Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Maastricht University

2008-11-14T15:49:50Z

MiguelFC: /* Rankings */

{{Infobox University |
image = [[Image:Unimaas logo.jpg]] |
name = Maastricht University |
motto = Leading in Learning|
city = [[Maastricht]]|
country = [[The Netherlands]]|
established = 1976|
students = 11,463|
faculty = 3,000|
website = http://www.unimaas.nl|
type = [[Problem-based learning]]|
rector = prof.mr. G.P.M.F. (Gerard) Mols|
chairman = [[Jo Ritzen]]|
affiliations = [[European University Association|EUA]], VSNU
}}

'''Universiteit [[Maastricht]]''' (abbreviation: UM) (or in the English language: Maastricht University<ref>[http://www.unimaas.nl/default.asp?template=portal.htm&id=I71QIMO031OWVC27547M&taal=en Maastricht University - Universiteit Maastricht]</ref>), founded in 1976, is the second youngest university in the [[Netherlands]], and consistently ranks among the top universities in The Netherlands in terms of education.

Maastricht University has about 11.500 students, 30% of whom are foreign students, and 3000 employees. The university is renowned for its [[problem-based learning]] method as an innovative way of teaching. About half of the bachelors programmes are fully offered in [[English language|English]], while the other half is taught in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. Most of the postgraduate programmes are in English.

==Rankings==
* [[The Times Higher Education Supplement]] (THES) university ranking: place 111 in 2007; 172 in 2006. In the category foreign students, Maastricht University scored 99/100 (cf. [[Harvard]] 91/100).

* Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (OC&W): In 2004, Maastricht University was ranked first (of all Dutch Universities) in a report on quality of education ([http://www.unimaas.nl/default.asp?template=overig/nieuws.htm&fac=um%20Algemeen&nid=DH7S6DKGU140WA6K5NXE&id=niks&taal=en press release]). In 2005, the university came in first again. From 2006 onwards, the ministry no longer publishes a ranking list.

* Keuzegids Hoger Onderwijs: In 2006, eight of the twelve bachelor programmes were designated as best programme in the Netherlands by students (European Studies, Economics, Econometrics, International Business, Psychology, Medicine, Health Sciences and Molecular Life Sciences). From the other four programmes, three came in second place.

* Dutch Magazine Elservier: At the beginning of the academic year 2005-2006 the university was once again ranked number one in the Netherlands by the Dutch publication Elsevier. In 2007 many degrees were again recognized as best in the Netherlands with exceptional grades given to the international opportunities in the International Business and Economics degrees.

* German Magazine ''[[Wirtschaftswoche]]'': In 2005, the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration was regarded better than the same faculty at [[Oxford University]] ([http://www.wiwo.de/pswiwo/fn/ww2/sfn/buildww/id/127/id/99119/SH/0/depot/0/ website]).

* [[Financial Times]]: In 2007 the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration (FEBA) participated in the Financial Times’ ranking for Masters in Management programmes for the first time and its International Business programme scores a 28th place in the top 40 of European institutes that offer such programmes: [http://rankings.ft.com/masters-in-management website]. The programme even made the 4th place on the list "Best in International Business" and 3rd in the category "Value for Money" [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/78519340-620e-11dc-bdf6-0000779fd2ac.html website].

* Its undergraduate degrees in International Business and International Economic Studies were ranked 1st in the Netherlands in the 2008 Elsevier ranking [http://62.133.200.41/~feba/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=865 Announcement]

==Faculties==
===Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences===
The Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences offers two bachelor programmes, seven undergraduate minors, eight postgraduate programmes, and has a Graduate School for Ph.D. students.
These programmes are:

* [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] degree programmes: Arts and Culture, [[European Studies]]
* Minor: Arts and Culture, Crucial Differences, European Studies, Globalisation and Diversity, Governing Europe, Law and Policy Making, Living with the Life Sciences
* [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|M.A.]] degree programmes: Analysing Europe, European Studies, European Public Affairs, Arts and Heritage: Policy, Management and Education; European Studies on Society, Science and Technology; Arts and Sciences, Media Culture,
* [[Master of Philosophy|M.Phil]] degree programmes: Cultures of Arts, Science and Technology
* [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] degree programmes: Arts and Social Sciences

===Faculty of Economics and Business Administration / Business School===
The Faculty of Economics and Business Administration is currently accredited by [[EQUIS]] ([http://www.unimaas.nl/default.asp?template=werkveld.htm&id=17J36005673V700154O2&taal=en press release]), [[AACSB]] ([http://www.unimaas.nl/default.asp?template=werkveld.htm&id=17J36005673V700154O2&taal=en press release]) and Association of MBAs (AMBA). This [[Triple Crown accreditation]] has only been achieved by 28 other business schools, including INSEAD, IMD and the London Business School. Students from the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration have also successfully participated in the case competitions at [[McGill University]] ([[MMICC]]) and the [[University of Southern California]] (USC) in 2006 ([http://www.talkinbusiness.nl/?aid=51&eid=9 website]). In 2007, the university was once again invited and participated at CBS Case Competition ([http://www.casecompetition.com]).

The Faculty of Economics and Business Administration is also the home of the [[Universiteit Maastricht Business School]].

===Faculty of Humanities and Sciences (formerly Faculty of General Sciences)===
===Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences===
===Faculty of Law===
European Law School (ELS)

B.A. European and International Law English Language Track

===Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience===

===[[Maastricht Graduate School of Governance]] (MGSoG)===
===[[University College Maastricht]]===
==Research Schools and institutes==
===Main research schools===
* [[CaRe]] Netherlands School of Primary Care Research
* CARIM http://carim.unimaas.nl (Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht) Heart and Vascular diseases
* EPP Research School Experimental Psychopathology
* [[EURON]] EUROpean Graduate School of Neuroscience
* Ius Commune [http://www.iuscommune.eu]
* METEOR Maastricht Research School of Economics of Technology and Organisations

The UM participates in the following research schools:
* Huizinga Institute UM participation in the research institute CWS
* ICO UM participation in the research Institute of Medical Education
* iBME integrated Biomedical Engineering. Co-operation with the University of Twente.
* SIKS UM participation in the research institute MICC
* School for Human Rights Research [www.law.uu.nl/English/orm/]
* VLAG Nutrition, food Technology, Agro-biotechnology and Health
* WTMC Netherlands Graduate School of Science, Technology and Modern Culture

===Research institutes<ref>[http://www.unimaas.nl/default.asp?template=werkveld.htm&id=N57C26QVV2735I4L4F7I&taal=en Research Institutes - UM research - Research - Universiteit Maastricht]</ref>===
* CAPHRI Care and Public Health Research Institute
* CARIM Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht
* CWS Arts and Culture Research
* EPP Experimental Psychopathology
* GROW Research Institute Growth & Development
* H&G Maastricht Brain & Behaviour Institute.
* ICIS International Centre for Integrative Studies
* [http://www.igir.org IGIR] Institute for Globalisation and International Regulation
* [http://www.fdewb.unimaas.nl/aim_v2/default.asp?view=page&show=JNMQCPN4 MARC] - Maastricht Accounting, Auditing & Information Management Research
* MICC Maastricht ICT Competence Center (former: IKAT Institute for Knowledge and Agent Technology)
* Maastricht Centre for Human Rights
* METRO Maastricht European Institute for Transnational Law Research
* METEOR Maastricht Research Institute/School of Economics and Organizations
* NUTRIM Nutrition and Toxicology Research Institute Maastricht
* ROA Research Centre for Education and the Labour Market
* [[UNU-MERIT]] (Maastricht Economic and social Research and training centre on Innovation and Technology), UNU-MERIT is also part of the [[United Nations University]]

There are faculty research units and associated institutes ([http://www.unimaas.nl/default.asp?template=portal.htm&id=1LNA00WK3ATTHTPG0I1R&taal=en research website])

==Notable Professors==
* [[Wiebe Bijker]]: Professor of [[Technology and society|Technology and Society]], member of the [[KNAW]] ([[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]) and together with [[Trevor Pinch]] the founder of [[Social Construction of Technology]] (SCOT)
* [[Franz Palm]]: Professor of [[Econometrics]], member of the [[KNAW]] ([[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]])
* [[Maurits Allessie]]: Professor of [[Physiology]], member of the [[KNAW]] ([[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]])
* [[Andre Knottnerus]]: Professor of [[General Practice]], member of the [[KNAW]] ([[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]), [[President of the Health Council]] of the Netherlands
* [[Luc Soete]]: Professor of [[General Economics]], Director of research institute [[UNU-MERIT]] (which is also part of the [[United Nations University]]), member of the group of key thinkers for the [[Lisbon Strategy]]
* [[Geert Hofstede]]: Emeritus Professor of Organizational Anthropology and International Management. Founder of Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation (IRIC)
* [[John Hagedoorn]]: Professor of Strategy and International Business and professorial fellow with the United Nations University - MERIT
* [[Theo van Boven]]: Professor Emeritus of International Law, Former UN Director for human rights and UN Special Rapporteur for Torture
* [[Rainer Goebel]]: Professor of Neurocognition, Director of the Maastricht Brain Imaging centre, Winner of the German Heinz-Maier-Leibnitz award for cognitive sciences in 1993

== References ==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.unimaas.nl/default.asp?taal=en Universiteit Maastricht]
* [http://www.observant.unimaas.nl Observant] University newspaper, with weekly English section.
* [http://www.merit.unu.edu/ UNU-MERIT]
* [http://www.studychoice.nl/web/site/default.aspx?m=dir&a=ba_ins&pl=Maastricht&i=22770&sel=all Overview of all Bachelor's programmes at the Universiteit Maastricht]
* [http://istudy.iagora.com/Universiteit_Maastricht/reviews.html Universiteit Maastricht for foreign students on iAgora] - Reviews by former Erasmus and other international students in Maastricht on iAgora.
{{Dutch universities}}

[[Category:Maastricht University|*]]
[[Category:Universities in the Netherlands]]

[[ar:جامعة ماسترخت]]
[[de:Universität Maastricht]]
[[el:Πανεπιστήμιο του Μάαστριχτ]]
[[nl:Universiteit Maastricht]]
[[ro:Universitatea Maastricht]]
[[ru:Университет Маастрихта]]
[[zh:马斯特里赫特大学]]

State capitalism

2008-09-21T13:10:07Z

MiguelFC:

'''State capitalism''', in its classic meaning, is a private [[capitalism|capitalist]] economy under [[state]] control. This term was often used to describe the controlled economies of the great powers in the [[World War I|First World War]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| encyclopedia = Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought
| editor = David Miller, Janet Coleman, William Conolly and Alan Ryan
| publisher = Blackwell
| date = 1991}}</ref> In more modern sense, state capitalism is a term that is used (sometimes interchangeably with [[state monopoly capitalism]]) to describe a system where the state is intervening in the markets to protect and advance interests of [[Big Business]]. This practice is in sharp contrast with the ideals of [[free market]] capitalism.<ref>Allan G. Johnson. ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology''. (2000). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631216812 p.306</ref>

This term is also used by [[Marxism|Marxists]] and [[heterodox economics|heterodox economists]] to describe a society wherein the [[productive forces]] are owned and run by the state in a capitalist way, even if such a state calls itself [[socialist]].<ref>{{cite web
|first = Peter
|last = Binns
|authorlink = Peter Binns
|title = State Capitalism
|url = http://www.marxists.de/statecap/binns/statecap.htm
|language = English
|format = HTML
|date = 1986
|accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref> Within Marxist literature, state capitalism is usually defined in this sense: as a social system combining capitalism — the [[wage]] system of producing and appropriating [[surplus value]] — with ownership by a [[state apparatus]]. By that definition, a state capitalist country is one where the government controls the economy and essentially acts like a single giant [[corporation]].
[[Image:Wilhelm Liebknecht.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Liebknecht - "combatted [...] state capitalism"]]
The term itself was in use within the [[socialist]] movement from the late nineteenth century onwards. [[Wilhelm Liebknecht]] in [[1896]] said: "Nobody has combatted State Socialism more than we German Socialists; nobody has shown more distinctively than I, that State Socialism is really State capitalism!" <ref>{{cite web
|first = Wilhelm
|last = Liebknecht
|authorlink = Wilhelm Liebknecht
|title = Our Recent Congress
|journal = Justice
|date = 1896
|url = http://www.marxists.org/archive/liebknecht-w/1896/08/our-congress.htm
|format = HTML
|language = English
|accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref>

There are various theories and critiques of state capitalism, some of which have been around since the [[October Revolution]]. The common themes among them are to identify that the workers do not meaningfully control the [[means of production]] and that commodity relations and production for profit still occur within state capitalism.

==Use by Classical Liberals and advocates of capitalism==
[[Image:Murray Rothbard.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Murray Rothbard.jpg|Murray Rothbard put forward a libertarian analysis of state capitalism]]
[[Murray Rothbard]], a [[laissez-faire]] capitalist thinker, uses the term interchangeably with the term [[state monopoly capitalism]], and uses it to describe a partnership of government and big business where the state is intervening on behalf of large capitalists against the interests of consumers.<ref>{{citation
|first = Murray
|last = Rothbard
|authorlink = Murray Rothbard
|contribution = A Future of Peace and Capitalism
|editor = James H. Weaver
|title = Modern Political Economy
|publisher = Allyn and Bacon
|place = Boston
|date = 1973
|contribution-url = http://www.mises.org/story/1559
|language = English
|accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{citation
|first = Murray
|last = Rothbard
|authorlink = Murray Rothbard
|contribution = Left and right: the prospects for liberty
|title = Egalitarianism as a revolt against nature and other essays
|publisher = Ludwig von Mises Institute
|place = Auburn, Ala.
|date = 2000
|contribution-url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard33.html
|format = HTML
|language = English
|accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref> He distinguishes this from laissez-faire capitalism where big business is not protected from market forces. This usage dates from the 1960s, when [[Harry Elmer Barnes]] described the post-New Deal economy in the United States as "state capitalism." More recently, [[Andrei Illarionov]], former economic advisor to [[Russia]]n [[President]] [[Vladimir Putin]], resigned in December 2005, protesting Russia's "embracement of state capitalism."<ref>{{cite news
| last = Andrei
| first = Illarionov
| authorlink = Andrei Illarionov
| title = When the state means business
| work = International Herald and Tribune
| date = 2006-01-25
| language = English
| format = HTML
| url = http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/01/25/opinion/edandrei.php
| accessdate = 2007-05-31 }}</ref>

The term is not used by the classical liberals to describe the public ownership of the means of production. The economist [[Ludwig von Mises]] explains the reason: "''The socialist movement takes great pains to circulate frequently new labels for its ideally constructed state. Each worn-out label is replaced by another which raises hopes of an ultimate solution of the insoluble basic problem of Socialism—until it becomes obvious that nothing has been changed but the name. The most recent slogan is "State Capitalism." It is not commonly realized that this covers nothing more than what used to be called Planned Economy and State Socialism, and that State Capitalism, Planned Economy, and State Socialism diverge only in non-essentials from the "classic" ideal of egalitarian Socialism.''"<ref>{{cite book
|first = Ludwig
|last = Von Mises
|authorlink = Ludwig Von Mises
|title = [[Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis]]
|publisher = LibertyClassics
|place = Indianapolis
|date = 1979
|isbn = 0913966630
|url = http://www.mises.org/books/socialism/preface_second_german_edition.aspx
|language = English
|accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref>

==Use by Trotskyists==
[[Image:Tony-Cliff.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tony Cliff: propounded a theory of state capitalism in the Soviet Union]]
[[Leon Trotsky]] said the term state capitalism "originally arose to designate the phenomena which arise when a bourgeois state takes direct charge of the means of transport or of industrial enterprises" and is therefore a "partial negation" of capitalism <ref>{{cite book
|first = Leon
|last = Trotsky
|authorlink = Leon Trotsky
|title = The revolution betrayed
|publisher = Newton Abbot : David & Charles
|place = Mineola, N.Y. : Dover
|isbn = 0486433986
|date = 2004
|translator = Max Eastman
|url = http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1936/revbet/index.htm
|fomat = HTML
|language = English
|accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref>. However, Trotsky rejected that description of the [[USSR]] claiming instead that it was a [[degenerated workers' state]]. After [[World War II]], [[orthodox Trotskyism|most in the Trotskyist movement]] accepted an analysis of the Soviet block countries as being [[deformed workers' states]]. However, alternative currents within the Trotskyist tradition have developed the theory of state capitalism as a [[New Class]] theory to explain of what they regard as the essentially non-socialist nature of the [[USSR]], [[Cuba]], [[China]], and other self-proclaimed [[socialist states]].

The discussion goes back to internal debates in the [[Left Opposition]] in the late [[1920s]]. One influential formulation advocating the theory of state capitalism has been that of [[Tony Cliff]], associated with the [[International Socialist Tendency]] and the British [[Socialist Workers Party (Britain)|Socialist Workers Party]] (SWP). Another is that of the [[Johnson-Forest Tendency]] of [[CLR James]] and [[Raya Dunayevskaya]] who formulated her theory in the 1940s on the basis of a study of the first three five year plans alongside readings of Marx's early humanist writings such as Marx's essay on Alienated Labor (1844). A relatively recent text by Stephen A. Resnick and Richard D. Wolff, ''Class Theory and History'', explores what they call state capitalism in the former [[Soviet Union]], continuing a theme that has been debated within Trotskyist theory for most of the past century.

Compare with other left-wing theories regarding Soviet-style societies: [[deformed workers' state]]s, [[degenerated workers' state]]s, [[new class]], [[state socialism]], [[bureaucratic collectivism]] and [[coordinatorism]].

==Use by Maoists and ‘Anti-Revisionists’==
From 1956 to the early 1980s, the [[Communist Party of China]] and their [[Maoist]] or ‘[[anti-revisionist]]’ adherents around the world often described the [[Soviet Union]] as state-capitalist, essentially using the accepted Marxist definition, albeit on a different basis and in reference to a different span of time from either the Trotskyists or the left-communists. Specifically, the Maoists and their descendants use the term state capitalism as part of their description of the style and politics of [[Nikita Khrushchev|Khrushchev]] and his successors, as well as to similar leaders and policies in other self-styled ‘socialist’ states. This was involved in the ideological break of the [[Sino-Soviet Split]].

After Mao's death, amidst the supporters of the [[Cultural Revolution]] and the exploits of the '[[Gang of Four (China)|Gang of Four]]', most extended the state capitalist formulation to China itself, and ceased to support the [[Communist Party of China]], which likewise distanced itself from these former [[fraternal party|fraternal]] groups.

Most current [[Communist]] groups descended from the Maoist ideological tradition still hold to the description of both China and the Soviet Union as being ‘state-capitalist’ from a certain point in their history onwards — most commonly, the Soviet Union from [[1956]] to its collapse in [[1991]], and China from [[1976]] to the present day. Maoists and ‘anti-revisionists’ also sometimes employ the term ‘[[Social-imperialism]]’ to describe socialist states that they consider to actually be capitalist in essence — their phrase, ''"socialist in words, imperialist in deeds"'' denotes this.

==Use by left communists and council communists==

The earliest critique of the USSR as state-capitalist was formulated by various groups adhering to [[left communism]]. One major tendency of the [[Left_communism#Russian_Left_Communism|1918 Russian communist left]] criticised the re-employment of [[authoritarian]] capitalist relations and methods within production. As [[Ossinsky]] in particular argued, [[one-man management]] and the other impositions of capitalist discipline would stifle the active participation of workers in the organisation of production; [[Taylorism]] turned workers into the appendages of machines, and piece-wages imposed individualist rather than collective rewards in production so instilling [[petty bourgeois]] values into workers. In sum these measures were seen as the re-transformation of proletarians within production from collective subject back into the atomised objects of capital. The working class, it was argued, had to consciously participate in economic as well as political administration. This tendency within the 1918 left communists emphasized that the problem with capitalist production was that it turned workers into objects. Its [[Transcendence (philosophy)|transcendence]] lay in the workers' conscious creativity and participation, which is reminiscent of [[Marx's critique of alienation]].

Modern left communists and [[council communists]] share with Trotskyists the fundamental definition of state capitalism as a social system combining capitalism with state ownership, but they disagree on some specifics. The left communist group [http://www.geocities.com/aufheben2 Aufheben], for example, have three primary disagreements with Cliff's theory:

# Cliff's attempt to make the point of counter-revolution and the introduction of state capitalism coincide with Stalin's first five year plan (and Trotsky's exile);
# his denial that the [[law of value]] operated in the classic sense within the USSR; and
# his insistence that state capitalism was the highest stage of capitalism which implied according to left communists (despite Cliff's denial) that the USSR was more advanced than Western capitalism.

==State capitalism in Western countries==
An alternate definition is that state capitalism is a close relationship between the government and private capitalism, such as one in which the private capitalists produce for a guaranteed market. An example of this would be the [[military-industrial complex]] where autonomous [[entrepreneurial firms]] produce for lucrative government contracts and are not subject to the discipline of competitive markets. Many see this as part of a continuum characterizing the modern world economy with "normal" capitalism at one extreme and complete state capitalism like that of the former [[Soviet Union|USSR]] at the other. This continuum has narrowed somewhat since the 1980s with the collapse of the USSR and its satellites and with large-scale [[privatization]] in [[Eastern Europe]] and most of the [[third world]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Both the first definition (the one used by Trotskyists) and this fourth one flow from discussion among Marxists at the beginning of the twentieth century, most notably [[Nikolai Bukharin]] who, in his book ''Imperialism and the world economy'' thought that advanced, '[[imperialist]]' countries exhibited the latter definition and considered (and rejected) the possibility that they could arrive at the former.

State capitalism is practised by a variety of Western countries with respect to certain strategic resources important for [[national security]]. These may involve private investment as well. For example, a government may own or even monopolize oil production or transport infrastructure to ensure availability in the case of war. Examples include [[Neste]], [[Statoil]] and [[OMV]].

==State capitalism in European Studies==
Several European scholars and political economists have been increasingly using the term to describe one of the three major varieties of capitalism that prevail in the modern context of the European Union. This approach is mainly influenced by Schmidt's (2002) article on ''The Futures of European Capitalism'', in which he divides modern European capitalism in three groups: Market, Managed and State.

State capitalism refers to a system where high coordination between the state, large firms and labour unions ensures economic growth and development in a quasi-[[corporatist]] model. The author cites France and, to a lesser extent, Italy as the prime examples of modern European State capitalism.

==Notes==
<div style="font-size:85%">
<references />
</div>

== See also ==
* [[Bureaucratic collectivism]]
* [[Coordinatorism]]
* [[Corporativism]]
* [[Deformed workers' state]]
* [[Degenerated workers state]]
* [[New class]]
* [[State socialism]]
* [[Statism]]
* [[Raya Dunayevskaya]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/works/1942-dm/index.htm In Defense of Marxism] by [[Leon Trotsky]] A collection of essays and letters to members of the US Socialist Workers Party from 1939 to 1940.
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/liebknecht-w/1896/08/our-congress.htm Our Recent Congress, ''Justice'' 1896] by [[Wilhelm Liebknecht]]
*[http://upl.silentwhisper.net/uplfolders/upload2/what_was_the_ussr_en.pdf What was the USSR?] by [http://www.geocities.com/aufheben2 Aufheben]
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1955/statecap/index.htm State Capitalism in Russia] by [[Tony Cliff]]
*[http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/1_1/1_1_7.pdf Toward a Theory of State Capitalism: Ultimate Decision-Making and Class Structure] [[Libertarian]] analysis by Walter E. Grinder and John Hagel.
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/grant/1949/cliff.htm Against the Theory of State Capitalism] by [[Ted Grant]]
*[http://www.workersliberty.org/node/4714 The Russian Question: A debate between Raya Dunayevskaya and Max Shachtman] (May 1947 with August 2005 commentary)
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1917/imperial/index.htm Imperialism and World Economy] by [[Nikolai Bukharin]]
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/pannekoe/1936/dictatorship.htm State Capitalism and Dictatorship] by [[Anton Pannekoek]]
*[http://www.ernestmandel.org/en/works/txt/FI/theory_of_statecapitalism.htm The Theory of “State Capitalism”], [[Ernest Mandel]] (June 1951)
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9364315 The Marxian Concept of Capital and the Soviet Experience: Essay in the Critique of Political Economy] by [[Paresh Chattopadhyay]]
*[http://www.geocities.com/youcreatedcosmos/news.html Collection of left-communist links that dismiss the bolshevik state capitalism.]
*[http://marxists.org/archive/dunayevskaya/works/1946/statecap.htm "The Nature of the Russian Economy"] a 1946 Polemic written by [[Raya Dunayevskaya]] (then writing as Freddie Forest), founder of [[Marxist Humanism]], arguing for a state capitalist position within the [[Marxist]] movement.
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1999/trotism/index.htm "Trotskyism after Trotsky: The origins of the International Socialists"] Summarization of three key points on which Cliff and the International Socialist Tendency deviated from what is traditionally the orthodox Trotskyist position.
*[http://www.clrjamesinstitute.org/statecap.html "C.L.R. James on Marx's Capital and State Capitalism"]

[[Category:Political terms]]
[[Category:Economic systems]]
[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Maoism]]
[[Category:Trotskyism]]

[[de:Staatskapitalismus]]
[[es:Capitalismo de Estado]]
[[fr:Capitalisme d'État]]
[[it:Capitalismo di stato]]
[[nl:Staatskapitalisme]]
[[ja:国家資本主義]]
[[pl:Państwowy kapitalizm]]
[[pt:Capitalismo de Estado]]
[[ru:Государственный капитализм]]
[[fi:Valtiokapitalismi]]
[[sv:Statskapitalism]]
[[zh:国家资本主义]]

Utility–possibility frontier

2008-06-04T15:09:03Z

MiguelFC: ←Created page with 'The '''Utility-possibility frontier''' is a concept widely used in Welfare Economics, and analogous to the better-known Production-possibility frontier. It ...'

