Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

User talk:Nick-D

2015-11-28T17:10:31Z

Muta112: /* Removing my user page */ new section

{{Administrator}}
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{{border|Welcome to my talk page. Please leave new messages at the bottom of this page. I generally watchlist other editors' talk pages I comment on during discussions, but please also feel free to leave me a {{tl|talkback}} template when you respond. If you send me an email, I'd appreciate it if you could also drop me a note here as they're sometimes automatically sent to my spam folder and I don't notice them. Please note that I may reply to emails on your talk page, though I'll do so in a way that does not disclose the exact content of the email if the matter is sensitive. As a note to my fellow administrators, I ''do'' care if you undo my actions without first discussing the matter with me. I have no delusions of perfection, but it's basic courtesy to discuss things rather than simply over-ride other admins' decisions (it's also required by policy). I'm quite likely to agree with you anyway!|style=double|color-SandyBrown}}
[[File:Ferry arriving at Mosman Bay wharf June 2015.jpg|thumb|500px|center|A ferry arriving at [[Mosman Bay ferry wharf]]]]
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 1|Talk archive 1 (November 2005–May 2008)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 2|Talk archive 2 (June–December 2008)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 3|Talk archive 3 (January-July 2009)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 4|Talk archive 4 (August–December 2009)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 5|Talk archive 5 (January–June 2010)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 6|Talk archive 6 (July–December 2010)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 7|Talk archive 7 (January–June 2011)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 8|Talk archive 8 (July-December 2011)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 9|Talk archive 9 (January-June 2012)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 10|Talk archive 10 (July-December 2012)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 11|Talk archive 11 (January-June 2013)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 12|Talk archive 12 (July-December 2013)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 13|Talk archive 13 (2014)]] 
[[User talk:Nick-D/Archive 14|Talk archive 14 (2015)]]

[[User talk:Nick-D/Awards|Awards people have given me]]

==Economy of Somalia==
Thanks very much for all the hard work you two are doing on this. But are you confident in going ahead without any reverts - has any action taken place? [[User:Buckshot06|Buckshot06]] [[User_talk:Buckshot06|(talk)]] 21:51, 6 July 2015 (UTC)
:Not as far as I'm aware. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:37, 7 July 2015 (UTC)

== April–June 2015 MilHist reviewing award ==

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|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | &ensp;'''''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Military_history/Awards#Service_awards|Military history reviewers' award]]'''''&ensp;
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid lightsteelblue;" | For completing 7 reviews during April–June 2015, on behalf of the Wikiproject Military History coordinators, I hereby award you the Military history reviewers' award. Cheers, [[User:Ian Rose|Ian Rose]] ([[User talk:Ian Rose|talk]]) 10:07, 8 July 2015 (UTC) Keep track of upcoming reviews. Just copy and paste {{tlx|WPMILHIST Review alerts}} to your user space
|}
:Thanks Ian [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 12:12, 8 July 2015 (UTC)

== Australian frontier wars - Cook first (known) European ==

Hi. In regard to the reversion of my recent minor edits, I'd like to say that I believe it legitimate to indicate that Cook was the first "known" European to chart the east Australian coast, due to the significant possibility that others may have done so earlier (see [[Theory of the Portugese discovery of Australia]]. I also wish to point to the fact that several other articles on Wikipedia make reference to a place being first "known" to have been discovered by European (insert name here).
I look forward to your responce. [[User:Aardwolf A380|Aardwolf A380]] ([[User talk:Aardwolf A380|talk]]) 11:05, 9 July 2015 (UTC)
:This debate (to the minor extent to which it exists from what I've seen) is simply not relevant to the topic of that article, which is about the fighting which took place after the British colonists landed in Australia. I don't think that we should be adding what appear to be largely hypothetical claims into articles on unrelated topics. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 11:38, 9 July 2015 (UTC)
::Ok, thanks :) [[User:Aardwolf A380|Aardwolf A380]] ([[User talk:Aardwolf A380|talk]]) 11:43, 9 July 2015 (UTC)

== Administraotor's discussion ==

Hi Nick! User EyeTruth has involved me in another Administrator's discussion. I mentioned your name at the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators%27_noticeboard/Edit_warring#User:Gunbirddriver_reported_by_User:EyeTruth_.28Result:_.29 Adminstrator's Edit Warring page]. You don't have to come by, and you don't have to say anything. I did mention your name there though and I wanted to make sure you were made aware. It's just an FYI. Thanks. [[User:Gunbirddriver|Gunbirddriver]] ([[User talk:Gunbirddriver|talk]]) 03:54, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
:Thanks for the note [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:30, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
::I closed [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators%27_noticeboard/Edit_warring#User:Gunbirddriver_reported_by_User:EyeTruth_.28Result:_No_violation.29 this report] as no violation since I couldn't think of anything reasonable to do, but your comments would still be welcome. Thanks, [[User:EdJohnston|EdJohnston]] ([[User talk:EdJohnston|talk]]) 13:00, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
I came to notify you, but Gunbirddriver already did. I will add that I've started a [[Talk:Battle of Prokhorovka#Recent changes|discussion on the Prokhorovka talkpage]]. You're welcomed to check it out, thanks. Part of the dispute is very similar to the blitzkrieg one. Sources say xxxxx, but Gunbirddriver disagrees, believing that there must be other sources that say otherwise. Hopefully, he will provide those soon. [[User:EyeTruth|EyeTruth]] ([[User talk:EyeTruth|talk]]) 19:18, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

:I'll try to look into this tomorrow. I still have the Glanz and House book on the Battle of Kursk if a third party checking sources would be helpful here. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 11:54, 14 July 2015 (UTC)

== Christmas Island ==

Hello, Nick - I've been reading the article on [[Christmas Island]], and I came across a sentence that sounds odd to me. It's the second sentence in the section [[Christmas Island#Japanese invasion]]:

*A naval gun was installed under a British officer and four NCOs and 27 Indian soldiers.

I know that the sentence might sound perfectly ordinary to a military person, but to a non-military reader it sounds a little odd. Perhaps a few words could be added after "under"? "Under the command of", or something like that? [[User:CorinneSD|CorinneSD]] ([[User talk:CorinneSD|talk]]) 02:00, 14 July 2015 (UTC)

:How about "A naval gun manned by a British officer, four NCOs and 27 Indian soldiers"? [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:38, 14 July 2015 (UTC)

== The Morgenthau Plan ==

My book was recently purged from Wikipedia. The Morgenthau Plan: Soviet Influence on American Postwar Planning has been chucked down the memory hole. Of course there were legitimate reasons for its deletion. I asked Wikipedia to explain and they kindly responded:

"I've just removed the material referenced to the book The Morgenthau Plan: Soviet Influence on American Postwar Policy as it does not appear to be a reliable source. The book's publisher Alora Publishing looks like a publisher of WP:FRINGE-type works judging from what it chooses to highlight on its website, and I could not find any reviews of the book in reliable sources, and many of the references to it on the internet are to extremist websites. The author's website is also not typical of that of a neutral historian. Nick-D (talk) 22:41, 11 October 2014 (UTC)
Worldcat shows it owned by 1319 libraries, a very substantial number. This of course does not mean it is an authority, but it might appear to be of considerable interest. Google Scholar shows it has been cited 16 times, as follows: [6]. DGG (David Goodman) ( talk ) 20:21, 14 July 2015 (UTC) (I wrote this is response to an OTRS query asking about the removal of the book)."

According to Nick the book is not a reliable source. But he seems to think it was published by Alora Publishing, a publisher of “fringe-type” works. I tried to find Alora Publishing but was not successful. I contacted my publisher and he thought that Nick’s comments may have been a joke. Nick claims that he could not find any reviews of my book in reliable sources. I guess Publishers’ Weekly and Choice magazine (by the American Library Association, for academic libraries) are not considered reliable. Perhaps it was wrong of the BBC to contact me for an interview in Things We Forgot to Remember. My blog is not and has never claimed to be the work of a neutral historian.

Nick raises one troubling point about my book: “many of the references to it on the internet are to extremist websites.” I do not have any control over who references my work. In my research I have run across a great deal of anti-Semitism. This is unfortunate because it is a distraction and it is used to discredit anyone looking for the truth. Many of the key people involved with the Morgenthau Plan were Jewish, however, one of its strongest critics, Victor Gollancz, was also a Jew. I am not aware of any extremist claims in my book although its conclusions are outrageous. We live in interesting times and some even think the Little Sisters of the Poor are extremists.

The bottom line is: Who is more credible? Check the Algora Publishing website. If you believe it is “fringe” you will agree with Nick. If you check it out and wonder what Nick is talking about then you will know why Wikipedia has a bad reputation for veracity. [[Special:Contributions/108.19.156.56|108.19.156.56]] ([[User talk:108.19.156.56|talk]]) 22:21, 16 July 2015 (UTC)

:[http://www.amazon.com/The-Morgenthau-Plan-Influence-American/dp/1892941902 Amazon.com], [https://books.google.com.au/books/about/The_Morgenthau_Plan.html?id=6rZHuqGq4osC&hl=en Google books], [http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-morgenthau-plan-soviet-influence-on-american-foreign-policy-john-dietrich/1108333633?ean=9781892941909 Barnsandnoble.com] and [http://www.algora.com/43/book/details.html Algora Publishing's website] all say that the book was published by Algora Publishing. I made a typo in my post, which is irrelevant in any circumstances, and particularly here as I also linked to the firm's website. I note that the Algora Publishing website has an odd note in its link to the BBC interview saying that "Note that even this program on the whole continues to deflect responsibility for the genocide"; a publisher which calls the Allied occupation of Germany a "genocide" is highly unlikely to have the standards of fact checking and professionalism needed for its books to qualify as reliable sources. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:01, 17 July 2015 (UTC)
::I see that the publisher's website also refers to the Allied occupation of Germany as a "twentieth century holocaust"... [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 12:01, 17 July 2015 (UTC)

Nick,
You have inspired me to write a third edition on the Morgenthau Plan. If you like I will send you a copy of the second edition. You can read it and send me your corrections. If I find them valid I will incorporate them in the third edition and give you the credit. I can not speak for Algora Publishing but I used the term “holocaust” because one of its definitions is: “any mass slaughter or reckless destruction of life.” I know that Ukrainians got a lot of grief for using that term to describe their famine and eventually switched to using the term Holodomor. Unfortunately this word has not made it into Dictionary.com. If you can suggest another term for reckless destruction of life I would be glad to use it. A writer’s credibility is everything. That is why throughout my work I try not to exaggerate. If I quote a source that appears to exaggerate I let the reader know. I intentionally used the term holocaust because there was an intentional and reckless destruction of life as a result of policies devised by our progressive and oft times Communist bureaucrats. That is a fact Jack. Even the negative review on Amazon does not contest my facts but claims I wrote the book for an “odious cause.” I wrote the book to reveal an uncomfortable truth. In my research I ran into quite a bit of anti-Semitism. I have tried to make it clear that I do not espouse these ideas. The malicious comments made by anti-Semites are used to discredit people like me who are sincerely looking for the truth.[[Special:Contributions/108.19.156.56|108.19.156.56]] ([[User talk:108.19.156.56|talk]]) 03:26, 18 July 2015 (UTC)

:Good luck with the book, but I don't think that it's going to meet Wikipedia's criteria for reliable sources. I'm pleased to hear that you're not an anti-Semite (I never suggested that you were), and I imagine that you must find it annoying to see your book being quoted by extremists. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 03:34, 18 July 2015 (UTC)

==[[Coverage of Google Street View]]==
Hi. Please lock the page again. Thanks. [[User:Eugen Simion 14|'''Eugεn''']][[User talk:Eugen Simion 14|'''S¡m¡on''']][[User:Eugen Simion 14|(14) ®]] 14:19, 21 July 2015 (UTC)
:Hi Eugen, can you please clarify your concern here? The high volume of unreferenced IP edits looks worrying, but I can't see anything which looks outright wrong. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:03, 22 July 2015 (UTC)
::I don't have enogh time to revert IP vandalism. That is frustrating. You think I have nothing else better to do? Look at history page https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coverage_of_Google_Street_View&action=history - [[User:Eugen Simion 14|'''Eugεn''']][[User talk:Eugen Simion 14|'''S¡m¡on''']][[User:Eugen Simion 14|(14) ®]] 07:44, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
:::{{ping|Eugen Simion 14}} can you please tell me which edits you consider to be vandalism? It isn't clear to me given that the referencing for that article is pretty crap, and I also don't have unlimited amounts of Wiki-time to sort through them, especially as you apparently have spotted actionable problems. Help me out here please. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 07:53, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
::::Disruptive editing or vandalism - [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coverage_of_Google_Street_View&type=revision&diff=672700218&oldid=672700103] , [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coverage_of_Google_Street_View&type=revision&diff=672388557&oldid=672384366] and more others. It's not a great idea to keep this article unprotected. [[User:Eugen Simion 14|'''Eugεn''']][[User talk:Eugen Simion 14|'''S¡m¡on''']][[User:Eugen Simion 14|(14) ®]] 09:38, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
:::::OK, that sounds sensible, done. I didn't realise that the protection only finished a few days ago! I've set the duration to indefinite. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:11, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
::::::Well done, thanks. - [[User:Eugen Simion 14|'''Eugεn''']][[User talk:Eugen Simion 14|'''S¡m¡on''']][[User:Eugen Simion 14|(14) ®]] 10:51, 23 July 2015 (UTC)

== ''The Bugle'': Issue CXII, July 2015 ==

{| style="width: 100%;"
| valign="top" style="border: 1px gray solid; padding: 1em;" |
{|
| [[File:The Bugle.png|250px|link=Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News|alt=Full front page of The Bugle]]
| width="100%" valign="top" | <div style="text-align: center; color: darkslategray;">'''Your Military History Newsletter'''</div>
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* Project news: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/July 2015/Project news|From the editors; awards and honours; contest results]]''
* Articles: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/July 2015/Articles|Last month's new Featured and A-Class content]]''
* Book review: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/July 2015/Book reviews|Recent external reviews]]''
* Review essay: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/July 2015/Review essay|Nick-D on sourcing articles about bombing a battleship]]''
* Op-ed: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/July 2015/Op-ed|TomStar81 on the role of nursing in World War I]]''
* Timeline: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/July 2015/World War I timeline|This month in World War I]]''
</div>
|-
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: 85%; margin:0 auto; text-align:center;">
''The Bugle'' is published by the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history|Military history WikiProject]]. To receive it on your talk page, please [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Members|join the project]] or sign up [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3#Non-members who want delivery|here]]. If you are a project member who does not want delivery, please remove your name from [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3|this page]]. Your editors, [[User:Ian Rose|Ian Rose]] ([[User talk:Ian Rose|talk]]) and [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D|talk]]) 22:35, 22 July 2015 (UTC)
</div>


== Bugle post ==

Hey Nick, I'm here in my WMF role. Would you be interested in adapting [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/July 2015/Review essay]] for an external audience and republishing it on the Wikimedia blog? :-) Pieces that explore the background and difficulties behind writing Wikipedia articles are something I've been pushing for more of. [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 08:22, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
:Sure, I'd be happy to. Do you have a suggested deadline for me? ;) Any advice on how to adapt the article for that audience would also be great (for instance, am I right in thinking that you'd be interested in more on how the article was written, and bit less on how it was researched?). Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:10, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
:I'm flexible and don't know your schedule. Is Monday doable?
:First, they're going to have little to no specialist knowledge of WWII and these battles, so you're going to have to add more context. Second, I don't think I'd take out much on your researching. One of the point I'm trying to get across to the world, something you may have noticed in the Texas Revolution piece I recently did, is just how far some Wikipedia editors have to go to write these articles—even on a topic like WWII that you'd think is well-covered. Third, more links would be nice, both to the books and maybe a link to the TFA for the 70th anniversary. :-) [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 20:43, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
::Also, what would you think of an alternate title starting with "You sunk my battleship: ... "? ;-) [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 20:44, 23 July 2015 (UTC)
{{ping|Ed Erhart (WMF)}} How does the draft at [[User:Nick-D/reviews]] look? I've suggested a more snappy title, and would prefer not to use ""You sunk my battleship" given that the main feature of these attacks was the the battleship wasn't sunk ;) [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 12:11, 26 July 2015 (UTC)
::Ah, I forgot that it was the RAF that sunk ''Tirpitz''. Point there. And here I was so excited for a title like that. ;-)
::Could you also provide a paragraph or two to summarize what happened here? If I was someone who knew nothing about the topic, I'd wonder why ''Tirpitz'' was in a fjord, why the British would want to sink it, and what your three articles are specifically about. :-) [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 00:19, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
:::{{ping|Ed Erhart (WMF)}} I've just added some introductory history - how does it look? (I suspect that it might be on the long side). I'm happy to leave it up to you to draft the tweets - I've tried doing this at work, and have been told that my tweets are much too boring to be published by my staff! [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 12:07, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
::::Hey Nick, as you've probably seen, I've been in and out of that page for a little bit. I'm happy with it now, but I'm going to have a collleague go through it as well to make sure all the milhist bits are comprehensible. Other than that, we have it scheduled to go out tomorrow (US time) but that will likely slip by a day or two depending on our other posts—we have five scheduled for Tuesday and Wednesday, at least two of which are time sensitive. I'll keep you up to date if those plans change! [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 01:20, 4 August 2015 (UTC)
:::::OK, thanks for the update Ed - that sounds good [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 09:06, 4 August 2015 (UTC)
::::::Last question: are you okay with the blog running under your real name? I thought it was on your user page, but it's not there now. That's the last hurdle! [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 01:50, 5 August 2015 (UTC)
:::::::Yes, that would be fine [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:50, 5 August 2015 (UTC)
::And it's [[wmfblog:2015/08/05/the-hunt-for-tirpitz/|published]]! :-) [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 18:35, 5 August 2015 (UTC)
:::Thanks Ed, it looks really good [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 23:07, 5 August 2015 (UTC)
::::Hi Nick. I'd like to thank you for the acknowledgement you made of my contributions, in both the Bugle post and the blog article. I'm glad I could take some small part in the ''Tirpitz'' project. Cheers. [[User:Manxruler|Manxruler]] ([[User talk:Manxruler|talk]]) 12:40, 6 August 2015 (UTC)
:::::Thanks again for your contributions! [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:55, 6 August 2015 (UTC)

:There's also this coming out in a day or two: [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2015-08-12/Blog]]. :-) [[User:Ed Erhart (WMF)|Ed Erhart (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)|talk]]) 03:10, 13 August 2015 (UTC)
::Thanks Ed [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 12:12, 14 August 2015 (UTC)

== Cliffside Malibu ==
[[Cliffside Malibu]]
I went to start an article on this subject because I've seen it pop up in a lot of celebrity rehab-related articles, and I noticed you had deleted a previous article about the topic for being blatant advertising. I just want you to be aware that I am working on this article, and that my goal is just to create a reference point for the topic because it has gained prominence enough that someone who is not a celebrity watcher has noticed. If you have any concerns, please let me know. Thanks! [[User:ChrisGriswold|Chris Griswold]] (<big>[[User talk:ChrisGriswold|☎]][[Special:Contributions/ChrisGriswold|☓]]</big>) 18:45, 24 July 2015 (UTC)
:Hi Chris, thanks for the note. The version I deleted was undisclosed and spammy paid editing, and your stub looks good to me. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:37, 24 July 2015 (UTC)

== RfC ==

Nick, I'm diagreeing with misleading, unhelpful claims that other participants might be naïve enough to take on face value. Defending the research and efforts of a very serious proposer who has an intimate knowledge the workloads of both Bureaucrats and the Arbitration Committee, from comments based on conjecture is hardly akin to hectoring. Regards, [[User:Kudpung|Kudpung กุดผึ้ง]] ([[User talk:Kudpung|talk]]) 10:14, 25 July 2015 (UTC)

:You're over-reacting to criticism of your proposal. I disagree with your proposal, and you disagree with me. That's fair enough, and there's no need for you to go on to make absurd accusations such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Administrators/RfC_for_BARC_-_a_community_desysoping_process&diff=prev&oldid=672971081 this]. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:16, 25 July 2015 (UTC)
::We're just offering the proposal as a service to a community who persistently bleat about disingenous admins but does nothing about it themselves. There are no bonus points for 'winning' a consensus and I do not understand why people have to make totally unfounded statements couched in criticism if they don't agree with a proposal. --[[User:Kudpung|Kudpung กุดผึ้ง]] ([[User talk:Kudpung|talk]]) 10:44, 25 July 2015 (UTC)
:::I appreciate your work in developing this proposal, but I think that you're mistaken with it and what it involves. I don't understand why you think that other editors have to endorse your views and analysis and are arguing with the opposers. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:53, 25 July 2015 (UTC)

==[[:File:RNZAF Base Ohakea Official Badge July 1979.jpg]]==
I've just uploaded this file. Is there anything you can suggest to avoid it being deleted? Cheers [[User:Buckshot06|Buckshot06]] [[User_talk:Buckshot06|(talk)]] 04:49, 26 July 2015 (UTC)
:The non-free use rational you've provided looks good to me, especially as NZ Crown Copyright allows pretty broad use. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 04:52, 26 July 2015 (UTC)

== Image on WWII Page ==

Hi [[user:Nick-D]] Apologies if the image was unsuitable. I was only trying to illustrate the effect of the blitz on the civilian population, and daily life on the ground. Thanks. [[User:Jason.nlw|Jason.nlw]] ([[User talk:Jason.nlw|talk]]) 11:53, 28 July 2015 (UTC)
:No worries. The article already has a couple of images of the Blitz/Battle of Britain, so I don't think that there's a need for a third, and I don't think that article was representative - accounts of the Blitz generally note how miserable the shelters were (especially for children) and that image portrays them in a positive light. Please raise this on the article's talk page though if you'd like to see it included to see what other editors say. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:10, 29 July 2015 (UTC)

== Sock on WWII page ==

Just a heads up, the user Dredernely, who commented about adding Pyrrhic victory to the World War II page is a sock of the indefinitely banned [[User:HarveyCarter]]. [[User:Calidum|Calidum]] [[User talk:Calidum|T]]|[[Special:Contributions/Calidum|C]] 12:16, 28 July 2015 (UTC)
:Hi, What leads you to that conclusion? (so that I can block the account given that this is their only edit). Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:12, 29 July 2015 (UTC)
::the sock master has a history of frequenting WWII pages. Each account also uses the same signature. [[User:Calidum|Calidum]] [[User talk:Calidum|T]]|[[Special:Contributions/Calidum|C]] 12:10, 29 July 2015 (UTC)

== A beer for you! ==

{| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;"
|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Export hell seidel steiner.png|70px]]
|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | Thanks for the help on the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] article. I can never tell if an IP is just throwing out numbers for no reason or are truly trying to make a good faith edit. No heart feelings of past debates, these things can get pretty heated, but with all good intentions - Cheers [[User:FOX 52|FOX 52]] ([[User talk:FOX 52|talk]]) 16:57, 30 July 2015 (UTC)
|}
:Thank you for those kind comments, and I appreciate your efforts as well. It is very hard to track changes to numbers in these articles. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 08:24, 31 July 2015 (UTC)

== Mail ==

{{ygm}} [[User:Ian Rose|Ian Rose]] ([[User talk:Ian Rose|talk]]) 21:50, 30 July 2015 (UTC)

== Ban appeal ==

Hi,

I appealed my topic ban ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Administrators%27_noticeboard&diff=prev&oldid=674270965 diff]). Taking in consideration that you supported my ban and/or was against its lifting I would like to inform you that I appealed my ban so you could again present your opinion. All the best.--[[User:Antidiskriminator|Antidiskriminator]] ([[User talk:Antidiskriminator|talk]]) 20:59, 2 August 2015 (UTC)

== Boeing 757 ==

[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force&diff=674812039&oldid=674809948] -I think that was my bad, I did a roll back on {{U|Manmountain08}} who’d being changing sourced numbers. Didn't realize the total revert reintroduced wrong text- Sorry about that [[User:FOX 52|FOX 52]] ([[User talk:FOX 52|talk]]) 17:27, 6 August 2015 (UTC)
:No worries at all. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:54, 6 August 2015 (UTC)

== ANI notice ==

[[File:Ambox notice.svg|link=|25px|alt=Information icon]] There is currently a discussion at [[Wikipedia:Administrators' noticeboard/Incidents]] regarding an issue with which you may have been involved.  Thank you. [[User:Anotherclown|Anotherclown]] ([[User talk:Anotherclown|talk]]) 05:18, 8 August 2015 (UTC)

== Clean up another user's copy paste issue ==

Gday Nick. I'm going through checking [[User:Citadel48]]'s recent contributions (for obvious reasons) at the moment and found [[Wikipedia:1984 Severomorsk Disaster]] which he seems to have created then copy and pasted to [[Severomorsk Disaster]] (rather than moving it). I've made it a redirect but I wonder if a history merge is req'd (or some such Adminy thing)? Thanks. [[User:Anotherclown|Anotherclown]] ([[User talk:Anotherclown|talk]]) 07:12, 9 August 2015 (UTC)
:Not sure to be honest - I'm pretty clueless about history merges and the like. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 07:17, 9 August 2015 (UTC)
:: No worries, thanks for looking all the same. Do you think its ok just with the redirect then? I don't imagine its a major issue. [[User:Anotherclown|Anotherclown]] ([[User talk:Anotherclown|talk]]) 07:22, 9 August 2015 (UTC)
:::I'd suggest leaving it as a redirect. As I understand it, copy and pasting new articles from draft status into article space is OK as long as there's something linking them, even if it is as vague as an edit summary (which is what I usually do!). Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 07:28, 9 August 2015 (UTC)
::::{{reply to|Anotherclown}} G'day gents, history merges can be requested here: [[Wikipedia:Requests for history merge]]. Regards, [[User:AustralianRupert|AustralianRupert]] ([[User talk:AustralianRupert|talk]]) 12:08, 11 August 2015 (UTC)
:::::Gday - well it seems the original article location has been deleted with the summary "Recently created, implausible redirect" so I guess we will just have to accept the article history is a write off. I'm not really sure that was a good solution by whom ever did it but it is ''a'' solution a guess. Sorted - thanks gents. [[User:Anotherclown|Anotherclown]] ([[User talk:Anotherclown|talk]]) 22:11, 11 August 2015 (UTC)

== Wonder weapons ==

You reverted my suggestion of the use 'unconfirmed' rather than fictitious. You reason was 'no they are fictitious'.

