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Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia

2021-12-14T15:21:58Z

Miaow Miaow: /* Biography */ wkf. Budeč (Kladno District)

{{Short description|Duke of Bohemia from 921 until his assassination in 935}}
{{redirect|St. Wenceslas|the 1930 Czechoslovak film|St. Wenceslas (film)}}
{{distinguish|Wenceslaus I of Bohemia}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Wenceslaus I
| image = Emma Czeska i Św. Wacław.JPG
| caption = Wenceslaus adored by his sister-in-law [[Emma of Mělník|Emma]] (from the 10th-century Gumpold's Codex)
| succession = [[Duke of Bohemia]]
| reign = 13 February 921 − 28 September 935 or 929
| coronation =
| cor-type =
| predecessor = [[Vratislaus I, Duke of Bohemia|Vratislaus I]]
| successor = [[Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia|Boleslaus I]]
| birth_date = c. 911<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://genealogy.euweb.cz/bohemia/bohemia1.html#W1|title = Bohemia 1}}</ref>
| death_place = [[Brandýs nad Labem-Stará Boleslav|Stará Boleslav]], Bohemia
| birth_place = [[Stochov]], [[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]]
| death_date = 28 September 935 (aged c. 24) or 28 September 929 (aged c. 18)
| burial_date =
| burial_place =
| house = [[Přemyslid]]
| father = [[Vratislaus I, Duke of Bohemia|Vratislaus I]]
| mother = [[Drahomíra]]
| religion = [[Chalcedonian Christianity]]
}}
'''Wenceslaus I''' ({{lang-cs|Václav}} {{IPA-cs|ˈvaːtslaf||Cs-svaty Vaclav.ogg}}; c. 911 – 28 September 935 or 929), '''Wenceslas I''' or ''Václav the Good''<ref name=Christiansen>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/3674124/The-story-behind-the-carol-Good-King-Wenceslas.html Christiansen, Rupert. "The story behind the carol: Good King Wenceslas", ''The Telegraph'', 14 December 2007]</ref> was the duke (''[[Knyaz|kníže]]'') of [[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]] from 921 until his death probably either in 935 or 929 (although 935 is favored today). His younger brother, [[Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia|Boleslaus the Cruel]], is commonly considered the perpetrator of Wenceslaus' assassination by the Czech public and the Roman Catholic Church. However, there is a debate on whether his death was an accident or a murder. According to some historians (e. g. Dušan Třeštík or Martin Wihoda) it was the result of a quarrel between the two brothers or their parties (probably after a night of drinking). Boleslaus' men then killed Wenceslaus in the subsequent chaotic fight.

His martyrdom and the popularity of several biographies gave rise to a reputation for heroic virtue that resulted in his elevation to sainthood. He was posthumously declared to be a king and came to be seen as the patron saint of the [[Czech Republic|Czech state]]. He is the subject of the well-known "[[Good King Wenceslas]]", a carol for [[Saint Stephen's Day]].

==Biography==
Wenceslaus was the son of [[Vratislaus I]], Duke of Bohemia from the [[Přemyslid dynasty]]. His grandfather, [[Bořivoj I of Bohemia]], was converted to Christianity by [[Cyril and Methodius]]. His mother, [[Drahomíra]], was the daughter of a [[Paganism|pagan]] tribal chief of the [[Havelli]], but was baptized at the time of her marriage. His paternal grandmother, [[Ludmila of Bohemia]], saw to it that he was educated in the Old Slavonic language and, at an early age, Wenceslaus was sent to the college at [[Budeč (Kladno District)|Budeč]].<ref name=mershman/>