The '''Utility-possibility frontier''' is a concept widely used in [[Welfare Economics]], and analogous to the better-known [[Production-possibility frontier]]. It is a similar diagram which depicts not production of two goods, but rather the utility possibilities of two individuals.

In a competitive economy, any allocation over the utility-possibility frontier is a [[Pareto optimum]], as the UPF is a representation of the Pareto contract curve in a different dimension (utilities versus goods).

{{stub}}

[[Category:Welfare economics]]

Kaldor–Hicks efficiency

2008-06-04T14:38:37Z

MiguelFC: /* Criticisms */

[[Image:Kaldor-Hicks-en.svg|thumb|Pareto improvements are a small subset of Kaldor-Hicks improvements.]]

'''Kaldor-Hicks efficiency''' (named for [[Nicholas Kaldor]] and [[John Hicks]]) is a type of [[economic efficiency]] that captures some of the intuitive appeal of [[Pareto efficiency]], while having less stringent criteria and therefore being applicable in more circumstances.

Under Pareto efficiency, an outcome is more efficient if at least one person is made better off and nobody is made worse off. This seems a reasonable way to determine whether an outcome is efficient or not. However, some believe that in practice it is almost impossible to make any large change such as an economic policy change without making at least one person worse off. Under ideal conditions, exchanges are Pareto efficient since individuals would not voluntarily enter into them unless they were mutually beneficial. (Not all exchanges are Pareto superior: an exchange would not be superior if [[external costs]] exist, as they often do. If the voluntary exchange led to negative externalities such as pollution that hurt a third party, it would not be Pareto superior.)

Using Kaldor-Hicks efficiency, an outcome is more efficient if those that are made better off could ''in theory'' compensate those that are made worse off and lead to a Pareto optimal outcome. Thus, a more efficient outcome can in fact leave some people worse off.

The key difference is the question of compensation. Kaldor-Hicks does not require compensation actually be paid, merely that the possibility for compensation exists, and thus does not necessarily make each party better off (or neutral). Pareto efficiency does require making each party better off (or at least no worse off).

While every "Pareto improvement" is a "Kaldor-Hicks improvement", most Kaldor-Hicks improvements are not Pareto improvements. This is because, as the graph above illustrates, the set of Pareto improvements is a subset of Kaldor-Hicks improvement, which also reflects the greater flexibility and applicability of the Kaldor-Hicks criteria relative to the Pareto criteria. For example, in a society with two people suppose initially Person A has $10 and Person B $100. Assume that some policy change or other shock results in a situation where Person A winds up with $20 and Person B with $99. This change is ''not'' Pareto improving since Person B is now worse off. But it does satisfy the Kaldor-Hicks criteria since Person A could theoretically pay Person B anywhere between 1 and 10 dollars to accept this alternative situation.

The Kaldor and Hicks methods are typically used as tests of Pareto efficiency rather than efficiency goals themselves. They are used to determine whether an activity is moving the economy towards Pareto efficiency. Any change usually makes some people better off while making others worse off, so these tests ask what would happen if the winners were to compensate the losers.

Using the "Kaldor criterion" an activity will contribute to Pareto optimality if the maximum amount the gainers are prepared to pay is greater than the minimum amount that the losers are prepared to accept.

Under the "Hicks criterion", an activity will contribute to Pareto optimality if the maximum amount the losers are prepared to offer to the gainers in order to prevent the change is less than the minimum amount the gainers are prepared to accept as a bribe to forgo the change. The Hicks compensation test is from the losers' point of view, while the Kaldor compensation test is from the gainers' point of view. After several technical problems with each separate criterion were discovered, they were combined into the '''[[Scitovsky]] criterion''', more commonly known as the "Kaldor-Hicks criterion", which does not share the same flaws.

The Kaldor-Hicks criterion is widely applied in [[welfare economics]] and managerial economics. For example, it forms an underlying rationale for [[cost-benefit analysis]]. In cost-benefit analysis, a project (for example, a new airport) is evaluated by comparing the total costs, such as building costs and environmental costs, with the total benefits, such as airline profits and convenience for travelers. (However, as cost-benefit analysis may also assign different social welfare weights to different individuals, e.g. more to the poor, the compensation criterion is not always invoked by cost-benefit analysis.)

The project would typically be given the go-ahead if the benefits exceed the costs. This is effectively an application of the Kaldor-Hicks criterion, because it is equivalent to requiring that the benefits should be enough that those that benefit could in theory compensate those that have lost out. The criterion is used because it is argued that it is justifiable for society as a whole to make some worse off if this means a greater gain for others.

==Criticisms==
The most common criticism of the Kaldor-Hicks criterion is that it only takes into account the absolute level of income, but disregards its distribution.

A related problem is that any [[social welfare function]]s based on Kaldor-Hicks criteria are cardinal in nature, and therefore suffer from the [[aggregation problem]]s associated with discrepancies between the marginal value of money of rich and poor people.

This has mainly to do with the assumption of diminishing marginal utility for income: taking one dollar from a poor person causes a greater loss in utility than taking a dollar from a rich one. By weighting utility variations by the marginal utilities, the social welfare function implict to the Kaldor-Hicks compensation principle is represented by anti-egalitarian, concave indifference curves.

At a more technical level, various versions of the Kaldor-Hicks criteria lack desirable formal properties. For instance, Tibor Scitovsky demonstrated that the Kaldor criterion alone is not symmetric: it's possible to have a situation where an outcome A is an improvement (according to the Kaldor criterion) over outcome B, but B is also an improvement over A. The combined Kaldor-Hicks criterion does not have this problem, but it can be non-transitive (A may be an improvement over B, and B over C, but A may not be an improvement over C).[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/paretian/paretosocial.htm#scitovsky]

==References==
*Economic Analysis of Law, Richard A. Posner. Seventh Edition. Wolters Kluwer. 2007.

==See also==
* [[Compensation principle]]
* [[Welfare economics]]
* [[Pareto efficiency]]

[[Category:Law and economics]]
[[Category:Welfare economics]]
[[Category:Economic efficiency]]

[[de:Kaldor-Hicks-Kriterium]]
[[hu:Káldor-Hicks hatékonyság]]
[[pl:Efektywność Kaldora-Hicksa]]
[[fi:Kaldor-Hicks -tehokkuus]]
[[zh:卡尔多改进]]

Ramsey problem

2008-06-04T14:35:40Z

MiguelFC:

The '''Ramsey problem''' or Ramsey-Boiteux pricing, is a policy rule concerning what price a [[monopoly|monopolist]] should set, in order to maximize [[social welfare]], subject to a constraint on [[profit]]. A closely related problem arises in relation to [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimal]] [[taxation]] of [[commodities]]. For any monopoly, the price markup should be inverse to the [[price elasticity of demand]]: the more elastic demand for the product, the smaller the price markup. This was stated by J. Robinson (1933) but it has been recognized later that [[Frank P. Ramsey|Frank Ramsey]] has found the result before (1927) in another context (taxation). The rule was later applied by [[Marcel Boiteux]] (1956) to natural monopolies (decreasing mean cost): a natural monopoly experiences profit losses if it is forced to fix its output price at the marginal cost. Hence the Ramsey-Boiteux pricing consists into maximizing the total welfare under the condition of non-negative profit, that is, zero profit. In the Ramsey-Boiteux pricing, the markup of each commodity is also inversely proportional to the elasticities of demand but it is smaller as the inverse elasticity of demand is multiplied by a constant lower than 1. It is applicable to public utilities or regulation of natural monopolies, such as [[telecommunications|telecom]] firms.

Practical issues exist with attempts to use Ramsey pricing for setting utility prices. It may be difficult to obtain data on different price elasticities for different customer groups. Also, some customers with relatively inelastic demands may acquire a strong incentive to seek alternatives if charged higher markups, thus undermining the approach. Politically speaking, customers with relatively inelastic demands may also be viewed as those for whom the service is more necessary or vital; charging them higher markups can be challenged as unfair.

==Formal presentation and solution==

Consider the problem of a regulator seeking to set prices <math>\left(
p_{1},...p_{N}\right) </math> for a multi-product monopolist with costs <math>C\left(
z_{1},z_{2}....,z_{N}\right) =C\left( \mathbf{z}\right) </math> where <math>z_{n}</math> is
the output of good ''n'' and <math>p_{n} </math>is the price. Suppose that the
products are sold in separate markets (this is commonly the case) so demands
are independent, and demand for good ''n'' is <math>z_{n}\left( p_{n}\right) , </math>
with inverse demand function <math>p_{n}\left( z\right) . </math>Total revenue is

<math>R\left( \mathbf{p,z}\right) =\sum_{n}p_{n}z_{n}\left( p_{n}\right) </math>

Total surplus is given by

<math>W\left( \mathbf{p,z}\right) =\sum_{n}\left( \int\limits_{0}^{z_{n}\left(
p_{n}\right) }p_{n}\left( z\right) dz\right) -C\left( \mathbf{z}\right) </math>

The problem is to maximize <math>W\left( \mathbf{p,z}\right) </math> subject to the
requirement that profit <math>\Pi = R-C </math> should be equal to some fixed value <math>\Pi
^* </math>. Typically, the fix value is zero to guarantee that the profit losses are eliminated.

<math>R\left( \mathbf{p,z}\right) -C\left( \mathbf{z}\right) =\Pi ^*</math>

This problem may be solved using the Langrange multiplier technique to yield
the optimal output values, and backing out the optimal prices. The first order conditions on <math>\mathbf{z} </math> are

<math>p_{n}-C_{n}\left( \mathbf{z}\right) =\lambda \left( \frac{\partial R}{\partial z_{n}}-C_{n}\left( \mathbf{z}\right) \right) </math>

<math> = \lambda \left( p_{n}\left( 1+\frac{z_{n}}{p_{n}}\frac{\partial p_{n}}{\partial z_{n}}\right)-C_{n}\left( \mathbf{z}\right) \right) </math>

where <math>\lambda </math> is a Lagrange multiplier and Cn('''z''') is the partial derivative of
C('''z''') with respect to zn, evaluated at '''z'''.

Dividing by <math>p_{n} </math> and rearranging yields

<math>\frac{p_{n}-C_{n}\left( \mathbf{z}\right) }{p_{n}}=-\frac{k}{\varepsilon _{n}}</math>

where <math>k=\frac{\lambda }{1+\lambda } </math> is lower than 1 and <math>\varepsilon _{n}=\frac{\partial
z_{n}}{\partial p_{n}}\frac{p_{n}}{z_{n}} </math> is the elasticity of demand for
good <math>n. </math> That is, the price markup over marginal cost for good <math>n </math> is again
inversely proportional to the elasticity of demand but it is smaller. The monopoly is in a second-best equilibrium, between ordinary monopoly and perfect competition.

==Ramsey Condition==

An easier way to solve this problem in a two-output context is the '''Ramsey condition'''. According to Ramsey, as to minimise deadweight losses, one must increase prices to rigid and elastic demands in the same proportion, in relation to the prices that would be charged at the first-best solution (price equal to marginal cost).

[[Category:Economic policy]]

[[pl:Problem Ramseya]]

Economies of scope

2008-06-04T14:22:29Z

MiguelFC:

{{unreferenced|date=November 2006}}
{{Marketing}}
'''Economies of scope''' are conceptually similar to [[economies of scale]]. Whereas economies of scale primarily refer to efficiencies associated with supply-side changes, such as increasing or decreasing the scale of production, of a ''single product type'', economies of scope refer to efficiencies primarily associated with demand-side changes, such as increasing or decreasing the scope of [[marketing]] and [[distribution (business)|distribution]], of ''different types of [[product (business)|products]]''. Economies of scope are one of the main reasons for such marketing strategies as [[product bundling]], [[product lining]], and [[family branding]].

Often, as the number of products promoted is increased and broader media used, more people can be reached with each dollar spent. This is one example of economies of scope. These efficiencies do not last, however; at some point, additional [[advertising]] expenditure on new products will start to be less effective (an example of diseconomies of scope).

If a sales force is selling several products they can often do so more efficiently than if they are selling only one product. The cost of their travel time is distributed over a greater revenue base, so cost efficiency improves. There can also be [[synergy|synergies]] between products such that offering a complete range of products gives the consumer a more desirable product offering than a single product would. Economies of scope can also operate through distribution efficiencies. It can be more efficient to ship a range of products to any given location than to ship a single type of product to that location.

Further economies of scope occur when there are cost-savings arising from by-products in the production process. An example would be the benefits of heating from energy production having a positive effect on agricultural yields.

A company which sells many product lines, sells the same product in many countries, or sells many product lines in many countries will benefit from reduced risk levels as a result of its economies of scope. If one of its product lines falls out of fashion or one country has an economic slowdown, the company will, most likely, be able to continue trading.

Not all economists agree on the importance of economies of scope. Some argue that it only applies to certain [[industry|industries]], and then only rarely.

== Natural Monopolies ==

While in the single-output case, economies of scale are a sufficient condition for the verification of a [[natural monopoly]], in the multi-output case, they are neither necessary nor sufficient. Economies of Scope are, however, a necessary condition.

As a matter of simplification, it is generally accepted that, should economies of scale and of scope both apply, then a natural monopoly exists.

== See also ==
*[[Economies]]
*[[Distribution (business)|Distribution]]
*[[Marketing]]
*[[Economies of scale]]
*[[Production, costs, and pricing]]
*[[Efficiency]]

[[Category:Economics of production]]
[[Category:Monopoly (economics)]]
[[Category:Microeconomics]]

[[de:Verbundeffekt]]
[[it:Economie di scopo]]
[[ko:범위의 경제]]

Subadditivity

2008-06-04T14:18:11Z

MiguelFC:

{{context}}

In [[mathematics]], '''subadditivity''' is a property of a function that states, roughly, that evaluating the function for the sum of two [[element (set)| elements]] of the [[domain]] always returns something less than or equal to the sum of the function's values at each element. There are numerous examples of subadditive functions in various areas of mathematics, particularly [[norm (mathematics)|norms]] and [[square roots]]. [[Additivity|Additive functions]] are special cases of subadditive functions.

A subadditive function is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] <math>f \colon A \to B</math>, having an [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] <math>A</math> and an [[partial order|ordered]] [[codomain]] <math>B</math> that are both [[closure (mathematics)|closed]] under addition, with the following property:
::<math>\forall x, y \in A, f(x+y)\leq f(x)+f(y)</math>.

An example is the [[square root]] function, having the [[non-negative]] [[real number]]s as domain and codomain,
since <math>\forall x, y \geq 0</math> we have:
::<math>\sqrt{x+y}\leq \sqrt{x}+\sqrt{y}.</math>

A [[sequence]] <math>\left \{ a_n \right \}, n \geq 1</math>, is called '''subadditive''' if it satisfies the [[inequality]]
::<math>(1) \qquad a_{n+m}\leq a_n+a_m</math>
for all <math>m</math> and <math>n</math>. The major reason for use of subadditive sequences is the following [[lemma (mathematics)|lemma]] due to [[Michael Fekete]].<ref>Fekete, M. "Uber die Verteilung der Wurzeln bei gewissen algebraischen Gleichungen mit. ganzzahligen Koeffizienten." ''Mathematische Zeitschrift'' '''17''' (1923), pp. 228–249.</ref>

:'''Lemma:''' For every subadditive sequence <math>{\left \{ a_n \right \}}_{n=1}^\infty</math>, the limit <math>\lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{a_n}{n}</math> exists and is equal to <math>\inf \frac{a_n}{n}</math>. (The limit may be <math>-\infty</math>.)

The analogue of Fekete's lemma holds for superadditive functions as well, that is:
<math>a_{n+m}\geq a_n + a_m.</math> (The limit then may be positive infinity: consider the sequence <math>a_n = \log n!</math>.)

There are extensions of Fekete's lemma that do not require equation (1) to hold for all <math>m</math> and <math>n</math>. There are also results that allow one to deduce the rate of convergence to the limit whose existence is stated in Fekete's lemma if some kind of both [[superadditive|superadditivity]] and subadditivity is present.<ref>Michael J. Steele. "Probability theory and combinatorial optimization". SIAM, Philadelphia (1997). ISBN 0-89871-380-3.</ref>

==Economics==

Subadditivity is an essential property of some particular cost functions. It is, generally, a necessary and sufficient condition for the verification of a [[natural monopoly]]. It implies that production from only one firm is socially less expensive (in terms of average costs) than production of a fraction of the original quantity by an equal number of firms.

Economies of scale are represented by subadditive average cost functions.

==See also==
*[[Triangle inequality]]

==References==
<references />
*[[György Pólya]] and [[Gábor Szegö]]. "Problems and theorems in analysis, volume 1". Springer-Verlag, New York (1976). ISBN 0-387-05672-6.

==External links==
{{planetmath|id=4615|title=subadditivity}}

[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[Category:Sequences and series]]

[[eo:Vikipedio:Projekto matematiko/Subadicia funkcio]]
[[de:Subadditivität]]
[[it:Funzione subadditiva]]
[[pl:Funkcja addytywna#Podaddytywność]]
[[zh:次加性]]

Lump-sum tax

2008-06-04T14:15:23Z

MiguelFC:

A '''lump-sum tax''' is a [[tax]] that is fixed in amount no matter what the change in circumstance of the taxed entity. (A '''lump-sum [[subsidy]]''' or '''lump-sum redistibution''' is defined similarly.) An example is a [[poll tax]] to vote, which is unchanged no matter what the income of the voter. In economic theory, a lump-sum tax may have the advantage of not contributing to an [[excess burden of taxation]], a loss in [[economic efficiency]] that results from taxes reducing incentives for production. In practice, lump-sum taxes are rarely encountered, because they may conflict with other criteria, such as [[equity (economics)|equity]] or ability to pay. But such a tax remains a standard for measuring the performance of other imperfect kinds of taxes (J. de V. Graaf, 1987).

It is easy to see how lump-sum taxes conflict with equity standards. They are highly regressive in terms of proportion of income: as the tax is fixed and independente of income, the lower the income, the higher will be the percentage of taxed income.

==See also==
*[[Distortions (economics)]]
* [[Excess burden of taxation]]
* [[Optimal tax]]

==References==
* J. de V. Graaf (1987). "lump sum taxes," ''[[The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics]]'', v. 3, pp. 251-52.

{{econ-stub}}
[[Category:Economics terminology]]
[[Category:Public finance]]
[[Category:Welfare economics]]

Differential tax analysis

2008-06-04T14:13:13Z

MiguelFC:

'''Differential tax analysis''' is the analysis of the impact of different taxes, in different markets, as to achieve a given level of Government revenue. It is a branch of [[General equilibrium]] analysis, considering several different markets and the impact of a (usually) excise tax on each of them, as well as in associated markets (those of the inputs, substitutes and complements, for instance).

Most generally, the general equilibrium final results will differ little from those attained from a [[partial equilibrium]] analysis. This will not apply, however, if there are strong complementarities with markets other than the one which is being taxed.
{{stub}}

[[Category:General equilibrium and disequilibrium]]

Differential tax analysis

2008-06-04T14:10:40Z

MiguelFC: ←Created page with ''''Differential tax analysis''' is the analysis of the impact of different taxes, in different markets, as to achieve a given level of Government revenue. It is a b...'

Median voter theorem

2008-06-04T14:06:46Z

MiguelFC:

[[Image:Median voter model.png|thumb|300px|One possible model; here, if parties A and B want to catch the median voters, they should move towards the center. The red and blue areas represent the voters that A and B expect they have already captured.]]

The '''median voter theory''', also known as the '''median voter theorem''' and the '''median voter [[model (abstract)|model]]''', is a famous voting model positing that ''in a [[majority]] [[election]]'', if voter policy preferences can be represented as a points along a single [[dimension]], if all voters vote deterministically for the politician that ''commits'' to a policy position closest to their own preference, and if there are only two politicians, then if the politicians want to maximize their number of votes they should both commit to the policy position preferred by the [[median]] voter. This strategy is a [[Nash equilibrium]]. It results in voters being indifferent between candidates and casting their votes for either candidate with equal probability. Hence in expectation each politician receives half of the votes. If either candidate deviates to commit to a different policy position, the deviating candidate receives less than half the vote.

Political commentator [[Mickey Kaus]] of ''[[Slate Magazine]]'' [http://www.slate.com/id/2073262/ wrote] in [[2004]] that the [[United States]] [[presidential election]]s of [[United States presidential election, 2000|2000]] and [[United States presidential election, 2004|2004]], in addition to local elections in those years, provide evidence that this phenomenon is taking place in the United States.

The theorem was first articulated in [[Duncan Black]]'s 1948 article, "On the Rationale of Group Decision-making" and popularized by [[Anthony Downs]]'s 1957 book, ''[[An Economic Theory of Democracy]]''.

==Necessary Conditions==

There are many instances in which the Median Voter Theorem may not be applied. Among the most common is the case of preferences which are not single-peaked (multimodal preferences). If several voters are voting on the budget of a public school, for instance, and there are three options: low, medium and high. If one of them prefers both low and high to medium, then the preferences will not be single-peaked (they form a "valley", instead of a "mountain" if represented in an unidimensional diagram).

The non-verification of single-peaked preferences may lead to the majority cycle trap, in which the agend-maker who chooses in which order are propositions voted, may have the power to choose any outcome.

==Applied==
*[http://www.louisville.edu/~bmhawo01/econpage/342/handouts/median_voter_theorem/mvt_q2.html simple example]
* [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Price_Theory/PThy_Chapter_19/PThy_Chap_19.html to tariffs]
* [http://www.nber.org/papers/W11972 to local private goods]

==References==
* {{cite journal | author=Black, Duncan | title=On the Rationale of Group Decision-making | journal=Journal of Political Economy | volume=56 | year=1948 | pages=23-34 | doi=10.1086/256633}}
* {{cite book | author=Downs, Anthony| title=An Economic Theory of Democracy | publisher=Harper Collins | year=1957 | ISBN=?}}
* Congleton, Roger (2002). [http://rdc1.net/forthcoming/medianvt.pdf The Median Voter Model]. In * {{cite book | author=C. K. Rowley (Ed.); F. Schneider (Ed.)| title=The Encyclopedia of Public Choice | publisher=Kluwer Academic Press | year=2003 | ISBN=?}}

[[Category:Political science theories]]
[[Category:Public choice theory]]
[[Category:Voting theory]]
[[Category:Game theory]]

[[de:Medianwählermodell]]
[[ja:中位投票者定理]]
[[zh:中間選民理論]]

Peak-load pricing

2008-06-04T14:00:03Z

MiguelFC:

'''Peak-Load Pricing''' is a pricing technique applied to public goods, which is a particular case of a [[Lindahl equilibrium]]. Instead of different demands for the same public good, we consider the demands for a public good in different periods of the day, month or year, then finding the optimal capacity (quantity supplied) and, afterwards, the optimal peak-load prices.

This has particular applications in public goods such as public urban transportation, where day demand (peak period) is usually much higher than night demand (off-peak period). By subtracting the marginal costs of operation from the original demands we find the marginal benefits of capacity, which must then be vertically aggregated and equated to the marginal cost of increasing capacity.

With the optimal capacity found, the optimal peak-load prices are found by adding the marginal costs of operation to the marginal benefit generated, in each period, by the optimal capacity.

It may happen, however, that the optimal capacity is not fully used during the off-peak period. In that case, the capacity expansion will be totally supported by the peak demanders.

==References==
*Friedman, Lee (2002), ''The Microeconomics of Public Policy Analysis'', Princeton University Press

[[Category:Economic policy]]

Peak-load pricing

2008-06-04T13:59:43Z

MiguelFC: ←Created page with ''''Peak-Load Pricing''' is a pricing technique applied to public goods, which is a particular case of a Lindahl Equilibrium. Instead of different demands for th...'

'''Peak-Load Pricing''' is a pricing technique applied to public goods, which is a particular case of a [[Lindahl Equilibrium]]. Instead of different demands for the same public good, we consider the demands for a public good in different periods of the day, month or year, then finding the optimal capacity (quantity supplied) and, afterwards, the optimal peak-load prices.

This has particular applications in public goods such as public urban transportation, where day demand (peak period) is usually much higher than night demand (off-peak period). By subtracting the marginal costs of operation from the original demands we find the marginal benefits of capacity, which must then be vertically aggregated and equated to the marginal cost of increasing capacity.

With the optimal capacity found, the optimal peak-load prices are found by adding the marginal costs of operation to the marginal benefit generated, in each period, by the optimal capacity.

It may happen, however, that the optimal capacity is not fully used during the off-peak period. In that case, the capacity expansion will be totally supported by the peak demanders.

==References==
*Friedman, Lee (2002), ''The Microeconomics of Public Policy Analysis'', Princeton University Press

[[Category:Economic Policy]]

Budget-maximizing model

2008-06-04T13:50:22Z

MiguelFC: Theory explained

'''Budget-maximizing model''' is an influential new stream of [[public choice theory]] and [[rational choice]] analysis in [[public administration]] inaugurated by [[William Niskanen]], in [[1971]]. It argued that [[rational]] [[bureaucrat]]s will always and everywhere seek to increase their budgets in order to increase their own power, thereby contributing strongly to state growth and potentially reducing social [[Efficiency (economics)|efficiency]].
The [[Bureau-shaping model]] has been developed as a response to the Budget-maximizing model.

==Niskanen's Budget Maximizing Bureaucrat==

The model contemplates a bureaucrat who heads a public administration department, and who will try to maximize the department's budget, thus increasing its salary and prestige.