However if one is to read the article it speaks of actual projects that were known to be planed and some created so ficticiois is I believe a misleading term - what has happened is there is a confusion of terms here because indeed there are ficticiois elements: these are the 'theories' behind understanding why they created such known existing plans and projects not whether they did or not where evidence exists and is in museums in America and germany.

However any seriously insterested in history or historians of this area will know this, but being used by the genral public I think it is important not to encourage sudoscience where it is not.

Kind regards

Ben

Please read into it and you can see for yourself [[User:Benjahdrum|Benjahdrum]] ([[User talk:Benjahdrum|talk]]) 08:26, 10 August 2015 (UTC)

:No, they are fictitious. Nazi Germany did not operate UFOs or those other alleged weapons. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:31, 10 August 2015 (UTC)

== A barnstar for you! ==

{| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Barnstar of Diligence Hires.png|100px]]
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" | '''The Barnstar of Diligence'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | For your contributions and scrutiny to the betterment of military, [[Third Reich]] and [[World War II]] related articles, I award you this Barnstar. [[User:Kierzek|Kierzek]] ([[User talk:Kierzek|talk]]) 17:13, 15 August 2015 (UTC)
|}
:Thank you! [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:49, 15 August 2015 (UTC)

== Return of previously block IP sock puppet - 86.26.26.107 ==

Hello Nick. You previously blocked [[User:86.26.26.107]] for one month as a result of the SPI here - [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet_investigations/AnnalesSchool/Archive#4_July_2015]] - for being a sockpuppet of the indef blocked [[User:AnnalesSchool]]. Since the expiry of their block the IP has returned and is editing the in the same area they previously did (and as AnnalesSchool), indicating that it is the same person attempting to avoid their block by not logging in. For instance on 5 Aug - at [[Franco-Italian Armistice]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franco-Italian_Armistice&diff=prev&oldid=674718486], 7 August [[Axis occupation of Greece]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axis_occupation_of_Greece&diff=prev&oldid=675012584], and 15 August [[Franco-Italian Armistice]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franco-Italian_Armistice&diff=prev&oldid=676226089], [[Axis occupation of Greece]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axis_occupation_of_Greece&diff=prev&oldid=676226663] and [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Military history]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Military_history&diff=prev&oldid=676228603][https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Military_history&diff=prev&oldid=676228853]. As a result can you pls have a look and see whether a further block for the IP is warranted before this gets disruptive? Pls let me know if a complete report is necessary and I'll file one at SPI. Thanks in advance. [[User:Anotherclown|Anotherclown]] ([[User talk:Anotherclown|talk]]) 20:42, 15 August 2015 (UTC)
:Yes, that's clearly them and I've blocked that account (for a much longer period this time seeing as the IP doesn't appear to be being shared). Thanks for the note. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:51, 15 August 2015 (UTC)
:: Thanks again. [[User:Anotherclown|Anotherclown]] ([[User talk:Anotherclown|talk]]) 00:36, 16 August 2015 (UTC)

== Spamming ==

Hello nick, [[User talk:Adnan bogi]] whom you previously blocked for a week is still engaged in spamming. just wanted to this to your attention. thank you :) [[User:Nicky mathew|Nicky mathew]] ([[User talk:Nicky mathew|talk]]) 19:17, 18 August 2015 (UTC)
:Thanks for letting me know - I've just blocked that account. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:19, 19 August 2015 (UTC)

== Rollback rights ==

Nick, are you able to remove my rollback rights? I have only once used it in anger and mostly I find that I have accidentally rolled back something when using my smart phone because I accidentally touched the rollback link. Usually because of a page redraw just as I'm trying to follow a diff link and the redraw puts the rollback link where the diff was a half second ago. - [[User:Nick Thorne|'''Nick Thorne''']] [[User talk:Nick Thorne|''talk'']] 22:34, 18 August 2015 (UTC)
:Hi Nick, I've just turned it off, and left a note in the log making it clear that it was on your request only in case you ever want it re-added. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:13, 19 August 2015 (UTC)
::Thanks Nick. For normal vandalism reverts I prefer to leave an edit summary anyway so I don't imagine I'll be needing this unless I stop using my phone to edit, but thanks for leaving the door ajar. :) ' [[User:Nick Thorne|'''Nick Thorne''']] [[User talk:Nick Thorne|''talk'']] 13:30, 19 August 2015 (UTC)

== ''The Bugle'': Issue CXIII, August 2015 ==

{| style="width: 100%;"
| valign="top" style="border: 1px gray solid; padding: 1em;" |
{|
| [[File:The Bugle.png|250px|link=Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News|alt=Full front page of The Bugle]]
| width="100%" valign="top" | <div style="text-align: center; color: darkslategray;">'''Your Military History Newsletter'''</div>
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* Project news: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/August 2015/Project news|From the editors; awards and honours; contest results]]''
* Articles: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/August 2015/Articles|Last month's new Featured and A-Class content]]''
* Book reviews: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/August 2015/Book reviews|Nick-D on the Second Schleswig War]]''
* Interview: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/August 2015/Interview|Featured picture participants]]''
* Op-ed: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/August 2015/Op-ed|TomStar81 on Indian nationalism during World War I]]''
* Timeline: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/August 2015/World War I timeline|This month in World War I]]''
</div>
|-
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: 85%; margin:0 auto; text-align:center;">
''The Bugle'' is published by the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history|Military history WikiProject]]. To receive it on your talk page, please [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Members|join the project]] or sign up [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3#Non-members who want delivery|here]]. If you are a project member who does not want delivery, please remove your name from [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3|this page]]. Your editors, [[User:Ian Rose|Ian Rose]] ([[User talk:Ian Rose|talk]]) and [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D|talk]]) 11:46, 22 August 2015 (UTC)
</div>


== Thoughts ==

Hi Nick as contributor to aviation pages, I wondered if you'd chime in on this [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aviation#User:FOX 52|discussion]]. I'm trying compromise on some parts of overhauled lists that I've done, or maybe I have it wrong - Regards [[User:FOX 52|FOX 52]] ([[User talk:FOX 52|talk]]) 19:41, 24 August 2015 (UTC)
:I wasn't involved in the discussion (from memory), but my impression was that the consensus to not include flags in these tables was pretty strong. There's a general move against graphics in tables, infoboxes, etc at the moment. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:57, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

==[[User talk:Kierzek#Question]]==
Does this discussion ring any bells in you? Cheers, [[User:Jonas Vinther|Jonas Vinther]] • ([[User talk:Jonas Vinther#top|Click here to collect your price!]]) 09:31, 25 August 2015 (UTC)
:No, I've never heard of that occurring. You might have luck searching the [http://trove.nla.gov.au/ Trove] resource of old Australian newspapers. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:55, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

== Added a bit to Op Goodwood ==

Hi Nick. I just added a little bit to [[Operation Goodwood (naval)]]. Could you have a look at [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Operation_Goodwood_%28naval%29&type=revision&diff=678107297&oldid=668725009 my addition], and check if it looks okay? [[User:Manxruler|Manxruler]] ([[User talk:Manxruler|talk]]) 12:28, 27 August 2015 (UTC)
:That looks good to me - thanks a lot [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:31, 28 August 2015 (UTC)
::Good to hear. Happy to contribute. [[User:Manxruler|Manxruler]] ([[User talk:Manxruler|talk]]) 14:37, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

== Deborah Lipstadt ==

Thanks for deleting the troll edit, but he/she did us a favor. You'll see my edit summary probably, but when the article was created the word 'History' was left out of her academic title, so I've put it in with a source. [[User:Doug Weller|Doug Weller]] ([[User talk:Doug Weller|talk]]) 09:14, 2 September 2015 (UTC)
:Thanks for that change Doug. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 10:06, 2 September 2015 (UTC)

== bad username ==

I suggest the name FuckfuckUaat violates policy. [[User:Rjensen|Rjensen]] ([[User talk:Rjensen|talk]]) 11:17, 4 September 2015 (UTC)
:Just a bit! I'm amazed that the name was allowable. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 11:19, 4 September 2015 (UTC)

==Second Schleswig War==
Since you wrote an article on the war, you might in interested in knowing that the big-budget TV series ''1864'' was absolutely horribly received. It had a production cost of 184 million ''Kroner'', the most expensive TV series ever made in Denmark. The cast and historical accuracy was excellent, but the plot, editing and the way the series was presented was ... well, crap. Peace, [[User:Jonas Vinther|Jonas Vinther]] • ([[User talk:Jonas Vinther#top|Click here to collect your price!]]) 18:04, 5 September 2015 (UTC)
:Yeah, I did see an article in The Guardian saying that it had been very controversial in Denmark! I'm keeping an eye out for it, though the odds of it appearing in Australia aren't terribly high I fear ;) [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:50, 5 September 2015 (UTC)

== 6 September 2015 ==

Dear Nick,

Hope you are alright. I am sorry for interrupting especially when you have already mentioned of being away due to vacations but I had a similar issue before and you helped me through it by your advice. I require your guidance in an issue I am facing currently. I had created an article called [[Awans of Pakistan]][https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Awans_of_Pakistan&oldid=669525047] and as you may see in the link it outlined the history, origin and lineage of the Awans who currently reside in Pakistan. This article was referenced mostly by books and also by few websites as seen in the 'References' and 'Further reading' section headings. This article, however, was neither intended nor did it duplicate a previous article called [[Awan (tribe)]] which contains only "2 sentences" (one is lead section and second in history) apart from two statements by 2 different people.

However, an editor to the article [[Awan (tribe)]] has come up straight, removed references from [[Awans of Pakistan]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Awans_of_Pakistan&action=history|here] and redirected it to [[Awan (tribe)]]. Then he accused me of using 'fake references' in the article [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Pixarh#Fake_refs|here]. I did not understand his definition for 'fake references' but I could tell that he was acting as a puppet for an IP [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Awans_of_Pakistan].

I reverted his edits twice and asked the editor to first discuss the matter as both the articles have separate content and context [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Sitush#Awans_of_Pakistan|here] but he would not listen and redirected again. I gave him a second warning to discuss it as [[WP:MERGEPROP|Proposed Merger]] in detail but I had to explain the differences myself to him on his talk page [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Sitush#3_September_2015|here]. I guess he was short of words and realized he did not have sufficient proof to explain his doing. Although, he used a brief explanation on the article's talk page [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Awans_of_Pakistan|here] but unable to find a way out, he has placed a tag of sanctions on my talk page [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Pixarh#Sanctions|here] to get things his way as he himself said on the article's talk page, "..but only in accordance with our policies".

I have never dealt with sanctions and I am very particular about following Wikipedia policies so I thought it better to first discuss this issue with you that what you think of the entire case. I even asked the editor that I can help him improve his article as his article already had tags and it is already in a poor state but he is bent upon his defensive approach [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Sitush#3_September_2015|here]. So what can I possibly do in such a situation? My aim is only to improve the encyclopedic content and [[Awans of Pakistan]] was offering that but now the matter has been taken in another direction by the editor. I seek your advice in such a situation.

I will wait for your reply here as the matter seems sensitive. Thank you so much for your time.

[[User:Pixarh|Pixarh]] ([[User talk:Pixarh|talk]]) 05:43, 6 September 2015 (UTC)

:Sorry, I don't have time to look into this, especially as I have no knowledge of the subject matter to draw on. If you have a question about the warning [[User:Sitush|Sitush]] gave you, I'd suggest that you discuss it with them. More generally, Wikipedia's dispute resolution process is outlined at [[WP:DR]] and cases where you have strong reason to believe that someone is abusing multiple accounts should be reported at [[WP:SPI]]. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 06:15, 6 September 2015 (UTC)

==6th Infantry Division (Philippine Commonwealth Army)==
Hi Nick, you're better acquainted than I am with the various shenanagans, sockpuppets etc that have surrounded the whole 'Philippine Commonwealth Army' issue on wikipedia. I think that this page is one of them - as far as I can tell it has no basis in fact. Can we do a mass delete with this and a number of the other dubious pages? [[User:Buckshot06|Buckshot06]] [[User_talk:Buckshot06|(talk)]] 06:23, 16 September 2015 (UTC)
:Hi, I'm honestly not sure. I think that there's some underlying basis of fact in these articles, but a series of editors over the years have tried to boost the 'Philippine Commonwealth Army' into a grossly grander affair than it ever actually was (with a common motive being to imply that it did most of the fighting in the liberation of the Philippines in 1944-45, and/or was an equal partner to the US Army during this campaign). The articles should be treated with great scepticism, but I don't think that they generally qualify as being pure and unredeemable hoaxes. I've deleted those created by various sock puppets in the past, and any remaining ones created by the most recent crop of sockpuppets should also go. Regarding the content of the articles, the lists of battles which have been obsessively added to various articles should go - I've never seen a source for this content, and in many cases the battles listed which actually took place were US vs Japan only affairs. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 19:05, 16 September 2015 (UTC)
::Yeah, there's some interesting footnotes that make me feel the same way as you - there's some wheat in the dross. Nonetheless, I have redirected and refashioned 6th Div into a division I know did exist, - [[61st Division (Philippines)]]. [[User:Buckshot06|Buckshot06]] [[User_talk:Buckshot06|(talk)]] 08:53, 17 September 2015 (UTC)
:::I have some more data now. This was the [[6th Military District (Philippines)]], which MacArthur agreed could be reformed in a fashion to supervise the Philippine guerrillas, along with the others, like [[Wendell Fertig]]'s [[10th Military District (Philippines)|10th Military District]]. (See 61st Div article). But I also wanted your opinion on the deletion of the category [[:Category:Philippine Commonwealth Army]]. The U.S. official histories use the term Philippine Army, the [[Commanding General of the Philippine Army]] category is unbroken, and most of the Philippine Commonwealth Army material is full of falsehoods. Bringing it all into one line will deter, I hope, the serial fantasist. I spent years deleting imaginary armored and cavalry Philippine divisions from the [[10th Division]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=10th_Division&diff=347770566&oldid=332436185] etc articles!!

== ''The Bugle'': Issue CXIV, September 2015 ==

{| style="width: 100%;"
| valign="top" style="border: 1px gray solid; padding: 1em;" |
{|
| [[File:The Bugle.png|250px|link=Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News|alt=Full front page of The Bugle]]
| width="100%" valign="top" | <div style="text-align: center; color: darkslategray;">'''Your Military History Newsletter'''</div>
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* Project news: [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/September 2015/Project news|''From the editors, coordinator elections have begun'']]
* Articles: [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/September 2015/Articles|''Abbasids to a Yugoslav monitor'']]
* Book reviews: [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/September 2015/Book reviews|''Economics of warfare, Japan, and light horse'']]
* Op-ed: [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/September 2015/Op-ed|''We can (not) advance'']]
* Timeline: [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/September 2015/World War I timeline|''This month in World War I'']]
</div>
|-
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: 85%; margin:0 auto; text-align:center;">
''The Bugle'' is published by the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history|Military history WikiProject]]. To receive it on your talk page, please [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Members|join the project]] or sign up [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3#Non-members who want delivery|here]]. If you are a project member who does not want delivery, please remove your name from [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3|this page]]. Your editors, [[User:Ian Rose|Ian Rose]] ([[User talk:Ian Rose|talk]]) and [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D|talk]]) 05:09, 20 September 2015 (UTC)
</div>


== WikiProject Military history coordinator election ==

Greetings from [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history|WikiProject Military history]]! As a member of the project, you are invited to take part in our annual [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Coordinators|project coordinator]] election. If you wish to cast a vote, please do so on the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Coordinators/September 2015|'''election page''']] by 23:59 (UTC) on 29 September. Yours, [[User:The ed17|Ed]] [[User talk:The ed17|[talk]]] [[WP:OMT|[majestic titan]]] 05:21, 25 September 2015 (UTC)


== Books and Bytes - Issue 13 ==

<div style = "color: #936c29; font-size: 4em; font-family: Copperplate, 'Copperplate Gothic Light', serif">
[[File:Wikipedia Library owl.svg|80px|link=The Wikipedia Library/Kit/Main]] '''The Wikipedia Library'''
</div>
<div style = "font-size: 1.5em; margin: 0 100px">
[[File:Bookshelf.jpg|right|175px]]</div>
<div style = "line-height: 1.2">
'''''Books & Bytes''''' 
Issue 13, August-September 2015 
by {{user|The Interior}}, {{user|Ocaasi}}, {{user|Sadads}}, {{user|Nikkimaria}}
</div>

<div style = "margin-top: 1.5em; border: 3px solid #ae8c55; border-radius: .5em; padding: 1em 1.5em; font-size: .9em">
*New donations - EBSCO, IMF, more newspaper archives, and Arabic resources
*Expansion into new languages, including Viet and Catalan
*Spotlight: Elsevier partnership garners controversy, dialogue
*Conferences: PKP, IFLA, upcoming events
<big>[[Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library/Newsletter/August-September2015|Read the full newsletter]]</big>
</div>
[[User:The Interior|The Interior]] via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 16:30, 1 October 2015 (UTC)


== July to September 2015 Reviewing Award ==

{| style="border: 2px solid lightsteelblue; background-color: whitesmoke;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | [[Image:CRM.png|75px]]
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | &ensp;'''''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Military_history/Awards#Service_awards|Content Review Medal of Merit (Military history)]]'''''&ensp;
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid lightsteelblue;" | On behalf of the WikiProject Military history coordinators, I hereby award you the Content Review Medal of Merit for an creditable 10 FA, A-Class, Peer and GA reviews during the period July to September 2015. Well done! [[User:Peacemaker67|Peacemaker67]] ([[User_talk:Peacemaker67#top|crack... thump]]) 10:35, 5 October 2015 (UTC) Keep track of upcoming reviews. Just copy and paste {{tlx|WPMILHIST Review alerts}} to your user space
|}


== [[Wikipedia:Today's featured article/October 27, 2015]] ==

Nick, I don't know if you're checking in, but Chris has scheduled one of yours for the 27th. I'm not really sure what to do with it ... can you compress it down to 1150 characters or less? (Btw, the first link needs to be to the article). If you're not around, no problem, we can schedule it another time. - Dank ([[User talk:Dank|push to talk]]) 17:08, 10 October 2015 (UTC)
:Hi {{ping|Dank}}, Thanks for the note. I'd appreciate it if this could be rescheduled as I'm not going to be around much until I get home in mid-November and can't commit to writing/proofing the blurb and answering questions about the article's content. Any time after, say, 20 November would be fine. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 18:06, 12 October 2015 (UTC)
::Thanks Nick. Pinging [[User:Crisco 1492|Chris]]. I know you prefer not to grant postponements, Chris ... I hope it makes a difference that you've got two people asking here, Nick and me. - Dank ([[User talk:Dank|push to talk]]) 19:11, 12 October 2015 (UTC)
::*I'll see if there's another aviation article.  — [[User:Crisco 1492|Chris Woodrich]] ([[User talk:Crisco 1492|talk]]) 23:21, 12 October 2015 (UTC)

