can Spam Act of 2003]], attempting to regulate such e-mail.

==Privacy problems regarding e-mail==
{{main|e-mail privacy}}

E-mail privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because

* e-mail messages are generally not encrypted;
* e-mail messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination, meaning it is relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages;
* many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of your e-mail messages on their mail servers before they are delivered. The backups of these can remain up to several months on their server, even if you delete them in your mailbox;
* the Received: headers and other information in the email can often identify the sender, preventing anonymous communication.

There are [[cryptography]] applications that can serve as a remedy to one or more of the above. For example, [[Virtual Private Network]]s or the [[Tor (anonymity network)]] can be used to encrypt traffic from the user machine to a safer network, [[Pretty Good Privacy|PGP]] or [[S/MIME]] can be used for [[end-to-end]] message encryption, and SMTP STARTTLS or SMTP over [[Transport Layer Security]]/Secure Sockets Layer can be used to encrypt communications for a single mail hop between the SMTP client and the SMTP server.

Another risk is that e-mail passwords might be intercepted during sign-in.
One may use encrypted authentication schemes such as [[Simple Authentication and Security Layer|SASL]] to help prevent this.

==See also==
* [[E-mail art]]
* [[HTML e-mail]]
* [[Internet fax]]
* E-mail social issues:
** [[Netiquette]]
** [[Information overload]]
** [[Internet humor]]
** [[Internet slang]]
** [[Spam (electronic)|Spam]]
** [[Stopping e-mail abuse]]
** [[Computer virus]]
** [[E-card]]
* Clients and servers:
** [[E-mail client]]
** [[E-mail address]]
** [[E-mail authentication]]
** [[Internet mail standard]]s
** [[Mail transfer agent]]
** [[Backup email server]]
** [[Webmail]]
** [[E-mail hosting service]]
** [[Unicode and e-mail]]
* Mailing list:
** [[Electronic mailing list]]
** [[Mailing list archive]]
* Premium e-mail services/[[premiumemail]]:
* Free e-mail services/[[webmail]]:
** [[MSN Hotmail]]
** [[Yahoo! Mail]]
** [[Gmail]]
** [[FastMail]]
** [[SoftHome]]
** [[Lycos]]
* Anonymity and Privacy
** [[Anonymous remailer]]
** [[Disposable e-mail address]]
** [[Email tracking]]
** [http://www.wikihow.com/Forge-Email How to forge email]
* Alternative protocols and projects
** [[Internet Mail 2000]]

==Further reading==
* Katie Hafner, Matthew Lyon, ''Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) also covers the early history of e-mail
* Abdullah, M. H. (1998). "Electronic discourse: Evolving conventions in online academic environments". Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication. [ED 422 593]
* Abras, C. (2002) The principle of relevance and metamessages in online discourse: Electronic exchanges in a graduate course. Language, "Literacy and Culture Review" 1(2), 39-53.
* Kalman, Y and [[Sheizaf Rafaeli]] (2005) Email Chronemics: [http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2005/2268/04/22680108b.pdf Unobtrusive Profiling of Response Times], Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on System Sciences, HICSS 38. pp. Ralph H. Sprague, (Ed.), p. 108.
* Biesenbach-Lucas, S. & Wiesenforth, D. (2001). E-mail and word processing in the ESL classroom: How the medium affects the message. "Language Learning and Technology", 5 (1), 135-165. [EJ 621 506]
* Danet, B. (2001). Cyberplay: Communicating online. Oxford: Berg Publishing.

==Notes==
<references/>

==References==
{{FOLDOC}}

==External links==
* [[SourceForge]]'s database of [http://sourceforge.net/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=28 free e-mail software]
* [http://openmap.bbn.com/%7Etomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html The First Network Email]
* M. A. Padlipsky, ''[http://www.lafn.org/~ba213/allnight.html And They Argued All Night...]'' is an alternative personal recollection of the origins of network e-mail
* [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB4-4F0GR6R-1/2/6e8130c8b281029598bc40fe5934fdaf E-mail training significantly reduces e-mail defects] — from International Journal of Information Management
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,1465950,00.html Guardian.co.uk] — 'Emails "pose threat to IQ"', Martin Wainwright, ''The Guardian'' ([[April 22]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html The History of Electronic Mail] is a personal memoir by the implementer of one of the first e-mail systems
* [http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/Encrypting-Your-E-mail.html Is it Time to Start Encrypting Your E-mail?] — discusses the pros and cons of e-mail encryption
* [http://www.cyberbullying.us Cyberbullying News, Research, and Resources]
* [http://mailformat.dan.info/ Dan's Mail Format Site] — information about formatting e-mail messages.
* [http://www.messagingtalk.org/ MessagingTalk.org] — Resources about Messaging & MS Exchange/Outlook
* [http://blog.centraldesktop.com/comments.php?y=06&m=04&entry=entry060403-214628 The Good In Email (or Why Email Is Still The Most Adopted Collaboration Tool)]
* [http://articles.pc-news.org/how-internet-email-works/communications How email works]
* [http://www.spamkilleronline.com How spam works]
* [http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/mistakes.html Ray Tomlinson's Frequently Made Mistakes page]
* [http://www.telecoms.com/itmgcontent/tcoms/search/articles/1131472415279.html Telecoms analyst Informa takes a look at the future of mobile email]
* [http://www.ceas.cc Conference on Email and Anti-Spam]
*[http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2142.txt rfc2142 Mailbox names for common services, roles and functions.]
*[http://spamblockermonster.info/How-To-Stop-Spam.html How To Stop Spam]
*[http://www.stopspam.org/email/headers.html Reading Email Headers]

[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:E-mail| ]]
[[Category:Internet terminology]]
[[Category:Internet history]]

[[af:Elektroniese pos]]
[[ar:بريد إلكتروني]]
[[ast:Corréu lletrónicu]]
[[id:Surat elektronik]]
[[bn:ই-মেইল]]
[[su:Surélék]]
[[bs:Email]]
[[bg:Електронна поща]]
[[ca:Correu electrònic]]
[[cs:E-mail]]
[[da:E-mail]]
[[de:E-Mail]]
[[es:Correo electrónico]]
[[eo:Retpoŝto]]
[[eu:Posta elektroniko]]
[[fa:پست الکترونیکی]]
[[fr:Courrier électronique]]
[[ga:Ríomhphost]]
[[gl:Correo electrónico]]
[[ko:전자 우편]]
[[is:Tölvupóstur]]
[[it:E-mail]]
[[he:דואר אלקטרוני]]
[[ku:E-peyam]]
[[lv:E-pasts]]
[[lt:Elektroninis paštas]]
[[hu:E-mail]]
[[mk:Електронско писмо]]
[[nl:E-mail]]
[[ja:電子メール]]
[[no:E-post]]
[[nn:E-post]]
[[nds:Nettbreef]]
[[pl:Poczta elektroniczna]]
[[pt:E-mail]]
[[ro:E-mail]]
[[rm:E-mail]]
[[ru:Электронная почта]]
[[simple:E-mail]]
[[sk:E-mail]]
[[sl:Elektronska pošta]]
[[sr:E-mail]]
[[sh:E-mail]]
[[fi:Sähköposti]]
[[sv:E-post]]
[[tl:Elektronikong liham]]
[[ta:மின்னஞ்சல்]]
[[th:อีเมล]]
[[vi:Thư điện tử]]
[[tpi:Imel]]
[[tr:Elektronik posta]]
[[uk:Електронна пошта]]
[[wa:Emile]]
[[yi:בליצבריוו]]
[[zh-yue:電郵]]
[[zh:电子邮件]]

Chișinău

2006-10-04T01:04:33Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Infobox City Moldova
|name = Chişinău
|map = Moldadm C.png
|coa_pic = Chisinau Coat-of-Arms.png
|county = Chişinău
|status = Municipality
|mayor = Vasile URSU
|election = 2005
|area = 635
|density = 1114
|census = 2004
|founded = [[1436]]
|population = 712218
|dialing_code = +373 22
|coordinates = {{coor dm|47|0|N|28|55|E}}
|website = http://www.chisinau.md/
}}
[[Chişinău]] (IPA /ki.ʃi.'nəu/), formerly known as '''Kishinev''', is the [[capital city]] and industrial and commercial centre of the [[Republic of Moldova]]. It is also the largest city of Moldova. It is located in the center of the country, on the river [[Bîc]]. Economically, the city is by far the most prosperous in Moldova and is one of the main industrial centres and transportation hubs of the region. As the most important city in Moldova, Chişinău has a broad range of educational facilities. Additionally, the city has among the highest proportion of green spaces of any major city in [[Europe]].

==Name==
[[Image:Drapel Chisinau.gif|right|250px|thumb|Flag of Chişinău]]
According to some historians, the name comes from the old Romanian word ''chişla'' ("spring", "source of water"; the word is not used anymore, but was replaced by ''cişmea'', which has the same meaning) [http://www.kishinev.info/history_ro/] and ''nouă'' ("new"), because it was built around a small spring. Nowadays, the spring is located at the corner of Pushkin Street and Albişoara Street. Chişinău (written Кишинэу in the [[Moldovan alphabet|Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet]], formerly officially used all over Moldova, but now used only sporadically in the outback of Moldova and officially only in the Moldovan autonomous republic of [[Transnistria]]), is also known in [[Russian language|Russian]] as ''Кишинёв (Kishinyov)'', which passed with a small modification into English as ''Kishinev''. It remains a common English-language name for the city, especially in historical contexts. The Russian name gained international currency because of [[Russification]] during periods when the city was under Russian control (first by [[Imperial Russia]] and then for over four decades by the [[Soviet Union]]) and because of Russian speakers throughout the world, including many Russian [[Jew]]s in the English-speaking world. The English ''Kishinev'' comes from the Russian with the ''ё'' ("yo") being incorrectly transliterated as ''e''.

Another possible etymology is "kesene", a [[Cuman language|Cuman]] word for "[[crypt]]".

There is another city named [[Chişineu-Criş|Chişineu]] /alternative spelling: Chişinău/ in Western [[Romania]], near the border with [[Hungary]], but its relation to Chişinău is disputed. Its [[Hungarian language]] name is Kisjenő /kis: "small" + the ethnonym "Jenő", spelled: yenou/, from which the Romanian name possibly originates.

==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Sectoare Chişinău.png|right|thumb|250px|Chişinău Sectors]]
===Geography===
The city is located on the river Bîc, a tributary of the [[Dniester River|Nistru]] (Dniestr), at {{coor dm|47|0|N|28|55|E|}}, with an area of 120 km² and its whole [[municipality]] has 635 km².

Politically the city lies in the middle of the central area of Moldova and is divided into five administrative districts. These are:
[[Image:RoseValley Chisinau.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Rose Valley]]

*[[Sectorul Centru|Centru]]
*[[Sectorul Rîşcani|Rîşcani]]
*[[Sectorul Botanica|Botanica]]
*[[Sectorul Ciocana|Ciocana]]
*[[Sectorul Buiucani|Buiucani]]

Geographically convenient in the largely flat Eastern European country, the city is surrounded by a relatively level landscape with very fruitful ground, offering the basis for agricultural use, in the cultivation of wine and fruit, already from medieval times.

===Climate===

Chişinău has a [[continental climate]], characterised by hot dry [[summer]]s and cold windy [[winter]]s. Winter temperatures are often below 0°C, even though they rarely drop below -10°C. In summer, the average temperature is approximately 25°C, despite the fact that temperatures sometimes reach 35-40°C in mid-summer in the city centre. Although average [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] and [[humidity]] during summer is low, there are infrequent yet heavy storms. During spring and autumn, temperatures vary between 18-22°C, and precipitation during this time tends to be higher than in summer, with more frequent yet milder periods of rain.

==History==

Founded in [[1436]] as a [[monastery]] town, the city was part of the [[Moldavia]]n Principality, which, starting with the [[16th century]] fell under the [[suzerainty]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. At the beginning of the [[19th century]] it was a small village of 7,000 inhabitants. In [[1812]] it was occupied by [[Russia]], who made it the centre of [[Bessarabia]]. Its population had grown to 92,000 by [[1862]] and to 125,787 by [[1900]].

===Industrial age===
[[Image:Chisinau Center.jpg|thumb|250px|Triumphal Arch and Orthodox Cathedral - Center of Chişinău]]From [[1834]] an [[imperial]] townscape, with broad and long roads, emerged as a result of a generous town development plan, which divided the city roughly into two areas. The old part of the town - with its irregular building structures - and a newer City Centre and station. Between 26 May 1830 and 13 October 1836 the architect [[Avraam Melnikov]] established the 'Catedrala Naşterea Domnului' (an Orthodox Cathedral) with a magnificent bell tower. In 1840 the building of the [[Triumphal Arch]], planned by the architect, Luca Zauşkevici, was completed. Following this the construction of numerous further buildings and landmarks began. The town also played an important part in the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878|war between Russia and Turkey]] ([[1877]]–[[1878|78]]), as the chief centre of the Russian invasion.

===Pogrom and Pre-Revolution===

In the late [[19th century]], especially due to growing anti-semitic sentiment in [[Russia]] and [[Poland]] and better economic conditions, many Jews chose to settle in Chişinău. By the year [[1900]] 43% of the population of Chişinău was [[Jewish]] - one of the highest numbers in Europe.

However, during April [[1903]] a large [[anti-Semitic]] uprising occurred, which would later be known as the [[Kishinev pogrom]]. The events spanned three days of rioting, with 47-49 Jews killed, 92 severely wounded, and 500 slightly wounded. In addition several hundred households and many businesses were plundered and destroyed. The excesses are largely believed to have been a result of anti-Jewish propaganda in the then only official [[newspaper]] 'Bessarabez' (Бессарабецъ)), which encouraged such acts. The reactions to this incident, included a petition to the [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas II of Russia]], on behalf of the American people by [[President]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]] in July 1905.

On 22 August 1905 another bloody event occurred, whereby the police opened fire on an estimated 3,000 demonstrating agricultural workers. Only a few months later a further protest occurred, helping to force the hand of Nicholas II in bringing about the [[October manifesto]]. However these demonstrations suddenly turned into an attack on Jews wherever they could be found, resulting in 19 deaths. (''See [[Kishinev pogrom]]'')

===The First World War Period===

Following the Russian [[October Revolution]] the country declared [[independence]] from the fallen empire, before joining the [[Kingdom of Romania]]. With Moldova only [[autonomous]] in the new state, Chişinău lost its title as [[Capital]] and moved into the background.

Between [[1918]] and [[1940]] the center of the city undertook large [[renovation]] work. In 1927 a monument to the famous prince [[Stephen III of Moldavia]], by the artist Alexandru Plămădeală was errected.

===The Second World War===

In the chaos of the [[Second World War]] Chişinău was nearly completely destroyed. This began with the [[Soviet]] occupation led by the [[Red Army]] from 28 June 1940. As the city began to recover from the takeover, a devastating earthquake occurred on 10 November 1940. The [[epicenter]] of the quake, which measured 7.3 on the [[Richter scale]], was in eastern [[Romania]] and subsequently led to substantial destruction in the city.

After scarcely one year the assault of modern-day Moldova by the [[Germany|German]] army began. From July [[1941]] the city suffered from large-scale shooting and heavy bombardments by Nazi air raids. The Red Army resistance held until Chişinău finally fell on 17 July [[1941]].

Following the occupation the city suffered from the characteristic mass murder of predominantly Jewish inhabitants. As had been seen elsewhere in Europe, the dwindling followers of Judaism were transported on trucks to the outskirts of the city. There they were then shot in partially dug pits. The number of Jews murdered during the occupation of the city is estimated at approximately 10,000 people.

As the War drew to a conclusion the former capital was pulled once more into heavy fighting as German troops retreated. After nearly six months of fighting Chişinău finally fell on 24 August 1944 to the Red Army. By this point the city had lost 70% of it's buildings and constructions - the earthquake of 1940 and the air raids contributing to the largest part of this.

After the war the head of the [[Soviet Union]], Joseph [[Stalin]], claimed the area around Bessarabien, to be in his own nation's sphere of influence. With the war completed, Stalin reorangised the political landscape of Eastern Europe, giving nominal independence to Romania and incorporating Moldova into the USSR. Thus Chişinău was once more made capital of the now 'autonomous' republic.

===Soviet Union===
In the years 1947 to 1949 the architect Alexey Shchusev developed a plan with the aid of a team of architects for the gradual reconstruction of the city.

The beginning of the 1950's saw a rapid population growth, with which the Soviets responded by constructing large-scale housing and palaces in the style of [[Stalinist architecture]]. This process continued under [[Nikita Khrushchev]], who called for construction under the slogan "good, cheaper and built faster". The new architectural style brought about dramatic change and generated the style that dominates today, with large blocks of flats arranged in considerable settlements.

The period of the most significant development of the city was from 1971, when the [[Council of Ministers]] of the USSR has adopted a decision "About the measures for further development of Kishinev city", that secured more than one billon [[rubles]] of investments from the state budget, until [[1991]], when [[Moldova]] gained independence.

In Chişinău, large number of streets are [[Street Names of Chisinau|named after historic persons, places or events]].

==Politics and Administration==
[[Image:Chisinau GouvernamentalBuilding.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Government Building in Chişinău]]
Chişinău is governed by the City Council and the City Mayor, both elected once every four years. The current [[mayor]] is [[Vasile Ursu]]. Ursu is the former vice-mayor, but continues to act on an interim basis due to a low turnout in repeated elections. His predecessor, between August [[1994]] and April [[2005]] was [[Serafim Urechean]]. Under the Moldovan constitution, Urechean - elected to parliament in 2005 - was prevented from holding an additional post to that of an MP. The [[Electoral Bloc Democratic Moldova|Democratic Moldova Bloc]] leader subsequently accepted his mandate and in April resigned from his former position. During his 11 year term, Urechean committed himself to the restoration of the church tower of the ''Catedrala Naşterea Domnului'', as well as improvements in public transport. From 1994, Chişinău saw the contstruction and launch of new [[trolley bus]] lines, as well as an increase in capacities of existing lines, in order to better connect the urban districts.

Between 23 May and 10 June 2005, the [[Central Election Commission]] received the applications of possible candidates for the office of mayor. The elections took place on 10 July, 24 July, 27 November and 11 December 2005. On the first occasion only 26.93% of voters participated, narrowly below the one-third turnout necessary to validate the poll. Three subsequent attempts in July, November and December saw the election turnout fall further to 19.82%, 22.37% and 22.07% respectively. After several months in limbo it was announced that the momentary office holder Vasile Ursu, could continue to hold the position, possibly until the next scheduled elections in [[2007]].

The first mayor of Chişinău was [[Angel Nour]] in [[1817]]. In 1941 the office was abolished. After the Soviet era and the re-establishment of the office in 1990 [[Nicolae Costin]] became the first democratically elected mayor.

==Economy==

[[Image:Chisinau Center3.jpg|thumb|250px|Street and businesses in city centre]]
Chişinău is the most economically-developed and [[Industrialization|industrialised]] city in Moldova. Chişinău is a major industrial and services centre; its main industries include consumer and electrical goods, building materials, machinery, [[plastic]]s, [[rubber]], and [[textiles]]. The main service fields are [[banks of Moldova|banking]] and shopping/commerce.
Chişinău's economy is mainly centred on [[industry]] and [[services]], with services particularly growing in importance in the last ten years. Due to a difficult legal situation, the ongoing [[War of Transnistria|Transnistrian conflict]] in the country and stagnating corruption, an influx of large foreign investors, like those seen in other formerly communist republics, has so far been missing.

==Transport==
===Bus and Rail===

The most popular form of internal [[transport]] in Moldova is generally the [[bus]]. The Chişinău service can be very inexpensive when used over several hours or days. Whilst the city has just three main terminals, buses generally serve as the means of transport between different cities within, and also outside, of Moldova. Popular destinations include [[Odessa]] (Ukraine) and [[Bucharest]] (Romania).

An international railway terminal also exists with possible connections to Athens, Istanbul and Moscow. Due to the conflict between Moldova and the unrecognized Transnistria republic the rail traffic towards Ukraine is occasionally stopped.

In addition to the aforementioned services, there is a private taxi and minibus system.

===Airport===

An international [[airport]] ([[Chişinău International Airport]]) exists, offering connections to several cities, including [[Bucharest]], [[Budapest]], [[Istanbul]], [[Kiev]], [[Lisbon]], [[Moscow]], [[Prague]], [[Rome]], [[Tel Aviv]] and [[Vienna]]. The airport has a capacity of 1,200,000 passengers per year.

==Education==
The city is home to thirty-six [[university|universities]], and to the [[Academy of Sciences of Moldova]].

[[List of public schools in Chişinău]]

Since the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], the city has become a relatively lively and well-provisioned capital, with a much higher standard of living than most rural areas.


==People and culture==
[[Image:Chi stefan park.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Ştefan cel Mare Central Park]]
===Demographics===

Total population - 780,700 ([[As of 2004]]).

Census held in [[2004]] reports the following ethnic composition:<ref>[http://www.statistica.md/recensamint/Rezultatele_prel_recens_ro.zip 2004 census results in Moldova]</ref>
*[[Moldovans]] - 68.4%
*[[Russians]] - 13.7%
*[[Ukrainians]] - 8.4%
*[[Romanians]] - 4.4%
*[[Bulgarians]] - 1.2%
*[[Gagauzians]] - 0.9%
*Others - 2.9%


Official census data showed 68.4% [[Moldovans]] and 4.4% [[Romanians]]; however, due to the contested status of the [[Moldovans|Moldovan]] ethnicity and [[OSCE]] objections over procedure, most{{fact}} organizations present them together. According to the "[[Moldova Azi]]" news agency, <ref>[http://azi.md/news?ID=34282 Experts Offering to Consult the National Statistics Bureau in Evaluation of the Census Data], ''Moldova Azi'', May 19, 2005, story attributed to [[AP Flux]]. Retrieved October 11, 2005.</ref> a group of international census experts described the 2004 Moldovan census as "generally conducted in a professional manner", while remarking that that "a few topics… were potentially more problematic", in particular,
#The census includes at least some Moldovans who had been living abroad over one year at the time of the census.
#The precision of numbers about nationality/ethnicity and language was questioned. Some enumerators apparently encouraged respondents to declare that they were "[[Moldovan]]" rather than "[[Romanians|Romanian]]", and even within a single family there may have been confusion about these terms. Also it is unclear how many respondents consider the term "[[Moldovan]]" to signify an ethnic identity other than "Romanian".

[[Image:GouvernamentalBuilding Chisinau.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A governmental building]]
[[Image:Presidential hotel Chisinau.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The presidential hotel]]

===Sport===

In Chişinău there are four professional [[soccer|football]] clubs, all playing in the [[Divizia Naţională]] (national league). They are: [[FC Zimbru Chişinău]], [[FC Dacia Chişinău]], [[FC Politehnica Chişinău]] and [[CS Steaua Chişinău]], which placed 4th, 5th, 7th and 8th respectively in the 2004/5 season. Of the larger football stadiums in the city, the Stadionul Republica (Republic Stadium) has 8,009 seats and the Stadionul Dinamo (Dinamo Stadium) has a capacity of 2,692. The stadium of Zimbru Chişinău Football Club, opened on May 20, 2006, has a capacity of 10,600. Construction lasted 27 months at a cost of almost 11 million USD. The VIP box is reserved for 250 people. Sports journalists have 44 places at their disposal. The arena meets all the requirements towards holding official international matches; however, the smaller Stadionul Republica has been designated as the venue for [[Moldova national football team|Moldova's]] [[Euro 2008]] qualifying matches.

===Media===

The majority of Moldova's small media industry is based in Chişinău. The only national broadcaster in the country is the state-owned [[Moldova 1]], which has its head office in the city. The broadcasts of [[TeleradioMoldova]] have been criticized by the [[Independent Journalism Center]] as showing 'bias' towards the authorities<ref>[www.ijc.md/en/about/Raport_septembrie_eng.pdf Monitoring of programs on Radio Moldova and TV Moldova 1]</ref>. There are some hopes that a new broadcasting code will resolve some of these issues.

The [[Romania]]n [[Pro TV]] Chişinău also broadcasts locally - repeatedly thwarted in its attempts to obtain a national license by the government. The station broadcasts a mixture of independent local news, in addition to entertainment and documentary programmes from Romania. Pro TV remains on the air despite numerous threats<ref>[http://www.freemedia.at/cms/ipi/freedom_detail.html?country=/KW0001/KW0003/KW0072/&year=2003 2003 World Press Freedom Review]</ref> from [[Communist]] officials to close it down.

In addition to television, most [[radio]] and newspaper companies have their HQ's in the city.
Broadcasters include the national radio, BBC Moldova, Antena C, Pro FM and Kiss FM, Russkoe radio, Hit FM, and a lot of others.

===Music and nightlife===

Chişinău is home to Moldova's largest recording labels, and is often the residence of Moldovan, and more recently [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]], musicians. The city's music scene is quite [[eclectic]]. Many Moldovan rock bands of the 1970s and 1980s continue to be popular, particularly with the middle-aged, while since the 1990s there has been growth in the [[boy bands|boy band]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] genres.
A famous band, Lăutarii, was established and also operates successfully in Chişinău.
There is also a renowned dance group, Codreanca, which participates and wins prizes in international festivals.

==Sister cities==

* {{flagicon|Romania}} [[Bucharest]], [[Romania]]
* {{flagicon|USA}} [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], [[California]], [[USA]] (designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI)])
* {{flagicon|France}} [[Grenoble]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Mannheim]], [[Germany]]
* {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]]
* {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Odessa]], [[Ukraine]]
* {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]]
* {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Reggio Emilia|Reggio nell'Emilia]], [[Italy]]
* {{flagicon|Greece}} [[Patras]], [[Greece]]
* {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Kraków]], [[Poland]]
* {{flagicon|USA}} [[Greensboro, North Carolina]], [[USA]]

==Photo Tour==

<center>
<gallery>
Image:Chisinau Center4.jpg|Chişinău City Center
Image:Chisinau SalaCuOrga.jpg|SalaCuOrga
Image:Chisinau Station.jpg|Chişinău Train Station
Image:Chisinau Winter.jpg|Winter in Chişinău
Image:Chisinau center 08 11 2005.jpg|City Center
Image:Airport Chisinau.jpg|Chişinău International Airport
Image:Stefan Chisinau.jpg|Monument to Stephen III of Moldavia
Image:Vorota kishineva.jpg|Gates of the city", Chişinău, Moldova
</gallery>
</center>

== See also ==
*[[Rose Valley Chişinău]]

== Notes ==
<references />

== References ==
{{sisterlinks|Chişinău}}
*{{wikitravel}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.chisinau.md Official site of Chişinău] (in Romanian only)
*[http://kishinev.lk.net/pictures.html Old (1995) Chişinău Photo-Gallery] - a lot of artistic photos
*[http://www.nomer.org/kishinev/ Chişinău telephone directory] (primarily in Russian, some minimal content in English, French, German)
*[http://www.moldavie.fr/article.php3?id_article=40 Chişinău - Portail Moldavie] (in French)
*[http://www.moldovanet.net/rubrique.php?id_rubrique=27 Chişinău - Magazine Moldavie] (in French)
*[http://www.kishinev.org Jewish community of Chişinău]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=247&letter=K Kishinef(Kishinev)], by Rosenthal, Herman & Rosenthal, Max, in the ''[[Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' (1901-1906)
*[http://www.protv.md/ Pro TV]
*[http://www.elections2005.md/chisinau/ 2005 Chişinău election for mayor]

=== Maps ===
* [http://www.allmoldova.com/map.php?lang=en Map of Chişinău]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/vitalie_eremia/chisinau.htm A Chişinău "interactive" map with images]
{{Geolinks-cityscale|47.0107|28.8687}}

{{RaioaneMoldova}}

[[Category:Cities in Moldova|Chisinau]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe|Chisinau]]
[[Category:1436 establishments]]

[[ar:كيشيناو]]
[[id:Kishinev]]
[[be:Кішынёў]]
[[bg:Кишинев]]
[[da:Chişinău]]
[[de:Chişinău]]
[[et:Chişinău]]
[[el:Κισινάου]]
[[es:Chisinau]]
[[eo:Kiŝinevo]]
[[fr:Chişinău]]
[[ko:키시너우]]
[[hy:Կիշինյով]]
[[hi:चिशिनाउ]]
[[io:Chisinau]]
[[it:Chişinău]]
[[he:קישינאו]]
[[ka:კიშინიოვი]]
[[lv:Kišiņeva]]
[[lt:Kišiniovas]]
[[hu:Kisinyov]]
[[mo:Кишинэу]]
[[nl:Chisinau]]
[[ja:キシナウ]]
[[no:Chişinău]]
[[pl:Kiszyniów]]
[[pt:Chişinău]]
[[ro:Chişinău]]
[[rm:Chisinau]]
[[ru:Кишинёв]]
[[sa:चिशिनौ]]
[[sq:Chişinău]]
[[sk:Kišiňov]]
[[sr:Кишињев]]
[[fi:Chişinău]]
[[sv:Chişinău]]
[[tr:Kişinev]]
[[zh:基希讷乌]]

Budapest

2006-10-04T01:03:49Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Budapest

{{otheruses}}
{{portal|Budapest}}
{{Infobox City |official_name =Budapest
|nickname= Paris of the East", "Pearl of the Danube" ''or'' "Queen of the Danube
|image_flag = Hungary pest budapest-l.gif
|image_seal = Hu)bp.jpg
|image_map = BudapestMap23.gif
|map_caption = Location of Budapest in Hungary
|subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Counties of Hungary|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[Hungary]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Pest]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Gábor Demszky]] ([[SZDSZ]])
|area_magnitude =
|area_total = 525,16
|area_land = n/a
|area_water = n/a
|population_as_of = 2006
|population_note =
|population_total = 1,695,000
|population_density = 3570
|timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
|utc_offset = +1
|timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|latitude = 47°28′19″ N
|longitude = 19°03′01″ E
|website = [http://english.budapest.hu/ budapest.hu]
|footnotes =
}}
[[Image:Budapest from Gellert Hill.jpg|thumb|200px|Budapest seen from the [[Gellérthegy|Gellért Hill]]]]
'''Budapest''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ˈbʊdɑpɛʃt]}}) is the [[Capitals of Hungary|capital]] city of [[Hungary]] and the country's principal [[political]], [[cultural]], [[commerce|commercial]], [[Industry|industrial]] and [[transportation]] center.

Budapest has approximately 1.7 million inhabitants, down from a mid-[[1980s]] peak of 2.1 million. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the river [[Danube]] with the amalgamation on [[17 November]] [[1873]] of right-bank (west) [[Buda]] (''Ofen'' in [[German language|German]]) and [[Óbuda]] (Old Buda or ''Alt-Ofen'') together with [[Pest (city)|Pest]] on the left (east) bank. It is the [[Largest cities of the European Union by population|eighth largest city in the European Union]].

== History ==
Budapest's [[Recorded History|recorded history]] begins with the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] town of ''[[Aquincum]]'', founded around [[89|89 AD]] on the site of an earlier [[Celts|Celtic]] settlement near what was to become [[Óbuda]], and from [[106]] until the end of the [[4th century]] the capital of the province of lower [[Pannonia]]. Aquincum was the base camp of [[Legio II Adiutrix|Legio II ''Adiutrix'']]. The area of [[Campona]] (today's [[Nagytétény]]) belongs to Buda as well. Today's Pest became the site of ''Contra Aquincum'' (or ''Trans Aquincum''), a smaller sentry point. The word Pest (or ''Peshta'') is thought to originate from the [[Bolgar language]], (thought to be a [[Turkic language]], not related to modern [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], which is a [[Slavic language]]) because at the time of the reign of the Bulgarian Khan [[Krum]] (approximately [[796]]-[[814]]), the town was under Bulgar dominion. The area then became a homeland for the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] and some [[Slavic peoples]].
[[Image:Matyas.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Matthias Church|Mátyás Templom]], called Matthias Church in English]]
The area was occupied around the year [[900]] by the [[Magyars]] of [[Central Asia]], the cultural and linguistic ancestors of today's ethnic Hungarians, who a century later officially founded the Kingdom of Hungary. Already a place of some significance, Pest recovered rapidly from its destruction by [[Mongols|Mongol]] invaders in [[1241]], but it was [[Buda]], the seat of a royal castle since [[1247]], which in [[1361]] became the [[capital]] of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]].

The [[Ottoman Empire]]'s conquest of most of Hungary in the [[16th century]] interrupted the cities' growth: Buda and Pest fell to the invaders in [[1541]]. While Buda remained the seat of a Turkish pasha, and administrative center of a whole [[vilayet]], Pest was largely derelict by the time of their recapture in [[1686]] by [[Austria]]'s [[Habsburg]] rulers, who since 1526 had been [[List of Hungarian rulers|Kings of Hungary]] despite their loss of most of the country.

It was [[Pest (city)|Pest]], a bustling commercial town, which enjoyed the faster growth rate in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] century and contributed the overwhelming majority of the cities' combined growth in the 19th. By [[1800]] its population was larger than that of Buda and Óbuda combined. The population of Pest grew twentyfold in the following century to 600,000, while that of Buda and Óbuda quintupled.
The fusion of the three cities under a single administration, first enacted by the Hungarian revolutionary government in [[1849]] but revoked on the subsequent restoration of Habsburg authority, was finally effected by the autonomous Hungarian royal government established under the Austro-Hungarian [[Ausgleich]] ("Compromise") of [[1867]]; ''see [[Austria-Hungary]]''. The total population of the unified capital grew nearly sevenfold in [[1840]]–[[1900]] to 730,000.

[[Image:Rcastle.jpg|The Royal Castle|200px|thumb|right|The Royal Castle]]
During the [[20th century]], most population growth occurred in the suburbs, with [[Újpest]] more than doubling between [[1890]]–[[1910]] and [[Kispest]] more than quintupling in [[1900]]–[[1920]], as much of the country's industry came to be concentrated in the city.
The country's human losses during [[World War I]] and the subsequent loss of more than two thirds of the former kingdom's territory (1920) dealt only a temporary blow, leaving Budapest as the capital of a smaller but now sovereign state. By 1930 the city proper contained a million inhabitants, with a further 400,000 in the suburbs.

Towards the end of [[World War II]] in 1944 Budapest was partly destroyed by British and American air raids. [[Battle of Budapest|The following siege]] lasted from [[December 24]] 1944 to [[February 13]] 1945, and major damages were caused by the attacking Soviet and defending German and Hungarian troops. All bridges were disrupted by the Germans. More than 38,000 civilians lost their lives during the fighting.
Between 20% and 40% of Greater Budapest's 250,000 Jewish inhabitants died through [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Arrow Cross]] genocide during 1944 and early 1945. [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005458], [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005264]  Despite this, Budapest today has the highest number of Jewish citizens per capita of any European city.

On [[January 1]], [[1950]], the area of Budapest was significantly expanded: new districts were formed from the neighbouring cities and towns (see [[Greater Budapest]]). From the severe damage during the Soviet siege in 1944, the city recovered in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], becoming to some extent a showcase for the more pragmatic policies pursued by the country's [[Communist state|communist government]] ([[1947]]–[[1989]]) from the 1960s. Since the [[1980s]], the capital has shared with the country as a whole in increased emigration (mostly to the agglomeration) coupled with [[natural population decrease]].

=== Demographic history ===
[[Image:Budapest Population graph.PNG|300px|right|Population Graph]]

Population:
* [[1800]]: 54,200
* [[1830]]: 102,700
* [[1850]]: 178,000
* [[1880]]: 370,800
* [[1900]]: 733,400
* [[1910]]: 882,000
* [[1925]]: 957,800
* [[1990]]: 2,016,100
* [[2003]]: 1,719,343

 

== Politics ==
Budapest is the center of all political affairs, with most countries' embassies located in the city. – It has currently been the location of protests and violent riots, see [[2006 protests in Hungary]].

== Districts ==
[[Image:Budapest districts.png|right|thumb|The District Map of Budapest]]
:''Main article: [[List of districts and towns in Budapest]]''

Originally Budapest had 10 districts after coming into existence upon the unification of the three cities in 1873. On [[1 January]] [[1950]] Budapest was united with several neighboring towns and the number of its districts was raised to 22. At that time there were changes both in the order of districts and in their sizes. Now there are 23 districts, 6 in Buda, 16 in Pest and 1 on Csepel island between them. Each district can be associated with one or more city parts named after former towns within Budapest.

== Islands ==
Seven islands can be found on the Danube: Hajógyári sziget (literal translation: Shipyard Island), [[Margitsziget]] (Margaret Island), and Csepel sziget (this island is a separate district of Budapest, the XXI., while the other islands are parts of other districts, the III. and XIII. respectively), Palotai-sziget (in fact, it's a peninsula today), Népsziget (connected to the above, but mostly surrounded by water), Háros-sziget and Molnár-sziget.

Notable islands:
[[Image:Budapest 107.jpg|thumb|Margaret Island (Margitsziget)]]
* [[Margitsziget]] is a 2.5 km long island (and 0.965 km² in area) The island mostly consists of a park and is a popular recreational area for tourists and locals alike. The island lies between bridges [[Margaret Bridge]] (south) and [[Árpád Bridge]] (north). Dance clubs, [[Swimming pool]]s, an [[Aqua park]], athletic and fitness centers, bicycle and running tracks can be found around the Island. During the day the island is occupied by people doing sports, or just resting. In the summer (generally on the weekends) mostly young people go to the island at night to party in its terraces, or to just 'chill' with a bottle of alcohol on a bench or on a grass (this form of entertainment is sometimes referred to as bench-partying)
*The [[Csepel Island|Csepel-sziget]] (pronounced CHE-pel see-get) or Csepel Island is the largest island of the River Danube in Hungary. It is 48 km long; its width is 6-8 km and its area comprises 257 km², whereas only the northern tip is inside the city limits.
*Hajógyári-sziget (or Óbudai-sziget) is a man built island, located in the third district. This island hosts many activities such as: wakeboarding, jetskiing during the day, and [[Nightclub|dance clubs]] during the night. This is the island where the famous [[Sziget Festival]] takes place, hosting hundreds of performances per year and now around 400,000 visitors in its last edition. Many building projects are taking place to make this island into one of the biggest entertainment centers of Europe, the plan is to build [[Apartment building]]s, hotels, casinos and a marina.
*Luppa-sziget is the smallest island of Budapest, located in the north region.

== Landmarks and monuments ==
[[Image:Budapest_night.JPG|800px|center|Budapst in the night]]
:''(The below sights are grouped by location.)''
[[Image:St Stephens bas budapest.jpg|thumb|200px|[[St. Stephen's Basilica]], [[Pest (city)|Pest]]]]
[[Image:Palace of Art, Budapest.jpeg|thumb|200px|Museum of Fine Arts]]
[[Image:Andrássy_út_at_Christmas.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Andrássy Avenue]]]]
* [[Andrássy Avenue]] with its several sights including the [[Hungarian State Opera House|State Opera House]], the [[Pest Broadway]] and the [[House of Terror]]
* [[Buda Castle]] with the Royal Palace, the Funicular, Hungarian National Gallery and [[National Széchényi Library]], [[Matthias Church]], Holy Trinity Column (a [[plague column]]) and [[Fisherman's Bastion]]
* [[City Park (Budapest)|City Park]] with [[Széchenyi Medicinal Bath]], [[Vajdahunyad Castle]], the [[Timewheel]], the Zoo, the Municipal Grand Circus and the [[Amusement park|Amusement Park]]
* [[Danube Promenade]] (Duna-korzó) with [[Vigadó Concert Hall]]
* [[Ferenciek tere]] with [[Paris Courtyard]] and [[Erzsébet Bridge]] with [[Inner City Parish Church]] nearby
* [[Franz Liszt Academy of Music]]
* [[Gellért Baths]], [[Gellért Hill]] with Gellért Statue, Cave Church and [[Citadel]] with Liberty Statue
* [[Geological Museum (Budapest)|Geological Museum]]
* [[Great Market Hall (Budapest)|Great Market Hall]] and [[Liberty Bridge (Budapest)|Liberty Bridge]]
* [[Heroes' Square (Budapest)|Heroes' Square]] with the Millenary Monument, the [[Palace of Art (Budapest)|Palace of Art]] and the [[Museum of Fine Arts (Budapest)|Museum of Fine Arts]]
* [[Margaret Island]] with the Centennial Memorial, a [[Japanese garden]], a [[Musical fountain|Musical Fountain]], several recreation facilities and Franciscan, Dominican and Premonstratensian ruins from [[Middle Ages|the Middle Ages]]
* [[Museum of Applied Arts (Budapest)|Museum of Applied Arts]]
* [[National Museum]]
* [[New York Café (Budapest)|New York Café]]
* [[Dohány Street Synagogue]] with the Holocaust Memorial ([[Willow|weeping willow]] statue)
* [[Óbuda]]
* [[Palace of Arts (Budapest)|Palace of Arts]] and [[National Theatre (Budapest)|National Theatre]]
* [[Hungarian Parliament Building|Parliament Building]] with [[Stephen I of Hungary|King Stephen]]'s [[Crown of St. Stephen|crown]] and sceptre, [[Kossuth Memorial]], [[Kossuth tér|Ethnographical Museum]], [[Attila József]] statue, [[Imre Nagy]] statue
* [[Saint Stephen's Basilica]]
* [[Statue Park (Budapest)|Statue Park]]
* [[Széchenyi Chain Bridge]], [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences|Academy of Sciences]] and [[Gresham Palace]]
* [[Gül Baba (poet)|Tomb of Gül Baba]]
* [[Váci Street]] and [[Vörösmarty Square]]
* [[Western Railway Station (Budapest)|Western Railway Station]]
 

==Tourism==
<center><gallery>
Image:Csarnok.jpg|Budapest Market Hall
Image:Tehen.jpg|A cow at the 2006 [[CowParade|Cow Parade]]
Image:Hosok2.jpg|Heroes' Square
Image:Budparliament.jpg|The Parliament
Image:Basilicabu2.jpg|St. Stephen Basilica
Image:House of terror bp.jpg|House of Terror
Image:Budapest chain bridge pillar by night.JPG|Széchenyi Chain Bridge
</gallery></center>

== Martial arts==
*[[Okinawa Kobudo]]
**[http://www.kobudo.hu Official Hungarian Kobudo Website]
*[[Kashima Shinden Jikishinkage-ryu]] [[Kenjutsu]]
**[http://www.kenjutsu.hu/eng Official Site (in english)]
***Head Instructor: [[Kimiyoshi Suzuki]] [[sensei]]

== Shopping ==
[[Image:Vaci utca.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Váci Street (The main shopping street) in Christmas decoration]]
Budapest has the most [[Shopping mall|shopping centers]] in Europe, including [[WestEnd City Center]], the largest shopping centre in [[Central Europe|Central and Eastern Europe]], and the biggest [[Tesco]] in the world. The [[Great Market Hall (Budapest)|Great Market Hall]] is a large indoor market and a major tourist attraction.

All luxurious brands can be found, on the high streets, such as [[Andrássy Avenue]] and [[Váci utca]].

== Transport ==

=== Airport ===

[[Budapest Ferihegy International Airport]], which has 3 different passenger terminals: Ferihegy 1, which tends to serve the many [[discount airlines]] now flying to and from Budapest, Ferihegy 2/A and Ferihegy 2/B. The airport is located to the east of the centre in the XVIII. district in [[Pestszentlőrinc]].
[[Malév]] (Hungarian Airlines) had begun to change its aircraft in 2003, and by 2005 owned the most modern fleet in Europe.

=== Roads ===
Budapest is the most important Hungarian road terminus; all the major highways end there. Between 1990-1994, the city [[Street name]]s were reverted from the names given under Soviet occupation back to their late-19th century names. Budapest is also a major [[Terminal station|railway terminus]].

[[Image:BudapestKeletiStation.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Budapest Keleti (Eastern) Railway Station]]
[[Image:Combinobud.jpg|thumb|250px|Line 4-6's new tram on a test run (line 1)]]
[[Image:Funibud.jpg|thumb|250px|Budapest Funicular]]



=== Commuting with public transport ===

Budapest [[public transport]] is mainly provided by [[BKV]], the company operates Buses, Trolley Buses, Trams, Suburban Railway lines, the Metro, Boats and many other special vehicles. Budapest's tramline is the busiest traditional city tram line in the world, with 50-metre long trains running at 60 to 90 second intervals at peak time and usually packed with people.

===Special vehicles===
Beside metros, [[HÉV|suburban rails]], buses, trams and boats, there are a couple of less usual vehicles in Budapest:
* [[trolleybus]] ''(trolibusz)'' on several lines in [[Pest (city)|Pest]]
* [[funicular]] ''(sikló)'' between the [[Széchenyi Chain Bridge|Chain Bridge]] and [[Buda Castle]]
* [[cyclecar]] ''(bringóhintó)'' for rent in [[Margaret Island]]
* [[chairlift]] ''(libegő)''
* [[Budapest Cog-wheel Railway|cog-wheel railway]] ''(fogaskerekű vasút)''
* [[children's railway]] ''(gyermekvasút)''
The latter three vehicles run among [[Buda]] hills.
[[Image:Troli_pic06_large.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[Trolley-bus]]]]

===Railway===
''Main articles: [[MÁV]], [[HÉV]]''

Hungarian main-line railways are operated by [[Hungarian State Railways|MÁV]]. There are three main railway termini in Budapest, [[Keleti pályaudvar|Keleti]] (eastern), [[Nyugati pályaudvar|Nyugati]] (western), and [[Déli pályaudvar|Déli]] (southern), operating both domestic and international rail services. Budapest was one of the main stops of the [[Orient Express]] until [[2001]], when the service was cut back to Paris-Vienna.