There is a demand for the department's services on the part of electors and voters, but, contrary to publically managed firms, which directly offer their products and services to these electors, the department is responsible for producing the services which will then be supplied by the Legislature to the electors.

It will therefore be the legislature, or Government, the agent which defines the department's budget, depending on the quantity which it supplies. The more services the department supplies, the higher will its budget be. Therefore, the bureaucrat's objective will be to maximise the quantity of services supplied, subject to a social welfare break-even constraint. This means that the deadweight loss generated by excessive production of services must never be higher than the elector's consumer surplus (otherwise, the Legislature would notice that something was wrong with the department's activity, which would be causing social losses and not gains).

==References==
*Friedman, Lee (2002), ''The Microeconomics of Public Policy Analysis'', Princeton University Press, pp. 429-432

[[Category:Government budgets|Maximizing model]]
[[Category:Public choice theory|budget-maximizing model]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Underlying principles of microeconomic behavior]]
[[Category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]

{{Gov-stub}}
{{polisci-stub}}
{{econ-stub}}

Nova School of Business and Economics

2007-10-25T22:46:48Z

MiguelFC:

{{Infobox University
|name = FE/UNL
|native_name = Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa
|image = [[Image:Feunllogo.gif|FE/UNL Logo]]
|established = [[1978]]
|type = Public school
|city = [[Lisbon]]
|country = [[Portugal]]
|students = c. 1200
|campus = Main UNL campus, [[Campolide]]
|website = http://www.fe.unl.pt
}}

The '''Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa''', abbreviated as '''FE-UNL''' is a Portuguese [[faculty]] of [[Economic]] and [[Management]] sciences, located on the ''Campus de Campolide'' in [[Lisbon]].

[[Image:UNL_Faculty_Economics.jpg|thumb|left|The FE-UNL.]]

It is a highly prestigious, albeit recent institution, often topping national rankings in terms of teaching and academic research in the field of Economics. Its students have traditionally faced one of the highest employability rates in the entire country.

Very focused on internationalisation, it offers a wide series of English-language courses and holds international exchange protocols with more than 20 universities in Europe, North America, South America and Asia.

Its current director is Prof. Dr. José Ferreira Machado. The faculty is housed on a beautiful 18th century palace which formerly served a [[Jesuit]] college.

==External Links==

*[http://www.fe.unl.pt Official Website]
*[http://www.aefeunl.com Students' Union Website]
*[http://www.feunl.pt.to Students' Forum]

{{Public universities in Portugal}}

[[Category:universities and colleges in Portugal]]
[[Category:Education in Lisbon]]

Nova School of Business and Economics

2007-10-25T22:46:27Z

MiguelFC: Corrected Logo

{{Infobox University
|name = FE/UNL
|native_name = Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa
|image = [[Image:Image:Feunllogo.gif|FE/UNL Logo]]
|established = [[1978]]
|type = Public school
|city = [[Lisbon]]
|country = [[Portugal]]
|students = c. 1200
|campus = Main UNL campus, [[Campolide]]
|website = http://www.fe.unl.pt
}}

The '''Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa''', abbreviated as '''FE-UNL''' is a Portuguese [[faculty]] of [[Economic]] and [[Management]] sciences, located on the ''Campus de Campolide'' in [[Lisbon]].

[[Image:UNL_Faculty_Economics.jpg|thumb|left|The FE-UNL.]]

It is a highly prestigious, albeit recent institution, often topping national rankings in terms of teaching and academic research in the field of Economics. Its students have traditionally faced one of the highest employability rates in the entire country.

Very focused on internationalisation, it offers a wide series of English-language courses and holds international exchange protocols with more than 20 universities in Europe, North America, South America and Asia.

Its current director is Prof. Dr. José Ferreira Machado. The faculty is housed on a beautiful 18th century palace which formerly served a [[Jesuit]] college.

==External Links==

*[http://www.fe.unl.pt Official Website]
*[http://www.aefeunl.com Students' Union Website]
*[http://www.feunl.pt.to Students' Forum]

{{Public universities in Portugal}}

[[Category:universities and colleges in Portugal]]
[[Category:Education in Lisbon]]

Academic dress

2007-10-12T19:29:58Z

MiguelFC: Added Portuguese traje section.

{| class="floatright" style="float:right"
|-
|[[Image:Punting cam gown.jpg|right|thumb|The traditional BA fur lined hood worn with an undergraduate gown for graduation from the [[University of Cambridge]].]]
|-
|[[Image:Academic dress.jpg|right|thumb|Bachelor's gown, with hood and cap of the [[University of Canterbury]].]]
|-
|[[Image:Dphil gown.jpg|right|thumb|An [[Oxford University]] [[Doctor of Philosophy|DPhil]] in full academic dress.]]
|-
|[[Image:cam degree ceremony.jpg|right|thumb|The Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, led by a bedel or mace-bearer.]]
|-
|[[Image:OU-graduate.jpg|right|thumb|An alternative coloured gown, [[Open University]], MEd.]]
|-
|[[Image:Choirhabit.jpg|thumb|right|An [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[priest]] in [[choir dress]]. The dark red of his divinity hood can be seen on his shoulders.]]
|-
|[[Image:ChrisPatten20050317 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chris Patten|Lord Patten]], Chancellor of Oxford University, wears the typical official academic dress of a university Chancellor.]]
|}

'''Academic dress''' or '''academical dress''' (also known in the [[United States]] as '''academic regalia''') is traditional [[clothing]] worn specifically in [[academia|academic]] settings. Nowadays, it is more commonly seen only at [[graduation]] ceremonies, but in former times academic dress was, and to a lesser extent in many ancient [[university|universities]] still is, worn on a daily basis. It today generally consists of a [[gown]] (also known as a robe) with a separate hood, and sometimes a cap (either a [[mortarboard]] or a [[Tudor bonnet|bonnet]]). Academic dress is also worn by members of certain [[learned societies]] and institutions as official dress.

The academic dress found in most universities in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] and the [[United States]] is derived from the that of the universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], which itself is a development of academic and clerical dress common throughout the [[Medieval university|medieval universities]] of [[Europe]].

Formal or sober clothing is typically worn beneath the gown so, for example, men would often wear a dark [[Suit (clothes)|suit]] with a white [[shirt]] and [[Necktie|tie]], or [[Military uniform|military]] or [[national dress]], and women would wear equivalent attire. Some older universities, particularly Oxford and Cambridge, have a prescribed set of dress (known as ''subfusc'') to be worn under the gown. Though some universities are relaxed about what people wear under their gowns, it is nevertheless considered bad form to be in [[casual wear]] or the like during graduation. {{Fact|date=September 2007}} At many institutions the United States, significant numbers of candidates for undergraduate degrees since the latter half of the 20th century have often ignored this protocol. {{Fact|date=September 2007}}

==British academic dress==
There is a distinction between different types of academical dress. Most recently, gowns, hoods and caps are categorised into their shape and patterns by what may be known as the ''Groves Classification of Academic Dress'', which is based on [[Nicholas Groves]]'s document, ''Hood and Gown Patterns'' <ref>The Burgon Society: The Design of Academical Dress (http://www.burgon.org.uk/design/groves.php, 6th May 2007) Classification of Styles</ref>. This lists the various styles or patterns of academic dress and assigns them a code. For example, the Cambridge BA style gown is designated [b2] and a hood in the Cambridge full-shape is designated [f1], etc.

===Gown===
The modern gown is derived from the ''roba'' worn under the ''cappa clausa'', a garment resembling a long black cape. In early medieval times, all students at the universities were in at least [[minor orders]], and were required to wear the ''cappa'' or other clerical dress, and restricted to clothes of black or other dark colour.

The gowns most commonly worn, that of the clerical type gowns of [[Bachelor of Arts]] (BA) and [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]] (MA), are substantially the same throughout the English-speaking world. Both are traditionally made of black cloth, (although occasionally the gown is dyed in one of the college's colours) and have the material at the back of the gown gathered into a yoke. The BA gown has bell-shaped sleeves, while the MA gown has long sleeves closed at the end, with the arm passing through a slit above the elbow.

There are two types of yokes which are used for gowns. The more traditional is the curved yoke, whilst the square or straight yoke is used more in modern times.

Another type of gown is called the lay type gown which is similar to the MA gown in that it has long closed sleeves but it does not have a yoke. Instead, there is a flap collar with the gathers underneath it. Thus it is less volumous than the clerical type gown. This gown is often used for the dress of officers and graduates of some degrees (especially Oxford).

In the Commonwealth, gowns are worn open, while in the United States it has become common for gowns to close at the front, as did the original ''roba''.

====Undergraduate====
Undergraduates at many older universities also wear gowns; the most common essentially a smaller knee-length version of the BA gown, or the Oxford Commoners gown which is sleeveless lay type gown and has two streamers at the back. This is not the case at the Ancient Scottish universities, such as the [[University of St Andrews]], where the undergraduate gown is scarlet and typically features a velveteen collar. Undergraduate gowns are seldom worn (even in institutions that prescribe them) nowadays except in the older universities. Most new universities do not prescribe them since it is felt that it is very unlikely students will wear them.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}

In the past, undergraduates wore gowns according to their rank; for noblemen they wore coloured gowns with gold gimp lace, buttons and other decorations whilst fellow-commoners, gentleman-commoners, scholars, commoners, pensioners, sizars/battelors and servitors wore black gowns of decreasing flamboyance based on their standing in the universities <ref>William Gibson, ''The Regulation of Undergraduate Academic Dress at Oxford and Cambridge, 1660—1832'', The Burgon Society Annual 2004, pp. 26—41.</ref>.

====Dress and undress====
Since medieval times, doctors, like [[bishop]]s and [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s, have been authorised to wear garments of brighter colours such as scarlet, purple or red. In many older universities, doctors have scarlet dress gowns or robes (sometimes called "festal robes") which are worn on special occasions (for example, at graduation ceremonies and on certain [[festival]]s of the Christian calendar, referred to as [[scarlet day]]s in the University of Cambridge), as well as black undress gowns which are worn on ordinary occasions. A third form of dress, now rarely seen except at Oxford, is the [[Convocation]] habit. This is a scarlet sleeveless garment worn over the black gown, with the sleeves of the gown pulled through the armholes. It is similar to a bishop's [[chimere]]. It is worn at meetings of Convocation or [[congregation (university)|Congregation]] by those presenting candidates for degrees.

There are two distinctive shapes used in the UK for doctor's gown; the Oxford doctor's shape and the Cambridge doctor's shape. The former has bell-shaped sleeves, the latter has long open sleeves.

===Hood===
The hood was originally a functional garment, worn to shield the head from the elements. In the English tradition, it has developed to an often bright and decorative garment worn only on special occasions. It is also worn by clergy of the [[Anglican Communion]] in choir dress, over the [[surplice]], and it is common in cathedrals, churches, and chapels for the choirmaster and/or members of the choir to wear an academic hood to which they are entitled during services, over their [[cassock]] and [[surplice]].

Hoods comprise two basic patterns, 'full shape' or 'simple shape'. The traditional "full-shape" hood consists of a cape, [[cowl]] and [[liripipe]], as is used at Cambridge. At Oxford, the bachelors' and masters' hoods use "simple" hoods which have lost their cape, and retain only the cowl and liripipe. Some universities only have a cape and cowl and no liripipe; these are referred to as the "Aberdeen shape". Various other universities have different shapes and patterns of hoods, in some cases corresponding to the pattern current at the ancient universities at the time when they were founded, and in others representing a completely new design.

The colour and lining of hoods in academic dress represents the rank and faculty of the wearer. In many Commonwealth universities bachelors wear hoods edged or lined with white rabbit fur, while masters wear hoods lined with coloured silk (originally ermine or other expensive fur). Doctors' hoods are normally made of scarlet cloth and lined with coloured silk.

===Cap===
The [[academic cap]] or ''square'', commonly known as the "mortarboard", has come to be symbolic of academia. In some universities it can be worn by graduates and undergraduates alike. It is a flat square hat with a tassel suspended from a button in the top center of the board. Properly worn, the cap is parallel to the ground, though some people, especially women, wear it angled back.

The mortarboard may also be referred to as a [[trencher cap]] (or simply trencher). In many universities, holders of doctorates wear a soft rounded headpiece known as a [[Tudor bonnet]] or [[Tam (cap)|tam]], rather than a trencher. Other types of hats used, especially in some universities in the UK, are the [[John Knox cap]] (mostly at Scottish universities), the [[Bishop Andrewes cap]] (Cambridge [[Doctor of Divinity|DD]]s) and the [[pileus]] (at Sussex). In some universities, such as Oxford, women may wear an Oxford ladies' cap.

For Catholic — and some Anglican — clergy, the traditional black [[biretta]] may be worn in some circumstances instead of the mortarboard. Those clerics who possess a doctorate wear the black biretta with four ridges — instead of the usual three — and with piping and pom of the color of the discipline, thus, e.g., emerald for canon law, scarlet for sacred theology, etc.

As with other forms of headgear, in the Commonwealth, academic caps are not generally worn indoors by men (other than by the Chancellor or other high officials), but are usually carried. In some graduation ceremonies caps have been dispensed with for men, being issued only to women, who do wear them indoors, or have been abandoned altogether. This has led to [[urban legend]]s in a number of universities in the United Kingdom and Ireland which have as a common theme that idea that the wearing of the cap was abandoned in protest at the admission of women to the university. This story is told at the [[University of Cambridge]], [[Durham University]], the [[University of Bristol]], the [[University of St Andrews]] and [[Trinity College, Dublin]] among others.

The [[tassel]] comprises a cluster of silk threads which are fixed together and fastened by a button at one end, and fixed at the centre of the headpiece. The loose strands are allowed to fall freely over the board edge. Often the stands are plaited together to form a cord with the end threads left untied.

===Dress for university officials===
Officers of the universities generally wear distinct and more elaborate dress. The [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] and the [[Vice-Chancellor]] may wear a black damask lay type gown (sometimes with a long train) trimmed with gold or silver [[lace]] and [[frog (fastening)|frog]]s. Officers of lower rank may wear plain black lay type gowns, sometimes with gold or silver trim. In general, officials do not wear hoods with their lay gowns.

[[Marshal]]s and [[bedel]]s often wear black lay-type gowns with [[bands (neckwear)|band]]s and a black bonnet.

==Academic regalia in the United States of America==

[[Image:Jacob1207b.JPG|thumb|left|150px|American academic dress is typically closed at the front and, as well as the hood, other items such as scarves, stoles or cords may be worn.]]

'''Academic regalia''' in the United States has been influenced by the academic dress traditions of Europe. There is an Inter-Collegiate code which sets out a detailed uniform scheme of academic regalia, but not all colleges follow it.

===History===
[[Image:Columbiatrinity.jpg|thumb|right|Students and faculty of Kings College, New York (precursor to [[Columbia University]]) in academic regalia, circa 1755.]] The practice of wearing academic regalia in what is now the United States dates to the [[Colonial Colleges]], and was heavily influenced by European practices and styles. There was not, however, any standardization among the meanings behind the various costumes. In 1893 an Intercollegiate Commission made up of representatives from leading institutions was created to establish an acceptable system of academic dress. The Commission met at Columbia College (now [[Columbia University]]) in 1895 and adopted a code of academic regalia, which prescribed the cut and style and materials of the gowns, as well as determined the colors which were to represent the different fields of learning. In 1932 the [[American Council on Education]] (ACE) authorized the appointment of a committee "to determine whether revision and completion of the academic code adopted by the conference of the colleges and universities in 1895 is desirable at this time, and, if so, to draft a revised code and present a plan for submitting the code to the consideration of the institutional members of the Council." The committee reviewed the situation and approved a code for academic costumes that has been in effect since that year. A ''Committee on Academic Costumes and Ceremonies'', appointed by the American Council on Education in 1959, again reviewed the academic dress code and made several changes.

===In practice===
Bachelors' and masters' gowns in the United States are similar to their counterparts in the United Kingdom, but the bachelors' gown is only worn closed and all are at least mid-calf length to ankle-length.

Doctoral robes are typically black, although some schools use robes in the school's colors. The Code calls for the outside shell of the hood to remain black in this case, however. In general, doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of three velvet chevrons on the sleeves and velvet facing running down the front of the gown, tinted with the color designated for the field of study in which the doctorate was earned. The robes have full sleeves trimmed with bands of velvet instead of the bell sleeves of the bachelor's gown. Some gowns open more at the front to display a tie or [[cravat]], while others take an almost cape-like form.

In the U.S., academic dress is rarely worn outside [[commencement]] ceremonies or other academic rituals such as [[encaenia]]. A notable exception to the preceding can be seen at the [[University of the South]] in [[Sewanee]], [[Tennessee]]. There the plain, black academic gown is worn everyday by members of the local honor society, the Order of the Gownsmen, and by all faculty members. To receive membership in the Order, undergraduates must obtain and maintain a proscribed grade point average ([[GPA]]). All students of the School of Theology receive the gown upon admission to the School.

During graduation ceremonies in the United States, both women and men wear caps, and both women and men wear their caps indoors throughout most of the ceremony. The exceptions are for men during the [[National Anthem]], any [[benediction]] that may be offered by a [[chaplain]] or other authority, and sometimes the singing of the [[Alma Mater]].

In most American schools, the color of the velvet hood trimming is distinctive of the discipline—or as closely related as possible—to which the degree earned pertains (see the table below). For instance, one who has earned a master's degree in public administration focusing on education would wear velvet trim of "light blue" to signify education rather than "peacock blue" to denote a general public administration concentration. The width of the velvet increases from 2 inches to three inches and finally to five inches for the bachelor's, master's and doctorate degrees, respectively. The lining inside displays the colors of the institution from which the wearer received the degree. A number of other items such as [[honor cords|cords]], [[academic stole|stoles]], [[aiguillette]]s, etc. representing various academic achievements or other honors may also be worn at the discretion of the degree-granting institution. The length of the hood will vary with the level of academic achievement as well: bachelor's wear a 3 foot length, master's a 3.5 foot length, and doctors a 4 foot length. Candidates may have the hood ceremoniously placed upon them, as is done at some British universities, or a college/school may 'self-hood' ''en masse'' at the appropriate time during the ceremony as has been the practice at [[Fordham University]] in the United States. Honorary doctoral degrees are very often conferred by the highest academic officer of an institution bestowing the appropriate hood, regardless of the procedure being followed for other candidates at the ceremony.

The tassel worn on the mortarboard or [[Tam (cap)|tam]] may be black, or may indicate the university's colors, or the colors of the specific college, or the discipline in which the candidate's studies were completed. There is in some colleges and universities a practice of moving the tassel from one side to the other on graduating, but this is a modern innovation which would be impractical out of doors due to the vagaries of the wind. However, this mark of transition to graduate status has the benefit of taking less time than more traditional indicators such as the individual conferring of the hood, or a complete change of dress part-way through the ceremony (as at Oxford). In such universities it is common for undergraduates to begin the commencement ceremony with their tassels on the right. Switching the tassel to the left may be done individually or as a group. For doctoral and masters students, the tassel commonly begins and remains on the left.

===Opposition to academic attire===
As part of the socio-political upheaval of the [[1960s]] in many [[western cultures]], eschewing academic regalia became a popular means of protest, particularly in response to the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[Civil Rights Movement]] in the United States. [[Protests against the Vietnam War|Student protests]], which had the effect of cancelling graduation ceremonies at some American universities, led to a general relaxing of protocols on academic attire and ceremonial pageantry. After the war, academic regalia continued to be shunned by some who considered it a symbol of [[elitism]]. However, since the 1980s, academic regalia has been in resurgence. Some colleges or academic departments allow graduating students to vote on whether or not to wear academic regalia at graduation ceremonies.

Since the [[1970s]], academic uniforms have gained popularity among administrators of American [[secondary schools]]. This has been particularly notable at [[socio-economic]]ally diverse [[public schools]] where the use of uniform academic attire is considered preferable to individual displays of wealth and fashion. Others have argued that academic uniforms are inappropriate in the context of secondary education and that such uniformity stifles [[freedom of expression]].

=== Inter-Collegiate colors ===
The colors allocated to the various disciplines have been largely standardized in the United States by the American Council on Education in their ''Academic Costume Code'' <ref>American Council on Education: ''An Academic Costume Code and An Academic Ceremony Guide'' (http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=10625, 18 May 2007)</ref> The codified colors associated with the different disciplines are as shown below :

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Faculty
! Color
! Sample
|-
| [[Agriculture]]
| [[Flax (color)|Maize]]
| style="background-color: #EEDC82;" |
|-
| [[Liberal arts|Art]]s, [[literature|Letters]], [[Humanities]]
| [[White]]
| style="background-color: white;" |
|-
| [[Commerce]], [[Accountancy]], [[Business]]
| [[Taupe#Pale taupe (mouse)|Drab]]<ref>The American Council on Education uses a brown/gray version of "Drab" not a green version, or "Olive drab". This is best represented on Wiki at the time of writing by "Taupe", specifically "Pale taupe" (or, "mouse"), and most closely matches the actual regalia color produced in the US.</ref>
| style="background-color: #BC987E;" |
|-
| [[Dentistry]]
| [[Lilac (color)|Lilac]]
| style="background-color: #C8A2C8;" |
|-
| [[Economics]]
| [[Copper (color)|Copper]]
| style="background-color: #DA8A67" |
|-
| [[Education]]
| [[Sky blue|Light Blue]]
| style="background-color: #6495ED" |
|-
| [[Engineering]]
| [[Orange (color)|Orange]]
| style="background-color: #FF7F00;" |
|-
| [[Fine Arts]], [[Architecture]]
| [[Brown]]
| style="background-color: #964B00" |
|-
| [[Forestry]], [[Environmental Studies]], [[Sustainability]]
| [[Russet (color)|Russet]]
| style="background-color: #583D00;" |
|-
| [[Journalism]]
| [[Crimson]]
| style="background-color: #DC143C;" |
|-
| [[Law]]
| [[Purple]]
| style="background-color: purple" |
|-
| [[Library Science]]
| [[Yellow (color)|Lemon]]
| style="background-color: #FFFF00;" |
|-
| [[Medicine]]
| [[Kelly green|Green]]
| style="background-color: #00A550;" |
|-
| [[Musicology|Music]]
| [[Pink]]
| style="background-color: #ffb6c1;" |
|-
| [[Nursing]]
| [[Apricot (color)|Apricot]]
| style="background-color: #F0A900;" |
|-
| [[Oratory]], [[Public speaking|Speech]]
| [[Silver (color)|Silver Gray]]
| style="background-color: silver;" |
|-
| [[Pharmacy]]
| [[Myrtle|Olive Green]]
| style="background-color: #21421E" |
|-
| [[Philosophy]], [[Political Science]]
| [[Dark Blue]]
| style="background-color: darkblue;" |
|-
| [[Physical Education]]
| Sage Green
| style="background-color: #6D8904;" |
|-
| [[Public Administration]], [[Public Policy]], [[Foreign Service]]
| [[Teal (color)|Peacock Blue]]
| style="background-color: #008080" |
|-
| [[Public Health]]
| [[Salmon Pink]]
| style="background-color: #FF91A4;" |
|-
| [[fundamental science|Science]]
| [[Gold (color)|Golden Yellow]]
| style="background-color: #FFDF00;" |
|-
| [[Social Work]]
| [[Sandy brown|Citron]]
| style="background-color: #f4a460;" |
|-
| [[Theology]], [[Divinity (academic discipline)|Divinity]]
| [[Scarlet (color)|Scarlet]]
| style="background-color: #FF2400;" |
|-
| [[Veterinary Science]], [[Husbandry]]
| [[Gray]]
| style="background-color: gray;" |
|}

A distinction is made in the code which calls for a graduate to display the color of the ''subject'' of the degree obtained, not the degree itself, which is otherwise indicated by the cut of the robe, the length of the hood, and the width of the trim. For example: if a graduate is awarded a [[Bachelor of Arts]] (BA) degree specifically in "business" the trimming should be drab, representing "commerce/accountancy/business", rather than white, representing the broader "arts/letters/humanities"; if the BA had been in "economics" the trim should be copper; if in "environmental studies" it should be russet, etc.[http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=10625#Hoods] If the BA were in "history", a subject not assigned its own color and within "the humanities", the velvet should indeed be white. Similarly, if a [[Bachelor of Science]] (BS) degree were awarded for physics, the velvet trim should be golden yellow ("science") representing physics as one of the "[[fundamental science]]s"; however, if the BS were in "engineering" the trim should be orange, or if it were in "education" the trim should be light blue, etc. The same method is true of master's degrees and doctorates. A [[Master of Public Administration]] in Science and Technology should show trim of golden yellow for "science", not peacock blue for "public administration"; conversely a [[Master of Science]] in Public Administration should display peacock blue trim for "public administration" and not golden yellow for "science".

In the case where a color is specified for a subject that may be included in another, broader, discipline, and that broader discipline is represented by its own color (e.g.: "oratory", assigned silver gray trim, is generally regarded as among the "[[liberal arts]]" [''arts''], normally represented by white trim), the graduate should wear the color of the more specific field (in this case, ''silver gray'' for a degree in "oratory", rather than ''white'' for "liberal arts").