== National Socialist German Workers' Party - NSDAP ==

Hi Nick, you recently did not agree my edit on Adolf Hitler page removing "socialist" next to the politician and (in a rude manner) you told me to read about it.
Im sorry Nick but obviously you need to do some reading here. Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party (National Socialist German Workers' Party) was a socialist from the left side
of the political scene. Its only now that some people think that he was from "the right". Anyway, I don't want to write his biography on your page here.
Educate yourself or read Mein Kamph maybe. Adolf Hitler was a socialist.
Regards
:To summarise [[national socialism]] simply as "socialism" at the top of the article about Hitler is disingenuous, extremely misleading and frankly offensive (as is your assertion that it's only "some people" who think he was right-wing). Have you ever read ''Mein Kampf''? Hitler says in Chapter II that the two main evils threatening the existence of the German people are the Jews and Marxism. —  [[User:Cliftonian|Cliftonian]] [[User talk:Cliftonian|(talk)]]  15:07, 14 October 2015 (UTC)
::A claim that Hitler and/or the Nazi Party were socialist would need a very strong reference to be included anywhere, and you didn't provide this. As Cliftonian notes, it's also offensive given that some of the Nazis first victims were the leaders of Germany's socialist political parties, who were imprisoned or murdered en-mass within weeks of Hitler coming to power and the Nazis' persecution of socialists continued throughout their reign. Richard J. Evans' recent books on the Nazi's rise to power and rule provide detailed coverage of this topic, and are currently the standard English-language works if you would like to read more about it. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 17:32, 14 October 2015 (UTC)
:::I don't understand why the fact that Hitler was a socialist is offensive, I would say its rather an uncomfortable truth to some. I agree that it maybe misleading since Hitlers "socialism" led to terrible genocides but this does not made him a conservative politician, liberal etc. He was from the left side of the political scene as was Stalin, Mao, Che etc. I still don't understand why this fact is omitted. Regards[[User:GizzyCatBella|GizzyCatBella]] ([[User talk:GizzyCatBella|talk]]) 01:27, 15 October 2015 (UTC)
::::Oh and yes, I have read ''Mein Kamph". Here is one quote for you from his wonderful book - "The National Socialist Movement, which aims at establishing the National Socialist People’s State, must always bear steadfastly in mind the principle that every future institution under that State must be rooted in the movement itself". I can give you many more. Regards. [[User:GizzyCatBella|GizzyCatBella]] ([[User talk:GizzyCatBella|talk]]) 01:37, 15 October 2015 (UTC)
:::::Sorry, one more thing to Cliftonian.. yes, Hitler hated Jews and Marxists but what this has to do with him not being a socialist?[[User:GizzyCatBella|GizzyCatBella]] ([[User talk:GizzyCatBella|talk]]) 01:43, 15 October 2015 (UTC)
::::::Check the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (the First International) or the [[Second International]] articles. Marxism and socialism are very closely identified, and one could probably say Marxism inspired socialism. [[User:Buckshot06|Buckshot06]] [[User_talk:Buckshot06|(talk)]] 19:39, 16 October 2015 (UTC)

== ''The Bugle'': Issue CXV, October 2015 ==

{| style="width: 100%;"
| valign="top" style="border: 1px gray solid; padding: 1em;" |
{|
| [[File:The Bugle.png|250px|link=Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News|alt=Full front page of The Bugle]]
| width="100%" valign="top" | <div style="text-align: center; color: darkslategray;">'''Your Military History Newsletter'''</div>
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* Project news: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/October 2015/Project news|From the editors; awards and honours; contest results]]''
* Articles: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/October 2015/Articles|Last month's new Featured and A-Class content]]''
* Book review: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/October 2015/Book reviews|Anotherclown and Sturmvogel 66 on war in the air and at sea]]''
* Review essay: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/October 2015/Review essay|Auntieruth55 on the French Revolutionary Wars]]''
* Op-ed: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/October 2015/Op-ed|TomStar81 on the entry of Bulgaria in World War I]]''
* Timeline: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/October 2015/World War I timeline|This month in World War I]]''
</div>
|-
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: 85%; margin:0 auto; text-align:center;">
''The Bugle'' is published by the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history|Military history WikiProject]]. To receive it on your talk page, please [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Members|join the project]] or sign up [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3#Non-members who want delivery|here]]. If you are a project member who does not want delivery, please remove your name from [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3|this page]]. Your editors, [[User:Ian Rose|Ian Rose]] ([[User talk:Ian Rose|talk]]) and [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D|talk]]) 21:46, 15 October 2015 (UTC)
</div>


== Copyvios at [[Robert Conquest]] ==

Flushout1999 has [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Conquest&diff=686419509&oldid=686274131 added a large amount of material] to [[Robert Conquest]] that he has copied and pasted or closely paraphrased from other sources. Consider, for example, [[Robert_Conquest#The_Abomination_of_Moab_.281979.29|the section on Conquest's criticism of Ezra Pound]], which includes text such as "[Conquest considered Pound] a poseur of the highest order, not to mention a lousy poet who garbled his own allusions to classical mythology and did so without any redeeming ingenuity or creativity. Also, [in Conquest's opinion], Pound’s notorious fascism and egoism only added to his artistic debit" which is copied directly from [http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/08/06/robert-conquest-the-man-who-unearthed-the-big-soviet-lie.html the cited article by Michael Weiss]. None of the material in the section on Pound is original besides the opening sentence. Even the closing line ("Having in passing [attacked] Pound's claim to have rendered Latin classics into verse, Conquest concluded:[...]") is copied almost word for word from [http://www.the-tls.co.uk/tls/public/article712247.ece Christopher Hitchens], who also provides the following quotation from Conquest (meaning that Flushout1999 is also regurgitating Hitchens' arrangement of the facts). This is not an isolated incident. Most, if not all, of Flushout1999's additions are copyright violations, from [[Robert_Conquest#The_IRD_years|"The IRD years"]] (which includes material like "In 1947–1949, the IRD started to collect materials on the issue of forced labor in Stalin’s Russia and decided to publish pamphlets and prepare news articles and bulletins on the forced labor camps. It had been decided that one or two names of Soviet camps should be hammered into the mind of the public, until these names were as clearly linked with Communist terror as the names “Auschwitz” and “Treblinka” were linked with Nazism. The Soviet camps chosen for the purpose was Karaganda and Vorkuta. Later, Kolyma in the Soviet Far East was added", which is all copied directly (including the grammatical issue with the plural camps) from [http://balticworlds.com/a-pathbreaker-robert-conquest-and-soviet-studies-during-the-cold-war/ Lennart Samuelson]--and, yes, even the books cited, like ''Britain's Secret Propaganda War'' in this section, appear to provide not only the facts but Flushout1999's [https://books.google.com/books?id=olpnAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=fill+in+the+gaps exact language]) to the section on Conquest's [[Robert_Conquest#The_Harvest_of_Sorrow:_Soviet_Collectivisation_and_the_Terror-Famine_.281986.29|''Harvest of Sorrow'']] ("''The Harvest of Sorrow'' had a clear moral:[...]" and much else is taken straight from [http://articles.latimes.com/1986-11-19/news/vw-4241_1_soviet-union the ''LA Times'']). In the [[Robert_Conquest#The_.22Day_of_Dupes.22_Article_.281961.29|"Day of Dupes]]" section, which is nothing more than an attempt to quote everything Flushout1999 considers important from the article in question (there are no secondary sources to establish the significance of this article and thus why we need to copy so much of it), Flushout1999 did originally add one sentence of ''his own'' unsourced commentary ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Conquest&diff=685779463&oldid=685748092 "Implying that the latter was a good thing."]) to Conquest's words ([Conquest wrote that one of the signatories] "has told us how he became interested in politics: on seeing a Right-wing policeman kick a Left-wing girl, he did not conclude, as most of us would have done, that it is a bad thing for a policeman to kick girls, but that it is a bad thing for Right-wingers to kick Left-wingers."), but after I pointed out that it was laughably POV he agreed to drop it. I know you don't have a lot of time right now, but if you could look into this matter and take appropriate action when you get the chance I would greatly appreciate it. Regards,[[User:TheTimesAreAChanging|TheTimesAreAChanging]] ([[User talk:TheTimesAreAChanging|talk]]) 18:52, 19 October 2015 (UTC)
:Hi {{ping|TheTimesAreAChanging}}, I don't have time to look into this at the moment I'm afraid (though you've probably guessed it from the lack of response!), and I also have had the admin tools removed from my account while I'm travelling so I wouldn't be able to do anything about a problem here. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 09:51, 23 October 2015 (UTC)

== [[Wikipedia:Today's featured article/November 5, 2015]] ==

Brian scheduled this one, but I don't expect the summary itself will be a problem ... look at it and see if you agree. My summary is very close to your lead. - Dank ([[User talk:Dank|push to talk]]) 22:00, 19 October 2015 (UTC)

OTOH, I don't know if the article itself needs updating ... let me know. - Dank ([[User talk:Dank|push to talk]]) 02:05, 20 October 2015 (UTC)
:{{ping|Dank}} the article needs considerable updates, so can you please pull this? I've been waiting for the next Australian Defence white paper to update it, which should be released in the next few weeks. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 09:53, 23 October 2015 (UTC)
::[[User:Brianboulton|Brian]], please pull this. Nick is travelling until mid-November. This may be my bad; I had already asked Chris to pull one for Nick because he's travelling, and perhaps I should have mentioned that when your shift started to save you some trouble. - Dank ([[User talk:Dank|push to talk]]) 13:05, 23 October 2015 (UTC)
:::OK, I'll deal with it during my weekend scheduling stint. [[User:Brianboulton|Brianboulton]] ([[User talk:Brianboulton|talk]]) 14:11, 23 October 2015 (UTC)
::::Thanks kindly. [[User:Brianboulton|Brian]], I'd like to store the summary I've done somewhere, but [[Wikipedia:Today's featured article/requests/Australian Defence Force]] already exists ... where should I store it? - Dank ([[User talk:Dank|push to talk]]) 14:30, 23 October 2015 (UTC)
:::::[[Wikipedia:Today's featured article/requests2/Australian Defence Force]] might do the trick? [[User:Brianboulton|Brianboulton]] ([[User talk:Brianboulton|talk]]) 14:33, 23 October 2015 (UTC)
::::::Done. - Dank ([[User talk:Dank|push to talk]]) 14:35, 23 October 2015 (UTC)
:::::::Thanks very much for pulling this, and for prompting me about the need to update the article! [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 14:36, 24 October 2015 (UTC)

== [[History of South Africa]] ==
An IP has been adding a work by Stan Winer, ''South Africa and the Politics of Risk'',[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_South_Africa&type=revision&diff=686796473&oldid=686651620] to the Further Reading list of [[History of South Africa]] [[User:Edward321|Edward321]] ([[User talk:Edward321|talk]]) 13:52, 21 October 2015 (UTC)
:Urgh. Thanks for letting me know. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 09:54, 23 October 2015 (UTC)

== New Companies delsort category ==

Hi Nick-D: Just a heads up that a ''new'' deletion sorting page was created on 16 October 2015 for companies, located at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Deletion sorting/Companies]]. Thanks for your work in performing deletion sorting on Wikipedia. [[User:Northamerica1000|North America]][[User talk:Northamerica1000|1000]] 16:40, 3 November 2015 (UTC)

== 5 Million: We celebrate your contribution ==
[[File:Wikipedia-logo-v2-en 5m articles.png|thumbnail|right]]
{| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Malta_-_St._Paul's_Bay_-_Dawret_il-Gzejjer_-_Malta_International_Fireworks_Festival_02_(1)_ies.webm|100px]]
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" | '''We couldn't have done it without you'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | Well, maybe. Eventually. But the encyclopedia would not be as good. 
|}
Celebrate [[User:Buckshot06|Buckshot06]] [[User_talk:Buckshot06|(talk)]] 20:36, 4 November 2015 (UTC)

== New Disability delsort category ==

Hi: Just a heads up that a ''new'' deletion sorting page was created on 19 October 2015 for Disability-related articles, located at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Deletion sorting/Disability]]. Thanks for your work in performing deletion sorting on Wikipedia. [[User:Northamerica1000|North America]][[User talk:Northamerica1000|1000]] 18:10, 5 November 2015 (UTC)

== Shared internet connections ==

Re: [[Wikipedia:Bureaucrats' noticeboard#Please reinstate my access to the admin tools]], if you are going to be traveling a lot (or just want to work from Starbucks - :) ) I can advise you on how to be just as secure on some random WiFi hotspot as you are at home. I am an engineer who works with this sort of thing all the time. --[[User:Guy Macon|Guy Macon]] ([[User talk:Guy Macon|talk]]) 19:37, 12 November 2015 (UTC)
:Thanks Guy, but I don't think that's necessary: I only made the request as I was travelling for two months and I'm all travelled out now! Cheers, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:02, 12 November 2015 (UTC)

==SS corrections==
Thanks for your corrections. The recent development of that article had me worried. Mr Vinther's [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Jonas_Vinther&oldid=662633973 user boxes] from May (since removed) show where his sympathies lie. Regards, [[User:Robby.is.on|Robby.is.on]] ([[User talk:Robby.is.on|talk]]) 03:22, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:He identifies as a Facist?! [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 03:25, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
::Very much looks like it. [[User:Robby.is.on|Robby.is.on]] ([[User talk:Robby.is.on|talk]]) 03:27, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:::That explains a lot. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 03:57, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
::::Indeed. I wonder how many of the editors happily collaborating with him on historical articles relating to Nazi Germany ([[User:Obenritter|Obenritter]], [[User:Kierzek|Kierzek]], …) are aware of those removed user boxes. [[User:Robby.is.on|Robby.is.on]] ([[User talk:Robby.is.on|talk]]) 04:02, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:::::I wasn't until today. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 04:14, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
I concur with your sentiment. I also commented on [[Talk:Schutzstaffel|Schutzstaffel talk page]], following your entries. I encourage others to do the same. --[[User:K.e.coffman|K.e.coffman]] ([[User talk:K.e.coffman|talk]]) 04:57, 14 November 2015 (UTC)

:Hi, I'm not at all familiar with your editing, and haven't made any comments about it or yourself. I am familiar with Jonas' editing, and his self-identification as a fascist is really concerning to me in light of it. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 05:55, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:::Again - my apologies for posting that here - it was really aimed at the person who sort of threw a "guilt by association" comment out there. Perhaps I should have left that story on his talk page...poor etiquette on my part. Honestly, I've never seen any evidence of Jonas being a fascist and it is not my intention to judge him based on that either. He's been fairly impartial and constructive with the editing I have seen so I can only judge him on that. He's young so maybe that was merely a phase. My son calls himself an "anarchist" but I am pretty sure he has no plans to overthrow the American government. Just sayin' Mate :-)
:::::::Removing my soliloquy as it was inappropriate of me to have posted it here. My sincere apologies.--[[User:Obenritter|Obenritter]] ([[User talk:Obenritter|talk]]) 08:24, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
::::It was not my intention to imply "guilt by association". Rather, my thoughts were along the lines of: if you knew, you might see his work in a very different light. Because having the read the discussion on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Administrators%27_noticeboard/Incidents#User:Jonas_Vinther_ownership_of_content_at_the_German_SS User:Jonas Vinther ownership of content at the German SS] I felt that the article did not seem very honest in regards to how the SS is portrayed. [[User:Robby.is.on|Robby.is.on]] ([[User talk:Robby.is.on|talk]]) 11:44, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:::::Nick-D, I have worked many times with you and other regulars and it should be clear that I am only interested in the history of Nazi Germany & World War II in an objective sense. I will work with editors who are willing to improve Wikipedia articles for the betterment of the general reader which is what we are all are for in the end. The SS main article was far from finished and if I had been up, we all have to sleep sometime (not to mention, real life calls), I would NEVER have agreed to the sentiment written on the talk page that the article was ready for a copy edit run through or GA review. And cannot say I have been aware of anyone having a "Facist" user box. As I said recently on another board, "...the SS main article has been undergoing a major re-write, ce work and cite work of late. Anyone who wants to join in the effort is welcome". So certainly you gentlemen are welcome. I have also been waiting for BMK and Poeticbent to edit the article and do hope that Diannaa finds some time to edit there, as well. Cheers, [[User:Kierzek|Kierzek]] ([[User talk:Kierzek|talk]]) 15:54, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
::::::First of all, I'm super glad someone pinged me so I had the chance to, well, let's just say ''defend'' myself! Secondly, you speak of my as if I've done nothing but manipulate Nazi Germany-related articles for political purposes! I have brought or significantly helped bring [[Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday]], [[Hedwig Potthast]], [[MP 40]], [[Julius Schaub]], [[Stefanie Rabatsch]], [[Operation Barbarossa]], [[Erhard Heiden]], [[Gregor Strasser]], [[Leni Riefenstahl]], [[Maria Limanskaya]], [[Adolf Hitler's bodyguard]], [[Battle of Kursk]], [[Julius Schreck]], [[Salon Kitty]], [[Columbus Globe for State and Industry Leaders]], [[Amber Room]], [[Walther von Brauchitsch]], [[Pact of Steel]], [[Atlantic Wall]], [[Horst Wessel]] and [[Ideology of the SS]] to GA-status, just to name those who are Nazi Germany-related. Please, [[User:Robby.is.on|Robby.is.on]] and Nick-D, list just ONE sentence or comment on any of those articles added by me that violates [[WP:NPOV]]. List ONE sentence or comment that shows I'm secretly a Nazi warrior recruited by Hitler to influence Wikipedia with fascist bias. I have also, very sucsessfully, collaborated and befriended many other editors ([[User:Kierzek|Kierzek]], [[User:Obenritter|Obenritter]], [[User:Diannaa|Diannaa]], [[User:Irondome|Irondome]], [[User:Gerda Arendt|Gerda Arendt]], [[User:GeneralizationsAreBad|GeneralizationsAreBad]], [[User:EyeTruth|EyeTruth]]). And if you think I don't edit anything other than Nazi Germany-related articles, I can tell I also brought or helped bring [[Harriet Leveson-Gower, Countess Granville]], [[Sleight of hand]], [[The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (film)]], [[Traum durch die Dämmerung]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 2014]] and [[Jeremi Wiśniowiecki]] to GA-status. Lastly, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Nick-D&diff=690553212&oldid=690363397 this] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Nick-D&diff=690556195&oldid=690553631 this] are obvious [[WP:PA]]. [[User:Jonas Vinther|Jonas Vinther]] • ([[User talk:Jonas Vinther#top|Click here to collect your price!]]) 20:13, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:::::::Your editing has consistently had a Nazi fanboy tone (eg, pushing for the inclusion of a quote in the Hitler article which misrepresents the motivations for the Holocaust as one recent but repeated example, not to mention creating a series of articles on Hitler, his cronies and related issues which had a disturbingly positive tone), and your self-identification as a fascist is horrible. From what I've seen, the editors who you claim to have "collaborated" with have largely been putting up with you and been trying to minimise the damage you've been causing, though they can obviously speak for themselves and I may be mistaken. Please don't post on my talk page again. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 21:28, 14 November 2015 (UTC)

== "remove excessive detail for the article" ==

You used that edit summary [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=November_2015_Paris_attacks&type=revision&diff=690652402&oldid=690652388 here], but in fact, you ''re-added'' detail, including the person's full name, which I would be careful about per [[WP:BLP]] and [[WP:RSBREAKING]], nevermind the fact that there are >100 victims and i don't think it's [[WP:UNDUE|appropriate]] to single out some by name. [[User:LjL|LjL]] ([[User talk:LjL|talk]]) 19:32, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:That's odd: I actually removed two sentences about the lady, and there was no mention of two people at the time. I imagine that this is the fault of the combination of edit conflicts and the not-good Wikipedia mobile app I was using. Thanks for notifying me of this and I'll avoid using the app in frequently-edited articles in the future to avoid similar problems - I certainly agree that what ended up as my edit here made the article worse, though it was an improvement when I started making it! Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 21:22, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
::I was unsure whether it had been a mistake or what. No harm done, it sparked a little discussion on the talk page and we reached consensus that names and surnames should be left out. [[User:LjL|LjL]] ([[User talk:LjL|talk]]) 21:30, 14 November 2015 (UTC)

== Post's up! ==

Or mail call as our U.S colleagues say :) [[User:Irondome|Irondome]] ([[User talk:Irondome|talk]]) 22:50, 14 November 2015 (UTC)
:Head's up that there is a typo on #2. Didn't instead of did, just before ...99%. Simon [[User:Irondome|Irondome]] ([[User talk:Irondome|talk]]) 23:25, 14 November 2015 (UTC)

==You've got mail!==
{{you've got mail|subject=|ts=17:35, 15 November 2015 (UTC)}}
[[User:GeneralizationsAreBad|GAB]][[User talk:GeneralizationsAreBad|Hello!]] 17:35, 15 November 2015 (UTC)

== Concerns ==

Hi Nick-D,

Since we both were engaged on the SS article, wanted to address some of my concerns here.

If you look at my edits, about 80% of them were to correct "Nazi apologia" - [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?limit=250&tagfilter=&title=Special%3AContributions&contribs=user&target=K.e.coffman&namespace=0&tagfilter=&year=2015&month=-1 K.e.coffman edits]

Some of the more egregious examples:
* Improper (if not deceptive) use of ''War of Extermination'' as source in the [[Talk:Arthur_Nebe#Use_of_source_-|Arthur Nebe article]]

* Attempts at comparative Nazism and Stalinism studies as a way to justify Nazi autrocities and German war crimes: See [[Talk:German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war#Problems_with_section_.22Contemporary_Soviet_mistreatment_of_German_prisoners_of_war.22|Soviet POWs | Problems with "Contemporary mistreatment of German POWs"]] and [[Talk:German_prisoners_of_war_in_the_Soviet_Union#Ann_Applebaum_quote|German POWs | Ann Applebaum quote]]. Also see minor example in [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1st_SS_Panzer_Division_Leibstandarte_SS_Adolf_Hitler&type=revision&diff=690719236&oldid=690719047 SS div. Adolf Hitler | Malmedy massacre], which the source referenced (''Glantz | When Titans Clashed'') did not even support

* Use of language to minimize responsibility - see my 'en masse' edits to the Waffen-SS page to replace [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waffen-SS&action=history "were involved in a massacre" to "committed a massacre"]

* Writing from the Nazi POV - see [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schutzstaffel&type=revision&diff=690721977&oldid=690683979 "successful" anti-partisan raids, aka mass reprisals and outright murder of civilian population]"

Etc., etc.