In 921, when Wenceslaus was about thirteen, his father died and his grandmother became regent. Jealous of the influence that Ludmila wielded over Wenceslaus, Drahomíra arranged to have her killed. Ludmila was at [[Tetín (Beroun District)|Tetín]] Castle near [[Beroun]] when assassins murdered her on 15 September 921. She is said to have been strangled by them with her veil. She was at first buried in the church of St. Michael at Tetín, but her remains were later removed, probably by Wenceslaus,<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09416a.htm Ott, Michael. "St. Ludmilla." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 8 January 2016</ref> to the [[St. George's Basilica, Prague|church of St. George in Prague]], which had been built by his father.<ref name=Butler/>

Drahomíra then assumed the role of regent and immediately initiated measures against Christians. When Wenceslaus was 18, those Christian nobles who remained rebelled against Drahomira. The uprising was successful, and Drahomira was sent into exile to Budeč.

===Reign===
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2013}}
[[File:PO1 revers svVaclav92-93.jpg|thumb|Seal of Wenceslaus I]]
With the support of the nobles, Wenceslaus took control of the government.<ref name=Butler>[http://www.bartleby.com/210/9/281.html Butler, Alban. "St. Wenceslas, Duke of Bohemia, Martyr", ''The Lives of the Saints'', Vol. IX 1866]</ref> He "...reined in the dependent dukes who had become restive under the regency and used Christianity to strengthen his state."<ref>[https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Czechs_and_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian/Db76shTEM60C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Wenceslaus+I,+Duke+of+Bohemia&printsec=frontcover Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. ''The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown''] United States, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 2004. n.p., {{ISBN|9780817944926}}</ref>

After the fall of [[Great Moravia]], the rulers of the Bohemian Duchy had to deal both with continuous raids by the [[Hungarian people|Magyars]] and the forces of the [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxon]] and [[East Francia|East Frankish]] king [[Henry the Fowler]], who had started several eastern campaigns into the adjacent lands of the [[Polabian Slavs]], homeland of Wenceslaus's mother. To withstand Saxon overlordship, Wenceslaus's father Vratislaus had forged an alliance with the [[History of Bavaria|Bavarian]] duke [[Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria|Arnulf]], a fierce opponent of King Henry at that time. The alliance became worthless, however, when Arnulf and Henry reconciled at [[Regensburg]] in 921.

Early in 929, the joint forces of Duke Arnulf of Bavaria and King Henry I the Fowler reached [[Prague]] in a sudden attack that forced Wenceslaus to resume the payment of a tribute first imposed by the [[East Francia|East Frankish]] king [[Arnulf of Carinthia]] in 895.<ref>''Bohemia to the Extinction of the Premyslids'', Kamil Krofta, ''The Cambridge Medieval History: Victory of the Papacy'', Vol. VI, ed. J.R. Tanner, C.W. Previt-Orton and Z.N. Brook, (Cambridge University Press, 1957), 426.</ref> Henry had been forced to pay a huge tribute to the Magyars in 926 and needed the Bohemian tribute, which Wenceslaus probably refused to pay after the reconciliation between Arnulf and Henry.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} Another possible reason for the attack was the formation of the anti-Saxon alliance between Bohemia, the Polabian Slavs, and the Magyars.

Wenceslaus introduced German priests into his realm and favoured the Latin rite instead of the old Slavic, which had gone into disuse in many places for want of priests.<ref name=mershman/> He also founded a rotunda consecrated to [[Vitus|St. Vitus]] at [[Prague Castle]] in [[Prague]] that was the basis of present-day [[St. Vitus Cathedral]].

===Murder===
[[File:Ermordung Wenzels (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Wenceslaus flees from his brother who is wielding a sword, but the priest closes the door of the church (from Gumpold's Codex)]]