There is also a [[regional rail|suburban rail]] service in and around Budapest, operated under the name [[HÉV]].

===Waterways ===
The river [[Danube]] flows through Budapest on its way to the [[Black Sea]]. The river is easily navigable and so Budapest has historically been a major commercial port (at [[Csepel]]).

== International schools ==

Many embassies and [[transnational]] companies are located in Budapest. They bring many expatriate foreigners and their families to town, creating demand for private and international schools. These schools are usually quite expensive and are attented by the expatriates as well as some richer Hungarians.

List of international schools:

*American International School of Budapest - [http://www.aisb.hu Homepage]
*International School of Budapest - [http://www.isb.hu Homepage]
*International Christian School of Budapest - [http://www.icsbudapest.org Homepage]
*Greater Grace International School - [http://www.ggis.hu Homepage]
*British International School, Budapest - [http://www.bisb.hu Homepage]
*Budapest University of Technology and Economy International Secondary School - [http://www.bmegimnazium.hu Homepage]
*Britannica International School - [http://www.britannicaschool.hu Homepage]
*SEK International School Budapest - [http://www.sek.hu Homepage]
*McDaniel College Budapest - [http://www.mcdaniel.hu Homepage]
*Lauder Javne Jewish Community School and Kindergarten - [http://www.lauder.hu Homepage]
*Budapest French School (Lycée [[Gustave Eiffel]]) - [http://web.matavnet.hu/lfb Homepage]
*Austrian-Hungarian European School - [http://www.europaschule.hu Homepage]
*[[Thomas Mann Gymnasium]] / Deutsche Schule Budapest - [http://www.deutscheschule.hu Homepage]
*Japanese School of Budapest - [http://www.hoshuko.hu Homepage]

==Notable people from Budapest==
* [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] 1754 born in Pest, astronomer
* [[Ignaz Semmelweis]] (Semmelweis, Ignác Fülöp) born 1818 in Buda, physician
* [[Árpád Doppler]] born in 1857 in Budapest, composer
* [[Theodor Herzl]] born in 1860 in Budapest, journalist and founder of modern [[Zionism|political Zionism]]
* [[George de Hevesy]] (Hevesy, György) born in 1885 in Budapest, [[Nobel Prize]] winner in chemistry (1943)
* [[Georg Lukács]] (Lukács, György) born in 1885 in Budapest, philosopher
* [[Michael Curtiz]] (Kaminer, Manó Kertész) born in 1886 in Budapest, [[film director]]
* [[Fritz Reiner]] born in 1888 in Budapest, conductor
* [[Albert von Szent-Györgyi Nagyrapolt]] born in 1893 in Budapest, Nobel Prize winner biologist, first isolated and described the vitamin C
* [[Karl Mannheim]] (Mannheim, Károly) in 1893 in Budapest, philosopher
* [[George Szell]] (Széll, György) born in 1897 in Budapest, conductor
* [[Leó Szilárd]] born in 1898 in Budapest, developed the [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]]
* [[Béla Bartók]] lived from 1899 to 1940 in Budapest, composer
* [[László József Bíró]] born in 1899 in Budapest, developed the [[biro]]
* [[Edward Teller]] (Teller, Ede) born in 1908 in Budapest, "father of the hydrogen bomb" [[Nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]]
* [[Sir Georg Solti]] (Stern, György) born in 1912 in Budapest, conductor
* [[Amrita Sher-Gil]] born in 1913 in Budapest, painter
* [[László Papp]] born in 1926 in Budapest, boxer
* [[Ferenc Puskás]] born in 1927 in Budapest, [[football (soccer)|football]] player
* [[Tom Lantos]] (Lantos, Tamás Péter) born in 1928 in Budapest, US Congressman
* [[Imre Kertész]] born in 1929 in Budapest, author, Nobel Prize 2002
* [[István Kertész]] born in 1929 in Budapest, conductor
* [[George Soros]] (Soros György) born in 1930 in Budapest
* [[Andy Grove]] (Gróf, András István) born in 1936 in Budapest, founder of [[Intel Corporation]]
* [[Ernő Rubik]] born in 1944 in Budapest, developed [[Rubik's Cube]]
* [[Péter Esterházy]] born in 1950 in Budapest, author
* [[Zoltán Kocsis]] born in 1952 in Budapest, pianist
* [[Zoltán Kodály]] lived and died 1967 in Budapest, composer
* [[Pál Erdős]] born in 1913 in Budapest, mathematician
* [[Robert Capa]] born 1913, grew up in Budapest, reporter, photographer
* [[Eugene Wigner]] "the silent genius" born and raised in Budapest, was a Hungarian physicist and mathematician who received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1963
* [[John von Neumann]] Hungarian mathematician and polymath who made contributions to [[Quantum theory|quantum physics]], [[functional analysis]], [[set theory]], economics, [[computer science]], topology, [[numerical analysis]], hydrodynamics (of explosions), statistics and many other mathematical fields as one of world history's outstanding mathematicians.

==Sister cities==
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Germany}} '''[[Berlin]]''', [[Germany]] ''(1992)''
* {{flagicon|USA}} '''[[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]]''', [[United States]] ''(1990)''
* {{flagicon|Germany}} '''[[Frankfurt]]''', [[Germany]] ''(1990)''
* {{flagicon|Slovakia}} '''[[Košice]]''', [[Slovakia]]
* {{flagicon|Portugal}} '''[[Lisbon]]''', [[Portugal]] ''(1992)''
* {{flagicon|USA}} '''[[New York City]]''', [[United States]] ''(1991)''
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} '''[[Sarajevo]]''', [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ''(1995)''
* {{flagicon|Israel}} '''[[Tel Aviv]]''', [[Israel]] ''(1989)''
* {{flagicon|Austria}} '''[[Vienna]]''', [[Austria]] ''(1990)''
* {{flagicon|Lithuania}} '''[[Vilnius]]''', [[Lithuania]]
* {{flagicon|Croatia}} '''[[Zagreb]]''', [[Croatia]] ''(1994)''
|}

==See also==
*[[Music of Budapest]]
*[[List of cemeteries in Budapest]]
*[[Wikipedia:List of images/Places/Europe/Hungary/Cities/Budapest|Images of Budapest]]
*[[Urban and Suburban Transit Association]] (most of its activity is centred around Budapest)

== External links ==
{{Cleanup-spam}}
===General information===
{{Commons|Budapest}}
* [http://www.budapestinfo.hu/en Budapest Tourist Board]
* [http://english.budapest.hu/ Official Budapest portal]
* [http://budapestnews.budpocketguide.com/ Budapest headline news, breaking news]
* [http://www.bkv.hu/angol/home/index.html Budapest Transport plc] Public transport in Budapest
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=47.495613,19.048920&spn=0.086517,0.124626&t=k&hl=en Satellite photo map from Google Maps]
* [http://www.magyarorszag.hu/angol/orszaginfo/turizmus/latnivalo/budapest Attractions of Budapest] at the administrative website of Hungary
{{Geolinks-cityscale|47.499|19.044}}

===Information for tourists===
* [http://www.visitors.hu/budapest_en.html Budapest] ''(Hungary for Visitors)''
* [http://www.budapestinfo.hu/en/event Event calendar of Budapest]
* {{wikitravelpar|Budapest}}
* [http://www.budpocketguide.com/ Budapest Travel and Business Portal]
* [http://hungary.ohb.hu/embassy.en.html Foreign Embassies in Budapest]
* [http://metros.hu/terkep/nagyterkep.html Metro lines, suburban railway- and tramway network in Budapest]
* [http://hampage.hu/trams/thg2bp/ Tram-hiker's guide to Budapest] ''(The unofficial guide to Budapest tramways)''
* [http://metros.hu/terkep/metrosterkep.html Budapest public transport map]

===Picture galleries===
*[http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=47510000&x=19080000&z=11&l=1&m=a WikiSatellite view of Budapest at WikiMapia]
* [http://www.legenda.hu/a_budapest/a_budapest.html Budapest sights collected on one page]
* [http://www.panoramy.net/thumbnails.php?album=13&lang=english_gb Panoramic photo gallery of Budapest]


{{World Heritage Sites in Hungary}}
{{Capital cities of the European Union}}
{{Danube}}

[[Category:Budapest| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Roman legions' camps in Central Europe]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Hungary]]
[[Category:Cities on the Danube]]
[[Category:Spa towns]]
[[Category:NUTS 3 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:1873 establishments]]
[[Category:County seats in Hungary|Budapest]]

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Karl Marx

2006-10-04T01:02:33Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Karl Marx

{{Redirect|Marx}}
{{Infobox_Philosopher |


region = Western Philosophy |
era = [[19th century philosophy]] |
color = #B0C4DE |

image_name = Karl Marx.jpg |
image_caption = Karl Marx|

name = Karl Marx |
birth = [[May 5]], [[1818]] ([[Trier]], [[Germany]]) |
death = [[March 14]], [[1883]] ([[London]], [[England]]) |
school_tradition = [[Marxism]] |
main_interests = [[Politics]], [[Economics]], [[class struggle]] |
influences = [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Ludwig Feuerbach|Feuerbach]], [[Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi|Sismondi]], [[Max Stirner|Stirner]], [[Adam Smith|Smith]], [[David Ricardo|Ricardo]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Goethe]], [[Charles Fourier|Fourier]] |
influenced = [[Rosa Luxemburg|Luxemburg]], [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], [[Mao Ze Dong|Mao]], [[Che Guevara|Guevara]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Guy Debord|Debord]], [[Frankfurt School]], [[Antonio Negri|Negri]], [[List of Marxists|more...]] |
notable_ideas = Co-founder of [[Marxism]] (with [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]]), [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]] and exploitation of the worker, [[historical materialism]] |}}
'''Karl Heinrich Marx''' ([[May 5]], [[1818]], [[Trier]], [[Germany]] – [[March 14]], [[1883]], [[London]], [[England]]) was an immensely influential German [[philosopher]], [[political economy|political economist]], and [[socialism|socialist]] [[revolutionary]]. While Marx addressed a wide range of issues, he is most famous for his analysis of history in terms of [[class conflict|class struggles]], summed up in the opening line of the introduction to the ''[[The Communist Manifesto|Communist Manifesto]]'': "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of [[class struggle]]s."

At the same time as [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], Marx took part in the political and philosophical struggle of his times, writing the ''[[Communist Manifesto]]'' a year before the [[Revolutions of 1848]], although the two events had nothing to do with each other. Marx had broken with his university environment, [[German Idealism]] and the [[Young Hegelians]], and took part in the debates of the [[Europe|European]] [[workers' movement]], in particular in relation with the [[First International]] founded in 1864. He published the first volume of ''[[Das Kapital]]'' in 1867, a few years before the 1871 [[Paris Commune]]. The influence of his ideas, already popular during his life, was given added impetus by the victory of the [[Russia|Russian]] [[Bolsheviks]] in the 1917 [[October Revolution]], and there are few parts of the world which were not significantly touched by Marxian ideas in the course of the twentieth century. The relation of Marx's own thought to the popular "[[Marxist]]" interpretations of it during this period is a point of controversy; he himself once said that "the only thing I know is that I'm not a Marxist" (in response to the views of a French Social-Democratic Party). While Marx's ideas have declined in popularity, particularly since the collapse of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] regime, they are still very influential today, both in [[academic]] circles, some worker movements, and in political practice, and Marxism continues to be the official ideology of some [[Communist states]] and political movements.

== Marx's thought ==
{{Marxist theory}}
The legacy of Marx's thought is bitterly contested between numerous tendencies who claim to be Marx's most accurate interpreters, including [[Marxism-Leninism]], [[Trotskyism]], [[Maoism]], and [[libertarian Marxism]].

=== Philosophy ===
Marx's philosophy hinges on his [[Marx's theory of human nature|view of human nature]]. Along with the Hegelian dialectic, Marx inherited a disdain for the notion of an underlying invariant human nature. Sometimes Marxists express their views by contrasting “nature” with “history”. Sometimes they use the phrase “existence precedes consciousness”. The point, in either case, is that who a person is, is determined by where and when he is — social context takes precedence over innate behavior; or, in other words, one of the main features of human nature is adaptability. Nevertheless, Marxian thought rests on the fundamental assumption that it is [[human nature]] to transform nature, and he calls this process of transformation "[[labour (economics)|labour]] " and the capacity to transform nature [[labor power|labour power]]. For Marx, this is a natural capacity for a physical activity, but it is intimately tied to the active role of human consciousness:

:A spider conducts operations that resemble those of a weaver, and a bee puts to shame many an [[architect]] in the construction of her cells. But what distinguishes the worst architect from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality. (''Capital'', Vol. I, Chap. 7, Pt. 1)

Marx did not believe that all people worked the same way, or that how one works is entirely personal and individual. Instead, he argued that work is a social activity and that the conditions and forms under and through which people work are socially determined and change over time.

Marx's analysis of history is based on his distinction between the [[means of production|means / forces of production]], literally those things, such as land, natural resources, and technology, that are necessary for the production of material goods, and the [[relations of production]], in other words, the social and technical relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production. Together these comprise the [[mode of production]]; Marx observed that within any given society the mode of production changes, and that European societies had progressed from a [[feudalism|feudal]] mode of production to a [[capitalism|capitalist]] mode of production. In general, Marx believed that the means of production change more rapidly than the relations of production (for example, we develop a new [[technology]], such as the [[Internet]], and only later do we develop laws to regulate that technology). For Marx this mismatch between (economic) base and (social) [[superstructure]] is a major source of social disruption and conflict.

Marx understood the "social relations of [[Mass production|production]]" to comprise not only relations among individuals, but between or among groups of people, or [[class (social)|class]]es. As a [[materialist]] and claiming to be making a scientific analysis, Marx did not understand classes as purely [[subjective]] (in other words, groups of people who consciously identified with one another). He sought to define classes in terms of objective criteria, such as their access to [[Natural resource|resources]]. For Marx, different classes have divergent interests, which is a source of social disruption and conflict. Marx proposed to study history (he meant written history; Marx and Engels accepted claims by some contemporary anthropologists that non-literate societies were not class-stratified) in terms of such conflicts:

:The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. (''The Communist Manifesto'', Chap. 1)

Marx was especially concerned with how people relate to that most fundamental resource of all, their own labour power. Marx wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]]. As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception. For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour — one's capacity to transform the world — is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss. Marx described this loss in terms of [[commodity fetishism]], in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behavior merely adapt. This disguises the fact that the exchange and circulation of commodities really are the product and reflection of social relationships among people. Under capitalism, social relationships of production, such as among workers or between workers and capitalists, are mediated through commodities, including labor, that are bought and sold on the market.

[[Commodity fetishism]] is an example of what Engels called [[false consciousness]], which is closely related to the understanding of [[ideology]]. By ideology they meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which are presented as universal and eternal. Marx and Engels' point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths; they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods; it includes the production of ideas as well (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests). Thus, while such ideas may be false, they also reveal in coded form some truth about political relations. For example, although the belief that the things people produce are actually more productive than the people who produce them is literally absurd, it does reflect the fact (according to Marx and Engels) that people under capitalism are alienated from their own labour-power. Another example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface to his 1843 ''Contribution to the [[Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right]]'':
:Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sign of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the [[opium of the people]].
Whereas his [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] senior thesis argued that the primary social function of religion was to promote [[solidarity (sociology)|solidarity]], here Marx sees the social function as a way of expressing and coping with [[social inequality]], thereby maintaining the status quo.

=== Political economy===
Marx argued that this alienation of human work (and resulting commodity fetishism) is precisely the defining feature of [[capitalism]]. Prior to capitalism, markets existed in Europe where producers and merchants bought and sold commodities. According to Marx, a [[capitalist mode of production]] developed in Europe when labor itself became a commodity — when peasants became free to sell their own labor-power, and needed to do so because they no longer possessed their own land. People sell their labor-power when they accept compensation in return for whatever work they do in a given period of time (in other words, they are not selling the product of their labor, but their capacity to work). In return for selling their labor power they receive money, which allows them to survive. Those who must sell their labor power are "[[proletarian]]s." The person who buys the labor power, generally someone who does own the land and technology to produce, is a "capitalist" or "[[bourgeoisie|bourgeoise]]." The proletarians inevitably outnumber the capitalists.

Marx distinguished industrial capitalists from [[merchant]] capitalists. Merchants buy [[good (economics)|goods]] in one market and sell them in another. Since the laws of [[supply and demand]] operate within given [[markets]], there is often a difference between the price of a commodity in one market and another. Merchants, then, practice [[arbitrage]], and hope to capture the difference between these two markets. According to Marx, capitalists, on the other hand, take advantage of the difference between the labor market and the market for whatever commodity is produced by the capitalist. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "[[surplus value]]" and argued that this surplus value had its source in [[surplus labour]], the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive and what they can produce.

The [[capitalist mode of production]] is capable of tremendous growth because the capitalist can, and has an incentive to, reinvest profits in new technologies. Marx considered the capitalist class to be the most revolutionary in history, because it constantly revolutionized the means of production. But Marx argued that capitalism was prone to periodic crises. He suggested that over time, capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies, and less and less in labor. Since Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from labor is the source of profits, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as the economy grew. When the rate of profit falls below a certain point, the result would be a recession or depression in which certain sectors of the economy would collapse. Marx understood that during such a crisis the price of labor would also fall, and eventually make possible the investment in new technologies and the growth of new sectors of the economy.

Marx believed that this [[business cycles|cycle]] of growth, collapse, and growth would be punctuated by increasingly severe crises. Moreover, he believed that the long-term consequence of this process was necessarily the enrichment and empowerment of the capitalist class and the impoverishment of the proletariat. He believed that were the proletariat to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, and a system of production less vulnerable to periodic crises. In general, Marx thought that peaceful negotiation of this problem was impracticable, and that a massive, well-organized and violent revolution would in general be required, because the ruling class would not give up power without violence. He theorized that to establish the socialist system, a dictatorship of the proletariat - a period where the needs of the working-class, not of capital, will be the common deciding factor - must be created on a temporary basis. As he wrote in his "[[Critique of the Gotha Program]]", "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat." [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch04.htm]
Yet he was aware of the possibility that in some countries, with strong democratic institutional structures (e.g. Britain, the US and the Netherlands) this transformation could occur through peaceful means, while in countries with a strong centralized state-oriented traditions, like France and Germany, the upheaval will have to be violent.

===Main works===
====Das Kapital====
''[[Das Kapital]]'' (or ''Capital'' in English) is written over three volumes, of which only the first was complete at the time of Marx's death. The first volume, and especially the first chapter of that volume, contains the core of the analysis and the critique of [[commodity fetishism]]. Hegel's legacy is especially overpowering here, and the work is seldom read with the thoroughness Marx urges in his introduction. According to his prescriptions, the method of presentation proceeds from the most abstract concepts, incorporating one new layer of determination at a time and tracing the effects of each such layer, in an effort to arrive eventually at a total account of the concrete relationships of everyday capitalist society.

====Grundrisse====
{{wikify|September 2006}}

Marx was involved in a huge ongoing work-in-progress, which was only published posthumously over a hundred years later as Grundrisse. These sprawling, voluminous notebooks that Marx put together for his research on political economy, particularly those materials associated with the study of "primitive communism" and pre-capitalist communal production, in fact, show a more radical turning "Hegel on his head" than heretofore acknowledged by most mainstream Marxists and Marxiologists. In lieu of the Enlightenment belief in historical progress and stages that Hegel explicitly stated (often in a racist, Eurocentric manner, as in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History), Marx pursues in these research notes a decidedly empirical approach to analyzing historical changes and different modes of production, emphasizing without forcing them into a teleological paradigm the rich varieties of communal productions throughout the world and the critical importance of collective working-class antagonism in the development of capitalism.

Moreover, Marx's rejection of the necessity of bourgeois revolution and appreciation of the obschina, the communal land system, in Russia in his letter to Vera Zasulich; respect for the egalitarian culture of North African Muslim commoners found in his letters from Algeria; and sympathetic and searching investigation of the global commons and indigenous cultures and practices in his notebooks, including the Ethnological Notebooks that he kept during his last years, all point to a historical Marx who was continuously developing his ideas until his deathbed and does not fit into any pre-existing ideological straitjacket, including that of Marxism itself (a famously telling anecdote is the one in which Marx quipped to Paul Lafargue "All that I know is that I'm not a Marxist").

== Influences on Marx's thought ==
{{Main|Influences on Karl Marx}}
Marx's thought was strongly influenced by:
* The dialectical method and historical orientation of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]];
* The classical political economy of [[Adam Smith]] and [[David Ricardo]];
* French socialist and sociological thought, in particular the republican conception of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]];
* [[German Idealism]] and the [[young Hegelians]], in particular [[Ludwig Feuerbach]].
* Antique [[materialism]] ([[Democritus]] and [[Epicure]]'s theory of [[clinamen]])
* The anti-capitalist struggle in the British industrial region of [[Lancashire]]

Marx believed that he could study [[history]] and [[society]] scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx concluded, therefore, that a communist [[revolution]] was inevitable. This conception, shared by the [[young Marx]] (who formulated it in the ''[[Communist Manifesto]]'' but later abandoned it), however, did not entail [[fatalism]]. In the eleventh ''[[Theses on Feuerbach|Thesis on Feuerbach]]'' (1845), Marx had famously asserted that "''philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it''": he thus opposed ''[[praxis]]'' (the unity of [[theory]] and practice) to idealist interpretations which opposed themselves as various philosophical ''[[Weltanschauung]]''. Marx thus cut with Prussian university in order to work with the [[labour movement]] in order to try to alter the word. Consequently, most followers of Marx have been activists who believed that revolutionaries must organize [[social change]].
[[Image:Hegel.jpg|right|thumb|G.W.F. Hegel]]

Marx's view of history, which came to be called [[historical materialism]] (controversially adapted as the philosophy of [[dialectical materialism]] by Engels and Lenin, a term never used by Marx himself) is certainly influenced by Hegel's claim that reality (and history) should be viewed [[dialectic]]ally. Hegel believed that the direction of human history is characterized in the movement from the fragmentary toward the complete and the real (which was also a movement towards greater and greater [[rationality]]). Sometimes, Hegel explained, this progressive unfolding of [[the Absolute]] involves gradual, evolutionary accretion but at other times requires discontinuous, revolutionary leaps — episodal upheavals against the existing [[status quo]]. For example, Hegel strongly opposed slavery in the United States during his lifetime, and he envisioned a time when Christian nations would radically eliminate it from their civilization. While Marx accepted this broad conception of history, Hegel was an [[idealism|idealist]], and Marx sought to rewrite [[dialectic]]s in [[materialism|materialist]] terms. He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that it was necessary to set it upon its feet.

Marx's acceptance of this notion of ''materialist'' dialectics which rejected Hegel's idealism was greatly influenced by Ludwig Feuerbach. In ''[[The Essence of Christianity]]'', Feuerbach argued that [[God]] is really a creation of man and that the qualities people attribute to God are really qualities of [[humanity]]. Accordingly, Marx argued that it is the material world that is real and that our ideas of it are consequences, not causes, of the world. Thus, like Hegel and other philosophers, Marx distinguished between appearances and reality. But he did not believe that the material world hides from us the "real" world of the ideal; on the contrary, he thought that historically and socially specific ideology prevented people from seeing the material conditions of their lives clearly.

The other important contribution to Marx's revision of Hegelianism was Engels' book, ''[[The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844]]'', which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of [[class conflict]] and to see the modern [[working class]] as the most progressive force for revolution.

== Marx's influence ==
{{Seealso|Marxism}}

[[Image:AlexanderplatzMarxEngels.JPG|thumb|none|330px|right|Statue of Marx and Engels in Alexanderplatz, [[Berlin]].]]

Marx and Engels' work covers a wide range of topics and presents a complex analysis of history and society in terms of class relations. Followers of Marx and Engels have drawn on this work to propose a grand, cohesive theoretical outlook dubbed [[Marxism]]. Nevertheless, there have been numerous debates among Marxists over how to interpret Marx's writings and how to apply his concepts to current events and conditions. Moreover, it is important to distinguish between "Marxism" and "what Marx believed"; for example, shortly before he died in 1883, Marx wrote a letter to the French workers' leader [[Jules Guesde]], and to his own son-in-law [[Paul Lafargue]], accusing them of "revolutionary phrase-mongering" and of denying the value of reformist struggles; "if that is Marxism" — paraphrasing what Marx wrote — "then I am not a Marxist").

Essentially, people use the word "[[Marxist]]" to describe those who rely on Marx's conceptual language (e.g. "mode of production", "class", "commodity fetishism") to understand capitalist and other societies, or to describe those who believe that a workers' revolution as the only means to a communist society. Some, particularly in academic circles, who accept much of Marx's theory, but not all its implications, call themselves "[[Marxian]]" instead.

Six years after Marx's death, Engels and others founded the "[[Second International (politics)|Second International]]" as a base for continued political activism. This organization was far more successful than the First International had been, containing mass workers' parties, particularly the large and successful German [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]], which was predominantly Marxist in outlook. This international collapsed in 1914, however, in part because some members turned to [[Edward Bernstein]]'s "[[evolution]]ary" socialism, and in part because of divisions precipitated by [[World War I]].

World War I also led to the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] in which a left splinter of the Second International, the [[Bolshevik]]s, led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], took power. The revolution dynamized workers around the world into setting up their own section of the Bolsheviks' "[[Comintern|Third International]]". Lenin claimed to be both the philosophical and political heir to Marx, and developed a political program, called "[[Leninism]]" or "Bolshevism", which called for revolution organized and led by a centrally organized "[[Communist Party]]."

Marx believed that the communist revolution would take place in advanced industrial societies such as France, Germany and England, but Lenin argued that in the age of imperialism, and due to the "law of uneven development", where Russia had on the one hand, an antiquated agricultural society, but on the other hand, some of the most up-to-date industrial concerns, the "chain" might break at its weakest points, that is, in the so-called "backward" countries.

In China [[Mao Zedong]] also claimed to be an heir to Marx, but argued that peasants and not just workers could play a leading role in a Communist revolution in third world countries still marked by feudalism whose majority of workers were peasants, not industrial workers. This was termed by Mao as the [[New Democracy|New Democratic Revolution]]. As a departure from Marx's understanding of the socialist revolution that maintained that the revolution must take place with countries that have already gone through the captialist stage of development first and have produced the proletarian class as the majority, which is to carry out the revolutionary transformation of society into a socialist country and communist world. Marxism-Leninism as espoused by Mao came to be internationally known as [[Maoism]].

Under Lenin, and increasingly after the rise to power of [[Joseph Stalin]], the actions of the [[Soviet Union]] (and later of the [[People's Republic of China]]) came in many people's mind to be synonymous with Marxism, with its attendant suppression of the rights of individuals and workers in the name of the struggle against capitalism, including the execution of large numbers of people under Stalin, a fact which has been used by anti-Communists against Marxism. However, there were throughout dissenting Marxist voices — Marxists of the old school of the Second International, the [[left communism|left communists]] who split off from the Third International shortly after its formation, and later [[Leon Trotsky]] and his followers, who set up a "[[Fourth International]]" in 1938 to compete with that of Stalin, claiming to represent true Bolshevism.

[[Image:Budamarxeng.jpg|thumb|none|250px|right|Statue of Marx and Engels in the [[Statue Park (Budapest)|Statue Park]], [[Budapest]].]]

Coming from the Second International milieu, in the 1920s and '30s, a group of dissident Marxists founded the [[Institute for Social Research]] in Germany, among them [[Max Horkheimer]], [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Erich Fromm]], and [[Herbert Marcuse]]. As a group, these authors are often called the [[Frankfurt School]]. Their work is known as [[Critical theory (Frankfurt School)|Critical Theory]], a type of Marxist philosophy and cultural criticism heavily influenced by Hegel, [[Freud]], [[Nietzsche]], and [[Max Weber]].

The Frankfurt School broke with earlier Marxists, including Lenin and [[Bolshevism]] in several key ways. First, writing at the time of the ascendance of [[Stalinism]] and [[fascism]], they had grave doubts as to the traditional Marxist concept of proletarian [[class consciousness]]. Second, unlike earlier Marxists, especially Lenin, they rejected [[economic determinism]]. While highly influential, their work has been criticized by both orthodox Marxists and some Marxists involved in political practice for divorcing [[Marxist theory]] from practical struggle and turning Marxism into a purely academic enterprise.

Influential Marxists of the same period include the Third International's [[Georg Lukacs]] and [[Antonio Gramsci]], who along with the Frankfurt School are often known by the term [[Western Marxism]].

In 1949 [[Paul Sweezy]] and Leo Huberman founded ''[[Monthly Review]]'', a journal and press, to provide an outlet for Marxist thought in the United States independent of the [[Communist Party of the United States of America|Communist Party]].

In 1978, [[G. A. Cohen]] attempted to defend Marx's thought as a coherent and scientific theory of history by restating its central tenets in the language of [[analytic philosophy]]. This gave birth to [[Analytical Marxism]], an academic movement which also included [[Jon Elster]], [[Adam Przeworski]] and [[John Roemer]]. [[Bertell Ollman]] is another [[Anglophone]] champion of Marx within the academy, as is the Israeli [[Shlomo Avineri]].

The following countries had governments at some point in the twentieth century who at least nominally adhered to Marxism (those in bold still do as of 2006):
[[Albania]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Angola]], [[Bulgaria]], '''[[China]]''', '''[[Cuba]]''', [[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Hungary]], '''[[Laos]]''', '''[[Moldova]]''', [[Mongolia]], [[Mozambique]], [[Nicaragua]], '''[[North Korea]]''', [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Somalia]], the [[USSR]] and [[Republics of the Soviet Union|its republics]], [[Yugoslavia]], '''[[Vietnam]]'''. In addition, the Indian states of '''[[Kerala]]''' and '''[[West Bengal]]''' have had Marxist governments.

Marxist political parties and movements have significantly declined since the fall of the Soviet Union, with some exceptions, perhaps most notably [[Nepal]].

According to the [[Arts and Humanities Citation Index]], between 1980 and 1992 Karl Marx was the most cited authority overall, followed by a marxist: [[Vladimir Lenin]].<ref>[http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/citation-0415.html]</ref>

Marx was ranked #27 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]], and #3 on the [[german]] television show "[[Unsere Besten]]".

In July 2005 Marx was the surprise winner of the 'Greatest Philosopher of All Time' poll by listeners of the [[BBC]] ''[[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]]'' series ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]''.[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,6903,1530250,00.html]

== References ==
* [[Stephen Jay Gould]], ''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_7_108/ai_55698600/pg_1 A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral - E. Ray Lankester]'', Page 1, [http://www.findarticles.com/ Find Articles.com] (1999). (Marx's tomb)
* Little, Daniel, 1986. ''The Scientific Marx''. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1505-5. Marx's work considered as [[science]].
* Duncan, Ronald, with Wilson, Colin, eds., 1987. ''Marx Refuted''. Bath, UK ISBN 0-906798-71-X
* David McLellen, ''Karl Marx: His Life and Thought''
* Avineri, Shlomo, 1968. ''The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx''. Cambridge University Press.
* Hal Draper, ''Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution'' (4 volumes). Monthly Review Press.
*Boris Nicolaevski & Otto Maenchen-Helfen, ''Karl Marx: Man and Fighter'', Penguin books.
* [[Maximilien Rubel]], 1975. ''Marx without myth: A chronological study of his life and work''. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15780-8
* Francis Wheen, ''Karl Marx'', Fourth Estate (1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3 (biography of Marx)
* [[Isaiah Berlin]], ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment''.
* Muller, Jerry Z., 2002. ''The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Western Thought''. Anchor Books.
* Avineri, Shlomo, The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx (UK, Cambridge, 1968)

== Notes ==
<references/>

== See also ==
*[[Jenny von Westphalen]]
*[[Friedrich Engels]]
*[[Karl Marx House]]
*[[Marxism]]
*[[Communism]]
*[[Class struggle]]
*[[historical materialism]]
*''[[Das Kapital]]''
*[[The Frankfurt School]]
*[[History of socialism]]
*[[Young Marx]]
*[[The 18th Brumaire of Louis Napoleon]]

== External links ==
=== Bibliography and online texts ===
{{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Political Science}}
{{Commons|Karl Marx}}
{{wikisource author}}

* [[Marx and Engels Internet Archive]] [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/]
* [http://librivox.org/the-communist-manifesto-by-karl-marx-and-friendrich-engels Free audiobook] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox] ([http://librivox.org/manifest-der-kommunistischen-partei-von-karl-marx-und-friedrich-engels/ Also available in German])
* ''Ethnological Notebooks'' — ISBN 90-232-0924-9 (1879-80)
*{{gutenberg author|id=Karl_Marx|name=Karl Marx}}
*[http://www.sicetnon.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=PagEd&file=index&topic_id=2&page_id=77 "The Reality Behind Commodity Fetishism" (in English)] at [http://www.sicetnon.org/index.php ''Sic et Non'' (in German)]
*[http://libcom.org/library/karl-marx Libertarian Communist Library Karl Marx Archive]

=== Biographies ===
* [[Friedrich Engels]]' ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1892/11/marx.htm Biography of Marx]''
* [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s ''[http://welshcommunists.co.uk/karl.htm Karl Marx Biography]''
* [[Franz Mehring]]'s ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/mehring/1918/marx/ch01.htm Karl Marx: The Story of His Life]''
* [[Francis Wheen]]'s ''[http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj85/morgan.htm Karl Marx: A Life]''

=== Articles and entries ===
*[http://www.espaces-marx.eu.org/ Espaces Marx] (French Research Center, founded by Jacques Bidet - some translations in English)
*[http://www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/Marx/MARXPER.HTML Dead Sociologists – Karl Marx]
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/mandel/19xx/marx/ Ernest Mandel, ''Karl Marx'']
*[http://www.iisg.nl/collections/marx/ Portraits of Karl Marx]
*[http://www.fes.de/marx/falt_en.html The Karl Marx Museum]
*[http://marxmyths.org/index.shtml Marxmyths.org Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx]
*[http://www.runmuki.com/paul/writing/marx.html Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www.commondreams.org/views05/0717-28.htm Why Marx is the Man of the Moment]
*[http://www.wpunj.edu/~newpol/issue18/phelps18.htm Commemorating 1844: Why Marx Still Matters,] by Christopher Phelps
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig6/sandstrom2.html Exporting Marx Instead of Smith to Africa], by Christian Sandström
* [http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj11n3/cj11n3-6.pdf Liberalism, Marxism and The State], by Ralph Raico
* [http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/12/rp_12_3.pdf Marxism As Pseudo-science], by Ernest Van Den Haag
* [http://www.cato.org/dailys/5-01-98.html Marxist Dreams and Soviet Realities], by Ralph Raico
*[http://www.emis.ams.org/journals/DMJDMV/xvol-icm/19/Dauben.MAN.html Marx, Mao and mathematics: the politics of infinitesimals], by Joseph Dauben
*[http://www.wsws.org/articles/2006/may2006/rock-m02.shtml Hegel, Marx, Engels, and the Origins of Marxism], by David North
*[http://www.printculture.com/item-956.html 2 pts for Marx?], by Said Shirazi
{{Marx/Engels}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Marx, Karl
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Karl Heinrich Marx
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Germans|German]] [[philosopher]], [[economist]], and [[journalist]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 5]], [[1818]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Trier]], [[Germany]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[March 14]], [[1883]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]]
}}

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Liberia

2006-10-04T01:02:02Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{otheruses4|the country in Africa|the town|Liberia, Costa Rica}}
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|native_name = Republic of Liberia
|common_name = Liberia
|image_flag = Flag of Liberia.svg
|image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_Liberia.png
|image_map = LocationLiberia.png
|national_motto = The love of liberty brought us here
|national_anthem = [[All Hail, Liberia, Hail!]]
|official_languages = [[English language|English]]
|capital = [[Monrovia]]
|latd=6 |latm=19 |latNS=N |longd=10 |longm=48 |longEW=W |
|largest_city = [[Monrovia]]
|government_type = [[Republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Liberia|President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Liberia|Vice-President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]]
|leader_name2 = [[Joseph Boakai]]
|area_rank = 103rd
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area = 111,369
|areami²= 43,000 
|percent_water = 13.514%
|population_estimate = 3,283,000
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 132nd
|population_census = 
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 29
|population_densitymi² =75 
|population_density_rank = 174th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP = $2.903 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = not ranked
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $900
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = not ranked
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Liberia|Formation]]
|sovereignty_note = By [[African-American]] settlers
|established_event1 = [[American Colonization Society|ACS]] colonies consolidation
|established_event2 = [[Independence]]
|established_date1 = [[1821]] - [[1842]]
|established_date2 = [[26 July]] [[1847]]
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = NA
|HDI_rank = NA
|HDI_category = unranked
|currency = [[Liberian dollar]]<ref>([[United States dollar]] also in common use)</ref>
|currency_code = LRD
|country_code = lr
|time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]
|utc_offset = 
|time_zone_DST = ''not observed
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.lr]]
|calling_code = 231
|footnotes= 1.) [[United States dollar]] also in common usage
}}
'''Liberia''', officially the '''Republic of Liberia''', is a country on the west coast of [[Africa]], bordered by [[Sierra Leone]], [[Guinea]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]]. Liberia, which means "Land of the Free", was founded as an independent nation by free-born and formerly [[history of slavery in the United States|enslaved]] [[African Americans]]. Recently it has witnessed two [[civil war]]s, the [[Liberian Civil War]] ([[1989]]–[[1996]]), and the [[Second Liberian Civil War]] ([[1999]]–[[2003]]), that have displaced hundreds of thousands and destroyed its [[Economy of Liberia|economy]].

==History==
{{Main|History of Liberia}}
===Settlers from America===
The history of Liberia as a political entity begins with the arrival of the [[African American|black American]] [[Settler (disambiguation)|settler]]s — the [[Americo-Liberian]]s, as they came to be known, to Africa — who established a colony of “free men of color” on its shore in [[1822]] under the auspices of the [[American Colonization Society]]. The historical roots from which a majority of present-day Liberians derive their identity, however, are found in the varied traditions of the several ethnicities of indigenous Africans whom the settlers confronted in their struggle to gain a foothold in Africa and, later, extend their control into the interior.

On [[July 26]], [[1847]], the American settlers declared the independence of the Republic of Liberia. The settlers regarded the [[continent]] from which their forefathers had been taken as [[slaves]] as a "[[Promised Land]]", but they did not become reintegrated into an African society. Once in Africa, they referred to themselves as "Americans" and were recognized as such by local Africans and by British colonial authorities in neighboring [[Sierra Leone]]. The symbols of their state — its flag, motto, and seal — and the form of government that they chose reflected their American background and [[diaspora]] experience. [[Lincoln University, PA]] founded as Ashmun Institute in 1854 played an important role in supplying Americo-Liberians leadership for the new [[Nation]]. The first graduating class of Lincoln University, James R. Amos, his brother Thomas H. Amos, and Armistead Miller sailed for Liberia on the brig Mary C. Stevens in April, 1859 after graduation.

The religious practices, social customs and cultural standards of the Americo-Liberians had their roots in the [[antebellum]] [[American South]]. These ideals strongly influenced the attitudes of the settlers toward the indigenous African people. The new nation, as they perceived it, was coextensive with the [[settler]] community and with those Africans who were [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into it. Because of mutual mistrust and hostility between the "Americans" along the coast and the "Natives" of the interior, a recurrent theme in the country's subsequent history, therefore, was the usually successful attempt of the Americo-Liberian minority to dominate people whom they considered uncivilized and inferior. They named the land "Liberia," which in European languages, and in Latin in particular, means "Land of the Free," as an homage to their freedom from slavery.
[[Image:Joseph_Jenkins_Roberts.jpg|thumb|left||[[Joseph Jenkins Roberts]], First President of Liberia]]

The founding of Liberia was privately sponsored by American religious and philanthropic groups, but the country enjoyed the support and unofficial cooperation of the [[United States]] government. Liberia’s government, modeled after that of the United States, was democratic in structure, if not always in substance. After 1877 the [[True Whig Party]] monopolized political power in the country, and competition for office was usually contained within the party, whose nomination virtually ensured election. Two problems confronting successive administrations were pressure from neighboring colonial powers, [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]], and the threat of financial insolvency, both of which challenged the country’s sovereignty. Liberia retained its independence during the [[Scramble for Africa]], but lost its claim to extensive territories that were annexed by Britain and France. Economic development was retarded by the decline of markets for Liberian goods in the late nineteenth century and by indebtedness on a series of loans, payments on which drained the economy.
[[Image:Roosevelt and Barclay.gif|thumb|President [[Edwin Barclay]] (right) and President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] during World War II, 1943]]

===Significant mid-20th-century events===
Two events were of particular importance in releasing Liberia from its self-imposed isolation. The first was the grant in 1926 of a large concession to the American-owned Firestone Plantation Company; that move became a first step in the modernization of the Liberian economy. The second occurred during [[World War II]], when the United States began providing technical and economic assistance that enabled Liberia to make economic progress and introduce social change.

===1980 coup under Doe===
In a late night raid on [[12 April]] [[1980]], a successful military coup was staged by a group of noncommissioned [[Krahn]] officers led by Master Sergeant [[Samuel Kanyon Doe]], and they executed the President of nine years [[William R. Tolbert, Jr.]] in his mansion. Constituting themselves the People’s Redemption Council, Doe and his associates seized control of the government and brought an end to Africa’s "first republic".
[[Image:Doe.jpg|thumb|left|Master Sergeant [[Samuel Doe]]]]
In the early [[1980s]], the [[United States]] provided Liberia more than $500 million for pushing the [[Soviet Union]] out of the country, and for providing the US exclusive rights to use Liberia's ports and land (including allowing the [[CIA]] to use Liberian territory to spy on [[Libya]]).

Doe continued his [[authoritarian]] policies, banning newspapers and outlawing various opposition parties. His tactic was to brand popular opposition parties as "socialist", and therefore illegal according to the Liberian constitution, while allowing less popular minor parties to remain as a token opposition. Unfortunately for Doe, popular support would then tend to realign behind one of these smaller parties, causing them to be labelled "socialist" in their turn.

In October 1985, Liberia held the first post-coup elections, ostensibly to legitimise Doe's regime. Virtually all international observers agreed that the Liberia Action Party (LAP) led by Jackson Doe (no relation) had won the election by a clear margin. After a week of counting the votes, however, Doe sacked the count officials and replaced them with his own Special Election Committee (SECOM), which duly announced that Doe's ruling National Democratic Party of Liberia had won with 50.9% of the vote. In response, on 12th November, a counter-coup was launched by [[Thomas Quiwonkpa]], whose soldiers briefly occupied the Executive Mansion and the national radio station, with widespread support throughout the country. Three days later, Quiwonkpa's coup was overthrown. Following this failed coup, government repression intensified, as Doe's troops killed more than 2000 civilians and imprisoned more than 100 opposing politicians, including Jackson Doe, [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]] and BBC journalist Isaac Bantu.

===1989 and 1999 civil wars===
In late [[1989]], a [[Liberian Civil War|civil war]] began, and in [[September 1990]] Doe was ousted and killed by the forces of faction leader [[Yormie Johnson]] and members of the Gio tribe. As a condition for the end of the conflict, interim president [[Amos Sawyer]] resigned in [[1994]], handing power to the Council of State. Prominent warlord [[Charles Taylor]] was [[Liberia elections, 1997|elected]] as President in 1997. Taylor's brutal regime targeted several leading opposition and political activists. In 1998, the government sought to assassinate child rights activist [[Kimmie Weeks]] for a report he had published on its involvement in the training of child soldiers, which forced him into exile. Taylor's autocratic and dysfunctional government led to a new rebellion in [[1999]]. More than 200,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the civil wars. The conflict intensified in mid-[[2003]], and the fighting moved into [[Monrovia]]. As the power of the government shrank and with increasing international and American pressure for him to resign, President Charles Taylor accepted an asylum offer by [[Nigeria]], but vowed: "God willing, I will be back." This statement was proved correct when he was extradited from Nigeria on March 29, 2006. He is expected to face 17 charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity before a United Nations tribunal holding proceedings in the Hague to address alleged crimes committed during the brutal civil war.

=== Transitional Government and Elections ===

After the exile of Taylor, [[Gyude Bryant]] was appointed Chairman of the transitional government in late 2003. The primary task of the transitional government was to prepare for fair and peaceful democratic elections. With UN and [[ECOMOG]] troops safeguarding the peace, Liberia successfully conducted presidential elections in the fall of 2005. Twenty three candidates stood for the October 11, 2005 general election, with the early favorite [[George Weah]], internationally famous footballer, [[UNICEF]] Goodwill Ambassador and member of the Kru ethnic group expected to dominate the popular vote. No candidate took the required majority in the general election, so that a run-off between the top two vote getters, Weah and Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, was necessary. The November 8, 2005 presidential runoff election was won decisively by [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]], a [[Harvard]]-trained economist. Both the general election and runoff were marked by peace and order, with thousands of Liberians waiting patiently in the Liberian heat to cast their ballots.