In 1986, the American Council on Education updated the code and added the following sentence clarifying the use of the color dark blue for the [[Doctor of Philosophy]] degree: {{cquote|In the case of the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree, the dark blue color is used to represent the mastery of the discipline of learning and scholarship in any field that is attested to by the awarding of the degree, and it is not intended to represent the field of philosophy.}}

Only one hood may be worn at any given time. Trim colors may not be combined or displayed together in any way to attempt to indicate more than one subject. The discipline associated with the highest degree attained is generally displayed, though the Code seems to allow for a graduate to revert for some occasion to the entire academic costume (i.e. robe style, trim width, hood length, etc.) of a lesser degree earned. Those who hold multiple degrees of the same level (i.e. more than one master's or doctorate degree) may wear the regalia of any degree earned. However, holders of multiple degrees will wear the trim color of the discipline associated with the degree earned from the institution denoted by the lining of the hood being worn and, if applicable, wear that university's entire prescribed academic costume.

==The Portuguese ''traje''==

In most Portuguese universities and higher education institutions, usage of academic dress for undergraduates, or ''traje académico'' is still widespread and has even gained popularity in recent decades. The ''traje'' is composed of white trousers (or skirt, for female students), white shirt, black tie, a black overcoat, known as ''batina'' (in the case of male students, the classical ''traje'' also includes a black vest) and a black coat which, according to tradition, should never be cleaned or washed.

Usage is generally restricted to the first weeks of the semester, during the introductory and reception activities collectively known as [[Praxe]]. In some older institutions, where traditions are better implemented, one can see students ''trajados'' during the entire year, though.

==Materials==
In general, the materials used for academic dress are heavily influenced by the climate where the academic institution is located, or the climate where the graduate will usually be wearing the costume (as a faculty member at another institution, for example). In either case, the ACE allows for the comfort of the wearer, and concedes that lighter materials be used in tropical climates, and heavier materials elsewhere.

The materials used for academic dress varies and range from the extremely economical to the very expensive. In the United States, most Bachelor and Master degree candidates are often only presented the "[[souvenir]]" version of regalia by their institutions or authorized vendor, which are generally intended for very few wearings and are comparatively very inexpensive. For some doctoral graduates commencement will be the only time they wear academic regalia, and so they rent their gowns instead of buying them. These rented (or hired <ref>American English uses 'rented', British English uses 'hired'.</ref>) gowns are often made of inexpensive [[polyester]] or other man-made synthetic fibre. In Britain, rented gowns are almost always polyester whilst Russell cord, silk or artifical silk gowns are only available when bought. Undergraduate gowns are usually made from cotton or cotton and polyester mix and are relatively inexpensive to encourage students to buy them.

People who choose to buy their dress may opt for finer fabrics, such as [[princetta]], [[poplin]], [[crosgrain]], [[Percale]], [[cotton]], [[wool]], [[cassimere]], [[broadcloth]], [[bengaline]], [[Russell cord]] or corded/ribbed material. For silk, there are a range of types including [[artificial silk]]/[[rayon]], [[taffeta]], [[satin]], [[alpaca]], true [[silk]], [[shot silk]] or a mixture. Pure [[Ottoman silk]] is rarely used except for official gowns as it is very expensive.<ref>An [[Ede & Ravenscroft]] [[Oxford MA]] hood made of pure Ottoman silk will cost around £347. Source: http://www.gownhire.co.uk (21 September 2007)</ref> Some gowns may be trimmed with [[gimp (lace)|gimp]] [[lace]], cords, buttons or other forms of decoration.

In the past, [[fur]] has been used to line certain hoods (especially those of the UK) which range from [[rabbit fur|rabbit]] to [[ermine]]. Most now use imitation fur instead, mainly because of cost and [[animal rights]] concerns. Some robemakers will use fur if the customer requests and pays for it, as some feel that the quality and feel of artificial fur has yet to match that of real fur.<ref>The cost difference between artifical and real fur can be as much as a few hundred pounds.</ref>

Doctor's robes usually use wool [[flannel]], [[panama (wool)|panama]], [[damask]] or [[brocade]] and are brightly coloured (or black, but faced with a bright colour) to distinguish them from lower degrees. They tend to be the most expensive because they must be dyed in a specific colour and/or be trimmed in coloured silks. Many doctoral gowns have an undress version so adding to the cost of a full set.

A full set may cost about $360 (£180) for cheap materials to as much as $5800 (£2900) for high quality materials.<ref>Ede & Ravenscroft: [[Academic dress of Oxford University#Doctors of Music|Oxford DMus]] undress and full dress academic dress costs £2910 (undress gown: £181, hood: £409, rigid mortarboard: £80, full dress gown: £2117, velvet bonnet: £123). Information retrieved 18 May 2007.</ref> Usually, ex-hire gowns are available for purchase at cheaper prices though the quality maybe lower.

==See also==
*[[Academic procession]]
*[[Encaenia]]
*[[Academic stole]]
*[[Chinese academic dress]]
*[[Ede and Ravenscroft]]
*[[The Burgon Society]]
*[[The Central Institute London]]

Academic dress regulations for the following universities are available via these links:-

'''United Kingdom'''
* [[Academic dress of the University of Bristol]]
* [[Academic dress of the University of Cambridge]]
* [[Academic dress of Durham University]]
* [[University of Hertfordshire#Academic Dress|Academic dress of the University of Hertfordshire]]
* [[Academic dress of the University of Kent]]
* [[Academic dress of the University of London]]
* [[Academic dress of the University of Nottingham]]
* [[Academic dress of the University of Oxford]]
* [[Academic dress of the University of St Andrews]]
* [[Academic dress of the University of Wales]]
* [[University of Wales, Lampeter#Academic dress|Academic dress of the University of Wales, Lampeter]]

'''Others'''
* [[Academic dress of Harvard University]]
* [[Academic dress of universities in Queensland, Australia]]
* [[University of Melbourne Academic Dress|Academic dress of the University of Melbourne]]
* [[Academic dress of Macquarie University]]

==References==
'''Books'''
*Wood, T.W. (1882), ''The Degrees, Gowns and Hoods of the British, Colonial, Indian and American Universities and Colleges''. London: Thomas Pratt & Sons.
*Rashdall, H. (1895, 1936), ''The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages''. Oxford: Claredon Press.
*Haycraft, F.W. (1948), 4th ed. rev. Stringer, E.W Scobie, ''The Degrees and Hoods of the World's Universities and Colleges''. Cheshunt Press.
*Hargreaves-Mawdsley, W.N. (1963), ''A History of Academical Dress in Europe''. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*Franklyn, C.A.H. (1970), ''Academical Dress from the Middle Ages to the Present Day Including Lambeth Degrees''. Lewes: WE Baxter.
*Rogers, F.R.S., Franklyn, C.A.H., Shaw, G.W., Boyd, H.A. (1972), ''The Degrees and Hoods of the World's Universities and Colleges''. Lewes: WE Baxter.
*Smith, H.H., Sheard, K. (1970), ''Academic Dress and Insignia of the World''. Cape Town: AA Balkema.
*Shaw, George W. (1995), ''Academical Dress of British and Irish Universities''. Chichlester: Philmore & Co. Ltd. ISBN 0-85033974-X
*Venables, D.R. & Clifford, R.E. (1998), 8th ed., ''Academic Dress of the University of Oxford''. Oxford: Shepherd & Woodward. ISBN 0-9521630-0-4
*Goff, Philip (1999), ''University of London Academic Dress''. London: University of London Press. ISBN 0-7187-1608-6
*Groves, Nicholas; Kersey, John (2002), ''Academical Dress of Music Colleges and Societies of Musicians in the United Kingdom''. Norfolk: Burgon Society. ISBN 0-9544110-0-5
*Groves, Nicholas (2002, 2003), ''Key to the Identification of Academic Hoods of the British Isles''. London: Burgon Society.

'''Journals'''
*Powell, Michael (ed.) et al. (2002), ''The Burgon Society Annual 2001''.
*Powell, Michael (ed.) et al. (2003), ''The Burgon Society Annual 2002''.
*Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2004), ''The Burgon Society Annual 2003''.
*Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2005), ''The Burgon Society Annual 2004''. ISBN 0-9544110-6-4
*Kerr, Alex (ed.) et al. (2006), ''Transactions of the Burgon Society: Volume 5''. ISBN 0-9544110-7-2

==External links==
{{Commons|Academic dress}}
* [http://www.burgon.org.uk The Burgon Society] Promotes the interest in and the formal study of academic dress.
* [http://www.phildress.co.uk University of London Academic Dress]. Publication concerning University of London academic dress.
* [http://www.academicapparel.com/caps/GraduationGownHistory.html History of Graduation Gowns, Academic Regalia and Dress]
* [http://www.dieter-philippi.de/mydante_1479.html Pictures, information and literature of some academical caps, especially academical birettas]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Academic dress| ]]
[[Category:Gowns]]
[[Category:Robes and cloaks]]

[[es:Indumentaria académica]]
[[ms:Pakaian akademik]]
[[ja:アカデミックドレス]]
[[pt:Traje académico]]
[[zh:学位服]]

Nova School of Business and Economics

2007-09-29T11:20:04Z

MiguelFC: /* External Links */

{{Infobox University
|name = FE/UNL
|native_name = Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa
|image = [[Image:http://portal.fe.unl.pt/FEUNL/novoportal/public/images/01LogN.gif|FE/UNL Logo]]
|established = [[1978]]
|type = Public school
|city = [[Lisbon]]
|country = [[Portugal]]
|students = c. 1200
|campus = Main UNL campus, [[Campolide]]
|website = http://www.fe.unl.pt
}}

The '''Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa''', abbreviated as '''FE-UNL''' is a Portuguese [[faculty]] of [[Economic]] and [[Management]] sciences, located on the ''Campus de Campolide'' in [[Lisbon]].

[[Image:UNL_Faculty_Economics.jpg|thumb|left|The FE-UNL.]]

It is a highly prestigious, albeit recent institution, often topping national rankings in terms of teaching and academic research in the field of Economics. Its students have traditionally faced one of the highest employability rates in the entire country.

Very focused on internationalisation, it offers a wide series of English-language courses and holds international exchange protocols with more than 20 universities in Europe, North America, South America and Asia.

Its current director is Prof. Dr. José Ferreira Machado. The faculty is housed on a beautiful 18th century palace which formerly served a [[Jesuit]] college.

==External Links==

*[http://www.fe.unl.pt Official Website]
*[http://www.aefeunl.com Students' Union Website]
*[http://www.feunl.pt.to Students' Forum]

{{Public universities in Portugal}}

[[Category:universities and colleges in Portugal]]
[[Category:Education in Lisbon]]

Nova School of Business and Economics

2007-09-29T11:19:34Z

MiguelFC:

{{Infobox University
|name = FE/UNL
|native_name = Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa
|image = [[Image:http://portal.fe.unl.pt/FEUNL/novoportal/public/images/01LogN.gif|FE/UNL Logo]]
|established = [[1978]]
|type = Public school
|city = [[Lisbon]]
|country = [[Portugal]]
|students = c. 1200
|campus = Main UNL campus, [[Campolide]]
|website = http://www.fe.unl.pt
}}

The '''Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa''', abbreviated as '''FE-UNL''' is a Portuguese [[faculty]] of [[Economic]] and [[Management]] sciences, located on the ''Campus de Campolide'' in [[Lisbon]].

[[Image:UNL_Faculty_Economics.jpg|thumb|left|The FE-UNL.]]

It is a highly prestigious, albeit recent institution, often topping national rankings in terms of teaching and academic research in the field of Economics. Its students have traditionally faced one of the highest employability rates in the entire country.

Very focused on internationalisation, it offers a wide series of English-language courses and holds international exchange protocols with more than 20 universities in Europe, North America, South America and Asia.

Its current director is Prof. Dr. José Ferreira Machado. The faculty is housed on a beautiful 18th century palace which formerly served a [[Jesuit]] college.

==External Links==

[http://www.fe.unl.pt Official Website]
[http://www.aefeunl.com Students' Union Website]
[http://www.feunl.pt.to Students' Forum]

{{Public universities in Portugal}}

[[Category:universities and colleges in Portugal]]
[[Category:Education in Lisbon]]

Nova School of Business and Economics

2007-09-29T11:19:14Z

MiguelFC: ←Created page with '{{Infobox University |name = FE/UNL |native_name = Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa |image = [[Image:http://portal.fe.unl.pt/FEUNL/novoportal/pu...'

{{Infobox University
|name = FE/UNL
|native_name = Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa
|image = [[Image:http://portal.fe.unl.pt/FEUNL/novoportal/public/images/01LogN.gif|FE/UNL Logo]]
|established = [[1978]]
|type = Public school
|city = [[Lisbon]]
|country = [[Portugal]]
|students = c. 1200
|campus = Main UNL campus, [[Campolide]]
|website = http://www.fe.unl.pt
}}

The '''Faculdade de Economia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa''', abbreviated as '''FE-UNL''' is a Portuguese [[faculty]] of [[Economic]] and [[Managerial]] sciences, located on the ''Campus de Campolide'' in [[Lisbon]].

[[Image:UNL_Faculty_Economics.jpg|thumb|left|The FE-UNL.]]

It is a highly prestigious, albeit recent institution, often topping national rankings in terms of teaching and academic research in the field of Economics. Its students have traditionally faced one of the highest employability rates in the entire country.

Very focused on internationalisation, it offers a wide series of English-language courses and holds international exchange protocols with more than 20 universities in Europe, North America, South America and Asia.

Its current director is Prof. Dr. José Ferreira Machado. The faculty is housed on a beautiful 18th century palace which formerly served a [[Jesuit]] college.

==External Links==

[http://www.fe.unl.pt Official Website]
[http://www.aefeunl.com Students' Union Website]
[http://www.feunl.pt.to Students' Forum]

{{Public universities in Portugal}}

[[Category:universities and colleges in Portugal]]
[[Category:Education in Lisbon]]

Gellert Grindelwald

2007-07-28T19:46:02Z

MiguelFC: /* Impact in the Wizarding World */

{{Mergeto|Minor Dark wizards in Harry Potter|date=July 2007}}
{{current fiction}}
{{HP character|
image= |
bgcolor=Red|
fgcolor=Black|
name=Gellert Grindelwald|
gender=Male|
hair=Curly blonde|
eyes=|
school=[[Durmstrang]]|
blood= |
allegiance=Himself/Unknown (Dark wizard)|
portrayer= |
appearance=''Mentioned in [[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]] and appears briefly in [[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows]]'' |
}}

'''Gellert Grindelwald''' (ca. 1847-1998) is a [[fictional character]] within the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series written by [[United Kingdom|British]] author [[J. K. Rowling]]. He is a [[Dark Arts (Harry Potter)|Dark]] wizard mentioned in ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'', but he has a far more important role in ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows]]''.

== Early life ==

Grindelwald attended the wizarding school [[Durmstrang]]. <ref>http://www.the-leaky-cauldron.org/#book:7</ref>

In ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows]]'' it was revealed that Grindelwald was an adolescent friend of [[Albus Dumbledore]] and that the two of them planned to establish a new world order, where wizards would rule over Muggles. Another one of their goals was to seek out the three fabled "Deathly Hallows." However, [[Aberforth Dumbledore]] argued against these plans, because he feared their grand ambitions would leave the third disabled Dumbledore sibling, [[Ariana Dumbledore|Ariana]], abandoned. The argument culminated in a three-way battle between Albus, Aberforth, and Grindelwald. Ariana was inadvertently killed by one of them. Henceforth, Albus ended his relationship with Grindelwald who subsequently commited many terrible acts in order to gain power, but these seem to have been restricted to central and eastern Europe, as he is relatively unknown in Britain.

== Defeat by Albus Dumbledore ==

After Grindelwald's rise to power, Dumbledore delayed meeting him again for several years due to his fear of being confronted with his sister's death and the fact he might have accidentally killed her. Both wizards were highly intelligent and skilled in battle and those who witnessed the battle say that no wizarding duel ever matched that of Dumbledore and Grindelwald in 1945. Grindelwald, albeit in possession of the [[Elder Wand]] lost to Dumbledore. The Elder wand is said to be an unbeatable wand and that whomever possesses it shall never lose a battle. However, Grindelwald stole the wand from [[Gregorovitch]], a European wand maker. Due to the nature of theft and the rule that the "wand chooses the wizard" Grindelwald was not the true owner of the Elder wand, allowing himself to be defeated in much the same way that [[Lord Voldemort]] is defeated due to his lack of true ownership of the same wand.

After Dumbledore defeated Grindelwald, Grindelwald was imprisoned in Nurmengard, the prison he himself had built for his opponents. The motto enscribed above the gate was "For the Greater Good". He lived there until Voldemort came across him, seeking the Elder Wand when [[Harry]], [[Ron]], and [[Hermione]] are captured and brought to the [[Malfoy family|Malfoys']] manor. Grindelwald lied and informed him that he never owned the wand; Voldemort then killed him. The book also notes that Grindelwald is second only to Voldemort as the Darkest Wizard of modern times. He appears to show no fear when Voldemort kills him and it is suggested by Dumbledore that at the end of his life Grindelwald had felt remorse for his evil actions.

== Impact in the Wizarding World ==

Grindelwald's name is clearly well known in the wizarding world. His name is first mentioned on [[Albus Dumbledore]]'s Chocolate Frog card which notes that Dumbledore defeated Grindelwald in [[1945]].

It is revealed that Grindelwald's actions have caused many deaths that have greatly affected the students of [[Durmstrang]], including [[Viktor Krum]]. As a result, Grindelwald and anything associated with him (including the symbol of the Deathly Hallows) is universally hated at that school. According to at least one review of the novel, Grindelwald and his symbol of the Deathly Hallows are used by Rowling to present a [[Nazi]] Germany-like atmosphere, being similar to [[Hitler]] in that they were both Germanic, defeated in 1945 and held prison camps to suppress their enemies.<ref>http://www.dispatch.com/dispatch/content/life/stories/2007/07/20/potter_review.html</ref> They also both used ancient symbols to represent themselves, which eventually became more associated with them than with their original meaning. Another arguable analogy is the powerful motto upheld by Grindelwald at the entrance of his fortress-prison Nurmengard: ''For the Greater Good'', strikingly reminscent of the Nazi motto at the gates of concentration camps ''Arbeit macht Frei'' (Work is Freedom).

''Grindelwald'' is a Germanic name: ''Grindel'' means "Bolt" and ''Wald'' means "Forest", and [[Grindelwald]] is a ski resort in [[Switzerland]]. The name Grindelwald also bears a resemblance to the mythic [[Grendel]] who was defeated by [[Beowulf]]. ''[[Gerard Sagredo|Gellert or Gellért]]'' is the Hungarian version of ''Gerard''.

== References ==
<references />

{{Harry Potter characters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grindelwald, Gellert}}
[[Category:Harry Potter wizards]]
[[Category:People Killed by Lord Voldemort]]

[[bs:Manje važni zli čarobnjaci u Harry Potteru#Grindelwald]]
[[fr:Gellert Grindelwald]]
[[hr:Manje važni zli čarobnjaci u Harryju Potteru#Grindelwald]]
[[nl:Grindelwald (Harry Potter)]]
[[sv:Mindre rollfigurer i Harry Potter#Grindelwald]]

Coat of arms of Portugal

2007-01-19T09:17:54Z

MiguelFC: /* Armillary Sphere */

[[Image:COA of Portugal.svg|right|Coat of Arms of the Portuguese Republic]]

The '''Coat of Arms of Portugal''' was officially adopted in [[30 June]] [[1911]], along with the [[Flag of Portugal|Republican Flag]] of [[Portugal]].

==History and Meaning==
The Portuguese coat of arms is the result of almost a millennium of modifications and alterations. Starting with [[Henry of Burgundy]] blue on silver cross, successive elements were added or taken, culminating with the complex heraldic element that was officialised in 1911 (after the [[Portuguese First Republic|Republican Revolution]] of [[1910]]). The two stripes bear the colours of the Portuguese flag: red and green.

===Eschuteons and Bezants===
After the official recognition of the [[History of Portugal (1112-1279)|Kingdom of Portugal]] as an independent country in [[1143]] (it had been declared in [[1139]]), silver bezants were added to the Burgundian flag, symbolising coins and the right the monarch had to issue currency, as leader of a sovereign state. Eventually, and given the enormous dynamism of [[medieval]] [[heraldry]], it is believed that the shield degraded and lost some elements in battle, eventually losing the cross format. This is how King [[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho I]] inherited the shield from his father, [[Afonso Henriques]], with no cross and five eschuteons (''quinas''), which stood where the silver bezants had been placed.
Later, the number of silver bezants in each eschuteon would be reduced from 11 to 5 by King [[Sebastian I]], and modern explanations interpret them as the five wounds of Christ, although this is highly unprobable.

===Castles===
It was during the reign of [[Afonso III]] that the red border with golden castles (not towers, as some sources state) was added. Although the number of castles could vary between eight to twelve, [[Afonso IV]] would define them as twelve and [[Sebastian I]] would finally fix them as seven. They supposedly represent the [[Moorish]] castle conquered by the Kingdom of Portugal during the [[Reconquista]]. Their origin is probably [[Castile (historical region)|Castilian]], but unlike Spanish castles, which usually have their gates opened (and blue), Portuguese castles were always depicted with gold gates (hence closed).

===Armillary Sphere===
An important element of Portuguese heraldry since the [[15th century]], the armillary sphere was many times used in Portuguese colonial flags, mainly in [[Brazil]]. It was a navigation instrument used to calculate distances and represents the importance of Portugal during the [[Age of Discovery]], as well as the vastness of its colonial empire when the First Republic was implemented.

Although it is commonly used as a "republican" element, as opposed to the monarchist crown in the blue/white flag (see [[Flag of Portugal]]), some monarchist flags, such as the flag of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Algarve and Brazil, already depicted armillary spheres. The incorporation of the armillary sphere into the 1816 flag of the United Kingdom is related to the adoption of the first flag of the Kingdom of Brazil, an armillary sphere on a blue background.

==See also==
*[[Flag of Portugal]]
*[[History of Portugal]]

{{Europe in topic|Coat of arms of|Coats of arms of Europe}}

[[Category:National coats of arms|Portugal]]

[[ca:Escut de Portugal]]
[[de:Wappen Portugals]]
[[es:Escudo de Portugal]]
[[pl:Godło Portugalii]]
[[pt:Brasão de armas de Portugal]]
[[sr:Грб Португалије]]
[[fi:Portugalin vaakuna]]

User:MiguelFC

2006-12-27T15:22:18Z

MiguelFC:

Hello there!
{{Babel|pt|en-5|fr-2|es-1}}

User:MiguelFC

2006-12-27T15:21:34Z

MiguelFC: ←Replaced page with 'Hello there!'

Hello there!

Infanta Ana de Jesus Maria of Braganza

2006-12-27T15:20:10Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Braganza}}
[[Image:Anajesusmariabraganca.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Dona Ana de Jesus Maria de Bragança, Duquesa de Loulé.]]
'''Ana de Jesus Maria of Braganza''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] {{IPA2|'ɐnɐ dɨ ʒɨ'zuʃ mɐ'ɾiɐ}}) ([[Mafra]], [[October 23]] [[1806]]-[[Rome]], [[June 22]] [[1857]]) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[infanta]] and last daughter of [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[John VI of Portugal|John VI]] of [[Portugal]] and his wife [[Charlotte of Spain|Carlota Joaquina of Borbón]].

On [[December 5]], [[1827]], she married [[Nuno José Severo de Mendonça Rolim de Moura Barreto]], then [[Marquis of Loulé]] and [[Count of Vale de Reis]] (future [[Duke of Loulé]], many times [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister of Portugal]]). The wedding was celebrated in a private ceremony in the chapel of the Royal [[Ajuda Palace]] and was a scandal at the time. Although Loulé was a descendant of the Royal Family, Ana de Jesus was the first princess of Portugal since the Middle Ages to marry outside royalty. The reasons for this marriage were probably not political, considering the couple's first child was born in [[December 27]] [[1827]], 22 days after the ceremony. With the restoration of [[political absolutism|absolutism]] in Portugal the couple was exiled and began an extended trip through Europe and had several other children. The marriage ended with a ''de facto'' separation in [[1835]].

Despite the scandalous nature of their matrimony, Ana de Jesus and the Duke of Loulé have a place in contemporaneous monarchic discussions in Portugal. After the ban and exile of her brother King [[Miguel of Portugal]], his descendants were banned from the succession line. Nevertheless, the present heir to the throne of Portugal is [[Duarte Pio, Duke of Bragança|Duarte Pio]], [[Duke of Bragança]], a great-grandson of Miguel. There has been debate about whether or not Duarte Pio has the right of being the presumptive heir to the throne of Portugal and therefor Duke of Bragança due to the exclusion of his line cited above. If this exclusion holds, then the succession falls upon the issue of Ana de Jesus. The head of this line is her great-great-great-grandson Pedro de Moura Barreto, 6th Duke of Loulé.

{{Portugal-royal-stub}}

[[Category:1806 births|Ana de Jesus Maria, Duchess of Loule, Infanta]]
[[Category:1857 deaths|Ana de Jesus Maria, Duchess of Loule, Infanta]]
[[Category:Portuguese royalty|Ana de Jesus Maria, Duchess of Loule, Infanta]]

[[pt:Ana de Jesus Maria de Bragança]]

Infanta Maria Francisca of Portugal

2006-12-27T15:18:16Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Braganza}}
[[Image:Mariafranciscabraganca.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Dona Maria Francisca de Bragança]]
'''Maria Francisca de Assis of Braganza''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] {{IPA2|mɐ'ɾiɐ fɾɐ̃'siʃkɐ dɨ ɐ'siʃ}}; [[English language|English]]: ''Mary Francis of Assisi''; [[Queluz]], [[April 22]] [[1800]]-[[Gosport]], [[September 4]] [[1834]]) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[infanta]] daughter of [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[John VI of Portugal|John VI]] of [[Portugal]] and his wife [[Charlotte of Spain|Carlota Joaquina of Borbón]].