In September 935, a group of nobles allied with Wenceslaus's younger brother Boleslav plotted to kill him. After Boleslav invited Wenceslaus to a celebration of the feast of [[Sts. Cosmas and Damian|Saints Cosmas and Damian]] in [[Stará Boleslav]], three of Boleslav's companions (Tira, Česta, and Hněvsa) fell on the duke and stabbed him to death.<ref name=Newton>[https://books.google.com/books?id=F4-dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA628&lpg=PA628&dq=wenceslaus+i+duke+of+bohemia&source=bl&ots=uo624gxhON&sig=lFFycXdTjJdn-rwzNXF5VRdtPR8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi4zIWr5pvKAhXD1RoKHdkRCYI4KBDoAQgoMAI#v=onepage&q=wenceslaus%20i%20duke%20of%20bohemia&f=false Newton, Michael. "Wenceslaus I (907-935)", ''Famous Assassinations in World History'', ABC-CLIO, 2014] {{ISBN|9781610692861}}</ref> As the duke fell, Boleslav ran him through with a lance.<ref name=Butler/>

According to [[Cosmas of Prague]], in his ''Chronica Boëmorum'' of the early 12th century, one of Boleslav's sons was born on the day of Wenceslaus's death. Because of the ominous circumstance of his birth, the infant was named [[Strachkvas]], which means "a dreadful feast".<ref name=Newton/>

There is also a tradition that Wenceslaus's loyal servant [[Podevin]] avenged his death by killing one of the chief conspirators, an act for which he was executed by Boleslav.<ref name=gibbs>[https://www.ubishops.ca/wp-content/uploads/1929-1930-Issue3.pdf Gibbs, C.H., "Good King Wenceslaus", ''The Mitre'', Volume XXXVII, No.3, December 1929, p. 8, University of Bishop's College, Lennoxville, Quebec]</ref>

==Veneration==
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix= [[Saint]]
|name = Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia
|birth_date = c. 911
|death_date = 28 September 935
|feast_day = 28 September
|venerated_in = [[Catholic Church]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
|image = Wenzeslaus by Peter Parler.JPG
|imagesize = 200px
|caption = Statue of Saint Wenceslaus in St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague. The head of the statue apparently fits the measurements of Wenceslaus's skull.
|birth_place = [[Prague]], [[Bohemia]]
|death_place = [[Stará Boleslav]], Bohemia
|titles = [[Martyr]]
|attributes = [[Crown (headgear)|Crown]], dagger, burning eagle on a banner
|patronage = [[Prague]], [[Bohemia]], [[Czech Republic]]
|major_shrine = [[St Vitus Cathedral]], Prague
}}
Wenceslaus was considered a [[martyr]] and [[saint]] immediately after his death, when a cult of Wenceslaus grew up in [[Bohemia]] and in [[England]].<ref>Describing the [http://www.kb.se/codex-gigas/eng/Long/texter/calender/ Codex Gigas], a thirteenth-century manuscript from Bohemia in the Swedish National Library in Stockholm, it is stated: "All this bears witness to the outstanding importance of the cult of Vaclav in Bohemia at the time of the Devil's Bible's compilation. Moreover, all three festivals are inscribed in red ink, denoting their superlative degree."</ref> Within a few decades, four biographies of him were in circulation.<ref>The ''First Slavonic Life'' (in [[Old Church Slavonic]]), the anonymous ''Crescente fide'', the ''Passio'' by Gumpold, bishop of [[Mantua]] (d. 985), and ''The Life and Passion of Saint Václav and his Grandmother Saint Ludmilla'' by Kristian.</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fJ6cVJttROwC |title=Hastening Toward Prague: Power and Society in the Medieval Czech Lands - Lisa Wolverton - Google Boeken |date=2001-07-25 |isbn=0812236130 |access-date=2013-11-20|last1=Wolverton |first1=Lisa }}</ref> These [[hagiography|hagiographies]] had a powerful influence on the [[High Middle Ages]] concept of the ''rex justus'' (righteous king), a [[monarch]] whose power stems mainly from his great piety as well as his princely vigor.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mun.ca/mst/heroicage/issues/9/defries.html |title=Defries—St. Oswald's Martyrdom |publisher=Mun.ca |access-date=2013-11-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109143819/http://www.mun.ca/mst/heroicage/issues/9/defries.html |archive-date=2013-11-09 }}</ref>