=== The Presidency of Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf ===
[[Image:Johnson-Sirleaf.jpg|thumb|Current Liberian President [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]]]]
Daughter of the first indigenous Liberian to be elected to the national legislature, Jahmale Carney Johnson, [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]] was born in rural Liberia. Widely celebrated for being the first elected female head of state in Africa, Johnson-Sirleaf’s election focused much international attention on Liberia.
A former [[Citibank]] and [[World Bank]] employee, Johnson-Sirleaf’s impressive career also includes heading the U.N. Development Programme for Africa[http://www.undp.org/rba/]. (Owing to the complexion inherited from her maternal Grandfather, a German who married a rural market woman, Johnson-Sirleaf has often been thought to be a member of the [[Americo-Liberian]] elite, although she is quite proud of her indigenous Liberian roots). Long involved in her country’s fight for peace and justice, Johnson-Sirleaf was jailed twice during the Doe administration. Jailed once for eight months, she narrowly escaped with her life before going into exile. Delivering a message of hope and reconciliation in her inauguration speech, Johnson-Sirleaf hopes to bring her credentials as an economist to bear and enlist the help of the international community in rebuilding Liberia’s economy and infrastructure. As of this writing, she is working to have Liberia’s external debt of $3.5 billion cancelled, and is inviting international investment. She has extended a special invitation to the Nigerian business community to participate in business opportunities in Liberia, in part as a thank you for Nigeria’s help in securing Liberia’s peace. Exiled Liberians are also investing in their homeland and [http://www.liberianinvest.com/]participating in Liberia's rebuilding efforts.

In addition to focusing her early efforts to restore basic services like water and electricity to the capital of Monrovia, Johnson-Sirleaf has established a [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission]] [http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=51842] to address crimes committed during the later stages of Liberia's long civil war. She is also working to re-establish Liberia's food independence. [To view recent presidential speeches, go to: [http://www.c-span.org/search/basic.asp?ResultStart=1&ResultCount=10&BasicQueryText=sirleaf&image1.x=21&image1.y=14].] Johnson-Sirleaf also tackled head-on the greatest looming threat to Liberia's peace and stability early in her presidency by requesting that Nigeria extradite Liberia's most infamous war criminal and war profiteer, [[Charles Taylor]].

===Extradition and Trial of Charles Taylor===
[[Image:Charlestaylor.jpg|thumb||left|President [[Charles Taylor]] announcing his resignation shortly before going into exile in [[Nigeria]]]]
In March 2006, President [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]] sent a letter formally requesting the extradition of [[Charles Taylor]] from [[Nigeria]] to face justice. While Nigerian President [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] confirmed receipt of the request and notified the Chairman of the [[African Union]], [[Denis Sassou-Nguesso]], and the [[Economic Community of West African States]] ([[ECOWAS]]) [[Mamadou Tandja]] on March 17, 2006, Nigeria’s plans to comply with the request were not immediately clear. After representatives from Liberia and Nigeria met to discuss the issue, Nigeria announced on March 25, 2006 that it would allow Liberian authorities to arrest Taylor. It was long feared that Taylor, a multi-millionaire, could easily slip into hiding to escape charges before the UN International War Crimes Tribunal sitting in Sierra Leone, and by March 28 Taylor had reportedly disappeared from his Nigerian compound. He was recaptured by alert border guards at dawn on March 29 trying to cross into Cameroon. Taylor was quickly flown to Liberia, where he was shuffled onto a waiting UN helicopter to face charges for crimes against humanity in Sierra Leone (although the venue for this trial has since shifted to [[The Hague]] and Taylor was flown out of Sierra Leone on June 20, 2006). The timing of Taylor’s appearance before the tribunal is crucial as the court’s mandate is set to expire later in 2006.
 

== Administrative Divisions ==
{{main|Counties of Liberia|Districts of Liberia}}
Liberia is divided into 15 [[counties]] and subdivided into [[district]]s.

The [[Counties of Liberia|counties]] include:

*[[Bomi County|Bomi]]
*[[Bong County|Bong]]
*[[Gbarpolu County|Gbarpolu]]
*[[Grand Bassa County|Grand Bassa]]
*[[Grand Cape Mount County|Grand Cape Mount]]
*[[Grand Gedeh County|Grand Gedeh]]
*[[Grand Kru County|Grand Kru]]
*[[Lofa County|Lofa]]
*[[Margibi County|Margibi]]
*[[Maryland County, Liberia|Maryland]]
*[[Montserrado County|Montserrado]]
*[[Nimba County|Nimba]]
*[[River Cess County|River Cess]]
*[[River Gee County|River Gee]]
*[[Sinoe County|Sinoe]]

==Politics==

{{morepolitics|country=Liberia}}
Liberia's government is based on the American model of a republic with three equal branches of government, though in reality the [[President of Liberia]] has usually been the dominant force in Liberian politics. Following the dissolution of the [[Republican Party (Liberia)|Republican Party]] in [[1876]], the [[True Whig Party]] dominated the Liberian government until the 1980 coup. Currently, no party has majority control of the legislature. The longest serving president in Liberian history was [[William Tubman]], serving from [[1944]] until his death in [[1971]]. The shortest term was held by [[James Skivring Smith]], who controlled the government all of two months. However, the political process from Liberia's founding in [[1847]], despite widespread corruption, was very stable until the end of the First Republic in [[1980]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:Li-map.png|left|200px|Map of Liberia]]
{{MapLibrary|Liberia_sat.png|Liberia}}
{{Main|Geography of Liberia}}
Liberia is situated in Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean. The landscape is characterised by mostly flat to rolling coastal plains, which rise to rolling plateau and low mountains in the northeast. The climate is hot and humid with a lot of rain fall. Winters are dry with hot days and cool to cold nights. Summers are wet and cloudy with frequent heavy showers.

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Liberia}}

Historically, the Liberian economy depended heavily on iron ore and rubber exports, foreign direct investment, as well as the export of other of its natural resources, such as timber. Foreign trade was primarily conducted for the benefit of the Americo-Liberian elite, with trade between foreigners and indigenous Liberians severely restricted throughout most of its history by the 1864 Ports of Entry Act. Little foreign direct investment benefited the 95% majority population, who were often subjected to forced labor on foreign concessions. Liberian law often did not protect indigenous Liberians from the extraction of rents and arbitrary taxation, with the majority surviving on subsistence farming and low wage work on foreign concessions.

While official export figures for commodities declined during the 1990’s civil war as many investors fled, Liberia’s wartime economy featured the exploitation of the region’s diamond wealth, with the country acting as a major trader in Liberian, Sierra Leonian and Angolan conflict diamonds, exporting over $300 million in diamonds annually. Timber, iron ore, rubber, and other commodity exports continued during the war, in part due to illicit agreements struck between Liberia’s warlords and foreign concessionaires. Looting and war profiteering destroyed nearly the entire infrastructure of the country, such that the Monrovian capital was without running water and electricity (except for fuel-powered generators) by the time the first elected post-war government began to institute development and reforms in 2006. Although some official exporting and legitimate business activity resumed once the hostilities ended (for instance, Liberia signed a new deal with steel giant [[Mittal Steel Company|Mittal]] for the export of iron ore in summer 2005), as of mid-2006 Liberia is dependent on foreign aid, and carries a debt overhang of $3.5 billion. The UN ban on Liberian diamond exports, which was renewed at the end of 2005, as well as the enforcement of the Kimberly Process by international diamond traders has effectively shut down Liberia’s diamond industry, (although there are fears that foreign traders are hoarding the country’s diamonds during the ban). The country currently has an approximate 85% unemployment rate, the worst in the world.

[[Image:Liberiancurrency.jpg|thumb|250px|19th Century Liberian two dollar bill]]
The Liberia dollar currently trades against the US dollar at a ratio of 57:1. Liberia used the US dollar as its currency from 1943 until it reversed dollarization in 1982.
Its external debt ($3.5 billion) is huge in comparison to its GDP (aprox $2.5 billion/year); it annually imports approximately $4.839 billion in goods while it exports only about $910 million. Inflation is falling, but still significant (dropping from 15% in 2003 to 4.9% in the 3rd quarter of 2005); interest rates are high, with the average lending rate listed by the Central Bank of Liberia at 17.6% for 3rd quarter 2005 (although the average time deposit rate was only 4.4%, and CD rate only 5%, barely keeping pace with inflation.).
It continues to suffer with poor economic performance due to a fragile security situation, the devastation wrought by its long war, its lack of infrastructure, and necessary human capital to help the country recover from the scourges of conflict and corruption.

In 2005, lawsuits were brought against the company Bridgestone/Firestone for its alleged role in using slave labor in its rubber plantations in Liberia. Workers also briefly staged a strike at the company’s million-acre (4,000 km²) plantation at Harbel in early 2006, but the strike could not be sustained by the poorly funded labor union.
Liberia has one of the world's largest national registries of ships, due to its status as a "[[Flag of convenience]]".

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Liberia}}

== Education ==
The [[University of Liberia]] is located in [[Monrovia]]. Opened in [[1862]], it is one of [[Africa|Africa's]] oldest institutes of higher learning. Civil war severely damaged the university in the 1990s, but the university has begun to rebuild following the restoration of peace.

[[Cuttington University]] was established by the [[Episcopal Church of the USA]] ([[ECUSA]]) in [[1889]]; its campus is currently located in Suakoko, [[Bong County]] (120 miles north of [[Monrovia]]).

According to statistics published by [[UNESCO]] for the years [[1999]]-[[2000]] (the most recent available for Liberia [[2005|as of 2005]]) 61%[http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev.php?ID=5038_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC] of [[Primary education|primary-school age]] and 18% (estimated)[http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev.php?ID=5039_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC] of [[Secondary education|secondary-school age]] children were enrolled in school.

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Liberia}}
Liberia was traditionally noted for its hospitality, academic institutions, cultural skills, and arts/craft works.

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Liberia]]
* [[Foreign relations of Liberia]]
* [[Military of Liberia]]
* [[Transport in Liberia]]
* [[Liberian nationality law]]
* [[Music of Liberia]]
* [[List of Presidents of Liberia]]
* [[Lott Cary]]
* [[George Henry Andrews]]
* [[Sande society]]
* [[Boy Scouts of Liberia]]
* [[Lincoln University, PA]]

==Further reading==
*''Great Tales of Liberia'' by Wilton Sankawulo. Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture. Published by Editura Universitatii "Lucian Blaga" din Sibiu, Romania, 2004. - ISBN 973-651-838-8
*''Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey'' by Wilton Sankawulo. Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture. ISBN 0-9763565-0-3

Mississippi in Africa: The Saga of the Slaves of Prospect Hill Plantation and Their Legacy in Liberia Today, by Alan Huffman (Gotham Books, 2004)
*''Education For Freedom'' - A History of Lincoln University, Pennsylvania by Horace Mann Bond. Copyright 1976 by Lincoln University of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education of Pennsylvania. Printed by Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Liberia}}
;Overviews
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1043500.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Liberia'']
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/li.html CIA World Factbook - ''Liberia'']
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/liberia PBS - Global Connections: Liberia]
*[http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/li/ US State Department - ''Liberia''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

;News
*[http://allafrica.com/liberia/ AllAfrica.com - ''Liberia''] news headline links
*[http://HavenWorks.com/world/liberia HavenWorks - Liberia]
*[http://www.liberianonline.com/ LiberianOnline.com] portal
*[http://www.newspaperindex.com/en/newspapers/Liberia Newspapers in Liberia]
*[http://www.TheLiberianTimes.com/ The Liberian Times]
*[http://www.theperspective.org/ The Perspective] US-based magazine
*[http://www.unitedliberia.com/ United Liberia] Liberian news collected from independent sources
*[http://www.allaboutliberia.com/ All About Liberia]

;Education
*[http://www.cuttington.org/ '''Cuttington University'''] Educating the next generation of Liberian leaders, businessmen, and health care professionals
*[http://www.liberiaschool.org/ '''The Liberian Renaissance Education Complex'''] The aim of this project is to provide a world-class, 21st century school to provide a diverse student population with the essential literacy and technology skills desperately needed as Liberia rebuilds after decades of political and economic turmoil.

;Articles
*Douglas Farah, "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/30/AR2005093002085.html Standing By as a Brutal Warlord Plots His Return]," ''Washington Post'', October 2, 2005.
*[http://www.andycarvin.com/archives/2005/07/a_workshop_at_g.html Life in A Liberian Refugee Camp] July 2005 essay by [[Andy Carvin]] about a visit to the Liberian [[refugee camp]] of [[Buduburam]].

;Video
* [http://www.andycarvin.com/archives/2005/11/refugees_the_li_1.html Refugees: The Liberians of Buduburam] - October 2005 online video documentary by [[Andy Carvin]].

;Directories
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Liberia.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Liberia''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Liberia/ Open Directory Project - ''Liberia''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/liberia.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Liberia''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Liberia/ Yahoo! - ''Liberia''] directory category

;Tourism
*{{wikitravel}}

;Other
* [http://www.qsl.net/yb0rmi/liberia.htm Investigative Report: Liberian Situation and Star Radio: Bureaucratization of Clandestine Radio]
*[http://www.liberian-connection.com/ Liberian Connection] US-based portal
*[http://www.liberiapastandpresent.org Liberia Past and Present]
*[http://www.travel-images.com/liberia.html Liberia - images]
*[http://www.liberian.org The Liberian Post]
* [http://www.LiberiaSeaBreeze.com Sea Breeze: An online journal of literary works by contemporary Liberian writers]
* [http://slate.msn.com/id/2085169/ slate.msn.com: Was Liberia Founded by Freed U.S. Slaves?]
* [http://www.worldpress.org/Africa/685.cfm World Press Review: War in Liberia Threatens to Destabilize Region]
*[http://www.theliberiandialogue.org The Liberian Dialogue]
*[http://www.republicofliberia.org/ Republic of Liberia Italian Bureau of Maritime Affairs] Italian Bureau of Maritime Affairs
*[http://www.ambasciatadiliberia.org Liberian Embassy in Rome]Liberian Embassy in Italy
*[http://hem.passagen.se/melki9/queah.htm Queah] A Liberian boardgame

{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Liberia| ]]
[[Category:1847 establishments]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries]]

[[af:Liberië]]
[[am:ላይቤሪያ]]
[[ar:ليبيريا]]
[[an:Liberia]]
[[id:Liberia]]
[[ms:Liberia]]
[[zh-min-nan:Liberia]]
[[bs:Liberija]]
[[bg:Либерия]]
[[ca:Libèria]]
[[cs:Libérie]]
[[da:Liberia]]
[[de:Liberia]]
[[et:Libeeria]]
[[el:Λιβερία]]
[[es:Liberia]]
[[eo:Liberio]]
[[eu:Liberia]]
[[fa:لیبریا]]
[[fr:Liberia]]
[[gd:Liberia]]
[[gl:Liberia]]
[[ko:라이베리아]]
[[hr:Liberija]]
[[io:Liberia]]
[[ilo:Liberia]]
[[is:Líbería]]
[[it:Liberia]]
[[he:ליבריה]]
[[ka:ლიბერია]]
[[kw:Liberi]]
[[sw:Liberia]]
[[la:Liberia]]
[[lv:Libērija]]
[[lt:Liberija]]
[[li:Liberia]]
[[hu:Libéria]]
[[mk:Либерија]]
[[nl:Liberia]]
[[ja:リベリア]]
[[no:Liberia]]
[[nn:Liberia]]
[[oc:Libèria]]
[[ug:لىبېرىيە]]
[[pam:Liberia]]
[[nds:Liberia]]
[[pl:Liberia]]
[[pt:Libéria]]
[[ro:Liberia]]
[[rm:Liberia]]
[[ru:Либерия]]
[[sa:लायबीरिया]]
[[sq:Liberia]]
[[simple:Liberia]]
[[sk:Libéria]]
[[sl:Liberija]]
[[sr:Либерија]]
[[sh:Liberija]]
[[fi:Liberia]]
[[sv:Liberia]]
[[tl:Liberia]]
[[vi:Liberia]]
[[tg:Либерия]]
[[tr:Liberya]]
[[uk:Ліберія]]
[[vo:Liberän]]
[[zh-yue:利比利亞]]
[[zh:利比里亚]]

Bolivia

2006-10-04T01:01:30Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Bolivia

{{Infobox Country |
native_name = ''República de Bolivia''|
conventional_long_name = Republic of Bolivia |
common_name = Bolivia |
image_flag = Flag of Bolivia (state).svg |
image_coat = Bolivia coa.png |
image_map = LocationBolivia.png |
national_motto = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''¡Morir antes que esclavos vivir!'' ([[English language|English]]: "To die rather than to live as slaves!")
|national_anthem = ''[[Bolivianos, el hado propicio]]'' |
official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Guarani language|Guaraní]], [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]] |
capital = [[La Paz]], [[Sucre]]<ref>La Paz is the seat of government; Sucre, the legal capital</ref> |
latd=16|latm=29|latNS=S|longd=68|longm=8|longEW=W|
government_type = [[Republic]] |
leader_title1 = [[President of Bolivia|President]] |
leader_name1 = [[Evo Morales]] |
largest_city = [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra|Santa Cruz]] |
area = 1,098,581 |
areami² = 424,163 | 
area_rank = 28th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 1.29% |
population_estimate = 9,182,000 |
population_estimate_year = July 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 84th |
population_census = 8,280,184 |
population_census_year = 2001 |
population_density = 8.4 |
population_densitymi² = 21.8 | 
population_density_rank = 210th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $25.684 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 101st |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,817 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 125th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.687 |
HDI_rank = 113th |
HDI_category = medium |
sovereignty_type = [[History of Bolivia|Independence]] |
established_event1 = From [[Spain]] |
established_date1 = [[August 6]], [[1825]] |
currency = [[Boliviano]] |
currency_code = BOB |
time_zone = — |
utc_offset = -4 |
time_zone_DST = — |
utc_offset_DST = ? |
cctld = [[.bo]] |
calling_code = 591 |
<references />
}}
'''Bolivia''', officially the '''Republic of Bolivia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Bolivia'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe bo'liβi̯a]}}, [[Quechua language|Quechua]]: ''Bulibiya'', [[Aymara language|Aymara]]: ''Wuliwya''), named after [[Simon Bolivar]], is a [[landlocked]] [[country]] in central [[South America]]. It is bordered by [[Brazil]] on the north and east, [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]] on the south, and [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] on the west. Sometimes called the "Tibet of the Americas", its topographic diversity has made it an increasingly popular choice for cultural pilgrimage and ecotourism.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Bolivia]]''

===Colonial period===
During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of [[Lima]]. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata — modern Sucre). Bolivian [[silver]] mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosí, site of the famed Cerro Rico — "Rich Hill" — was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. A steady stream of enslaved natives served as labor force. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic wars]], sentiment against colonial rule grew.

===The Republic and economic instability (1809)===

Independence was proclaimed in 1809, but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for [[Simón Bolívar]], on [[August 6]], [[1825]] (see [[Bolivian War of Independence]]).

In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of [[Marshal]] [[Andres de Santa Cruz]], invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, [[General]] [[Luis Orbegoso]]. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the ''Supreme Protector''. Following tensions between the Confederation and Chile, war was declared by Chile on Dec. 28th, 1836. Argentina, Chile's ally, declared war on the Confederation on May 9th, 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories; the defeat of the Argentinian expedition, and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition, on the fields of [[Paucarpata]], near the city of Arequipa. On the same field the [[Paucarpata Treaty]] was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army. The treaty assured the Chilean withdrawal from Peru-Bolivia, the return of captured Confederate ships, normalized economic relations, and the payment of Peruvian debt to Chile by the Confederation. Public outrage over the treaty forced the government to reject it. The Chileans organized a second expeditionary force, and attacked the Peru-Bolivian confederation, defeating the Confederation on the fields of [[Yungay]] using the same arms and equipment Santa Cruz had allowed them to retain. After this defeat, Santa Cruz fled to Ecuador, and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.

Following the independence of Peru, [[General Gamarra]], the Peruvian president, invaded Bolivia in an attempt to reunify the two countries, under the Peruvian flag. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Ingaví]] on November 20, 1841, where General Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian army under General [[José Ballivián]] then mounted a counter-offensive managing to capture the Peruvian port of [[Arica]]. Later, both sides signed a peace in 1842 putting a final end to the war.

Due to a period of political and economic instability in the early to middle 19th century, Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–83), during which it lost its access to the sea, and the adjoining rich [[nitrate]] fields, together with the port of [[Antofagasta]], to [[Chile]]. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries due to wars. Bolivia also lost the [[Acre State|state of Acre]] (known for its production of rubber) when Brazil persuaded the state of Acre to secede from Bolivia in 1903 (see the [[Treaty of Petrópolis]]).

An increase in the world price of [[silver]] brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s. During the early part of the 20th century, [[tin]] replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed [[laissez-faire]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century.

Living conditions of the native people, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by [[Paraguay]] in the [[Chaco War]] (1932–35) marked a turning point.<ref>{{cite book | author=Harold Osborne | title=Bolivia: A Land Divided | publisher=London: Royal Institute of International Affairs | year=1954 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | author=History World | title=History of Bolivia | publisher=National Grid for Learning | year=2004 | url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac11 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | author=Juan Forero | title=History Helps Explain Bolivia's New Boldness | publisher=New York Times | year=May 7 2006 | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/weekinreview/07forero.html }}</ref>

===Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951)===
The [[Nationalist Revolutionary Movement]] (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out a sweeping land reform, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines.

Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military [[military dictatorship|junta]] overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President [[René Barrientos Ortuño]], a former member of the junta elected President in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) [[Hugo Banzer Suárez]] as President in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but [[human rights]] violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978, and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil.

=== Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978)===
Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. [[Luis García Meza Tejada]] carried out a ruthless and violent coup that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo," or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human rights abuses, [[narcotics]] trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency the inflation that would later cripple the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for crimes including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year [[Prison|sentence]] in 1995.

After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]] elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, twenty-two years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60), [[Hernán Siles Zuazo]] again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.

===Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993)===
[[Sánchez de Lozada]] pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sánchez de Lozada government was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state [[Petroleum|oil]] corporation, [[telecommunications]] system, [[airline]]s, [[railroad]]s, and electric utilities in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The Sánchez de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca going into [[cocaine]].

During this time, the umbrella labor organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshall the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers. The state also used selective martial law to keep the disruptions caused by the teachers to a minimum. The teachers were led by Trotskyists, and were considered to be the most militant union in the COB. Their downfall was a major blow to the COB. The COB also became mired in internal corruption and infighting in 1996.

In the 1997 elections, Gen. [[Hugo Banzer]], leader of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|ADN]], former dictator (1971-1978), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president and he was inaugurated on [[August 6]], [[1997]]. During the election campaign, General Banzer had promised to suspend the privatization of the state owned oil company, YPFB. Considering the weak position that Bolivia was in vis-a-vis international corporations, though, this seemed unlikely.

The Banzer government basically continued the free market and privatization policies of its predecessor, and the relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for commodity exports, and reduced employment in the Coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public-sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.

At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic 4-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. Those left unemployed by coca eradication streamed into the cities, especially El Alto, the slum neighbor of La Paz. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).

On [[August 6]], [[2001]], Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with [[cancer]]. He died less than a year later. Banzer's U.S.-educated Vice President, [[Jorge Quiroga|Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez]], completed the final year of the term. Quiroga was constitutionally prohibited from running for national office in 2002 but can do so in 2007.

In the June 2002 national elections, former President [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca advocate and native peasant leader [[Evo Morales]] ([[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]], MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate [[Manfred Reyes Villa]] of the [[New Republican Force]] (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide, earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Sánchez de Lozada on [[August 4]], [[2002]].

A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former president [[Paz Zamora]], virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on [[August 6]] he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-[[political corruption|corruption]], and social inclusion.

===Social Crisis and the nationalization of hydrocarbon resources (2000-2005)===
:''Main article:[[Bolivian Gas War]]
In April 2000, the social movements in Bolivia came together to protest the privatization of water provision in Cochabamba. Three years earlier, the government sold rights to manage water in the city to Aguas del Tunari, a conglomerate led by Bechtel corporation. With a contract that permitted them only to invest the money they had collected in charges, the company raised water prices dramatically. They also made drawing water from community wells or gathering rainwater illegal, giving Aguas del Tunari exclusive rights. Protests that included Cochabamba residents, those who had come in to the city from the country, and coca growers took over the city. Some allege that they turned violent but this is disputed. Then president Banzer responded by sending in the military, who reacted with extreme force to the protests. One soldier was filmed fatally shooting an unarmed 17-year-old, Victor Hugo Daza, in the face. Roadblocks paralyzed parts of the country. The protesters were helped along by policemen, who took the opportunity to go on strike for higher wages. Finally the government gave into the protesters demands and revoked the water contract. It was an unprecedented moment of unity for the Bolivian social movements. [[#Footnotes|1]]-[[#Footnotes|2]]

During February 2003, four-year economic recession, tight fiscal situation, and widespread corruption inside the government mounted again in a police revolt that nearly toppled the government of President Sánchez de Lozada; several days of unrest left more than 30 persons dead. The government stayed in power but remained unpopular. Widespread protests broke out in October and revealed deep dissatisfaction with the government. Approximately 80 people died during the demonstrations which led President Sánchez de Lozada to resign from office on [[October 17]], and Lozada subsequently fled the country for quasi-exile in the United States. In a constitutional transfer of power, Vice President [[Carlos Mesa]] assumed the Presidency and promised to hold a binding [[Bolivian gas referendum, 2004|referendum]] on the export of Bolivian natural gas. The referendum took place on [[July 18]], and the electorate voted overwhelmingly in favor of development of the nation's [[hydrocarbon]] resources and the imposition of a 51% tax on their extraction. Mesa planned to detail the government's development plans in legislation to be introduced to Congress. Mesa, a well-known journalist, enjoyed popularity with the Bolivian public previous to ascending the presidency, but he faced the same difficulties — social divisions, a radical opposition committed to extra-parliamentary action, and an ongoing fiscal deficit — as the previous administration.

On [[June 6]], [[2005]], [[Congress of Bolivia|congress]] was forced to accept the resignation of President [[Carlos Mesa]] when more than 80,000 protestors surrounded the presidential palace demanding nationalization of the gas industry. The protestors argued that native communities, one third of Bolivia's population, were not adequately represented in government. Consequently, the ''campesinos'' and native population, angered by the inequitable dividends paid by the multinational petroleum companies, set up roadblocks throughout the country and placed all the major cities under siege. With Carlos Mesa stranded in the Palace of Plaza Murillo, the congress and senate closed, protestors roamed the streets of La Paz threatening to drive the "corbateros" (those clothed in suits and ties) from the country.

A civil war was averted when, on [[June 9]], 157 members of congress converged on the Casa de La Libertad in [[Sucre]] and nominated [[Eduardo Rodríguez]], then serving as President of the Supreme Court, to the Presidency of the Republic. President Rodriguez, to avert a civil war, promised to hold new [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|national elections]] in December 2005.

===Evo Morales, Movement toward Socialism ===
The [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|2005 Bolivian presidential election]] was held on [[December 18]], [[2005]]. The two main candidates were [[Evo Morales|Juan Evo Morales Ayma]] of the [[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]] (MAS) Party, and [[Jorge Quiroga]], leader of the [[Democratic and Social Power]] (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|Acción Democrática Nacionalista]] (ADN) Party.

Morales won the election with 54 percent of the votes, an [[absolute majority]] unprecedented in Bolivian elections. He was sworn in on [[January 22]] [[2006]] for a five-year term. Prior to his official inauguration in La Paz, he was inaugurated in a native ritual at the archeological site of Tiawanaku, before a crowd of thousands of native people and representatives of social movements from across Latin America. However, this ritual does not represent the views/opinions of most Quechua native speakers; it only represents native Aymaras. Since the Spanish Conquest in the early 1500's, this region of South America, with a majority native population, has been ruled by external forces, and Morales has stated that the 500 years of colonialism are now over, and that the era of autonomy has begun.

His recent presidential election victory has also brought new attention to the U.S. drug war in South America and its heavy emphasis on [[Coca eradication|coca crop eradication]]. The US-led "Plan Dignidad" (dignity plan), which seeks to reduce coca production to zero, is seen by many Bolivians as an attack on their livelihoods and way of life. Morales has said his government will try to interdict drugs, but he wants to preserve the legal market for [[coca]] leaves and promote export of legal coca products.

On [[May 1]], [[2006]], Morales nationalized two Brazilian [[Petrobras]] refineries which produces more than 70% of Bolivian natural gas. This was caused by the apparent abuse of the different refineries, oil and natural gas extractors. These companies earned a total of 70% of the income from the selling of the product. This was radically changed and the companies now only secure below the 30% of the income. The negotiations with foreign companies in this sector have started so the companies don't face total nationalization. The announcement was timed to coincide with the [[International Workers Day]]. While Morales stated that the nationalization initiative will not take the form of [[expropriation]]s or [[confiscation]]s, he directed the [[Military of Bolivia|military]] to occupy and secure various energy installations. [http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?type=worldNews&storyid=2006-05-01T225514Z_01_N0196868_RTRUKOC_0_US-ENERGY-BOLIVIA-NATIONALIZATION.xml]

== Politics ==

{{morepolitics|country=Bolivia}}
[[Image:Central La Paz Bolivia.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[La Paz]] is the political capital of Bolivia.]]
The 1967 constitution, amended in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]], whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the [[Supreme Court of Bolivia|Supreme Court]] and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes.

Bolivia's nine [[Departments of Bolivia|departments]] received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995. Departmental autonomy further increased with the first popular elections for departmental governors (''prefectos'') on [[18 December]] [[2005]], after long protests by pro-autonomy-leader department of [[Santa Cruz Department|Santa Cruz]]. [[:Category:Cities in Bolivia|Bolivian cities and town]]s are governed by directly elected [[mayor]]s and councils. Municipal elections were held on [[5 December]] [[2004]], with councils elected to five-year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services.

The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote. Elected president [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] resigned in October 2003, and was substituted by vice-president [[Carlos Mesa]]. Mesa was in turn replaced by chief justice of the Supreme Court [[Eduardo Rodríguez]] in June 2005. Six months later, on December 18, 2005, the Socialist native leader, [[Evo Morales]], was elected president.

Legislative Branch: The ''Congreso Nacional'' ([[National Congress of Bolivia|National Congress]]) has [[Bicameralism|two chambers]]. The ''[[Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia|Cámara de Diputados]]'' ([[Chamber of Deputies]]) has 130 members elected to five-year terms, 70 of them in sigle-member districts (''circunscripciones'') and 60 by proportional representation. The ''[[Senate of Bolivia|Cámara de Senadores]]'' ([[Senate|Chamber of Senators]]) has 27 members (three per department), elected to five-year terms.

== Administrative divisions ==
''Main article: [[Departments of Bolivia]]''

Bolivia is divided into nine [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]], or in Spanish ''departamentos'':

* [[Chuquisaca Department|Chuquisaca]] ([[Sucre]])
* [[Cochabamba Department|Cochabamba]] ([[Cochabamba]])
* [[Beni Department|Beni]] ([[Trinidad, Bolivia|Trinidad]])
* [[La Paz Department (Bolivia)|La Paz]] ([[La Paz]])
* [[Oruro Department|Oruro]] ([[Oruro]])
* [[Pando Department|Pando]] ([[Cobija]])
* [[Potosí Department|Potosí]] ([[Potosí]])
* [[Santa Cruz Department|Santa Cruz]] ([[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]])
* [[Tarija Department|Tarija]] ([[Tarija]])

Additionally, each department is further divided into provinces, or ''provincias'', cantons, or ''cantones'', and municipalities, or ''municipalidades'', which handle local affairs.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Bl-map.png|right|framed|Map of Bolivia]]

''Main article: [[Geography of Bolivia]]''

At 424,135 [[square miles|mi²]] (1,098,580 [[square kilometre|km²]][https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html]), Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country (after [[Ethiopia]]). It is comparable in size to [[Mauritania]], and is half again as large as the US state of [[Texas]].

Bolivia is a landlocked nation; it lost its connection to the Pacific coast in the [[War of the Pacific]] in 1879. However, it does have access to the Atlantic via the Paraguay river. The west of Bolivia is situated in the [[Andes]] mountain range, with the highest peak, [[Nevado Del Sajama]] at 6,542 [[metre]]s (21,463 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) located at the department of Oruro, the landscape encompasses many different backgrounds, which provide a beautiful view in one of the most incredible natural experiences someone can have. The west of the country is formed by a highland plateau, the [[Altiplano]]. The east of the country is lowland, and covered by the Amazonian [[rainforest]]s. [[Lake Titicaca]] is located on the border between Bolivia and [[Peru]]. In the west, in the department of Potosí, lies the [[Salar de Uyuni]], the world's largest salt flats.

Major cities are [[La Paz]], [[Santa Cruz, Bolivia|Santa Cruz de la Sierra]] and [[Cochabamba, Bolivia|Cochabamba]].
[[Image:Salar_de_Uyuni,_Bolivia2.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Salar de Uyuni]], the world's largest salt flat.]]

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bolivia]]''

Bolivia remains one of the poorest country in South America after the Guyanas, in part, due to high corruption levels; furthermore, critics often point out the [[imperialism|imperialist]] role of foreign powers in the country since the "discovery of America". The country is rich, however, in [[natural resource]]s, and has been called a "donkey sitting on a [[gold]] [[mining|mine]]" because of this. Apart of [[Potosi]]'s famous mines, which were known by the [[Inca Empire|Incas]] and later exploited by the Spaniards, Bolivia owns the second largest [[natural gas field]] of South America after [[Venezuela]]. Furthermore, [[El Mutún]] in the [[Santa Cruz department]] represents 70% of the world's [[iron]] and [[magnesium]].

Bolivia's 2002 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled [[USD]] $7.9 billion. Economic growth is about 2.5% a year and inflation is expected to be between 3% and 4% in 2002 (it was under 1% in 2001).

Bolivia’s current lackluster economic situation can be linked to several factors from the past two decades. The first major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a dramatic fall in silver prices during the early 1980s which impacted one of Bolivia’s main sources of income and one of its major mining industries. The second major economic blow came from the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s as economic aid was withdrawn by western countries who had previously tried to keep a market liberal regime in power through financial support. The third economic blow came from the U.S. sponsored eradication of the Bolivian coca crop which was used in 80% of the worlds’ cocaine production at its peak. Along with the reduction in the coca crop came a huge loss of income to the Bolivian economy, particularly the peasant classes.

Since 1985, the Government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs service in recent years has significantly improved transparency in this area. The most important structural changes in the Bolivian economy have involved the capitalization of numerous public-sector enterprises. (Capitalization in the Bolivian context is a form of privatization where investors acquire a 50% share and management control of public enterprises by agreeing to invest directly into the enterprise over several years rather than paying cash to the government).

Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies enjoys virtually no restrictions in Bolivia. While the capitalization program was successful in vastly boosting foreign direct investment (FDI) in Bolivia ($1.7 billion in stock during 1996-2002), FDI flows have subsided in recent years as investors complete their capitalization contract obligations.

In 1996, three units of the Bolivian state oil corporation (YPFB) involved in hydrocarbon exploration, production, and transportation were capitalized, facilitating the construction of a gas pipeline to [[Brazil]]. The government has a long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The Brazil pipeline carried about 12 million [[cubic metres]] (424 million [[cubic foot|cu. ft]]) per day in 2002. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in [[South America]], and its current domestic use and exports to Brazil account for just a small portion of its potential production. The government expects to hold a binding referendum in 2004 on plans to export natural gas. Widespread opposition to exporting gas through Chile touched off protests that led to the resignation of President Sánchez de Lozada in October 2003.

In April 2000, [[Bechtel]] signed a contract with [[Hugo Banzer]], the former president of Bolivia, to privatize the water supply in Bolivia's 3rd-largest city, [[Cochabamba]]. The contract was officially awarded to a Bechtel subsidiary named ''Aguas del Tunari'', which had been formed specifically for that purpose. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in [[Cochabamba protests of 2000|protests and rioting]] among those who could no longer afford clean water. [[Martial law]] was declared, and Bolivian police killed at least 6 people and injured over 170 protesters. Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract. In 2001, Bechtel filed suit the Bolivian government for $25 million in lost profits. The continuing legal battle has attracted attention from anti-globalization and anti-capitalist groups.

Bolivian exports were $1.3 billion in 2002, from a low of $652 million in 1991. [[International trade|imports]] were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian [[tariff]]s are a uniformly low 10%, with capital equipment charged only 5%. Bolivia's trade deficit was $460 million in 2002.

Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia is a member of the [[Andean Community]] and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries ([[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], and [[Venezuela]].) Bolivia began to implement an association agreement with [[Mercosur]] (Southern Cone Common Market) in March 1997. The agreement provides for the gradual creation of a free trade area covering at least 80% of the trade between the parties over a 10-year period, though economic crises in the region have derailed progress at integration. The U.S. Andean Trade Preference and Drug Enforcement Act (ATPDEA) allows numerous Bolivian products to enter the [[United States]] free of duty on a unilateral basis, including [[alpaca]] and [[llama]] products and, subject to a quota, [[cotton]] [[textiles]].

The United States remains Bolivia's largest trading partner. In 2002, the United States exported $283 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $162 million. Bolivia's major exports to the United States are tin, [[gold]], [[jewelry]], and [[wood]] products. Its major imports from the United States are [[computer]]s, [[Automobile|vehicles]], [[wheat]], and [[machinery]]. A Bilateral Investment Treaty between the United States and Bolivia came into effect in 2001.
[[Agriculture]] accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. The amount of land cultivated by modern farming techniques is increasing rapidly in the Santa Cruz area, where weather allows for two crops a year. [[Soybean]]s are the major [[cash crop]], sold into the [[Andean Community]] market. The extraction of [[mineral]]s and hydrocarbons accounts for another 10% of GDP and [[manufacturing]] less than 17%.

The Government of Bolivia remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign [[creditor]]s, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development [[bank]]s. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the [[Paris Club]] mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian Government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises in recent years have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. Rescheduling agreements granted by the Paris Club has allowed the individual creditor countries to apply very soft terms to the rescheduled [[debt]]. As a result, some countries have forgiven substantial amounts of Bolivia's bilateral debt. The U.S. Government reached an agreement at the Paris Club meeting in December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existing debt stock. The Bolivian Government continues to pay its debts to the multilateral development banks on time. Bolivia is a beneficiary of the Heavily debted Poor Countries (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC debt relief programs, which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to new soft loans. Bolivia was one of three countries in the [[Western Hemisphere]] selected for eligibility for the Millennium Challenge Account and is participating as an observer in FTA negotiations.

In 2004 the government gave great importance to the development of port facilities at Puerto Busch on the Paraguay river. Further north in Puerto Suarez and Puerto Aguirre, which are connected to the Paraguay river via the [[canal tamengo]], which passes through Brazil, mid-size container ships traverse. As of 2004 about half of Bolivia's exports leave via the Paraguay river. When Puerto Busch is finished, larger ocean-going ships will be able to dock in Bolivia. This will greatly increase Bolivia's competitiveness, in that they will not have a reduced need for foreign ports, such as those in Peru and Chile, which adds to the price of exports and imports. Tobacco is produced by Bolivian farmers, but even more is imported to satisfy domestic demand. In 1992 Bolivia produced over 1,000 million [[ton]]s of it.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Bolivia]]''

Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 30% [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and 25% [[Aymara]] Amerindians. The largest of the approximately three-dozen native groups are the Quechua-speaking groups (1.5 million), the Aymara (2 million), Chiquitano (180,000), and [[Guaraní]] (125,000). The remaining 30% is [[Mestizo]] (mixed European and Amerindian) and 15% European.

The white population mostly descends from families of Spanish ancestry that have formed the aristocracy since independence. Other large population groups are Germans who founded the national airline [[Lloyd Aereo Boliviano]], Japanese who are concentrated mostly in Santa Cruz, and Middle Easterners who became prosperous in commerce. There are also small Italian, American, Basque, Croatian, Russian, Polish and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations.

Also noteworthy is the Afro-Bolivian community that numbers under 0.5% of the population, descended from African slaves that were transported to work in Brazil and then migrated down south to Bolivia. They are mostly concentrated in the [[Yungas]] region ([[Nor Yungas]] and [[Sud Yungas]] provinces) in the [[La Paz Department, Bolivia|department of La Paz]], some three hours from [[La Paz]] city.

Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about 10 per square kilometer (25 per [[square mile|sq. mi]]) in the central highlands. The annual population growth rate is about 2.74% (2001).

[[La Paz]] is the world's highest capital city at 3,600 meters (11,800 ft.) above [[sea level]]. The adjacent city of [[El Alto]], at 4,200 meters (13,800 ft) above sea level, is one of the fastest growing in the hemisphere. [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra|Santa Cruz]], the commercial and industrial hub of the eastern lowlands, also is experiencing rapid population and economic growth.

The great majority of Bolivians are [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (the [[State religion|official religion]]), although [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations are expanding strongly. [[Islam]] practiced by the descendants of Middle Easterners is almost nonexistent. There is also a small [[Jewish]] community that is almost all [[Ashkenazi]] in origin. More than 1% of Bolivians practice the [[Bahá'í Faith]] (giving Bolivia one of the largest percentages of Bahá'ís in the world). Due to extensive [[Mormon]] missionary efforts there is substantial Mormon demographic. There is a colony of [[Mennonites]] near Santa Cruz and Tarija. Many Native communities interweave [[pre-Columbian]] and [[Christian]] symbols in their [[worship]]. About 80% of the people speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as their [[first language]], although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary school but often for a year or less. The literacy rate is low in many rural areas, but according to CIA the literacy rate is 87% which is higher than Brazil’s literacy rate or other Middle Eastern countries. The cultural development of what is present-day Bolivia is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. Important [[Archaeology|archaeological]] ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, [[Ceramic|ceramics]], and [[weaving]]s remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include [[Tiawanaku]], [[Samaipata]], [[Incallajta]], and [[Iskanawaya]]. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.

The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and [[mestizo]] builders and [[artisan]]s, developed into a rich and distinctive style of [[architecture]], [[painting]], and [[sculpture]] known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown [[stonecutter]]s, [[woodcarver]]s, [[goldsmith]]s, and [[silversmith]]s. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.

Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has rich [[folklore]]. Its regional [[folk music]] is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual [[carnival]] of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at [[Tarabuco]].

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bolivia]]''

Bolivian culture has many [[Inca]], [[Aymara]] and other native influences in religion, music and clothing, depending upon the region of the country, isolation of the cultures and contact with European (Spanish) culture. The best known fiesta is the [[UNESCO]] heritage "El [[carnaval]] de Oruro". Entertainment includes [[Football (soccer)|football]], which is the national sport, and more correctly the footsal, played in many street corners by very diverse sectors of the population: from kids to adults. Also, zoos are a popular attraction with a diverse population of interesting creatures but with lack of proper funding.

''See'' [[Music of Bolivia]], [[Public holidays in Bolivia]]

== National symbols ==

The [[Cantuta]] (often spelled kantuta or qantuta) (Cantua buxifolia or Fuchsia buxifolia) is a flower found in the high valleys of the [[Yungas]], and is considered the national flower of Bolivia.