Is this something to look out for in Wikipedia? And what can be done about it? [[User:K.e.coffman|K.e.coffman]] ([[User talk:K.e.coffman|talk]]) 18:33, 16 November 2015 (UTC)

:Yes, those kinds of subtle bias and omissions are a real problem, and I suspect will need to be the focus of the clean up efforts. Obvious bias generally gets quickly removed, but material which gives too much weight to one aspect, omits details or makes false comparisons is harder to detect and correct. Of course, this isn't just restricted to Wikipedia, with low-quality history books and documentaries often making the same errors. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 21:05, 16 November 2015 (UTC)

::Thanks for your words of wisdom. I'll take this to heart less, and instead make the corrections where I can. ::Another example -- [[Talk:12th_SS_Panzer_Division_Hitlerjugend#Section_.22War_crimes.22_-_Ardenne_Abbey_massacre|using perpetrator's own words to "refute" testimony against him]] (and that's in a case where he was convicted of the crime in a court of law). --[[User:K.e.coffman|K.e.coffman]] ([[User talk:K.e.coffman|talk]]) 22:57, 17 November 2015 (UTC)

== ''The Bugle'': Issue CXVI, November 2015 ==

{| style="width: 100%;"
| valign="top" style="border: 1px gray solid; padding: 1em;" |
{|
| [[File:The Bugle.png|250px|link=Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News|alt=Full front page of The Bugle]]
| width="100%" valign="top" | <div style="text-align: center; color: darkslategray;">'''Your Military History Newsletter'''</div>
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* Project news: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/November 2015/Project news|From the editors; awards and honours; contest results]]''
* Articles: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/November 2015/Articles|Last month's new featured and A-Class content]]''
* Book review: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/November 2015/Book reviews|Hawkeye7 on the Battle of the Bulge]]''
* Op-ed: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/November 2015/Op-ed|TomStar81 looks at the collapse of the Serbian Army in World War I]]''
* Timeline: ''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/News/November 2015/World War I timeline|This month in World War I]]''
</div>
|-
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: 85%; margin:0 auto; text-align:center;">
''The Bugle'' is published by the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history|Military history WikiProject]]. To receive it on your talk page, please [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Members|join the project]] or sign up [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3#Non-members who want delivery|here]]. If you are a project member who does not want delivery, please remove your name from [[User:The ed17/Sandbox3|this page]]. Your editors, [[User:Ian Rose|Ian Rose]] ([[User talk:Ian Rose|talk]]) and [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D|talk]]) 03:25, 18 November 2015 (UTC)
</div>


== [[Wapping railway station]] ==

Hi. A agree that the exterior picture of [[Wapping railway station]] that you replaced with the platform image is very similar to its current appearance but it is those details that matter. It is up to you but I think we should bring it back. Here is what I think:
* Keep the 2006 image noting the Underground branding and the previous location of the entrance so that its relevance is more clear.
* Use the platform image as well, but move it a bit. Maybe put this with content describing the narrow platforms so it illustrates how horribly narrow they really are.
* When they finally finish rebuilding that block behind the station (''if'' they ever do finish the damn thing and stop blocking the road) take a new photo for use as the current image. That will make the two images rather more different.
What do you think? --[[User:DanielRigal|DanielRigal]] ([[User talk:DanielRigal|talk]]) 11:00, 22 November 2015 (UTC)
:Hi Daniel, that all sounds sensible to me. I also uploaded another photo showing how narrow the platforms are, which might work better: [[:File:Train at the northbound platform of Wapping station in November 2015.jpg]]. Regards, [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 07:04, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

== Sukhoi Superjet 100 ==

Nick, it looks like the socks are back on [[Sukhoi Superjet 100]],with at least two users showing up to revert who created accounts on November 22. Looks like a really large sock/meat farm here attempting to game the system. Normally I don't ascribe to protecting "the right version", but given the bad faith by these socks, it seems necessary here. I don't understand.the sockmaster's opposition to the Featured image, but it it a very odd situation. Thanks for whatever you can do. - [[User:BilCat|BilCat]] ([[User talk:BilCat|talk]]) 12:54, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

what ever happened before with what you call socks there are a lot more editors who disagree with that picture! it is as simple as that! and there is nobody gaming the system it is just disagreeing with that picture!--[[User:35deyu4642|35deyu4642]] ([[User talk:35deyu4642|talk]]) 13:11, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

:If you're genuinely not a sock or meatpuppet of [[User:Gbgfbgfbgfb]], or some other sockmaster, then you need to stop edit warring and discuss your objections to the photo on the article's talk page. Otherwise you'll be blocked for edit warring. - [[User:BilCat|BilCat]] ([[User talk:BilCat|talk]]) 13:35, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

::Not surprisingly, [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Gbgfbgfbgfb|Checkuser]] has confirmed that this user is a sock of Gbgfbgfbgfb. The socks have been blocked. - [[User:BilCat|BilCat]] ([[User talk:BilCat|talk]]) 23:06, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

:::More like a sockfarm. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 23:53, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

::::Yup, apparently a very large farm at that! And quite persistent, with no qualms about lying about it either, as his/her screed above shows. Full protection may well be necessary before too long. - [[User:BilCat|BilCat]] ([[User talk:BilCat|talk]]) 23:58, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

:::::Yes, they are aggressive and also try to intimidate users on their talkpages. But I doubt we'll need full protection. I think it's game over for the sockfarm. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 00:14, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

::::::I've just blocked the latest account, and note that the other recent one was confirmed by a checkuser. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 07:17, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

:::::::Thank you very much Nick. I had just informed the CU about this new sock. Your block of the latest sock came as a very welcome surprise. Take care. [[User:Dr.K.|Dr.]] [[User talk:Dr.K.|K.]] 07:29, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

== OpenPAT Project Status ==

Hello Nick, can you at least leave a link to the OpenPAT project status on the page. Perhaps something like:

{{Quote|
The OpenPAT project status is discussed [http://www.OpenPAT.org/#project_status here].
}}

Thanks,
- [[User:Npcomp]] ([[User talk:Npcomp|talk]]) 07:47, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

:That can be done once the page protection ends. I was intervening to remove the copyright violation material, which it appears you added. [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 09:32, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

== Coastguard Sqn One ACR ==

Gday Nick. FYI Rupert has contacted Cuprum17 to confirm what he wishes to do with the review. All the best. [[User:Anotherclown|Anotherclown]] ([[User talk:Anotherclown|talk]]) 22:57, 27 November 2015 (UTC)
:OK, thanks for letting me know [[User:Nick-D|Nick-D]] ([[User talk:Nick-D#top|talk]]) 22:58, 27 November 2015 (UTC)

{{tb|[[User:Cuprum17|Cuprum17]] ([[User talk:Cuprum17|talk]]) 02:00, 28 November 2015 (UTC)}}

== Removing my user page ==

Hi! I see that you are one of the administrators on English Wikipedia. Could you please remove (if you have the right to do so) [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Muta112 my user page]? Im not going to contribute on wikipedia anymore and I would be very grateful if you did it.

Thank you, [[User:Muta112|Muta112]] ([[User talk:Muta112|talk]]) 17:10, 28 November 2015 (UTC)

Prague uprising

2015-11-02T18:45:28Z

Muta112: reverting changes made by the IP

{{multiple issues|
{{more footnotes|date=April 2009}}
{{refimprove|date=October 2014}}
}}
{{about|the resistance action during World War II|the events of Spring 1968|Prague Spring}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Prague Uprising of 1945
|partof = [[World War II]]
|image = [[Image:Prague liberation 1945 tanks barricades.jpg|center|300px]]
|caption = Residents and defenders of the Prague Uprising barricades greet the [[Red Army]] tanks on May 9, 1945
|date = May 5–8, 1945
|place = [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]]
|coordinates = {{coord|50|04|43|N|14|26|04|E|region:CZ_type:event_scale:50000|display=inline,title}}
|result = German tactical victory Armistice Liberation of Prague from German occupation
|combatant1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]
|combatant2 = {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czech resistance to Nazi occupation|Czech Resistance]] {{flagicon|Russia|naval}} [[Russian Liberation Army]] {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
|commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Karl Hermann Frank]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Rudolf Toussaint]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Carl Friedrich von Pückler-Burghauss|Carl von Pückler]]
|commander2 = {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Otakar Machotka]] {{flagicon|Russia|naval}} [[Sergei Bunyachenko]]
|strength1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} 40,000
|strength2 = {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} 30,000 {{flagicon|Russia|naval}} 18,000
|casualties1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} 1,000 killed
|casualties2 = {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} 1,693 killed {{flagicon|Russia|naval}} 300 killed {{flagicon|Soviet Union}} 30 killed in Prague
|casualties3 = 4,000 civilians killed
}}

The '''Prague uprising''' ({{lang-cs|Pražské povstání}}) was an attempt by the [[Czech resistance]] to liberate the city of [[Prague]] from [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|occupation]] during [[World War II]]. Events began on May 5, 1945, in the last moments of the [[World War II in Europe|war in Europe]]. The uprising went on until May 8, 1945, ending in a German victory and [[ceasefire]]. One day after the Germans conquered Prague, they surrendered on the arrival of the [[Red Army]]..

==Prior to Uprising==
Several factors greatly influenced the daily life of the majority of people, including the [[militarization]] of the economy, the elimination of political rights, transportation to Germany for forced labor, and national oppression. Various forms of German oppression in the cities affected not only the [[working class]], but also the "middle strata"—the small and middle businessmen, and the lower categories of state and civic employees, for example.<ref name= "Bartosek, Karel 1965">Bartosek, Karel. 1965. The Prague Uprising. Prague, Czech Republic: Artia.</ref>

The most important task of the [[Czechs]] was to stop the Germans from disturbing what Czechoslovak territory they still occupied as well as to stop them from continuing the war on Czech soil. The goal of the resistance was to force the German occupants to retreat to Germany. The Czech Resistance needed the support and help of the [[Red Army]] in order to become fully liberated.<ref name="Bartosek, Karel 1965"/>

As the ending to the war was coming closer, it had a powerful effect on the residents of all over [[Czechoslovakia]]. In fact, it strengthened their longing to explicitly demonstrate their bitter hatred toward the German occupants.<ref name="Bartosek, Karel 1965"/>
During the German occupation or protection of Czechoslovakia, tensions had built up because of oppression. This would later lead to the expulsion of three million [[Sudeten Germans]] from their homes of 800 years.

In the spring of 1945 throughout Czechoslovakia, there were both many large and small [[partisan (military)|partisan]] groups that totaled about 7,500 men. These followers mostly took part in the "battle of the rails", in which they disturbed the railway and highway transportation, attacked trains and stations, as well as German troop trains, and damaged tracks and bridges. For example, there were some lines the Germans could use only in the daytime and not even every day.<ref name="Bartosek, Karel 1965"/>

On the eve of the uprising, the propaganda activities of the group called the Communist Youth, were in full swing, but didn’t last long. The [[communist]] groups whose solidarity had been broken by arrests in March were somehow able to work under the tough circumstances of illegality.<ref name= "Bartosek, Karel 1965"/>

==Battle for Czech Radio==
{{main|Battle for Czech Radio}}

From 30 April-1 May 1945, the ''[[Waffen-SS]]'' Senior Group Leader (''[[Obergruppenführer]]'') and General of Police [[Karl Hermann Frank]] announced over the radio in Prague that he would drown any uprising in a "sea of blood". As rumors of an impending Allied approach reached Prague, the people of Prague streamed into the streets to welcome the victors. Frank ordered the streets to be cleared and instructed the German army and police forces in Prague to fire at anyone who disobeyed.

On 5 May, the uprising was triggered in the morning by a broadcast on Czech [[radio]]. In a mixture of [[Czech Language|Czech]] and [[German language|German]], the [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] announced: "It is just six o' clock". A group of [[Czechs|Czech]] [[police]]men attempted to seize the radio building on Vinohradská street, without realizing that a detachment of [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] soldiers was already stationed there, which resulted in bitter fighting. With the sounds of combat in the background, the radio station continued to broadcast messages of defiance, encouraging citizens to revolt.

==Uprising==
At about 1:00 pm on May 5, 1945, armed Czech resistance fighters overwhelmed the Waffen-SS defending the radio buildings. The radio announcer broadcast a call to the Czech nation to rise up and asked the people in the streets of Prague to build [[barricade]]s. Elsewhere, Czech resistance fighters occupied the [[Gestapo]] and [[Sicherheitspolizei|Sipo]] Headquarters.

In the afternoon of May 5, the Prague [[mayor]] formally switched allegiance to the National Committee in the [[City Hall]]. The Czechs in the streets tore down the German road traffic signs and store inscriptions. The insurgents attacked any Germans within sight and seized their weapons. The Germans defended themselves as best as they could by shooting at the insurgents.

In the remaining hours of May 5, the insurgents' camp learned of the Nazis' intent to eliminate the uprising by using a very heavily armed attack from the outside. The intent of this maneuver was to join up with the local German forces that were positioned inside the city. The news reached Prague Resistance Headquarters of German tanks, armored carriers, weaponry and motorized units that were heading for the capital city. However, in the evening hours of May 5, the balance of power between the insurgents and the Germans started to change. After a phase of dominance of the insurgents in the beginning of the uprising, a phase of stabilization began, which was also an equalization of power.<ref name="jstor.org">Skilling, Gordon H. “The Czechoslovak Struggle for National Liberation in World War II.” Dec. 1960. The Slavonic and East European Review. 39: 174-197. Retrieved March 11, 2009 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/4205225.pdf)</ref>

By the morning of May 6, over 1,000 barricades were erected. Czech resistance troops had managed to seize half of the city before the [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] reacted in force. German [[garrison]]s throughout Prague were surrounded. The insurgents forced the besieged Germans to surrender by cutting off their electricity, water supplies, and telephone wires. Prague experienced a rash of anti-German excesses, while some Germans, mainly the SS, took revenge on the Czech non-combatants.

==German counter-attack==
German forces outside of Prague started to move toward the city center in order to relieve their trapped countrymen. The other objective of these German forces was the capture of the railroad and highway communication network. Possession of these vital transportation links would secure free passage westward to the American lines for the [[German Army (Wehrmacht)|''Wehrmacht Heer'']] troops of [[Army Group Center]].

On May 6, the Germans attempted to recapture the radio station building. As the German advance ran into significant resistance, both in the building itself and at the barricades in nearby streets, the Germans decided to use [[bomber]]s instead. This attack was a success. However, the Czech resistance managed to continue to broadcast its message from the [[Hus' House (Vinohrady)|Hussite church tower]]. The tower was used on the 7–9 May 1945 as an impromptu radio tower when it also sheltered [[Czech resistance]] fighters who were trying to evict the occupying German force from the city.<ref name=story>[http://www.praguestory.com/2012/02/dykova-511.html The Prague Vitruvius], PragueStory.com, retrieved 12 November 2013</ref>

With news that Americans were already in [[Plzeň|Pilsen]], hopes were initially high about their tanks reaching Prague soon. But the insurgents were not aware of the [[demarcation line]] agreement between the Americans and the Soviets some {{convert|70|km|mi|abbr=on}} west of Prague. The Czech radio appeals to the [[United States Army]] remained unanswered. Insurgents also did not know where the Red Army might be at the time and the German military pressure was increasing.

==The SS attack==
On May 7, ''Waffen-SS'' armoured and artillery units stationed outside of Prague, frustrated by the lack of decisive progress made by the ''[[German Army (Wehrmacht)|Heer]]'' infantry, launched several furious tank attacks on the city defenders. The situation was grave. The ''Waffen-SS'' started to use their heavy equipment and even the feared ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' [[Airstrike|air raid]]s were launched on Prague. Many downtown historical [[landmark]]s were bombed. In the next hours, the German occupation forces gradually overwhelmed the Czech fighters. The resistance had only a few [[anti-tank weapon]]s to counter German tanks. In addition, their [[ammunition]] was running out.

==The ROA defection==
[[File:ROA T-34 tank, unknown location (possible Prague).jpg|thumb|An ROA T-34 tank in Prague.]]
During the march south, the 1st Infantry Division (600th German Infantry Division) of the [[Russian Liberation Army]] (ROA) commanded by General [[Sergei Bunyachenko]] came to the help of the Czech insurgents to support the Prague uprising which started on May 5, 1945, against the German occupation. The ROA was created by former Soviet General [[Andrey Vlasov]] as an anti-communist Russian force in the combat against [[Bolshevism]]. Vlasov was initially reluctant, but ultimately did not resist General Bunyachenko's decision to fight against the Germans.
The first division engaged in battle with Waffen-SS units that had been sent to level the city. The ROA units armed with heavy weaponry fended off the relentless SS assault, and together with the Czech insurgents succeeded in preserving most of Prague from destruction. Due to the predominance of Communists in the new Czech Rada, the first division had to leave the city the very next day and tried to surrender to the US Third Army of General Patton. The Allies, however, had little interest in aiding or sheltering the ROA, fearing such aid would severely harm relations with the Soviet Union. Soon after the failed attempt to surrender to the Americans, Bunyachenko, Vlasov, and the ROA forces in general were returned to the Soviet Union, after which they were mostly executed as traitors.

==German retreat==
On May 8, faced with no arriving allied help and the imminent destruction of the city, the insurgents were forced to negotiate, and accepted the German terms presented by General [[Rudolf Toussaint]], the German Military Governor. Formally called as the German [[Capitulation (surrender)|capitulation]] in fact it gave to the German forces and [[civilian]]s the opportunity not follow the [[German Instrument of Surrender|terms of surrender]] and escape to west, to American captivity. In return, Prague would not be destroyed in fights. The insurgent leaders were already informed that American Army will not move from its final positions, in other hand the Red Army seemed to be days away from Prague. So the compromise seemed to be the only hope, though it fulfilled most of the German demands. In fact, the capitulation saved only the German forces in Prague and vicinity; most of the German units on the Eastern front couldn't benefit from the free passage through Prague, because of the rapid advance of Soviet units from north which arrived to Prague in the morning of May 9.

==Liberation==
{{main|Prague Offensive}}

On May 9, the Soviet Red Army entered Prague. U.S. Army units had been closer to Prague than Soviets, and their [[reconnaissance]] units were already present in the [[suburb]]s of Prague when the uprising culminated. However, the Americans were unable to help the Czech insurgents due to previous political agreements with the Soviets.

==Participants==

===Czechs===
*'''Czech insurgents''' were the ethnic Czech residents of Prague, forced to work for the Nazis. Although spared most of the horrors of war like the draft and massive air raids, they despised anything German and were the first to rise spontaneously without waiting for political orders. Lacking military training, they armed themselves with small arms captured from the Germans. They fought surprisingly well trying to hinder the superior German forces by an extensive network of hastily established street barricades. Their tactics of blocking the German movement proved successful and their main goal of demonstrating Czech resistance was reached. However, it was a close call, in which every single hour counted. Thanks to them, Prague liberated itself before the arrival of the Soviets. The [[Czech National Council (World War II)|Czech National Council]]—led by [[Otakar Machotka]] and loyal to President [[Edvard Beneš]] in [[London]]—represented them in negotiations. The participating [[communism|communists]] stayed loyal to their [[provisional government]] in [[Košice]], [[Slovakia]].
*'''Puppet government forces''': police, the [[customs]], and other security forces of the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]]. Consisting mostly of native Czechs and controlled by the Gestapo, they turned their weapons and equipment against the Germans they were supposed to protect. Although no match for the well-trained German military, they voluntarily handed over large part of their small arms stockpile and communication equipment to the insurgents. They were supposed to guard Prague against the internal enemy, but in reality faced their former allies attacking from outside. Formerly considered traitors by the Czech civilians and now by the Germans, they had no escape route and had to fight, come what may.

===Germans===
*'''German civilians''' residing in Prague, administrators, officials, and family members of the German military were the easiest targets of Czech anger. They had to flee by any means, including stolen vehicles, in order to save their lives. Many atrocities were committed by the Czechs against German civilians as well as military personnel after the battle.
*The '''Regular German army''' ''(Wehrmacht Heer)'' was actually trapped both inside and outside Prague. They found themselves in the wrong place at the wrong time. They needed the huge Prague communication network to move west in order to surrender to the Americans. Superior in numbers, equipment and training, they were pressed only by time. However, the signing of the Surrender Act with the Czech National Council by their commander, General Toussaint, may be considered only a partial victory, as only a minor part of German forces passed westward. Some units were even supposed to suppress the SS, their ally, which refused to cease fire.
*'''''Waffen-SS''''' units were considered the best equipped, trained, and motivated of all German forces. They mostly consisted of ''[[Kampfgruppe Wallenstein]]'' that was created by the units from ''[[SS-Truppenübungsplatz Böhmen]]'', a large training area near [[Benešov]]. There were two main units created, each with one leader. They had the strength of four [[regiment]]s and accompanied by small number of artillery and armored vehicles. As the most fanatical of the German units, they had the most to lose. In case of capture they expected (and received) no mercy. Many of them chose to flee the city rather than surrender their arms, (which in hindsight was the correct course of action for them, since those who did so, were thereafter murdered by the Czechs who did not honor the signed Surrender Act). Their last remains were mopped up by the Red Army in the woods southwest of Prague as late as May 11, 1945.

===Others===
[[Image:Olšanské hřbitovy, Ruská osvobozenecká armáda.jpg|thumb|Mass grave of two generals and 187 unknown soldiers of the Russian Liberation Army in Prague cemetery]]

*The '''[[Prague Offensive|Red Army]] ''' arrived unexpectedly in Prague on May 9, took the city, ended the conflict, and paved the way for the Czech government to arrive from both East and West. As the people welcomed Soviet tanks, the last German units were leaving the city under the Surrender Act terms. Although the Allied military command reserved Prague for the Red Army to secure, the insurgents were unaware of the Soviet move to assist them until 13 hours before the first Soviet tanks approached the city from the north. Meanwhile, they had signed a cease fire with the German forces. About 30 Soviet soldiers were killed in the vicinity of Prague.
*'''Russian Liberation Army''', [[Russia]]n nationalists recruited in the [[prisoner of war camp]]s to help the Germans fight the Red Army, but in the end they turned their German weapons against the Nazis. These [[Russian language|Russian]]-speaking troops were often mistaken for the Red Army. However, they fought well and saved the uprising at the crucial hours. They did help Prague when it needed most, but they paid the price of three hundred ROA soldiers who were killed in the fighting against the SS. In spite of that, the communists in the Czech National Council refused to accept them as allies and considered them fighters by their own choice. Most were later captured by the Red Army, officers were shot immediately, while some soldiers were taken to [[Siberia]]n [[Gulag]] [[labour camp]]s. Some historians claim that up to 300 ROA soldiers wounded in the battle were later killed right in the hospitals of Prague. In 1946, General [[Andrey Vlasov]] and the other captured ROA leaders, including General Bunyachenko, were executed for [[treason]] in [[Moscow]].
*'''United States Army''' forces were forced by politicians to play a passive role due to the previous agreement establishing the demarcation line. Although they were able to reach Prague in few hours, the Red Army command insisted upon strict adherence to the established positions, disregarding the actual situation in Prague. General [[George S. Patton]] was wanted and expected in Prague by everybody but the communists, yet he was not allowed to move, even when his reconnaissance units were reported a mere {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} south of Prague. In any case, a U.S. Army mission was sent all the way to eastern [[Bohemia]] in order to persuade [[Field Marshal]] [[Ferdinand Schörner]] to surrender. On the way, the U.S. Army negotiators stopped in Prague and helped persuade General Toussaint—the German military commander in Prague—to offer his capitulation.

==Casualties==
Since the most organized basis for an uprising is to have it led by an armed struggle, there will usually be many casualties.<ref name="jstor.org"/> During the uprising in Prague 1,694 Czechs were killed and another 1,600 seriously wounded. Almost 1,000 German Soldiers were killed. The number of German civilian casualties is unknown.
The Vlasov Army lost 300 men. On May 9, the Red Army casualties amounted to 30 killed.<ref name= "Bartosek, Karel 1965"/> However, many other victims were never identified.