Referring approvingly to these hagiographies, the chronicler [[Cosmas of Prague]], writing in about the year 1119, states:<ref>Book I of the ''Chronica Boëmorum'', Quoted in Wolverton, ''op. cit.''</ref>

{{quote|But his deeds I think you know better than I could tell you; for, as is read in his ''Passion'', no one doubts that, rising every night from his noble bed, with bare feet and only one chamberlain, he went around to God’s churches and gave alms generously to widows, orphans, those in prison and afflicted by every difficulty, so much so that he was considered, not a prince, but the father of all the wretched.}}

Several centuries later this legend was asserted as fact by [[Pope Pius II]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kresadlo.cz/goodking.htm |title=Good King Wenceslas |publisher=Kresadlo.cz |access-date=2013-11-20}}</ref>

Although Wenceslaus was only a duke during his lifetime, Holy Roman Emperor [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] posthumously "conferred on [Wenceslaus] the regal dignity and title", which is why he is referred to as "king" in legend and song.<ref name=mershman>Mershman,[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15587b.htm Francis. "St. Wenceslaus." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 8 January 2016</ref>

The [[hymn]] "Svatý Václave" (Saint Wenceslaus) or "[[Saint Wenceslas Chorale]]" is one of the oldest known Czech songs. Traceable to the 12th century AD, it is still among the most popular religious songs in the Bohemian lands. In 1918, at the founding of the modern Czechoslovak state, the song was discussed as a possible choice for the national anthem. During the Nazi occupation, it was often played along with the Czech anthem.

Wenceslaus's feast day is celebrated on [[September 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|September 28]].<ref>''[http://days.pravoslavie.ru/en/Days/20140928.htm September 28/October 11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129081145/http://days.pravoslavie.ru/en/Days/20140928.htm |date=2014-11-29 }}.'' Orthodox Calendar (PRAVOSLAVIE.RU).</ref><ref>''[http://oca.org/saints/lives/2014/09/28/102754-martyr-wenceslaus-the-prince-of-the-czechs Martyr Wenceslaus the Prince of the Czechs].'' OCA - Lives of the Saints.</ref> On this day, celebrations and a pilgrimage are held in the city of [[Brandýs nad Labem-Stará Boleslav|Stará Boleslav]], whereas the [[Translation (relic)|translation of his relics]], which took place in 938, is commemorated on [[March 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|March 4]].<ref>''[http://days.pravoslavie.ru/en/Days/20140304.htm March 4/17] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129081307/http://days.pravoslavie.ru/en/Days/20140304.htm |date=2014-11-29 }}.'' Orthodox Calendar (PRAVOSLAVIE.RU).</ref> Since 2000, the September 28 feast day has been a [[Public holidays in the Czech Republic|public holiday in the Czech Republic]], celebrated as Czech Statehood Day.

===In legend===
[[File:Lebka vaclavova.JPG|thumb|left|Cardinal [[Miloslav Vlk]] with the skull of Saint Wenceslaus during a procession on September 28, 2006]]
According to legend, one Count Radislas rose in rebellion and marched against King Wenceslaus. The latter sent a deputation with offers of peace, but Radislas viewed this as a sign of cowardice. The two armies were drawn up opposite each other in battle array, when Wenceslaus, to avoid shedding innocent blood, challenged Radislas to single combat. As Radislas advanced toward the king, he saw by Wenceslaus's side two angels, who cried: "Stand off!" Thunderstruck, Radislas repented his rebellion, threw himself from his horse at Wenceslaus's feet, and asked for pardon. Wenceslaus raised him and kindly received him again into favor.