==See also==
* [[List of Bolivia-related topics]]

==Footnotes==
:1 Jennifer Hattam, "[http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200109/lol1.asp Who Owns Water]?" ''Sierra'', Sept 2001, v.86, iss.5, p.16.
:2 PBS Frontline/World "[http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bolivia/ Leasing the Rain]" Video, June 2002
<references/>

[[Military of Bolivia]]
*[[Asociación de Scouts de Bolivia]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Bolivia}}

'''Government'''
* [http://www.bolivia.gov.bo Official web portal of the Bolivian government]
* [http://www.presidencia.gov.bo Official web portal of the Bolivian President's office]
* [http://www.vicepres.gov.bo Official web portal of the Bolivian Vice-president's office]
* [http://www.poderjudicial.gov.bo Official web portal of the Bolivian Judicial Branch]
* [http://www.congreso.gov.bo Official web portal of the Bolivian National Congress]
* [http://www.cne.org.bo Official web portal of the National Electoral Court of Bolivia]
* [http://www.ine.gov.bo Official web portal of the Statistics National Institute of Bolivia]
* [http://www.citymayors.com/government/bolivia_government.html Local Government in Bolivia]

'''General information'''
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/searchSimpleResults/iw/1/keyword/bolivia Public Opinion in Bolivia]
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/8124 Election Tracker-Bolivia]
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Bolivia Encyclopaedia Britannica - Bolivia's Country Page]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Bolivia Open Directory Project - Bolivia] directory category
* [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=bolivia&search_crit=fulltext&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Bolivia]

'''Media'''
* [http://www.eldiario.net El Diario - La Paz]
* [http://www.la-razon.com La Razon - La Paz]
* [http://www.laprensa.com.bo La Prensa - La Paz]
* [http://www.jornadanet.com La Jornada - La Paz]
* [http://www.eldeber.com.bo El Deber - Santa Cruz]
* [http://www.elmundo.com.bo El Mundo - Santa Cruz]
* [http://www.el-nuevodia.com El Nuevo Dia - Santa Cruz]
* [http://www.lostiempos.com Los Tiempos - Cochabamba]
* [http://www.opinion.com.bo Opinion - Cochabamba]
* [http://correodelsur.net Correo Del Sur - Sucre]
* [http://www.elpotosi.net El Potosi - Potosi]
* [http://www.boliviabeni.com La Palabra del Beni - Beni]

'''Business'''
* [http://www.amarillas.bo Bolivian Yellow Pages] Hotels and Companies in Bolivia

'''Indigenous culture'''
* [http://www.tanzgruppebolivia.at.tf Lots of photos of indigenous fiestas, clothing, daily life etc in the different provinces]

'''Pictures'''
* [http://www.nicnic.it Bolivian Slow Picture Gallery] People and landscapes from the Altiplano
'''Health'''
* [http://www.altitudeclinic.com High Altitude Pathology Institute] High altitude medicine
* [http://www.makeovertravel.com Makeover Travel] Medical Tourism

{{South_America}}

[[Category:Bolivia|Bolivia]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
[[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]]

[[af:Bolivia]]
[[ar:بوليفيا]]
[[an:Bolibia]]
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[[la:Bolivia]]
[[lv:Bolīvija]]
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[[nah:Bolivtlān]]
[[nl:Bolivia]]
[[ja:ボリビア]]
[[no:Bolivia]]
[[nn:Bolivia]]
[[oc:Bolivia]]
[[ug:بولىۋىيە]]
[[uz:Boliviya]]
[[pam:Bolivia]]
[[nds:Bolivien]]
[[pl:Boliwia]]
[[pt:Bolívia]]
[[ro:Bolivia]]
[[rm:Bolivia]]
[[qu:Bulibiya]]
[[ru:Боливия]]
[[sa:बोलिविया]]
[[sq:Bolivia]]
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[[sk:Bolívia]]
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[[sr:Боливија]]
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[[ta:பொலிவியா]]
[[tet:Bolívia]]
[[th:ประเทศโบลิเวีย]]
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[[tg:Боливия]]
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[[uk:Болівія]]
[[zh:玻利維亞]]

Lima

2006-10-04T01:00:57Z

MelancholieBot: robot

:''This article is about Lima, Peru. For other places, people and things named "Lima", see [[Lima (disambiguation)]].''
{{Perucityinfobox|
name=Lima|
map=Location_of_the_city_of_Lima_in_Peru.png|
coat of arms=Sin escudo.svg|
cityflag=Missing flag.png|
spanish nickname=La Ciudad de los Reyes||
english nickname=City of the Kings|
foundedday=January 18|
foundedyear=1535|
region=Lima Metropolitan|
province=Lima|
mayor=[[Luis Castañeda Lossio]]|
totalarea=804.3|
districts=30|
latitude=12°2.6'S|
longitude=77°1.7'W|
citypop=6,872,766|
metropop=8,187,398|
density=8,544|
demonym=limeño|
callingcode=1|
website=[http://www.munlima.gob.pe/ www.munlima.gob.pe]|
}}

'''Lima''' is the [[capital]] and largest city in [[Peru]], as well as the capital of [[Lima Province]]. It is the cultural, industrial, financial, and transport hub of the country. The city is located in an area encompassing the valleys of the [[Chillón River|Chillón]], [[Rímac River|Rímac]] and [[Lurín River|Lurín]] rivers. It lies on a desertic coast adjacent to the bay in the [[Pacific Ocean]] where its port was built and named [[Callao]].

Founded by [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[conquistador]] [[Francisco Pizarro]], Lima is also known as the ''City of Kings''. For more than three centuries, Lima was the most important city and the greatest [[Metropolitan area|metropolis]] in [[South America]]. More than four centuries have passed since its founding as a Spanish city, and Lima has become an expression of Peru's heritage, with nearly one-third of the nation's population living in its metropolitan area.

While there is no formal administrative definition for the city of Lima, it is generally considered to be comprised of the central 30 out of the 43 districts of Lima province, corresponding roughly to the urban area centered on the historic [[Lima District|Cercado de Lima]] district. The city serves as the core of the [[Lima Metropolitan Area]], one of the ten [[largest metropolitan areas in the Americas]].

==History==
[[Image:San Francisco de Lima (pixinn.net).jpg|thumb|220px|left|San Francisco de Asís Church]]

The city was founded by [[conquistador]] [[Francisco Pizarro]] on [[January 18]], [[1535]], naming it ''Tres Veces Coronada Ciudad de los Reyes'' as the location was decided at [[Epiphany]], the [[January 6]]. Lima, its original name, however persisted. It is uncertain where the name originated, but it is thought that it derives from the [[Aymara]] word ''lima-limaq'', (yellow flower) or from [[Quechua language|Quechuan]] ''rimaq'' (talking). In the oldest Spanish maps of [[Peru]], both Lima and Ciudad de los Reyes can be seen together as the names of the city.

Lima became the most important city in the Spanish [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], which encompassed nearly all of Spain's possessions in [[South America]] during the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonial era]] (mid [[1500s]] to early [[1800s]]).

In [[1746]], many important and monumental buildings were damaged and or destroyed (later repaired) in an [[earthquake]]. '''The City of Kings'''' cultural patrimony and incomparable, beautiful architecture remained prevalent. Its architectural and political importance in [[Latin America]] were equalled only by [[Mexico City]].

In [[1996]], the [[Japanese embassy hostage crisis]] took place in Lima, an affair which received global media attention. It ended on [[April 22]], [[1997]] when Peruvian Armed Forces [[commando]]s stormed the building by carrying out a frontal daytime attack after tunneling underground into the embassy to rescue the seventy-two hostages. One hostage died of medical complications, two soldiers and all fourteen kidnappers were killed in action.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Situationsplan_von_Lima.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[1888]] German map of Lima and Callao]]
The Lima Metropolis ranks among Latin America's largest and densest urban concentrations, with estimated populations (as of 2005) of 6.9 million for the urban area, 7.4 million for the entire province, and 8.2 million for the [[Lima Metropolitan Area|metropolitan area]]<ref name="population">[http://www.inei.gob.pe/Sisd/index.asp INEI] – Por AÑOS ESTIMACIONES Y PROYECCIONES (2005)</ref>. The population of Lima features a very complex mix of racial and ethnic groups. Traditionally, ''[[Mestizo]]s'', Peruvians of mixed [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Amerindian]] descent, have been the largest contingent, making up much of the middle class. However, political and economic instability of Peru during the latter half of the twentieth century created unprecedented poverty and violence in the towns of the countryside [[Andean]] or highlands, forcing hundreds of thousands of peasants of full-blooded Amerindian descendants to migrate to Lima, thus greatly augmenting the Lima's population. Unlike other ethnic groups that live in Lima and only speak Spanish, most of the peasant population that migrated to Lima speak primarily [[Quechua]] or [[Aymara]] before Spanish, rather than Spanish. While a number of Amerindians eventually attain middle class status, others still live in shantytowns, locally known as ''[[pueblos jóvenes]]'' (young towns). These areas often lack such basic services as electricity and running water.
Europeans, the economically dominant segment of the population, are mostly of Spanish descent, but there are significant numbers of Italians, Germans and others. [[Afro-Peruvians]], initially brought to the region as slaves, are yet another important part of the city's ethnic quilt. Finally, during the 20th century, Lima also gained signicant [[Asian]] communities, particularly of [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] ancestry. The former constitute the largest [[Japanese people|Japanese]] concentration in South America after [[São Paulo]].

The racial demographics for the city of Lima are:
*'''40%''' Mestizo (mixed European and Ameridian ancestry)
*'''29%''' Amerindian
**'''85%''' Quechua
**'''15%''' Aymara
*'''25%''' White
**'''65%''' Spanish
**'''35%''' Italian, German, or other european ancestry
*'''3%''' Asian (Mainly from Japanese and Chinese decent)
*'''3%''' Black

==Geography==
===Physical setting===
[[Image:lima_peru.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Lima metropolitan area from space, March 2005]]
The city of Lima (urban area) covers about 800 km². It is located on mostly flat terrain in the [[Sechura Desert|Peruvian coastal plain]], within the valleys of the [[Chillón River|Chillón]], [[Rímac River|Rímac]] and [[Lurín River|Lurín]] rivers. The city slopes gently from the shores of the Pacific Ocean into valleys and mountain slopes located as high as 500 mASL. As in the rest of the region, the extreme dryness of the climate means that away from the river valleys and irrigated areas the local terrain is absolutely barren of vegetation. During extreme El Ninos or unusually wet winters, patchy short vegetation may develop in some of the mountains located immediately to the east of the city as part of the coastal "lomas" ecosystem, but these green slopes are not evident, since they may be hidden within the grayish barren landscape.

===Climate===
Lima's climate can be said to be quite cold, as besides the aforementioned dryness, it surprises for its mildness: despite being located in the [[Tropics]] and at a near sea-level elevation, temperatures are far from torrid, with maxima ranging from 27°[[celsius|C]] in February to 18°C in August, with an all-time record high temperature of 32°C (90°F). Corresponding minima are 14°C (58°F) in August and 20°C (68°F) in February, with 8°C (46°F) being the lowest ever recorded. On the other hand, relative humidity is very high, and produces brief morning fog events from December to June and persistent low clouds from May to November. Sunny, moist and warm summers (Dec-Apr) lead to cloudy, damp and cool winters (Jun-Oct). Rainfall is almost unknown. The yearly average of 0.7cm (0.3in) reported at the airport is the lowest of any large metropolitan area in the world. Inland locations within the city receive 1 to 6 cm of rainfall, which accumulates mainly during the winter months. Summer rain occurs in the form of isolated light and brief afternoon or evening events, leftover from afternoon storms that generate over the Andes. The peak of the 'rainy season' however, name which really does not apply, occurs during winter when late-night/morning drizzle events(locally called 'garua', 'llovizna' or 'camanchaca') become frequent. All these climatic phenomena arise from the combination of semi-permanent coastal upwelling and the presence of the cold [[Humboldt Current]] just offshore.

==Districts and neighborhoods==
{{Main|Districts of Lima}}

Lima city proper is generally considered to be comprised of the densely-populated, thirty central [[Districts of Peru|districts]] of [[Lima Province]]. Each district is headed by a [[mayor]], although the Metropolitan Lima Municipal Council (''Municipalidad Metropolitana de Lima''), led by the mayor of Lima, also has authority in these districts, including the thirteen outer districts of Lima province.

The historical [[downtown]] of the city is located in the [[Lima District]], which is locally known as ''Cercado de Lima''. This is where most vestiges of Lima's [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonial]] heyday remain, as well as the Presidential Palace and the Metropolitan Lima Municipal Council.

The neighborhoods of [[Miraflores District|Miraflores]] and [[San Isidro District|San Isidro]] are among the wealthiest in the city with most of Lima's upscale hotels and other tourist destinations located in them. The latter district is also an important financial center that is nowadays far more important in Lima's daily business life than the ''Cercado''. The districts of [[La Molina]] and [[Santiago de Surco]] offer quieter, residential areas.

[[Barranco]], south of Miraflores, is known as a bohemian neighborhood and has earned recognition for its population of writers and intellectuals.

[[Image:1316535-1.jpg|thumb|280px|Miraflores aerial view.]]

The most populous districts of Lima lie in the north and south ends of the city. Their population is comprised principally of immigrants from other [[regions of Peru]]. Many of them are poor people of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] origin who arrived during the mid and late twentieth century after being displaced by terrorism, agrarian crises, and general economic frustration. These peasants invaded the vast desert areas and hillsides in the districts of the [[Cono Norte]] and [[Cono Sur]] areas, populating new [[slum]]s known as ''[[pueblos jóvenes]]''. The majority of the people are poor and live in slums with no electricity and running water.

In recent years, however, these populous districts and the people living in there are becoming wealthier at a slow pace, and the amount of business operations being performed in there has steadily increased. It is common knowledge that if anybody wants to make money, the northern districts are the place to do it.

==Education==
===Universities===
{{main|List of universities in Peru}}
The city has the largest concentration of higher-education institutions in the country. The [[National University of San Marcos]], founded on [[May 12]] [[1551]] during [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Spanish colonial regime]] is the oldest continuously functioning university in [[the Americas]] and considered by many Peruvians ''"La decana"'' in the sense of ''"[[Dean (education)|dean of universities]]"'' across Peru.

The [[Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú]] is the oldest private university (established on [[1917]]). Other notable private institutions that are located in the city are [[Universidad del Pacífico]], [[Universidad de Lima]], [[Cayetano Heredia University]]

Other state owned universities also play key roles in teaching and research, such as the [[Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería]], [[Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal]] and [[Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina]], but the most prestigious University for sciences and engineering careers in the whole country and the hardest to be admitted is the Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria (National University for Engineering)

These universities are highly especialized for some careers, for instance, for humanities the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos, for Law studies the Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru, for medicine, the Univesidad Nacional Cayetano Heredia, for Business and Economics, the Universidad del Pacifico and for Sciences and Engineering, the Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria most known as [[U.N.I.]]

===Libraries===
Founded by [[José de San Martín]], Peru's oldest and most important [[library]], the [[National Library of Peru]] is located in [[downtown Lima]]. As it has suffered wars and [[earthquake]]s throughout history, a new location for the library has been built in the [[San Borja]] district, with transfer of the library's holdings beginning in March of [[2006]]. This modernization program aspires to turn the library into one of [[Latin America|Latin America's]] most modern libraries.

==Commerce and industry==
[[Image:Lima Golf Club.jpg|350px|left]]

Lima has substantial [[textile]], [[paper]], [[paint]], and [[food]] products industries.

In recent decades, Lima has rapidly expanded and the city has seen much unregulated development. In the last decade, [[air pollution]] has risen to alarming levels, as no restrictions are allowed on the age or efficiency of [[motor vehicle]]s. Leaded [[petrol]] is still widely used.

The "[[Estadio Monumental "U"]]", located in Lima, is Peru's largest and most modern [[stadium]]; it seats eighty-thousand spectators.

==Transport==
{{Main|Public transport in Lima}}
[[Image:Tren_Urbano_Lima.jpg|thumb|250px|Lima [[mass transit]] service (''[[Lima Metro]]'' or ''Tren Urbano'') currently in operation at [[Villa El Salvador]] lines. ]]
Lima does not have a public bus system. Private busses, commonly known as ''[[Micro (transport)|micros]]'' or ''combis'', are very cheap but their routes are confusing especially to foreigners. Combis are often crowded and poorly maintained.

[[Taxicab|Taxis]] vary in quality of service and price. They can be stopped at any street, or private taxi companies can be called to pick up passengers at a certain address.

Numerous inter-[[urban area|urban]] bus companies offer transportation to other cities in Peru. Quality varies depending on the price, from luxury express buses to uncomfortable and crowded ''micros''.

Nowadays Lima's mayor is working on a new bus system called [[Metropolitano]] where all buses will have exclusive lines; it has been told that new buses must be acquired by the companies working in the metropolitan area, this busses will be bought from a Chinese company, the same company that sells buses to Italy. The mayor's hope is to see a new massive transport system in the next few years.
[[Image:Limaatpeakhours.JPG|left|thumb|200px|Javier Prado Expressway.]]

To improve the quality of taxis running in Lima, a new law has been promulgated forbidding the importation of used cars; the city of Lima hopes that this law will promote the use of newer cars in the city, reducing vehicle emissions and smog.

An agreement signed by Mayor Luis Castañeda and [[President of Peru|President]] [[Alejandro Toledo]] on [[February 17]], [[2005]], provided funding for finishing the [[Lima Metro]], an above-ground [[mass-transit]] system which will link the downtown area with the financial district, San Isidro. The project was launched in the late [[1980s]] but left unfinished by former president [[Alan García]].

Lima's main passenger gateway for national and international air travelers is [[Jorge Chávez International Airport]].

==Tourist attractions==
[[Image:Palace_of_Government.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Government Palace (Peru)|Government Palace]]]]

The [[Historic centre of Lima]], located in [[Lima District|downtown Lima]] and the [[Rímac District]], was declared a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in [[1988]] due to the large number of historical buildings dating from the Spanish colonial era, a small number of which have now been restored. In particular, the monumental Plaza
Mayor, with the [[16th century]] Cathedral and the Presidential Palace, and the catacombs of the [[Convento de San Francisco]] are popular with visitors.

Several sections of the [[Lima City Walls]] can still be seen. These fine examples of Spanish [[medieval fortification]] were used to defend Lima from attacks from [[pirate]]s and [[privateer|corsair]]s.

The city also has a number of fine museums, notably the National Museum of Anthropology, Archaeology, and History and the Rafael Larco Herrera Archaeological Museum, both in the [[Pueblo Libre]] district.

Many small beaches, which are heavily visited during the summer months, are located by the southern [[Pan-American Highway]]. The most well-known ones are located in the districts of [[Santa María del Mar]], [[Punta Hermosa]], [[Punta Negra]], [[San Bartolo]] and [[Pucusana]]. Also, the district of [[Ancón]], located north of the city, has a very popular beach resort.

Numerous restaurants, clubs and hotels have been opened in these places to serve the many beachgoers. The beaches in Lima itself are not suitable for swimming because the city's sewage is dumped raw into the ocean.
[[Image:Torre_Tagle_Lima.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Torre Tagle Palace]], built in 1735]]
The [[suburban]] district of [[Cieneguilla]] and the town of [[Chosica]] (in the [[Lurigancho]] District) provide attractive green landscapes at a short distance from the city. Because of their elevation (over 500 meters), the sun shines in these areas even during winter and hence they are visited by residents of Lima to escape from the winter fog.

Recently, the [[Palomino Islands]] near the port of Callao have attracted visitors due to a population of [[sea lion]]s.

Situated in Monterrico, the Gold Museum, together with the even more interesting textile museum. Here can be seen almost perfectly preserved thousand year old garments and feathered capes recovered from the waterless deserts of Western Peru. Also in the same building, an arms museum with a huge range of antique Spanish firearms, among [[muskets]] and [[arquebus|arquebuses]].

==Sites of interest==

* [[Historical centre of Lima|Historical Center of Lima]]
* '''Beaches and Waterfront'''
**[[Ancon]]
**[[Barranquito]]
**[[Aguadulce]]
**[[Los Pavos]]
**[[Las Cascadas]]
**[[Las Sombrillas]]
**[[Costa Linda]]

* '''Museums'''
**[[Gold Museum]]
**[[Lima Wall Museum]]
**[[Museum of the Nation]] (Museo de la Nación)
**[[Japanese Inmigration Museum]]
**[[National Museum of the Archaeology, Anthropology, and History of Peru]] (Museo Nacional del Arqueología, Antropología, e Historia del Perú)
**[[Natural History Museum, Lima]] (Museo de Historia Natural)
**[[Arts & Peruvian Popular Traditions Museum]]
**[[Miguel Grau House-Museum]]
**[[Ricardo Palma House-Museum]]
**[[Morro de Arica soldiers Museum]]
**[[Italian Arts Museum]]
**[http://www.congreso.gob.pe/museo.htm Congress and Inquisiton Museum]
* '''Colonial Buildings'''
**[[Justice Palace]]
**[[Rimac Building]]
**[[Governor's House]]
**[[Lima's Cathedral]]
**[[Saint Lorenzo Church]]
**[[Saint Rose of Lima Church]]
**[[Congress of the Republic]]
**[[Lima's Mayor House]]
**[[Segura Theater]]
**[[Italian Arts Museum]]
**[[Lima's Art Center]]
**[[Lima City Walls|Lima's City Walls Park]]
**[[Torre Tagle Palace]]
**[[Acho Plaza]]
**[[Saint Martin Plaza]]
**[[National Culture Institute]]
**[[University Park]]
**[[Desamparados Train Station]]
**[[Rosa Nautica Restaurant]]
**[[Perez Aranibar Children House]]
**[[Naval Heroes Park]]
* '''Islands'''
**[[San Lorenzo Island]]
* '''Amusement Parks'''
**[[Lima's Zoo]], [[San Miguel]]
**[[Kart Circuit]], [[Magdalena del Mar]]
**[[Daytona Park]], [[Surco]]
**[[Sports Center]], [[Miraflores]]
**[[Apolo (Ice-Skating Park)]], [[San Isidro]]
**[[Lima's Hippodrome]], [[Surco]]
**[[La Granja Villa]], [[Chorrillos]]
**[[Sports Center]], [[Barranco]]
* '''Zoos'''
**[[Parque de las Leyendas]]
**[[Centro Ecologico Recreacional de Huachipa]]

==Notable people born in Lima==

===Artists===
*[[Felipe Pinglo Alva]], father of Peruvian [[Musica criolla]]
*[[Susana Baca]], Grammy award- winner folk singer
*[[Eva Ayllon]], first-class "criollo" (folk music) singer, she is trying other styles (jazz, blues, salsa) with distinct success
*[[Juan Diego Florez]], world recognized tenor, a possible successor to Pavarotti, in the maestro's own words.

===Historical===
*[[Saint Rose of Lima]] ([[April 20]], [[1586]]-[[August 30]], [[1617]]) Patron Saint of America, first [[Roman Catholic]] [[saint]] born in the [[Americas]].
*[[Saint Martin of Porras]]
*[[Saint Turibius of Mongrovejo]], Archbishop of Lima

===Politicians===
*[[Javier Valle Riestra]], lawyer and politician
*[[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], first [[Latin America|Latin American]] to become [[Secretary-General]] of the [[UN]].
*[[Hernando de Soto]], economist

===Sportspeople===
* [[Teófilo Cubillas]], football (soccer) player
* [[Jefferson Farfán]], football (soccer) player
* [[Luis Horna]], tennis player
* [[Sofia Mulanovich]], world champion surfer
* [[Claudio Pizarro]], football (soccer) player
* [[Nolberto Solano]], football (soccer) player
* [[José Del Solar]], football (soccer) player
* [[Cecilia Tait]], volleyball player
* [[Jaime Yzaga]], tennis player
* [[Ysrael Zúñiga]], football (soccer) player

===Journalists===
*[[Nicolás Lucar]], journalist.
*[[Jaime Bayly]], Tv journalist and writer.

===Writers===
*[[Mario Vargas Llosa]], the most renowned peruvian writer.
*[[Alfredo Bryce Echenique]], writer (novels, memories, and short stories), among which the renowned [[A world for Julius]] ''([[Spanish language|in Spanish]]: "Un Mundo para Julius"''.)
*[[Julio Ramón Ribeyro]], writer best known for his short stories, and awared in [[1994]] by the [[Juan Rulfo]] prize.
*[[Ricardo Palma]], writer of "Tradiciones Peruanas"
*[[Jaime Bayly]], writer, journalist, and [[media personality]]

===Contemporary Musicians===
*[[Christian Meier]], pop singer
*[[Pedro Suarez Vertiz]], pop singer
*[[Líbido]], indie rock band
*[[Mar de Copas]], indie rock band
*[[Gianmarco Zignago | Gian Marco]], pop singer and composer
*[[Arena Hash]], pop band
*[[Campo de Almas]], indie pop band
*[[Fragil]], progressive rock band
*[[TK (Peruvian rock band)|TK]], pop band

==References==
<references/>

== External links ==
{{Wikitravel}}
{{Commons|Lima}}
* [http://www.munlima.gob.pe Municipality of Lima] (in Spanish)
* [http://www.geographia.com/peru/lima/ Lima at geographia.com]
* [http://www.lima.info Lima travel and tourist information]
* [http://www.bvl.com.pe/english/index.html Lima Stock Exchange]
* [http://www.lap.com.pe/AIRPORT/eng_home00.asp Jorge Chávez International Airport]
* [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/CLIMATELIMACELSIUS.htm The climate of Lima]
* [http://www.guiacalles.com/calles/index.asp Lima maps] (in Spanish)
* [http://www.davidmetraux.com/peru.html Collection of Lima and Peruvian photos] from davidmetraux.com
* [http://www.globalamity.net/index.php?section=article&articleid=5 Lima Photographs] at GlobalAmity.net
* [http://www.islaspalomino.com Islas Palomino (Palomino Islands), pictures and videos]

{{Peruviancitiesover100000}}
[[Category:Capitals in South America]]
[[Category:Lima| ]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:1535 establishments]]

{{Link FA|de}}

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Sucre

2006-10-04T01:00:31Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Sucre

:''For other uses, see [[Sucre (disambiguation)]].''
----
[[Image:SucreBolivia.jpg|thumb|320px|right|Sucre, the constitutional capital of Bolivia|right]]

'''Sucre''' (population 247,300 in 2006) is the constitutional [[capital]] of [[Bolivia]], seat of the Supreme Court (''Corte Suprema de Justicia''), and capital of the [[Chuquisaca]] department. Located in the south-central part of the country, Sucre lies at an altitude of 2,800m (9,200ft). Historically the city has also been known as ''[[Charcas]]'', ''La Plata'' and ''Chuquisaca'', resulting in the nickname of "the City of Four Names" or "la Ciudad de Cuatro Nombres." As most of the colonial buildings in the city center are whitewashed, the city also enjoys the nickname of "the white city" or "la ciudad blanca." Sucre is located at {{coor dms|19|2|35|S|65|15|33|W}} (-19.043056, +65.259167). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]

[[Image:Sucre intersection.jpg|thumb|Sucre|right]]

On [[November 30]] [[1538]] Sucre was founded under the name ''Ciudad de la Plata de la Nueva Toledo'' by [[Pedro de Anzures]], Marqués de Campo Redondo. In [[1559]] the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Philip II of Spain|King Philip II]] established the ''Audiencia de Charcas'' in La Plata with authority over an area which covers what is now [[Paraguay]], southeastern [[Peru]], Northern [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]], and much of [[Bolivia]]. In [[1601]] the Recoleta Monastery was founded by the Franciscans and in [[1609]], an [[archbishopric]] was founded in the city. In [[1624]], San Francisco de Xavier University was founded.

[[Image:Sucre building.jpg|thumb|Prefecture Building|right]]

Very much a Spanish city during the colonial era, the narrow streets of the city center are organized in a grid, reflecting the Andalusian culture that is embodied in the architecture of the city's great houses and numerous convents and churches. Sucre remains the seat of the Catholic church in Bolivia, and a common sight is members of religious orders dressed in traditional garb.

Until the 18th century, La Plata was the judicial, religious and cultural center of the region. In 1839, after the city became the capital of Bolivia, it was renamed in honor of the revolutionary leader [[Antonio José de Sucre]]. Too remote after the economic decline of [[Potosí]], it saw the Bolivian seat of government move to [[La Paz, Bolivia|La Paz]] in 1898. In 1991, Sucre became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The city attracts thousands of tourists every year thanks to its well-conserved downtown with buildings from the 18th and 19th century. Nestled at the foot of the twin hills of [[Churuquella]] and [[Sika Sika]], Sucre is the gateway to numerous small villages that date from the colonial era, the most well-known of which is [[Tarabuco]], home of the colorful "[[Pujllay]]" festival held each March. In these outlying villages, one is as likely to find a descendant of the Spanish conquest as members of an indigenous group that still dress in their unique native clothing they use not only to preserve their cultural identity but also to let others instantly know what town or region they are from.

==See also==
*[[La Paz]]

==References and external links==

*[http://www.sucre.com.bo/ Sucre] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.hamsucre.gov.bo/ Municipal Government of Sucre] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.boliviaweb.com/cities/sucre.htm BoliviaWeb - General Information]
*[http://www.correodelsur.net/ Correo del Sur - Sucre newspaper] (in Spanish)
*[http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=566 UNESCO World Heritage Site]
*[http://www.aeci.org.bo/guia/bolivia/Chuquisaca/sucre.htm Site with Photos] (in Spanish)

{{World Heritage Sites in Bolivia}}

[[Category:Capitals in South America]]
[[Category:Cities in Bolivia]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Bolivia]]
[[Category:1538 establishments]]

{{Bolivia-geo-stub}}

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Bogotá

2006-10-04T01:00:08Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Bogotá

:''This article is about the capital of Colombia; for the town in the United States, see'' [[Bogota, New Jersey]].

{{Infobox City
|official_name = Bogotá
|nickname = [[Athens]] of [[Latin America]]
|motto = Y tú, ¿qué sabes de Bogotá?
|image_skyline = Bogotaview.jpg
|imagesize = 200px
|image_caption = Downtown view from [[Colpatria Tower|Colpatria Building]]
|image_flag = Bogotá (bandera).svg
|image_seal = Bogota coat of arms.PNG
|image_map = Mapa administrativa Bogota.png
|mapsize = 240px
|map_caption = Municipalities of Bogotá
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Departments of Colombia|Department]]
|subdivision_name = [[Colombia]]
|subdivision_name1 = Bogotá, D.C.*
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Luís Eduardo Garzón Garzón|Luís Eduardo Garzón]], [[Alternative Democratic Pole|PDA]]
|established_title = Foundation
|established_date = [[August 6]], [[1538]]
|area_magnitude =
|TotalArea_sq_mi =
|area_total = 1,732
|LandArea_sq_mi =
|area_land =
|WaterArea_sq_mi =
|area_water =
|area_water_percent =
|UrbanArea_sq_mi =
|area_urban =
|MetroArea_sq_mi =
|area_metro =
|population_as_of = [[2005]]census
|population_note =
|population_total = 7,321,831 [http://www.dane.gov.co/files/censo2005/resultados_am_municipios.pdf]
|population_metro = 7,881,156 [http://www.dane.gov.co/files/censo2005/resultados_am_municipios.pdf]
|population_urban =
|population_density = 4,528
|population_density_mi2 =
|timezone =
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|latd= |latm= |lats= |latNS=
|longd= |longm= |longs= |longEW=
|elevation = 2,640
|elevation_ft =
|website = [http://www.bogota.gov.co/ City Official Site] [http://www.luchoiforma.gov.co/ Mayor Official Site]
|footnotes = *Bogotá is physically within and is the capital of [[Cundinamarca Department]], but as the Captial District is treated as its own department.
}}

'''Bogotá'''—officially named '''Bogotá, D.C.''' (D.C. for "Distrito Capital", which means "Capital District"), also called '''Santa Fe de Bogotá'''—is the [[capital]] of [[Colombia]], as well as the largest and most populous city in the country with 7,321,831 inhabitants (2005 census).The officially defined metropolitan area, which includes the municipality of Soacha, has an estimated population of 7,881,156 <ref> DANE, [http://www.dane.gov.co/files/censo2005/resultados_am_municipios.pdf Censo General 2005 Resultados Area Metropolitana de Bogotá]</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of Bogotá}}

[[Image:MN_Bogota.JPG|thumb|left|250px|[[National Museum of Colombia|National Museum]]]]

Originally called Bacatá by the [[Muiscas]], it was the center of their civilization before the [[Conquistadores|Spanish explorers]] colonized the area, and it sustained a large population. The European settlement was founded in [[August 6]], [[1538]], by [[Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada]] and was named "Santa Fé de Bacatá" after his birthplace Santa Fé and the local name. "Bacatá" had become the modern "Bogotá" by the time it was made the capital of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]], which was then part of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]], and the city soon became one of the centers of Spanish colonial power and civilization in South America.

In [[1810]]-[[1811|11]] its citizens revolted against Spanish rule and set up a government of their own, but had to contend with Spanish military loyalists, who controlled the city until [[1819]], when [[Simón Bolívar]] captured the city after his victory at [[Battle of Boyacá|Boyacá]]. Bogotá was then made the capital of [[Gran Colombia]], a federation combining the territories of modern Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador. When that republic was dissolved into its constituent parts, Bogotá remained the capital of New Granada, which later became the Republic of Colombia. See [[History of Colombia]].

In 1956, the municipality was joined to other neighboring municipalities forming a "Special District" ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Distrito Especial'').
With the Constitution of 1991, Bogotá was confirmed as the Capital of Colombia acquiring the name "Santa Fe de Bogotá", and changing the category from Special District to "Capital District" ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Distrito Capital'').

In August [[2000]] the capital's name was officially changed back from "Santa Fé de Bogotá" to the more usual "Bogotá". Bogotá Capital District <ref>[http://bogota-dc.com www.bogota-dc.com]</ref> The local government consists of a Capital District, the current chief of government is [[Luis Eduardo Garzón]].

=== Flag ===

[[Image:CatedralPrimadaBogota2004-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Primary Cathedral of Bogotá|Primate Cathedral]]]]

The flag originates from the insurgency movement against the colonial authorities, which began on [[July 20]], [[1810]]. During this insurgency, the rebels wore armbands with yellow and red bands, as these colours were the ones in the [[Flag of Spain|Spanish flag]] which was the one used as the flag for the New Kingdom of Granada.

In [[October 9]], [[1952]], exactly 142 years after these events, decree 555 of 1952 officially and definitively adopted the patriotic armband as the flag of Bogotá.

The flag itself is divided horizontally in two, the top half being yellow and the bottom half being red and blue. The yellow colour denotes the virtues of justice, clemency, benevolence, the so-called "mundane qualities" (defined as nobility, excellence, richness, generosity, splendour, health, steadfastness, joy and prosperity), long life, eternity, power and constancy. The red colour denotes the virtue of charity, as well as the qualities of bravery, nobility, values, audacity, victory, honour and furor, Colombians call it the blood of their people.

=== Coat of Arms ===

[[Image:CapitolioNacionalDeColombia2004-7.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[National Capitol of Colombia|National Capitol]]]]

The coat of arms of the city was granted by emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] (Charles I of Spain) to the New Kingdom of Granada, by royal decree given in [[Valladolid]], [[Spain]] on [[December 3]], [[1548]]. It contains a black eagle in the center, which symbolises steadfastness. The eagle is also a symbol of the [[Habsburg]]s, which was the ruling family of the Spanish empire at the time. The eagle is crowned with gold and holds a red [[pomegranate]] inside a golden background. The border contains olive branches with nine golden pomegranates in a blue background. The two red pomegranates symbolize audacity, and the nine golden ones represent the nine states which constituted the New Kingdom of Granada at the time.

In [[1932]] the coat of arms was officially recognized and adopted as the symbol of Bogotá.

=== Anthem ===

The lyrics to the anthem of Bogotá were written by Pedro Medina Avendaño, the melody was composed by [[Roberto Pineda Duque]]. The song was officially declared the anthem by decree 1000 of [[July 31]], [[1974]], by then [[List of mayors of Bogotá|Mayor of Bogotá]], [[Aníbal Fernandez de Soto]].

== Population and Area ==
=== Location ===

[[Image:SabanaBogota.jpg|thumb|right|250px|"Sabana de Bogotá", a high plateau]]

Bogotá is located in the center of the country, on the eastern of the "sabana de Bogotá", 2640 meters (8661 feet) above sea level. Although "sabana", as it is popularly called, is literally "savanna", the geographical site is actually a ''[[high plateau]]'' up in the Andes mountains.

The Bogotá River crosses the 'sabana' forming Tequendama falls to the south. Tributary rivers form valleys with flourishing villages, whose economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising and artisanal production.

The 'sabana' is bordered to the east by the [[Cordillera Oriental, Colombia|Eastern Cordillera]] of the [[Andes]] mountain range. Surrounding hills, which limit city growth, run from south to north, parallel to the Guadalupe and Monserrate mountains. The western city limit is the Bogotá river; Sumapaz paramo borders the south and to the north Bogotá extends over the metioned plateau up to the towns of Chía and Sopó.

=== Climate ===

The average temperature on the 'sabana' is 14°C, varying from 9 to 22ºC. Dry and rainy seasons alternate throughout the year. The driest months are December, January, February and March; the rainiest are April, May, September, October and November. June and July are usually rainy periods and August is sunny with high winds.
[[Image:Bogota hailstorm.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Hailstorm]]]]

Climatic conditions are irregular and quite variable due to the El Niño and La Niña climatic phenomena, which occur in and around the Pacific basin and are responsible for very pronounced climatic changes.

=== Urban layout and nomenclature ===

The urban layout dates back to Colonial times, and is a square layout adopted from Spain. The current street layout has '''calles''' which run perpendicular to the hills heading east-west with numbering increasing towards the north, and towards the south from calle 1, and '''carreras''' which run parallel to the hills in the south-north direction with numbering increasing east and west from carrera 1. New urban sectors incorporate diagonal – equaling streets – and transversal – equaling carreras. Streets are numbered.

It has over one thousand neighborhoods or divisions forming the developed urban network. Neighborhoods of higher economic status are primarily located to the north and north-east. Poorer neighborhoods are located to the south and south-east, many of them squatter areas. The middle classes usually inhabit the central, western and north-western sections of the city.

== Government ==

[[Image:Edificio Lievano.JPG|thumb|right|125px|City Hall]]

Bogotá is the capital of the Republic of Colombia, and houses the national legislature, the Supreme Court of Justice , and the center of the executive administration as well as the residence of the President of the Republic. The Principal Mayor and District Council – both elected by popular vote – are responsible for city administration.

The city divided into 20 localities: Usaquén, [[Chapinero]], Santa Fe, San Cristóbal, Usme, Tunjuelito, Bosa, [[Kennedy (Bogotá)|Kennedy]], Fontibón, [[Engativá]], Suba, [[Barrios Unidos]], [[Teusaquillo]], [[Los Mártires]], [[Antonio Nariño (Bogotá)|Antonio Nariño]], Puente Aranda, La Candelaria, Rafael Uribe Uribe, Ciudad Bolívar, [[Sumapaz (Bogotá)|Sumapáz]].

Each of the 20 localities is governed by an administrative board elected by popular vote, made up of no less than seven members, as determined by the District Council. The Principal Mayor designates local mayors from a trio proposed by the respective administrative board.

== Economy ==

Bogotá is [[Colombia]]'s largest economic center, followed by [[Medellín]], [[Cali]], and [[Barranquilla]]. Most companies in Colombia have their headquarters in Bogotá, as it is home to most foreign companies doing businesses in Colombia as well as Colombia's main stock market. Bogotá is a major center for import and export of goods for Colombia.

[[Image:PalacioDeJusticia2004-7-9Bogota.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Justice Palace of Colombia|Justice Palace]]]]

=== Manufacturing, Commerce and Trade ===

Bogotá is the hub of Colombian business. It has a busy banking and insurance sector and a [[Stock exchange]]. Engineering firms provide services for many regions of Colombia and Central America. Bogotá houses the central governmental institutions and military headquarters. It is the center of the telecommunications network and has the biggest industrial facilities in the country.

Some services are public and others are private. The public services include energy, sewer and phones. Energy and sewer bills are stratified based on the location of owner's residence. Thus, the wealthier sections of society help subsidize the energy bills of the poorer sections of society. Telephone service is provided by both "Empresa de Telecomunicaciones de Bogotá" (ETB), a city-owned company, and "Capitel", owned by ''Colombia Telecomunicaciones'' and "EPM Bogotá", owned in turn by the [[Medellín]] public services company (''Empresas Públicas de Medellín'' - EPM) . Coin or card-operated payphones are also available, along with cell phone providers. There are (as of May [[2005]]) three main operators of wireless phones: [[Movistar]] (owned by Spanish firm [[Telefónica]]), [[Comcel]] (owned by [[Telmex]]) and [[Colombia Móvil|Ola]] (co-owned by ETB and EPM).

[[Image:IMG 0098.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Bogotá's financial district at Chile Avenue]]

Bogotá also receives money from exports like flowers and emeralds. In downtown Bogotá, millions of dollars in domestically produced rough and cut emeralds are bought and sold daily. Other important industries include financial services, especially banking. Bogotá is headquarters to major commercial banks, and to the Banco de la República, Colombia's central bank. Bogotá is also a printing and publishing center. The city is a major convention destination with many major convention centers: Centro Ferial de Convenciones Corferias, Centro de Convenciones y Eventos Cafam, Centro de Convenciones Gonzalo Jiménez De Quezada, among others. Because of its status as site of the country's capital, it is home to a number of government agencies, which represent another major component of the city's economy.

The city's industrial base include staples of the Colombian economy such as GM Colmotores, Compañía Colombiana Automotriz, and Ecopetrol.

=== Transportation and Communications ===

[[Image:Centro comercial Bulevar Niza.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bulevar Niza [[Mall]]]]

Bogotá is a modern city with a modern transportation system. It includes an international [[airport]], bus lines, taxis, the [[TransMilenio]] bus rapid transit system, and even a train that serves as transportation for the outskirts of the city.

Buses are the main means of mass transportation. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the trasmilenio. The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues:
* '''bus'''; large buses.
* '''buseta'''; medium size buses.
* '''microbus''' or '''colectivo'''; vans or minivans.
The buses are divided into two categories: "ejecutivo", which is supposed to be a deluxe service and is not supposed to carry standing passengers, and "corriente" or normal service. Bus fares range, as of March [[2006]], from COP 900 to 1250 (US$ .40 aprox.)

In addition, Bogotá has several types of taxis. Yellow taxis (cabs) are by far the most common. People often use them in order to get to their destination faster, although they are more expensive. Bogotá also has white taxis, used mostly as shuttles between hotels and the El Dorado airport.

==== Airports ====

Bogotá's principal airport is [[El Dorado International Airport]]. Several national airlines ([[Avianca]], [[AeroRepública]], [[AIRES]] and [[SATENA]]), and international airlines (such as [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]], [[American Airlines]], [[Varig]], [[Copa Airlines|Copa]], [[Continental Airlines|Continental]], [[Delta Air Lines|Delta]], [[Air Canada]], [[Aerogal]],[[TAME]], [[Grupo TACA|TACA]]) operate from El Dorado. Bogotá's airport is one of the largest and most expensive in [[Latin America]]. Because of its central location in [[Colombia]] and [[Americas|America]], it is preferred by national land transportation providers, as well as national and international air transportation providers.

Currently, a major expansion of El Dorado airport is in the planning stage. This stage will be finished on January 2008.

==== Bus Terminals ====

Bogotá is a hub for national and international bus routes. This terminal serves routes to the majority of cities and towns in Colombia <ref>[http://www.bogota-dc.com/trans/terminal.htm Bogotá Transportation Terminal & Train Station] Bogota-dc.com</ref> and is the largest in the country. International services are provided to [[Ecuador]] and [[Venezuela]] by certain bus companies.

==== TransMilenio ====
{{main|TransMilenio}}
[[Image:TransMilenio Campín.jpg|thumb|left|250px|TransMilenio's [[Campín (TransMilenio)|El Campín]] Station]]

[[TransMilenio]] is a [[bus rapid transit]] system, a network combining modern articulated buses that operate on exclusive roads (busways) and smaller buses (feeders) that operate in residential areas, bringing passengers to the main grid. TransMilenio's main routes are: Caracas Avenue, 80th Street, Avenue of the Americas, Northern Highway (''Autopista Norte''), Jiménez Avenue, and 30th Avenue (also referred to as ''Norte Quito Sur'' or ''N.Q.S.'' for short). The Suba Avenue routes and the southern leg of the 30th Avenue route were opened in April 2006. The third phase of the system will cover 7th Avenue, 10th Avenue, and 26th Street (or ''Avenida El Dorado''). The system is expected to cover the entire city by 2030.

The Transmilenio rapid bus service is extremely cheap, clean and efficient and carries commuters to numerous corners of the city. While the Transmilenio is expansive, there are some main routes that are not yet reached.

===== Security on Transmilenio =====

As in any other highly crowded area, users of TransMilenio must be aware that when riding the system they are exposed to pickpockets. Isolated instances of people getting mugged have been reported as well. Security on buses and in stations is handled by police officers employed by the city. However, most of the time the officers assigned are recently graduated highschool students serving their mandatory year with the armed forces ('Policía Bachiller'). Higher ranking officers are assigned as supervisors and respond when a Policía Bachiller requests assistance.

==== Bike Paths Network ====
{{Main|Bogota's Bike Paths Network}}
[[Bogotá's network of bike paths]], also called '''ciclorutas''', is one of the most extensive dedicated bike path networks of any city in the world, with a total extension of 303 km. It extends from the north of the city, 170th Street, to the south, 27th Street, and from [[Monserrate]] on the east, to the [[Bogotá River]] on the west. The cicloruta was started by the [[Antanas Mockus]] administration (1995-1998), and considerably extended during the administration of Mayor [[Enrique Peñalosa]].

On Sundays, many people ride a popular tourist train with their family. On weekends, the train runs from Bogotá to Zipaquirá and Nemocón, towns on the outskirts of Bogotá.

A lack of security on bike paths has caused many would-be riders to search for more traditional means of transportation.

== Colleges and Universities ==
{{Main|Universities of Bogotá}}
[[Image:Artesplasticasun.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Beaux Arts Building at [[National University of Colombia|National University]]]]

Bogotá's colleges and universities have a major impact on the city and region's economy. Not only are they major employers, but they also attract national and international industries to the city and surrounding region, including highly needed technology industries. The city is Colombia's educational "Mecca"; it boasts more schools, colleges, and universities than any other city in Colombia.

== Parks and Recreation ==

* There are many parks and most of them have facilities for concerts, plays, movies, storytellers and other activities. "El Tunal" park, for instance, is a big park which is regularly used to stage free concerts (such as the annual Rock al Parque, a free festival in which new and popular Latin rock bands play for free). The park is also frequented in the month of August and used for kite flying, a national tradition.

* Another public park is ''Parque Nacional'' (National Park), one of the biggest in Bogotá. The park has many trees and green spaces, as well as ponds, games for children, many foot and bicycle paths, and venues for entertainment such as public screenings of movies and concerts and events organized by the [[Council of Bogotá]]. It is located between two main streets, the Circunvalar Avenue and the 7th Avenue.