==See also==
*[[Slovak National Uprising]]

==References==
*Roučka, Zdeněk. ''Skončeno a podepsáno: Drama Pražského povstání (Accomplished And Signed: Pictures of the Prague Uprising)'', 163 pages, Plzeň: ZR&T, 2003 (ISBN 80-238-9597-4).
*Bartosek, Karel. 1965. The Prague Uprising. Prague, Czech Republic: Artia.
*Skilling, Gordon H. “The Czechoslovak Struggle for National Liberation in World War II.” Dec. 1960. The Slavonic and East European Review. 39: 174-197. Retrieved March 11, 2009 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/4205225.pdf)
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.radio.cz/en/article/10895 Czechoslovakia marks 56th anniversary of liberation], [[Český rozhlas]], 2001
*[http://www.radio.cz/en/article/53783 "Calling all Czechs, calling all Czechs!" - the Prague Uprising remembered], [[Czech Radio]], 12-05-2004
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4517943.stm Czechs commemorate Prague revolt], [[BBC News]], 5 May 2005
*[http://www.praguepost.cz/archivescontent/40967-prague-s-war-legacy-of-questions.html Prague's war: Legacy of questions - Historians still debate myths and mysteries of the liberation], ''[[The Prague Post]]'', May 5, 2005
*{{cs icon}} [http://www.ahmp.cz/povstani/galerie.html Picture gallery of Prague uprising] - a gallery located at the official website of The Prague City Archives
*[http://video.idnes.cz/?idvideo=V100504_141525_tv-zpravy_zkl Execution of German civilians in Prague (9 May 1945)] (Czech TV documentary) ([[Adobe Flash Player]], 2:32 min)
*The expulsion of the Sudeten Germans: http://www.alfreddezayas.com/books.shtml

{{Czechoslovakia in World War Two}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:Czechoslovakia in World War II]]
[[Category:1945 in Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Czech resistance to Nazi occupation]]
[[Category:History of Prague]]
[[Category:Uprisings during World War II]]
[[Category:Urban warfare]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:20th century in Prague]]

Prague offensive

2015-11-02T18:43:52Z

Muta112: restoring proper numbers

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict= Prague Offensive
|partof= the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] (World War II)
|image= [[File:Pražská operace.jpg|300px]]
|caption= <center>Prague Offensive Operation</center>
|date= 6–11 May 1945
|place= [[Prague]], [[Czechoslovakia]]
|territory=
|result= Decisive Allied victory
|combatant1= '''[[Axis powers|Axis]]:''' {{flag|Nazi Germany}} {{flagicon|Kingdom of Hungary}} [[Government of National Unity (Hungary)|Hungary]]{{sfn|Frajdl|2007}} {{flagcountry|Slovak Republic (1939–1945)}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Hlinka party (1938–1945) variant 2.svg}} [[Hlinka Guard|POHG]]
|combatant2= '''[[Allies of World War II|Allies]]:''' {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czech resistance to Nazi occupation|Czechoslovakia]] {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}} {{flagicon|Polish People's Republic}} [[Polish People's Republic|Poland]]
----
{{flagicon|Russia|naval}} [[Russian Liberation Army]]
|commander1= {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Ferdinand Schörner]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Lothar Rendulic]]
|commander2= {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]] [[File:Flag of Czechoslovakia.svg|22px|border|link=Czech resistance to Nazi occupation]] [[Karel Klapálek]] {{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} [[Vasile Atanasiu]] {{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} [[Nicolae Dăscălescu]] {{flagicon|Polish People's Republic}} [[Karol Świerczewski]]
----
 {{flagicon|Russia|naval}} [[Sergei Bunyachenko]]
|strength1= Army Group Centre: 600,000-650,000{{sfn|Lakowski|2008|p=674}} Army Group Ostmark: 430,000{{sfn|Ziemke|2002|p=498}} {{flagicon|Kingdom of Hungary}} 9,370{{sfn|Frajdl|2007}}
|strength2= {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} 1,770,700{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} {{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} 139,500{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} {{flagicon|Polish People's Republic}} 69,500{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} 48,400{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}}
----
{{flagicon|Russia|naval}} 18,000
|casualties1= Some 860,000 captured; remainder killed, missing in action, or fled
|casualties2= {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} 49,348{{sfn|Glantz|1995|p=300}} {{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} 1,730{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} {{flagicon|Polish People's Republic}} 887{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} 533{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}}<ref group=lower-alpha>Czech losses do not include those of the Prague Uprising or of partisan formations.</ref>
----
{{flagicon|Russia|naval}} 300
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{command structure
|name={{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} Soviet forces
|date=May 6, 1945
|subordinate='''1st Ukrainian Front''' • 2nd Air Army • 3rd Guards Army • 5th Guards Army • 3rd Guards Tank Army • 4th Guards Tank Army • 13th Army • 21st Army • 28th Army • 31st Army • 52nd Army • 59th Army • Polish 2nd Army '''2nd Ukrainian Front''' • 5th Air Army • 6th Guards Tank Army • 7th Guards Army • 9th Guards Army • 40th Army • 46th Army • 53rd Army • 1st Romanian Army • 4th Romanian Army '''4th Ukrainian Front''' • 8th Air Army • 1st Guards Army • 18th Army • 38th Army • 60th Army • 1st Czechoslovak Corps}}
{{command structure
|name={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} German forces
|date=May 6, 1945
|subordinate='''7th Army''' • XIII Corps • XII Corps '''4th Panzer Army''' • LXXXX Corps • ''Hermann Goering'' Panzer Corps • ''Grossdeutschland'' Panzer Corps • LVII Panzer Corps '''17th Army''' • VIII Corps • XVII Corps • XXXX Corps '''1st Panzer Army''' • XI Corps • LIX Corps • LXXII Corps • XXXXIX Corps • XXIV Panzer Corps '''8th Army''' • ''Feldherrnhalle'' Panzer Corps • XXXXIII Corps}}

The '''Prague Offensive''' ({{lang-ru|Пражская стратегическая наступательная операция}} '''Prague Strategic Offensive''') was the last major Soviet operation of [[World War II]] in Europe. The offensive, and the battle for [[Prague]], was fought on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] from 6 May to 11 May 1945. This battle for the city is particularly noteworthy in that it ended after the [[Third Reich]] capitulated on 8 May 1945. This battle is also notable in that it was fought concurrently with the [[Prague Uprising]].

The city of Prague was ultimately liberated by the USSR during the Prague Offensive. All of the German troops of [[Army Group Centre]] (''Heeresgruppe Mitte'') and many of Army Group Ostmark (formerly known as Army Group South) were killed or captured, or fell into the hands of the Allies after the capitulation.<ref group=lower-alpha>Under the laws of war at that time there was a distinction between those captured and those who "[fell] into the power" of the enemy after a mass capitulation. The [[Geneva Convention (1929)|1929 Geneva Convention]] only covered those who were captured during the fighting not those who fell into the power of an enemy following a mass capitulation (See [[Disarmed Enemy Forces]]). This was explicitly changed in the [[Third Geneva Convention]] (1949)</ref> The capitulation of Army Group Centre was nine days after the [[Battle of Berlin|fall of Berlin]] and three days after [[Victory in Europe Day]].

==Background==
By the beginning of May 1945, Germany had been decisively defeated by the coalition of the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. Germany's capital, Berlin, was on the verge of capitulation in the face of a massive Soviet [[Battle of Berlin|attack]] and the great bulk of Germany had been conquered. There remained one large concentration of German troops (over 1,000,000 men in two army groups) in southeastern Germany and Czechoslovakia. These troops were [[Army Group Centre]] and the remnants of [[Army Group Ostmark]]. Confronting this German concentration on the northern, eastern, and southern flanks were the [[1st Ukrainian Front|1st]], [[4th Ukrainian Front|4th]], and [[Steppe Front|2nd Ukrainian Fronts]] of the Soviet Army.

To the west of the German forces were elements of the U.S. First and Third Armies. The U.S. forces were destined to play only a peripheral role in the events of the Prague Operation as there was a demarcation line in western Czechoslovakia beyond which the U.S. forces were not to advance by prior agreement with the Soviet Union.

===Political situation===
Politically, both [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] saw Prague as a significant prize, the seizure of which could significantly influence the political makeup of postwar Czechoslovakia.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|pp=625-630}} On 1 May 1945, before Berlin was subdued, Stalin issued orders directing the [[1st Belorussian Front]] to relieve the 1st Ukrainian Front in the Berlin area so that the latter could regroup to the south along the [[Mulde River]] and drive on Prague.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=627}} The 2nd Ukrainian Front also received orders on 2 May to drive on Prague from the southeast. Stalin was determined to have the Soviet Army present in force in western Czechoslovakia when the German troops there finally surrendered.

From 30 April to 1 May 1945, [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] Senior Group Leader (''[[Obergruppenführer]]'') and General of Police [[Karl Hermann Frank]] announced over the radio in Prague that he would drown any uprising in a "sea of blood."<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.fronta.cz/dokument/projev-k-h-franka-k-ceskemu-narodu-30-4-1945 |title=Projev K. H. Franka k českému národu (30. 4. 1945) |publisher=www.fronta.cz |date=14 May 2009 |accessdate=July 2013}}</ref> Frank was also a General of the [[Waffen SS]]. The situation in Prague was unstable. Frank knew that several Soviet Army Fronts were advancing towards Prague. More immediately, he was faced with a city population ready to be liberated.

At the same time, two divisions of the [[Russian Liberation Army]] (KONR) arrived in the vicinity of Prague. The KONR 1st Division encamped north of the city while the KONR 2nd Division took up positions south of the city.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=631}} Ostensibly allied with the Germans, the allegiance of the KONR forces would prove to vary depending on the situation they faced.

===Terrain===
{{main|Geography of the Czech Republic}}
The terrain over which the Soviets had to advance was varied, but in the main mountainous and forested. The routes of march of the 1st and 4th Ukrainian Fronts were perpendicular to the orientation of the ridges while the 2nd Ukrainian Front was able to move along a less arduous route in regions of lower elevation that led to Prague. In particular, the 1st Ukrainian Front had to cross the [[Ore Mountains]] to advance on Prague from the area north of Dresden and Bautzen. The other significant military terrain obstacle was urban areas, the two largest of which to surmount were Dresden and Prague itself.

===Deployment===
[[File:Gottgetreu (Fuerstenau).jpg|thumb|left|Rolling terrain of the Ore Mountains.]]
{{Location map+ | Czech Republic
| relief = 1
| width = 400
| float = left
| caption = <center>'''Positions on 6 May 1945'''<ref>Location data from the Soviet history of World War II (История второй мировой войны 1939-1945 в двенадцати томах) Map 151 and [http://www.wwii-photos-maps.com/twelfthalliedarmygroup/1945/May/slides/6-5-45.html 12th Army Group Situation Map]</ref> Red: Soviet / Grey: German / Green: U.S.</center>
| places =
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''8th Army'''
| position = left
| background = white
| mark = black pog.svg
| lat_deg = 48 | lat_min = 57 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 16 | lon_min = 19 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''6th SS PzA'''
| position = left
| background = white
| mark = black pog.svg
| lat_deg = 48 | lat_min = 25 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 15 | lon_min = 26 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''1st Pz Army
| position = left
| background = white
| mark = black pog.svg
| lat_deg = 49 | lat_min = 33 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 17 | lon_min = 46 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''17th Army'''
| position = left
| background = white
| mark = black pog.svg
| lat_deg = 50 | lat_min = 46 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 16 | lon_min = 17 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''4th Pz Army'''
| position = bottom
| background = white
| mark = black pog.svg
| lat_deg = 51 | lat_min = 02 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 13 | lon_min = 44 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''7th Army'''
| position = right
| background = white
| mark = black pog.svg
| lat_deg = 49 | lat_min = 50.5 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 13 | lon_min = 14 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''1st Army'''
| position = bottom
| background = white
| mark = lightgreen pog.svg
| lat_deg = 50 | lat_min = 49 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 12 | lon_min = 23 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''3rd Army'''
| position = bottom
| background = white
| mark = lightgreen pog.svg
| lat_deg = 48 | lat_min = 53 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 12 | lon_min = 34 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''1st Ukrainian Front'''
| position = right
| background = white
| mark = red pog.svg
| lat_deg = 51 | lat_min = 03 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 16 | lon_min = 12 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''4th Ukr. Front'''
| position = right
| background = white
| mark = red pog.svg
| lat_deg = 49 | lat_min = 27 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 18 | lon_min = 08 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''2nd Ukrainian Front'''
| position = right
| background = white
| mark = red pog.svg
| lat_deg = 49 | lat_min = 12 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 16 | lon_min = 37 | lon_dir = E
}}
{{Location map~ | Czech Republic
| label = '''PRAGUE'''
| position = right
| background = white
| mark = City locator 24.svg
| lat_deg = 50 | lat_min = 05 | lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 14 | lon_min = 25 | lon_dir = E
}}
}}
With Soviet and U.S. forces pressing in from all sides, Army Group Centre's deployment resembled a horseshoe straddling the historical regions of [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]. To the west, the [[7th Army (Wehrmacht)|7th Army]] (formerly part of [[Army Group G]]) had been pushed east by operations of the U.S. Sixth Army Group and had become a subordinate command of Army Group Centre. 7th Army was deployed roughly along a north-south axis in western Czechoslovakia. Besides one Panzer division and one Volksgrenadier division, 7th Army had only four other "divisions", two of which were named battle groups (''Schulze'' and ''Benicke'') while the remaining two were replacement army formations mobilized for combat and filled out with military school staffs and trainees.{{sfn|Tessin|1974|p=52}}

To the northeast of Prague and just north of Dresden and Bautzen, the [[4th Panzer Army]] defended along a front running slightly southeast. 4th Panzer Army had five Panzer or mechanized divisions as well as 13 other divisions or battle groups.{{sfn|Tessin|1973|p=228}} Furthermore, 4th Panzer Army had just won the [[Battle of Bautzen (1945)|Battle of Bautzen]], damaging the Soviet 52nd and Polish 2nd Armies.

To 4th Panzer Army's right (eastern) flank was [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th Army]]. The 17th counted 11 divisions, including one Panzer and one motorized division.{{sfn|Tessin|1976|p=53}} These were organized into three corps and deployed in an arc that began about 40 kilometers SW of Breslau and which led to the southeast in the vicinity of [[Ostrava]].

From here the front ran southeast to [[Olomouc]], where the [[1st Panzer Army]] was deployed, including a salient that jutted eastward around Olomouc. 1st Panzer Army was outsized with six Panzer or motorized divisions in addition to 19 others organized into five corps; five divisions were directly under control of the army headquarters.{{sfn|Tessin|1973|p=8}}

In southern Moravia, [[Army Group Ostmark]]'s [[8th Army (Wehrmacht)|8th Army]] was deployed on a front leading to the southwest into Austria where its right flank met up with the 6th SS Panzer Army in the area north and west of [[Vienna]]. 8th Army could call on a Panzer division and a motorized division, as well as six other divisions.{{sfn|Tessin|1974|p=90}}

Facing part of the German 1st Panzer and 8th Armies in the region of [[Brno]], the Soviet 2nd Ukrainian Front numbered 37 rifle divisions, six cavalry divisions, and four tank or mechanized corps.{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} The 2nd Ukrainian Front was expected to advance northwest over the less mountainous country to Prague and would lead its advance with the [[6th Guards Tank Army]]. Soviet allied forces with 2nd Ukrainian Front were the [[First Army (Romania)|1st]] and [[Fourth Army (Romania)|4th Romanian]] Armies, totaling 12 infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions.{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}}

Confronting primarily the 1st Panzer Army, the 4th Ukrainian Front commanded 34 rifle divisions and one tank corps.{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} 4th Ukrainian Front faced the dual obstacles of [[Olomouc]], a small city as well as multiple hill ranges that cut across the projected line of advance. Unlike 2nd Ukrainian Front, the 4th lacked direct and major road connections from Olomouc to Prague, a factor almost guaranteed to slow its rate of advance. Soviet allied forces with 4th Ukrainian Front included the [[I Corps (Czechoslovakia)|Czechoslovak Army Corps]] of four infantry and one tank brigades.

From the region north of Dresden and Görlitz over a large arc to the area of [[Breslau]], the 1st Ukrainian Front counted 71 rifle divisions and three cavalry divisions, as well as nine tank and mechanized corps.{{sfn|Krivosheev|1997|p=159}} The bulk of 1st Ukrainian Front's forces were massed north of Dresden for a direct advance on Prague and included the 3rd and 4th Guards Tank Armies. The primary opponent of this thrust would be the 4th Panzer Army. To the east, five combined-arms armies and the Polish 2nd Army made up the left (eastern) wing of the front, the advance of which would pressure mainly the German 17th Army. Facing the main 1st Ukrainian Front advance were the Ore Mountains, as well as the urban areas of Dresden and Bautzen.

The main axes of late-war Soviet offensives were marked on the one hand by tank armies and by the presence of Stavka reserve artillery divisions on the other. In May 1945, the 1st Ukrainian Front counted six artillery divisions and one rocket launcher division (as well as one Polish artillery division), the 4th Ukrainian Front had two artillery divisions, and the 2nd Ukrainian Front commanded four artillery divisions and one rocket launcher division.<ref>Боевой состав Советской Армии на 1 мая 1945 г.</ref>

Facing the German 7th Army to the west were the U.S. [[VIII Corps (United States)|VIII Corps]] (of the 9th Army),{{sfn|Williams|1989|p=533}}<ref group=lower-alpha>VIII Corps was subordinated to 1st Army until 6 May 1945. Anticipating a combat role for 1st Army Headquarters in the Pacific Theater of Operations, the 1st Army relinquished control of its subordinate commands in the first week of May 1945. These commands were in turn subordinated to the 9th Army. See Williams' ''Chronology'' (1989), pp. 530 and 533.</ref> [[V Corps (United States)|V Corps]], and [[XII Corps (United States)|XII Corps]] (both of the 3rd Army). VIII Corps numbered one armored and three infantry divisions<ref group=lower-alpha>6th Armored Division, and 76th, 87th, and 89th Infantry Divisions {{harv|Greenwald|1945|loc=[http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/6AD-ETO.htm 6th Armored Division]; [http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/76ID-ETO.htm 76th Infantry Division]; [http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/87ID-ETO.htm 87th Infantry Division]; [http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/89ID-ETO.htm 89th Infantry Division]}}.</ref> while V Corps was made up of one armored division and two infantry divisions.<ref group=lower-alpha>1st and 2nd Infantry Divisions, and 9th Armored Division {{harv|Greenwald|1945|loc=
[http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/1ID-ETO-OB.htm 1st Infantry Division];
[http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/2ID-ETO.htm 2nd Infantry Division]; [http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/9AD-ETO.htm 9th Armored Division]}}.</ref> An additional infantry division under control of 3rd Army Headquarters was also in V Corps' sector,<ref group=lower-alpha>97th Infantry Division {{harv|Greenwald|1945|loc=[http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/97ID-ETO.htm 97th Infantry Division]}}.</ref> and a second armored division would be subordinated to V Corps before [[VE Day]].<ref group=lower-alpha>16th Armored Division {{harv|Greenwald|1945|loc=[http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/16AD-ETO.htm 16th Armored Division]}}.</ref> XII Corps commanded two armored divisions and two infantry divisions.<ref group=lower-alpha>4th and 11th Armored Divisions, and 26th and 90th Infantry Divisions {{harv|Greenwald|1945|loc=[http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/4AD-ETO.htm 4th Armored Division]; [http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/11AD-ETO.htm 11th Armored Division]; [http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/26ID-ETO.htm 26th Infantry Division] [http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/90ID-ETO.htm 90th Infantry Division]}}.</ref> Exerting some pressure on German 7th Army, these corps of the U.S. Army did not advance on Prague although their presence in western Bohemia stimulated Czech resistance to the German occupation, indirectly influencing the [[Prague Uprising]].{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=634}} By agreement with the Soviets, the U.S. forces did not advance in strength eastward of an irregular demarcation line that at points touched Leipzig, Karlovy Vary, and Plzen.{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2010|p=17}}

Realizing that the Soviets would attack Army Group Centre following the surrender of Berlin, on 5 May [[Ferdinand Schörner|Field Marshal Schörner]] devised a plan (''Blumen-Operation'') in which the units of Army Group Centre would attempt a fighting withdrawal to the west where they would be in a position to surrender to U.S. forces vice those of the Soviet Union. Schörner envisioned withdrawal phase lines (given the names of flowers) and intended for the 4th Panzer Army to hold off the 1st Ukrainian Front long enough for the other field armies of the army group to fall back to the west.{{sfn|Der Spiegel staff|1955}}

==The Prague Uprising==
{{main|Prague Uprising}}

The orders from Stalin on 1 May to the three fronts called for the offensive to commence on 7 May 1945.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=627}} On 4 May, Marshal Konev provided detailed orders to his army commanders for three thrusts by the 1st Ukrainian Front. A main thrust would occur on the right (western) wing with three combined-arms armies, two tank armies (3rd and 4th Guards Tank Armies) and five artillery divisions, following the valleys of the Elbe and Vltava Rivers. A secondary thrust by the 28th and 52nd Armies was to advance on an axis from Zittau to Prague, and a final thrust by the Polish 2nd Army was to cut off the southeastern approaches to Dresden. Dresden itself was to be taken by the 5th Guards Army as part of the main thrust.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=632}}

Suggesting to General Antonov that a U.S. advance to Prague was now feasible, General Eisenhower was informed that such was not desired by the Soviets{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=633}} and the same message was given to General Bradley during a meeting with Marshal Konev on 5 May.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=634}} At this point, events external to formal military planning erupted. By 5 May, the lead units of the U.S. V Corps had reached Plzen,{{sfn|Williams|1989|p=532}} with word of the American advance reaching the residents of Prague and playing a part in the decision of the city's Czech citizens to rise up against the German occupation.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=634}}

The uprising in Prague came into immediate conflict with the German occupation forces. Fighting in desperate circumstances, the Czechs gained control of a radio station and, besides calling on Czechs to join the uprising, also broadcast on 5 May an appeal in Russian and English for air support to hold off German armored units.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=634}} These developments prompted Stalin to hasten the start of Soviet offensive and it was ordered to commence one day earlier, on 6 May.{{sfn|Glantz|1995|p=273}}

Adding to the confusion in Prague but providing useful assistance to the Czechs, the 1st Division of the [[Russian Liberation Army]] under [[Sergei Bunyachenko|General Bunyachenko]] moved into Prague and engaged in combat with their erstwhile German allies. By 7 May, the 1st Division had occupied the airport and the radio station.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=635}}

==Battle==
The Soviet offensive commenced on 6 May and concluded on 11 May.

=== 6 May ===
Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front opened the Prague Offensive with an attack by the 3rd and 4th Guard Tank Armies and the 13th, 3rd Guards, and 5th Guards combined-arms armies. This group of five armies was Konev's main attack and pushed south from the area around Riesa.{{sfn|Glantz|1995|p=273}} Facing Konev's thrust were troops of the German 4th Panzer Army. The attack opened with a reconnaissance-in-force in the morning, followed by a brief but powerful artillery barrage. 13th, 3rd Guards, and both tank armies (as well as two other tank corps) attacked southward in the afternoon, with the 13th Army and the 4th Guards Tank Army pushing forward some 23 kilometers.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}} By evening, 5th Guards Army had joined the attack with the objective of capturing Dresden.

Ending a separate 1st Ukrainian Front operation, 40,000 German troops in [[Breslau]] surrendered to the Soviet 6th Army after a two-month-long [[Siege of Breslau|siege]].{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}} On 6 May, 4th Ukrainian Front attacked to the west, intent upon capturing the city of Olomouc.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}} Defending against the Soviet attack in front of Olomouc was the 1st Panzer Army.