A second enduring [[King asleep in mountain|legend]] claims an army of knights sleeps under [[Blaník]], a mountain in the [[Czech Republic]]. They will awake and, under the command of Wenceslaus, bring aid to the Czech people in their ultimate danger. There is a similar legend in [[Prague]] which says that when the Motherland is in danger or in its darkest times and close to ruin, the equestrian statue of King Wenceslaus in Wenceslaus Square will come to life, raise the army sleeping in Blaník, and upon crossing the [[Charles Bridge]] his horse will stumble and trip over a stone, revealing the legendary sword of Bruncvík. With this sword, King Wenceslaus will slay all the enemies of the Czechs, bringing peace and prosperity to the land.<ref>{{cite book|last=Košnář|first=Julius|title=Staropražské pověsti a legendy|year=2008|publisher=Nakladatelství XYZ|location=Prague|isbn=978-80-86864-86-0|page=289}}</ref>

==Legacy==
{{Listen
|filename=U.S. Army Band - Good King Wenceslaus.ogg
|title=Good King Wenceslas
|description=The first, third, and fifth verses, performed by the chorus of the [[United States Army Band|U. S. Army Band]]
}}
Wenceslaus is the subject of the popular [[St. Stephen's Day|Saint Stephen's Day]] (celebrated on December 26 in the West) carol "[[Good King Wenceslas]]". It was published by [[John Mason Neale]] in 1853, and may be a translation of a poem by Czech poet Václav Alois Svoboda{{fact|date=October 2021}}.
The usual American English spelling of the duke's name, "Wenceslaus", is occasionally encountered in later textual variants of the carol, although it was not used by Neale in his version.<ref>''Wencesla-us'' is the [[Mediaeval Latin]] [[2nd declension|Second Declension]] form of the name.</ref> Wenceslaus is not to be confused with King [[Wenceslaus I of Bohemia]] (Wenceslaus I Premyslid), who lived more than three centuries later.

[[File:Wenceslas square statue daytime.JPG|thumb|[[Statue of Saint Wenceslas, Wenceslas Square|Statue of Saint Wenceslas]] on the eponymous square in Prague]]

An [[Statue of Saint Wenceslas, Wenceslas Square|equestrian statue of Saint Wenceslaus]] and other patrons of Bohemia (St. Adalbert, St. Ludmila, St. Prokop and St. Agnes of Bohemia) are located on [[Wenceslaus Square]] in [[Prague]]. The statue is a popular meeting place in Prague. Demonstrations against the Communist regime were held there.<ref>[http://www.prague.cz/st-wenceslas-monument/ "St. Wenceslas Monument in Prague", Prague.cz]</ref>

His helmet and armour are on display inside Prague Castle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prague-castle.org/chapel.html |title=Prague Castle: St Wenceslas Chapel |publisher=Prague Castle |access-date=2015-01-30}}</ref>

===In popular culture===
The lavish 1930 silent film [[St. Wenceslas (film)|''St. Wenceslas'']] was at the time the most expensive Czech film ever made.

[[Ogden Nash]] wrote a comic epic poem, "The Christmas that Almost Wasn't" (1957), in which a boy awakens Wenceslaus and his knights to save the kingdom of Lullapat from usurpers who have outlawed Christmas, with elements from the legend of Wenceslas.<ref>[[Ogden Nash]], ''The Christmas that Almost Wasn't'', [[Little, Brown and Company]], 1957 {{OCLC|1211904}}</ref>

The 1994 television film, ''Good King Wenceslas'', is a highly fictional account of his early life. The film stars [[Jonathan Brandis]] in the title role, supported by [[Leo McKern]], [[Stefanie Powers]], and [[Joan Fontaine]] as Ludmila.<ref>{{IMDb title|0109919|Good King Wenceslas (1994)}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Saints}}
*[[Crown of Saint Wenceslas]]
*[[Sword of Saint Wenceslas]]
*[[Statues of Saints Norbert, Wenceslaus and Sigismund]]
*[[Good King Wenceslas]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071001165353/http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintw03.htm Patron Saints Index: ''St. Wenceslaus'']
*[http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=592 Catholic Online: ''St. Wenceslaus'']
*[http://wenceslas.co.uk/ Good King Wenceslas - The Real Story]