[[Image:Bogota cerros.JPG|thumb|250px|right|[[Simón Bolívar Metropolitan Park]]]]

* The Botanical Garden (Jardín Botánico) is a munipality owned park. It has greenhouses where plants from all Colombian climates are exhibited. The park has a waterfall and labs for studying plants and flowers. It also has public services such as a library and a tourist information desk.

* There are many other parks around the city of Bogotá. Each neighborhood has its own park. Some of these parks are private and others are public. Some private parks demand that people from the neighborhood have a card to be able to get into the park. Public parks are for everybody. Some of them have watchmen. These parks also have sporting venues, which provide sports programs for children and adults, such as [[volleyball]], [[basketball]], [[taekwondo]], football (soccer)|football, and other sports.

* The most active park (in both leisure activity, promotion of high-end products and nightlife) is the "Parque de la 93" located between 93rd and 93Ath street, and 12th and 13th avenue. Several of the top restaurants and bars in the city are located in this park or in the "Zona T" (T-zone) in the 82nd street. Recently, restaurant activity has begun in the "Zona G" (69th and 70th Streets, in the Los Rosales zone) and La Macarena.

* Bogotá has not only natural parks but also amusement parks like Mundo Aventura and Salitre Mágico. There is a special rate to get into these parks and people have to buy tickets to be able to play mechanical games. Mundo Aventura park has mechanical games such as sky-coaster, roller coaster, hammer, and other adult amusements. For children there are some mechanical games like little roller coaster, carousel, turtles, and so on. In this park, people can find both amusements and nature, with animals such as goats for children to feed. Besides, there is a "Cerdodromo", which is a place where pigs race.

[[Image:Santamaría Bullring.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Plaza de Toros de Santamaria]]]]

* The other amusement park is "Salitre Mágico", which is one of the entertainment centers for children and adults. The are many mechanical games like pirate ship, apocalypse, 3 roller coasters and other games. The park is next to the Simón Bolívar park, which is a well known place in Bogotá (used also for concerts through the year).

* For relaxing and finding peace from the stress of city life, the Parque del Chicó, with trees, gardens, artificial creeks and ponds, and a colonial style house converted into a museum, is worth a visit.

* Not so far from the city, up north, the Parque Jaime Duque offers a cultural encounter for visiting families. It has rides, a giant map of Colombia, popular exhibits, and a zoo. A big hand holding the world symbolizes God, and a reproduction of the [[Taj Mahal]] provides a picture collection with reproductions of famous paintings.

=== Zoos and Gardens ===
== Trivia ==

[[Image:Chapinero lourdes.JPG|right|250px|thumb|[[Our Lady of Lourdes]] Church]]

*Bogotá hosts the Iberoamerican Theater Festival, the biggest theater festival in the world, every two years.
*Bogotá is also known as the ''[[Athens]] of [[Latin America]]'', given the locals' penchant for education and manners.
*In [[2007]], Bogotá will be the Book Capital of the World.
*The city also celebrates the International Book Fair, one of the three major book fairs of the Spanish-speaking Americas.
*The tallest building in the city is the [[Colpatria Tower]].
*The former motto of the city was "2600 metres closer to the stars" (in reference to its altitude above sea level).
*The city has institutionalized a day without cars on the streets, called "El Día sin Carro" (The day without cars). It takes place every first Thursday of February. See [[Car Free Days]] and [[United Nations Car Free Days]].
*Bogotá has the highest quality as well as the most expensive potable water in [[Latin America]].
*The Federal District as a whole has the largest economy in Colombia and ranks eighth in [[Latin America]].
*The Gold Museum has the biggest gold handicraft collection in the world.
*Bogotá has one of the most extensive dedicated [[Bogota's Bike Paths Network|Bike Paths Network]] of any city in the world, with a total of 300km.

== References ==

<references/>

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
Image:La [[Candelaria]].JPG|Bogotá's old town of La Candelaria
Image:Bogota Eje ambiental.JPG|View of downtown Bogotá from nearby [[Monserrate]]
Image:IMG 0454.JPG|An Eastern view of Bogotá's International Business District with [[Monserrate]] looming above
Image:TransMilenio2004-7-10.jpg|[[Transmilenio]]'s 19th Street Station
Image:Transmilenio en el centro.JPG|Station at Jiménez Avenue and Seventh Carrera
Image:IMG 0102.JPG|Bavaria Central Park
Image:North CB.JPG|Overview of Bavaria Central Park
Image:IMG 0237.JPG|Santamaría [[Bullring]] with Park Towers behind
Image:Bullfight-Bogotá-1.jpg|Bullfighting in Bogotá
Image:Bogota-christmas-2005.jpg|[[Colpatria Tower|Colpatria Bank Building]]
Image:SNMN_Bog.JPG|Negret Sculpture at [[National Museum of Colombia|National Museum]]
Image:Iglesia SFB.JPG|[[Saint Francis of Assisi]] Church
Image:Bogota1.jpg|Panoramic view of downtown Bogotá from nearby [[Monserrate]]
Image:Monserrate 03.jpg|[[Monserrate]] Church
Image:Candelaria Church 01.jpg|Candelaria Church
</gallery>

== See also ==

*[[Bogota's Carnival]]
*[[Bogota's Bike Paths Network]]
*[[Bolivar Square]]
*[[Children's Museum of Bogotá]]

== External links ==

{{commons|Bogotá}}

*{{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.unal.edu.co/ Universidad Nacional de Colombia Web site]
* [http://www.bogota-dc.com/ Bogotá Tourism Guide]
* [http://english.bogotaturismo.gov.co/] - Directory & travel information
* [http://www.bogowiki.org/ BogoWiki] - A Wiki dedicated to Bogotá
* [http://www.banrep.gov.co/museo/home4_eng.htm Museo del Oro (The Gold Museum)]
* [http://www.villegaseditores.com/loslibros/9588156211/index.html Bogotá from The Air] - Aerial photographs of Bogotá
* [http://www.villegaseditores.com/loslibros/9589138519/index.html Museos de Bogotá] - A museum guide for the Colombian capital
* [http://www.eltiempo.com/ El Tiempo ] - Online edition of a main newspaper in Bogotá
* [http://www.elespectador.com/ El Espectador] - Online edition of a main newspaper in Bogotá
* [http://www.uamerica.edu.co/ Universidad de América] - University Web site
* [http://www.uniminuto.edu.co/ Universidad Minuto de Dios] - University Web site
* [http://www.umng.edu.co/ Universidad Militar Nueva Granada] - University Web site
* [http://www.escuelaing.edu.co/ Escuela Colombiana de Ingeniería] - University Web site
* [http://www.uniandes.edu.co/ Universidad de los Andes] - University Web site
* [http://www.javeriana.edu.co/ Pontificia Universidad Javeriana] - University Web site
* [http://www.udistrital.edu.co/ Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas] - University Web site
* [http://www.news.havard.edu/gazette/2004/03.11/01-mockus.html Harvard Gazette Archives] Text on Antanas Mockus's many inspired strategies to change Bogotá
* [http://www.idu.gov.co/ Bogotá's Urban Development Institute] - Includes maps and satellite pictures
* [http://www.bogotaphotos.blogspot.com/ Bogotá's Photos] - Hotels, Tourism and Bogotá Travel Information.

{{start box}}
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before=[[Turin]]|
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years=2007|
after=[[Amsterdam]]
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[[Category:1538 establishments]]
[[Category:Bogotá| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in South America]]
[[Category:Cities in Colombia]]
[[Category:World Book Capital]]

{{Link FA|es}}

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Caracas

2006-10-04T00:59:44Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Caracas

{{coor title dm|10|30|N|66|55|W|region:VE_type:city}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Santiago de León de Caracas
|nickname = La Sultana del Avila ([[English language|English]]:The Avilas' Sultana)
La Sucursal del Cielo ([[English language|English]]:Branch of Heaven)
|motto = Ave María Santísima, sin pecado concebida, en el primer instante de su ser natural.
([[English language|English]]: Hail Holiest Mary, conceived without sin, in the first instant of Your Natural Being)
|website = [http://www.alcaldiamayor.gob.ve/ alcaldiamayor.gob.ve]
[[Image:Caracas-downtown.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Caracas downtown]]
|image_skyline = Altamira.JPG
|image_flag = Ve-fccs1.gif
|image_seal = Caracas_coat_of_arms_1.png
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Illinois|Counties]]
|subdivision_name = [[Venezuela]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Distrito Capital]] / [[Miranda]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Libertador Municipality (Venezuelan Capital District)|Libertador]], [[Chacao Municipality|Chacao]], [[Baruta Municipality|Baruta]], [[Sucre Municipality, Miranda|Sucre]], [[El Hatillo Municipality|El Hatillo]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Juan Barreto]] (2004 – 2008)
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|TotalArea_sq_mi = 1199.2
|area_total = 1,930
|population_as_of = 2005
|population_total = 3,276,000
|population_urban = 4,700,000
|population_density_mi2 = 4,394
|population_density = 1,697
|elevation = 900
|elevation_ft = 3,000
|latd = 10
|latm = 30
|lats =
|latNS = N
|longd = 66
|longm = 55
|longs =
|longEW = W
|footnotes =
}}

'''Caracas''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ka'ɾakas]}}) is the [[capital]] of [[Venezuela]]. It is located in the north of the country, following the contours of a narrow mountain valley located on the [[Coastal Range, Venezuela|Venezuelan coastal range]] (Cordillera de la Costa). The valley's temperatures are springlike, and the urbanizable terrain of the Caracas Valley lies between 2,500 and 3,000 ft (760 and 910 m) above sea level. The Valley is close to the [[Caribbean Sea]] , separated from the coast by a steep mountain range ([[Cerro El Ávila|Cerro Ávila]]) that rises above 7400 ft (2200 m); to the south lies further hills and mountains. The historic center of Caracas, known as the Libertador District, had an estimated population of 2.1 million in 2005<ref name="DCPOP"> [http://www.ine.gov.ve/poblacion/salidadistribucion.asp?Tt=Cuadro229&cuadro=cuadro229 Population projection by state]</ref>. In that same year, the official metropolitan area<ref name="DM"> [http://www.gobiernoenlinea.gob.ve/venezuela/perfil_dtto_capital.html Gobierno en Linea: Distrito Capital]</ref> had an estimated population of 3.3 million<ref name="WUP"> [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2003/WUP2003Report.pdf United Nations World Urbanization Prospects report]</ref>. Distrito Capital is the name of Caracas' primary seat, covering part of [[Miranda State]]. The population of Caracas' [[urban agglomeration]] (Greater Caracas, including neighbouring cities out of Distrito Capital) is about 4.7 million.<ref name ="citipopulation.de">[http://www.citypopulation.de/World.html citypopulation.de]</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Casadellibertador.jpg|thumb|left|290px|Casa del Libertador (''[[Casa del Libertador]]'')]]
More than five hundred years ago, the area was populated by peaceful Indian tribes and Caracas did not exist. Years went by, and Francisco Fajardo, the first colonizer founded a plantation there in [[1562]]. Fajardo's stay in the valley did not last long, and he was expelled by the Indians who returned to their flower-filled freedom. This wast the last rebellion on the part of the aborigines, for on [[July 25]], [[1567]], the Spanish captain [[Diego de Losada]] laid the foundations of the city of Santiago de León de Caracas, and the Indian settlement of Catuchacao became transformed under the influence of the colonizers into the new city of Caracas.

The cultivation of cocoa stimulated the development of the city which became the capital of the province of Venezuela. In [[1577]], Caracas still grew horizontally; young grass with its houses, with courtyards and corridors...This was the atmosphere the city had during the years of the coffee and cocoa trade, with Creole orchids and iron grilles against a back cloth of moss and ''siesta'' time.

An attempt at revolution to gain independence organized by José María España and Manuel Gual was put down on [[July 13]], [[1797]]. But the ideas of the [[French Revolution]] and the [[American Wars of Independence]] inspired the people, and on [[July 5]], [[1811]] a Declaration of Independence was signed in Caracas. This city was the birthplace of two of Latin America's most important figures: [[Francisco de Miranda]] and "''El Libertador''" [[Simón Bolívar]]. An [[earthquake]] destroyed Caracas on [[March 26]], [[1812]] and was portrayed by authorities as a divine punishment for rebelling against the Spanish Crown, during the [[Venezuelan War of Independence]]. The valley became a cemetery, and the war continued until [[June 24]], [[1821]], when Bolívar gained a decisive victory over the Royalists at Carabobo.

As the economy of oil-rich Venezuela grew steadily during the first part of the 20th century, Caracas became one of Latin America's economic centers, and was also known as the preferred hub between [[Europe]] and [[South America]]. On [[October 17]] [[2004]], one of the [[Parque Central Torre]] towers caught fire.

'''Reference:''' ''The history and geography of a valley'', by ''Maurice Wiesenthal'', article appeared in the book ''Caracas'', published in [[1981]].

===Flag===
[[Image:Petare2004-8b.jpg|thumb|right|290px|A narrow street in the colonial town of [[Petare]]]]
The flag of Caracas consists of a burgundy red field with the version of the Coat of Arms of the City effective since the decade of [[1980]]. The red field, remembrance of the predominant color in the royal pennants of Colonial Caracas, symbolizes the blood spilled by Caraquenian people in favor of [[Independence]] and the highest Ideals of the Venezuelan Nation. The original design of the Caracas Flag appeared in the decade of [[1980]] and consisted of a burgundy red cloth with the version of the then adopted and still effective Coat of Arms located to the canton.
Later, in [[1994]], presumably as a result of the change of municipal authorities, it was decided to place the Caracas coat of arms slightly increased of size on the center of the field, a configuration that is maintained at the present time.

===Coat of arms===
The [[coat of arms]] of the City of Caracas was adopted by the Libertador Municipality to identify itself and later the Metropolitan Mayor Office assumed the lion, the scallop and the St. James Cross for the same aim. Symbolically speaking, this raised a conflict then that Caracas identifies the Coat of Arms of the Capital of the Republic.

===Anthem===
The anthem of the City is the ''Marcha a Caracas'' of the composer'' Tiero Pezzuti de Matteis'' with the lyrics of [[José Enrique Sarabia]], according to the agreement approved by the City council in [[March 28]], [[1984]], score and lyrics were added like integral part of this decree. The lyric is inspired by the heroism of the Caracas people, and the memory of the city of Red Roofs.

==Law and government==
{{Sectstub}}
Caracas has five municipalities: Baruta, El Hatillo, Chacao, Libertador and Sucre. In [[March 8]], [[2000]], the year after a new constitution was introduced in Venezuela, it was [[decree|decreed]] in ''Gaceta Oficial'' N° 36,906 that the [[Metropolitan District of Caracas]] would be created, and that some of the powers of these municipalities would be delegated to the ''Alcaldía Mayor'', physically located in Libertador municipality.

==Geography==
{{Sectstub}}
Caracas is located in a valley, urban development in the last century has expanded to the adjacents mountains. The main water body of Caracas is the Guaire river, which flows across the city. In the north side of the city is located the mountain [[Cerro El Ávila]].

==Economy==
{{Sectstub}}
Caracas as the capital of [[Venezuela]], host numerous companies of services, banks, malls, among others. Its activity is in almost 100% of services, excepting some industries established in its metropolitan area, this city also host the [[Caracas Stock Exchange]], that requests the operations of the purchase and authorizes the sale of the instruments for its negotiation in the stock-market. Also host [[Petróleos de Venezuela]] (PDVSA) that is the main company of the country, that negotiates all the international agreements for the distribution and export of petroleum towards other countries.

==Demographics==
{{Sectstub}}
The population of Caracas is of 3,276,000 inhabitants. Caracas has received immigration from many places around the world, specially from [[Europe]] and nearby countries such as [[Colombia]].

==Sites of interest==
{{Cleanup}}
[[Image:Alejandro Otero Mateo Manaure UCV 1954.JPG|thumb|left|290px|Main library of [[Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas]]]]

===Ciudad Universitaria===
{{main|Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas}}
The main campus of the '''[[Central University of Venezuela]]''', designed by the renowned architect [[Carlos Raúl Villanueva]] and declared [[World Heritage]] by [[UNESCO]] in 2000 is considered to be a masterwork of Modern Architecture and Art. Over 28 artists from the Modern Avant-garde participated in the project. Among them [[Hans Arp]], [[Alexander Calder]], [[Fernand Léger]], [[Victor Vasarely]] with the Venezuelans Francisco Narváez, [[Alejandro Otero]] and Oswaldo Vigas.

===Capitolio Federal===
The Capitolio Federal occupies an entire city block, and, with its golden domes and neoclassical pediments, can seem even bigger. The building was commissioned by [[Antonio Guzmán Blanco]] in the 1870s, and is most famous for its [[Salón Elíptico]], an oval hall with a mural-covered dome and walls lined with portraits of the country's great and good.

Visit on [[Independence Day]] and you'll catch a glimpse of the original Act of Independence of 1811, installed inside a pedestal topped by a bust of Bolívar and displayed only on this most auspicious of public days. The halls surrounding the salon are daubed with battle scenes commemorating Venezuela's fight for independence.

===Parque del Este===
Designed by Brazilian architect [[Roberto Burle Marx]]. A green paradise in the middle of the city, where diverse activities can be done. A park where typical animals can be seen in a little zoo. A replica of the famous ship led by [[Christopher Columbus]], la Santa Maria, is in the southern part of the park.

===Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex===
[[Image:Teatro_Teresa_Carreño.jpg|thumb|right|290px|Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex]]
{{main|Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex}}
The '''Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex''' (''Complejo Cultural Teresa Carreño''), or more commonly the '''Teresa Carreño Theater''' (''Teatro Teresa Carreño''), is one of the most important Theaters of Caracas and [[Venezuela]], where symphonic and popular concerts imagine frequently, operas, ballet and theater. It is located near the Seat of the museums, the Caobos Park and the Athenian of Caracas,in the cultural zone of the city. It is divided in two rooms: ''Jose Felix Ribas'' and ''Ríos Reyna''. He is constructed on a land of 22 thousand square meters. The theater was thus called in honor to the pianist [[Teresa Carreño]].

===Casa Natal de Bolívar===
[[Skyscraper]]s may loom overhead, but there's more than a hint of original colonial flavor in this neatly proportioned reconstruction of the house where [[Simón Bolívar]] was born on [[July 24]], [[1783]]. The [[museum]]'s exhibits include period [[weapons]], [[banners]] and [[uniforms]].

Much of the original colonial interior has been replaced by monumental paintings of battle scenes, but more personal [[relic]]s can be seen in the nearby [[Museo Bolivariano]]. Pride of place goes to the coffin in which Bolívar's remains were brought from [[Colombia]]; his ashes now rest in the [[Panteón Nacional|National Pantheon]].

Bolívar's funeral was held 12 years after his death at the [[Iglesia de San Francisco]], just a few blocks west, and it was also here that he was proclaimed '[[Simón Bolívar|El Libertador]]' in 1813. The church dazzles the eye with its richly gilded [[baroque]] altarpieces, and still retains much of its original colonial interior, despite being given a modernizing once-over by Guzmán Blanco.

===Museo de Arte Colonial===
The gardens that surround this museum are almost as enticing as its interior. The museum is housed in a gorgeous colonial country mansion known as '''[[Quinta Anauco]]''', which is surrounded by beautiful greenery. Inside the house you'll find meticulously restored rooms, filled with carefully selected works of art, furniture and period household and many other historical artifacts.

The quinta was well outside the historic town when it was built back in [[1797]], but today it's an [[oasis]] in the inner suburb of [[San Bernardino]]. Head there late on a Sunday morning and you might catch a chamber music concert in rooms which were once the house stables

===Panteón Nacional===
[[Image:PanteonNacional.jpg|thumb|left|170px|The National Pantheon (''[[Panteón Nacional]]'')]]
{{main|Panteón Nacional}}
Venezuela's most venerated building is five blocks north of [[Plaza Bolívar]], on the northern edge of the old town. Formerly a church, the building was given its new purpose as the final resting place for eminent Venezuelans by [[Antonio Guzmán Blanco]] in [[1874]]. The entire central nave is dedicated to Bolívar, with the altar's place taken by the hero's bronze [[sarcophagus]], while lesser luminaries are relegated to the aisles. The national pantheon's vault is covered with 1930s paintings depicting scenes from Bolívar's life, and the huge crystal chandelier glittering overhead was installed in 1883 on the centennial of his birth. It's worth hanging around to catch the ceremonial changing of the guard, held several times a day.

===Parque Central===
[[Image:Cerros_de_caracas_2.jpg|thumb|right|290px|Shantytown in northwest Caracas]]
[[Image:231436 3620.jpg|thumb|right|290px|The Banesco building, one of the most important banks of Venezuela]]
{{main|Parque Central Complex}}
At a short saunter east of Plaza Bolívar is '''Parque Central''', a concrete complex of five high-rise residential slabs of somewhat apocalyptic-appearing architecture, crowned by two 53-storey octagonal towers while one of them is currently going under major repairs due to the fire which burned the building on [[October 17]], [[2004]].

Parque Central is Caracas' art and culture hub, loaded with [[museum]]s, [[movie theater|cinema]]s, the [[Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex]], and the [[Caracas Athenaeum]], home to the esteemed [[Rajatabla theatre company]]. The [[Mirador de la Torre Oeste]], on the 52nd floor, gives a 360° bird's-eye view of the city.

===Plaza Bolívar===
Leafy Plaza Bolívar is the focus of the old town with the inevitable monument to [[Simón Bolívar|El Libertador]], Simon Bolívar, at its heart. Modern high-rise buildings have overpowered much of the colonial flavor of Caracas' founding [[neighborhood]]. But the lively area still boasts some important sites.

The [[Museo Caracas]] on the ground floor highlights local history, and has some great models of the city as it appeared in the early 19th century and 1930s. To grasp just how much this city has grown, take a look at the map dating from 1578 in the building's central [[courtyard]].

===El Hatillo===
{{main|El Hatillo Municipality}}
El Hatillo is a [[colonial]] [[town]] located at the south-east [[suburbs]] of Caracas in the municipal area of the same name. This small town, which is one of Venezuela's few well-preserved typical colonial areas, gives an idea of what Caracas was like in centuries past. Just like every town in Venezuela, El Hatillo has its own [[Plaza Bolívar]] with [[Simón Bolívar|El Libertador]]'s statue in the middle. It also has a well preserved [[Catholic Church]], and many colonial houses. Even the municipal government, banks, and bookshops in this neighborhood keep the colonial look, with tall windows, floor-to-top wood doors, and red tile roofs.

The actual colonial section of El Hatillo municipality represents only a small part of the total land size. Other parts of El Hatillo municipality are regular residential and commercial zones, including the neighborhoods of La Boyera, Oripoto, and La Lagunita.

===Cerro El Ávila===
[[Image:PicoOriental.jpg|thumbnail|right|290px|Pico Oriental of the [[Cerro El Ávila]]]]
{{main|Cerro El Ávila}}
'''Cerro El Ávila''' (''Mountain El Ávila'') (Wuaraira Repano), is a mountain in the mid-North of [[Venezuela]], it rises next to Caracas and separates the city from the [[Caribbean Sea]], is considered like the vegetal lung of Caracas, being one of the sites of reference of the city. In [[1958]] the mountain was declared National Park, with the name of ''El Ávila National Park''.

===Las Mercedes===
For who wishes to know the most commercial and cosmopolitan district of Caracas, must visit Las Mercedes, this zone reunited some of the best restaurants of the city, that include the diverse gastronomical specialties, along with pleasant pubs, bars and pools. It is the favorite place of meeting of the Caracas youth, it has some of the most exclusive stores of the city, and important malls of Caracas.

===Altamira neighborhood===
{{main|Altamira (Caracas)}}
'''Altamira''' is a neighborhood located in the [[Chacao Municipality, Miranda|Chacao]] municipality of Caracas, it has its own [[Caracas Metro|Metro Station]], many hotels and restaurants, and is an important business center of the city, the Francisco de Miranda avenue (a major avenue in Caracas) and the Distibuidor Altamira (a congested highway exit) are both located in Altamira..

===The Caracas Cathedral===
The Cathedral is situated in one corner of the Plaza Bolívar and has fallen into ruin and been rebuilt several times since its foundation in [[1594]], The parents of [[Simón Bolívar]] are buried in the Cathedral, besides its hand carved altars, it possesses some magnificent works of art, a ''Resurrection'' by [[Rubens]], the ''Presentation of the Virgin'' by [[Murillo]], and the ''Last supper'', and unfinished work by the Venezuelan painter [[Arturo Michelena]].

[[Image:Santa_rosalia_de_palermo_church.png|thumb|right|290px|Santa Rosalía de Palermo Church in El Hatillo]]
[[Image:EstatuaDelLibertadorEnLaPlazaBolivar2004-6.jpg|thumb|right|290px|Plaza Bolívar]]
[[Image:PlazaFrancia2004-6.jpg|thumb|right|290px|Plaza Francia in Chacao Municipality]]

===Religious Buildings===
* [[Catedral de Caracas]]
* Basílica Menor de Santa Capilla
* Sinagoga Tiferet Israel en Maripérez
* Mezquita Ibrahim Al-Ibrahim
* Iglesia San Francisco
* Iglesia Santa Rosalía de Palermo
* Basílica Santa Teresa
* Iglesia Rumana Ortodoxa de San Constantino y Santa Elena
* Iglesia Nuestra Señora de Altagracia

===Seats and parks===
* Plaza [[O’Leary]]
* [[Plaza Venezuela]]/ Paseo Colón
* [[Plaza Bolívar]]
* [[Plaza Francia (Caracas)|Plaza Francia]]
* Plaza La India
* Plaza de los Museos
* Plaza la Castellana
* Plaza Andres Eloy Blanco
* Plaza El Venezolano
* Parque del Este: ''[[Rómulo Betancourt]]''
* Parque del Oeste: ''[[Jovito Villalba]]''
* Parque Los Caobos
* Parque Los Chorros
* Parque Arístides Rojas
* Parque Vinicio Adames
* Parque ARUFLO
* Parque Cueva del Indio
* Parque Zoológico de [[Caricuao]]
* Parque Zoológico El Pinar
* Parque Manuel San
* Parque Maracaibo
* Parque Sanz
* Parque Zoológico de Contacto: “Expanzoo”
* Jardín Botánico de Caracas
*Jardines de las Universidades: Simón Bolívar y Central de Venezuela
* [[Paseo Los Próceres]]
* [[Paseo El Calvario (Caracas)|Paseo El Calvario]]
* [[Parque nacional El Ávila]]
* Cerro el Volcán
* Parque Nacional Macarao
* Zona de Protección del Litoral Central
* Zona de Protección del Área Metropolitana de Caracas
* Zona de Protección “El Algodonal”

==Colleges and universities==
{{Sectstub}}
Caracas is home for some of the most prestigious universities in the country, including [[Universidad Central de Venezuela]], [[Universidad Simón Bolívar]], [[Universidad Católica Andrés Bello]], [[Universidad Metropolitana]] and several others.

==Sports teams==
{{Sectstub}}
Most notably [[football]] and [[baseball]] teams are located in Caracas. Several other sports also have Caracas as their home.

==Culture==
Caracas is Venezuela's cultural capital, boasting several [[restaurants]], [[theaters]], [[museums]], and [[shopping]] centers. The city is also home to an array of immigrants from but not limited to: [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Portugal]], the [[Middle East]], [[Germany]], [[China]], and [[Latin America|Latin American]] countries.

== Museums and theaters ==
{|
|-
|valign="top"|
* Museo del Transporte Guillermo José Schael
* Museo del Teclado
* Museo Sacro de Caracas
* [http://www.maravillosarealidad.com/index.php Museo de los Niños]
* [http://www.museo-de-ciencias.org.ve/ Museo de Ciencias Naturales]
* Museo Histórico Militar
* [http://www.cinemateca.org.ve Cinemateca Nacional]
* [http://www.quintadeanauco.org.ve/ Museo de Arte Colonial: Quinta de Anauco]
* [http://www.gan.org.ve Galería de Arte Nacional]
* Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Caracas (MACC), with one of the most important art collections of [[South America]].
* Museo Jacobo Borges
* [[Museo de Bellas Artes (Caracas)|Museo de Bellas Artes]]
* Museo Alejandro Otero
* Ateneo de Caracas
|valign="top"|
* [http://www.museomichelena.arts.ve Museo Arturo Michelena]
* Museo Audiovisual
* Museo de la Estampa y el Diseño Carlos Cruz-Diez
* Museo de Arte Popular de Petare
* Museo Alejandro Otero
* [[Galería Contini]], an international gallery of paintings (America and Europe)
* Centro de Arte La Estancia
* [[Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas]] [http://www.ucv.ve]
* Cuadra Bolivariana
**[[Casa natal del Libertador Simón Bolívar]]
** Museo Bolivariano
* [[Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex]] [http://www.teatroteresacarreno.gob.ve]
* Teatro Municipal
* Teatro Nacional
* [http://www.celarg.org.ve/ Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos] (CELARG)
* [[Poliedro de Caracas]] [http://www.poliedrodecaracas.org]
|}

==Notable natives==
Caracas has been the birthplace of many politicians and artists that notably shaped the country's history and culture:
* [[Simón Bolívar]]
* [[Simón Rodríguez]]
* [[Andrés Bello]]
* [[Luisa Cáceres de Arismendi]]
* [[Teresa Carreño]]
* [[Rómulo Gallegos]]
* [[Carlos Cruz-Díez]]
* [[Pedro Gual]]
* [[Antonio Guzmán Blanco]]
* [[Francisco de Miranda]]
* [[Armando Reverón]]
* [[Tito Salas]]
* [[Fermín Toro]]
* [[Martín Tovar y Tovar]]
* [[Arturo Uslar-Pietri]]
* [[José Ángel Lamas]]

==Recreation==
The city has two main football stadiums: The Olympic Stadium (35,000) and the [[Estadio Brígido Iriarte]], with a capacity of 25,000 seats, which is home to the [[Caracas Fútbol Club]] and [[Italchacao]]). Baseball teams [[Tiburones de la Guaira]] and [[Leones del Caracas]] also play on their shared stadium Estadio Universitario (33,000 seats).

*Caracas hosted the [[1983 Pan American Games]]

==Transportation==
[[Image:Metrobus_1.jpg|thumbnail|left|290px|Metrobus feeder bus]]
*The [[Caracas metro]] has been in operation since [[1983]] and is the safest and quickest way to travel in the city, it is pride of Caracas by its functionality and cleaning. Account with four lines and more than 40 stations, it covers great part of the city, it has an integrated ticket system, that combines the route of the ''Metro'' with the offered by the ''Metrobús'', a service of buses of the [[Caracas Metro]], and that arrives at zones with the same quality and excellence. The Metro system works of 5:30 a.m. to 11:00 p.m.
*Buses are the main means of mass transportation. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the Metrobus. The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues:
* '''bus'''; large buses.
* '''buseta'''; medium size buses.
* '''microbus''' or '''colectivo'''; vans or minivans.
*Nearby [[Maiquetia]] has [[Simón Bolívar International Airport (Venezuela)|Simón Bolívar International Airport]].

===Principal avenues===
[[Image:AutopistadecaracasUCV.JPG|thumb|right|290px|The Francisco Fajardo highway at night]]
[[Image:Caracas_avenue.jpg|thumbnail|right|290px|Las Mercedes avenue]]
* Bolívar avenue (the longest avenue of Venezuela in straight line)
* Simón Bolívar avenue (southeast of the city)
* Universidad avenue
* Baralt avenue
* Sucre avenue
* Urdaneta avenue
* Andrés Bello avenue
* Lecuna avenue
* Panteón avenue
* Libertador avenue
* Francisco de Miranda avenue (the longest of Caracas)
* Páez avenue
* O'Higgins avenue
* San Martín avenue
* Teherán avenue
* Acacias avenue
* Las Palmas avenue
* Abraham Lincoln avenue (Boulevard of Sabana Grande)
* Francisco Solano avenue
* Casanova avenue
* Intercomunal avenue of El Valle
* Fuerzas Armadas avenue
* Nueva Granada avenue
* Presidente Medina avenue (also known like: Victoria avenue)
* Roosevelt avenue
* Principal avenue of El Cementerio
* Paseo Los Ilustres
* Las Acacias avenue
* Paseo Los Próceres
* Río de Janeiroa avenue
* Principal avenue of las Mercedes
* Venezuela avenue of El Rosal
* Tamanaco avenue
* Intercomunal Santa Mónica-Cumbres de Curumo avenue
* Boulevard of El Cafetal
* Sanz avenue
* Principal avenue of Caurimare
* 4ª avenue of los Palos Grandes
* San Juan Bosco avenue
* Luís Roche avenue
* Sucre avenue of los Dos Caminos
* Los Castaños avenue of los Chorros
* Rómulo Gallegos avenue
* Principal avenue of Macaracuay
* La Guairita avenue (Cemetery of th east)

== Districts ==
<div style="font-size:85%">
{| align="center" width="100%" style="font-size="98%"
|-
! colspan="2" align="center" style="font-size:100%" | <big>Caracas Districts <big>
|-
| valign="top" | '''Northwest '''
| Catia • [[23 de Enero]] • Propatria • Lomas de Urdaneta • Casalta El Atlántico • Caño Amarillo • Los Magallanes de Catia • Alta Vista • Ruperto Lugo • Lidice • Gramoven • Manicomio
|-
| valign="top" | '''Center'''
| El Silencio • Capitolio • La Hoyada • Altagracia • La Pastora • Cotiza • Quita Crespo • Guaircaipuro • La Candelaria
|-
| valign="top" | '''Southwest'''
| Artigas • Vista Alegre • Bella Vista • Colinas de Vista Alegre • La Yaguara • Zona Industrial de la Yaguara • El Algodonal • Carapa • [[Antimano]] • Washington • Las Fuentes • El Paraíso • El Pinar • La Paz • El Paraiso • Montalbán • Juan Pablo II • La Vega • Las Adjuntas • [[Caricuao]] • Mamera
|-
| valign="top" | ''' Centereastern'''
| El Conde • Parque Central • San Agustín del Sur • San Agustín del Norte • Simón Rodríguez • Mariperez •La Colina • Las Palmas • Las Lomas • San Rafael • Los Caobos • Quebrada Honda • San Bernardino • La Campiña • La Florida • Alta Florida • Chapellin • Los Cedros • El Bosque • Chacaito • Sabana Grande • Bello Monte
|-
| valign="top" | '''South'''
| Cementerio • Los Carmenes • Los Castaños • Prado de Maria • La Bandera • Las Acacias • Colinas de las Acacias • Los Rosales • Valle Abajo • Los Chaguaramos • Ciudad Universitaria • Santa Mónica • Colinas de Santa Mónica • Colinas de Bello Monte • Cumbre de Curumo • [[El Valle]] • Los Jardines de El Valle • Coche • Delgado Chalbaud • La Rinconada
|-
| valign="top" | '''eastern'''
| Country Club • El Pedregal • San Marino • Campo Alegre • Chacao • Bello Campo • El Rosal • El Retiro • [[Las Mercedes]] • Tamanaco • Chuao • Altamira • Los Palos Grandes • La Castellana • La Floresta • Santa Eduvigis • Sebucán • La Carlota • Santa Cecilia • Campo Claro • Los Ruices • Montecristio • Los Chorros • Los Dos Caminos; Boleita • Los Cortijos • La California • Horizonte • El Marques • La Urbina • El Llanito • Macaracuay • La Guairita • Caurimare • El Cafetal • San Román • Santa Rosa • San Luis • Santa Sofia • Santa Paula • Santa Inés • Los Pomelos • Palo Verde • [[Petare]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''Southeastern '''
| Valle Arriba • Santa Fe • Los Campitos • Prados del Este • Alto Prado • El Peñon • Baruta • Piedra Azul • La Trinidad • La Tahona • Monterrey • Las Minas • Cerro Verde • Los Naranjos • La Boyera • Alto Hatillo • El Hatillo • Los Geranios • La Lagunita • El Placer • El Guayabao • El Volcán • La Unión • Sartanejas •
|}
</div>

==Panorama==
[[Image:Ciudad universitaria (izquierda) y Bello Monte, Panoramica.jpg|thumb|center|800px|'''Caracas and the Francisco Fajardo Highway''']]

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[Large Cities Climate Leadership Group]]

==External links==
{{commons|Caracas}}

* {{es icon}} [http://www.caracasvirtual.com Caracas Virtual] - Informative portal of the city.
* [http://www.margarita-island-venezuela.com/capital-of-venezuela.html Caracas Brief Information Travel Guide]
* [http://www.leones.com/ Caracas Lions Baseball Club]
* [http://www.caracasnews.com/ Caracas News from World News]
* [http://www.caracasstock.com/ Caracas Stock Exchange]
* [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/south_america/caracas/ Lonely Planet - Caracas]
* [http://www.aeropuerto-maiquetia.com.ve/ Maiquetia Airport (serves Caracas)]
* [http://www.novolari.com/index.php?pid=1&cid=160 Novolari's Caracas Tourism Site]
* [http://www.venezuelatuya.com/caracas/ VenezuelaTuya's Caracas Tourism Site]

{{MunicipiosCaracas}}

{{Political Divisions of Venezuela}}

{{Pan American Games host cities}}

[[Category:Capitals in South America]]
[[Category:Caracas| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Venezuela]]
[[Category:Pan Am Games host cities]]
[[Category:Cities named for Christian saints]]

[[af:Caracas]]
[[ar:كراكاس]]
[[id:Caracas]]
[[bn:কারাকাস]]
[[bo:ཁ་ར་ཁ་སི]]
[[bg:Каракас]]
[[ca:Caracas]]
[[cs:Caracas]]
[[da:Caracas]]
[[de:Caracas]]
[[es:Caracas]]
[[eo:Karakaso]]
[[eu:Caracas]]
[[fa:کاراکاس]]
[[fr:Caracas]]
[[gl:Caracas]]
[[ko:카라카스]]
[[io:Caracas]]
[[it:Caracas]]
[[he:קראקס]]
[[la:Caracae]]
[[lt:Karakasas]]
[[hu:Caracas]]
[[nl:Caracas]]
[[ja:カラカス]]
[[no:Caracas]]
[[nn:Caracas]]
[[oc:Caracas]]
[[ug:كاراكاس]]
[[pl:Caracas]]
[[pt:Caracas]]
[[ro:Caracas]]
[[rm:Caracas]]
[[ru:Каракас]]
[[scn:Caracas]]
[[simple:Caracas]]
[[sk:Caracas]]
[[fi:Caracas]]
[[sv:Caracas]]
[[tr:Karakas]]
[[zh:卡拉卡斯]]

Belize

2006-10-04T00:58:20Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Belize

{{Unreferenced}}
{{Infobox_Country
|native_name =Belize
|conventional_long_name =
|common_name =Belize
|image_flag = Flag of Belize.svg
|image_coat =Belize coa.png
|symbol_type =Coat of Arms
|image_map = LocationBelize.png
|national_motto = {{lang|la|''Sub Umbra Floreo''}} ([[Latin]] for "Under the Shade I Flourish")
|national_anthem = ''[[Land of the Free]]'' [[Royal anthem]]: ''[[God Save the Queen]]''|official_languages = English(official), Spanish, Garifuna
|capital =[[Belmopan]]
|latd=17 |latm=15 |latNS=N |longd=88 |longm=46 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[Belize City]]
|government_type =[[Commonwealth Realm]]
|leader_title1 = [[Monarch of Belize|Monarch]]
|leader_title2 = [[Governor-General of Belize|Governor-General]]
|leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Belize|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name1 =[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|leader_name2 = [[Colville Young]]
|leader_name3 = [[Said Musa]]
|area_rank = 150th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area= 22,966
|areami²= 8,867
|percent_water = 0.7
|population_estimate = 287,730
|population_estimate_rank = 179th**
|population_estimate_year = July 2006
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 12
|population_densitymi² = 31
|population_density_rank = 203rd**
|GDP_PPP = $2.098 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank =163rd
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,832
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 77th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = From the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 = [[September 21]], [[1981]]
|HDI =0.753
|HDI_rank = 91st
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category =medium
|currency = [[Belize Dollar|Belizean dollar]]
|currency_code = BZD
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = -6
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.bz]]
|calling_code = 501
|footnotes = ** These ranks are based on the 2005 figures.
}}

'''Belize''' is a small nation on the eastern coast of [[Central America]] on the [[Caribbean Sea]] bordered by [[Mexico]] to the northwest and [[Guatemala]] to the west and south. The country is a [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[constitutional monarchy]] which recognizes [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] as Sovereign. The name is shared by the [[Belize River]], Belize's longest river, and [[Belize City]], the former capital and largest city.

The only [[English language|English]]-speaking country in [[Central America]], Belize was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colonialism|colony]] for more than a century and was known as [[British Honduras]] until [[1973]]. It became an independent nation in 1981. Belize is a member of the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM) and the Sistema de Integración Centroamericana ([[SICA]]) and considers itself to be culturally both [[Caribbean]] and [[Central America]]n.

Belize is the smallest (in terms of population) non-island sovereign state in the Americas.

== History ==
{{main|History of Belize}}
[[Image:Xunantunich1976.jpg|thumb|left|[[Xunantunich]], Belize]]

The [[Maya civilization]] spread over Belize between [[1500 BC]] and [[300 AD]] and flourished until about [[900 AD]]. European settlement began with British [[privateer]]s and [[shipwreck]]ed [[England|English]] seamen as early as [[1638]].

The origin of the name '''Baylize''' is not terribly clear, but one theory is that it derives from the Spanish [[pronunciation]] of Wallace which is the last name of the pirate who created the first settlement in Belize in 1638. Another possibility is that the name is from the Maya word ''belix'', meaning "muddy water", applied to the [[Belize River]].

The early "settlement of Belize in the [[Bay of Honduras]]" grew from a few habitations located at Belize Town and St George's Caye into a de-facto colony of the [[United Kingdom]] during the late [[18th century]]. In the early [[19th century]] the settlement was called British Honduras, and in 1862 it became a [[Crown Colony]].

[[Hurricane Hattie]] inflicted significant damage upon Belize in [[1961]]. The government decided that a coastal capital city lying below sea level was too [[risk]]y. Over several years, the British colonial government designed a new capital, [[Belmopan]], at the exact geographic centre of the country, and in 1970 began slowly moving the governing offices there.

British Honduras became a [[self-governing colony]] in January 1964 and was renamed ''Belize'' in June 1973; it was the United Kingdom's last colony on the American mainland. [[George Cadle Price|George Price]] led the country to full independence on [[21 September]], [[1981]] after delays caused by territorial disputes with neighbouring [[Guatemala]], which did not formally recognise the country until 1992.

Throughout Belize's history, [[Guatemala]] has claimed ownership of all or part of the territory. This claim is occasionally reflected in [[map]]s showing Belize as Guatemala's most eastern [[province]]. As of 2006, the border dispute with Guatemala remains unresolved and quite contentious[http://www.nationnews.com/life/314888747749224.php]; at various times the issue has required mediation by the [[United Kingdom]], [[Caribbean Community|CARICOM]] heads of Government, the [[Organization of American States]] and on one occasion, the [[United States]]. Since independence, a British garrison has been retained in Belize at the request of the Belizean Government. Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence building measures approved by the OAS, including the [http://www.guatemalabelize.com/ Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project].

Belize was recently the site of [[2005 Belize unrest|unrest]] directed at the country's ruling party concerning tax increases in the national budget.

== Politics ==

{{morepolitics|country=Belize}}

[[Image:Protest 0082.JPG|thumb|[[2005 Belize unrest|Belizean protests, 21st January 2005]]]]
Belize is a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[democracy]] and a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].

The primary [[executive (government)|executive]] organ of government is the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], led by a [[Prime Minister of Belize|prime minister]] who is [[head of government]]. Cabinet ministers are members of the majority political party in parliament and usually hold elected seats within it concurrent with their cabinet positions.

The bicameral Belizean [[parliament]] is the National Assembly, which consists of a goverment
[[House of Representatives]] and a [[Senate]]. The 29 members of the House are popularly elected to a maximum 5-year term and introduce legislation affecting the development of Belize. The 12 members of the Senate are appointed by the Governor General. The Senate is headed by a president, who is selected by its members, and is responsible for debating and approving bills passed by the House.

Belize is a full participating member of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]].

== Administrative divisions ==
{{main|Districts of Belize}}
[[Image:BelizeNumbered.png|100px|framed|]]

Belize consists of six districts:
# [[Belize District]]- capital [[Belize City]]
# [[Cayo District]]- capital [[San Ignacio]]
# [[Corozal District]]- capital [[Corozal Town]]
# [[Orange Walk District]]- capital [[Orange Walk Town]]
# [[Stann Creek District]]- capital [[Dangriga]]
# [[Toledo District]]- capital [[Punta Gorda]]

== Geography ==
[[Image:Belize_map.png|thumb|left|Map of Belize]]
{{main|Geography of Belize}}

Belize is located between the [[Hondo River (Belize)|Hondo]] and [[Sarstoon River]]s, with the [[Belize River]] flowing down in the centre of the country. The north of Belize consists mostly of flat, swampy coastal plains, in places heavily forested. The south contains the low [[mountain range]] of the [[Maya Mountains]], whose [[Victoria Peak (Belize)|Victoria Peak]] is the highest point in Belize at 3,675 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (1,120 [[metre|m]]) tall. The [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] coast is lined with a [[coral reef]] and some 450 islets and islands known locally as ''cayes'', pronounced "keys". Belize is home to the longest barrier reef in the western hemisphere stemming approximately 200 miles (322 [[kilometer|km]]) and the second longest in the world after the [[Great Barrier Reef]]. Three of the four coral atolls in the Western Hemisphere are also located off the coast of Belize. Belize is also the only Central American country without a coast on the Pacific Ocean.