In the west, the U.S. V and XII Corps attacked into western Czechoslovakia against the defenses of the German 7th Army. Elements of the 16th Armored Division captured Plzen while a [[combat command]] of the 4th Armored Division captured [[Strakonice]]. In all, the two corps advanced into Czechoslovakia with a strength of seven divisions.{{sfn|Williams|1989|p=533}} To the north, the U.S. VIII Corps was subordinated to the U.S. Ninth Army.

=== 7 May ===
Continuing the main attack of the 1st Ukrainian Front, 3rd Guards Army captured Meissen, home of the famous German [[Meissen porcelain|porcelain]]. The 13th Army and the 4th Guards Tank Army pushed 45 kilometers further to the south and reached the northern slope of the Ore Mountains. The 3rd Guards Tank Army and 5th Guards Army began the battle to capture Dresden. The 2nd Polish Army thrust to the southwest in support of the operations against Dresden. Farther to the east, the second attack of the front developed as the 28th and 52nd Armies attacked to the south.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}}

Following a 30-minute artillery barrage, the 7th Guards Army and the 6th Guards Tank Army led an attack to the northwest, opening the offensive of the 2nd Ukrainian Front. Adding to the difficulties of the defending German 8th Army, the Soviet 9th Guards Army and 46th Army reinforced the attack on its left (southern) wing. By the end of the day, the front had pushed 12 kilometers into the German lines along an advance 25 kilometers in breadth.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}} Between the 2nd and 1st Ukrainian Fronts, the 4th Ukrainian Front continued its advance on Olomouc.

In Prague, German troops took the Old Town Square, continuing overwhelming pressure on the uprising and the civilian population.{{sfn|Mahoney|2011|p=191}}

On 7 May, General [[Alfred Jodl]], Chief-of-Staff of ''[[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]]'' ("German Armed Forces High Command"), signed the [[The end of World War II in Europe|surrender of all German forces]] at [[SHAEF]]. The surrender was to become effective at 0001 hours on 9 May.{{sfn|Williams|1989|p=534}} In western Czechoslovakia, upon receipt of the news of the surrender, U.S. forces ceased offensive operations and assumed a defensive posture.{{sfn|Williams|1989|p=534}} U.S. V Corps took Karlovy Vary on the day of the surrender.

=== 8 May ===
OKW had last heard from Schörner on 2 May when he reported his intention to fight his way west and surrender his army group to the Americans. On 8 May Colonel Wilhelm Meyer-Detring,<ref group=lower-alpha>Wilhelm Meyer-Detring, 1906-2002, later became a lieutenant-general and commander of the I Corps in the [[Bundeswehr]], retiring from military service in 1966.</ref> a German liaison officer from ''OKW'', was escorted through the American lines to see Schörner. Meyer-Detring told Schörner the formal capitulation of Germany meant that any withdrawal as a large formation by troops of Army Group Centre was out of the question, and that the German troops should attempt to make their way west and surrender to U.S. forces. Schörner was skeptical that such was possible. On his return Meyer-Detring reported Schörner had ordered his operational command to observe the surrender but could not guarantee he would be obeyed everywhere.{{sfn|Kershaw|2011|p=373}}{{sfn|Ziemke|1969|p=134}}<ref group=lower-alpha>Like many institutions in Nazi Germany the control of the Army was split between different chains of command that reported directly to Hitler. In 1945 the ''German Armed Forces High Command'' (OKW) commanded all German forces in every theatre apart from those on the Eastern Front which were under the control of ''[[Oberkommando des Heeres]]'' ("German Army High Command") (OKH) and which, before his suicide, had both reported directly to [[Hitler]]. So it was not clear if Schörner was under the command of OKW on 8 May or if [[President of Germany|President]] [[Karl Dönitz]] or [[Chancellor of Germany (German Reich)|Chancellor]] [[Count Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk|von Krosigk]] needed to order Schörner, to surrender his army group.</ref>

Pushing forward 40 further kilometers, the main thrust of the 1st Ukrainian Front broke through German resistance in the Ore Mountains and approached to within 70-80 kilometers of Prague. The advance of the 4th Guards Tank Army came upon the headquarters of Army Group Centre, capturing or killing the headquarters personnel,{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=423}} but not Schörner, who, deserting his command made his way to [[Podbořany]] where the next day wearing civilian clothes he flew to Bavaria (Nine days later he was detained in Austria by German troops who handed him over to the Americans).{{sfn|Der Spiegel staff|1955}}{{sfn|Ziemke|1969|p=134}}

By the evening of 8 May, Dresden fell to 3rd Guards Tank Army and the 5th Guards Army. On the same day, the 4th Ukrainian Front pushed the Germans out of Olomouc.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}} The Soviets broadcast a demand that the remaining German forces in the field were to lay down their arms by 23:00 hours that day. No reply was received.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=423}} Without a functioning army group headquarters and leaderless, the component armies of Army Group Centre had been left to their own devices. The plans of Schörner for an orderly withdrawal notwithstanding, the bulk of Army Group Centre's troops were destined to be captured by the Soviet Army.

The Czech National Council (ČNR), lacking significant supplies to support the uprising,{{sfn|Gosztony|1991|p=228}} fearing large-scale destruction of Prague, and in the wake of the overall German surrender, came to an agreement with the Germans in which the German troops were to leave Prague under conditions of ceasefire.{{sfn|Mahoney|2011|p=191}}{{sfn|Gosztony|1991|p=228}} Some SS units, however, continued their attacks against the Czech insurgents in Prague.{{sfn|Mahoney|2011|p=191}}{{sfn|Agnew|2004|p=222}} The 1st KONR Division, its relations with the ČNR broken down{{sfn|Agnew|2004|p=222}} and realizing no quarter could be expected from Soviet forces, joined SS and other German troops in a wary alliance of convenience and starting moving west.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=636}} The KONR 2nd Division had already contacted the Americans and started the march west.{{sfn|Erickson|1983|p=636}}

=== 9 May ===
[[File:Prague liberation 1945 konev.jpg|thumb|305px|Marshal Konev hailed as the Soviets enter Prague, 9 May 1945]]During the night of 8/9 May, armored units of the 3rd and 4th Guards Tank Armies pushed south some 80 kilometers, entering Prague at daybreak.{{sfn|Glantz1995|p=274}} The armored vanguards were shortly followed by elements of the 13th Army and 3rd Guards Army. With the help of Czech population, Prague was freed of German troops around 10:00 hours.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=424}} In any event, German troops in and around Prague were anxious to flee to the west, although Soviet columns, Czech [[Partisan (military)|partisans]], and an angry Czech populace made the journey to U.S. lines anything but certain.{{sfn|Lakowski|2008|p=677}}

In the late hours of the day, units from 4th and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts also reached Prague, including the armored brigade of the [[1st Czechoslovak Army Corps|Czechoslovak Army Corps]].{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=424}} The arrival of the other fronts meant the bulk of Army Group Centre was cut off and forced into a pocket to the east, northeast and south of Prague.

=== 10–11 May ===
With Soviet units in Prague and pushing further west and south into Bohemia, the Soviet military objectives of the offensive had been met. The bulk of German troops in Army Group Centre were taken prisoner by the Soviets in the two days following the liberation of Prague, while elements of the 1st and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts pushed west to the Chemnitz-Karlovy Vary-Plzen demarcation line with U.S. forces.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=424}} With these unit movements, the Prague Offensive concluded three days after Victory in Europe Day.

Fearing their treatment at the hands of the locals or Soviet Army troops,{{sfn|Lakowski|2008|p=677}} remnant formations of Army Group Centre continued resistance until 11/12 May, and in the cases of some small units, later into May 1945. The left flank of the 2nd Ukrainian Front met with troops of the U.S. Third Army ([[George S. Patton|George Patton]]) in the regions of [[České Budějovice]] and [[Písek]]. Later, 1st and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts met with Americans in the regions of [[Karlovy Vary]] and [[Klatovy]].

German soldiers, [[ethnic German]] and a minority of ethnic Czech pro-Nazi civilians fleeing Prague were surprised by the advancing Soviets and completely routed. The Czech partisans resumed hostilities against the fleeing German troops regardless of their intentions or nationality, in what the veterans of the [[20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian)]] who had laid their weapons down in May 1945 recalled as the [[Czech Hell]].{{sfn|Estonian State Commission on Examination of Policies of Repression|2005|p=35}}{{sfn|Hiio|Kaasik|2006|pp=927–968}}

==Aftermath==
[[File:Liberation of Prague OBVERSE.jpg|thumb|To honor the participants of the operation, the Soviet Union instituted the [[Medal "For the Liberation of Prague"]].]]

===Military and political considerations===
The Prague Offensive destroyed Army Group Centre and parts of Army Group Ostmark. These army groups were the last large intact military formations of Germany, and following the offensive, all surviving German soldiers became prisoners of war or fugitives.

The number of German prisoners taken by the Soviet Union reached almost 900,000 and other Axis soldiers, numbering at least in the tens of thousands, surrendered to U.S. forces in western Czechoslovakia and Austria,{{sfn|Mendelsohn|2010|p=16}} although numbers of these were later turned over to the Soviet Union.

Czechoslovakia was free of the German occupation regime for the first time since late 1938. The country's prewar borders, however, would not be completely restored as the Soviets engineered the cession of [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] to the U.S.S.R. in July 1945.

Western Czechoslovakia was split by a military frontier of superpowers, on one side of which was the Soviet Army and on the other side of which was the U.S. Army. Although both armies would depart Czechoslovakia by the end of 1945, Stalin had achieved his goal of ensuring a strong Soviet military presence in Prague at the time of the surrender of German forces in Czechoslovakia.

Communist influence in the postwar Czechoslovak Army and government mounted.{{sfn|Gosztony|1991|pp=229-230}} Czech soldiers who had fought with the Western Allies found themselves increasingly on the sidelines, and the country itself was forced to become a Soviet satellite state in 1948 by a communist coup.

===Immediate deaths of prominent figures===
Even before the start of the Soviet offensive, on 5 May, [[Emanuel Moravec]] committed suicide. Moravec, known as the "Czech [[Vidkun Quisling|Quisling]]," was infamous among the Czechs as a [[treason|traitor]].{{sfn|Johnstone|2009}}{{sfn|Jaggers|1993}}

[[Konrad Henlein]], the former Czechoslovak politician and the leader of the Nazi Party of [[Sudeten Germans]], committed suicide in American captivity on 10 May.

On 12 May, Baron [[Carl Friedrich von Pückler-Burghauss|Pückler-Burghauss]], commander of Waffen-SS in the Protectorate, committed suicide after he signed the capitulation.

On 14 May, Dr. [[Emil Hácha]], the State President of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, was arrested in Prague. He died in prison on 26 June 1945.

===Historiography of the offensive===
Volume 10 of the Soviet official history of the Second World War treats the Prague Offensive as a primarily military event,{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|pp=416-426}} identifying the major military formations involved, their axes of advance, and in some cases, their daily rate of advance. Unsurprisingly, the Soviet history praises the operation for the international efforts of Soviet, Polish, Czech, and Romanian soldiers on behalf of "the freedom of the Czechoslovakian People".{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=424}} No mention is made, however, of Stalin's political intentions regarding Czechoslovakia. The final push to Prague during the night of 8–9 May 1945 is presented as having been necessary to relieve struggling Czech insurgents in Prague{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}} while the authors could not resist accusing former officers of the prewar Czech Army of abandoning the barricades during combat with the Germans in Prague.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=422}}

That the offensive was a military event involving serious combat is made clear by the over 50,000 casualties suffered by the Soviet forces and their allies from 6 to 11 May 1945. Published in 2008, Volume 10/1 of the German official history of the war criticizes the Soviet view of the event, noting the percentage of casualties of the Prague Offensive to be far lower than that of the Berlin Offensive.{{sfn|Lakowski|2008|p=675}}<ref group=lower-alpha>Krivosheev, pp. 158-159, presents force totals and daily casualty figures that confirm the assertion of the German official history. As an example, during the Berlin Operation 1st Ukrainian Front on average suffered the loss of 84.6 men per divisional equivalent per day, while the corresponding figure for the same formation during the Prague Offensive was 45.3. Soviet losses may have declined following the announcement of German surrender on 8/9 May 1945.</ref> The German official history makes note of Stalin's political intentions{{sfn|Lakowski|2008|p=675}} and his desire to prevent Army Group Centre from surrendering to U.S. forces. Despite titling the relevant section ''The End of Army Group Centre'' the German official history only briefly mentions the situation of the army group in May 1945 and instead discusses other topics. The actual surrender of Army Group Centre is not discussed at all.

There are unofficial histories that touch upon the offensive, or more generally, on the end of the war in Czechoslovakia. Somewhere between the official German and Soviet views, [[John Erickson (historian)|John Erickson]]'s ''The Road to Berlin'' discusses the offensive in some detail while including mention of Stalin's intentions, the Prague Uprising, and role of the Russian Liberation Army. Erickson wrote the work to present a balanced view of Soviet politics and military operations during the war, and so his description of actions by German forces is correspondingly limited.<ref group=lower-alpha>While there are a variety of sources discussing the fates of some of the individual German units, there does not appear to be a single comprehensive work presenting the combat actions and capitulations of the German units in Army Groups Centre and Ostmark during the period 6–11 May 1945.</ref>

==Losses==
[[File:Red Army section Olsany Cemetery Prague CZ 056.jpg|thumb|[[Olšany Cemetery]] in Prague: Honorary burial site of Soviet soldiers fallen during the battle of the city.]]

===Soviet and Soviet allied nations===
* Personnel
** 11,997 irrecoverable
** 40,501 wounded and sick
** Total 52,498{{sfn|Glantz|1995|p=300}}
* Matériel{{sfn|Glantz|1995|p=300}}
** 373 tanks and self-propelled guns
** 1,006 artillery pieces
** 80 aircraft
 
{| style="float: right;" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;"
|- style="background-color:DarkRed; color:white;"
! colspan="5" | Losses: Soviet and Soviet Allied, Prague Offensive Source: G. F. Krivosheev, ''Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century, p. 159''
|-
|- style="background-color:DarkRed; color:white;"
! Unit(s)
! Strength 6 May 1945
! Total losses
! Average daily losses
|-
! ROWSPAN=1 style="background:#ccc;" style="border-bottom:1px solid gray;"| 1st Ukrainian Front
| 806,400
| 23,383
| 3,897
|-
! ROWSPAN=1 style="background:#ccc;" style="border-bottom:1px solid gray;"| 2nd Ukrainian Front
| 613,400
| 14,436
| 2,406
|-
! ROWSPAN=1 style="background:#ccc;" style="border-bottom:1px solid gray;"| 4th Ukrainian Front
| 350,900
| 11,529
| 1,922
|-
! ROWSPAN=1 style="background:#ccc;" style="border-bottom:1px solid gray;"| Polish 2nd Army
| 69,500
| 887
| 148
|-
! ROWSPAN=1 style="background:#ccc;" style="border-bottom:1px solid gray;"| Romanian 1st and 4th Armies
| 139,500
| 1,730
| 288
|-
! ROWSPAN=1 style="background:#ccc;" style="border-bottom:1px solid gray;"| Czechoslovak Army Corps
| 48,400
| 533
| 89
|-
|}

===German===
Losses in men of both army groups taken prisoner by the Soviets amounted to some 860,000 men.{{sfn|YPL staff|2012}} The Soviets claimed to have captured 9,500 guns and mortars, 1,800 armored vehicles, and 1,100 aircraft in the course of the operation.{{sfn|Ustinov|1982|p=424}}

==See also==
* [[Battle of Berlin]] - 1945
* [[Vienna Offensive]] - 1945
* [[Prague Uprising]] - 1945
* [[End of World War II in Europe]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

{{reflist|20em}}

==References==
* {{Citation|last=Agnew |first=Hugh |year=2004 |title=The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown |location=Stanford |publisher=Hoover Institution Press |isbn=0-8179-4491-5 }}
* {{Citation |ref={{harvid|Erickson|1983}}
|last=Erickson |first=John |year=1983 |title=The Road to Berlin |location=London |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicholson |isbn=978-0297772385}}
* {{Citation|author=Estonian State Commission on Examination of Policies of Repression|year=2005 |url=http://www.just.ee/orb.aw/class=file/action=preview/id=12709/TheWhiteBook.pdf|publisher=Estonian Encyclopedia Publishers|title=The White Book: Losses inflicted on the Estonian nation by occupation regimes. 1940–1991 |chapter=Human Losses|page=35}}
* {{Citation |ref={{harvid|Glantz|1995}}
|last=Glantz |first=David M. |authorlink=David Glantz |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=Jonathan |last2=House |year=1995 |title=When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler |location=Lawrence, Kansas |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=0-7006-0899-0 }}
* {{Citation |last1=Frajdl|first1=Jiří|title=České povstání v květnu 1945|trans-title= Czech uprising in May 1945|url=http://www.kcprymarov.estranky.cz/clanky/nase-knihovna/ceske-povstani-v-kvetnu-1945|website=kcprymarov.estranky.cz|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091002063913/http://www.kcprymarov.estranky.cz/clanky/nase-knihovna/ceske-povstani-v-kvetnu-1945|archivedate=9 October 2009|language=Czech|date=8 May 2007}}
* {{Citation |last=Gosztony |first=Peter |year=1991 |title=Stalins Fremde Heere |location=Bonn |publisher=Bernard & Graefe Verlag |isbn=3-7637-5889-5 }}
* {{Citation |last=Greenwald |first=Robert J. |url=http://www.history.army.mil/documents/ETO-OB/ETOOB-TOC.htm |title=Order of Battle of the United States Army, World War II, European Theater of Operations: Divisions |location=Paris, France |publisher=Office of the Theater Historian |date=December 1945}}
* {{Citation |last=Hiio |first=Toomas |last2= Kaasik |first2=Peeter |year=2006 |pages=927–968|chapter=Estonian units in the Waffen-SS|editor-first=Toomas |editor-last=Hiio |editor2-first=Meelis |editor2-last=Maripuu |editor3-first=Indrek |editor3-last=Paavle |title=Estonia 1940–1945: Reports of the [[Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]]|location=Tallinn}}
* {{Citation |last=Jaggers |first=R.C. |date=22 September 1993|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol4no1/pdf/v04i1a01p.pdf |title=The assassination of Reinhard Heydrich |format=PDF |accessdate=July 2013}}
* {{Citation |last=Johnstone |first=Chris |date=10 June 2009 |url=http://www.radio.cz/en/section/czechs/emanuel-moravec-the-face-of-czech-collaboration-with-the-nazis |title=Emanuel Moravec the face of Czech collaboration with the Nazis |publisher=www.radio.cz |accessdate=July 2013}}
* {{Citation |last=Kershaw |first=Ian |year=2011 |title=The End: Germany, 1944-45 |publisher=Penguin Books Ltd |isbn=978-0-713-99716-3 }}
* {{Citation |last=Krivosheev |first=Grigori |year=1997 |title=Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century |location=London |publisher=Greenhill Books |isbn=978-1853-672804 }}
* {{Citation |last=Lakowski |first=Richard |year=2008 |title=Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Volume 10/1) |location=Munich |publisher=DVA, |isbn=978-3-421-06237-6 }}
* {{Citation |last=Mahoney |first=William |year=2011 |title=The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia |location=Santa Barbara |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-36305-4 }}
* {{Citation |last=Mendelsohn |first=Rona |year=2010 |title=Liberation |location=Prague |publisher=U.S. Embassy in Prague}}
* {{Citation|author=Der Spiegel staff |date=July 1955 |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-31969169.html |title=Der Spiegel - Der laute Kamerad |publisher=Spiegel.de |accessdate=June 2013}}
* {{Citation |last=Tessin |first=Georg |year=1973 |title=Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS 1939-1945 (Volume 2) |location=Osnabrück |publisher=Biblio Verlag |isbn=3-7648-0871-3 }}
* {{Citation |last=Tessin |first=Georg |year=1974 |title=Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS 1939-1945 (Volume 3) |location=Osnabrück |publisher=Biblio Verlag |isbn=3-7648-0942-6 }}
* {{Citation |last=Tessin |first=Georg |year=1976 |title=Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS 1939-1945 (Volume 4) |location=Osnabrück |publisher=Biblio Verlag |isbn=3-7648-1083-1 }}
* {{Citation |last=Tessin |first=Georg |year=1980 |title=Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS 1939-1945 (Volume 14) |location=Osnabrück |publisher=Biblio Verlag |isbn=3-7648-1111-0 }}
* {{Citation |last=Ustinov |first=Dmitriy |year=1982 |title=Geschichte des zweiten Weltkrieges 1939-1945 (Volume 10) |location=Berlin |publisher=Militärverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik }}
* {{Citation |last=Williams |first=Mary (Compiler) |year=1989 |title=Chronology 1941-1945 |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=GPO }}
* {{Citation |author=YPL staff |year=2012 |url=http://www.prlib.ru/en-us/History/Pages/Item.aspx?itemid=527 |title=The end of Prague Offensive |publisher=[http://www.prlib.ru/en-us/Pages/about.aspx Yeltsin Presidential Library] |accessdate=July 2013}}
* {{Citation |last=Ziemke |first=Earl F. |year=1969 |title=Battle for Berlin: end of the Third Reich |location=New York |publisher=Ballantine }}
* {{Citation |last=Ziemke |first=Earl F. |year=2002 |title=Stalingrad to Berlin: The German Defeat in the East |location=Washington D.C. |publisher=Government Printing Office}}

==Further reading==
* {{Citation |last=Konev |first=I. v |authorlink=Ivan Konev |year=1969 |title=Year of Victory |publisher=Progress Publishers |location=Moscow }}.
* ''Советская военная энциклопедия'' (''Soviet Military Encyclopedia''), vol. 6 (In Russian).
** ''The Soviet Military Encyclopedia'', A-F: ISBN 0-8133-1429-1, G-O: ISBN 0-8133-1430-5, P-Z: ISBN 0-8133-1431-3

{{World War II}}

[[Category:1945 in Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Poland]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Romania]]
[[Category:Czechoslovakia–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Czech resistance to Nazi occupation]]
[[Category:Military history of Prague]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:20th century in Prague]]

Soviet Union

2015-08-05T20:38:13Z

Muta112: Undid revision 674544532 by Icarus the Great (talk)