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Vratislav I of Bohemia|Vratislav I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of Bohemia]]|years=921–935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Boleslav I of Bohemia|Boleslav I]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Monarchs of Bohemia}}
{{Christmas}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wenceslaus 01, Duke of Bohemia}}
[[Category:Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia| ]]
[[Category:910s births]]
[[Category:935 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:10th-century Bohemian people]]
[[Category:10th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:10th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:10th-century rulers in Europe]]
[[Category:10th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:Burials at St. Vitus Cathedral]]
[[Category:Christian monarchs]]
[[Category:Christian royal saints]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic royal saints]]
[[Category:Christmas characters]]
[[Category:Czech folklore]]
[[Category:Czech murder victims]]
[[Category:Czech Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Dukes of Bohemia]]
[[Category:Medieval child rulers]]

Cyclone Herwart

2017-11-04T11:07:01Z

Miaow Miaow: slightly shuffled countries in the list, +so far announced count of fatalities,, +max gust (NB that telemetry from two stations at Mt. Sněžka failed while recording 180 and 177 km/h early into the storm

{{Infobox windstorm small
| name=Herwart Ingolf
| image=Ingolfkarte.gif
| caption=IR satellite loop storm Herwart/Ingolf on 29 October 2017
| duration=29 October 2017
| fatalities=at least 10
| damage=
| power outages=
| minpressure=
| gust=182 km/h ([[Luční bouda]])<ref name="Idnes">{{cite news |url=https://zpravy.idnes.cz/pocasi-vitr-vlaky-omezeni-09b-/domaci.aspx?c=A171030_060919_domaci_jn |title=Extrémně silná bouře má třetí oběť. Tisíce lidí jsou stále bez elektřiny |publisher=Mladá fronta Dnes |accessdate=2017-11-01 |language=Czech}}</ref>
| RSI=
| final=
| area affected=Denmark, Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary.<ref>{{cite web|title=Windstorm Herwart (Oct 2017)|url=http://www.rms.com/current-catastrophes/CatSummary?event_id=3946117|website=www.rms.com|publisher=RMS|accessdate=30 October 2017}}</ref>}}

'''Storm Herwart''' was a [[European windstorm]] that affected Southern [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]] and the [[Czech Republic]] on 28–29 October 2017. The storm was an [[extratropical cyclone]] coming southward from the [[Svalbard Islands]] region, splitting into two low-pressure areas late on October 28; the center of the southern low pressure area started rotating counterclockwise around the main low pressure area, passing over [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Lettonia]] and then loosing power while moving over western [[Russia]].

[[File:Path of storm Herwart-Ingolf across Europe.png|thumb|Path of storm Herwart-Ingolf across Europe]]

In Denmark, which was hit on October 28, the storm was named '''Ingolf'''<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://vejr.tv2.dk/2017-10-28-stormen-ingolf-rammer-danmark-i-nat|title=Stormen Ingolf rammer Danmark i nat|date=2017-10-28|work=vejr.tv2.dk|access-date=2017-10-30|language=de-DE}}</ref>.

In Germany, hit on October 28/29, the storm was named '''Grischa''' <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.wz.de/lokales/nrw/wetterdienst-warnt-vor-sturm-grischa-bahn-befuechtet-probleme-1.2544949|title=Wetterdienst warnt vor Sturm "Grischa" - Bahn befüchtet Probleme|date=2017-10-28|work=www.wz.de|access-date=2017-10-30|language=de-DE}}</ref>.

In Hungary the storm got the name '''Nárcisz''' (''Narcissus''), a hungarian female name celebrating its [[name day]] on October 29.