She was married in [[1816]] to [[Infante Carlos of Spain|Infante Carlos Maria Isidro of Spain]] and died in 1834. Carlos would eventually marry her sister [[Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira]].

She is buried at the [[Catholic]] [[Church]] of Gosport, [[England]].

{{Portugal-royal-stub}}

Infanta Maria Francisca of Portugal

2006-12-27T15:18:05Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Braganza}}
[[Image:Image:Mariafranciscabraganca.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Dona Maria Francisca de Bragança]]
'''Maria Francisca de Assis of Braganza''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] {{IPA2|mɐ'ɾiɐ fɾɐ̃'siʃkɐ dɨ ɐ'siʃ}}; [[English language|English]]: ''Mary Francis of Assisi''; [[Queluz]], [[April 22]] [[1800]]-[[Gosport]], [[September 4]] [[1834]]) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[infanta]] daughter of [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[John VI of Portugal|John VI]] of [[Portugal]] and his wife [[Charlotte of Spain|Carlota Joaquina of Borbón]].

She was married in [[1816]] to [[Infante Carlos of Spain|Infante Carlos Maria Isidro of Spain]] and died in 1834. Carlos would eventually marry her sister [[Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira]].

She is buried at the [[Catholic]] [[Church]] of Gosport, [[England]].

{{Portugal-royal-stub}}

John VI of Portugal

2006-12-27T15:13:34Z

MiguelFC: /* Marriages and descendants */

{|align=right
|-
|[[Image:JoaoVIportugal.jpg|right]]
|-
|{{House of Braganza}}
|}

'''John VI, King of Portugal''' [[Order of the Garter|KG]] [[Order of the Golden Fleece|KGF]] ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] '''João''', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] [{{IPA|ʒu'ɐ̃ũ}}]), ''the Clement'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Clemente''), 27th (or 28th according to some historians) [[Kings of Portugal|King]] of the [[Portugal|United Kingdom of Portugal]], [[Brazil]] and [[Algarve]]s ([[1769]]-[[1826]]; later changing to just King of Portugal and Algarves, since Brazil was recognized independent in [[1825]]) was born in [[Lisbon]] on [[13 May]] [[1767]], and received the title of prince of [[Brazil]] in [[1788]].

Joao was born as the second son of [[Maria Francisca of Portugal]], the then [[Princess of Brazil]] and her husband, [[Peter III of Portugal|Infante Pedro]], prince consort of Brazil. His mother ascended the throne of Portugal in 1777, and in 1788 John's elder brother died, whereby he became the heir apparent of the reigning queen.

In [[1792]] he assumed the reins of government in name of his mother, [[Maria I of Portugal|Queen Maria I]], who had declined into a mental illness (perhaps due to [[porphyria]]). He had been brought up in an ecclesiastical atmosphere and, being naturally of a somewhat weak and helpless character, was but ill adapted for the responsibilities he was thus called on to undertake. In [[1799]] he assumed the title of regent, which he retained until his mother's death in [[1816]]. In [[1807]], Portugal was invaded by the French, and the whole royal family fled to Brazil, accompanied by an escort of British ships (Britain had previously urged them not to yield to Napoleon's demands). His wife, [[Charlotte of Spain]], dominated him.

In 1816 he was recognized as king of Portugal but he continued to reside in Brazil, which he as regent had raised to the status of a kingdom on [[16 December]] [[1815]]. The consequent spread of dissatisfaction resulted in the peaceful revolution of [[24 August]] [[1820]], and the proclamation of a constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity on his return to Portugal in [[1821]]. In the same year, and again in [[1823]], he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son [[Dom Miguel]], whom he ultimately was compelled to banish in [[1824]]. Meanwhile his elder son, [[Peter IV of Portugal|Dom Pedro]], declared Brazilian independence from Portugal on [[7 September]] [[1822]]. He subsequently declared himself Emperor as Pedro I. João VI refused to assent to this devolution until [[August 29]], [[1825]], when he restored Pedro to the succession in the belief that Brazil and Portugal would be reunited in a dual monarchy federation after his own death. He died at Lisbon on [[26 March]] [[1826]], and was succeeded by Pedro (as King [[Peter IV of Portugal|Pedro IV]]).

==Ancestors==
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''John's ancestors in three generations'''
|-
|-
| rowspan="8" align="center"| '''John VI of Portugal'''
| rowspan="4" align="center"| '''Father:''' [[Peter III of Portugal]]
| rowspan="2" align="center"| '''Father's father:''' [[John V of Portugal]]
| align="center"| '''Father's father's father:''' [[Peter II of Portugal]]
|-
| align="center"| '''Father's father's mother:''' [[Maria Sophia of Neuburg]]
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center"| '''Father's mother:''' [[Mary Anne of Austria]]
| align="center"| '''Father's mother's father:''' [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|-
| align="center"| '''Father's mother's mother:''' [[Eleonore-Magdalena of Pfalz-Neuburg]]
|-
| rowspan="4" align="center"| '''Mother:''' [[Maria I of Portugal]]
| rowspan="2" align="center"| '''Mother's father:''' [[Joseph I of Portugal]]
| align="center"| '''Mother's father's father:''' [[John V of Portugal]]
|-
| align="center"| '''Mother's father's mother:''' [[Mary Anne of Austria]]
|-
| rowspan="2" align="center"| '''Mother's mother:''' [[Mariana Victoria of Spain]]
| align="center"| '''Mother's mother's father:''' [[Philip V of Spain]]
|-
| align="center"| '''Mother's mother's mother:''' [[Elisabeth of Parma]]
|}

==Marriages and descendants==
John married [[Charlotte of Spain]] ([[April 25]] [[1775]]-[[December 7]] [[1830]] in [[1785]] and had several children:

* [[Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira]] (1793-1874). Married first her cousin Pedro Carlos de Borbón y Bragança, Infante of Spain and Portugal and second to [[Infante Carlos of Spain|Carlos]], Infante of Spain, widower of her sister Maria Francisca.
* [[Francisco António Pio, Prince of Beira|Francis Anthony Pius]], [[Prince of Beira]] ([[March 21]] [[1795]]-[[June 11]] [[1801]])
* [[Maria Isabel of Braganza|Infanta Maria Isabel]] (1797-1818). Married [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII, King of Spain]].
* [[Pedro IV of Portugal|Pedro IV of Portugal, I of Brazil]] (1798-1834). Proclaimed the [[Independence of Brazil]] in [[1822]] and became its first monarch as Emperor Peter I. He was also King of Portugal as Peter IV in [[1826]].
* [[Maria Francisca, Princess of Portugal|Infanta Maria Francisca]] (1800-1834). Married [[Infante Carlos of Spain]] (his first marriage).
* [[Isabel Maria of Braganza|Infanta Isabel Maria]] (1801-1876)
* [[Miguel of Portugal|Michael I]] (1802-1866). Known as ''the Usurper'', he was [[King of Portugal]] between [[1828]] and [[1834]]. He was forced to abdicate after the [[Liberal Wars]].
* [[Maria da Assunção of Braganza|Infanta Maria da Assunção]] (1805-1834)
* [[Ana de Jesus de Bragança|Infanta Ana de Jesus]] (1806-1857). Married [[Nunu de Moura Barreto, Marquis of Loulé|Nuno de Moura Barreto]], Marquis and then [[Duke of Loulé]] and had issue.

==See also==
*[[Liberal Wars|War of the Two Brothers]]
*[[History of Portugal]]
*[[History of Brazil]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Braganza]]|13 May|1769|26 March|1826|[[House of Capet|Houses of Capet]], [[House of Burgundy|Burgundy]] and [[House of Aviz|Aviz]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Maria I of Portugal|Maria I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Kings of Portugal]]|years=[[1816]]–[[1826]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Peter IV of Portugal|Peter IV]]}}
{{end}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{BrazImpFam}}

[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:Brazilian monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Braganza]]
[[Category:Regents]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]

[[Category:1769 births]]
[[Category:1826 deaths]]

[[ca:Joan VI de Portugal]]
[[de:Johann VI. (Portugal)]]
[[es:Juan VI de Portugal]]
[[eo:Johano la 6-a de Portugalio]]
[[fr:Jean VI de Portugal]]
[[it:Giovanni VI del Portogallo]]
[[ja:ジョアン6世 (ポルトガル王)]]
[[he:ז'ואו השישי מלך פורטוגל]]
[[la:Ioannes VI Rex Lusitaniae]]
[[no:Johan VI av Portugal]]
[[pl:Jan VI (król Portugalii)]]
[[pt:João VI de Portugal]]
[[ru:Жуан VI (король Португалии)]]
[[fi:Juhana VI (Portugali)]]

Infanta Maria Teresa of Braganza

2006-12-27T15:12:22Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Braganza}}
[[Image:Mariateresabraganca.jpg|thumb|200px|left|D. Maria Teresa de Bragança, Princesa da Beira]]
[[Princesa]] [[dona]] '''Maria Teresa of Braganza''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] {{IPA2|mɐ'ɾiɐ tɨ'ɾezɐ}} or [{{IPA|'tɾezɐ}}]; [[English language|English]]: ''Mary Theresa''; [[Ajuda]], [[Lisbon]], [[April 29]] [[1793]]-[[Trieste]], [[January 17]] [[1874]]) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[princess]] and heir to the throne of [[Portugal]] between 1793 and [[1795]], until her younger brother António Pio was born.

She was granted the title [[Prince of Beira|Princess of Beira]] (usually given to the heir of the heir-apparent to the throne, and/or the eldest daughter of the incumbent sovereign). Maria Teresa was the eldest daughter of [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[John VI of Portugal]], then the heir-apparent of the reigning queen [[Maria I of Portugal]], and his wife [[Charlotte of Spain|Carlota Joaquina]] (daughter of [[Charles IV of Spain]]).

She was married on [[May 13]] [[1810]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]] (where the royal family was exiled because of the [[Napoleonic wars]]) to her cousin Infante [[Pedro Carlos, Prince of Spain and Portugal]]. She was widowed on [[May 26]] [[1812]], but soon after gave birth to her only child, a posthumous son Infante [[Sebastian of Portugal and Spain]] (1813-75).

Very conservative, she was an ally of her younger brother [[Miguel I of Portugal]] in her attempts to obtain the throne of Portugal (civil war 1826-34), and of her brother-in-law and uncle Infante don [[Carlos, Count of Molina]] in his attempts to obtain the Spanish throne. In the last years of the reign of her uncle [[Ferdinand VII of Spain]] (died 1833), Teresa lived in Madrid and plotted to strengthen Don Carlos' position in succession. She participated the [[First Carlist War]] (1833-39), being a leading supporter of Carlism, church and reactionary interests. Her sister [[Francisca, Titular Queen of Spain]], wife of Carlos, died in 1834.

On 15 January 1837, the Cortes of Spain legislated her excluded from the Spanish succession, rights belonging to her in descent from her mother, on grounds of her being rebel along with don Carlos. Her son Sebastian's rights were similarly excluded, but he was later, in 1859, restored in Spain. Also don Carlos' sons, and Teresa's brother Miguel I of Portugal were excluded at the same law.

Next year, she married again, in [[1838]], to her (brother-in-law and uncle,) longtime ally Infante Carlos of Spain (1788-1855), whom she viewed the rightful king of Spain; the widower of her sister [[Infanta Maria Francisca of Portugal and Brazil|Maria Francisca]]. The second marriage remained childless, but she took care of her stepsons, who were her nephews anyway.

They soon exited from Spain, because of unsuccess in the civil war, and never returned. She died in Trieste on 17 January 1874, having survived her second husband by 19 years.

{{Portugal-royal-stub}}

[[ca:Maria Teresa de Portugal (infanta d'Espanya)]]
[[pt:Maria Teresa de Bragança]]

Miguel de Bragança, Duke of Lafões

2006-12-27T15:04:55Z

MiguelFC: ←Created page with '{{House of Braganza}} D. Miguel de Bragança '''Michael of Braganza''' (Portuguese: ''Mi...'

{{House of Braganza}}

[[Image:Miguelbraganca1699.jpg|thumb|200px|left|D. Miguel de Bragança]]

'''Michael of Braganza''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Miguel'') was a Portuguese nobleman, illegitimate son of King [[Pedro II of Portugal]] and Ana Armanda du Vergé. He was born on 1699 and died on 1724, having married the 1st Duchess of Lafões with whom he had two sons and two daughters.
{{Portugal-royal-stub}}

Infante Francisco, Duke of Beja

2006-12-27T14:58:42Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Braganza}}
[[Image:Franciscoduquebeja.jpg|thumb|125px|left|D. Francisco, Duque de Beja]]
'''Francis of Braganza''' or '''Francis of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Francisco'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] {{IPA2|fɾɐ̃'siʃku}}), 7th [[Duke of Beja]] was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Prince]] son of [[Peter II of Portugal|Peter II]], [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] of [[Portugal]] and his second wife [[Maria of Neuburg]].

Francis full name was '''Francis Xavier Joseph Anthony Bennedict Urban''' (''Francisco Xavier José António Bento Urbano'') and was born on [[May 25]] [[1691]] in [[Lisbon]]. He was given the Duchy of [[Beja]] and was made Grand-Prior of [[Crato]] and Lord of the ''Infantado''. He died unmarried and without legitimate issue (in spite of two illegitimate children from Mariana da Silveira) on [[July 21]] [[1742]] at the Quinta das Gaeiras in [[Óbidos]]. He is buried at the [[Monastery of São Vicente de Fora]] in [[Lisbon]].

{{Portugal-royal-stub}}

[[Category:1691 births|Francisco, Duke of Beja, Infante]]
[[Category:1742 deaths|Francisco, Duke of Beja, Infante]]
[[Category:People from Lisbon|Francisco, Duke of Beja, Infante]]
[[Category:Portuguese royalty|Francisco, Duke of Beja, Infante]]

[[pt:Francisco, Duque de Beja]]

Teodósio II, Duke of Braganza

2006-12-27T14:53:16Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Aviz}}
'''Teodósio II of Bragança''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] {{IPA2|tiu'dɔziu}}), ([[1568]], Vila Viçosa - [[1630]]) was the 7th [[Duke of Braganza|Duke of Bragança]]. He was the son of [[John, 6th Duke of Braganza|João of Bragança]] (1543-1583) by his wife, princess [[Catherine, Duchess of Braganza|Catarina of Portugal]] (1540-1614).
[[Image:TeodosioIIbraganca.jpg|thumb|125px|left|D. Teodósio II of Braganza]]
As a child Teodósio was brought to the court and made page of king [[Sebastian I of Portugal]]. The king was very fond of him and in [[1578]] insisted on taking him to Africa in his expedition against the king of [[Morocco]]. This military campaign was doomed. During the ill fated [[battle of Alcacer-Quibir]], Teodósio remained by his king until the situation become seriously dangerous. Then, Sebastian ordered the servants to take the 10-year-old child to safety behind the lines. The young Bragança was not happy to be set aside and ran away in the first chance. Teodósio caught a horse and went to the front line of the battle, followed by very scared servants. Eventually, like many others, he was wounded in the head and made prisoner. Back in Portugal, his father João of Bragança, went mad with grief and offered a fortune for the ransom of his heir. He also asked king [[Philip II of Spain]] to write to the king of Morocco to spare young Teodósio's life. There was no need for such alarm. The king of Morocco left the child go safely and without ransom in August 1579, impressed by the tale of his courage in battle.

Meanwhile in Portugal, the situation was not peaceful. With the disappearance of king Sebastian in the battle, the new king was Cardinal [[Henry I of Portugal]] an old childless man. Teodósio was the son of princess Catarina, an ambitious woman that, with her husband the duke of Bragança, aspired to the throne. Philip II of Spain had this aspiration too and used every excuse to keep young Teodósio (great-grandson of king Manuel I and a possible threat) away from the country. Only when he had the crown tightly secured on his hands, did Philip, now I of Portugal, allowed the child's return.

Teodósio became duke in 1583 at his father's death and grew up to be a faithful servant of the Spanish king of Portugal. He defended [[Lisbon]] from the attacks of another candidate (António of Crato) and was responsible for the kingdom's security for a long time. Acknowledging this fidelity, Philip II gave the Braganças more lands and titles.

===Teodósio's descendants===

* By his wife, the Spanish lady Ana de Velasco y Girón
** [[João IV of Portugal|João II, 8th Duke of Bragança]] (1604-1656), crowned king João IV of Portugal in [[December 1]] [[1640]]
** Duarte of Bragança (1605-1649), master of Vila do Conde
** Catarina of Bragança (1606-1610)
** Alexandre of Bragança (1607-1637)

[[Category:1568 births|Braganza, Teodosio II, Duke of]]
[[Category:1630 deaths|Braganza, Teodosio II, Duke of]]
[[Category:Dukes of Braganza]]
[[Category:House of Aviz]]

[[ca:Teodosi de Bragança]]
[[it:Teodosio II di Braganza]]
[[pt:Teodósio II, Duque de Bragança]]

João I, Duke of Braganza

2006-12-27T14:51:50Z

MiguelFC:

'''John I, 6th [[Duke of Braganza]]''' [[Order of the Golden Fleece|KGF]] ([[1543]]-[[Vila Viçosa]] [[1583]]). In [[1563]] he married [[Catherine, Duchess of Braganza|Catherine, Princess of Portugal]], his cousin and daughter of [[Prince]] [[Edward, Duke of Guimarães]] and Isabel of Braganza (John's aunt).
[[Image:DjoaoIbraganca.jpg|thumb|125px|left|D. João I of Braganza]]

After the disaster of the [[Battle of Alcazarquivir]], where heirless [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[Sebastian of Portugal]] died, the aged Cardinal [[Henry of Portugal]] had become King. Because Henry was old and was not allowed to have legitimate children, a [[Struggle for the throne of Portugal|dynastical crisis]] occurred even before the death of the Cardinal. The Duke of Braganza supported his wife's claim to the throne (she was a granddaughter of King [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]]). [[Philip II of Spain]] (another grandson of Manuel I and also claimant to the throne), tried to bribe him to abandon his wife's pretensions, offering him the Vice-Kingdom of [[Brazil]], the post of Grand-Master of the [[Order of Christ]], a license to send a personal ship to [[India]] every year, and the marriage of his eldest son [[D.]] [[Teodosio II, Duke of Braganza|Teodosio of Braganza]] to one of his daughters (either [[Isabella Clara Eugenia]] or [[Catarina Micaela]]). The Duke of Braganza, influenced by his wife, refused the proposal.

When the Cardinal-King died, the Duke accompanied the governors of the Kingdom to [[Lisbon]] and [[Setúbal]], trying to assure recognition for his wife's claim, but ultimately gave up and accepted the rule of Philip II (future Philip I of Portugal). After the civil war that followed, [[Anthony, Prior of Crato]] was defeated at the [[Battle of Alcântara]], and Philip II entered Portugal and was confirmed by the [[Corte]]s of [[Tomar]], where John occupied the post of Constable.

When Philip departed to Spain, he endowed the post of Constable of Kingdom to John's heir [[Teodosio II, Duke of Braganza|Teodósio, 7th Duke of Braganza]], a marquessate ([[Flexilla]]-Xarandilla) to his second son, dom Duarte, and a commendment and many concessions to the third, dom Alejandro, who was destined to become an ecclesiastic. He confirmed John's title of ''His [[Excellency]]'' and his rights of chancellery.

==Descendancy==

Of [[Catherine, Duchess of Braganza]]:
*Maria of Braganza ([[1565]]-?)
*Serafina of Braganza ([[1566]]-[[1604]]), married to João Fernandez Pacheco, 5th Duke of Escalona
*[[Teodosio II, Duke of Braganza|Teodósio, 7th Duke of Braganza]], father of the future king [[João IV of Portugal]], married Ana de Velasco y Giron, daughter of Duque de Frias (in his old age, Teodosio became insane)
*Duarte de Portugal, 1st [[Marquis of Frechilla]] i.e Flexilla
*Alexandre of Braganza, [[Archbishop]] of [[Évora]]
*Querubina of Braganza ([[1572]]-[[1580]])
*Angélica of Braganza ([[1573]]-[[1576]])
*Maria of Braganza ([[1573]])
*Filipe of Braganza ([[1581]]-?)

[[Category:1543 births]]
[[Category:1583 deaths]]

[[pt:João I de Bragança]]

{{Portugal-royal-stub}}
{{Portugal-stub}}

Afonso I, Duke of Braganza

2006-12-27T14:49:43Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Aviz}}
[[Image:DafonsoIbraganca.jpg|thumb|125px|left|D. Afonso I of Braganza]]
'''Afonso I, Duke of Braganza''' ([[1377]]-[[1461]]; [[Pronunciation|pron.]] {{IPA2|ɐ'fõsu}}) was the eighth Count of Barcelos and the first [[Duke of Braganza]]. Historians believe he was born in [[Veiros]], [[Alentejo]], as a natural son of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[John I of Portugal|John I]] and [[Inez Pires]], the daughter of a Jewish cobbler. He married [[Beatriz Pereira Alvim]], daughter of [[Nuno Álvares Pereira]], general of the kingdom, and heir of the most opulent house of the kingdom. Afonso was present in [[1415]] when the Portuguese conquered [[Ceuta]].

When his half-brother Edward I, King of Portugal died in [[1438]], his son [[Afonso V]] (Afonso's nephew) was an infant and the choice for the regency was the Queen-Mother [[Leonor of Aragon]] (Afonso's sister-in-law). This choice for the regency was not popular because Leonor was Aragonese, so in a reunion of the ''Cortes'', summoned by Afonso's half-brother John, Duke of Aveiro, another half-brother of Afonso, Pedro, was appointed as Regent of the Kingdom during the minority of his nephew Afonso V, a choice that pleased both the peolple and the fast-growing [[Bourgeoisie]].

However, inside the Portuguese aristocracy, especially the ones around Afonso, Count of Barcelos, Leonor of Aragon was preferred and there were doubts about Pedro political hability. A ''war of influences'' started and few years later Afonso managed to become young King Afonso V's favourite uncle.

In [[1443]], in a gesture of reconciliation, Pedro made Afonso the first [[Duke of Braganza]] and the relations between both seemed to return to normality. But, in [[1445]], Afonso took offence because Isabel of Coimbra, Pedro's daughter was the choice for Afonso V's wife, and not one of her daughters. Indifferent to the intrigues, Pedro continued his regency and the country prospered under his influence. It was during this period that the first subsidies for the exploration of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] were implemented, and the organization was given to [[Henry the Navigator]] (Another Afonso's half-brother).

On [[June 9]] [[1448]] Afonso V came of age and Pedro gave the control of the country to the king. Influenced by Afonso, Count of Barcelos, and recently Duke of Braganza, Afonso V nulifies all Pedro's edicts.

The following year, under accusations that years later would prove false, Afonso V declared his uncle Pedro, Duke of Coimbra a rebel. The situation became unsustainable and a civil war begun. It was short because on [[May 20]] [[1449]], during the [[Battle of Alfarrobeira]], near [[Alverca]], Pedro, Duke of Coimbra died. The exact conditions of his death are debatable: some say it was in combat, other say he was assassinated by one of his own men.

After the Battle of Alfarrobeira, Afonso V gave new powers to the Duke of Braganza and nine years later when he departed to [[Africa]], the regency was delegated to Afonso.

Afonso married the second time to [[Constança de Noronha]] (first Duchess of Braganza, buried in [[Guimarães]]), daughter of [[Alfonso, Count of Gijón and Noronha]], son of [[Henry II of Castile]].

==Issue==

From his first marriage to Beatriz Pereira Alvim he had three children:
* Afonso of Braganza ([[1400]]-[[1460]]), Count of Ourém and Marquis of Valença
* [[Isabel of Braganza]] ([[1402]]-[[1465]]), married her uncle Prince [[John, Duke of Aveiro]], son of [[John I of Portugal]]
* [[Fernando I of Braganza]] ([[1403]]-[[1478]]), second Duke of Braganza, succeeding his father

From his second marriage to Constança de Noronha there was no issue.
[[Category:1377 births]]
[[Category:1461 deaths]]
[[Category:House of Aviz]]
[[Category:Dukes of Braganza]]

[[de:Alfons von Braganza]]
[[it:Alfonso I di Braganza]]
[[pt:Afonso I, Duque de Bragança]]

António Vieira

2006-12-27T01:23:13Z

MiguelFC:

{{intro length}}

[[image:PadreAntonioVieira_pregando.jpg|thumb|right|P. Antonio Vieira, preaching]]
Father '''António Vieira''' ([[February 6]], [[1608]]–[[July 18]], [[1697]]), was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Jesuit]] and writer, the "prince" of Catholic pulpit-orators of his time.

Vieira was born in [[Lisbon]]. Accompanying his parents to [[Brazil]] in [[1615]], he received his education at the [[Jesuit]] college at [[Bahia]]. He entered the Jesuit novitiate in 1625, and two years later pronounced his first vows. At the age of eighteen he was teaching rhetoric, and a little later dogmatic theology, at the college of [[Olinda]], besides writing the "annual letters" of the province.

In [[1635]] he received the priesthood. He soon began to distinguish himself as an orator, and the three patriotic sermons he delivered at Bahia (1638–40) are remarkable for their imaginative power and dignity of language. The sermon for the success of the arms of Portugal against Holland was considered by the [[Guillaume Thomas François Raynal|Abbé Raynal]] to be "perhaps the most extraordinary discourse ever heard from a Christian pulpit."

When the [[revolution of 1640]] placed [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]] on the throne of Portugal, Brazil gave him its allegiance, and Vieira was chosen to accompany the viceroy's son to Lisbon to congratulate the new king. His talents and aptitude for affairs impressed John IV. so favorably that he appointed him royal preacher, gave him free access to the palace and constantly consulted him on the business of the state.