The [[climate]] is [[Tropics|tropical]] and generally very hot and humid. The rainy season lasts from May to November and [[hurricane]]s and [[flood]]s are frequent natural hazards.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Belize}}
[[Image:Belize farming gm.jpg|thumb|right|The majority of the Belizean economy is comprised of the [[tourism]] [[industry]]. [[Agriculture]] is also a key part of the economy.]]

The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on [[agriculture]], agro-based [[industry]], and merchandising, with [[tourism]] and [[construction]] assuming greater importance. [[Sugar]], the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the [[banana]] industry is the country's largest employer. [[Citrus production]] has become a major industry along the [[Hummingbird Highway]]. More recently, discoveries of [[petroleum]] deposits in the [[Cayo District]] and possible deposits in the [[Toledo District]] have radically altered Belize's previously untapped mining and manufacturing capabilities.

The ruling government's expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, initiated in September 1998, led to [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] growth of 6,4% in 1999 and 10,5% in 2000. Growth decelerated in 2001 to 3% due to the global slowdown and severe [[hurricane]] damage to agriculture, [[fishing]] and tourism. Growth was in 2005 3,8%. Major concerns continue to be the rapidly expanding [[trade deficit]] and foreign debt. A key short-term objective remains the reduction of [[poverty]] with the help of international donors.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Belize}}

Belize is considered as having a relatively young and growing population. Its birth rate is among the highest in the world and there are indications that this trend will continue for the foreseeable future.

=== Age and sex ===

The greatest portion of Belize's [[population]] is under the age of 30. Nearly 40% of Belizeans are under 15; a similar number are under 65. Males slightly outnumber females, though this trend is beginning to change among certain [[ethnic groups]],such as the Creoles and the [[Garifuna]], where there are more middle-age and elderly women. [[Maya peoples|Maya]] and [[Mestizo]] families are more likely to have male-dominated households.

=== Birth and death rates/Life expectancy ===
Belize's birth rate currently stands at nearly 25/1000. Nearly 6 persons die per year out of a 1,000 members of the population; this figure includes murders, accidents and death from natural causes. Infant mortality, high at the beginning of the 20th century, is now down to a mere 24 babies out of a thousand. Male babies are more likely to die, however, than females. The life expectancy of a typical male is 66 years, while for a female it is 70. HIV/AIDS, while not a serious threat to national stability, does affect enough of the population to give Belize a high rating among Caribbean and Central American nations.

=== Ethnic groups, nationalities, and languages ===
According to the latest [[census]], Belize's population is close to 300,000, and much of that number is [[multiracial]] and [[multiethnic]]. The Maya are the most established of all ethnic groupings, having been in Belize and the [[Yucatan]] region since the 500's AD. White [[England|English]] and [[Scotland|Scottish]] settlers entered the area in the 1630's to cut logwood for export and began settling down. The first African [[slaves]] began arriving from elsewhere in the [[Caribbean]] and Africa and began intermarrying with whites and each other, to create the [[Creole]] ethnic grouping. After 1800, [[Mestizo]] settlers from [[Mexico]] and [[Guatemala]] began to settle in the North; the [[Garifuna]], a mix of [[African]] and [[Carib]] ancestry, settled in the South by way of [[Honduras]] not long after that.

The 1900s saw the arrival of [[Asian]] settlers from Mainland [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Korea]]. [[Central American]] immigrants and expatriate Americans and Africans also began to settle in the country, presenting an interesting potage. However, this was balanced by the migration of Creoles and other ethnic groups to the United States and elsewhere for better opportunities.

Currently, Mestizos comprise 50% of the population, and Creoles 25%. The rest is a mix of Maya, Garifuna, [[Mennonite]] Dutch/German farmers, Central Americans, whites from America, and most recently black Africans and Cubans brought to assist the country's development.

Not surprisingly, this mix creates an equally interesting mix of language and communication. [[English language|English]] is the official language (Belize having been a British colony) but most Belizeans use the more familiar [[Belizean Kriol language|Belize Creole]], a raucous and playful English-based language that contains colorful terms not usually translatable in English. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] has become important as the mother tongue of Mestizo and Central American settlers, and is a second language for much of the country. Less well known are the ancient Maya dialects, Garifuna (a mix of Spanish, Carib and other tongues) and the Dutch-German of the Mennonites. Literacy currently stands at near 80%.

=== Religion ===
Belize is a predominantly [[Christian]] society. [[Roman Catholicism]] is the main religion, acceded to by half the population. [[Protestant]] religions, mostly [[Anglicans]] and [[Methodists]], and newer religions like [[Baptists]], [[Seventh Day Adventists]], [[Mormons]], [[Jehovah Witnesses]] and [[Bahá'í]] cover much of the remaining 50%. [[Hinduism]] is common among Indian and Middle Eastern immigrants; [[Islam]] has gained a following among Creoles and Garifuna. Religious freedom is guaranteed and churches dot the streets of Belize almost as frequently as places of business; evangelists frequently visit the country for special gospel revivals.

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Belize}}
Belizeans are by nature a tolerant, friendly, fun-loving people. It has long been regarded as both a curse and blessing on the nation, with some critics saying that Belizeans are not willing to sometimes fight for what they want and end up having foreigners walk all over them.

Courtesy is important to most Belizeans. It is not uncommon for Belizeans to greet each other on the street even if they have never seen each other before, or for acquaintances to spend minutes at a time chatting, oblivious to what is happening around them. Belize has retained an old world charm long lost in other countries.

===Ethnic groups===
* [[Belizean Kriol people|Belize Creole]]
* [[Garifuna]]
* [[Mestizo]]
* [[Maya peoples|Maya]]
* [[Mennonite]] (Dutch/German farmers)
* [[East Indian]]/Syrian/Lebanese
* [[East Asian]]: [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], [[Taiwanese]], Korean
* Mainland African: Nigeria and elsewhere
* [[Caribbean]]: [[Jamaica]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Cuba]] etc.
* [[United States|American]]

=== National holidays ===
National holidays include ''[[Baron Bliss]] Day'' on [[9 March]], honoring the Portuguese born philanthropist; ''[[Labour Day]]'' on [[1 May]] for the nation's workers; ''[[Commonwealth Day]]'' 24 May, celebrating Belize's membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]; ''The Battle of St. George's Caye Day/National Day'' on [[10 September]], honoring the [[1798]] battle that virtually guaranteed Belize's becoming a British colony after a invasion from Mexico was turned back; ''[[Independence Day]]'' on [[21 September]], ''[[Pan-Americanism|Pan American Day/Columbus
Day]]'' on [[12 October]]; ''[[Garifuna]] Settlement Day'' on [[19 November]] to honor the intrepid group of settlers arriving on that date in 1832; and ''[[Christmas]]'' on [[25 December]].

== National Symbols ==
Agreed on by decision of the Executive in 1981. They are:
* National Anthem: [[Land of the Free]], lyrics [[Samuel Haynes]], music [[Selwyn Walford Young|Walford Young]]
* A national prayer presumably written by [[George Price]]
* National Animal: Baird's [[tapir]] (locally called mountain cow because of its habitat)
* National Flower: [[Coelogyne|Black Orchid]]
* National Tree: [[Mahogany]] (exported in huge quantities in the 18 and 1900's; one of Belize's first exports)
* National Bird: Keel-Billed [[Toucan]]

=== Music ===

[[Punta]] is by the far most popular genre of [[Garifuna music]] and has become the most popular genre in all of Belize. It is distinctly Afro-Caribbean, and is sometimes said to be ready for international popularization like similarly-descended styles ([[reggae]], [[calypso music|calypso]], [[merengue (music)|merengue]], etc).

[[Brukdown]] is a very popular modern style of Belizean music. It evolved out of the music and dance of loggers, especially a form called [[buru]].

== See also ==
*[[Communications in Belize]]
*[[Foreign relations of Belize]]
*[[Languages of Belize]]
*[[Maya ruins of Belize]]
*[[Military of Belize]]
*[[Plants and animals of Belize]]
*[[Ports of Belize]]
*[[Transport in Belize]]
*[[The Scout Association of Belize]]
*[[University of Belize]]
*[[Culture of Belize]]
*[[Music of Belize]]
*[[Sport in Belize]]
*[[List of Belizeans]]

''Material in some of these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Belize.AltunHa.Panorama.01.jpg|[[Altun Ha]] archaeological site, Belize
Image:Belize.BzeCity.SwingBridge.01.jpg|The Swing Bridge, on Haulover Creek. Belize City
Image:Belize.BzeCity.MemorialPark.01.jpg|Memorial Park, Belize City
</gallery>

== Further reading ==
* ''Belize'' Carlos Ledson Miller ''(novel)''
* ''Belize: A Concise History'' P. A. B. Thomson
* ''Belize : Land of the Free By The Carib Sea'' Thor Janson
* ''Confederate Settlements in British Honduras'' Donald C., Jr. Simmons
* ''Fodor's Guide: Belize and Guatemala''
* ''Formerly British Honduras: A Profile of a New Nation of Belize'' William David Stetzekorn
* ''Insight Guide: Belize'' Huw Hennessy
* ''Lonely Planet World Guide: Belize'' Carolyn Miller Caelstrom and Debra Miller
* ''The Making of Belize'' Anne Sutherland
* ''Moon Handbooks: Belize'' Chicki Mallan and Joshua Berman
* ''Our Man in Belize: A Memoir'' Richard Timothy Conroy
* ''The Guatemalan Claim to Belize A Handbook on the Negotiations'' James S. Murphy
* ''The Rough Guide: Belize'' Peter Eltringham
* ''Time Among the Maya: Travels in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico'' Ronald Wright
* ''Thirteen Chapters of A History of Belize'' Assad Shoman
* ''Traveller's Wildlife Guide: Belize and Northern Guatemala'' Les Beletsky

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Belize}}
*[http://www.belize.gov.bz Government of Belize] - Official governmental site
*[http://www.travelbelize.org Belize Tourism Board] - Official Tourism site
*[http://www.belizeanjourneys.com Belizean Journeys] - Belize Online Magazine
*[http://www.belizeforum.com Belize Forums] - Community Forums on Belize
*[http://www.belize.net/ Belize.Net] - Belize Specific Search Engine
*[http://nature.org/wherewework/centralamerica/belize/ Conservation in Belize] - Nature Conservacy on Belize coral reef
*[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/mapshells/central_america/belize/belize.htm Map of Belize] - Map of Belize
*[http://belize-guide.info/ Belize Travel Guide] - Extensive articles on Belize
*[http://www.guatemalabelize.com Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange]
*[http://www.belizeweb.com/ Belize Web] - Official website of national communications company BTL, features news links and online radio stations
*[http://www.belizehomepage.com/ The Belize Home Page] - Search Engine and Online Directory of Belize's Tourism, Products and Services
*[http://www.belizenews.com BelizeNews]- links to local news websites and international stories about Belize.
*[http://www.britannica.com/nations/Belize Encyclopaedia Britannica Belize's Country Page]
*[http://volker.umpfenbach.de/en/reisen/2002mittelamerika/2002mittelamerika03.htm Travelogue Belize]
*[http://www.belizeans.com/ Belizeans.com] - Site about the culture of Belizeans
*[http://www.belizenews.net/ BelizeNews.Net] - Your one-stop source for all news media in Belize

*{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|bh|Belize}}

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Mount Kosciuszko

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{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Mount Kosciuszko
| Photo = Mount Kosciuszko01Oct06.JPG
| Caption = View of Mount Kosciuszko from the east
| Elevation = 2,228 metres [[Australian Height Datum|AHD]] (7,310 feet)
| Range=[[Great Dividing Range]]
| Location = [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]
| Prominence =
| Coordinates = {{coor dm|36|27|S|148|16|E|type:mountain_region:AU}}
| Type=|Age=
| First ascent = 1840 by Paweł Edmund Strzelecki
| Easiest route = hike
}}
'''Mount Kosciuszko''', located in the [[Snowy Mountains]], in [[Kosciuszko National Park]], is the [[Extremes of Altitude|highest]] [[mountain]] in ''mainland'' [[Australia]]. It was named by the [[Poland|Polish]] explorer Count [[Paul Strzelecki]] in 1840 in honour of the Polish national hero General [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]].

It was formerly spelled "Mount Kosciusko", an anglicisation; but the version "Mount Kosciuszko" was officially adopted in 1997 by the [[Geographical Names Board of NSW]]. The spelling adopted by the Board was the original [[Polish language|Polish spelling]], "Kościuszko", including an accent over the "s",{{fact}} but that recommendation has generally been ignored in Australia (since such a character is not a usual feature of Australian language).
It should also be noted that the common Australian pronunciation of Kosciuszko, "kozzy-osko" or [ˈkɔziˌɔskoʊ] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), is quite different from the [[Media:Kosciuszko.ogg|pronunciation in Polish]], "kosh-CHOOSH-ko" or [ˈkoɕˈtɕuʃko].

Various measurements of the peak originally called by that name showed it to be slightly lower than its neighbour, [[Mount Townsend]], and the names were thereupon transposed by the New South Wales Lands Department, so that Mount Kosciusko still remains the highest peak of Australia, and Mount Townsend ranks as second [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/6a446874c613a955ca2569e300158043?OpenDocument]. The picture by [[Eugene von Guerard]] hanging in the [[National Gallery of Australia]] titled ''"Northeast view from the northern top of Mount Kosciusko"'' is actually from Mt Townsend. [http://www.pcug.org.au/~alanlevy/Thumbnails/Images/Skiing/VonGuerard.htm]

Like many of Australia's highest peaks, Mount Kosciuszko is not particularly difficult to climb. There is a road to [[Charlotte Pass, New South Wales|Charlotte Pass]], from which it is a seven kilometre walk up a path to the summit. Anybody with a modest level of fitness should be able to climb it. Until the [[1960s]] the road was open to motor vehicles and it was possible to drive close to the summit.

The peak may also be approached from [[Thredbo, New South Wales|Thredbo]], which is a slightly longer but not very difficult walk and is supported by a [[chairlift]] ride year round. From the top of the chairlift there is a raised walkway to protect the native vegetation. [[Kosciuszko National Park]] is also the location of the closest downhill ski slopes to [[Sydney]], containing the Thredbo and [[Perisher Blue]] ski resorts. Mount Kosciuszko may have been ascended by [[Indigenous Australians]] long before the first recorded ascent by Europeans.

===Higher Australian mountains===

Higher peaks exist outside the Australian mainland but within territory administered or claimed by Australia:
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard Island]] with the 2745 metre [[Mawson Peak]], and
* [[Australian Antarctic Territory]] with [[Mount McClintock]] at 3490 m and [[Mount Menzies]] 3355 m.

==External links==
* [http://www.peakware.com/encyclopedia/peaks/kosciusko.htm Mt. Kosciuszko on Peakware] - photo
* [http://mtkosciuszko.org.au/ Mt. Kosciuszko Inc.] - a very comprehensive website

{{Seven Summits}}

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Piz Linard

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{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Piz Linard
| Photo = Linard_86.jpg
| Caption = Piz Linard from the North in July 1986
| Elevation = 3,410 metres (11,188 feet)
| Location = [[Switzerland]]
| Range=[[Silvretta]]
| Prominence = 1027 m
| Coordinates = {{coor dm|46|50|N|10|2|E|type:mountain}}
| Topographic map = | Type=| Age=
| First ascent = [[August 1]] [[1835]] by Oswald Heer and Johann Madutz| Easiest route = [[scrambling| scramble]]
}}
'''Piz Linard''' is a pyramid-shaped [[mountain]] of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Alps]]. At 3,410 m it is the highest peak of the [[Silvretta]] mountain range.

It was first climbed on August 1st, [[1835]] by the [[geologist]] and [[natural history| naturalist]] [[Oswald Heer]] lead by [[Johann Madutz]].

There is a legend that a man of name "Chounard" reached the summit in 1572 carrying a large golden cross, however the cross has never been found.

{{Switzerland-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Mountains of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Mountains of the Alps]]

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Denali

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{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Mount McKinley
| Photo = Mount McKinley and Denali National Park Road 2048px.jpg
| Caption = Mount McKinley (''also known as Denali'') from [[Denali National Park]]
| Elevation = 20,320 ft (6,194 m)
| Location = [[Alaska|Alaska, USA]]
| Range = [[Alaska Range]]
| Prominence =6,138m [[List of peaks by prominence|Ranked 3rd]]
| Coordinates = {{coor dms|63|5|51.34|N|151|0|19.86|W|type:mountain_region:US}}
| Topographic map = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Mt. McKinley A-3
| First ascent =June 7, [[1913]] by [[Hudson Stuck]], Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, Robert Tatum
| Easiest route =West Buttress Route (glacier/snow climb)
}}
:''"Denali" redirects here. For other meanings, see [[Denali (disambiguation)]]''.
'''Mount McKinley''' or '''Denali''' in [[Alaska]] is the [[Extremes on Earth|highest]] [[mountain]] peak in [[North America]], at a height of approximately 20,320 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (6,194 [[metre]]s). It is the centerpiece of [[Denali National Park and Preserve|Denali National Park]]. The mountain was also known as '''Bolshaya Gora''' (''Большая Гора'') in [[Russian language|Russian]].
__NOTOC__
==Location==
Denali is located in the central portion of the [[Alaska Range]], which spans much of south central Alaska. It is approximately 130 miles (210 km) north-northwest of Anchorage and 155 miles (250 km) southwest of Fairbanks. The summit is approximately 35 miles (56 km) from the nearest major road, the [[George Parks Highway]].

==Notable features==
Mount McKinley has a larger bulk and rise than [[Mount Everest]]. Even though the summit of Everest is 9000 feet higher, measured from sea level, its base sits on the [[Tibetan Plateau]] at about 17,000 feet, giving it a real vertical rise of little more than 12,000 feet. The base of Denali is roughly a 2,000 foot plateau, giving it an actual rise of 18,000 feet.

The mountain is also characterized by an unusually severe risk of [[altitude illness]] and extremely cold weather due to its high latitude and its proximity to the [[jet stream]].<ref>[http://7summits.com/denali/denali.php Denali information at the 7summits website]</ref> At the equator, a mountain as high as Mount McKinley would have 47% as much oxygen available on its summit as there is at sea level,<ref>[http://www.altitudephysiology.org/oxygenphysiology/mounteverest/airpressurehighaltitude.htm An interactive high altitude pressure model]</ref> but because of its very high latitude, the pressure on the summit is much lower <ref>Ward, Milledge and West, High altitude medicine and physiology, 2002</ref>

==Layout of the mountain==
Mount McKinley has two significant summits: the South Summit is the higher one, while the North Summit has an elevation of 19,470 feet (5,935 m) and a [[prominence]] of approximately 1,320 feet (402 m). The North Summit is sometimes counted as a separate peak (see e.g., the [[List of United States fourteeners]]) and sometimes not; it is rarely climbed, except by those doing routes on the north side of the massif.

Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The [[Peters Glacier]] lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the [[Muldrow Glacier]] falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the [[Traleika Glacier]]. The [[Ruth Glacier]] lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the [[Kahiltna Glacier]] leads up to the southwest side of the mountain.

==Name controversy==
[[Image:Denali_Mt_McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Denali from the north]]
Mount McKinley is also commonly known as Denali, which means "the great one" in the [[Dena'ina language]], and which is also the official name currently recognized by the State of Alaska. In [[1897]] the Mountain was officially named Mount McKinley, after the popular [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[William McKinley]]. As the decades progressed [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian-rights]] activists began increasingly to view this renaming as [[colonial]] and disrespectful. Denali is also the name preferred by the [[mountaineering]] community.

When Denali National Park and Preserve was established by the [[Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act]], [[December 2]], [[1980]], the Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain back to "Denali." However, the U.S. Board of Geographic Names maintains "McKinley". Alaskans tend to use "Denali" and rely on context to distinguish between the park and the mountain. There have been several campaigns to officially switch the federally recognized name of the mountain back to "Denali". However, the name "McKinley" is well-known and has support as well. The name "McKinley" also allows visitors to differentiate between the mountain and Denali National Park, in which the mountain is located. In particular, at the first session of each Congress, [[Ralph Regula]], the congressman from President McKinley's district, introduces legislation "to provide for the retention of the name of Mount McKinley," which effectively blocks any effort at a name change.

==Climbing history==
The first attempt to climb Mount McKinley was by Judge James Wickersham in 1903, via the Peters Glacier and the North Face, now known as the Wickersham Wall. This route has tremendous avalanche danger and was not successfully climbed until 1963.
[[Image:MountMcKinley_BA.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. McKinley on a clear day, from the northeast]]

Famed explorer Dr. [[Frederick Cook]] claimed the [[first ascent]] of the mountain in [[1906]]. His claim was regarded with some suspicion from the start, but was also widely believed. It was later proved fraudulent, with some crucial evidence provided by [[Bradford Washburn]].

In [[1910]], four locals (Tom Lloyd, Peter Anderson, Billy Taylor, and Charles McGonagall), known as the Sourdough expedition, attempted McKinley, despite a complete lack of climbing experience. They spent approximately three months on the mountain. However, their purported summit day was impressive: carrying a bag of doughnuts, a thermos of cocoa each and a 14 foot spruce pole, two of them reached the North Summit, lower of the two, and erected the pole near the top. According to them, they took a total of 18 hours - a record that has yet to be breached (as of 2006). No one believed their success (partly due to false claims that they had climbed both summits) until the true first ascent, in 1913.

In [[1912]], the Parker-Browne expedition nearly reached the summit, but had to turn back due to harsh weather. In fact, that probably saved their lives, as a powerful earthquake shattered the glacier they ascended hours after they safely left it.

[[Image:Denali high camp.jpg|thumb|left|300px|High camp (17,200 ft) of the West Buttress Route pioneered by [[Bradford Washburn]], photographed in 2001]]
The first ascent of the main summit of McKinley came on [[June 7]], [[1913]] by a party led by [[Hudson Stuck]]. The first man to reach the summit was [[Walter Harper]], an [[Alaska Native]]. Harry Karstens and Robert Tatum also made the summit. Tatum later commented, "The view from the top of Mount McKinley is like looking out the windows of Heaven!"<ref>Coombs 1997</ref>
They ascended the Muldrow Glacier route pioneered by the earlier expeditions, which is still a popular route today. Stuck confirmed, via binoculars, the presence of a large pole near the North Summit; this report confirmed the Sourdough ascent, and today it is widely believed that the Sourdoughs did succeed on the North Summit. However the pole was never seen before or since, so there is still some doubt. Stuck also discovered that the Parker-Browne party were only about 200 feet of elevation short of the true summit when they had to turn back.

See the timeline below for more important events in Mount McKinley's climbing history.

The mountain is regularly climbed today, with just over 50% of the expeditions successful, although it is still a dangerous undertaking. By 2003, the mountain had claimed the lives of nearly 100 mountaineers.<ref>Glickman, Joe, [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0DE5DC1439F937A1575BC0A9659C8B63&sec=travel&pagewanted=2 Man Against the Great One], [[New York Times]], [[24 August]] [[2003]]</ref> The vast majority of climbers use the West Buttress Route, pioneered in 1951 by Bradford Washburn, after an extensive aerial photographic analysis of the mountain. Climbs typically take two to three weeks.

===Timeline===
* 1896-1902 Surveys by Robert Muldrow, George Eldridge, Alfred Brooks.
* 1903. First attempt, by Judge James Wickersham.
* 1906. [[Frederick Cook]] falsely claims the [[first ascent]] of McKinley.
* 1910. The Sourdoughs ascend the North Summit.
* 1912. The Parker-Browne attempt almost reaches the South Summit.
* 1913. '''First ascent by Hudson Stuck, Walter Harper, Harry Karstens, Robert Tatum'''.
* 1932. Second ascent, by Alfred Lindley, Harry Liek, Grant Pearson, Erling Strom. (Both peaks were climbed.)
* 1947. [[Barbara Washburn]] becomes the first woman to reach the summit as her husband [[Bradford Washburn]] becomes the first to summit twice.
* 1951. First ascent of the West Buttress Route, led by [[Bradford Washburn]].
* 1954. First ascent of the very long South Buttress Route.
* 1959. First ascent of the West Rib, now a popular, mildly technical route to the summit.
* 1961. First ascent of the Cassin Ridge, the best-known technical route on the mountain. This was a major landmark in Alaskan climbing.
* 1963. Two teams make first ascents of two different routes on the Wickersham Wall.
* 1967. First winter ascent, via the West Buttress, by Dave Johnston, Art Davidson, and Ray Genet.
* 1970. First solo ascent by [[Naomi Uemura]].
* 1984. Uemura returns to make the first winter solo ascent, but dies after summitting.
* 1988. First solo winter ascent (and safe return) by [[Vern Tejas]].

==Subpeaks and nearby mountains==
[[Image:Mount McKinley Shrouded 2048px.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mount McKinley, here shrouded in clouds, is large enough to create its own localized weather.]]
Besides the North Summit mentioned above, other less significant features on the massif which are sometimes included as separate peaks are:

* South Buttress (15,885 feet), mean prominence = 335 feet
* East Buttress high point (14,730 feet), mean prominence = 380 feet
* East Buttress prom point (14,650), mean prominence = 600 feet
* Browne Tower (14,530 feet), mean prominence = 75 feet

None of these peaks are usually regarded as worthwhile objectives in their own right; however they often appear on lists of the highest peaks of the United States, e.g. the [[List of United States fourteeners]].

Nearby important peaks include:
* [[Mount Foraker]]
* [[Mount Hunter (Alaska)|Mount Hunter]]
* [[Mount Huntington]]
* [[Mount Dickey]]
* [[The Moose's Tooth]]

==References==
{{commons|Category:Mount McKinley}}
<references/>
* Jonathan Waterman, ''High Alaska'', AAC Press, 1988.
* [[Dow Scoggins]], ''Discovering Denali''
* [[R. J. Secor]], ''Denali Climbing Guide'' (Stackpole Books, [[1998]]) ISBN 0-8117-2717-3
* [[Bradford Washburn]] et al, ''Mount McKinley: The Conquest of Denali'' ([[Harry N. Abrams, Inc.]], [[1991]]) ISBN 0-8109-3611-9
* [[Colby Coombs]] and [[Bradford Washburn]], ''Denali's West Buttress: A Climber's Guide to Mount McKinley's Classic Route''
* [[Jonathan Waterman]], ''Surviving Denali: A Study of Accidents on Mount McKinley 1903-1990'' ([[American Alpine Club]], [[1991]])
* [[Jonathan Waterman]], ''In the Shadow of Denali: Life and Death on Alaska's Mt. McKinley'' ([[1994]])++
* Kaye, G. D., ''Using GIS to estimate the total volume of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii,'' 98th Annual Meeting, Geological Society of America, (2002).
* [[Art Davidson]], ''Minus 148 Degrees: The First Winter Ascent of Mount McKinley'', 3rd ed. ([[Mountaineers Books]], [[1999]]) ISBN 0-89886-687-1
* [[Hudson Stuck]], D.D., Archdeacon of the Yukon, ''The Ascent of Denali, The 1913 Expedition that First Conquered Mt. McKinley'', ((reprinted by) Wolfe Publishing Co., 1988) ISBN 0-935632-69-7

==External links==
*[http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150199/mount-mckinley-denali.html SummitPost: Photos]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/denali/ NOVA: Deadly Ascent]
*[http://bivouac.com/MtnPg.asp?MtnId=4368 Denali (Mount McKinley) on Bivouac.com]
*[http://terragalleria.com/mountain/mountain-area.mckinley.html Photos of an expedition on Mount McKinley]
* Computer generated summit panoramas [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/AME/Denali-N.gif North] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/AME/Denali-S.gif South] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html Index]
*[http://7summits.com/denali/denali.php Denali, the summit of North America], 7summits.com
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.189: H.R. 189: A bill to provide for the retention of the name of Mount McKinley] (introduced to the 109th Congress by Rep. Regula)
*[http://www.nps.gov/archive/dena/home/mountaineering/history.htm Timeline of Denali climbing history], [[National Park Service]]
* Wilson, Rodman, William J. Mills, Jr., Donald R. Rogers and Michael T. Propst, "[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1238183 Death on Denali: Fatalities Among Climbers in Mount McKinley National Park From 1903 to 1976—Analysis of Injuries, Illnesses and Rescues in 1976]," ''[[Western Journal of Medicine]]'', 1978 June; 128(6): 471–476.
* Rodway, George W., "[http://www.wemjournal.org/wmsonline/?request=get-document&issn=1080-6032&volume=014&issue=01&page=0033 Paul Crews' "Accident on Mount McKinley"''—A Commentary'']," ''Wilderness and Environmental Medicine'': Vol. 14 (2003), No. 1, pp. 33–38.

{{U.S. State Highest Points}}
{{Seven Summits}}

[[Category:Mountains of Alaska|Denali]]
[[Category:Seven Summits|Denali]]

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Denali

2006-10-04T00:46:20Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Mount McKinley

{{Infobox Mountain
| Name = Mount McKinley
| Photo = Mount McKinley and Denali National Park Road 2048px.jpg
| Caption = Mount McKinley (''also known as Denali'') from [[Denali National Park]]
| Elevation = 20,320 ft (6,194 m)
| Location = [[Alaska|Alaska, USA]]
| Range = [[Alaska Range]]
| Prominence =6,138m [[List of peaks by prominence|Ranked 3rd]]
| Coordinates = {{coor dms|63|5|51.34|N|151|0|19.86|W|type:mountain_region:US}}
| Topographic map = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Mt. McKinley A-3
| First ascent =June 7, [[1913]] by [[Hudson Stuck]], Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, Robert Tatum
| Easiest route =West Buttress Route (glacier/snow climb)
}}
:''"Denali" redirects here. For other meanings, see [[Denali (disambiguation)]]''.
'''Mount McKinley''' or '''Denali''' in [[Alaska]] is the [[Extremes on Earth|highest]] [[mountain]] peak in [[North America]], at a height of approximately 20,320 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (6,194 [[metre]]s). It is the centerpiece of [[Denali National Park and Preserve|Denali National Park]]. The mountain was also known as '''Bolshaya Gora''' (''Большая Гора'') in [[Russian language|Russian]].
__NOTOC__
==Location==
Denali is located in the central portion of the [[Alaska Range]], which spans much of south central Alaska. It is approximately 130 miles (210 km) north-northwest of Anchorage and 155 miles (250 km) southwest of Fairbanks. The summit is approximately 35 miles (56 km) from the nearest major road, the [[George Parks Highway]].

==Notable features==
Mount McKinley has a larger bulk and rise than [[Mount Everest]]. Even though the summit of Everest is 9000 feet higher, measured from sea level, its base sits on the [[Tibetan Plateau]] at about 17,000 feet, giving it a real vertical rise of little more than 12,000 feet. The base of Denali is roughly a 2,000 foot plateau, giving it an actual rise of 18,000 feet.

The mountain is also characterized by an unusually severe risk of [[altitude illness]] and extremely cold weather due to its high latitude and its proximity to the [[jet stream]].<ref>[http://7summits.com/denali/denali.php Denali information at the 7summits website]</ref> At the equator, a mountain as high as Mount McKinley would have 47% as much oxygen available on its summit as there is at sea level,<ref>[http://www.altitudephysiology.org/oxygenphysiology/mounteverest/airpressurehighaltitude.htm An interactive high altitude pressure model]</ref> but because of its very high latitude, the pressure on the summit is much lower <ref>Ward, Milledge and West, High altitude medicine and physiology, 2002</ref>

==Layout of the mountain==
Mount McKinley has two significant summits: the South Summit is the higher one, while the North Summit has an elevation of 19,470 feet (5,935 m) and a [[prominence]] of approximately 1,320 feet (402 m). The North Summit is sometimes counted as a separate peak (see e.g., the [[List of United States fourteeners]]) and sometimes not; it is rarely climbed, except by those doing routes on the north side of the massif.

Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The [[Peters Glacier]] lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the [[Muldrow Glacier]] falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the [[Traleika Glacier]]. The [[Ruth Glacier]] lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the [[Kahiltna Glacier]] leads up to the southwest side of the mountain.

==Name controversy==
[[Image:Denali_Mt_McKinley.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Denali from the north]]
Mount McKinley is also commonly known as Denali, which means "the great one" in the [[Dena'ina language]], and which is also the official name currently recognized by the State of Alaska. In [[1897]] the Mountain was officially named Mount McKinley, after the popular [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[William McKinley]]. As the decades progressed [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian-rights]] activists began increasingly to view this renaming as [[colonial]] and disrespectful. Denali is also the name preferred by the [[mountaineering]] community.

When Denali National Park and Preserve was established by the [[Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act]], [[December 2]], [[1980]], the Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain back to "Denali." However, the U.S. Board of Geographic Names maintains "McKinley". Alaskans tend to use "Denali" and rely on context to distinguish between the park and the mountain. There have been several campaigns to officially switch the federally recognized name of the mountain back to "Denali". However, the name "McKinley" is well-known and has support as well. The name "McKinley" also allows visitors to differentiate between the mountain and Denali National Park, in which the mountain is located. In particular, at the first session of each Congress, [[Ralph Regula]], the congressman from President McKinley's district, introduces legislation "to provide for the retention of the name of Mount McKinley," which effectively blocks any effort at a name change.

==Climbing history==
The first attempt to climb Mount McKinley was by Judge James Wickersham in 1903, via the Peters Glacier and the North Face, now known as the Wickersham Wall. This route has tremendous avalanche danger and was not successfully climbed until 1963.
[[Image:MountMcKinley_BA.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. McKinley on a clear day, from the northeast]]

Famed explorer Dr. [[Frederick Cook]] claimed the [[first ascent]] of the mountain in [[1906]]. His claim was regarded with some suspicion from the start, but was also widely believed. It was later proved fraudulent, with some crucial evidence provided by [[Bradford Washburn]].

In [[1910]], four locals (Tom Lloyd, Peter Anderson, Billy Taylor, and Charles McGonagall), known as the Sourdough expedition, attempted McKinley, despite a complete lack of climbing experience. They spent approximately three months on the mountain. However, their purported summit day was impressive: carrying a bag of doughnuts, a thermos of cocoa each and a 14 foot spruce pole, two of them reached the North Summit, lower of the two, and erected the pole near the top. According to them, they took a total of 18 hours - a record that has yet to be breached (as of 2006). No one believed their success (partly due to false claims that they had climbed both summits) until the true first ascent, in 1913.

In [[1912]], the Parker-Browne expedition nearly reached the summit, but had to turn back due to harsh weather. In fact, that probably saved their lives, as a powerful earthquake shattered the glacier they ascended hours after they safely left it.

[[Image:Denali high camp.jpg|thumb|left|300px|High camp (17,200 ft) of the West Buttress Route pioneered by [[Bradford Washburn]], photographed in 2001]]
The first ascent of the main summit of McKinley came on [[June 7]], [[1913]] by a party led by [[Hudson Stuck]]. The first man to reach the summit was [[Walter Harper]], an [[Alaska Native]]. Harry Karstens and Robert Tatum also made the summit. Tatum later commented, "The view from the top of Mount McKinley is like looking out the windows of Heaven!"<ref>Coombs 1997</ref>
They ascended the Muldrow Glacier route pioneered by the earlier expeditions, which is still a popular route today. Stuck confirmed, via binoculars, the presence of a large pole near the North Summit; this report confirmed the Sourdough ascent, and today it is widely believed that the Sourdoughs did succeed on the North Summit. However the pole was never seen before or since, so there is still some doubt. Stuck also discovered that the Parker-Browne party were only about 200 feet of elevation short of the true summit when they had to turn back.

See the timeline below for more important events in Mount McKinley's climbing history.

The mountain is regularly climbed today, with just over 50% of the expeditions successful, although it is still a dangerous undertaking. By 2003, the mountain had claimed the lives of nearly 100 mountaineers.<ref>Glickman, Joe, [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0DE5DC1439F937A1575BC0A9659C8B63&sec=travel&pagewanted=2 Man Against the Great One], [[New York Times]], [[24 August]] [[2003]]</ref> The vast majority of climbers use the West Buttress Route, pioneered in 1951 by Bradford Washburn, after an extensive aerial photographic analysis of the mountain. Climbs typically take two to three weeks.

===Timeline===
* 1896-1902 Surveys by Robert Muldrow, George Eldridge, Alfred Brooks.
* 1903. First attempt, by Judge James Wickersham.
* 1906. [[Frederick Cook]] falsely claims the [[first ascent]] of McKinley.
* 1910. The Sourdoughs ascend the North Summit.
* 1912. The Parker-Browne attempt almost reaches the South Summit.
* 1913. '''First ascent by Hudson Stuck, Walter Harper, Harry Karstens, Robert Tatum'''.
* 1932. Second ascent, by Alfred Lindley, Harry Liek, Grant Pearson, Erling Strom. (Both peaks were climbed.)
* 1947. [[Barbara Washburn]] becomes the first woman to reach the summit as her husband [[Bradford Washburn]] becomes the first to summit twice.
* 1951. First ascent of the West Buttress Route, led by [[Bradford Washburn]].
* 1954. First ascent of the very long South Buttress Route.
* 1959. First ascent of the West Rib, now a popular, mildly technical route to the summit.
* 1961. First ascent of the Cassin Ridge, the best-known technical route on the mountain. This was a major landmark in Alaskan climbing.
* 1963. Two teams make first ascents of two different routes on the Wickersham Wall.
* 1967. First winter ascent, via the West Buttress, by Dave Johnston, Art Davidson, and Ray Genet.
* 1970. First solo ascent by [[Naomi Uemura]].
* 1984. Uemura returns to make the first winter solo ascent, but dies after summitting.
* 1988. First solo winter ascent (and safe return) by [[Vern Tejas]].

==Subpeaks and nearby mountains==
[[Image:Mount McKinley Shrouded 2048px.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mount McKinley, here shrouded in clouds, is large enough to create its own localized weather.]]
Besides the North Summit mentioned above, other less significant features on the massif which are sometimes included as separate peaks are:

* South Buttress (15,885 feet), mean prominence = 335 feet
* East Buttress high point (14,730 feet), mean prominence = 380 feet
* East Buttress prom point (14,650), mean prominence = 600 feet
* Browne Tower (14,530 feet), mean prominence = 75 feet

None of these peaks are usually regarded as worthwhile objectives in their own right; however they often appear on lists of the highest peaks of the United States, e.g. the [[List of United States fourteeners]].

Nearby important peaks include:
* [[Mount Foraker]]
* [[Mount Hunter (Alaska)|Mount Hunter]]
* [[Mount Huntington]]
* [[Mount Dickey]]
* [[The Moose's Tooth]]

==References==
{{commons|Category:Mount McKinley}}
<references/>
* Jonathan Waterman, ''High Alaska'', AAC Press, 1988.
* [[Dow Scoggins]], ''Discovering Denali''
* [[R. J. Secor]], ''Denali Climbing Guide'' (Stackpole Books, [[1998]]) ISBN 0-8117-2717-3
* [[Bradford Washburn]] et al, ''Mount McKinley: The Conquest of Denali'' ([[Harry N. Abrams, Inc.]], [[1991]]) ISBN 0-8109-3611-9
* [[Colby Coombs]] and [[Bradford Washburn]], ''Denali's West Buttress: A Climber's Guide to Mount McKinley's Classic Route''
* [[Jonathan Waterman]], ''Surviving Denali: A Study of Accidents on Mount McKinley 1903-1990'' ([[American Alpine Club]], [[1991]])
* [[Jonathan Waterman]], ''In the Shadow of Denali: Life and Death on Alaska's Mt. McKinley'' ([[1994]])++
* Kaye, G. D., ''Using GIS to estimate the total volume of Mauna Loa Volcano, Hawaii,'' 98th Annual Meeting, Geological Society of America, (2002).
* [[Art Davidson]], ''Minus 148 Degrees: The First Winter Ascent of Mount McKinley'', 3rd ed. ([[Mountaineers Books]], [[1999]]) ISBN 0-89886-687-1
* [[Hudson Stuck]], D.D., Archdeacon of the Yukon, ''The Ascent of Denali, The 1913 Expedition that First Conquered Mt. McKinley'', ((reprinted by) Wolfe Publishing Co., 1988) ISBN 0-935632-69-7

==External links==
*[http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150199/mount-mckinley-denali.html SummitPost: Photos]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/denali/ NOVA: Deadly Ascent]
*[http://bivouac.com/MtnPg.asp?MtnId=4368 Denali (Mount McKinley) on Bivouac.com]
*[http://terragalleria.com/mountain/mountain-area.mckinley.html Photos of an expedition on Mount McKinley]
* Computer generated summit panoramas [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/AME/Denali-N.gif North] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/AME/Denali-S.gif South] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html Index]
*[http://7summits.com/denali/denali.php Denali, the summit of North America], 7summits.com
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.189: H.R. 189: A bill to provide for the retention of the name of Mount McKinley] (introduced to the 109th Congress by Rep. Regula)
*[http://www.nps.gov/archive/dena/home/mountaineering/history.htm Timeline of Denali climbing history], [[National Park Service]]
* Wilson, Rodman, William J. Mills, Jr., Donald R. Rogers and Michael T. Propst, "[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1238183 Death on Denali: Fatalities Among Climbers in Mount McKinley National Park From 1903 to 1976—Analysis of Injuries, Illnesses and Rescues in 1976]," ''[[Western Journal of Medicine]]'', 1978 June; 128(6): 471–476.
* Rodway, George W., "[http://www.wemjournal.org/wmsonline/?request=get-document&issn=1080-6032&volume=014&issue=01&page=0033 Paul Crews' "Accident on Mount McKinley"''—A Commentary'']," ''Wilderness and Environmental Medicine'': Vol. 14 (2003), No. 1, pp. 33–38.

{{U.S. State Highest Points}}
{{Seven Summits}}

[[Category:Mountains of Alaska|Denali]]
[[Category:Seven Summits|Denali]]

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Vinson Massif

2006-10-04T00:45:55Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Mount Vinson

{{Infobox Mountain|Name=Vinson Massif|Photo=Vinson_Massif_from_space.jpg|
Caption=[[NASA]] image of Vinson Massif from space|
Elevation=4,892 metres (16,050 feet)|
elevation=4892|
Location=[[Antarctica]] (on territory claimed by [[Antarctic Chilean Territory|Chile]]) |
Range=[[Sentinel Range]]
| Prominence = 4,892 m [[List_of_peaks_by_prominence|Ranked 8th]]
| Coordinates = {{coor dm|78|35|S|85|25|W|type:mountain}}
|First ascent=1966 by [[Nicholas Clinch]] and party |
Easiest route=snow/ice climb
}}
'''Vinson Massif''' is the [[Extremes of Altitude|highest]] [[mountain]] of [[Antarctica]], located about 1,200 km (750 mi) from the [[South Pole]]. The mountain is about 21 [[kilometre|km]] (13 mi) long and 13 km (8 mi) wide. The southern end of the [[massif]] is capped by [[Mount Craddock]] (4,650 m).

It is in the [[Sentinel Range]] of the [[Ellsworth Mountains]], which stand above the [[Ronne Ice Shelf]] near the base of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]].

The massif's existence was unsuspected until 1957, when it was spotted by [[US Navy]] aircraft. It was named after [[Carl Vinson]] (also the namesake of an [[USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70)|aircraft carrier]]), a [[United States]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] Congressman who was a key supporter of funding for Antarctic research.

In 1963, two groups within the [[American Alpine Club]], one led by Charles Hollister and Samuel C. Silverstein, M.D., then in New York, and the other led by Peter Schoening of Seattle Washington, began lobbying the [[National Science Foundation]] to support an expedition to climb Vinson. The two groups merged in spring 1966 at the urging of the National Science Foundation and the American Alpine Club, and Nicholas Clinch (Pasadena, CA) was recruited by the American Alpine Club to lead the merged expeditions. Named officially the American Antarctic Mountaineering Expedition 1966/67, the expedition was sponsored by the American Alpine Club and the National Geographic Society, and supported in the field by the U.S. Navy and the National Science Foundation Office of Antarctic Programs. the event, 10 scientists and mountaineers participated in AAME 1966/67. In addition to Clinch they were Barry Corbet (Jackson Hole, WY), John Evans (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN), Eiichi Fukushima (University of Washington, Seattle, WA), Charles Hollister, Ph.D. (Columbia University, New York, NY), William Long, Ph.D. (Alaska Methodist University, Anchorage, AK), Brian Marts (Seattle, WA), Peter Schoening (Seattle, WA), Samuel Silverstein, M.D. (Rockefeller University, New York, NY) and Richard Wahstrom (Seattle, WA).

In the months prior to its departure for Antarctica the expedition received considerable press attention, primarily because of the reports that [[Woodrow Wilson Sayre]] was planning to fly in a Piper Apache piloted by Max Conrad, the "flying Grandfather, with four companions into the Sentinel Range to climb the Vinson Massif. Sayre had a reputation for problematic trips as a result of his unauthorized. unsuccessful, and nearly fatal attempt to climb Mt. Everest from the North in 1962. His unauthorized incursion into Tibet led China to file an official protest with the U.S. State Department. In the event, the purported race did not materialize. Conrad had difficulties with his plane. According to press reports, he and Sayre were still in Buenos Aires on the day the first four members of AAME 1966/67 reached Vinson's summit.