The storm and rainfall caused death and destruction. Train connections were closed in Northern Germany,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/news/2017-10/29/wetter-sturm-herwart-trifft-auf-deutschland-29080202|title=Wetter: Sturm "Herwart": Tod, Trümmer und Bahnchaos|date=2017-10-29|work=Die Zeit|access-date=2017-10-30|language=de-DE|issn=0044-2070}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/news/2017-10/29/wetter-sturm-herwart-trifft-auf-deutschland-29064402|title=Wetter: Sturm "Herwart" trifft auf Deutschland|date=2017-10-29|work=Die Zeit|access-date=2017-10-30|language=de-DE|issn=0044-2070}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/gesellschaft/zeitgeschehen/2017-10/sturmtief-herwart-deutsche-bahn-zugverkehr-orkanboeen|title=Sturmtief Herwart: Drei Menschen sterben in Tschechien und Polen|date=2017-10-29|work=Die Zeit|access-date=2017-10-30|language=de-DE|issn=0044-2070}}</ref> and major bridges in Denmark were closed for traffic.

[[File:Europe-storm-2017-oct 4(world-pressure).gif|thumb|Storm Herwart/Ingolf 29 October 2017 low pressure animation]]

[[File:Europe-storm-2017-oct 3(world-wind).gif|thumb|Storm Herwart/Ingolf 29 October 2017 wind gust animation]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Storm Herwart}}

[[Category:European windstorms]]
[[Category:2017 in Denmark]]
[[Category:2017 in Germany]]
[[Category:2017 in the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:2017 in Poland]]

{{weather-stub}}

Eutyches

2016-10-08T08:20:11Z

Miaow Miaow: /* Career */ (1973 visit of Shenouda III to Rome) corrected John Paul II to Paul VI

{{Redirect|Euthychian|the pope|Pope Eutychian}}
{{For|the author of the life of Theophilus the Penitent|Eutychianus of Adana}}

'''Eutyches''' ({{lang-el|Εὐτυχής}}; c. 380 – c. 456) was a [[presbyter]] and [[archimandrite]] at [[Constantinople]]. He first came to notice in 431 at the [[First Council of Ephesus]], for his vehement opposition to the teachings of [[Nestorius]]; his condemnation of [[Nestorianism]] as heresy led him to an equally extreme, although opposite view, which precipitated him being denounced as a heretic himself.

==Life==
Eutyches was an archimandrite of a monastery outside the walls of Constantinople, where he ruled over three hundred monks. He was much respected and godfather to Chrysaphius, an influential eunuch at the court of Theodosius II.<ref name=chapman>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05631a.htm Chapman, John. "Eutyches." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 21 Jan. 2014]</ref>

==Controversy==

[[File:Monophysite.svg|right|160px|thumb|Eutyches' Monophysite view of Christ's nature]]

The [[Patriarch of Constantinople|Archbishop of Constantinople]], [[Nestorius]], having asserted that [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] ought not to be referred to as the "Mother of God" (''[[Theotokos]]'' in Greek, literally "God-bearer"),<ref name="GH">{{cite web | url=http://www.catholic.com/library/Great_Heresies.asp | title=The Great Heresies | work=Catholic Answers | accessdate=2007-07-03 }}</ref> was denounced as a heretic; in combating this assertion of Patriarch Nestorius, Eutyches declared that [[Christ]] was "a fusion of human and divine elements",<ref name="GH" /> causing his own denunciation as a heretic twenty years after the [[First Council of Ephesus]] at the 451 AD [[Council of Chalcedon]].

According to Nestorius, all the human experiences and attributes of Christ are to be assigned to 'the man', as a distinct personal subject from God the Word, though united to God the Word from the moment of his conception. In opposition to this, Eutyches inverted the assertion to the opposite extreme, asserting that human nature and divine nature were combined into the single nature of Christ without any alteration, absorption or confusion: that of the incarnate [[Jesus Christ the Logos|Word]]. Although this accorded with the later teaching of Cyril of Alexandria, Eutyches went beyond Cyril in denying that Christ was 'consubstantial with us men', by which he did not intend to deny Christ's full manhood, but to stress his uniqueness.