Possessed of great political sagacity and knowledge of the lessons of history, Vieira used the [[pulpit]] as a tribune from which he propounded measures for improving the general and particularly the economic condition of Portugal. His pen was as busy as his voice, and in four notable pamphlets he advocated the creation of companies of commerce, the abolition of the distinction between Old and New Christians, the reform of the procedure of the Inquisition and the admission of [[Jewish]] and foreign traders, with guarantees for their security from religious persecution. Moreover, he did not spare his own estate, for in his Sexagesima sermon he boldly attacked the current style of preaching, its subtleties, affectation, obscurity and abuse of metaphor, and declared the ideal of a sermon to be one which sent men away " not contented with the preacher, but discontented with themselves."

In [[1647]] Vieira began his career as a [[diplomat]], in the course of which he visited England, France, the Netherlands and Italy. In his ''Papel Forte'' he urged the cession of [[Pernambuco]] to the Dutch as the price of peace, while his mission to Rome in 1650 was undertaken in the hope of arranging a marriage between the heir to the throne of Portugal and the only daughter of [[Philip IV of Spain|King Philip IV of Spain]]. His success, freedom of speech and reforming zeal had made him enemies on all sides, and only the intervention of the king prevented his expulsion from the [[Company of Jesus]], so that prudence counselled his return to Brazil.

In his youth he had vowed to consecrate his life to the conversion of the negro slaves and [[Indigenous people of Brazil|native Indians of his adopted country]], and arriving in [[Maranhão]] early in 1653 he recommenced his apostolic labors, which had been interrupted during his stay of fourteen years in the Old World. Starting from [[Pará]], he penetrated to the banks of the [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]], making numerous converts to [[Christianity]] and civilization among the most savage tribes; but after two years of unceasing labour, during which every difficulty was placed in his way by the colonial authorities, he saw that the Indians must be withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the governors, to prevent their exploitation, and placed under the control of the members of a single religious society.

Accordingly in June [[1654]] he set sail for Lisbon to plead the cause of the Indians, and in April 1655 he obtained from the king a series of decrees which placed the missions under the Company of Jesus, with himself as their superior, and prohibited the enslavement of the natives, except in certain specified cases. Returning with this charter of freedom, he organized the missions over a territory having a coast-line of 400 leagues, and a population of 200,000 souls, and in the next six years (1655–61) the indefatigable missionary set the crown on his work. After a time, however, the colonists, attributing the shortage of slaves and the consequent diminution in their profits to the Jesuits, began actively to oppose Vieira, and they were joined by members of the secular clergy and the other Orders who were jealous of the monopoly enjoyed by the Company in the government of the Indians.

Vieira was accused of want of patriotism and usurpation of jurisdiction, and in 1661, after a popular revolt, the authorities sent him with thirty-one other Jesuit missionaries back to Portugal. He found his friend King John IV dead and the court a prey to faction, but, dauntless as ever in the pursuit of his ambition, he resorted to his favorite arm of preaching, and on Epiphany Day, 1662, in the royal chapel, he replied to his persecutors in a famous rhetorical effort, and called for the execution of the royal decrees in favor of the Indians.

Circumstances were against him, however, and the count of Castelmelhor, fearing his influence at court, had him exiled first to [[Oporto]] and then to [[Coimbra]]; but in both these places he continued his work of preaching, and the reform of the [[Inquisition]] also occupied his attention. To silence him his enemies then denounced him to that tribunal, and he was cited to appear before the Holy Office at Coimbra to answer points smacking of [[heresy]] in his sermons, conversations and writings. He had believed in the prophecies of a 16th-century shoemaker poet, Bandarra, dealing with the coming of a ruler who would inaugurate an epoch of unparalleled prosperity for the church and for Portugal, and in the Quinto Imperio or Clams Prophetarum he had endeavoured to prove the truth of his dreams from passages of Scripture. As he refused to submit, the Inquisitors kept him in prison from October 1665 to December 1667, and finally imposed a sentence which prohibited him from teaching, writing or preaching.

It was a heavy blow for the Company, and though Vieira recovered his freedom and much of his prestige shortly afterwards on the accession of [[Peter II of Portugal|King Pedro II]], it was determined that he should go to Rome to procure the revision of the sentence, which still hung over him though the penalties had been removed. During a six years' residence in the Eternal City Vieira won his greatest triumphs. [[Pope Clement X]] invited him to preach before the College of Cardinals, and he became confessor to [[Queen Christina of Sweden]] and a member of her literary academy.

At the request of the pope he drew up a report of two hundred pages on the Inquisition in Portugal, with the result that after a judicial inquiry [[Pope Innocent XI]] suspended it for five years (1676–81). Ultimately Vieira returned to Portugal with a papal bull exempting him from the jurisdiction of the grand inquisitor, and in January 1681 he embarked for Brazil. He resided in Bahia and occupied himself in revising his sermons for publication, and in 1687 he became superior of the province. A false accusation of complicity in an assassination, and the intrigues of members of his own Company, clouded his last months, and on [[July 18]], 1697 he died in [[Salvador, Bahia]].

[[Image:pav historia futuro.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The first page of "Historia do Futuro", first edition]]

His works form perhaps the greatest monument of [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] prose. Two hundred discourses exist to prove his fecundity, while his versatility is shown by the fact that he could treat the same subject differently on half a dozen occasions. His letters, simple and conversational in style, have a deep historical and political interest, and form documents of the first value for the history of the period.

As a man, Vieira would have made a nobler figure if he had not been so great an egotist and so clever a courtier. The readiness with which he sustained directly opposite opinions at short intervals with equal warmth argues a certain lack of sincerity. His name, however, is identified with great causes, justice to the Jews and humanity to the Indians. The fact that he was in advance of his age led to many of his troubles.

==Works==
His principal works are:
*''Sermões'' (Sermoens) (15 vols., Lisbon, 1679–1748); there are many subsequent editions, but none complete; translations exist in Spanish, Italian, German and French, which have gone through several editions
*''História do Futuro'' (History of the Future) (Lisbon, 1718; 2nd ed., ibid., 1755); this and the Quinto Imperio and ths Clavis Prophetarum seem to be in essence one and the same book in different redactions
*''Cartas'' (Letters) (3 vols., Lisbon, 1735–46)
*''Notícias reconditas do modo de proceder a Inguisicão de Portugal com os seus presos'' (News on how the Portuguese Inquisition proceeds with its prisoners) (Lisbon, 1821)
*''Arte de Furtar'' (The Art of Stealing) published under Vieira's name in many editions is now known not to be his

A badly edited edition of the works of Vieira in 27 volumes appeared in Lisbon, 1854–58. There are unpublished manuscripts of his in the [[British Museum]] in London, and in the Bibliothèque Nationale in [[Paris]]. A bibliography of Vieira will be found in [[Sommervogel]], Bibliothèque de la compagnie de Jesus, viii. 653–85.

==Publications==
* Luiz Cabral, ''Vieira, biographie, caractère, éloquence'', (Paris, 1900)
* Luiz Cabral, ''Vieira pregador'' (two volumes, Oporto, 1901)

==Popular Culture==

The [[1986]] film ''[[The Mission]]'', starring [[Robert de Niro]] and [[Jeremy Irons]] is thought to be loosely inspired in the life of Vieira, most notably for his defence of the Indians and struggle against the Dutch invaders of Brazil.

==Reference==
*{{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://www.colegiosaofrancisco.com.br/site/Padre/padre.html Antônio Vieira]

[[Category:1608 births|Vieira, António]]
[[Category:1697 deaths|Vieira, António]]
[[Category:People from Lisbon|Vieira, António]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Vieira, António]]
[[Category:Portuguese missionaries|Vieira, António]]

[[de:António Vieira]]
[[eo:António Vieira]]
[[fr:António Vieira]]
[[it:António Vieira]]
[[pt:António Vieira]]

Azores Liberation Front

2006-09-15T01:18:57Z

MiguelFC:

The [[Azores Liberation Front]], more commonly known as '''FLA''' (Portuguese: ''Frente de Libertação dos Açores'') was a right-wing paramilitary organisation with independentist goals that appeared in the [[Azores]], right after the [[Carnation Revolution]].

The organisation (which, according to some sources, was backed by the [[CIA]]) became very popular in the first months after the Revolution. As the Communists accumulated more and more power, fear of Portugal becoming a Soviet puppet started to grow. Besides, the [[PREC]] (with its nationalisation policies) became very unpopular among Azorean farmers and industrialists, who organised themselves to resist the "red danger".

Even though the organisation gained widespread support for some time, it was virtually dead by the end of the 70's. Autonomy was granted to the Azores in 1976, cooling the explosive situation, and the communist threat was slowly eroding.

{{stub}}

Afonso Costa

2006-09-05T18:38:48Z

MiguelFC:

{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|+ <big>'''Afonso Costa'''</big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Afonso Costa.jpg|200px|Afonso Costa]]

|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[Prime Minister of Portugal]] (President of the Ministry)

|-
! align="left" | '''Order:'''
| [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|59th, 64th and 66th]] (5th, 10th and 12th of the [[Portuguese First Republic|Republic]])

|-
! align="left" | '''Term of Office'''
| (1st) [[January 9]], [[1913]] - [[February 9]], [[1914]] (2nd) [[November 29]], [[1915]] - [[March 16]], [[1916]] (3rd) [[April 25]], [[1917]] - [[December 8]], [[1917]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Predecessor:'''
| (1st) [[Duarte Leite]] (2nd) [[José de Castro]] (3rd) [[António José de Almeida]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Successor:'''
| (1st) [[Bernardino Machado]] (2nd) [[António José de Almeida]] (3rd) [[Sidónio Pais]] (in a presidential government)

|-
! align="left" | '''Date of Birth'''
| [[March 6]], [[1871]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Place of Birth:'''
| [[Seia]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Date of Death'''
| [[May 11]], [[1937]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Place of Death:'''
| [[Paris]], [[France]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Wife:'''
| Alzira Coelho de Campos de Barros Abreu
|-
! align="left" | '''Occupation:'''
| [[Lawyer]], [[lecturer]] and [[professor]] of [[law]] and [[diplomat]]
|-
! align="left" | '''[[List of political parties in Portugal|Political Party]]:'''
| [[Democratic Party (Portugal)|Democratic]]
|}

'''Afonso Augusto da Costa''', [[Order of the Freedom|GCL]] ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ'fõsu 'kɔʃtɐ}}/; [[Seia]], [[March 6]] [[1871]]–[[Paris]], [[May 11]] [[1937]]) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[lawyer]], [[professor]] and [[republicanism|republican]] [[politician]].

He was the leader of the [[Portuguese Republican Party]], and was one of the major figures of the [[Portuguese First Republic]]. He was a republican deputy at the Chamber of Deputies, during the last years of the Monarchy. After the proclamation of the republic, he was Justice Minister, during [[Teófilo Braga]]'s Provisional Government ([[5 October]][[1910]] - [[3 September]] [[1911]]). He signed the controversial laws that expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and extinguished all the religious orders, and the Law of the Separation of the Church and the State. He became a symbol of the religious anticlericalism of the I Republic. He served as [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister]] of [[Portugal]] three times. The first time, he was called by President [[Manuel de Arriaga]] to form the government, as the leader of the [[Republican Democratic Party]].

He was [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|President of the Ministry]] (Prime Minister) and Finance Minister for a year ([[January 9]] [[1913]]-[[February 9]] [[1914]]), and was responsible for the first stabilization of the Portuguese economy since the first liberal days.<ref name="balance">"The great achievement of the Costa ministry was to balance the budget for 1913-1914, the first time that this had happened in nearly a century." [http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/payne23.htm The Portuguese Parliamentary Republic, 1910-1926], by Stanley G. Payne, Chapter 23 of A History of Spain and Portugal, Volume 2</ref> He returned to office, as President of the Ministry and Finance Minister, from [[29 November]] [[1915]] to [[March 16]] [[1916]]. He was again President of the Ministry, from [[April 25]] [[1917]] to [[December 8]] [[1917]], in a national unity government independent, named the [[Sacred Union]], to support Portugal's entrance in World War I. After [[Sidónio Pais]]' military coup d`état, in December 1917, he went to exile in Paris, and never returned again to live permanently in Portugal.

He was invited other times, during the First Republic, to become Head of Government, but always refused. After the [[28 May coup d'état]], he strongly opposed the [[Ditadura Nacional|Military Dictatorship]] and the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|''Estado Novo'' (New State)]] regime. He died in [[Paris]] on [[May 11]] [[1937]].

Because of his staunch anti-clericalism, his detractors knew him as ''o Mata-Frade'' (the Friar Killer).

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Duarte Leite]]| title = [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister of Portugal]] (President of the Ministry)|years=[[1913]]–[[1914]]| after = [[Bernardino Machado]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[José de Castro]]| title = [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister of Portugal]] (President of the Ministry)|years=[[1915]]–[[1916]]| after = [[António José de Almeida]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[António José de Almeida]]| title = [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister of Portugal]] (President of the Ministry)|years=[[1917]]| after = [[Sidónio Pais]]}}
{{end box}}

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[Portuguese First Republic]]
*[[History of Portugal]]
*[[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal]]
*[[Timeline of Portuguese history (Fourth Dynasty)]]
*[[Timeline of Portuguese history (First Republic)]]
*[[Politics of Portugal]]

[[Category:1871 births|Costa, Afonso]]
[[Category:1937 deaths|Costa, Afonso]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Portugal|Costa, Afonso]]
[[Category:Portuguese politicians|Costa, Afonso]]
[[Category:Portuguese Freemasons]]

[[nl:Afonso Costa]]
[[pt:Afonso Costa]]

{{Portugal-politician-stub}}

José, Prince of Brazil

2006-09-05T13:22:22Z

MiguelFC:

{{House of Braganza}}
[[Image:Joseprinceofbrazil.JPG|thumb|250px|left]]
'''Joseph of Braganza, Prince of Brazil''' [[Order of the Golden Fleece|KGF]] (full name: ''José Francisco Xavier de Paula Domingos António Agostinho Anastácio de Bragança'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ʒu'zɛ}}/), ([[August 20]] [[1761]] - [[September 11]] [[1788]]), was [[Duke of Braganza]], [[Prince of Beira]], [[Prince of Brazil]] and [[heir presumptive]] to the throne of [[Portugal]] as the oldest son of [[List of Portuguese monarchs|Queen]] [[Maria I of Portugal]] and her [[King consort]] [[Peter III of Portugal]].

Joseph was born at the Palace of [[Ajuda]] near [[Lisbon]]. His grandfather created him [[Prince of Beira]], this being the first time when the title was given to a male. He was the heir apparent of his mother Maria, the then [[Princess of Brazil]] and proclaimed heiress of the crown.

On [[February 21]] [[1777]], when he was 15 years old, he married his 30-year-old aunt [[Maria Francisca Benedita]]. They had no children. Three days after their wedding, Jose's grandfather and Benedita's father the old [[Joseph I of Portugal|king Joseph]] died, and his mother succeeded as queen regnant. Infante José became the new crown prince, being accorded the titles [[Prince of Brazil]] and 16th [[Duke of Braganza]].

Joseph died at the age of 27 of [[smallpox]]. Upon Joseph's death, his younger brother [[John VI of Portugal|John]] became heir to the throne and the new Prince of Brazil.

Joseph is buried in the national pantheon at the [[Monastery of São Vicente de Fora]] in Lisbon.

{{Portugal-royal-stub}}

[[pt:José de Bragança, Príncipe da Beira]]

Mariana Victoria of Spain

2006-09-05T13:17:58Z

MiguelFC:

[[Image:Marianavictoriabourbon.JPG|thumb|200px|left]]
{{House of Bourbon}}
'''Marianne Victoria of Bourbon''' ([[March 31]], [[1718]] – [[January 15]], [[1781]]) (in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''Mariana Vitória'', in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Mariana Victoria'') was the eldest daughter of [[Philip V of Spain]] and [[Elizabeth Farnese]]. She was [[Queen Consort]] of [[Portugal]] and Algarves.

As a child, she was engaged to [[Louis XV of France]], but went back to [[Spain]] to continue her education. The engagement was later broken off and she was instead engaged to the future [[Joseph I of Portugal]]. She married Joseph on [[January 19]] [[1729]]. When her husband was declared incapable of ruling in [[1774]], she was proclaimed [[Regent]], and acted as the Regent for Portugal in all matters until Joseph's death on [[February 24]] [[1777]]. Upon her husband's death, their eldest daughter Maria became the [[Queen Regnant]] as [[Maria I of Portugal]].

From her marriage to [[Joseph I of Portugal|Joseph I]], she had four daughters:
* '''Maria''' Francisca (''Mary Frances'') - The future Queen [[Mary I of Portugal|Mary I]]
* '''Mariana''' (''Marianne'')
* Maria Francisca '''Doroteia''' (''Mary Frances Dorothea'')
* Maria Francisca '''Benedita''' (''Mary Frances Benedicta'') - She would marry her nephew Prince Joseph.

=== Marianne 's marriages and descendants===
Marianne married [[Joseph I]] on January 19, 1729. They had four daughters, all named Maria.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Name
!Birth
!Death
!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Joseph I]]'''; married on [[January 19]] [[1729]])
|-
|[[Maria I of Portugal|Princess Maria Francisca Isabel]]
|[[December 17]] [[1734]]
|[[March 20]] [[1816]]
|Who succeeded Joseph as 26th (or 27th according to some historians) [[List of Portuguese monarchs|monarch]] and first [[Queen regnant]] of [[Portugal]].
|-
|[[Maria Ana Francisca Josefa|Princess Maria Ana]]
|[[October 7]] [[1736]]
|[[May 16]] [[1813]]
|
|-
|[[Maria Francisca Doroteia|Princess Maria Francisca Doroteia]]
|[[September 21]] [[1739]]
|[[January 14]] [[1771]]
|
|-
|[[Maria Francisca Benedita|Princess Maria Francisca Benedita]]
|[[July 25]] [[1746]]
|[[August 18]] [[1829]]
|Married her nephew [[Joseph, Prince of Beira]].
|}

'''See also:''' [[List of Portuguese monarchs]]

{{Euro-royal-stub}}
{{Portugal-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1718 births]]
[[Category:1781 deaths]]
[[Category:House of Bourbon]]
[[Category:Queen consorts]]
[[Category:Regents]]

[[ca:Maria Anna Victòria de Borbó]]
[[de:Maria Anna von Spanien (Portugal)]]
[[fr:Marie-Anne-Victoire de Bourbon (1718-1781)]]
[[pl:Marianna Wiktoria Burbon]]
[[pt:Mariana Vitória de Espanha]]

Maria Sophia of Neuburg

2006-09-05T13:03:20Z

MiguelFC:

[[Image:Mariasofianeuburgo.gif|thumb|250px|right]]
'''Maria Sofia of the Palatinate''' ([[August 6]] [[1666]] - [[August 4]] [[1699]]) was a queen of [[Portugal]].

She was a daughter of [[Philipp Wilhelm, Elector Palatine]] and his wife [[Elisabeth Amalie von Hessen-Darmstadt]] , and as such from the house of [[Wittelsbach]].

She had sixteen brothers and sisters, amongst whom
*[[Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine]],
*[[Karl III Philip, Elector Palatine]],
*[[Eleonore von Pfalz-Neuburg|Eleonore Magdalena]], wife of Kaiser [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]],
*Queen [[Maria Anna of Pfalz-Neuburg|Maria Anna]], wife of [[Charles II of Spain]].

In [[1687]] she married the widowed king [[Peter II of Portugal]] and became thus queen consort of [[Portugal]], without any right on regency.

They had seven children, amongst whom the future king [[John V of Portugal|John V]].
She died in Lisbon of fever (possibly [[Erysipelas]]) on [[August 4]] [[1699]].

[[Category:Queen consorts]]
[[Category:1666 births|Maria Sofia of the Palatinate]]
[[Category:1699 deaths|Maria Sofia of the Palatinate]]
[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:Queen consorts]]

[[ca:Maria Sofia de Neuburg]]
[[pt:Maria Sofia de Neuburgo]]
[[de:Marie Sophie von der Pfalz]]

Bordurian

2006-09-03T23:39:40Z

MiguelFC: /* Names of people */

'''Bordurian''' is the national language of [[Borduria]], a fictional [[Balkan]] [[dictatorship]] created by [[Hergé]] for the [[Tintin]] series. Little is known about Bordurian, as it is not extensively presented in the Tintin stories. The neighboring language [[Syldavian]], for example, has been proven to be a [[Germanic]] language, but so few words of Bordurian are known that such an analysis for this language is impossible. It appears to use the same Latin orthography as Syldavian, but unlike Syldavian, which also uses [[Cyrillic]], it is written only in the [[Latin alphabet]].

==Known words==

*''amaïh!'' - "hail!"
*''tzhôl'' - "customs"
*''sztôpp'' - "stop"
*''zservis'' - "service"
*''zsnôrr'' - "mustache" or "snore"

==Place names==

*Szohôd

==Names of people==

*Klumsi
*Kronik
*Kurvi-Tasch
*Müsstler (an obvious [[portmanteau]] of [[Mussolini]] and [[Hitler]])
*Plekszy-Gladz
*Sponsz

{{Uncat-date|August 2006}}

Talk:Borduria

2006-09-03T23:38:40Z

MiguelFC: Kurvi-Tasch

== Communistic? ==

From [[The Calculus Affair]], Borduria seems to be a communist or communist-influenced country. Kurvi-Tsach resembles Josef Stalin. [[User:Mr Tan]] 15:05, 2 Nov 2005 (UTC)

== Aren't the Bordurians the bad guys in the Moon series? ==
I seem to recall that Borduria is also featured in the two-album Moon Journey series, as the bad guys who attempt to spy on the Syldavian lunar mission... --[[User:Peter Knutsen|Peter Knutsen]] 08:13, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

== Kurvi-Tasch ==

What is this talk about Kurvi-Tasch? I have never heard anything about him either on Portuguese or original French editions. Both ''L'affair Tournesol'' and ''Tintin et los Picaros'' mention the Marshal Plekszy-Gladz as the leader and dictator of Borduria. On the other hand, the dictator mentioned in ''Le sceptre d'Ottokar'' is Müsster, an obvious pun on Hitler and Mussolini. --[[User:MiguelFC|MiguelFC]] 23:38, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

User:MiguelFC

2006-09-01T01:19:24Z

MiguelFC:

Hello! My name is Miguel de Faria e Castro and I am currently attending the [[Economics]] course at the [[New University of Lisbon]]. My main interests are Portuguese History and vexillology, and I have been responsible for uploading many Portuguese monarchs' portraits, as well as cooperating intensely in articles such as [[Estado Novo (Portugal)]] and [[Flag of Portugal]].
{{Babel|pt|en-5|fr-2|es-1}}

Also visit my [[Jennifer Government: NationStates|NationStates]] Nation: [http://www.nationstates.net/cgi-bin/index.cgi/target=display_nation/nation=azores_islands Azores Islands]!

Sidónio Pais

2006-09-01T01:16:15Z

MiguelFC:

[[Image:Avenida Sidónio Pais.JPG|thumb|left|Avenida Sidónio Pais in [[Macau]]]]
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 250px; font-size: 95%; float: right;" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|+ <big>'''Sidónio Pais'''</big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Sidonio Pais.jpg|120px|Sidónio Pais]]

|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Order:'''
| [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|67th]] (13th of the [[Portuguese First Republic|Republic]])

|-
! align="left" | '''Term of Office'''
| [[December 5]], [[1917]] - [[December 14]], [[1918]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Predecessor:'''
| [[Afonso Costa]] (as Prime Minister)

|-
! align="left" | '''Successor:'''
| [[João do Canto e Castro]]

|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | [[List of Presidents of Portugal|President of the Portuguese Republic]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Order:'''
| [[List of Presidents of Portugal|4th]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Term of Office'''
| [[April 28]], [[1918]] - [[December 14]], [[1918]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Predecessor:'''
| Himself (as Head of State) [[Bernardino Machado]] (as President)

|-
! align="left" | '''Successor:'''
| [[João do Canto e Castro]]

|-
! align="left" | '''Date of Birth'''
| [[May 1]], [[1872]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Place of Birth:'''
| [[Coimbra]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Date of Death'''
| [[December 14]], [[1918]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Place of Death:'''
| [[Lisbon]]
|-
! align="left" | '''Nickname'''
| ''Presidente-Rei'' (President-King)
|-
! align="left" | '''Wife:'''
| Maria dos Prazeres Martins Bessa
|-
! align="left" | '''Occupation:'''
| [[Military officer]] ([[Major]]) [[Lecturer]] of [[Calculus]]
|-
! align="left" | '''[[List of political parties in Portugal|Political Party]]:'''
| [[National Republican Party (Portugal)|National Republican]] ([[National Republican Party (Portugal)|''"Sidonist"'']])
|}

'''Sidónio''' Bernardino Cardoso da Silva '''Pais''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] [{{IPA|si'dɔniu paiʃ}}]; [[Coimbra]], [[1 May]] [[1872]] - [[Lisbon]], [[14 December]] [[1918]]) was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] politician, [[President of Portugal|President]] in 1918. He was known as the ''President-King''.

He was an army officer and taught mathematics at the Army school, and later, at the [[University of Coimbra]]. He became a member of Parliament in 1911, and would be [[Minister of Finance]] for a short period. He was ambassador in [[Berlin]] from 1912 until 1916, when Portugal joined the [[World War I|First World War]] on the [[Allied]] side. He was a [[Germanophile]].

On [[December 5]] [[1917]], he led a ''[[coup d'état]]'', and imposed an authoritarian regime. He was proclaimed President two weeks later, and elected on direct elections on [[April 28]] [[1918]].