In December of 1966 the Navy transported the expedition and its supplies from Christ Church, New Zealand to the U.S. base at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, and from there in a ski-equipped [[C-130 Hercules]] to the sentinel range. All members of the expedition reached the summit of the Vinson Massif. The first group of four climbers summited on [[December 18]], [[1966]], four more on December 19, and the last three on December 20. In The climb of Vinson offers little technical difficulty beyond the usual hazards of travel in Antarctica, and as one of the [[Seven Summits]], it has received much attention from well-heeled climbers in recent years; between 1985 and 2000, [[Adventure Network International]] (the only organization that runs private expeditions to Vinson) has guided over 450 climbers to the summit.

Antarctic Logistics and Expeditions (ALE) recently purchased Adventure Network International. ALE is now the only company offering flights to Vinson Massif. ALE, as well as several other companies, now guide clients up Vinson Massif.

The new height (4,892 m) of Vinson Massif resulted from a GPS survey by the 2004 Omega Foundation team comprising Damien Gildea of Australia (leader), and Rodrigo Fica and Camilo Rada of Chile; it is 5 m lower than the previous figure.

== First ascent from East Face ==
While the vast majority of prior climbs to the summit have used the western side of the massif from the [[Branscomb Glacier]], the first ascent from the east side was successfully completed by an eight-person team sponsored by ''[[Nova (TV series)|Nova]]'' in January 2001. The team consisted of:
* [[Conrad Anker]] - expedition leader
* [[Jon Krakauer]] - mountaineer and author
* [[Dave Hahn]] - mountain guide with 19 ascents from the established route
* Andrew Mclean - extreme skier
* Dan Stone - [[Glaciology|glaciologist]]
* Lisel Clark - producer (who also became the first woman to make an ascent from this side)
* John Armstrong - cameraman
* Rob Raker - assistant cameraman and sound recording

The team not only made the first ascent from the east side but also performed scientific research into snow accumulation at different elevations as well as taking the first ground based [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] reading from the summit. The GPS reading gave the elevation of the highest point in Antarctica as 4,897 metres (16,077 ft), eclipsing the earlier established heights recorded in 1959 and 1979.

Another first was the successful aircraft landing of a [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|Twin Otter]] on the Upper [[Dater Glacier]] on the eastern slopes of Vinson Massif.

''Nova'' named the production "Mountain of Ice", which first aired on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] in February 2003.

On nomination by Damien Gildea of the Omega Foundation, USGS Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (ACAN) on August 18th, 2006 approved naming the subsidiary peaklets south of Mt. Vinson for the AAME 1966/67 members Nicholas Clinch, Barry Corbet, Eiichi Fukushima, Charles Hollister, Brian Marts, Samuel Silverstein, Peter Schoening and Richard Wahlstrom. Other peaks in the Sentinel Range had previously been named for John Evans and William Long.
In 2006 the ==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vinson/ Mountain of Ice]
*

{{Seven Summits}}

[[Category:Mountains of Antarctica]][[Category:Seven Summits]]

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Piz Bernina

2006-10-04T00:45:29Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Piz Bernina

{{Infobox Mountain|Name=Piz Bernina|Photo=Bernina_view_Piz_Languard.jpg|
Caption=Bernina range with Piz Bernina as highest peak, seen from Piz Languard|
Elevation=4,049 metres (13,284 feet) | Location=[[Switzerland]] |
Range=[[Bernina Alps]]
|Prominence = 2234m [[List of Alpine peaks by prominence|ranked 5th in the Alps]]
|Coordinates = {{coor dms|46|23|01|N|9|54|34|E|region:CH_type:mountain}}
|First ascent=[[1865]] by J. Coaz, J. R. Tschamer und L. R. Tschamer |
Easiest route=rock/ice climb}}

'''Piz Bernina''' is the most eastern mountain higher than 4,000 m in the Alps. Although the massif straddles the Swiss-[[Italy|Italian]] border, the highest summit is entirely on Swiss territory. The peak is part of the [[Bernina Range]].

The mountain got its name in 1850 from Johann Coaz, who achieved the first ascent.

[[Image:pizber.jpg]]

It is the left mountain of the two high peaks on the photo on the right. The mountain on the right is the Piz Morteratsch.

{{Commons|Category:Piz Bernina|{{PAGENAME}}}}

{{Switzerland-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Mountains of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Mountains of the Alps]]

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Bern

2006-10-04T00:44:03Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{otheruses}} {{Infobox_Swiss_town|
subject_name=[[Image:Berne-coat of arms.svg|89px|none|Berne [[coat of arms]]]] [[Flag of Berne]]|
canton=Bern|district=[[Bern (district)]]|
nd=46|nm=57|ed=7|em=27|
postal_code=3000|
population=127'000|populationof=2004|
area=52|altitude=542|
mayor=Alexander Tschäppät (since 2005 [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland|SPS]])|
website=www.bern.ch|
map=[[Image:Bern location flags.png|220px|]]
}}{{clearright}}{{CHdot|Bern}}
The city of '''Berne''' {{IPA|[bɝːn]}} ([[German language|German]] {{Audio|De-Bern.ogg|''Bern''}} {{IPA|[b̥ɛrn]}}, [[French language|French]] ''Berne'' {{IPA|[bɛʀn]}}, [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Berna'' {{IPA|[ˈbɛrna]}}, [[Romansh]] ''Berna'' {{IPA|[ˈbɛrnə]}}, [[Bernese German]] ''Bärn'' {{IPA|[b̥æːrn]}}), is the "Bundesstadt" (administrative [[capital]]) of [[Switzerland]] and the fourth most populous Swiss city (after [[Zürich]], [[Geneva]] and [[Basel]]).

Most of Berne's residents speak [[German language|German]], or more specifically, [[Bernese German]], which is a [[Alemannic German|high-Alemannic dialect]]. The [[Canton of Bern]] has a [[French language|French]]-speaking part. Very few people still speak the ''Matteänglisch'', a secret language used in the former workers' quarter ''Matte'', but several words have found their way in the Bernese German.

Bern also functions as the capital of the [[Canton of Bern]], the second most populous of Switzerland's cantons.

Illustrious Bernese include the [[reformer]] [[Albrecht von Haller]], the poet [[Albert Bitzius]] and the painters [[Hans Fries (painter)|Hans Fries]], [[Ferdinand Hodler]] and [[Paul Klee]]. The German-born physicist [[Albert Einstein]] worked out his [[theory of relativity]] while employed as a [[patent clerk|clerk]] at the Bern patent office.
A culturally important person was [[Mani Matter]], a songwriter performing in [[Bernese German]].

==History==
[[Image:Bern panorama vom muenster.jpg|thumb|800px|none|Panorama of the old town of Berne]]
:''Main article: [[History of Berne]]''
[[Image:Zytglogg_Bern.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The old ''Zytglogge'' clock tower]]

[[Duke]] Berthold V of [[Zähringen]] founded the city on the River [[Aar|Aare]] in [[1191]] and allegedly named it after a [[bear]] (''Bär'' in German) he had killed. It was made an [[Imperial Free City]] by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] in [[1218]] after Berthold died without an heir. In [[1353]] Berne joined the young Swiss [[Switzerland|Confederation]], becoming a leading member of the new state. It invaded and conquered [[Aargau]] in [[1415]] and Vaud in [[1536]], as well as other smaller territories, thereby becoming the largest [[city-state]] north of the [[Alps]]. It was occupied by [[France|French]] troops in [[1798]] during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], when it was stripped of most of its territories. In [[1831]] the city became the capital of the Canton of Bern and in [[1848]] it additionally became the Swiss (administrative) capital.

The city grew out towards the west of the boundaries of the peninsula formed by the river Aare. Initially, the ''[[Zytglogge]]'' tower marked the western boundary of the city from 1191 until 1256, when the ''Käfigturm'' took over this role until 1345, which, in turn, was then succeeded by the ''Christoffelturm'' (located close to today's train station) until 1622. During the time of the [[Thirty Years' War]] two new fortifications, the so-called big and small ''Schanze'' (entrenchment), were built to protect the whole area of the peninsula. The protection by these edifices was sufficient for the prosperous growth of the city of Berne up to the [[19th century]].

==Geography==
[[Image:bernriver.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bern in January. Background shows the high incline of the riverbank]]
Bern lies in the [[Swiss plateau]] part of the [[Canton of Bern]], somewhat west of the center of Switzerland. The landscape around Bern was formed by glaciers in the last [[ice age]]. The two mountains closest to Bern are the Gurten with a height of 858 meters and the Bantiger with a height of 947 meters.
The site of the old observatory in Bern is the origin (600 000/200 000) of the [[Swiss coordinate system|CH1903 coordinate system]], its international coordinates are {{coor dms|46|57|08.66|N|7|26|22.50|E|region:CH_type:landmark}}.

The city was originally built on a peninsula engulfed by the river [[Aare]] but outgrew the natural boundaries of the river in the 19th century. The following bridges were built to allow the city to grow outside of the boundaries imposed by the river:
* 1844 Nydeggbrücke (at the bottom, i.e. the East-End)
* 1883 Kirchenfeldbrücke (at the South-side)
* 1898 Kornhausbrücke (at the North-side)

The city is built on very uneven ground. There are several dozens of meters in height difference from the quarters down at the Aare (e.g. Matte, Marzili) to the higher ones (e.g. Kirchenfeld, Länggasse).

==Politics==
Bern is governed by an 80-member legislative council (''Stadtrat'') and a 5-member executive council (''Gemeinderat'').

As of [[2005]], the representatives of the [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland|Social Democratic Party]] and of the three [[Green Party of Switzerland|Green]] factions hold a majority in both councils (3 to 2 and 43 to 37, respectively). For this reason, it is they, collectively referred to as "Red-Green-Center" (''Rot-Grün-Mitte''), who mostly determine City policy, although no formal coalition agreement exists and, under the system of [[direct democracy]] that prevails in Switzerland, most important issues are settled by general [[referendum]]. The other major [[List of political parties in Switzerland|political parties]] of Bern are the [[Free Democratic Party of Switzerland|Free Democratic Party]] (''FDP'', free-market liberal) and the [[Swiss People's Party]] (''SVP'', conservative).

The office of mayor (''Stadtpräsident''), as a ''primus inter pares'' (First among equals) in the executive council, is mostly representative. As of [[2005]], the [[mayor]] of Bern is [[Alexander Tschäppät]] of the [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland|Social Democrats]].

''See also:'' [[List of mayors of Berne]]

==Sights==
[[Image:Berncity100406.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Bern city taken from the east looking towards the centre]]
[[Image:Bernbarengraben.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bears in the ''Bärengraben''.]]
[[Image:bear_2.jpg|thumb|right|One of Bern's favorite residents]]
[[Image:05-10-09 BernCoveredSidewalks.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Covered Shopping Promenade.]]

Bern's city center is largely [[medieval]] and has been recognised by [[UNESCO]] as a Cultural [[World Heritage Site]]. Perhaps its most famous sight is the ''[[Zytglogge]]'', an elaborate medieval clock tower with moving puppets. It also has an impressive [[15th century]] [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] cathedral, the ''[[Münster (Berne)|Münster]]'', and a [[15th century]] town hall. Thanks to 6 kilometers of arcades, the old town boasts one of the longest covered shopping promenades in Europe.

Since the [[16th century]], the city has had a bear pit (the ''[[Bärengraben]]''), which can be visited off the far end of the Nydeggbrücke. The Federal Building (''[[Bundeshaus]]''), dating from [[1902]], which houses Parliament and part of the federal administration, can also be visited at opening hours.

The Garden of [[rose|Roses]] (''Rosengarten''), from where a scenic panorama view of the medieval city core can be enjoyed, is a well-kept Rosary on a hill, converted into a [[park]] from a former cemetery in [[1913]]. 
Probably the newest attraction of Bern is the set of fountains in front of the Bundeshaus. It was inaugurated on [[August 1]], [[2004]], the Swiss national day.

==Culture==
Bern is rich of cultural offerings for every taste.

===Theaters===
* city-theater [http://www.stadttheaterbern.ch/]
* Schlachthaus-theater [http://www.schlachthaus.ch/]
* tojo-theater [http://www.reithalle.ch/reitschule/tojo/index.shtml]
* The Theater on the Effinger-Street [http://www.dastheater-effingerstr.ch/]
* Narrenpack Theater Bern [http://www.narrenpack.ch/]
* [[Theater Szene]]

===Movie theaters===
Bern has several dozens of movie theaters. As is customary in Switzerland, movies are generally shown in their original language (e.g., [[English language|English]]) with subtitling in [[German language|German]] and [[French language|French]]. Only a small number of screenings are dubbed in German. Program information is available through e.g. the [http://www.cineman.ch Cineman] website.

*[[Queersicht]] - Queer Filmfestival, annually held second week of November.

===Nightlife===
* Reithalle [http://www.reitschule.ch] - the old riding school of Bern, now a meeting place for the alternative scene, with concerts, parties, flea market and much more
* Wasserwerk [http://www.wasserwerkclub.ch] - a night-club close to the river Aare with lots of concerts and parties
* Bierhübeli [http://www.bierhuebeli.ch/] - a concert and party club
* Marians Jazzroom [http://www.mariansjazzroom.ch/] - jazz club, where also the International Jazz Festival takes place
* ISC [http://www.isc-bern.ch] - the International Students Club, open for everybody
* dead-end [http://www.dead-end.ch] - a club for the late ones, opens at midnight
* Gaskessel [http://www.gaskessel.ch/]
* Mahogany Hall [http://www.mahogany.ch/]
* Dampfzentrale [http://www.dampfzentrale.ch]
* The Bernese Symphony Orchestra [http://www.bernorchester.ch/]

===Museums===
* Museum of Arts [http://www.kunstmuseumbern.ch/]
* Art-Hall [http://www.kunsthalle-bern.ch/]
* Museum of Communication [http://www.mfk.ch/]
* Psychiatry Museum [http://www.cx.unibe.ch/puk/cu/museum/museum1.html]
* Historic Museum [http://www.bhm.ch/]
* Natural History Museum [http://www.nmbe.ch/]
* Collection of Antiques [http://www.klassischearchaeologie.unibe.ch/antikensammlung/info.htm]
* Alpine Museum [http://www.alpinesmuseum.ch]
* Einstein House [http://www.einstein-bern.ch]
* Marksmen Museum [http://www.schuetzenmuseum.ch/]
* Zentrum Paul Klee [http://www.paulkleezentrum.ch/ww/en/pub/web_root.cfm]

===Festivals===
* [[Gurtenfestival]] http://www.gurtenfestival.ch/
* Berner
* Internationales Jazzfestival Bern
* Taktlos-Festival
* [[Queersicht]] - Queer Filmfestival, annually held second week of November.
* National Reach Around Festival
* [[Busking|Buskers]] festival
* [[Zaffaraya]] festival

===Fairs===
*Zibelemärit - The Zibelemärit (onion market) is an annual fair held on the fourth Monday in November.

==Education and Science==
Bern has a [[University of Berne|University]], a technical college and several vocational schools.

===University===
The [[University of Berne|University]] is spread over several buildings which are mainly located in the ''Länggasse'' quarter. Currently ([[2005]]) there are around 13'000 students registered. It consists of the following faculties:
*Old Catholic and Protestant Theology
*Law
*Economics and Social Sciences
*Medicine
*Veterinary Medicine
*Humanities
*Science
*Human Sciences

===Technical College===
Currently (2005) there are around 5000 students registered to the technical college of Bern. It consists of the follwoing units:
* Technique and Computer Science
* Architecture, Construction and Wood
* Economics, Administration and Social Work
* Arts
* Agriculture
* Sports

===Vocational Schools===
Many vocational schools are present in Bern. Some of them are the following:
* Gewerblich-Industrielle Berufsschule Bern [http://www.gibb.ch]
* Schule für Gestaltung Bern [http://www.wksbern.ch/]
* Wirtschafts- und Kaderschule KV Bern [http://www.wksbern.ch/]
* Berufsschule für Verwaltung Bern [http://www.bvbern.ch/]
* BFF BERN, Berufs,- Fach- und Fortbildungsschule [http://www.bffbern.ch]
* Lehrwerkstätten der Stadt Bern [http://www.lwb.ch]
* Berufsschule für Pflege Am Altenberg [http://www.pflegeschule.ch/]
* Hotel Handelsschulen [http://www.hotel-handelsschulen.ch/]
* Wirtschaftsmittelschule Bern [http://www.w-m-b.ch/]

===Other Schools===
* Academy of Music [http://www.konsibern.ch]
* College for Music and Arts [http://www.hkb.bfh.ch/]

==Transportation==
===Streets===
Bern is well connected to other cities by several highways (A1, A12, A6).

===Public Transport===
The public transport works well in Bern, with [[tram]] and [[bus]] lines which connect the different parts of the City. [[Bern Rail Station]] connects the City to the national and international train network. Notable is a cable railway which leads from the ''Marzili'' quarter to the ''Bundeshaus''. This [[Marzilibahn|railway]] is, with a length of 106 m, the shortest public cable railway in Europe. Several bridges connect the old parts of the city with the newer quarters outside of the peninsula.

*[http://www.bernmobil.ch Bern Public Transportation Website (BernMobil)]

===Air Traffic===
Bern is served by [[Bern Airport]], located outside the city near the village of [[Belp]]. The regional airport, colloquially called ''Bern-Belp'' or ''Belpmoos'', is connected to several Swiss and European cities.

==Natives==
A number of celebrities are natives of the city or canton of Bern:
[[:Category:Natives of Bern]]

==Miscellaneous==
*The [[Universal Postal Union]] is situated in Bern.
*Berne (as "Bern") was featured as one of the scenarios in the original ''[[SimCity]]'' video game
*Well-known [[anarchist]] [[Mikhail Bakunin]] died in Berne in [[1876]].

== References ==
*{{HDS|209|Bern (municipality)}}

==External links==
{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.bern.ch City of Bern]
*[http://www.geobern.ch/TBInternet/default.aspx?Show=Bern&Lang=en GIS City of Berne]
*[http://www.be.ch Canton of Bern]
*[http://www.unibe.ch University]
*[http://www.bfh.ch Berner Fachhochschule]
*[http://www.kunsthallebern.ch/english/theKH/theKHalle.html Kunsthalle Bern]
*[http://www.gurtenfestival.ch Gurtenfestival]
*[http://www.queersicht.ch Queersicht Filmfestival]
*[http://fotogalerien.ch/index.php?gallery=18&lang=2 Photo gallery of Berne]
*[http://www.cityhunter.ch CityHunter Bern]
*[http://terkepkalauz.hu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=964&Itemid=99999999 City maps of Bern]

{{Municipalities of the district of Bern}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Switzerland}}

[[Category:1191 establishments]]
[[Category:Cities in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland]][[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Bern| ]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Switzerland]]

[[Category:Canton of Berne]]

[[als:Bern]]
[[ar:برن]]
[[arc:ܒܪܢ]]
[[an:Berna]]
[[frp:Bèrna (vela)]]
[[az:Bern]]
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[[bg:Берн]]
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[[pdc:Bann, Switzerland]]
[[de:Bern]]
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[[el:Βέρνη]]
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[[gl:Berna - Bern]]
[[ko:베른]]
[[hy:Բեռն]]
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[[la:Berna (urbs)]]
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[[zh:伯恩]]

Iran

2006-10-04T00:42:41Z

MelancholieBot: robot Adding: rm:Iran

''For the mexican singer and actress named Iran, see [[Iran Castillo]]''
{{Infobox Country
|native_name = <big>جمهوری اسلامی ايران</big> ''Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān''
|conventional_long_name = Islamic Republic of Iran
|common_name = Iran
|image_flag = Flag of Iran.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Iran.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = LocationIran.png
|national_motto = [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī'' ([[English language|English]]: "Independence, freedom, (the) Islamic Republic")
|national_anthem = [[Sorud-e Melli-e Iran|''Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān'']]
|capital = [[Tehran]]
|latd=35|latm=40|latNS=N|longd=44|longm=26|longEW=E
|official_languages = [[Persian language|Persian]]
|government_type = [[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]]
|leader_title2 = [[President of Iran|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Ali Khamenei]]
|leader_name2 = [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]]
|largest_city = [[Tehran]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Iranian Revolution|Revolution]]
|sovereignty_note = Overthrew [[Monarchy]]
|established_event1 = Declared
|established_date1 = [[February 11]], [[1979]]
|area = 1,648,195
|areami²=636,372 
|area_rank = 18th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|percent_water = 0.7%
|population_estimate = 68,467,413 <ref name="pop_est">{{cite web| url=http://www.sci.org.ir/Englishold/SEL/j-shvro-84.htm| title="Selected Statistical Information"| first=Government of Iran| last=Statistical Centre| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 18th
|population_density = 42
|population_densitymi² =109 
|population_density_rank = 158th
|population_census = 60,055,488 <ref name="pop_cen">{{cite web| url=http://www.sci.org.ir/Englishold/SEL/F2/S2_16S.htm| title="Population by Religion and Ostan, 1375 Census (1996 CE)"| first=Government of Iran| last=Statistical Centre| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>
|population_census_year = 1996
|GDP_PPP = $554.8 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 20th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,980
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 74th
|HDI_year = 2006
|HDI = 0.736
|HDI_rank = 99th
|HDI_category = medium
|currency = [[Iranian Rial|Rial]] (<big>ريال</big>)
|currency_code = IRR
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +3.30
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|utc_offset_DST = +3.30
|cctld = [[.ir]]
|calling_code = 98
|footnotes =
}}
'''{{audio|Iran.ogg|Iran}}''' ({{PerB|ايران}}, ''Īrān'', officially the '''Islamic Republic of Iran''' ({{PerB|جمهوری اسلامی ايران}} [[transliteration]]: ''Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān''), is a country located in west Asia, known also as [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. Iran borders [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]] (including its [[Nakhichevan]] [[exclave]]), and [[Turkmenistan]] to the north, [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]] to the east, and [[Turkey]] and [[Iraq]] to the west. In addition, it borders the [[Persian Gulf]], across which lie [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. [[Shi'a Islam]] is the official state religion and [[Persian language|Persian]] is its official language.

Throughout history, Iran has been of great [[geostrategy|geostrategic]] importance because of its central location in [[Eurasia]]. Iran is a member and co-founder of the [[United Nations]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], and [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|OPEC]]. Iran is also significant in [[international relations|international politics]] on account of its large [[oil reserves|supply]] of [[petroleum]]. The name Iran is a cognate of [[Aryan]] and literally means "Land of the Aryans."

==Name==
{{main|Iran naming dispute}}

[[Image:Iran.jpg|thumb|left|200px|In antiquity, the names Ariana and Persis were used to describe the region, as exhibited on this world map by [[Eratosthenes]] (c. 200 BCE)]]

In former ages, the names Āryānā and Persis were used to describe the region which is today known as the [[Iranian plateau]]. The earliest Iranian reference to the word (airya/arya/aryana etc), however, predates the Iranian prophet [[Zoroaster]] (est. anywhere between 1200 to 1800 [[Common Era|BCE]], according to Plato and other Greek sources as early as 7000 BCE.) and is attested in non-[[Gathas|Gathic ]][[Avestan]]; it appears as ''airya'', meaning noble/spiritual/elevated; as ''airya dainhava'' (Yt.8.36, 52) meaning the land of the Aryans; and as ''[[Airyanem Vaejah|airyana vaejah]]'', the original land of the Aryans.

During the [[Achaemenid]] dynasty (550-330 BCE), the [[Persian people]] called their provincial homeland ''Pārsa'', the [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]] name for [[Cyrus the Great]]'s kingdom which belonged to the Persian tribe of the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] branch of the [[Indo-Iranian]]s and which can still be found in the term ''Pars'' or [[Fars]] as part of the heartland of Iran and for example in the map by [[Eratosthenes]] and other historical or modern maps.
[[Image:Xerxes.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Xerxes I]] of Persia, 485-465 BC. A recreation, probably from the stone carving at the Xerxes Palace, [[Persepolis]].]]

[[Image:Darius.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Darius I the Great]] of Persia 521-486 BC. Stonecarving from [[Persepolis]].]]
However, the country as a whole was called ''Aryanam''. The word ''Ariya'', noble/spiritual/elevated, is attested in the Inscriptions of [[Darius the Great]] and his son, [[Xerxes I]]; it is used both as a linguistic and a racial designation as Darius refers to this at the [[Behistun inscription]] (DBiv.89), which is written in [[Aryan language]]/''airyan'', also known as [[Old Persian]]. Both Darius and Xerxes state in [[Naqsh-e Rustam|Naqsh-i Rustam]] (DNa.14), [[Susa]] (DSe.13), and [[Persepolis]] (XPh.13):

Adam ''Pārsa'', ''Pārsahyā puça''; ''Ariya'', ''Ariya ciça...''

"I am Persian, son of a Persian, an [[Aryan]], having [[aryan race|aryan lineage]].
" --Darius the Great (549 BCE - 486 BCE)

In [[Parthia|Parthian]] times (248 BCE–224 [[Common Era|CE]]), Aryanam was modified to ''Aryan''. In the early [[Sassanid]] Period (224–651 CE), it had already evolved to [[Middle Persian]] ''Ērān'' or ''Ērān Shahr'' which finally resulted in [[New Persian]] ''Iran'' or ''Iran Shahr''.

At the time of the Achaemenid empire, the Greeks called the country ''Persis'', the Greek name for Pars (Fars), the central region where the empire was founded; this passed into Latin and became ''Persia'', the name widely used in Western countries which causes confusion as Persia is actually Pars (Fars) province.<ref name="bartleby">{{cite web| url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/99/A0449900.html| title="Aryan"| first=Bartleby.com| last=American Heritage Dictionary (Fourth Edition)| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref><ref name="nvtc">{{cite web| url=http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/indoIranianBranch.html| title="The Indo-Iranian Branch of the Indo-European Language Family"| first=Government of the U.S.A.| last=National Virtual Translation Center| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref><ref name="wisconsin">{{cite web| url=http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~aoliai/languagepage/iranianlanguages.htm| title="Iranian Languages"| first=University of Wisconsin| last=Department of Languages and Cultures of Asia| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>

In the [[20th century]], [[Iran naming dispute|a dispute]] arose over whether Iran or Persia is the correct name for the country. On [[21 March]] [[1935]], the ruler of the country, [[Reza Shah Pahlavi]], issued a decree asking foreign delegates to use the term ''Iran'' in formal correspondence in accordance with the fact that "Persia" was a term used for a country called "Iran" in Persian.

In 1959, after some scholars protested the change of the nation's name, Reza Shah's son and successor, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], announced that both Persia and Iran were acceptable, and could be used interchangeably.{{fact}} The [[Iranian Revolution|1979 Revolution]] led to the establishment of the present day [[theocracy]] that is officially called the ''[[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic of Iran]]'', but the [[noun]] ''Persia'' and the [[adjective]] ''Persian'' are still commonly used.

==History==
{{main|History of Iran}}
===Early History, Median and Achaemenid Empires===
[[Image:Map achaemenid empire en.png|left|thumb|250px|[[Achaemenid Empire]] (648–330 BCE) at its greatest extent]]
[[Image:Cyrus portrait.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Cyrus the Great]] was the founder of the Persian Empire and the first [[Shah]] of Iran.]]

Iran has been inhabited by [[homo sapiens|humans]] since [[prehistory|pre-historic]] times and recent discoveries have begun to shed light upon what ancient culture was like in Iran, centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Iranian pottery in the Oriental Institute">{{cite web| url=http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/VOL/NN_SUM94/NN_Sum94.html| title="Iranian Pottery"| first=University of Chicago| last=Oriental Institute| accessdate=2006-04-29}}</ref>

The written history of Persia (Iran) begins in about 3200 BCE with the [[Proto-Elamite]] civilization, followed by the [[Elam|Elamite]]s. The arrival of the [[Aryans]] ([[Indo-Iranians]]), and the establishing of the [[Medes|Median dynasty]] culminated in the first [[Persian Empire]], the [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid Empire]] (648–330 BCE), founded by [[Cyrus the Great]].

[[Cyrus the Great]] created the [[Cyrus Cylinder]], considered to be the first declaration of human rights. He was the first king whose name was suffixed with the word "Great" and the first [[Shah]] of Iran to be properly called.
After Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses ruled for eight years (530-522 BC) and continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522-486 BC). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.

[[Image:Cyrus The Great Seal.jpg|thumb|frame|left|The [[Cyrus Cylinder]], the "first charter of [[human rights]]"]]

[[Darius]]' first capital was at [[Susa]], and he started the building programme at [[Persepolis]]. He built a canal between the [[Nile]] and the [[Red Sea]], a forerunner of the modern [[Suez Canal]]. He improved the extensive [[road]] system, and it is during his reign that mention is first made of the [[Royal Road]] (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to Sardis with posting stations at regular intervals.

Major reforms took place under Darius. [[Coinage]] was introduced - the daric (gold coin) and the shekel (silver coin) - and he greatly increased the efficiency of administration. The [[Old Persian]] language appears for the first time in royal inscriptions, written in a specially adapted version of [[cuneiform]].

Under [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius the Great]], the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point, ruling and administrating over most of the then known world.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM| title=The Persians| year= 1996| first= Richard| last= Hooker| accessdate=2006-08-20}}</ref>

[[Alexander the Great]], also known in the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Middle Persian]] ''[[Book of Arda Viraf|Arda Wiraz Nāmag]]'' as "the accursed Alexander" (due to his conquest of the [[Persian Empire]] and the destruction of its cities, including the capital [[Persepolis]]), conquered Persia in 333 BCE only to be followed shortly by two more vast and unified Persian empires that shaped the pre-Islamic identity of Iran and [[Central Asia]]: the [[Parthia|Parthian]] (250 BCE – 226 CE) and [[Sassanian]] (226 – 650 CE) dynasties. The latter dynasties also defeated the Roman empire at the height of its power on several occasions.

The [[Silk Road]], connecting Persia with China was significant not only for the development and flowering of the great civilizations of [[China]], [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], [[India]] and [[Rome]] but also helped to lay the foundations of our modern world.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://http://www.answers.com/silk%20road</ref>

===Another Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire===
[[Image:Arge Bam Arad edit.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Arg-e Bam]] Citadel. Built before 500 BC.]]
[[Parthia]] was led by the [[Arsacid dynasty]], who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, taking over the eastern provinces of the [[Hellenic Greece|Greek]] [[Seleucid Empire]], beginning in the late [[3rd century BC|3rd century]] [[Common Era|BCE]], and intermittently controlled [[Mesopotamia]] between ca 150 BCE and 224 [[Common Era|CE]]. It was the second native dynasty of ancient Iran ([[Persia]]). Parthia (mostly due to their invention of [[heavy cavalry]]) was the arch-enemy of the [[Roman Empire]] in the east; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond [[Cappadocia]] (central [[Anatolia]]).

The Parthian armies included two types of [[cavalry]]: the heavily-armed and armoured [[cataphract]]s and lightly armed but highly-mobile [[Horse archer|mounted archers]]. For the Romans, who relied on heavy [[infantry]], the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in [[siege warfare]]. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able to completely defeat each other.

The Parthian empire lasted five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. The end of this long lasted empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassals, the Persians of the [[Sassanid]] dynasty.

===Zoroastrianism and Second Persian Empire: Sassanid Empire===
[[Image:Persia.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The 2500 year old ruins of [[Persepolis]] (Old Persian: 'Parsa', New Persian:, 'Takht-e Jamshid').]]
[[Image:Sassanid-empire-610CE.png|thumb|right|200px|Green: [[Sassanian Empire]] in 602 to 629, Strokes: Under Sassanid military control.]]
Before the Islamic conquest of Persia, [[Zoroastrianism]] was the national religion of the [[Sassanian]] Empire of Persia, and played an important role in the earlier [[Achaemenid]] and [[Parthian]] dynasties. The Iranian [[Prophet]] [[Zoroaster]] is considered by numerous scholars as the founder of the earliest religion based on revealed scripture. Many scholars point out that [[Judaism]] and subsequently, [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] have borrowed from [[Zoroastrianism]] in regards to the concepts of [[eschatology]], [[angelology]] and [[demonology]]. Zoroastrian monotheism has had major influence on the religions of the middle eastern monotheisms in adaptations of such concepts as heavens, hells, judgment day and messianic figures. These concepts amongst many others, reflect the [[dualism]] of Persian culture which has influenced [[Eastern]] and [[Western civilization]]. According to Professor [[Mary Boyce]], who was the world's leading doyenne of [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] studies and [[Iranology]], Zoroastrianism is the oldest of the revealed credal religions, and it has probably had more influence on mankind, directly and indirectly, than any other single faith. Nonetheless, claims of Zoroastrianism influencing ancient Jewish thought are disputed by some Jewish and Christian scholars.

[[Ardashir I]], the first king [[Sassanian Empire]] started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The empire's territory encompassed all of today's Iran, [[Iraq]], [[Armenia]], [[Afghanistan]], eastern parts of [[Turkey]], and parts of [[Syria]], [[Pakistan]], [[Caucasia]], [[Central Asia]] and [[Arabia]]. During [[Khosrau II]]'s rule in 590–628 [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine]], [[Lebanon]] was also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanids called their empire Erānshahr (''Iranshæhr'') "Dominion of the [[Iranians]] ([[Aryans]])"
<ref>Garthwaite, Gene R., ''The Persians'', p. 2</ref>

An interesting chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly 600 years of conflict with the [[Roman Empire]]. According to historians, the war-exhausted Persians lost the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] (632 CE) in [[Hilla]], (present day [[Iraq]]). The Persian general [[Rostam Farrokhzād]] had been criticised for his decision to face the Arabs on their own ground, suggesting that the Persians could have prevailed if they had stayed on the opposite bank of the [[Euphrates]]. The first day of [[Battle]] ended with Persian advances and the Arab force appeared as though it would succumb to the much larger [[Sassanian]] army. In particular, the latter's elephants terrified the Arab [[cavalry]]. By the third day of battle, Arab [[veterans]] arrived on the scene and re-enforced the Arab army. In addition a clever trick whereby the Arab [[horses]] were decorated in costume succeeded in frightening the Persian [[elephants]]. When an Arab [[warrior]] succeeded in slaying the lead elephant, the rest fled into the rear, trampelling numerous Persian fighters. At [[dawn]] of the fourth day, a [[sandstorm]] broke out blowing sand in the Persian [[army]]'s faces resulting in total disarray for the [[Sassanian]] army and paving way for the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]].

The Sassanian era, encompassing the length of the [[Late Antiquity]] period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. In many ways the Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of [[Persian culture|Persian civilization]], and constituted the last great Iranian Empire before the [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Muslim conquest]] and adoption of Islam. Persia influenced Roman civilisation considerably during the Sassanians times<ref>J. B. Bury, p. 109.</ref>; their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe<ref>Durant.</ref>, Africa<ref>[http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html Transoxiana 04: Sassanians in Africa]</ref>, China and India<ref>Sarfaraz, pp. 329–330</ref> and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.<ref>[http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/sass2.htm Iransaga: The art of Sassanians]</ref> This influence carried forward to the early [[Islamic world]]. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance.<ref>Durant.</ref> Much of what later became known as Islamic culture, architecture, writing and other skills, were taken from the Sassanian Persians into the broader Muslim world<ref>Zarinkoob, p. 305.</ref>.

===Islamic Persia and Islamic Golden Age of Persia===

[[Image:Mahan.jpg|thumb|200px|9th–11th century [[Persia]] was the heart and mind of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]]]
[[Image:AvicennaPersian.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Avicenna]] (Ibn-Sina) was the greatest of the medieval Islamic and [[Persian people|Persian]] [[physician]]s, whose work had a direct impact on [[the Renaissance]]]]
[[Image:Ali Qapu night.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Ali Qapu]] palace, was the celebrated seat of The [[Safavid]] capital in [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], Iran]]

After the conquest Persians began to look for ways in which they could remain [[Muslim]] but also define themselves as Persians and sought the "[[Persianisation]]" of Islam. In the 8 C.E. (2 H.) they helped the Abbassids to overthrow the [[Ummayad dynasty]], an Arab-oriented regime that was largely disdainful Persians and Persian culture. Under the Abbasids, Persians (and other non-Arabs) began to take on a more meaningful role in the Islamic Empire's intellectual, cultural, and political realms. Persians entered the [[Abbassid]] government as ministers, among those were the [[Barmakids]]. They established new dynasties in some parts of Iran, which derived legitimacy from the [[caliphs]]. [[Tahirid dynasty]] and [[Samanid dynasty]] were among those. One of these dynasties ([[Buwayhid]]) also conquered [[Baghdad]].

Also a cultural movement emerged during the [[9th Century|9th]] and [[10th Century|10th]] centuries. There was a resurgence of [[Persia|Persian]] national identity. It was not against Islamic identity but against [[Arabization]] of [[Islam]] and [[Muslims]]. The most notable effect of the movement was the survival of [[Persian language]], the language of the [[Persians]], to the present day. The movement never moved into apostacy though, and has its basis in a verse from the [[Qur'an]] ([http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/049.qmt.html 49:13]).

Meanwhile as [[Europe]] was in the [[dark ages]], [[Persia]] and Persian scientists created an [[Islamic Golden Age]], (see [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars]]) becoming the heart and mind of the [[World]] and was at this point of history the worlds scientific and cultural center with philosophers, scientists, engineers and historians contributing enormously to technology, science and medicine, leading directly to the renaissance. The late [[Middle Ages]] however brought many critical events in the region. From 1220, Persia was again invaded and destroyed by wave after wave of calamity starting with the [[Military advances of Genghis Khan|Mongol invasion]], followed later by [[Tamerlane]]. During the [[Mongol]] period more than half of the population were killed and didn't reach its pre-Mongol levels until the 20th century.

===Safavid Empire, Shi'a Islam and Modern Iran===

Persia's first encompassing [[Shi'a Islam]]ic state was established under the [[Safavid dynasty]] in 1501. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major power in the world and started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under their rule the Persian Architecture flowered again and saw many new monuments. The decline of the Safavid state in the 17th century increasingly turned Persia into an arena for rising rival colonial powers such as [[Imperial Russia]] and the [[British Empire]] that wielded great political influence in [[Tehran]] under the [[Qajar]]id dynasty. Iran however, managed to maintain its sovereignty and was never colonized, making it unique in the region. With the rise of [[modernization]] in the late 19th century, desire for change led to the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] of 1905–1911. In 1921, [[Reza Shah]] Pahlavi staged a [[coup d'état|coup]] against the weakened [[Qajar dynasty]]. A supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern [[industry]], [[rail transport|railroads]], and establishment of a national [[Higher education in Iran|education]] system, but his [[autocratic]] rule and unbalanced social reforms created discontent among many Iranians.

During [[World War II]], [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|Britain and the USSR invaded Iran]] from August 25 to September 17, 1941, to stop an Axis-supported coup and secure Iran's petroleum infrastructure. The [[Allies of World War II]] forced the shah to abdicate in favor of his son, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], whom they hoped would be more supportive. In 1951, an eccentric pro-democratic nationalist, Dr. [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] rose to prominence in Iran and was elected its first [[Prime Minister]]. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh alarmed the West by his [[nationalization]] of [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]] (later renamed [[BP]]), which controlled all of the country's oil reserves. Britain immediately put an embargo on Iran. Members of the British Intelligence Service approached the [[United States]] under President Eisenhower in 1953 to join them in [[Operation Ajax]], a coup against Mossadegh. President Eisenhower agreed, and authorized the CIA to assist the BIS in overthrowing Mossadegh. The Shah at first attempted to formally dismiss Mossadegh, but this backfired and Mossadegh convinced the Shah to flee to [[Baghdad]].
[[Image:Mossadeq.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Dr. [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] Founder of Iran's first democratic government. Overthrown in a [[CIA]]-backed coup]]

Regardless of this setback, the [[covert operation]] soon went into full swing, conducted from US Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of [[Kermit Roosevelt, Jr.]]. Agents were hired to facilitate violence; and, as a result, protests broke out across the nation. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost 300 dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on [[19 August]] [[1953]]. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.

[[Image:Mohammadreza Shah.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Mohammad Reza Shah]] was the second monarch of the [[Pahlavi dynasty]], who added the title "light of the aryans". He was overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution and became the last [[Shah]] of the [[Iranian monarchy]]]]

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was then reinstated as Shah. His rule became increasingly [[autocracy|autocratic]] in the following years. With strong support from the US and UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, [[SAVAK]]. [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] became an active critic of the Shah's modernization efforts and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. Instead of executing Khomeini, the Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General [[Hassan Pakravan]]. Khomeini was sent first to [[Turkey]] and then to [[Iraq]]. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah and gained more popularity among Iranians.

By the late 1970s, it became apparent that the Shah was losing his hold over the country. In 1978, when protests against his rule grew louder, the shah instituted [[martial law]]. Despite this period, on [[8 September]], mass but peaceful protests around the country were held. This came to an abrupt end when the Shah sent in the military to suppress the demonstrations. As a result, several hundred protesters died in what many [[Demographics of Iran|Iranians]] today call [[Black Friday (1978)|Black Friday]], an event that quashed most support for the Shah in the country.

 

===Islamic Revolution and Contemporary Iran===
[[Image:Khomeini.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Ruhollah Khomeini|Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini]] leader of the Islamic revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran]]
1979 saw an increase in protests against the [[Shah]], culminating in the [[Iranian Revolution]]. The Shah fled the country again, after which [[Khomeini]] returned from exile in [[France]] on [[February 1]], 1979 and eventually succeeded in taking power. Khomeini's new Islamic state instated [[conservatism|conservative]] Islamic laws and unprecedented levels of direct clerical rule.

Iran's relations with the United States were severely strained after the revolution, especiallly when Iranian students [[Iran hostage crisis|seized US embassy personnel]] on [[November 4]], [[1979]], labeling the embassy a "Den of Spies" and accused its personnel of being CIA agents trying to overthrow the revolutionary government. Khomeini did not stop the students from holding embassy employees hostage and instead encouraged the kidnapping, a move which only increased his popularity among the revolutionists. [[Women]], [[African Americans]] and one hostage diagnosed with [[multiple sclerosis]] were soon released. Despite attempts made by the administration of [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] at negotiation and rescuing the remaining hostages through such methods as [[Operation Eagle Claw]], Iran refused to release them and threatened to put the hostages on trial for espionage. The students demanded the handover of the shah in exchange for the hostages. However, this exchange never took place, and after 444 days of captivity, embassy employees were finally allowed to leave Iran and return to the United States.

Meanwhile, Iraqi leader [[Saddam Hussein]] decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. Of particular interest was that the once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution. With the Shah out of power, Hussein had far-reaching ambitions to assert himself as the new strong man of the Middle East and planned a full-scale invasion of Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. The Iraqi army's assault took the country completely by surprise and the destructive [[Iran-Iraq War]] called "Saddām's al-Qādisiyyah" in [[Iraq]], and the "Imposed war" in Iran had begun.

Tens of thousands of Iranian [[civilians]] and [[military]] personnel were killed when Iraq used [[chemical]] weapons in its warfare. [[Arms sales to Iraq 1973-1990|Iraq was financially backed]] by [[Egypt]], the [[Arab]] countries of the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[United States]] (beginning in [[1983]]), [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], the [[People's Republic of China]] (which also sold weapons to Iran), the [[Soviet Union]], and the [[Warsaw Pact]] states. All of these countries provided intelligence, chemicals for biological weapons as well as other forms of military assistance to the Iraqis. Iran's principal allies during the war were [[Syria]], [[Libya]], [[North Korea]], [[Cuba]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]

Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini refused a cease-fire from Iraq which was demanding huge reparation payments and an end to his rule. Khomeini also sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. With the fall of Saddam's regime in Iraq in April [[2003]] and his capture in December of that year, Iran announced it had sent its own indictment against Saddam to Iraq's government, with the list of complaints including the use of chemical weapons. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 to 1,000,000. Although Iran itself also possessed [[chemical]] weapons, it never used them during the war.

In contemporary Iranian politics, it is believed that internal political factions are divided between conservatives who call for keeping the original ideology of revolution and the professed reformists who want to review the old ideologies with respect to today's world. The Iranian people themselves are largely excluded from the political arena and many hold anti-Islamic regime sentiments. Being a model police state, dissidence is not tolerated in Iran. The apparent struggle between the reported [[reformists]] and [[conservatism|conservatives]] continues today through electoral [[politics]], and was a central focus in the [[Iranian presidential election of 2005]], which resulted in the election of [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]]. Since then, there has been an increase in [[US-Iran relations|tensions between Iran and the US]]. However, given the opacity of Iranian politics, these assertions involve at least as much speculation as they do analysis.