{{pp-semi-indef}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{redirect10|USSR|СССР|Soviet|other uses|[[USSR (disambiguation)]], [[CCCP (disambiguation)]], and [[Soviet (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name=Союз Советских Социалистических Республик {{clear}} ''Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik''
|conventional_long_name=Union of Soviet Socialist Republics {{clear}} [[Official names of the Soviet Union|Other names]]
|common_name=Soviet Union (USSR)
|continent=Eurasia
|era=[[Interwar period]] / [[World War II]] / [[Cold War]]
|government_type=[[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[single-party state]]<ref name="ml1">Historical Dictionary of Socialism. James C. Docherty, Peter Lamb. Page 85. "The Soviet Union was a one-party Marxist-Leninist state.".</ref><ref name="ml2">[http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/ruseur_wp_010.pdf Ideology, Interests, and Identity]. Stephen H. Hanson. Page 14. "the USSR was officially a Marxist-Leninist state"</ref><ref name="ml3">[http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1078&context=ilr The Fine Line between the Enforcement of Human Rights Agreements and the Violation of National Sovereignty: The Case of Soviet Dissidents]. Jennifer Noe Pahre. Page 336. "[...] the Soviet Union, as a Marxist-Leninist state [...]". Page 348. "The Soviet Union is a Marxist–Leninist state."</ref><ref name="ml4">[http://www.epa.hu/00000/00010/00020/pdf/HSR_1989_1-2_023-046.pdf Leninist National Policy: Solution to the "National Question"?]. Walker Connor. Page 31. "[...] four Marxist-Leninist states (the Soviet Union, China, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia)[...]"</ref>
|year_start = 1922
|year_end = 1991<ref>[[:s:ru:Декларация Совета Республик ВС СССР от 26 December 1991 № 142-Н|Declaration № 142-Н]] of the [[Soviet of Nationalities|Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]], formally establishing the dissolution of the Soviet Union as a state and subject of international law. {{ru icon}}</ref>
|date_start = 30 December
|event_start = [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|Treaty of Creation]]
|date_end = 26 December
|event_end = [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Union dissolved]]
|image_flag = Flag of the Soviet Union.svg{{!}}border
|flag = Flag of the Soviet Union
|image_coat = Coat of arms of the Soviet Union.svg
|symbol = State Emblem of the Soviet Union
|symbol_type = State Emblem
|image_map = Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (orthographic projection).svg
|image_map_size = 220px
|image_map_caption = The Soviet Union after [[World War II]], not including aligned countries.
|capital = Moscow
|latd=55|latm=45|latNS=N|longd=37|longm=37|longEW=E
|largest_city =Moscow
|national_motto = Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! ([[Romanization of Russian|Translit.]]: ''Proletarii vsekh stran, soyedinyaytes'!'') English: [[Workers of the world, unite!]] (literally: Proletarians of all countries, unite!)
|national_anthem = "[[The Internationale#Russian lyrics|The Internationale]]" (1922–1944) <center>[[File:Internationale-ru.ogg]]</center> "[[State Anthem of the Soviet Union]]" (1944–1991) <center>[[File:Soviet Union national anthem instrumental 1977.ogg]]</center>
|common_languages = [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Languages of the Soviet Union|many others]]
|demonym = [[Soviet people|Soviet]]
|religion = None ([[state atheism]])<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1990-10-02/news/1990275061_1_supreme-soviet-religious-classes-atheism |title=73 Years of State Atheism in the Soviet Union, ended amid collapse in 1990 |author=Scott Shane |work=Baltimore Sun |date=2 October 1990 |accessdate=13 October 2013}}</ref> ([[Soviet Union#Religion|see text]])
|currency = [[Soviet ruble]] (руб) (SUR)
|currency_code = SUR

|leader1 = [[Joseph Stalin]] (first)
|leader2 = [[Vladimir Ivashko]] (last)
|year_leader1 = 1922–1952
|year_leader2 = 1990–1991
|title_leader = [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]]
|
|representative1 = [[Mikhail Kalinin]] (first)
|representative2 = [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] (last)
|year_representative1 = 1922–1938
|year_representative2 = 1988–1991
|title_representative = [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Head of State]]
|
|deputy1 = [[Vladimir Lenin]] (first)
|deputy2 = [[Ivan Silayev]] (last)
|year_deputy1 = 1922–1924
|year_deputy2 = 1991
|title_deputy = [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Head of Government]]
|
|legislature = [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]]
|house1 = [[Soviet of the Union]]
|house2 = [[Soviet of Nationalities]]
|stat_year1 = 1991
|stat_area1 = 22402200
|stat_pop1 = 293047571
|p1 = Russian SFSR
|flag_p1 = Flag RSFSR 1918.svg
|p2 = Transcaucasian SFSR
|flag_p2 = Flag of Transcaucasian SFSR.svg
|p3 = Ukrainian SSR
|flag_p3 = Flag of Ukrainian SSR (1919-1929).svg
|p4 = Byelorussian SSR
|flag_p4 = Flag of the Byelorussian SSR (1919).svg
|s1 = Armenia
|flag_s1 = Flag of Armenia.svg
|s2 = Azerbaijan
|flag_s2 = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg
|s3 = Belarus
|flag_s3 = Flag of Belarus (1991-1995).svg
|s4 = Estonia
|flag_s4 = Flag of Estonia.svg
|s5 = Georgia (country){{!}}Georgia
|flag_s5=Flag of Georgia (1990-2004).svg
|s6 = Kazakhstan
|flag_s6 = Flag of Kazakh SSR.svg
|s7 = Kyrgyzstan
|flag_s7 = Kyrgyzstan Flag 1991.svg
|s8 = Latvia
|flag_s8 = Flag of Latvia.svg
|s9 = Lithuania
|flag_s9 = Flag of Lithuania 1989-2004.svg
|s10 = Moldova
|flag_s10 = Flag of Moldova.svg
|s11 = Russia
|flag_s11 = Flag of Russia 1991-1993.svg
|s12 = Tajikistan
|flag_s12 = Flag of Tajikistan 1991-1992.svg
|s13 = Turkmenistan
|flag_s13 = Flag of Turkmen SSR.svg
|s14 = Ukraine
|flag_s14 = Flag of Ukraine.svg
|s15 = Uzbekistan
|flag_s15 = Flag of Uzbekistan.svg
|footnotes =Notes
# {{note|1}}Assigned on 19 September 1990, existing onwards.
For details on the [[succession of states]] see [[#Post-Soviet states|below]].
|utc_offset = +2 to +13
|cctld = [[.su]]{{ref|1|1}}
|calling_code = 7
}}
The '''Union of Soviet Socialist Republics''' ({{lang-rus|Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик|r=Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik|p=sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲɛtskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪsˈtʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪˈspublʲɪk|a=Ru-Союз_Советских_Социалистических_Республик.ogg}}) abbreviated to '''USSR''' ({{lang-rus|СССР|r=SSSR}}) or shortened to the '''Soviet Union''' ({{lang-rus|Сове́тский Сою́з|r=Sovetskij Soyuz|p=sɐ'vʲetskʲɪj sɐˈjʉs}}), was a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] state<ref name="ml1" /><ref name="ml2" /><ref name="ml3" /><ref name="ml4" /> on the [[Eurasia]]n continent that existed between 1922 and 1991. It was governed as a [[single-party state]] by the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] with [[Moscow]] as its capital.<ref>Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) ''Marxist Approaches in Anthropology'' Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 4: pp. 341–70 (October 1975) {{doi|10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013}}. William Roseberry (1997) ''Marx and Anthropology'' Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) {{doi|10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25}}</ref> A [[political union|union]] of multiple subnational [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]], its [[Politics of the Soviet Union|government]] and [[Economy of the Soviet Union|economy]] were highly centralized.

The Soviet Union had its roots in the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], which overthrew the [[Russian Empire]]. The [[Bolshevik]]s, the majority faction of the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party|Social Democratic Labour Party]], led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], then led a [[October Revolution|second revolution]] which overthrew the [[Russian Provisional Government|provisional government]] and established the [[Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]] (renamed [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] in 1936), beginning a [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] between pro-revolution Reds and counter-revolution Whites. The [[Red Army]] entered several territories of the former [[Russian Empire]], and helped local Communists take power through [[Soviet (council)|soviets]] that nominally acted on behalf of workers and peasants. In 1922, the Communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian]], and [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian]] republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924, a [[Troika (Soviet leadership)|troika]] [[collective leadership]] and a brief power struggle, [[Joseph Stalin]] came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed political opposition to him, committed the state ideology to [[Marxism–Leninism]] (which he created) and initiated a centrally [[planned economy]]. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid [[industrialisation]] and [[Collectivisation in the Soviet Union|collectivisation]] which laid the basis for its later war effort and dominance after World War II.<ref name="StalinRobertService">{{cite book | author=Robert Service| title=Stalin: a biography| url=https://books.google.com/?id=ITKUPwAACAAJ| date=9 September 2005| publisher=Picador| isbn=978-0-330-41913-0 }}</ref> However, Stalin established political paranoia, and introduced [[Great Purge|arbitrary arrests on a massive scale]] after which the authorities transferred many people (military leaders, Communist Party members, ordinary citizens alike) to [[GULAG|correctional labour camps]] or sentenced them to death.

In the beginning of [[World War II]], after the United Kingdom and France rejected an alliance with the Soviet Union against [[Nazi Germany]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/3223834/Stalin-planned-to-send-a-million-troops-to-stop-Hitler-if-Britain-and-France-agreed-pact.html|title=Stalin 'planned to send a million troops to stop Hitler if Britain and France agreed pact'|first=Nick|last=Holdsworth|date=18 October 2008|accessdate=2 July 2015|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6ZjWc4ynk|archivedate=2 July 2015|publisher=The Telegraph}}</ref> the USSR signed a [[Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union|non-aggression pact]] with Germany; the treaty delayed confrontation between the two countries, but was disregarded in 1941 when the Nazis [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]], opening [[Eastern Front (World War II)|the largest and bloodiest theatre]] of war in history. [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|Soviet war casualties]] accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces at intense battles such as [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]]. Soviet forces eventually [[Battle of Berlin|captured Berlin]] in 1945, inflicting the vast majority of German losses.<ref>Norman Davies: "Since 75%–80% of all German losses were inflicted on the eastern front it follows that the efforts of the Western allies accounted for only 20%–25%". Source: Sunday Times, 5 November 2006.</ref> The territory overtaken by the Soviet Union from Axis forces in Central and Eastern Europe became [[satellite states]] of the [[Eastern Bloc]]. Ideological and political differences with [[Western Bloc]] counterparts directed by the [[United States]] led to the forming of [[Comecon]] and [[Warsaw Pact]], culminating in the prolonged [[Cold War]].

Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period of moderate social and economic liberalization, known as "[[de-Stalinization]]" and "[[Khrushchev Thaw]]", occurred under the administration of [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. The Soviet Union then went on to initiate significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including launching the [[Sputnik 1|first ever satellite]] and world's [[Vostok 1|first human spaceflight]], which led it into the [[Space Race]]. The 1962 [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] marked a period of extreme tension between the two superpowers, considered the closest to a mutual nuclear confrontation. In the 1970s, a [[detente|relaxation of relations]] followed, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union [[Soviet–Afghan War|deployed troops in Afghanistan]] at the request of its [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|new socialist government]] in 1979. The campaign drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results.<ref>{{cite book | author = David Holloway| title = Stalin and the Bomb| url = http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300066647| date = 27 March 1996| publisher = Yale University Press| isbn = 978-0-300-06664-7| page = 18 }}</ref><ref name="turner23">{{Harvnb|Turner|1987|p=23}}</ref>

In the late 1980s the last Soviet leader, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], sought to reform the Union and move it in the direction of [[Nordic model|Nordic-style]] [[social democracy]],<ref>Philip Whyman, Mark Baimbridge and Andrew Mullen (2012). ''The Political Economy of the European Social Model (Routledge Studies in the European Economy).'' [[Routledge]]. ISBN 0415476291 [https://books.google.com/books?id=e-M_cdwdgoMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 108] "In short, Gorbachev aimed to lead the Soviet Union towards the Scandinavian social democratic model."</ref><ref>[[Naomi Klein|Klein, Naomi]] (2008). ''[[The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism]].'' [[Picador (imprint)|Picador]]. ISBN 0312427999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=PwHUAq5LPOQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA276#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 276]</ref> introducing the policies of ''[[glasnost]]'' and ''[[perestroika]]'' in an attempt to end the [[Era of Stagnation|period of economic stagnation]] and democratize the government. However, this led to the rise of strong [[Nationalism|nationalist]] and separatist movements. Central authorities initiated [[Soviet Union referendum, 1991|a referendum]], boycotted by the Baltic republics, Armenia, Georgia, and Moldova, which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favour of preserving the Union as a [[Union of Sovereign States|renewed federation]]. In August 1991, [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|a coup d'état was attempted]] by [[hardliners]] against Gorbachev, with the intention of reversing his policies. The [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup]] failed, with Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup, resulting in the banning of the Communist Party. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged from the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] as independent [[post-Soviet states]].<ref name="Byrd">{{cite book | author=Iain McLean| title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics| url=https://books.google.com/?id=UMuBAAAAMAAJ| year=1996| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-285288-5}}</ref> The [[Russian Federation]] (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognised as its continued legal personality.<ref>"Russia is now a party to any Treaties to which the former Soviet Union was a party, and enjoys the same rights and obligations as the former Soviet Union, except insofar as adjustments are necessarily required, e.g. to take account of the change in territorial extent. [...] The Russian federation continues the legal personality of the former Soviet Union and is thus not a successor State in the sense just mentioned. The other former Soviet Republics are successor States.", United Kingdom Materials on International Law 1993, BYIL 1993, pp. 579 (636).</ref>

== Geography, climate and environment ==
{{Soviet Union sidebar}}
{{Main|Geography of the Soviet Union}}

With an area of {{convert|22402200|km2}}, the Soviet Union was the [[world]]'s largest country, a status that is retained by the [[Russia|Russian Federation]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia Russia - Encyclopedia Britannica]. Britannica.com (27 April 2010). Retrieved on 29 July 2013.</ref> Covering a sixth of [[Earth]]'s land surface, its size was comparable to that of [[North America]].<ref>http://pages.towson.edu/thompson/courses/regional/reference/sovietphysical.pdf</ref> The [[Europe|European]] portion accounted for a quarter of the country's area, and was the cultural and economic centre. The eastern part in [[Asia]] extended to the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the east and [[Afghanistan]] to the south, and, except some areas in [[Central Asia]], was much less populous. It spanned over {{Convert|10000|km}} east to west across 11 [[time zone|time zones]], and over {{Convert|7200|km}} north to south. It had five climate zones: [[tundra]], [[taiga]], [[steppe|steppes]], [[desert]], and [[mountain|mountains]].

The Soviet Union had the world's longest [[border]], like [[Russia]], measuring over {{Convert|60000|km}}, or {{sfrac|1|1|2}} circumferences of [[Earth]]. Two-thirds of it were a [[coast|coastline]]. Across the [[Bering Strait]] was the [[United States]]. The Soviet Union bordered [[Afghanistan]], [[China]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Finland]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Iran]], [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]], [[North Korea]], [[Norway]], [[People's Republic of Poland|Poland]], [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]], and [[Turkey]] from 1945 to 1991.

The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now [[Ismoil Somoni Peak]]) in [[Tajikistan]], at {{Convert|7495|m}}. The Soviet Union also included most of the world's largest lake, the [[Caspian Sea]] (shared with [[Iran]]), and also [[Lake Baikal]], the world's largest freshwater and deepest lake, an internal body of water in Russia.

==History==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union}}

The last Russian [[Tsar]], [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], ruled the [[Russian Empire]] until his abdication in March 1917 in the aftermath of the [[February Revolution]], due in part to the strain of fighting in [[World War I]], which lacked public support. A short-lived [[Russian Provisional Government]] took power, to be overthrown in the [[October Revolution]] ([[New Style|N.S.]] 7 November 1917) by revolutionaries led by the [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]].<ref>{{Cite news| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/1/|title= The causes of the October Revolution|publisher=[[BBC]] |accessdate = 5 August 2014}}</ref>

The Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 with the union of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian]], [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian]], and [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian]] Soviet republics, each ruled by local [[Bolshevik]] parties. Despite the foundation of the Soviet state as a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities, the term "Soviet Russia"{{spaced ndash}}strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic{{spaced ndash}}was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers and politicians.

===Revolution and foundation===
{{main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)}}

Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the [[Decembrist Revolt]] of 1825. Although [[Russian serfdom|serfdom]] was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavourable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the [[State Duma]]—was established in 1906 after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], but [[Tsar Nicholas II]] resisted attempts to move from [[Absolute monarchy|absolute]] to [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Social unrest]] continued and was aggravated during [[World War I]] by military defeat and food shortages in major Soviet cities.

[[File:Lenin-Trotsky 1920-05-20 Sverdlov Square (original).jpg|thumb|left|[[Vladimir Lenin]] addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920]]

A spontaneous popular uprising in [[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd]], in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the [[February Revolution]] and the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|toppling of the imperial government in March 1917]]. The [[tsarist autocracy]] was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and to continue fighting on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] in World War I.

At the same time, [[workers' council]]s, known in [[Russian language|Russian]] as "[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]", sprang up across the country. The [[Bolshevik]]s, led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], pushed for [[Communist revolution|socialist revolution]] in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the [[Winter Palace]] in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be known as the [[Great October Socialist Revolution]]. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an [[armistice]] with the [[Central Powers]], though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war for good and signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]].

A long and bloody [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]] ensued between the [[Red Army|Reds]] and the [[White movement|Whites]], starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|foreign intervention]], the [[Shooting of the Romanov family|execution of the former tsar and his family]], and the [[Russian famine of 1921|famine of 1921]], which killed about five million.<ref>{{cite book | author=Evan Mawdsley| title=The Russian Civil War| url=https://books.google.com/?id=LUhXZD2BPeQC&pg=PA287| date=1 March 2007| publisher=Pegasus Books| isbn=978-1-933648-15-6| page=287 }}</ref> In March 1921, during [[Polish–Soviet War|a related conflict with Poland]], the [[Peace of Riga]] was signed, splitting disputed territories in [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] between the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]] and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established [[Finland's Declaration of Independence|Republic of Finland]], the [[Estonian War of Independence|Republic of Estonia]], the [[Latvian War of Independence|Republic of Latvia]], and the [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Republic of Lithuania]].

===Unification of republics===
[[File:Soviet Union - Russian SFSR (1922).svg|thumb|The Russian SFSR as a part of the USSR in 1922.]]
[[File:Soviet Union - Russian SFSR (1936).svg|thumb|The Russian SFSR as a part of the USSR after 1936 Russian territorial changes.]]

On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]] approved the [[Treaty of Creation of the USSR]]<ref>Richard Sakwa ''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: 1917–1991''. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 9780415122900. pp. 140–143.</ref> and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.<ref>Julian Towster. ''Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State'' Oxford Univ. Press, 1948. p. 106.</ref> These two documents were confirmed by the 1st [[Congress of Soviets]] of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations,<ref>{{ru icon}} [http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument Voted Unanimously for the Union.]{{dead link|date=December 2013}} {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument|date =20110722233249}}{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref> [[Mikhail Kalinin]], [[Mikhail Tskhakaya]], [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Grigory Petrovsky]], and [[Aleksandr Chervyakov]],<ref>{{ru icon}} [http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html Creation of the USSR] at Khronos.ru. {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the [[Bolshoi Theatre]].

On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the [[British Empire]]. The same year, a [[1924 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]] was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.

An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the [[Bolshevik Initial Decrees]], government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the [[GOELRO plan]], which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan was developed in 1920 and covered a 10 to 15-year period. It included construction of a network of 30 regional [[power plants]], including ten large [[hydroelectric power plant]]s, and numerous electric-powered large industrial enterprises.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1023/A:1004107617449}}</ref> The plan became the prototype for subsequent [[Five-Year Plan for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] and was fulfilled by 1931.<ref name="Kuzbassenergo">{{ru icon}} [http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/ On GOELRO Plan — at Kuzbassenergo.]{{dead link|date=December 2013}} {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/|date =20110723044724}}{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref>

===Stalin era===
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)}}

{{Multiple image|image1 = Voroshilov, Molotov, Stalin, with Nikolai Yezhov.jpg|image2 = The Commissar Vanishes 2.jpg|width = 160|footer = Stalin and [[Nikolai Yezhov]], head of the [[NKVD]]. After Yezhov was executed, he was [[Damnatio memoriae|edited out]] of the image.|direction = vertical}}
From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the [[Single-party state|one-party rule]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]].<ref>The consolidation into a single-party regime took place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, which included the period of [[War communism|War Communism]] and an election in which multiple parties competed. See Leonard Schapiro, ''The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922''. Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1955, 1966.</ref> After the economic policy of "[[War Communism]]" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing [[socialism]] in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax (see [[New Economic Policy]]).

The stated purpose of the one-party state was to ensure that capitalist exploitation would not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of [[Democratic Centralism]] would be most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "[[Collective leadership|troika]]" consisting of [[Grigory Zinoviev]] of [[Ukraine]], [[Lev Kamenev]] of Moscow, and [[Joseph Stalin]] of [[Georgian people|Georgia]].

On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the [[Rabkrin|Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate]], which gave Stalin considerable power. By [[Stalin's rise to power|gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party]], Stalin became the [[dictator|undisputed leader]] of the Soviet Union and, by the end of the 1920s, established [[totalitarian]] rule. In October 1927, Grigory Zinoviev and [[Leon Trotsky]] were expelled from the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] and forced into exile.

In 1928, Stalin introduced the [[First Five-Year Plan]] for building a [[Socialist economics|socialist economy]]. In place of the [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalism]] expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build [[socialism in one country]]. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin,<ref>{{cite book |last=Lenin |first=V.I. |title=Collected Works |pages=152–164, Vol. 31 |quote="The proletarian state must effect the transition to collective farming with extreme caution and only very gradually, by the force of example, without any coercion of the middle peasant."}}</ref> forced [[Collectivisation in the USSR|collectivisation of farms]] was implemented all over the country.

[[Droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR|Famines]] ensued, causing millions of deaths; surviving [[kulak]]s were persecuted and many sent to [[Gulag]]s to do [[Unfree labour|forced labour]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Stéphane Courtois|author2=Mark Kramer | title=Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression| url=https://books.google.com/?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206| date=15 October 1999| publisher=Harvard University Press| isbn=978-0-674-07608-2| page=206 }}</ref> Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Stalin's [[Great Purge]] resulted in the execution or detainment of many "[[Old Bolsheviks]]" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, in 1937 and 1938, the [[NKVD]] arrested more than one and a half million people, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years that averages to over one thousand executions a day.<ref>{{cite book | author=Abbott Gleason| title=A companion to Russian history| url=https://books.google.com/?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373| year=2009| publisher=Wiley-Blackwell| isbn=978-1-4051-3560-3| page=373 }}</ref> According to historian [[Geoffrey Hosking]], "...excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10–11 million."<ref name="1930s">{{cite book | author=Geoffrey A. Hosking| title=Russia and the Russians: a history| url=https://books.google.com/?id=oh-5AAmboMUC&pg=PA469| year=2001| publisher=Harvard University Press| isbn=978-0-674-00473-3| page=469 }}</ref> Yet despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before [[World War II]].

====1930s====
[[File:“Strengthen working discipline in collective farms” – Uzbek, Tashkent, 1933 (Mardjani).jpg|thumb|"Strengthen working discipline in collective farms" – Soviet propaganda poster issued in [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic|Uzbekistan]], 1933]]
The early 1930s saw closer cooperation between the West and the USSR. From 1932 to 1934, the Soviet Union participated in the [[World Disarmament Conference]]. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt chose to formally recognize Stalin's Communist government and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two nations.<ref>[http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html Ukrainian 'Holodomor' (man-made famine) Facts and History]. Holodomorct.org (28 November 2006). Retrieved on 29 July 2013.</ref> In September 1934, the Soviet Union joined the [[League of Nations]]. After the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican forces]] against the [[Spain under Franco|Nationalists]], who were supported by [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]].