His short period in office saw a warming of Church-state relations, the extension of the electoral franchise, and the smashing defeat of the ill-prepared Portuguese troops at [[Operation_Georgette|La Lys]], in [[France]].

He escaped a first [[assassination]] attempt, but was shot on [[December 14]] [[1918]], at Rossio railway station, in Lisbon, when he was preparing to board a train to [[Oporto]], in order to quell a rebellion. Some theories assert that his assassination had been ordered by Britain, which could not afford to loose the Portuguese colonial assets in the war against Germany, should Pais take in consideration its sympathy for Imperial Germany.

 
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Bernardino Machado]]| title = [[List of Presidents of Portugal|President of Portugal]]|years=[[1917]]–[[1918]]| after = [[João do Canto e Castro]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Afonso Costa]]| title = [[List of Prime Ministers of Portugal|Prime Minister of Portugal]]|years=[[1917]]–[[1918]]| after = [[João do Canto e Castro]]}}
{{end box}}

{{PortuguesePresidents}}

{{Portugal-politician-stub}}

[[Category:1872 births|Pais, Sidónio]]
[[Category:1918 deaths|Pais, Sidónio]]
[[Category:Presidents of Portugal|Pais, Sidónio]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Portugal|Pais, Sidónio]]

[[de:Sidónio Pais]]
[[et:Sidónio Bernardino Cardoso da Silva Pais]]
[[es:Sidónio Pais]]
[[nl:Sidónio Pais]]
[[pt:Sidónio Pais]]
[[fi:Sidónio Pais]]
[[it:Sidónio Pais]]

Charles I of Austria

2006-08-31T20:55:48Z

MiguelFC: /* Life */

[[Image:Emperor Karl I of Austria-Hungary.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Karl I of Austria, Károly IV. of Hungary, Karel III of Bohemia]]
'''Charles I''' (''Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen'') ([[August 17]], [[1887]] – [[April 1]], [[1922]]), (''Hungarian'': '''Károly IV''' (''Károly Ferenc József'')), was (among other titles) the last [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]], the last [[Monarch|King]] of [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]], and the last monarch of the [[Habsburg|Habsburg Dynasty]]. He reigned as Emperor Charles I of Austria, King Charles III of Bohemia and King Charles IV of Hungary from 1916 until 1918, when he renounced the government (but did not abdicate), and spent the remaining years of his life attempting to regain the throne until his death in 1922.

==Life==
Karl was the son of [[Archduke Otto Franz of Austria]] (1865-1906) and [[Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony]] (1867-1944); he was also a nephew of [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]], whose assassination triggered [[World War I]]. In [[1911]], he was married to Princess [[Zita of Bourbon-Parma|Zita of Parma]]. They had eight children (six boys and two girls):

* [[Otto, Crown Prince of Austria|Crown Prince Otto]] (1912-), married Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen and Hildburghausen and has issue
* Archduchess Adelheid (1914-1971), unmarried
* [[Robert, Archduke of Austria-Este|Archduke Robert]] (1915-1996), married [[Margherita, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Princess Margherita of Savoy-Aosta]] and had issue
** Archduchess Marie Beatrice (b.1954)
** [[Prince Lorenz, Archduke of Austria-Este|Archduke Lorenzo]] (b.1955), married [[Princess Astrid, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Princess Astrid of Belgium]]
*** [[Prince Amedeo, Archduke of Austria-Este|Achduke Amedeo]] (b.1986)
*** [[Princess Maria Laura, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Archduchess Maria Laura]] (b.1988)
*** [[Prince Joachim, Archduke of Austria-Este|Archduke Joachim]] (b.1991)
*** [[Princess Luisa Maria, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Archduchess Luisa Maria]] (b.1995)
*** [[Princess Laetitia Maria, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Archduchess Laetitia Maria]] (b.2003)
** Archduke Gerhard (b.1957)
** Archduke Martin (b.1959)
** Archduchess Isabella (b.1963)
* Archduke Felix (1916-), married Princess Anna-Eugénie of Arenberg and has issue
* Archduke Karl Ludwig (1918-), married Princess Yolande of Ligne and has issue
** Archduke Rudolf (b.1950)
** Archduchess Alexandra (b.1952)
** Archduchess Karl Christian (b.1954), married [[Archduchess Marie Astrid of Austria|Princess Marie Astrid of Luxembourg]]
** Archduchess Maria Constance (b.1957)
* Archduke Rudolf (1919-), married firstly Countess Xenia Tschernyscheva-Besobrasova and secondly Princess Anna of Wrede, has issue by both
** Archduchess Maria-Anne (b.1954)
** Archduke Carl Peter (b.1955)
** Archduke Simeon (b.1958)
** Archduke Johannes Carl (1962-1975)
** Archduchess Catherine (b.1972)
* Archduchess Charlotte (1921-1989), married Count Georg of Carlow, Duke of Mecklenburg
* Archduchess Elisabeth (1922-1993), married Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein and had issue

[[Image:Karloath.jpg|thumb|250px|left|King Charles taking his oath as part of the coronation ceremonies [[Budapest]], December [[1916]].]]
Karl became heir-presumptive when his uncle [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] was assassinated in [[Sarajevo]] in [[1914]], the event which precipitated [[World War I]]. Karl's reign began in [[1916]], with the death of his grand-uncle, [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]]. In 1916, he also became a [[Generalfeldmarschall]] in the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]]. In [[1917]], Karl secretly entered into peace negotiations with France. Although his foreign minister, [[Ottokar Czernin]], was only interested in negotiating a general peace which would include Germany as well, Karl himself, in negotiations with the French with his brother-in-law, Prince [[Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma]], an officer in the Belgian army, as intermediary, went much further in suggesting his willingness to make a separate peace. When news of the overture leaked in April [[1918]], Karl denied all involvement until the French prime minister [[Georges Clemenceau]] published letters signed by him. This led to Czernin's resignation, forcing Austria-Hungary into an even more dependent position with respect to its seemingly wronged German ally.
{|align=right
|[[image:Karlfamily.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Karl as '''King Charles IV''' of Hungary, with [[Zita of Bourbon-Parma|Zita]] and Crown Prince [[Otto von Habsburg|Otto]]. coronation portrait, [[Budapest]], [[1916]].]]
|-
|[[Image:Karl_horse.jpg|thumb|200px|A crowned King Charles on horseback One of the traditional features of the coronation of [[Hungary|Hungarian]] monarchs.]]
|}
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was wracked by inner turmoil in the final years of the war, with much tension between ethnic groups. US President [[Woodrow Wilson]] demanded that the Empire allow for the self-determination of its peoples as part of his [[Fourteen Points]]. In response, Karl agreed to reconvene the Imperial parliament and allow for the creation of a [[confederation]] with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the reforms quickly spiraled out of control, with each national government declaring complete independence. Karl's political future quickly became uncertain. For a while it appeared as though he might reign as monarch of a newly independent [[Austria]], but [[Austria|Austria's]] new [[Republicanism|republican]] government ultimately vetoed this idea.

On [[November 11]], [[1918]], he proclaimed formally "I relinquish every participation in the administration of the State" but did not abdicate his thrones.[http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/abdication_karl.htm] He then fled to [[Switzerland]] and continued to pursue regaining power from exile. Encouraged by Hungarian nationalists, he sought twice in [[1921]] to reclaim the throne of Hungary but failed due to various factors including the lack of support of the Hungarian Regent [[Miklós Horthy]]. Horthy's failure to support Karl's restoration attempts is often described as "treasonous" by monarchists. Critics suggest that Horthy's actions were more firmly grounded in political reality than the King of Hungary and his supporters. He left Hungary from the city of [[Baja, Hungary|Baja]] forever.

He died of severe [[pneumonia]] (brought on after Karl, an already sickly man, walked into town on a freezing winter's day) on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] island of [[Madeira]] in 1922. His remains are still kept in the island, in spite of several attempts to move them to the Habsburg Crypt in Vienna. During his stay on the island, his personal chaplain was Priest [[Jorge de Faria e Castro]].

== After his death ==
[[Image:emperorcharlesofaustria.jpg|frame|left|Karl I]]
Some historians have seen Karl as a brave and honourable figure who tried as emperor-king to halt [[World War I]]. Helmut Rumpler, head of the Habsburg commission of the [[Austrian Academy of Sciences]], has described Karl as "a dilettante, far too weak for the challenges facing him, out of his depth, and not really a politician."

=== Beatification ===
Karl has been solemnly declared blessed in the ceremony of [[beatification]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The ''cause'' or campaign began in [[1949]] when testimony of his holiness was collected in the [[Archdiocese]] of [[Vienna]]. In [[1954]], he was declared [[venerable]], the first step on the process beatification. The ''guild'' established for the promotion of his cause has created this [http://www.beatificationemperorcharles.info/English/home%20EN.htm website]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has praised Karl for putting his Christian faith first in making political decisions, and for his perceived role as a peacemaker during the war. [[Christoph Cardinal Schönborn]] of [[Vienna]] has been the Church's sponsor for his beatification.

Recent milestones include:
*On [[14 April]] [[2003]], the [[Roman Curia|Vatican's]] [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints]] in the presence of [[Pope John Paul II]], promulgated Karl of Austria's "heroic virtues."
*On [[21 December]] 2003, the Congregation certified, on the basis of three expert medical opinions, that a miracle in [[1960]] occurred through the [[Intercession of saints|intercession]] of Karl. The miracle attributed to Karl was the scientifically inexplicable healing of a Brazilian nun with debilitating [[varicose vein]]s; she was able to get out of bed after she prayed for his [[beatification]].
*On [[3 October]] [[2004]], he was beatified by Pope John Paul II. The Pope also declared [[21 October]], the date of Karl's marriage in 1911 to Princess Zita, as Karl's [[feast day]]. The beatification has caused controversy because the belief that Karl may have authorized his army's use of [[poison gas]] during [[World War I]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3710810.stm]

==Official Title of Karl I==
{| align=right
|-
|{{Infobox Austriaemperorstyles|
royal name=Charles of Austria|
dipstyle=[[Imperial Majesty|His Imperial Majesty]]|
offstyle=Your Imperial Majesty|
altstyle=Sire|}}
|}
{| align=right
|-
|{{infobox hungarykstyles|
royal name=Charles IV of Hungary|
dipstyle=[[Apostolic Majesty|His Apostolic Majesty]]|
offstyle=Your Apostolic Majesty|
altstyle=Sire|}}
|}
His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty,

Charles the First,

By the Grace of God,
Emperor of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]],
Apostolic King of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], of this name the Fourth,
King of [[Bohemia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Croatia]], [[Slavonia]], and [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], [[Lodomeria]], and [[Illyria]]; King of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] etc., Archduke of [[Austria]]; Grand Duke of [[Tuscany]] and [[Cracow]], Duke of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] and of [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]], of [[Styria]], of [[Carinthia]], of [[Carniola]] and of the [[Bukovina]]; Grand Prince of [[Transylvania]]; Margrave of [[Moravia]]; Duke of Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], of [[Duchy of Modena|Modena]], [[Duchy of Parma|Parma]], [[Piacenza]] and [[Guastalla]], of [[Oświęcim|Auschwitz]] and [[Zator]], of [[Teschen]], [[Friuli]], [[Dubrovnik|Ragusa]] and [[Zadar|Zara]]; Princely Count of [[Habsburg]] and [[Tyrol]], of [[Kyburg]], [[Gorizia]] and [[Gradisca]]; Prince of [[Trento|Trent]] and [[Brixen]]; Margrave of Upper and Lower [[Lusatia]] and in [[Istria]]; Count of [[Hohenems]], [[Feldkirch, Vorarlberg|Feldkirch]], [[Bregenz]], [[Sonnenberg]], etc.; Lord of [[Trieste]], of [[Kotor|Cattaro]], and in the [[Wendish Mark]]; [[Grosswojwod|Grand Voivode]] of the [[Voivodship of Serbia and Tamiš Banat|Voivodship of Serbia]] etc. etc.

==See also==
*[[Otto von Habsburg]], Karl's oldest son and [[as of 2006]] head of the [[Habsburg]] family
*[[Austria-Hungary]]

==External links==
{{commons2|Karl I of Austria}}
*[http://www.geocities.com/veldes1/karl.html Karl v. Habsburg-Lothringen]

{{start box}}
{{succession box one to four|
before=[[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]]|
title1=[[Emperor of Austria]]|after1=[[First Austrian Republic|Directory of the Council of State]]|years1=[[1916]]–[[1918]]|
title2=[[King of Hungary]] and Croatia|after2=[[Mihály Károlyi]] [[President of Hungary|Provisional President]]|
years2=[[1916]]–[[1918]]|
title4=[[Habsburg|Head of the House of Habsburg]]|years4=[[1916]]–[[1922]]|after4=[[Otto von Habsburg]]|
title3=[[King of Bohemia]]|after3=[[Tomáš Masaryk]] [[President of Czechoslovakia]]|years3=[[1916]]–[[1918]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1887 births|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:1922 deaths|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Deaths by pneumonia]]
[[Category:Austrian Field Marshals|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Beatified people|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Bohemian monarchs|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Emperors of Austria|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Germany|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Hungarian monarchs|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:House of Habsburg-Lorraine|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Knights of Malta|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Karl I of Austria]]

[[cs:Karel I.]]
[[de:Karl I. (Österreich-Ungarn)]]
[[et:Karl I (Austria-Ungari)]]
[[es:Carlos I de Austria-Hungría]]
[[eo:Karolo la 1-a (Aŭstrio)]]
[[fr:Charles Ier d'Autriche]]
[[hr:Karlo I., car Austrije]]
[[it:Carlo I d'Austria]]
[[hu:IV. Károly]]
[[nl:Karel I van Oostenrijk]]
[[ja:カール1世 (オーストリア皇帝)]]
[[no:Karl I av Østerrike-Ungarn]]
[[pl:Karol I Habsburg]]
[[pt:Carlos I da Áustria]]
[[ro:Carol I al Austriei]]
[[ru:Карл I (австрийский император)]]
[[fi:Kaarle I (Itävalta)]]
[[sv:Karl I av Österrike]]
[[zh:卡爾一世 (奧匈帝國)]]

Charles I of Austria

2006-08-31T20:54:25Z

MiguelFC: /* Life */

[[Image:Emperor Karl I of Austria-Hungary.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Karl I of Austria, Károly IV. of Hungary, Karel III of Bohemia]]
'''Charles I''' (''Karl Franz Josef Ludwig Hubert Georg Maria von Habsburg-Lothringen'') ([[August 17]], [[1887]] – [[April 1]], [[1922]]), (''Hungarian'': '''Károly IV''' (''Károly Ferenc József'')), was (among other titles) the last [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]], the last [[Monarch|King]] of [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]], and the last monarch of the [[Habsburg|Habsburg Dynasty]]. He reigned as Emperor Charles I of Austria, King Charles III of Bohemia and King Charles IV of Hungary from 1916 until 1918, when he renounced the government (but did not abdicate), and spent the remaining years of his life attempting to regain the throne until his death in 1922.

==Life==
Karl was the son of [[Archduke Otto Franz of Austria]] (1865-1906) and [[Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony]] (1867-1944); he was also a nephew of [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]], whose assassination triggered [[World War I]]. In [[1911]], he was married to Princess [[Zita of Bourbon-Parma|Zita of Parma]]. They had eight children (six boys and two girls):

* [[Otto, Crown Prince of Austria|Crown Prince Otto]] (1912-), married Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen and Hildburghausen and has issue
* Archduchess Adelheid (1914-1971), unmarried
* [[Robert, Archduke of Austria-Este|Archduke Robert]] (1915-1996), married [[Margherita, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Princess Margherita of Savoy-Aosta]] and had issue
** Archduchess Marie Beatrice (b.1954)
** [[Prince Lorenz, Archduke of Austria-Este|Archduke Lorenzo]] (b.1955), married [[Princess Astrid, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Princess Astrid of Belgium]]
*** [[Prince Amedeo, Archduke of Austria-Este|Achduke Amedeo]] (b.1986)
*** [[Princess Maria Laura, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Archduchess Maria Laura]] (b.1988)
*** [[Prince Joachim, Archduke of Austria-Este|Archduke Joachim]] (b.1991)
*** [[Princess Luisa Maria, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Archduchess Luisa Maria]] (b.1995)
*** [[Princess Laetitia Maria, Archduchess of Austria-Este|Archduchess Laetitia Maria]] (b.2003)
** Archduke Gerhard (b.1957)
** Archduke Martin (b.1959)
** Archduchess Isabella (b.1963)
* Archduke Felix (1916-), married Princess Anna-Eugénie of Arenberg and has issue
* Archduke Karl Ludwig (1918-), married Princess Yolande of Ligne and has issue
** Archduke Rudolf (b.1950)
** Archduchess Alexandra (b.1952)
** Archduchess Karl Christian (b.1954), married [[Archduchess Marie Astrid of Austria|Princess Marie Astrid of Luxembourg]]
** Archduchess Maria Constance (b.1957)
* Archduke Rudolf (1919-), married firstly Countess Xenia Tschernyscheva-Besobrasova and secondly Princess Anna of Wrede, has issue by both
** Archduchess Maria-Anne (b.1954)
** Archduke Carl Peter (b.1955)
** Archduke Simeon (b.1958)
** Archduke Johannes Carl (1962-1975)
** Archduchess Catherine (b.1972)
* Archduchess Charlotte (1921-1989), married Count Georg of Carlow, Duke of Mecklenburg
* Archduchess Elisabeth (1922-1993), married Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein and had issue

[[Image:Karloath.jpg|thumb|250px|left|King Charles taking his oath as part of the coronation ceremonies [[Budapest]], December [[1916]].]]
Karl became heir-presumptive when his uncle [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] was assassinated in [[Sarajevo]] in [[1914]], the event which precipitated [[World War I]]. Karl's reign began in [[1916]], with the death of his grand-uncle, [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]]. In 1916, he also became a [[Generalfeldmarschall]] in the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]]. In [[1917]], Karl secretly entered into peace negotiations with France. Although his foreign minister, [[Ottokar Czernin]], was only interested in negotiating a general peace which would include Germany as well, Karl himself, in negotiations with the French with his brother-in-law, Prince [[Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma]], an officer in the Belgian army, as intermediary, went much further in suggesting his willingness to make a separate peace. When news of the overture leaked in April [[1918]], Karl denied all involvement until the French prime minister [[Georges Clemenceau]] published letters signed by him. This led to Czernin's resignation, forcing Austria-Hungary into an even more dependent position with respect to its seemingly wronged German ally.
{|align=right
|[[image:Karlfamily.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Karl as '''King Charles IV''' of Hungary, with [[Zita of Bourbon-Parma|Zita]] and Crown Prince [[Otto von Habsburg|Otto]]. coronation portrait, [[Budapest]], [[1916]].]]
|-
|[[Image:Karl_horse.jpg|thumb|200px|A crowned King Charles on horseback One of the traditional features of the coronation of [[Hungary|Hungarian]] monarchs.]]
|}
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was wracked by inner turmoil in the final years of the war, with much tension between ethnic groups. US President [[Woodrow Wilson]] demanded that the Empire allow for the self-determination of its peoples as part of his [[Fourteen Points]]. In response, Karl agreed to reconvene the Imperial parliament and allow for the creation of a [[confederation]] with each national group exercising self-governance. However, the reforms quickly spiraled out of control, with each national government declaring complete independence. Karl's political future quickly became uncertain. For a while it appeared as though he might reign as monarch of a newly independent [[Austria]], but [[Austria|Austria's]] new [[Republicanism|republican]] government ultimately vetoed this idea.

On [[November 11]], [[1918]], he proclaimed formally "I relinquish every participation in the administration of the State" but did not abdicate his thrones.[http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/abdication_karl.htm] He then fled to [[Switzerland]] and continued to pursue regaining power from exile. Encouraged by Hungarian nationalists, he sought twice in [[1921]] to reclaim the throne of Hungary but failed due to various factors including the lack of support of the Hungarian Regent [[Miklós Horthy]]. Horthy's failure to support Karl's restoration attempts is often described as "treasonous" by monarchists. Critics suggest that Horthy's actions were more firmly grounded in political reality than the King of Hungary and his supporters. He left Hungary from the city of [[Baja, Hungary|Baja]] forever.

He died of severe [[pneumonia]] (brought on after Karl, an already sickly man, walked into town on a freezing winter's day) on the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] island of [[Madeira]] in 1922. During his stay on the island, his personal chaplain was Priest [[Jorge de Faria e Castro]].

== After his death ==
[[Image:emperorcharlesofaustria.jpg|frame|left|Karl I]]
Some historians have seen Karl as a brave and honourable figure who tried as emperor-king to halt [[World War I]]. Helmut Rumpler, head of the Habsburg commission of the [[Austrian Academy of Sciences]], has described Karl as "a dilettante, far too weak for the challenges facing him, out of his depth, and not really a politician."

=== Beatification ===
Karl has been solemnly declared blessed in the ceremony of [[beatification]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The ''cause'' or campaign began in [[1949]] when testimony of his holiness was collected in the [[Archdiocese]] of [[Vienna]]. In [[1954]], he was declared [[venerable]], the first step on the process beatification. The ''guild'' established for the promotion of his cause has created this [http://www.beatificationemperorcharles.info/English/home%20EN.htm website]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has praised Karl for putting his Christian faith first in making political decisions, and for his perceived role as a peacemaker during the war. [[Christoph Cardinal Schönborn]] of [[Vienna]] has been the Church's sponsor for his beatification.

Recent milestones include:
*On [[14 April]] [[2003]], the [[Roman Curia|Vatican's]] [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints]] in the presence of [[Pope John Paul II]], promulgated Karl of Austria's "heroic virtues."
*On [[21 December]] 2003, the Congregation certified, on the basis of three expert medical opinions, that a miracle in [[1960]] occurred through the [[Intercession of saints|intercession]] of Karl. The miracle attributed to Karl was the scientifically inexplicable healing of a Brazilian nun with debilitating [[varicose vein]]s; she was able to get out of bed after she prayed for his [[beatification]].
*On [[3 October]] [[2004]], he was beatified by Pope John Paul II. The Pope also declared [[21 October]], the date of Karl's marriage in 1911 to Princess Zita, as Karl's [[feast day]]. The beatification has caused controversy because the belief that Karl may have authorized his army's use of [[poison gas]] during [[World War I]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3710810.stm]

==Official Title of Karl I==
{| align=right
|-
|{{Infobox Austriaemperorstyles|
royal name=Charles of Austria|
dipstyle=[[Imperial Majesty|His Imperial Majesty]]|
offstyle=Your Imperial Majesty|
altstyle=Sire|}}
|}
{| align=right
|-
|{{infobox hungarykstyles|
royal name=Charles IV of Hungary|
dipstyle=[[Apostolic Majesty|His Apostolic Majesty]]|
offstyle=Your Apostolic Majesty|
altstyle=Sire|}}
|}
His Imperial and Royal Apostolic Majesty,

Charles the First,

By the Grace of God,
Emperor of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]],
Apostolic King of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], of this name the Fourth,
King of [[Bohemia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Croatia]], [[Slavonia]], and [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], [[Lodomeria]], and [[Illyria]]; King of [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] etc., Archduke of [[Austria]]; Grand Duke of [[Tuscany]] and [[Cracow]], Duke of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] and of [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]], of [[Styria]], of [[Carinthia]], of [[Carniola]] and of the [[Bukovina]]; Grand Prince of [[Transylvania]]; Margrave of [[Moravia]]; Duke of Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], of [[Duchy of Modena|Modena]], [[Duchy of Parma|Parma]], [[Piacenza]] and [[Guastalla]], of [[Oświęcim|Auschwitz]] and [[Zator]], of [[Teschen]], [[Friuli]], [[Dubrovnik|Ragusa]] and [[Zadar|Zara]]; Princely Count of [[Habsburg]] and [[Tyrol]], of [[Kyburg]], [[Gorizia]] and [[Gradisca]]; Prince of [[Trento|Trent]] and [[Brixen]]; Margrave of Upper and Lower [[Lusatia]] and in [[Istria]]; Count of [[Hohenems]], [[Feldkirch, Vorarlberg|Feldkirch]], [[Bregenz]], [[Sonnenberg]], etc.; Lord of [[Trieste]], of [[Kotor|Cattaro]], and in the [[Wendish Mark]]; [[Grosswojwod|Grand Voivode]] of the [[Voivodship of Serbia and Tamiš Banat|Voivodship of Serbia]] etc. etc.