Before the Islamic revolution, Iran had signed the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], and some argue that it still retains the [[legal]] right to use and research [[nuclear energy]] for [[peaceful]] purposes.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4597738.stm| title="Iran breaks seals at nuclear site"| first=BBC| last=World News website| accessdate=2006-04-22}}</ref> On numerous occasions, the [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration has threatened Iran with economic sanctions — and has not ruled out the use of military force — if Iran refuses to halt uranium enrichment.<ref>Rice: Attack on Iran 'not on agenda' [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/02/04/uk.rice/index.html CNN]</ref><ref>THE COMING WARS [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/?050124fa_fact The New Yorker]</ref> Britain supports this position, while other members of [[UN Security Council]], in particular [[Russia]] and [[China]], oppose any [[military action]] or sanctions. Significantly, Iran was recently elected vice-chair on the [[UN]] Disarmament Commission. Recently, Iran announced it is researching the construction of a [[P2 centrifuge]], which is a more [[efficient]] [[technology]] to [[enriched uranium|enrich uranium]].<ref name="iht">{{cite web| url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/04/17/africa/web..php| title="New worry rises after Iran claims nuclear steps"| first=New York Times| last=Special Report| accessdate=2006-04-20}}</ref> Despite the U.S and Iran being at odds with each other, both countries have sent allowed scholars and scientists to visit each other. However, the number of Iranian students who have come to the United States to study is only a small percentage of the number that came to study prior to the Islamic revolution when the largest number of international students in the United States came from Iran.

The [[2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict]] has turned Iran into a regional power broker and custodian of the [[Palestine|Palestinian]] cause. U.S. allies in the region — [[Jordan]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Egypt]] — now count for far less than its enemies. Anger on the Arab Street threatens them, and where [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] regimes rule over Shiite populations — Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and the [[Persian Gulf]] emirates — rising sectarian tensions could be destabilizing. Iran's geostrategic position, vast energy reserves, large population and economic output, not to mention its growing military power and regional influence, make it difficult to easily contain. Excluding Iran will only give [[Tehran]] greater incentive to subvert the region.<ref name=LosAngelesTimes-09-03>{{cite news|title=Hezbollah Threatens Sunnis, Too|date=[[2006-09-03]]|publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]|url=http://www.theday.com/re.aspx?re=5fbb4224-b7e5-4f1b-924e-e77d5dfa8f13}}</ref>

During its last summit in Havana, Cuba, all of the 118 [[Non-Aligned Movement]] member countries declared supporting Iran's nuclear program for civilian purposes in their final written statement [http://www.tehrantimes.com/Description.asp?Da=9/18/2006&Cat=2&Num=016]. That is a clear majority of the 192 countries comprising the entire [[United Nations]].

==Government and Politics==

{{morepolitics|country=Iran}}

Iran is a founding member of the [[United Nations]] organization and also a member of the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].

The political system of the Islamic [[Republic]] is based on the 1979 [[Constitution]] called the "''Qanun-e Asasi''" ("Fundamental Law"). The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies.

===='''Supreme Leader'''====
[[Image:Khamenei.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Ayatollah Ali Khamenei]], current [[Supreme Leader of Iran]]]]

The [[Supreme Leader of Iran]] is responsible for [[Guardianship of the jurists (doctrine)|delineation and supervision]] of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is ''Commander-in-Chief'' of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the [[Council of Guardians]] are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The [[Assembly of Experts]] elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.<ref name=loc">{{cite web| url=http://countrystudies.us/iran/81.htm| title="Iran - The Constitution"| first=Library of Congress| last=Federal Research Division| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties. By the definition of [[monarch|monarchy]] and [[elective monarchy]] the [[Supreme Leader]] is arguably an unelected monarch.[http://www.iranian.com/GuiveMirfendereski/2002/July/Republic/index.html] However, it should be noted that Iran is constitutionally defined as a [[Republic]], and is regarded as such in the common understanding of the term.

====Executive====
[[Image:Ahmadinejad.gif|thumb|150px|left|[[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], current [[President of Iran]]]]

The Constitution defines the [[President of Iran|President]] as the highest state authority ''after'' the Supreme Leader. The President is elected by [[universal suffrage]] for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]] prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the [[List of Iranian officials|Council of Ministers]], coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 21 ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence.

{{Tricameral legislature of Islamic Republic of Iran}}

====Council of Guardians====
{{main|Council of Guardians}}

The [[Council of Guardians]] comprises 12 jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The head of the judiciary, who is also appointed by the Supreme Leader, recommends the remaining six, who are officially appointed by [[Majles|Parliament]]. The Council interprets the constitution and may [[veto]] Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the ''constitution'' or ''[[Sharia]]'' (Islamic law) , it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.

====Expediency Council====
{{main|Expediency Discernment Council}}

The [[Expediency Discernment Council|Expediency Council]] has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.

====Parliament (The Majles)====
{{main|Majlis of Iran}}

[[Image:Majiles.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Iranian parliament, known as [[Majlis of Iran]]]]

[[Majlis of Iran|Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami]] (Islamic Consultative Assembly) is comprised of 290 members that are elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts [[legislation]], ratifies international [[treaties]], and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]]. Before the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]], Iran's legislature was [[bicameral]] with both the Majlis and a [[Iranian Senate|Senate]]; the Senate was eliminated in the 1979 constitution.

====Judiciary====
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against [[national security]]. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by [[cleric]]s, although it has also taken on cases involving [[lay people]]. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court’s rulings are final and cannot be appealed.

====Assembly of Experts====
[[Image:Azadi1.jpg|thumb|200px|After the revolution, Shahyad Tower was renamed to [[Azadi Tower]] (Freedom Tower)]]
{{main|Assembly of Experts}}

The [[Assembly of Experts]], which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the [[Council of Guardians]] determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. The Assembly has never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.

====City and Village Councils====
{{main|City and Village Councils of Iran}}

Local councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.

==Human rights==
{{main|Human rights in Islamic Republic of Iran}}

The violation of [[human rights]] by the Islamic Republic of Iran continues to be significant, despite many efforts by Iranian human right activists, writers, [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s and some political parties. Human rights in Iran face the issues of governmental impunity, restricted [[freedom of speech]], [[gender inequality]]. Despite severe national and some international criticism, the Islamic government of Iran still continues to disregard the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in several aspects.{{fact}}

Human rights in Iran can be said to derive from two elements; firstly, traditional Islam and Sharia law allow for significant gender inequality, persecution of homosexuals, and public executions. Secondly, the Iranian government itself, in its continual drive to secure its own political power base, as well as to maintain centralized control over a fragmented multi-ethnic society, disregards human rights. However, unlike some Middle Eastern countries, women have the right to vote and receive an education, and there are several female members in the Iranian parliament.

==Public health==
Over the last 20 years, The Islamic Republic of Iran has made remarkable progress in the health sector with much improvement in various health indices.{{fact}} An elaborate system of health network has been established which has ensured provision of [[Primary Health Centre|Primary Health Care]] (PHC) to the vast majority of public. However, access and availability of health care continues to be somewhat limited in lesser developed provinces where the health indices are also lower as compared to national averages. The country is in an epidemiologic transition and faces double burden of the diseases. New emerging threats should also be considered. The demographic and epidemiological transition underway will have a significant effect on the pattern of morbidity and mortality in the near and distance future, especially as it affects the emergence of chronic non-communicable diseases and the health problems of an aging population.

Iran has one of the highest percentages of population in the [[Middle East]] with access to safe [[drinking water]], with an esimated 92% of its people enjoying such access[http://www.unicef.org/specialsession/about/sgreport-pdf/03_SafeDrinkingWater_D7341Insert_English.pdf].
]
Despite the fact that Iran consists of an agrarian economy, there is a high degree of [[malnutrition]] within the country. Approximately one fourth of all young children have [[stunted growth|stunted]] or wasted growth characteristics due to undernourishment [http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/ira-e.stm]; moreover, as an indicator of the poor food distribution capability, the percentage of undernourished children in [[village]]s is much higher. As an additional measure of [[public health]] and inefficient food distribution, about thirteen percent of the young people are classified as [[obese]], according to the same [[United Nations]] [[FAO]] sources.

Cholera has been a persistent problem in Iran. In the 2005 epidemic which involved loss of lives, state television warned people not to eat vegetables or buy ice blocks on the streets [http://www.iranian.ws/cgi-bin/iran_news/exec/view.cgi/3/8985]. Salads were also banned in some restaurants. The 1998 epidemic involved considerably more cases and loss of life. There is a considerable shortfall in [[wastewater treatment]]; for example, in Tehran the majority of the population has no wastewater treatment, with raw [[sewage]] being injected directly into the [[groundwater]]<ref>[http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309092930/html/217.html]</ref>. As the [[water crisis]] deepens with [[overpopulation| an expanding population]], this [[pollution]] of groundwater causes increasing health risks.

According to the [[United Nations]], [[AIDS]] has been increasing in Iran at a rapid rate[http://www.unaids.org/en/Regions_Countries/Countries/Iran_Islamic_Republic_of.asp]. Christian Salazar, Chairman of the UN AIDS Theme Committee states: "The HIV epidemic is rapidly increasing in Iran. The major factor fuelling the epidemic until now has been injecting drug use, while there is an increase in sexual transmission of the disease."

A number of communicable diseases have a relatively high incidence in Iran. Hepatitis C, in
one study, was found to exceed eleven percent incidence[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15012714&dopt=Abstract]

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Provinces of Iran}}
Iran is divided into 30 [[province]]s (''ostanha'', sing. ''ostan''), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار: ostāndār). The map does not show the southern islands of [[Hormozgan Province|Hormozgan]] (#20 on the map):
{| border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|
#[[Tehran Province|Tehran]]
#[[Qom Province|Qom]]
#[[Markazi Province|Markazi]]
#[[Qazvin Province|Qazvin]]
#[[Gilan Province|Gilan]]
#[[Ardabil Province|Ardabil]]
#[[Zanjan Province|Zanjan]]
#[[East Azarbaijan Province|East Azarbaijan]]
#[[West Azarbaijan Province|West Azarbaijan]]
#[[Kurdistan Province (Iran)|Kurdistan]]
#[[Hamedan Province|Hamedan]]
#[[Kermanshah Province|Kermanshah]]
#[[Ilam Province|Ilam]]
#[[Lorestan Province|Lorestan]]
#[[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]]
||
<ol start=16>
<li>[[Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province|Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari]]
<li>[[Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad Province|Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad]]
<li>[[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]]
<li>[[Fars Province|Fars]]
<li>[[Hormozgan Province|Hormozgan]]
<li>[[Sistan and Baluchistan Province|Sistan and Baluchistan]]
<li>[[Kerman Province|Kerman]]
<li>[[Yazd Province|Yazd]]
<li>[[Esfahan Province|Esfahan]]
<li>[[Semnan Province|Semnan]]
<li>[[Mazandaran Province|Mazandaran]]
<li>[[Golestan Province|Golestan]]
<li>[[North Khorasan Province|North Khorasan]]
<li>[[Razavi Khorasan Province|Razavi Khorasan]]
<li>[[South Khorasan Province|South Khorasan]]
||[[Image:IranNumbered.png|300px|Numbered map of provinces]]
|}

==Geography and climate==
{{main|Geography of Iran}}

[[Image:0016xa.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Mount Damavand]], [[Tehran]], highest point in Iran and in the [[Middle East]].]]
[[Image:Hills south west of Sanandaj near the village of Kilaneh.jpg|thumb|200px|Hills south west of [[Sanandaj]] near the village of Kilaneh, [[Kurdistan Province]].]]
[[Image:Fars.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Fars Province]]]]

Iran is the 17th-largest country in the world. Its area roughly equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, one-fifth the size of the United States or roughly the size of the contiguous states of California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico.
It borders [[Azerbaijan]] (length of border: 432 km / 268 mi) and [[Armenia]] (35 km / 22 mi) to the northwest, the [[Caspian Sea]] to the north, [[Turkmenistan]] (992 km / 616 mi) to the northeast, [[Pakistan]] (909 km / 565 mi) and [[Afghanistan]] (936 km / 582 mi) to the east, [[Turkey]] (499 km / 310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km / 906 mi) to the west, and finally the waters of the [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000 [[km²]] ≈636,300 [[mi²]] (Land: 1,636,000 km² ≈631,663 mi², Water: 12,000 km² ≈4,633 mi²).

Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged [[mountain range]]s that separate various [[drainage basin|basins]] or [[plateau]]s from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] and [[Alborz]] Mountains — the latter contains Iran's highest point, [[Mount Damavand]] at 5,604 [[metre|m]] (18,386 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush. The eastern part consists mostly of [[desert]] basins like the saline [[Dasht-e Kavir]], and some [[salt lake]]s. Except for some scattered oases, these deserts are uninhabited.


The only large [[plain]]s are found along the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]] and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the [[Arvand]] river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the [[Strait of Hormuz]] and the [[Sea of Oman]].

Iran's [[climate]] is mostly [[arid]] or [[semiarid]], to [[subtropical]] along the Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29°[[Celsius|C]] (84°[[Fahrenheit|F]]). Annual precipitation is 680 [[mm]] (27 [[inch|in]]) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western. To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to 14 inch).

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Iran}}

[[Image:Iranmoney.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Iranian rial|Rial]] is Iran's official currency.]]
[[Image:Meydoon sadeghiyeh.jpg|thumb|200px|A building on a busy commercial street in Tehran.]]
[[Image:boeing-ir3.jpg|thumb|200px|Iran Air Boeing 747-200.]]

Iran's economy is a mixture of [[central planning]], [[state ownership]] of oil and other large [[Business|enterprise]]s, village [[agriculture]], and small-scale [[private trading]] and service ventures.

Iran's economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades.

The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by [[Investment|investing]] revenues in areas like [[automobile]] [[manufacturing]], [[aerospace]] industries, consumer [[electronics]], [[petrochemicals]] and [[nuclear technology]].

Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of [[foreign investment]] by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones like in [[Chabahar]] and the island of [[Kish]]. Modern Iran has a solid [[middle class]] and a growing economy but continues to be affected by [[inflation]] and [[unemployment]].

Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies– totaling some $7.25 billion per year–including foodstuffs and especially gasoline.

Iran is OPEC's second largest oil producer, as it exports 3.3 million (2003 estimate) barrels of oil per day; moreover, it holds 10% of the world's confirmed oil reserves. Iran also has the world's second largest [[natural gas]] reserves (after [[Russia]]). The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments.

The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many [[dam]]s throughout the country in recent years, large-scale [[irrigation]] schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like [[date palm|dates]], [[flower]]s, and [[pistachio]]s, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the [[1990s]]. Although successive years of severe [[drought]] in 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially, [[agriculture]] remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census.

Iran has also developed a [[biotechnology]], [[nanotechnology]], and [[pharmaceuticals]] industry. For energy, it currently relies on conventional methods, but as of March 2006, uranium refinement, the last major hurdle to developing nuclear power, was revealed to have taken place.

Iran's major commercial partners are [[China]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Russia]], , [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]]. Since the late 1990's, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including [[Syria]], [[India]], [[Cuba]], [[Venezuela]], and [[South Africa]]. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with [[Turkey]] and [[Pakistan]] and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and [[Central Asia]], much like the [[European Union]].

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Iran}}

[[Image:Iran peoples.jpg|thumb|200px|Ethnic diversity of Iran]]

Iran is a mosaic of [[ethnic]] minorities cemented by the Persian culture. Many of these minorities, such as the [[Azerbaijanis]], [[Kurds]], [[Persian Jews]] and [[Christian]] [[Armenians]] maintains it´s local customs and traditions. Persians constitute the majority of the [[population]] and are the founders of [[Ancient Persia]]. The [[native]] speakers of Iranian dialects in Iran (70%) are ethnically and linguistically "[[Aryan]]", a term adopted in remote [[ancient history|antiquity]] by speakers of the dialects as part of a national identity meaning noble/spiritual/elevated, as well as a racial designation. The majority of the population speaks one of the [[Iranian languages]], including the official language, [[Persian language|Persian]]. The major [[ethnic]] groups and [[Ethnic minorities in Iran|minorities]] include the [[Persians]] (51%), [[Azeris]] (24%), [[Gilaki and Mazandarani]] (8%), [[Kurds]] (7%), [[Arabs]] (3%), [[Baloch|Baluchi]] (2%), [[Lorestan|Lurs]] (2%), [[Turkmen people|Turkmens]] (2%), [[Qashqai]], [[Armenians]], [[Persian Jews]], [[Georgians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Circassians]], [[Tats]], [[Pashtuns]] and others (1%).<ref name="ciaa">{{cite web| url=http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html| title="Iran"| first=CIA| last=World Factbook| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> The number of native speakers of Persian in Iran is estimated at around 40 million.<ref name="ciab">{{cite web| url=https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html#People| title="Iran - People"| first=C.I.A.| last=World Factbook| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> However, the [[Iranian language]] and its various dialects (est.150-200 million speakers) exceeds the Iranian borders and are spoken throughout western [[China]], southern [[Russia]], and eastern [[Turkey]].<ref name="payvand">{{cite web| url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/departments/departmentinfo.cfm?navid=316}}</ref>

[[Image:Moderniranianlanguagesmap24.PNG|thumb|240px|Languages of Iran]]

Iran's literacy rate is 80%, with the population increasing dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century to reach about 70 million by 2006. More than 2/3 of the population are under the age of 30, In recent years, Iran appears to have taken control of its high population growth rate and many studies show that Iran's population growth rate will continue to decline until it will reach replacement level and stabilize by the year 2050 (100 million).<ref name="bureau">{{cite web| url=http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbsum.pl?cty=IR| title="IDB Summary Demographic Data for Iran"| first=Government of the U.S.A.| last=Census Bureau| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> <ref name="una">{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/pop/journal/v10n1a1.htm| title="A New Direction in Population Policy and Family Planning in the Islamic Republic of Iran"| first=United Nations| last=Asia-Pacific Population Journal| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> <ref name="payvand">{{cite web| url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1017.html| title="Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFP"| first=Payvand.com| last=Iran News| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>

The Iranian [[diaspora]] is estimated at over three million people who emigrated to [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[South America]] and [[Australia]], mostly after the [[Iranian revolution]] in [[1979]]. Iran also hosts one of the largest [[refugee]] populations in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]]. Official government policy and social factors aim towards [[repatriation]].<ref name="bbcb">{{cite web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3971711.stm| title="Iran's Afghan refugees feel pressure to leave"| first=BBC.co.uk| last=World News| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> <ref name="irin">{{cite web| url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=48323&SelectRegion=Middle_East&SelectCountry=IRAN| title="Extension of Afghan repatriation agreement under possible threat"| first=UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs| last=Integrated Regional Information Networks| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> <ref name=loc">{{cite web| url=http://countrystudies.us/iran/35.htm| title="Iran - Refugees"| first=Library of Congress| last=Federal Research Division| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>

Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] branch of [[Islam]]
the official state religion, and about 9% belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch (many of them are Kurds). The remainder are non-Muslim [[Religious minorities in Iran|religious minorities]], mainly [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Mandaeism|Mandeans]], [[Hindus]], [[Zoroastrians in Iran|Zoroastrians]], [[Persian Jews|Jews]], and [[Christians in Iran|Christians]].<ref name="ciaa" /> The latter three [[minority]] religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the ''[[Majles]]'' (Parliament). However the [[Bahá'í Faith]], Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution has increased with executions and the denial of access to higher education. More [[Persecution of Bahá'ís|recent persecution towards Bahá'ís]] has led to the United Nations Special Rapporteur of the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]] stating on [[March 20]], [[2006]] that "''this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating.''" <ref name="minority">{{cite web|
url=http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/5E72D6B7B624AABBC125713700572D09?opendocument| title="Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief concerned about treatment of followers of Bahá'í faith in Iran"| first=United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights| last=Special Rapporteur| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>

==Major cities==
Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.<ref name="payvand2">{{cite web| url=http://www.payvand.com/news/03/nov/1135.html| title="Iran: Focus on reverse migration"| author=Payvand| accessdate=2006-04-17}}</ref><ref name="tourismandtravel">{{cite web| url=http://tourism.chn.ir/en/aboutIran/| title="Tourism and Travel: About Iran"| author=Cultural Heritage New Agency| accessdate=2006-04-17}}</ref> The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.<ref name="tourismandtravel" /> Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahwaz, and Qom. [[Tehran]] is the largest city with 7,160,094 inhabitants ([[metropolitan area|metropolitan]]: 14,000,000). More than half of the country's [[industry]] is based there. Industries include the manufacturing of [[automobile|cars]], [[electronics]] and [[electrical equipment]], military [[weapon]]ry, [[textiles]], [[sugar]], [[cement]], and [[chemical]] [[Product (business)|products]]. [[Mashhad]], one of the holiest [[Shi'a]] cities, is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million.

The population of the eight largest cities ([[as of 2006|2006]], unless otherwise noted) are as follows (non-metropolitan estimates): <ref name="gazetteer">{{cite web| url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1139346236&geo=-106&men=gcis&lng=en| title="Iran: largest cities and towns and statistics of their population"| first=World Gazetteer| last=Stefan Helders| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Elahieh view.jpg|'''[[Tehran]]''': 11,199,214
Image:Ferdowsi2.jpg|'''[[Mashad]]''': 2,837,734
Image:40sotoon.jpg|'''[[Esfahan (city)|Isfahan]]''': 1,573,378
Image:Poets tomb tabriz.jpg|'''[[Tabriz]]''': 1,523,085
Image:Karaj-top.jpg|'''[[Karaj]]''': 1,460,961
Image:Saadi X.JPG|'''[[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]]''': 1,279,140
Image:Howzeh.jpg|'''[[Qom]]''': 1,046,578
Image:Ahvaz.jpg|'''[[Ahvaz]]''': 841,145
</gallery>
</center>

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Iran}}

[[Image:Mehmooni2.jpg|thumb|200px|Farhang (culture) has always been the [[focal point]] of Iranian civilization.]]
Iran has a long history of [[art]], [[music]], [[architecture]], [[poetry]], [[philosophy]], [[tradition]]s, and [[ideology]].

<big>همه عالم تن است و ایران دل</big> 
<big>نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل</big>

"''Iran is The Heart and all the universe The Body,'' 
''Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility."'' 
--''[[Nizami]]''

<big>که ایران بهشت است یا بوستان</big> 
<big>همی بوی مشک آید از دوستان</big>

''"Whether one thinks of Iran as [[Garden of Eden|Eden]] or [[Persian Garden|Garden]],'' 
''The smell of [[musk]] abounds there from friend and companion."'' 
--''[[Ferdowsi]]''

[[Image:Divan hafez aks2.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Image is from a 1969 copy of Divan e Hafez ]]

Iranian culture was long the predominant culture of the [[Middle East]], with [[Persian language|Persian]] considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium A.D. Nearly all philosophical, scientific, or literary work of the Islamic empires was written in or translated to Persian as well as Arabic. The [[Islamic conquest of Persia|Islamic conquest of Iran]] during the first half of the seventh century began a synthesis of the Arabic and Iranian tongues. By the tenth century, this cultural diffusion threatened to erase native Persian entirely, as many Persian writers, scientists, and scholars elected to write in the language of the Qur'an (Arabic) (see [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars]]). This prompted [[Ferdowsi]] to write the [[Shahnameh]], Iran's national epic, entirely in Persian, without using one word of Arabic. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language.

Iran's literary tradition is rich and varied as well, although the world is most familiar with Iranian poetry. [[Rumi]] is by far the most famous of Iran's poets, although [[Saadi]] is considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. Both poets were practitioners of [[Sufism]], and are quoted by Iranians with the same frequency and weight as the [[Qur'an]].

Film has continued to thrive in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. (Iranian film has won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years.) One of the best-known directors is [[Abbas Kiarostami]]. All media in Iran is controlled directly or indirectly by the state, and must be approved by the [[Ministry of Islamic Guidance]] before it can be released to the public. The state also actively monitors the [[Internet]], which has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of [[bloggers]].

The quest for [[social justice]] and equity is an important Iranian cultural trait. The [[Cyrus Cylinder]] is considered the world's first declaration of human rights, and was the basis of government for the [[Achaemenid dynasty]]. Equality of the sexes also has a strong historical precedent in Iran: from the Achaemenid to [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] dynasties, women were encouraged to pursue an education and study at universities; they held property, influenced the affairs of state, and worked and received the same compensation as men. Today, women compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country. Respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners are also an integral part of [[Iranian etiquette]].

The Iranian New Year ([[Norouz]]) is celebrated on [[March 21]] from [[Spain]] in the west to [[Kazakhstan]] in the east. It is celebrated as the first day of [[spring]]. Norouz was nominated as one of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] in 2004.<ref name="culture">{{cite web| url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jul/1090.html| title="Nowrouz Vital Meeting to be Held in Tehran"| first=Payvand.com| last=Iran News| accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref>

In her book, ''New Food of Life'', Najmieh Batmanglij writes that ''"[[Cuisine of Iran|Iranian food]] has much in common with the other cuisines of the [[Middle East]], but is often considered to be the most sophisticated and imaginative of them all, as colorful and complex as a [[Persian carpet]]."''

==Scientific progress==
{{main|Science in Iran}}

[[Image:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An 18th-century Persian [[astrolabe]]. Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], the [[natural philosophy]] and [[mathematics]] of the ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of [[Measuring instrument|scientific instrument]]s, retaining its reputation for quality well into the [[19th century]].]]
Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a long history. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of [[nature]], [[medicine]], [[mathematics]], and [[philosophy]]. To mention a few, Persians first discovered [[Algebra]], invented the [[wind mill]] and found medical uses of [[alcohol]].

In present times, scientists in Iran are trying to revive the golden age of Persian science. Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by [[China]]. {{fact}}

Theoretical and computational sciences are rapidly developing in Iran. Theoretical physicists and chemists are regularly publishing in high impact factor journals. Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as [[pharmacology]], [[pharmaceutical chemistry]], [[organic chemistry]], and [[polymer chemistry]]. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the [[Compact Muon Solenoid]], a detector for [[CERN]]'s [[Large Hadron Collider]] due to come online in 2007. Iranian Biophysicists (especially molecular biophysics) have gained international reputation since the 1990s. High field [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] facilities, as well as [[Calorimetry|Microcalorimetry]], [[Dichroism|Circular dichroism]], and instruments for single protein channel studies have been provided in Iran during recent decades. [[Tissue engineering]] and research on [[biomaterial]]s have just started to emerge in [[biophysics]] departments. In late 2006, Iranian scientists [[clone]]d successfully a sheep, by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Isfahan. [http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=17674]

{{see also|Education in Iran}}

==See also==
{{Iran-related topics}}

==References==
<references/>

==Further reading==
[http://www.pbs.org/now/news/index.html PBS - Iranian journalist Maziar Bahari on the Similarities Between U.S. and Iran], September 2006.

[[Benjamin Walker]], ''Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran,'' Arya Press, Cacutta, 1950.

[[Saeed Shirazi]], ''A Concise History of Iran'' PublishAmerica, September 19, 2005 ISBN 1413767982

[http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=2828 "Think Again Iran"] by Christopher de Bellaigue from [[Foreign Policy Magazine]], May/June 2005

==External links==
===Government===
{{portal}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{commons}}
{{wikinews}}
* [http://www.president.ir/eng/ Official website of the President of Iran]
* [http://www.ahmadinejad.ir/ The blog of the President of Iran]
* {{fa icon}} [http://www.irisn.com/ Official website of the Council of Guardians of Iran]
* {{fa icon}} [http://www.majlis.ir/mhtml/ Official website of the Majlis (Legislature) of Iran]
* [http://www.iranjudiciary.org/home-en.html Official website of the Judiciary of Iran]
* [http://www.mfa.gov.ir/output/index.htm Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.spk-gov.ir/Index.asp Official website of the Spokesman of the Government of Iran]
* [http://www.aeoi.org.ir/NewWeb/default1.asp Official website of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran]
* [http://www.iranmiras.ir/en_site/Home_E.asp Official website of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization]
* {{fa icon}} [http://www.irib.com Official website of Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting]

===Other===
* [[Iran's military]]
* [[Military history of Iran]]
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.iranologyfo.com/low-e01.htm The Constitution of Iran (translated) (Iranologyfo.com)]
* [http://www.round-planet.com/en/diaporama.php3?geolevel=2&geoid=149 Slideshow: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan]
* [http://www.cais-soas.com/Essays.htm The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)]
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Iran Encyclopaedia Britannica's Country Page - "Iran"]
* [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html CIA World Factbook - ''Iran'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Iran/ Open Directory Project - ''Iran''] directory category
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/06/iran_maps/html/default.stm BBC News interactive maps detailing Iran's people, land and infrastructure]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/iran/ ''Uncovering Iran'' season on][[BBC Radio 4]]
* [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articlenavigation/index.isc Encyclopædia Iranica]
* [http://www.wikiran.org/w/index.php?title=Iran WikIran: An Encyclopedia of Iran]

; Iranian news and media
*[news:soc.culture.iran soc.culture.iran] (a Usenet newsgroup)
* [http://www.gooya.co.uk/ Gooya (UK): A directory of Iran media resources]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Iran/News_and_Media/ List of Iranian news and media] from the [[Open Directory Project]]
* [http://news.yahoo.com/fc?tmpl=fc&cid=34&in=world&cat=iran Yahoo! News Full Coverage ''Iran''] Yahoo headline links
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/iran/0,,889981,00.html Guardian section about Iran]
* [http://iran.usembassy.md Iran Blog Search]

{{Iranian-speaking nations}}
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{{Middle East}}
{{Asia}}
{{Islamic republics}}
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[[Category:D8 nations]]
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[[Category:Persian Gulf states]]
[[Category:Iran| ]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]

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[[ar:إيران]]
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[[ast:Irán]]
[[az:İran]]
[[id:Iran]]
[[ms:Iran]]
[[bn:ইরান]]
[[zh-min-nan:Iran]]
[[ca:Iran]]
[[cs:Írán]]
[[cy:Iran]]
[[da:Iran]]
[[de:Iran]]
[[et:Iraan]]
[[na:Iran]]
[[el:Ιράν]]
[[es:Irán]]
[[eo:Irano]]
[[eu:Iran]]
[[fa:ایران]]
[[fr:Iran]]
[[fy:Iran]]
[[ga:An Iaráin]]
[[gl:Irán - ایران]]
[[ko:이란]]
[[hy:Իրան]]
[[hi:ईरान]]
[[hr:Iran]]
[[io:Iran]]
[[ilo:Iran]]
[[is:Íran]]
[[it:Iran]]
[[he:איראן]]
[[ka:ირანი]]
[[ht:Iran]]
[[ku:Îran]]
[[lv:Irāna]]
[[lt:Iranas]]
[[li:Iraan]]
[[jbo:iran]]
[[hu:Irán]]
[[nl:Iran]]
[[ja:イラン]]
[[no:Iran]]
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[[ug:ئىران]]
[[uz:Eron]]
[[pam:Iran]]
[[ps:ايران]]
[[nds:Iran]]
[[pl:Iran]]
[[pt:Irão]]
[[ro:Iran]]
[[rm:Iran]]
[[ru:Иран]]
[[scn:Iran]]
[[simple:Iran]]
[[sk:Irán]]
[[sl:Iran]]
[[sr:Иран]]
[[sh:Iran]]
[[fi:Iran]]
[[sv:Iran]]
[[tl:Iran]]
[[ta:ஈரான்]]
[[th:ประเทศอิหร่าน]]
[[vi:Iran]]
[[tg:Эрон]]
[[tr:İran]]
[[uk:Іран]]
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[[vo:Lirän]]
[[zh:伊朗]]

Aargau

2006-10-04T00:41:32Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Infobox Canton|short_name=Aargau|
local_names=Aargau|
coa_img_path=Argovie-coat of arms.svg|
locatormap_img_path=Swiss_Canton_Map_AG.png|
cantonalmap_img_path=Karte Kanton Aargau.png|
capital=[[Aarau]]|
area=1404|area_rank=10th|area_scale=9|
population=573,654|population_rank=4th|population_asof=2005|
population_density=392|
since=1803|
abbr=AG|
languages=[[German language|German]]|
executive=Regierungsrat|executive_members=5|
legislative=[[Grosser Rat]]|parliament_members=140|
highest=Geissfluegrat|highest_m=908|
municipalities_number=232|
districts_designation=Bezirke|districts_number=11|}}
{{otheruses}}

{{Audio|De-Aargau.ogg|'''Aargau'''}} ([[German language|German]] '''Aargau''', [[French language|French]] '''Argovie''', [[Italian language|Italian]] '''Argovia''', [[Romansh]] '''Argovia'''; anglicized '''Argovia''') is one of the more northerly [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] of [[Switzerland]]. It comprises the lower course of the [[river]] [[Aare]], which is why the canton is called Aargau (meaning ''Aare district'').

==Geography==
Its total area is 1,404 km², its population is 573,654 (as of 2005). The capital is [[Aarau]]. It borders [[Germany]] to the north. To the west lie the cantons of [[Basel-Landschaft]], [[Canton of Solothurn|Solothurn]] and [[Canton of Bern|Bern]]. The canton of [[Canton of Lucerne|Lucerne]] lies south of the canton of Aargau, [[Canton of Zürich|Zürich]] and [[Canton of Zug|Zug]] to the east.

The canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the [[Alps]] and the east of the [[Jura mountains|Jura]], above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. The valleys alternate with pleasant hills, most of which are wooded.

It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of [[Baden, Switzerland|Baden]] and [[Schinznach]], while at [[Rheinfelden]] there are very extensive saline springs. Just below [[Brugg]] the [[Reuss River|Reuss]] and the [[Limmat]] join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of [[Habsburg]], the old convent of [[Koenigsfelden]] (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the [[ancient Rome|Roman]] settlement of ''Vindonissa'' ([[Windisch]]).

==History==
Argovia was the border region between [[Alamannia]] and [[Burgundy]], and was a disputed territory between these duchies. From the end of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty up to 1415, it was ruled by the [[Habsburgs]], and many historical old castles can be found there. Examples include Habsburg, Lenzburg and Wildegg. There are also a number of former monasteries, such as in Wettingen and Muri. All of these were founded by the Habsburg family. They were closed by the government in 1841, which was one of the causes of the civil war called the "[[Sonderbund War]]," in 1847 in Switzerland. Aargau is also believed to be the ancestral home of Reformist author [[George Mangold]] ([[1822-1894]]).

In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss Confederates. [[Bern]] kept the south-west portion ([[Zofingen]], [[Aarburg]], [[Aarau]], [[Lenzburg]], and [[Brugg]]). Some districts, named the ''Freie Ämter'' or ''free bailiwicks'' (Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the countship of Baden, were ruled as ''subject lands'' by all or certain of the Confederates.

[[10 March]] - [[18 April]] [[1798]] it was under French occupation, thereafter the Bernese portion became the canton of Aargau of the [[Helvetic Republic]], the remainder forming the [[Canton of Baden]]. In 1803, the two halves were united under the name of canton of Aargau,<ref>Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) ''The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia''. Columbia University. p. 11.</ref> which was then admitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. The [[Fricktal]], ceded in 1802 by [[Austria]], via Napoleonic France, to the Helvetic Republic, was shortly a separate Swiss canton under a ''[[Statthalter]]'' ('Lieutenant'), but on [[9 March]] [[1803]] became incorporated as part of the canton Aargau.
The chief magistracy of Aargau changed its style repeatedly:
*first two consecutive ''[[Regierungsstatthalter]]'' :
**April 1798 - November 1801 Jakob Emmanuel Feer (b. 1754 - d. 1833)
**1802 - 1803 Johann Heinrich Rothpletz (b. 1766 - d. 1833)
*Presidents of the Government Commission
**[[10 March]] [[1803]] - [[26 April]] [[1803]] Johann Rudolf Dolder (b. 1753 - d. 1807)
**[[26 April]] [[1803]] - 1815 a 'Small Council' (president rotating monthly)
*annual ''[[Amtsbürgermeister]]'' 1815-1831
*annual ''[[Landammänner]]'' since 1815

In the year 2003 the canton Aargau celebrated its 200th birthday.

For centuries, two villages in the Aargau, Endingen and Lengnau, were the only places in Switzerland where Jews were permitted to live. They were not permitted to own houses or to live under the same roof with Christians. For the slow process of Jewish emancipation in Aargau and Switzerland, see link below.

==Economy==
The farmland of the canton of Aargau is some of the most fertile in Switzerland. [[Dairy farming]], arable and fruit farming are among the canton's main economic activities. The canton is also industrially developed, particularly in the fields of electrical engineering, precision instruments, [[iron]], [[steel]] and [[cement]].

Three of Switzerland's five nuclear power plants are in the canton of Aargau (Beznau I + II and Leibstadt). Additionally, the many rivers supply enough water for numerous hydroelectric power plants throughout the canton. The canton of Aargau is often called "the energy canton".

A significant number of people commute into the financial centre of the city of [[Zürich]], which is just across the cantonal border.

Tourism is significant, particularly for the hot springs at Baden and Schinznach Bad. Hillwalking is another tourist attraction, but is only of limited significance.

==Municipalities==
There are a total of 231 municipalities in the canton of Aargau.

''See also:'' [[municipalities of the canton of Aargau]], [[municipalities of Switzerland]]

== [[Districts of Switzerland|Districts]] ==
{{Canton Aargau districts}}

==See also==
*[[Aargauer Zeitung]]

==Sources and External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aargau}}
*[http://www.ag.ch Official website] (German)
*[http://www.statistik.admin.ch/stat_ch/ber00/ekan_ag.htm Official Statistics]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=3&letter=A ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] aargau
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Swiss_Cantons1.html#Aargau WorldStatesmen- Swiss Cantons]

{{Switzerland}}

==References==
<references />



[[Category:Aargau]]

[[als:Kanton Aargau]]
[[an:Cantón d'Argobia]]
[[id:Aargau]]
[[bg:Ааргау]]
[[ca:Argòvia]]
[[cs:Aargau]]
[[da:Aargau]]
[[de:Kanton Aargau]]
[[et:Aargau kanton]]
[[es:Cantón de Argovia]]
[[eo:Argovio]]
[[fr:Argovie]]
[[gl:Argovia]]
[[ko:아르가우 주]]
[[is:Aargau]]
[[it:Canton Argovia]]
[[la:Argovia]]
[[hu:Aargau]]
[[nl:Aargau]]
[[ja:アールガウ州]]
[[pl:Argowia]]
[[pt:Argóvia]]
[[rm:Argovia]]
[[ru:Ааргау]]
[[fi:Aargau]]
[[sv:Aargau]]
[[tr:Aargau (Kanton)]]
[[zh:阿爾高州]]

Grisons

2006-10-04T00:41:02Z

MelancholieBot: robot

{{Infobox Canton|short_name=Grisons|
local_names=Graubünden Grischun Grigioni|
coa_img_path=Graubünden.png|
locatormap_img_path=Swiss_Canton_Map_GR.png|
cantonalmap_img_path=Map_of_Canton_Graubunden.png|
capital=[[Chur]]|
area=7105|area_rank=1st|area_scale=9|
population=185700|population_rank=15th|population_asof=2003|
population_density=26|
since=1803|
abbr=GR|
languages=[[German language|German]] , [[Romansh]], [[Italian language|Italian]]|
executive=Regierungsrat Regenza, Governo|executive_members=5|
legislative=[[Grosser Rat]], [[cussegl grond]], [[Grand Consiglio]]|parliament_members=120|
highest=Piz Bernina|highest_m=4049|
municipalities_number=211|
districts_designation=Bezirke|districts_number=11|}}

'''Graubünden''' or '''Grisons''' ([[German_language|German]]:
{{Audio|De-Graubuenden.ogg|''Graubünden''}}; [[Italian_language|Italian]]: ''Grigioni''; [[Romansh_language|Romansh]]: ''Grischun'', [[French_language|French]]: ''Grisons'') is the largest and easternmost [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]] of [[Switzerland]].

==Geography==
The area of the canton is [[1 E9 m²|7,105 km²]]. Only about a third of this is commonly regarded as productive land. Forests cover about a fifth of the total area. The canton is almost entirely mountainous, comprising the highlands of the [[Rhine]] and [[Inn River|Inn]] river valleys. Many of its scenic areas are part of the [[Swiss National Park]] or the [[Ela Nature Park]].

There are many significant elevations in the [[Grison Alps]], including the [[Tödi]] with 3,614m and the highest peak [[Piz Bernina]] with 4,048m. Many of the mountain ranges feature extensive glaciers, such as at the [[Lepontine Alps|Adula]], the [[Albula Range|Albula]], the [[Silvretta]], the [[Bernina Range|Bernina]] or the [[Rätikon]] range. The mountain ranges in the central area are very deep, some of which are considered the deepest valleys in [[Europe]]. These valleys were originally settled by the [[Raetia|Raetians]] (''Rhaeti'') people of probably Celtic origin.

The canton borders on [[Liechtenstein]] to the north, [[Austria]] to the north and the east, [[Italy]] to the south and southeast, and the cantons of [[Canton of St. Gallen|St. Gallen]] to the north west, [[Canton of Glarus]], [[Canton of Uri|Uri]] to the west, and [[Ticino]] to the south west. The capital city is [[Chur]]. The world-famous resorts of [[Davos]] and [[St. Moritz]] are located in the canton.

==History==
{{main|History of the Grisons}}
Most of the lands of the canton were once part of a Roman province called ''Raetia'' which was established in [[15 BC]]. The area later was part of the lands of the diocese at [[Chur]].

In [[1367]] the [[League of God's House]] (''Cadi'', ''Gottes Haus'', ''Ca' di Dio''), was founded to resist the rising power of the [[Bishop of Chur]]. This was followed by the establishment of the [[Grey League]] (''Grauer Bund''), sometimes called ''Oberbund'', in [[1395]] in the Upper Rhine valley. The name ''Grey League'' is derived from the homespun grey clothes worn by the people. The name of this league later gave its name to the canton of Graubünden. A third league was established in [[1436]] by the people of ten bailiwicks in the former [[Counts of Toggenburg|Toggenburg countship]], as the dynasty of Toggenburg had become extinct. The league was called [[League of the Ten Jurisdictions]] (''Zehngerichtebund'').

The first step towards the canton of Graubünden was when the league of the Ten Jurisdictions allied with the League of God's House in [[1450]]. In [[1471]] the two leagues allied with the Grey League. This was caused when the [[Habsburgs]] inherited the possessions of the extinct Toggenburg dynasty in [[1496]].{{fact}} This meant that the leagues allied with the Swiss Confederation. The Habsburgs were defeated at [[Battle of Calven|Calven Gorge]] and [[Battle of Dornach|Dornach]], helping the Swiss confederation and the allied leagues of the canton of Grison to be recognized.

The last traces of the bishop of Chur's jurisdiction were abolished in [[1526]]. The [[Musso war]] of the 1520 drove the Three Leagues closer to the Swiss Confederacy. The lands of the canton of Graubünden were part of the [[Helvetic Republic]], but the "perpetual ally" of [[Switzerland]] became a canton in [[1803]]. The constitution of the canton dates from [[1892]].

The arms of the three original leagues are now all part of the arms of coat of the canton of Graubünden.

==Culture==
The Graubünden are known for a dried-beef delicacy called [[Bündnerfleisch]] and for a nut and honey pie known as [[Bündner Nusstorte]]. Another specialty, predominantly made in the eastern part of Grison, is [[Capuns]], a hearty meal of meat, cheese and salad leaves.

==Economy==
Agriculture and tourism are the pillars of the canton's economy. Agriculture includes forests and mountain pasturage in summer, particularly of sheep and goats. Tourisms is concentrated in the mountains, particularly around the towns of [[Davos]] / [[Arosa]], [[Laax]] and [[St. Moritz]] / [[Pontresina]]. There are, however, a great number of other tourist resorts in the canton.

There is [[wine]] production around the capital [[Chur]]. Chur is also an industrial centre. In the southern valleys of [[Mesolcina/Misox]] and [[Poschiavo]] there is corn (maize) and [[chestnut]] farming.

==Demographics==
The languages spoken in the Graubünden are [[German language|German]] in the northwest (54%), [[Romansh]] in the [[Engadin]] and around [[Disentis/Mustér]] (31%), and [[Italian language|Italian]] in the valleys [[Valle Mesolcina|Mesolcina/Misox]], [[Calanca]], [[Val Bregaglia|Bregaglia/Bergell]], and [[Poschiavo|Poschiavo/Puschlav]] (15%).

The main religions are [[Protestantism]] and [[Catholicism]]. The percent of Roman Catholics is slightly greater(3.66%) than the Protestant population.

==Districts==
{{Canton Graubünden districts}}

==Municipalities==
There are 209 [[Municipalities of the canton of Graubünden|municipalities in the canton]] ([[As of 2004|as of April 2004]]).

''See also:'' [[Municipalities of Switzerland]]

==External links==
*[http://www.statistik.admin.ch/stat_ch/ber00/ekan_gr.htm Official Statistics]
*[http://www.gr.ch/ Official Page] (German, Italian and Romansh)
{{Switzerland}}

[[Category:Cantons of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Grisons|*]]

[[als:Kanton Graubünden]]
[[an:Cantón d'os Grisons]]
[[id:Graubünden]]
[[ca:Grisons]]
[[cs:Graubünden]]
[[de:Kanton Graubünden]]
[[es:Cantón de los Grisones]]
[[eo:Grizono]]
[[fr:Grisons]]
[[is:Graubünden]]
[[it:Canton Grigioni]]
[[he:גראובינדן]]
[[la:Grisonia]]
[[nl:Graubünden]]
[[ja:グラウビュンデン州]]
[[nn:Graubünden]]
[[oc:Categoria:Grison]]
[[pl:Gryzonia]]
[[pt:Cantão de Grisões]]
[[ro:Cantonul Graubünden]]
[[rm:Grischun]]
[[ru:Граубюнден]]
[[fi:Graubünden]]
[[sv:Graubünden]]
[[zh:格勞邦頓州]]