==Career==
Eutyches denied that Christ's humanity was limited or incomplete, which some were led to believe was similar to the Alexandrine doctrine (this, however, is strongly rejected by the Coptic church that sees Eutyches a heretic),<ref>St. Dioscorus, 25th Pope of Alexandria in the Coptic Synaxarium http://www.copticchurch.net/synaxarium/1_7.html#1</ref> but the energy and imprudence with which he asserted his opinions led to his being misunderstood. He was accused of heresy by [[Domnus II of Antioch]] and [[Eusebius of Dorylaeum|Eusebius, bishop of Dorylaeum]], at a synod presided over by [[Flavian of Constantinople|Flavian]] at [[Constantinople]] in 448. His explanations deemed unsatisfactory, the council deposed him from his priestly office and excommunicated him.

In 449, however, at the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] convened by [[Dioscorus of Alexandria]] who was under the impression that Eutyches had renounced the false belief of [[Monophysitism]], overawed by the presence of a large number of [[Egypt]]ian monks, not only was Eutyches reinstated to his office, but Eusebius, Domnus and Flavian, his chief opponents, were deposed. This judgment is the more interesting as being in distinct conflict with the opinion of the bishop of Rome—[[Pope Leo I|Leo]]—who, departing from the policy of his predecessor [[Pope Celestine I|Celestine]], had written very strongly to Flavian in support of the doctrine of the two natures and one person.

Meanwhile, the emperor [[Theodosius II]] died, and [[Pulcheria]] and [[Marcian]] who succeeded, summoned, in October 451, a council ([[Council of Chalcedon|the fourth ecumenical]]) which met at [[Chalcedon]] and that Dioscorus was not allowed to attend and at which he was condemned. There the synod of Ephesus was declared to have been a "robber synod" with claims that Dioscorus had threatened the bishops with death if they did not agree with him. Its proceedings were annulled, and, in accordance with the more miaphysite strand in the teaching of Cyril of Alexandria, it was declared that the two natures are united in Christ (without any alteration, absorption or confusion) and 'come together to form one person and one hypostasis'. Eutyches died in exile, but of his later life nothing is known.

Those who did not approve of the Chalcedonian Council were later accused of being 'Monophysites' and are nowadays known as 'Oriental Orthodox', including the Coptic Church, the Armenian Orthodox Church, and the Syrian Orthodox Church. They were wrongfully accused of agreeing with Eutyches about 'one nature' in Christ that rejected Christ's dual consubstantiality (with the Father and with us men); however, Oriental Orthodox churches prefer to be called 'Miaphysites' and are against the teachings of Eutyches. This was confirmed in May 1973 when the late Coptic pope, [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|Shenouda III]], visited Rome and penned a Christological statement with pope Paul VI.

His memory was kept alive by the Chalcedonians, who until recently used the term 'Eutychean' as a pejorative description of the non-Chalcedonians who in their turn accused the Chalcedonians of being Nestorians and [[dyophysite]].

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*[[R. L. Ottley]], ''The Doctrine of the Incarnation'', ii. 97 ff.
*[[Adolf Harnack]], ''History of Dogma'', iv. passim
*[[F. Loofs]], ''Dogmnageschichte'' (4th ed., 1906), 297 ff.
*article in Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyk. für prot. Theol.'', with a full bibliography.
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Eutyches|volume=9|page=958}}
*G. A. Bevan and P. T. R. Gray, "The Trial of Eutyches: A New Interpretation", ''Byzantinische Zeitschrift'' '''101''' (2009), 617-57.

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:380s births]]
[[Category:450s deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Romans]]
[[Category:Byzantine theologians]]
[[Category:Christologists]]
[[Category:People declared heretics by the first seven Ecumenical Councils]]
[[Category:5th-century Christian clergy]]
[[Category:5th-century Christian theologians]]
[[Category:Non-Chalcedonian Christians]]

Dorcadion ossae

2016-07-20T12:08:51Z