==See also==
*[[Otto von Habsburg]], Karl's oldest son and [[as of 2006]] head of the [[Habsburg]] family
*[[Austria-Hungary]]

==External links==
{{commons2|Karl I of Austria}}
*[http://www.geocities.com/veldes1/karl.html Karl v. Habsburg-Lothringen]

{{start box}}
{{succession box one to four|
before=[[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]]|
title1=[[Emperor of Austria]]|after1=[[First Austrian Republic|Directory of the Council of State]]|years1=[[1916]]–[[1918]]|
title2=[[King of Hungary]] and Croatia|after2=[[Mihály Károlyi]] [[President of Hungary|Provisional President]]|
years2=[[1916]]–[[1918]]|
title4=[[Habsburg|Head of the House of Habsburg]]|years4=[[1916]]–[[1922]]|after4=[[Otto von Habsburg]]|
title3=[[King of Bohemia]]|after3=[[Tomáš Masaryk]] [[President of Czechoslovakia]]|years3=[[1916]]–[[1918]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1887 births|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:1922 deaths|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Deaths by pneumonia]]
[[Category:Austrian Field Marshals|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Beatified people|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Bohemian monarchs|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Emperors of Austria|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Germany|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Hungarian monarchs|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:House of Habsburg-Lorraine|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Knights of Malta|Karl I of Austria]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Karl I of Austria]]

[[cs:Karel I.]]
[[de:Karl I. (Österreich-Ungarn)]]
[[et:Karl I (Austria-Ungari)]]
[[es:Carlos I de Austria-Hungría]]
[[eo:Karolo la 1-a (Aŭstrio)]]
[[fr:Charles Ier d'Autriche]]
[[hr:Karlo I., car Austrije]]
[[it:Carlo I d'Austria]]
[[hu:IV. Károly]]
[[nl:Karel I van Oostenrijk]]
[[ja:カール1世 (オーストリア皇帝)]]
[[no:Karl I av Østerrike-Ungarn]]
[[pl:Karol I Habsburg]]
[[pt:Carlos I da Áustria]]
[[ro:Carol I al Austriei]]
[[ru:Карл I (австрийский император)]]
[[fi:Kaarle I (Itävalta)]]
[[sv:Karl I av Österrike]]
[[zh:卡爾一世 (奧匈帝國)]]

Portuguese Workers' Communist Party

2006-08-23T04:50:34Z

MiguelFC:

{{Politics of Portugal}}
[[Image:Pctp mrpp logo.PNG|thumb|left|PCTP/MRPP symbol]]
The '''Communist Party of the Portuguese Workers / Reorganizative Movement of the Party of the Proletariat''' ([[Portuguese_language|Portuguese]]: Partido Comunista dos Trabalhadores Portugueses / Movimento Reorganizativo do Partido do Proletariado or '''PCTP/MRPP''' {{ref|pronunciation}}) is a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] maoist party, originally called MRPP only, founded in [[1970]]. Its first secretary-general was [[Arnaldo Matos]].

The party's political orientation has been the [[Maoist]] since the foundation. In [[1971]], still during the conservative and authoritarian dictatorship led by [[Marcello Caetano]], the party started issuing a newspaper called ''Luta Popular'' (People's Struggle). The party was one of the most active resistance movements before the [[Carnation Revolution|Portuguese democratic revolution]] of [[1974]], especially amongst the students of [[Lisbon]]. After the revolution, the MRPP achieved fame for its large and highly artistic mural paintings. It kept a very intense activity during the years of [[1974]] and [[1975]]. At this time, the party had members that later came to be of high importance in the national politics, for example, [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]] and [[Fernando Rosas]], who left the party in the meanwhile. The party, however, never managed to elect a single MP in legislative elections.

During the revolutionary period of 1974 and 1975, the MRPP was accused (mainly by [[Portuguese Communist Party]]) of working for the [[CIA]]. A belief that was fueled by the cooperation between MRPP and the [[Socialist Party (Portugal)|Socialist Party]] in the first democratic elections.

In [[1976]], the party changed its name to Communist Party of the Portuguese Workers and it was then that it started to use the acronym PCTP/MRPP. Its historical leaders are [[Arnaldo Matos]] and [[Saldanha Sanches]], this last directed the ''Luta Popular'' newspaper. Its current leader is [[Garcia Pereira]].

The party's youth wing, now extinct, was the [[Marxist-Leninist Students Federation]].

==Notes==
#{{note|pronunciation}} It is pronounced [[IPA]]: [{{IPA|pɐɾ'tiðu kumu'niʃtɐ duʃ tɾɐβɐʎɐ'ðoɾɨʃ puɾtu'ɣezɨʃ / muvi'mẽtu ʁiɔɾɣɐnizɐ'tivu du pɐɾ'tiðu du pɾulɨtɐɾi'aðu}}].

==See also==
* [[Politics of Portugal]]
* [[List of political parties in Portugal]]
* [[Carnation Revolution]]
* [[Marxist-Leninist Students Federation]]
* [[Maoism]]

==External link==
* [http://www.pctpmrpp.org Homepage of PCTP/MRPP] {{pt icon}}

{{Portuguese parties}}

[[Category:Communist parties of Portugal]]
[[Category:Maoist organizations]]

[[ca:Partit Comunista dels Treballadors Portuguesos / Moviment Reorganitzatiu del Partit del Proletariat]]
[[en:Communist Party of the Portuguese Workers - Reorganizative Movement of the Party of the Proletariat]]
[[pt:Partido Comunista dos Trabalhadores Portugueses - Movimento Reorganizativo do Partido do Proletariado]]

Military dictatorship

2006-08-23T04:15:30Z

MiguelFC: /* In Europe */

[[Image:pinochetjunta.jpg|thumb|[[Augusto Pinochet]] (sitting) was an army general who led a [[Chilean coup of 1973|military coup]] in [[Chile]] in 1973.]]
:''For related terms, see [[Military rule]]
A '''military dictatorship''' is a [[form of government]] wherein the political power resides with the [[military]]; it is similar but not identical to a [[wikt:stratocracy|stratocracy]], a state ruled directly by the military.

==Nature and typology==
Like all [[dictatorship]]s, a military dictatorship may be official or unofficial, and as a result may not actually qualify as stratocratic (some military dictators, like Panama's [[Manuel Noriega]], are nominally subordinate to the civil government). Mixed forms also exist, where the military exerts a very strong influence without being entirely dominant.

The declaration by which a military coup d'état is made official is called a '''[[pronunciamento]]''', from the Spanish ''pronunciamiento'', 'proclamation'.

The typical military dictatorship in [[Latin America]] was ruled by a '''''[[junta]]''''' (derived from a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word which can be translated as "conference" or "board"), or a committee composed of several officers, often from the military's most senior leadership, but in other cases (e.g. when their military superiors remained loyal to, or indeed were, the previous regime) less senior, as evidenced by the term colonels' regime. Other military dictatorships are entirely in the hands of a single officer, usually the senior army commander. In either case, the [[chairman]] of the junta or the single commander may often personally assume office as [[head of state]].

In the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]], military governments more often came to be led by a single powerful person, and were [[autocracy|autocracies]] in addition to military dictatorships. Leaders like [[Idi Amin]], [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]], and [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]] worked to develop a [[personality cult]] and became the face of the nation inside and outside their countries.

Most military dictatorships are formed after a ''[[coup d'état]]'' has overthrown the previous government. One very different pattern was the one followed by [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime in [[Iraq]], which began as a [[one-party state]] ruled by the [[Ba'ath Party]], but over the course of its existence turned into a military dictatorship (as its leaders donned uniforms and the military became closely involved in the government).

Conversely, other military dictatorships may gradually restore significant components of [[civilian]] government while the senior-most military commander still maintains supreme [[political power]]. In [[Pakistan]], ruling Generals [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] ([[1977]]-[[1988]]) and [[Pervez Musharraf]] ([[1999]] till present) have held singular [[referendums]] to elect themselves [[President of Pakistan]] for a further several years, as well as [[general elections]] voting in civilian Prime Ministers (politically subordinate to the President). Despite this, the [[Pakistan Army]] maintained a monopoly over the power structure in both cases, with the country's four [[Subdivisions of Pakistan|provinces]] entirely coming under the [[dictatorial]] military rule of senior generals in the President's cabinet; such as General [[Rahimuddin Khan]]'s [[authoritarian]] and unprecedentedly long rule over [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], the country's largest province.

In the past, military juntas have justified their rule as a way of bringing political stability for the nation or rescuing it from the threat of "dangerous [[ideology|ideologies]]". This is a form of [[threat construction]]. In Latin America the threat of [[communism]] or [[capitalism]] was often used, while in the Middle East the desire to oppose [[Israel]] and later [[Islamic fundamentalism]] proved an important motivating pattern. Military regimes tend to portray themselves as non-partisan, as a "neutral" party that can provide interim leadership in times of turmoil, and also tend to portray civilian politicians as corrupt and ineffective. One of the almost universal characteristics of a military government is the institution of [[martial law]] or a permanent [[state of emergency]].

Although there are exceptions, military regimes usually have little respect for [[human rights]] and use whatever means necessary to silence political opponents. A military regime is also rarely willing to leave power unless forced to by popular revolt, whether active or imminent.

Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East have been common areas for military dictatorships. One of the reasons for this is the fact that the military often has more cohesion and [[institutional structure]] than most of the civilian institutions of society.

Military dictatorships can be contrasted with other forms of dictatorship. For example, in most current and historical [[Communist state]]s, the center of power rests among civilian party officials, and very careful measures (such as [[political commissar]]s and frequent rotations) are taken to prevent the military from exercising independent authority.

Since the 1990s, military dictatorships have become less common. Reasons for this include the fact that military dictatorships no longer have much international legitimacy, as well as the fact that many militaries having unsuccessfully ruled many nations are now inclined not to become involved in political disputes. Furthermore, the end of the [[Cold War]] and the collapse of the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Soviet Union]] made it more difficult for military regimes to use the threat of [[communism]] as justification for their actions, or to gain support from foreign sources.

As the Cold War began to wind down, military regimes throughout Latin America were replaced with democracies. In the Middle East, regimes such as those of [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] that were once clearly military dictatorships have switched to other forms of [[despotism]].

==Cases==
[[Image:Form of government.png|right|350px|thumb|States currently under military dictatorships are shown in '''olive''']]
The following lists are probably incomplete, especially before World War II
===Nations currently under military rule===
* [[Libya]] - on [[September 1]], [[1969]], a group of military officers staged a coup, and are still in power
* [[Mauritania]] — on [[August 3]], [[2005]], the military staged a coup and declared a two year transitional military dictatorship
* [[Myanmar]] (Burma) - military siezed power in [[1962]].
* [[Pakistan]] (President came to power in coup in 1999, but institutions of civil rule have gradually been re-instated)

===Nations with a legacy of military dictatorship(s)===
====In Africa====
* [[Algeria]] (1965-1994)
* [[Burkina Faso]] (1966-1991)
* [[Burundi]] (1966-1993)
* [[Central African Republic]] (1966-1993)
* [[Chad]] (1975-1991)
* [[Republic of the Congo|Congo-Brazzaville]] (1968-1992)
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo-Kinshasa]] (1965-2001)
* [[Equatorial Guinea]] (1968-1982)
* [[Ethiopia]] (1974-1991)
* [[Guinea]] (1984-1991)
* [[Ghana]] (1966-1969; 1972-1979; 1981-1993)
* [[Liberia]] (1980-1990)
* [[Madagascar]] (1972-1975)
* [[Mauritania]] (1978-1992) (2005-present)
* [[Niger]] (1974-1989; 1996-1999)
* [[Nigeria]] (1966-1979; 1983-1999)
* [[Sierra Leone]] (1992-1996; 1997-1998)
* [[Somalia]] (1969-1991; then local militia rule)
* [[Sudan]] (1958-1964; 1969-2005)
* [[Uganda]] (1962-1986)
* [[The Gambia]] (1994-1997)

====In the Americas====
* [[Argentina]] (1930-1932; 1943-1946; 1955-1958; 1966-1973; 1976-1983)
* [[Brazil]] (1930-1945; 1964-1985)
* [[Chile]] (1973-1990)
* [[Colombia]] (1953-1957)
* [[Dominican Republic]] (1844-1978 with a few exceptions)
* [[El Salvador]] (1931-1992)
* [[Guatemala]] (1931-1944; 1954-1986)
* [[Haiti]] (1957-1990; 1991-1994)
* [[Honduras]] (1963-1971; 1972-1982)
* [[Panama]] (1968-1989)
* [[Paraguay]] (1940-1948; 1949-1989)
* [[Peru]] (1948-1956; 1968-1980)
* [[Suriname]] (1980-1988)
* [[Uruguay]] (1973-1985)
* [[Venezuela]] (1952-1958)

====In Asia====
* [[Bangladesh]] (1975-1979; 1982-1990)
* [[Burma]] (1962-1988; 1990-Present)
* [[China]] (1916-1927)(or 1920-1949)
* [[Indonesia]] (1967-1998)
* [[Iraq]] (1958-1968)
* [[Pakistan]] (1958-1971; 1978-1988; 1999-Present)
* [[South Korea]] (1961-1979; 1980-1987)
* [[Thailand]] (1938-1992 with a few exceptions)
* [[Turkey]] (1960-1962; 1971-1973; 1980-1982)

====In Europe====
* [[Commonwealth of England]] (1648-1659) Dated from Pride's Purge, the first major act the army took to control the Parliament to the abdication of Lord Protector of Richard Cromwell.
* [[Greece]] (1967-1974)
* [[Military Council of National Salvation|Poland]] (1981-1983)
* [[Portugal]] (1926-1933)
* [[Romania]] under [[Ion Antonescu]] (1941-1944)
* [[Spain]] (1923-1930; 1939-1975)

==See also==
* [[The Generals]]

{{Autocratic}}

[[Category:Constitutional state types]]
[[Category:Military]]
[[Category:Civil-military relations]]
[[Category:Military dictatorship|*]]
[[Category:Political engineering by coup]]

[[de:Militärdiktatur]]
[[el:Χούντα]]
[[es:Dictadura militar]]
[[fr:Dictature militaire]]
[[he:משטר צבאי]]
[[nl:Junta]]
[[ja:軍事国家]]
[[no:Diktatur]]
[[pl:Junta wojskowa]]
[[pt:Junta militar]]
[[fi:Sotilasdiktatuuri]]
[[sv:Militärjunta]]

Talk:Military dictatorship

2006-08-23T04:14:34Z

MiguelFC: Portugal (1933-1968)

{{WPCD}}

'''5/1 Revision:''' 
Mostly I cleaned up grammar and miscellaneous wording stuff. However, I did delete the sentence: 
''Few [[Communist]] regimes are military dictatorships, and controlling the military so that it cannot challenge the party has been a persistent concern of these regimes.'' 
Not because it was innacurate or controversial, but because it is basically repeated later in the article and it destroys the flow of the article where it was. 
--[[User:Xinoph|Xinoph]] 23:03, May 1, 2004 (UTC)

:Argentina under Juan Domingo Perón (1946-1955) was not a military dictatorship, Peron was elected by the people of Argentina in elections everyone recognized as fair.
Malau1

==The Confederacy==
Why is the Confederate States of America listed as a military dicatorship? It had a democratically elected government which was in power until the end of the American Civil War. --[[User:203.52.130.138|203.52.130.138]] 02:19, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

The article does not give a clear distiction or definition of stratocracy. The wikidictionary link provided defines stratocracy as military government.

== Pakistan ==

Why is [[Pakistan]] listed as a military dictatorship under its present form. Despite their being a coup in '99, the Supreme Court of Pakistan has since recognized Musharraf as the president and a referendum was held and extended his current executive power for five more years. Read the note under "Executive Branch" [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pk.html#Govt|here]. [[User:Pepsidrinka|Pepsidrinka]] 04:38, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

As I understand immediately after coup in '99 all Supreme Court Judges had to take the oath again to confirm faith in new rulers..I remember that time one judget refused and he was sacked .So recognition of Musharraf by the Supreme Court does not carry much weight.About referendum many dictators get themselves "elected" .One recent example is of dictator of Belarus.

In military dictatorship there are two words .Militray -Yes Mussharaf is uniformed chief of army staff .Dictatoship - we need to find what poewrs does he have .We know he himself has made the law as who can contest elections and who can not( denied n Shariff and Bhutto to contest elections) ,who are eligible to vote and many more laws .He has power to dismiss the prime minister -he selected a new prime minister a few years back , he has all executive powers in practice , he receives all foreign dignataries ( recently Pakisitani PM was nowehere to be seen when President Bush visited Pakistan) and he has a constituted body which has military people in majority and that body can overule any decision of cabinet .So all in all it is dictatorship .And Military dictatorship to be specific. [[User:Shyamsunder|Shyamsunder]] 12:38, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Not only does the Chief of Army Staff hold, in practice, all executive power, serving army officers are running many of the civil institutions of Pakistan. Much recent legislation was through presidential ordinance as well. Parts of that which were of a constitutional nature have gone through parliament as well, but since parliament is nowhere near free from military pressure, this hardly constitutes a democratic act. I think Pakistan should stay on the list. --[[User:82.41.33.42|82.41.33.42]] 10:55, 12 May 2006 (UTC) Salman

== Portugal (1933-1968) ==

Portugal was not a military dictatorship from 1933 to 1968. It was ruled under a civil constitution, the [[Estado Novo]].

--[[User:MiguelFC|MiguelFC]] 04:14, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Talk:Declaration of war

2006-08-07T22:29:43Z

MiguelFC: /* Ongoing war query */

{{WPMILHIST
|class=Start
}}

I can't seem to find any info on a "Border War" in 1917. Is this the Allied intervention in the Russian counterrevolution, or something else? I've got dates of 1919-1921 for that. -- [[User:EvanProdromou|ESP]] 18:57 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
:That would be the "punitive expedition" against [[Pancho Villa]]'s forces conducted by the US, led by [[John Pershing]]. - [[User:Hephaestos|Hephaestos]] 19:01 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

::Ah, the [[Mexican Border War]]. OK, cool. -- [[User:EvanProdromou|ESP]] 19:14 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
-----
I've tried to make this article less Ameri-centric and reflect the historical developments around declarations of war in international war as occurred in the twentieth century. [[User:Alex756|Alex756]]

-----

Corrected some information...

Bush, like every other President since Nixon has asserted that he has the right to commit American troops without congressional authorization. Nevertheless, he did not "ignore" the War Powers Act, as the Congressional authorization of force against Iraq satisfied the provision of the War Powers Act.

Second, the issue of whether the U.S. government can commit troops in the absence of a declaration of war, is not "unsettled." U.S. governments have done so numerous times since WWII, and there is *no* reason to think that there will be any constitutional interpretation that would limit this in the near future.

[[User:Roadrunner|Roadrunner]]

==Iraq?==
"Having refused to sign the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Iraq has remained in a state of war with Israel ever since."

Does this apply after the U.S. invasion?

[[User:Sir Elderberry|Sir Elderberry]] 17:07, 26 April 2006 (UTC)
== separation of U.S. info ==

I cut the U.S. info and pasted it into [[Declarations of war in the United States]]. The U.S. info was dwarfing the rest of the info in this article. Also, I intend to add more info to the U.S. section. [[User:Kingturtle|Kingturtle]] 05:49, 5 Feb 2004 (UTC)

== geneva and hague still operative ==

This article needs some major work. It comes down heavily on the side that declarations of war are obsolete and that sovereignty lies in international bodies. Geneva and Hague are still in effect, despite efforts to bend them to modern political sentiment.

The broader argument is what form a valid declaration of war may take. I also don't see how a Declaration of War can be seen as an impediment to peace rather than as a protection of combatants and non-combatants. [[User:Cecropia|Cecropia]] 03:36, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

== Comments on section 3 ("Current declarations") ==

As the article seems to be technically about formal declarations of war, in the public international law meaning of this term, I am not sure of the accuracy of the references to Korean war and to Yom Kippur war. Though I have no special knowledge of the topic, a web search has induced me to find out that, according to a lecturer at Liverpool University (see http://www.crimesofwar.org/thebook/act-of-war.html ) the very last "declaration of war" in the world was the declaration of [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/Dip/USSR-Jap-DoW.html USSR against Japan]. I have chosen to do no edit at all in the text, but to leave a hint of my doubts on this discussion page. --[[User:French Tourist|French Tourist]] 18:26, 30 Aug 2004 (UTC)

== Finland vs. UK ==

On the 'Continuation War' article, it is mentioned that "The United Kingdom declared a war against [[Finland]] on December 6, 1941, but did not participate actively"

I seem to remember that the war wasn't formally ended... should it be counted to the list?

== US: The power to declare war vs. the power to authorize military action ==

I just read something in the latest (11/21/05) issue of ''National Review'' that suprised me (from a review of John Yoo's ''The Powers of War and Peace'', p. 48). Like most people, I've always assumed that the power to declare war meant the power to authorize the use of military force. Not so:

<blockquote>
Yoo begins by debunking the view
enshrined in the War Powers Resolution
that, except in self-defense, U.S. forces
may not be sent into combat for more than
60 days without explicit congressional
authorization. He argues that the Constitution
contains “no textually mandated
process for going to war,” a claim that may
shock readers used to extolling Article I’s
provision that Congress shall have power
“to declare War.” Yoo freely acknowledges
that only Congress may declare
war, but, tying his argument closely to the
debates and practices at the time of the
Framing, asserts that the power to declare
war was conceived, not as a check on the
executive, but as an authority to “define
relationships and status under international
law”: to announce belligerent status,
forbid commerce with an enemy, etc. This
ritualistic aspect of the declaration of war
is well captured in Winston Churchill’s
famous aphorism: “When you have to kill
a man it costs nothing to be polite.”

In the 18th century, open hostilities regularly
preceded “declared” war by years.
King George II, the last English sovereign
to lead his troops in battle, defeated the
French at Dettingen in 1743, nearly a full
year before war with France was officially
declared. Similarly, Major George Washington
fought his celebrated action at Fort
Necessity two years before Parliament
“declared” the Seven Years War. In the
minds of the Founders, then, “to declare
war” had a meaning very different from
“to authorize the use of force.” As Yoo
explains, the idea that Congress’s power to
declare war would be used to restrict the
president’s ability to send forces into combat
“does not appear” in the debates of the
Founding period.
</blockquote>
--[[User:Counterrevolutionary|Counterrevolutionary]] 23:14, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

== Removed sentence ==
I removed the following:
:"In the twentieth century, the concept of ''war'' as such has been gradually replaced with the [[authorized use of force]] as recognized under international norms."
This is complete twaddle; war has always been "authorized" by the aggressor; war is now no more or less "authorized" than it ever was. Widespread backing for a war, even UN backing, does not make it anything other than war. -- [[User:The Anome|The Anome]] 16:41, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

== Merger discussion? ==

Someone has slapped on a couple of merge tags, without explaining why they think the merges are good ideas. Personally, I think that is irresponsible. The merge tag expands to tell readers to go to the talk page to join the discussion. Well, who the heck is supposed to initiate the discussion, if it isn't the person who placed the tag? Are the rest of us supposed to '''''guess why you think merging is a good idea?''''

A declaration of war has a specific meaning. A declation of war is not the same as a war, it is not the same as a police action. Even though the modern fashion is to go to war without a formal declaration or war ''(World War 2 is the last declared war the US fought...)'' formal declarations are still important, and merits an article of its own. -- [[User:Geo Swan|Geo Swan]] 04:02, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

'''Removing''' the Merge tag. Obvious reasons: [[police action]] is defined as entering war ''without declaring war''!!! Same goes for [[authorized use of force]]. That it is too short is not an argument; it must be enlarged. However, maybe we could consider merging those two articles together? [[User:Lapaz|Lapaz]] 09:04, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

== Ongoing war query ==

I am unconvinced that Netherlands and Portugal were at war from 1567,
and can find nothing on the referenced 1567 page;
war between Netherlands and Spain commenced the following year,
and does not appear to have involved Portugal. Please convince me!
Moreover, the Netherlands have actually signed a peace treaty
with Portugal after 1567 - a peace in 1661/2 brokered by Charles II,
involving a lot of compensation paid to the Netherlands by Portugal,
though this was at least in part to resolve the dispute regarding
Portugal's reconquest of Brazil.
Ron H-W

I believe that Israel and Lebanon/Syria have been in a state of war since 1948, not 1973 (looking for references to back that up) [[User:Nloth|Nloth]] 04:06, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

Netherlands did not exist back in 1567, unless there is a referance confirming the fact that these two countries are in a state of war, I will remove the sentence from the ongoing wars list. --[[User:TimBits|TimBits]] [[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|25px|<nowiki></nowiki>]] 17:24, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

: I have actually read something about an ongoing war between Portugal and the Netherlands which had begun in the 16th century. Not sure about where I read it, though.--[[User:MiguelFC|MiguelFC]] 22:29, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

== Berwick upon Tweed ==

I have seen it alleged that Berwick upon Tweed is specifically mentioned in
Britain's 1914 declaration of war against Germany but not in the peace treaties
of 1918/9, This is similar to its inclusion in the 1853 declaration of the
Crimean War and its omission from the 1856 peace treaty. Surely if inclusion
in these treaties was not needed under the Wales and Berwick Act 1746,
then inclusion in these declarations was redundant?
Ron H-W

The story is untrue - see details in [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] [[User:Nloth|Nloth]] 04:11, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

== Sept 14 2001 not a declaration of war ==

I removed a paragraph from the current declarations subsection that I consider misleading. It said that "strictly speaking" the [[September 14]] [[2001]] Congressional authorization was not a declaration of war. I think it is misleading and POV to imply it is. Possibly POV too. The Bush administration has argued that Bush can assume wartime powers. And the other two branches of the US government are challenging the constitutionality of his actions. -- [[User:Geo Swan|Geo Swan]] 00:35, 2 March 2006 (UTC)

== "Feeling Bound" ==

<blockquote>Not declaring war provides a way to circumvent constitutional safeguards against the executive declaring war, and also, in some cases, to avoid ''feeling bound'' by the established laws of war.</blockquote>
Poorly written nonsense, [[WP:NOR|original research]], and [[WP:NPOV|POV]]. [[User:Patsw|patsw]] 01:38, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

== "Public-relations friendly" ==

<blockquote>Not using the word "war" is also seen as being more public relations-friendly. </blockquote>
Poorly written nonsense, [[WP:NOR|original research]], and [[WP:NPOV|POV]]. [[User:Patsw|patsw]] 01:42, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

== "Non-war wars" -> "Undeclared wars" ==

The section title "Non-war wars" sounds very silly. It is actually referring to undeclare wars, which makes more sense given the article title. I'm making the change. [[User:Patiwat|Patiwat]] 20:48, 25 July 2006 (UTC)