In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]]. The constitution was seen as a personal triumph for Stalin, who {{citation needed span|on this occasion was described by ''[[Pravda]]'' as a "genius of the new world, the wisest man of the epoch, the great leader of communism."|date=August 2014}} By contrast, Western historians and historians from former Soviet occupied countries have viewed the constitution as a meaningless propaganda document.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

[[File:Ukrainian SSR Document 1937.jpg|250px|thumbnail|upright|Draft Constitution of the Soviet Union (1937)]]
The late 1930s saw a shift towards the [[Axis powers]]. In 1939, almost a year after the United Kingdom and [[Third French Republic|France]] had concluded the [[Munich Agreement]] with Germany, the USSR dealt with the Nazis as well, both militarily and economically during [[German–Soviet Axis talks|extensive talks]]. The two countries concluded the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact]] and the [[German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1940)|German–Soviet Commercial Agreement]] in August 1939. The nonaggression pact made possible Soviet occupation of [[Occupation of the Baltic States|Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, northern Bukovina]], and [[Soviet invasion of Poland (1939)|eastern Poland]]. In late November of the same year, unable to coerce the [[Finland|Republic of Finland]] by diplomatic means into moving its border {{Convert|25|km}} back from [[Leningrad]], Joseph Stalin ordered the [[Winter War|invasion of Finland]].

In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during [[Soviet–Japanese Border Wars|border clashes]] with the [[Japanese Empire]] in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, USSR signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] with the [[Empire of Japan]], recognizing the territorial integrity of [[Manchukuo]], a Japanese [[puppet state]].

====World War II====
{{main|Eastern Front (World War II)}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R77767, Berlin, Rotarmisten Unter den Linden.jpg|thumb|Soviet soldiers in Berlin, May 1945]]
Although it has been debated whether the Soviet Union intended to invade Germany once it was strong enough,<ref>{{ru icon}} Mel'tiukhov, Mikhail. ''Upushchennyi shans Stalina: Sovietskii Soiuz i bor'ba za Evropu'' 1939–1941. Moscow: Veche, 2000. ISBN 5-7838-1196-3.</ref> Germany itself broke the treaty and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941, starting what was known in the USSR as the "[[Eastern Front (WWII)|Great Patriotic War]]". The [[Red Army]] stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the [[Battle of Moscow]], aided by an unusually harsh winter. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to the Germans from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered in 1945]]. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.<ref>{{cite book | author=William J. Duiker| title=Contemporary World History| url=https://books.google.com/?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC| date=31 August 2009| publisher=Wadsworth Pub Co| isbn=978-0-495-57271-8| page=128 }}</ref>

[[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|left|Left to right: Soviet Premier [[Joseph Stalin]], U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] confer [[Tehran Conference|in Tehran in 1943]].]]
The same year, the USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the [[Yalta Conference]], denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945<ref name="denunciation">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp Denunciation of the neutrality pact] 5 April 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> and [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945)|invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories]] on 9 August 1945.<ref name="declarationofwar">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp Soviet Declaration of War on Japan], 8 August 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> [[Soviet–Japanese War (1945)|This conflict]] ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional [[surrender of Japan]] and the end of World War II.

The Soviet Union suffered greatly in the war, [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|losing around 27 million people]].<ref name="Geoffrey A. Hosking 2006 242">{{cite book | author=Geoffrey A. Hosking| title=Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union| url=https://books.google.com/?id=CDMVMqDvp4QC&pg=PA242| year=2006| publisher=Harvard University Press| isbn=978-0-674-02178-5| page=242}}</ref> Despite this, it emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied [[diplomatic recognition]] by the Western world, the Soviet Union had official relations with practically every nation by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the Soviet Union became one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[UN Security Council]], which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions (see [[Soviet Union and the United Nations]]).

The Soviet Union maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to [[Developing country|developing countries]], and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.

====Cold War====
{{main|Cold War}}
During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its [[planned economy|strictly centralized control]]. It aided post-war reconstruction in the countries of Eastern Europe, while turning them into [[satellite states]], binding them in a military alliance (the [[Warsaw Pact]]) in 1955, and an economic organization ([[Comecon|The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] or Comecon) from 1949 to 1991, the latter a counterpart to the [[European Economic Community]].<ref name="fas.org">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |title=Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies |publisher=Fas.org |accessdate=24 November 2008}}</ref> Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious [[Chinese Communist Party]], and saw its influence grow elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly using mostly proxies.

===Khrushchev era===
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)}}
[[File:Soviet empire 1960.png|thumb|left|The Soviet Union and other countries in the world, under a government modeled after the Soviet Union's, after the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959 and before the official [[Sino–Soviet split]] of 1961.]]

Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly. [[Nikita Khrushchev]], who had won the power struggle by the mid-1950s, [[Secret Speech|denounced Stalin's use of repression]] in 1956 and eased repressive controls over party and society. This was known as [[de-Stalinization]].[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0628-0015-035, Nikita S. Chruchstschow.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]]]]

Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders, and ensured its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states. Soviet military force was used to suppress anti-Stalinist uprisings in [[1956 Hungarian Revolution|Hungary]] and [[Poznań 1956 protests|Poland]] in 1956.

In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR's rapprochement with the West and what [[Mao Zedong]] perceived as Khrushchev's [[Marxist revisionism|revisionism]] led to the [[Sino–Soviet split]]. This resulted in a break throughout the global Marxist–Leninist movement, with the governments in [[Albania]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Somalia]] choosing to ally with China in place of the USSR.

During this period of the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Soviet Union continued to realize scientific and technological exploits in the [[space race]], rivaling the United States: launching the first artificial satellite, [[Sputnik 1]] in 1957; a living dog named [[Laika]] in 1957; the first human being, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961; the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] in 1963; [[Alexey Leonov]], the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966 and the first moon rovers, [[Lunokhod 1]] and [[Lunokhod 2]].<ref name="lunokhod">{{cite episode|title=Tank on the Moon|series= The Nature of Things with David Suzuki|network= CBC-TV|airdate= 6 December 2007|url=http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html}}{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Gagarin in Sweden-2.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], first human to travel into space]]
Khrushchev initiated "[[Khrushchev Thaw|The Thaw]]", a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the Soviet Union. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing living standards to rise dramatically while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well.

Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a [[Cuban Missile Crisis|crisis with the United States]] over the Soviet deployment of [[nuclear missiles]] in Cuba. An agreement was made between the Soviet Union and the United States to remove enemy nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.

===Brezhnev era===
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)|Era of Stagnation}}
Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of [[collective leadership]] ensued, consisting of [[Leonid Brezhnev]] as General Secretary, [[Alexei Kosygin]] as Premier and [[Nikolai Podgorny]] as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader. In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded [[Czechoslovakia]] to halt the [[Prague Spring]] reforms.

[[File:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|Presidents [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and [[Jimmy Carter]] sign the [[SALT II|SALT II arms limitation treaty]] in [[Vienna]] on 18 June 1979.]]
Brezhnev presided over a period of ''[[détente]]'' with the West (see [[SALT I]], [[SALT II]], [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.

In October 1977, the [[1977 Soviet Constitution|third Soviet Constitution]] was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an aging and ossified top political leadership.

===Gorbachev era===
{{main|Cold War (1985–1991)|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt}}
[[File:Reagan and Gorbachev hold discussions.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in one-to-one discussions with U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]]]]
Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in ''[[Beyond Oil]]'' that the Reagan administration encouraged [[Saudi Arabia]] to [[1980s oil glut|lower the price of oil]] to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, so that the USSR's [[hard currency]] reserves became depleted.<ref>Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Beyond Oil: The View from Hubbert's Peak.</ref>

Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. [[Yuri Andropov]] was 68 years old and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].

Gorbachev made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called ''[[perestroika]]''. His policy of ''[[glasnost]]'' freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship.

[[File:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|withdrawing from Afghanistan]] in 1988]]
Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the Soviet Union abandoned its [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|nine-year war in Afghanistan]] and began to withdraw its forces. In the late 1980s, {{clarify span|he refused military support to the Soviet Union's former satellite states|date=August 2014}}, which favored the [[Revolutions of 1989]]. With the tearing down of the [[Berlin Wall]] and with [[East Germany]] and [[West Germany]] pursuing unification, the [[Iron Curtain]] came down.


In the late 1980s, the constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards potentially declaring [[sovereignty]] over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede.<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n12_v42/ai_9119705 The red blues — Soviet politics] by Brian Crozier, ''[[National Review]]'', 25 June 1990. {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n12_v42/ai_9119705|date =20110628194853}}</ref> On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum.<ref>[http://www.rspp.su/sobor/conf_2006/istoki_duh_nrav_crisis.html Origins of Moral-Ethical Crisis and Ways to Overcome it] by V.A.Drozhin Honoured Lawyer of Russia.</ref> Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "[[War of Laws]]".

In 1989, the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory]] and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR's laws. After a landslide victory of [[Sąjūdis]] in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.

A [[Soviet Union referendum, 1991|referendum for the preservation of the USSR]] was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those nine republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the [[New Union Treaty]], which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics.

[[File:Boris Yeltsin 19 August 1991-1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Boris Yeltsin]] stands on a tank in Moscow to defy the [[August Coup]], 1991]]
The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|August Coup]]—an attempted [[coup d'état]] by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterward the Party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside of Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected [[President of Russia]] in July 1991.

===Dissolution===
{{main|Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Commonwealth of Independent States}}
The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December, all except Russia and [[Kazakh SSR|Kazakhstan]] had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December, when Ukraine, the second most powerful republic, [[Ukrainian independence referendum, 1991|voted overwhelmingly for independence]]. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the Soviet Union staying together even on a limited scale.

[[Image:Cold War border changes.png|thumb|220px|Changes in national boundaries after the end of the [[Cold War]]]]
On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and [[Belarus]] (formerly Byelorussia), signed the [[Belavezha Accords]], which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]] signed the [[Alma-Ata Protocol]], which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the [[Russian tricolor]] was raised in its place.

The following day, the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, voted both itself and the Soviet Union out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] as a functioning state. The Soviet Army originally remained under overall CIS command, but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991, Russia was internationally recognized<ref name="uk">[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744935436 Country Profile: Russia]{{dead link|date=December 2013}} Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom.</ref> as its [[legal successor]] on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed overseas Soviet properties as its own. Under the 1992 [[Lisbon Protocol]], Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations.
[[File:Refugeesaz.jpg|thumb|Internally displaced [[Azerbaijan]]is from Nagorno-Karabakh, 1993]]

===Post-Soviet states===
{{main|Post-Soviet states}}
The analysis of the [[succession of states]] with respect to the 15 [[post-Soviet states]] is complex. The [[Russian Federation]] is seen as the legal ''continuator'' state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]].<ref name="Buhler">{{cite book |last=Buhler |first=Konrad G. |title=State Succession and Membership in International Organizations |series=Legal Aspects of International Organization Series |volume=Volume 38 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA164 |isbn=9789041115539 |page=164}}</ref> The [[Baltic states]] are not successor states to the Soviet Union;<ref name="Talari">{{cite book |last=Talari |first=Pekka T. |title=State Succession in Respect of Debts: The Effect of State Succession in the 1990's on the Rules of Law |page=167 |volume=2 |series=The Finnish Yearbook of International Law |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9nKKnb8uiHsC&pg=PA167 |isbn=9789041104694}}</ref> they are instead considered to have [[de jure]] continuity with their pre-[[World War II]] governments through the non-recognition of the original Soviet incorporation in 1940.<ref name='Buhler'/> The other 11 post-Soviet states are considered newly-independent [[successor states]] to the Soviet Union.<ref name='Buhler'/>

There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognized post-Soviet states, but [[List of states with limited recognition|possess limited international recognition]]: [[Abkhazia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], [[South Ossetia]], and [[Transnistria]]. The [[Chechnya|Chechen]] separatist movement of the [[Chechen Republic of Ichkeria]] lacks any international recognition.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of the Soviet Union|State ideology of the Soviet Union}}
{{Marxism–Leninism sidebar}}

There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the [[legislative branch]] represented by the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]], the government represented by the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], and the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), the only legal party and the ultimate policymaker in the country.<ref name="sakwa">Sakwa, Richard. ''Soviet Politics in Perspective''. 2nd ed. London – N.Y.: Routledge, 1998.</ref>

===Communist Party===
{{main|Communist Party of the Soviet Union}}
At the top of the Communist Party was the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]], elected at [[Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Party Congresses]] and Conferences. The Central Committee in turn voted for a [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Politburo]] (called the Presidium between 1952–1966), [[Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee|Secretariat]] and the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the USSR.<ref>{{cite book | author=Law, David A. | title=Russian Civilization | publisher=Ardent Media | year=1975 | pages=193–94 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C&dq | isbn=978-0-8422-0529-0}}</ref> Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country<ref>{{cite book | author=Zemtsov, Ilya | title=Chernenko: The Last Bolshevik: The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika | publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] | year=1989 | page=325 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgscfLr5dCsC&dq | isbn=978-0-88738-260-4}}</ref> (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941).<ref>{{cite book | author=Knight, Amy | title=Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1995 | page=5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PxiuUGRQhUIC&dq | isbn=0-691-01093-5}}</ref> They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was [[democratic centralism]], demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.<ref>{{cite book | author=Hough, Jerry F.; Fainsod, Merle | title=How the Soviet Union is Governed | publisher=Harvard University Press | year=1979 | page=486 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38gMzMRXCpQC&dq | isbn=0-674-41030-0}}</ref>

The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state largely through its control over the [[Nomenklatura|system of appointments]]. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin in 1941–1953 and Khrushchev in 1958–1964 were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership,<ref>{{cite book | author=Service, Robert | title=History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century | publisher=[[Penguin Books Ltd]] | year=2009 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq | isbn=0-14-103797-0| page=378 | authorlink=Robert Service (historian) }}</ref> but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the largely ceremonial position of [[Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet]], the nominal [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|head of state]]. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by [[Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Lower levels|primary party organizations]].<ref>{{Cite book | title=Конститутион оф тхе Руссиян Федератион: витх комментариес анд интерпретатион | publisher=[[Brunswick Publishing Corp]] | year=1994 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQjvzP8VSYC&dq | isbn=1-55618-142-6 | page=82 }}</ref>

In practice, however, the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party.<ref>{{cite book | author=Ōgushi, Atsushi | title=The Demise of the Soviet Communist Party | publisher=Routledge | year=2008 | pages=31–32 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7mDUC1nOZsC&dq | isbn=0-415-43439-4}}</ref> Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.<ref>{{Cite book | author=Taras, Ray |authorlink=Raymond Taras |title=Leadership change in Communist states | publisher=Routledge | year=1989 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AlcVAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn=0-04-445277-2 | page=132 }}</ref>

===Government===
{{main|Government of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Supreme Soviet 1982.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Grand Kremlin Palace]], seat of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]], 1982]]
The [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]] (successor of the [[Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union|Congress of Soviets]] and [[Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union|Central Executive Committee]]) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history,<ref>{{cite book | author=F. Triska, Jan; Slusser, Robert M. | title=The Theory, Law, and Policy of Soviet Treaties | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] | year=1962 | pages=63–64 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmWmAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn=0-8047-0122-9 }}</ref> at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, the powers and functions of the Supreme Soviet were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers relating to the approval of the [[Five-Year Plan for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] and the Soviet [[state budget]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Deb, Kalipada | title=Soviet Union to Commonwealth: Transformation and Challenges | publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd | year=1996 | page=81 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IvK6r-8Ogg0C&dq | isbn=81-85880-95-6 }}</ref> The Supreme Soviet elected a [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] to wield its power between plenary sessions,<ref name="COMSSP"/> ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the [[Supreme Court of the Soviet Union|Supreme Court]],<ref>{{cite book | title=The Communist World | publisher=Ardent Media | year=2001 | page=441 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h9FFVgu-Ff0C&dq | isbn=0-271-02170-5}}</ref> the [[Procurator General of the Soviet Union|Procurator General]]<ref>{{cite book | author=Joseph Marie Feldbrugge, Ferdinand | title=Russian Law: The End of the Soviet System and the Role of Law | publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] | year=1993 | page=205 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq | isbn=0-7923-2358-0}}</ref> and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the [[Council of People's Commissars]]), headed by the [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society.<ref name="COMSSP">{{cite book | author=Benson, Shirley | title=Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower | publisher=[[Penn State University Press]] | year=2001 | pages=XIV | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQeahlZdM7sC&dq | isbn=0-271-02170-5}}</ref> State and party structures of the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|constituent republics]] largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into [[Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Lower levels|party committees]], [[Soviet (council)|local Soviets]] and [[Ispolkom|executive committees]]. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.<ref>{{cite book | author=White, Stephen; J. Gill, Graeme; Slider, Darrell | title=The Politics of Transition: Shaping a post-Soviet Future | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1993 | page=108 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9IGbITqT_EC&dq | isbn=978-0-521-44634-1}}</ref>

The state security police (the [[KGB]] and its predecessor agencies) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the [[Great Purge|Stalinist terror]],<ref>{{cite book | author=P. Hoffmann, Erik; Laird, Robin Frederick | title=The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era | publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] | year=1984 | pages=313–315 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC&dq | isbn=0-202-24165-3}}</ref> but after the death of Stalin, the state security police was brought under strict party control. Under [[Yuri Andropov]], KGB chairman in 1967–1982 and General Secretary from 1982 to 1983, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure,<ref>{{cite book | author=P. Hoffmann, Erik; Laird, Robin Frederick | title=The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era | publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] | year=1984 | pages=315–319 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC&dq | isbn=0-202-24165-3}}</ref> culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era | work=[[Great Russian Encyclopedia]] | year=2005 | publisher=Bol'shaya Rossiyskaya Enciklopediya Publisher | volume=1 | page=742}}</ref>

===Separation of power and reform===
{{main|Perestroika}}
[[File:RIAN archive 699872 Dushanbe riots, February 1990.jpg|thumb|left|Nationalist anti-government [[1990 Dushanbe riots|riots in Dushanbe]], [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|Tajikstan]], 1990]]
The [[Constitution of the Soviet Union|Union constitutions]], which were promulgated in [[Russian Constitution of 1918|1918]], [[1924 Soviet Constitution|1924]], [[1936 Soviet Constitution|1936]] and [[1977 Soviet Constitution|1977]],<ref>{{cite book | author=Sakwa, Richard | title=Soviet Politics in Perspective | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vX1U5G_xnqcC&dq | isbn=0-415-07153-4| page=106 | authorlink=Richard Sakwa}}</ref> did not limit state power. No formal [[separation of powers]] existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers<ref>{{cite book | author=Kucherov, Samuel | title=The Organs of Soviet Administration of Justice: Their History and Operation | publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill Archive Publishers]] | year=1970 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ssMUAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn=| page=31}}</ref> that represented executive and [[legislature|legislative]] branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin<ref>{{cite book | author=Phillips, Steve | title=Lenin and the Russian Revolution | publisher=[[Heinemann (book publisher)|Heinemann]] | year=2000 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_na0zfdhKQMC&dq | isbn=978-0-435-32719-4 | page=71}}</ref> and [[Joseph Stalin]],<ref>{{cite book |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|year=2005|title=Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|isbn=|page=1014}}</ref> as well as after [[Nikita Khrushchev#Removal|Khrushchev's dismissal]],<ref>{{cite book | author=Service, Robert | title=History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century | publisher=[[Penguin Books Ltd]] | year=2009 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq | page=379 | isbn=0-14-103797-0 | authorlink=Robert Service (historian) }}</ref> itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee.<ref name="Khrushchevgoner"/> All leaders of the Communist Party before Gorbachev died in office, except [[Georgy Malenkov]]<ref>{{cite book | author=Polley, Martin | title=A–Z of modern Europe since 1789 | publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_f8Avd5N5Y4C&dq | isbn=0-415-18597-1 | page=88 }}</ref> and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.<ref name="Khrushchevgoner">{{cite book |author=Khrushchev, Nikita|year=2007|title=Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, Volume 3: Statesman|publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]]|isbn=978-0-271-02935-1|page=674|authorlink=Nikita Khrushchev}}</ref>

Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The [[Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union|Congress of People's Deputies]] was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers.<ref name="countrystudies">{{cite web | publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] | title=Gorbachev's Reform Dilemma | url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/18.htm | accessdate =16 October 2010 }}</ref> In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the [[President of the Soviet Union]], concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government,<ref>{{cite book | author=Polmar, Norman | title=The Naval Institute Guide to the Soviet | publisher=[[United States Naval Institute]] | year=1991 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkGDkpkQh-sC&dq | isbn=0-87021-241-9 | page=1}}</ref> now renamed the [[Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR]], to himself.<ref>{{cite book | author=McCauley, Martin | title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union | publisher=[[Pearson Education]] | year=2007 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ycCZqmhhceMC&dq | isbn=0-582-78465-4 | page=490}}</ref>

Tensions grew between the union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by [[Boris Yeltsin]] and controlling the newly elected [[Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR]], and Communist Party hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged an [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|abortive coup attempt]]. Following the failed coup, the [[State Council of the Soviet Union]] became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition".<ref>{{cite web | author=[[Government of the USSR]]: [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev, Mikhail]] |script-title=ru:УКАЗ: ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ О МИНИСТЕРСТВЕ ЮСТИЦИИ СССР |trans_title= Law: About state governing bodies of USSR in a transition period On the bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR in Transition | url=http://www.sssr.su/zopp.html | accessdate=15 October 1991 |date=21 March 1972 |publisher=sssr.su|language=Russian}}</ref> Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.<ref>{{cite book | author=Vincent Daniels, Robert | title=A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev | publisher=[[University Press of New England]] (UPNE) | year=1993 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gTIZ2dvDKF0C&dq | isbn=0-87451-616-1 | page=388}}</ref>

===Judicial system===
{{main|Law of the Soviet Union}}
{{see also|Socialist law}}
The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The [[Supreme Court of the Soviet Union|Supreme Court]] supervised the lower courts ([[People's Court (Soviet Union)|People's Court]]) and applied the law as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the [[inquisitorial system]] of [[Roman law]], where the judge, [[Procurator General of the Soviet Union|procurator]], and defense attorney collaborate to establish the truth.<ref>{{cite web |author=''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/288956/inquisitorial-procedure |title=Inquisitorial procedure (law) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|accessdate=30 October 2010}}</ref>

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Soviet Republic (system of government)|Republics of the Soviet Union}}

Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]] or [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarus]] (SSRs), or federal states, such as [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]] or [[Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Transcaucasia]] (SFSRs),<ref name="sakwa"/> all four being the founding republics who signed the [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR]] in December 1922. In 1924, during the [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|national delimitation]] in Central Asia, the [[Uzbek SSR|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmen SSR]]s were formed from parts of the Russia's [[Turkestan ASSR]] and two Soviet dependencies, the [[Khorezm SSR|Khorezm]] and [[Bukharan SSR]]s. In 1929, the [[Tajik SSR]] was split off from the Uzbek SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent [[Armenian SSR|Armenian]], [[Georgian SSR|Georgian]] and [[Azerbaijan SSR]]s being elevated to Union Republics, while the [[Kazakh SSR|Kazakh]] and [[Kirghiz SSR]]s were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status.<ref>{{cite book | last=Adams, Simon | title=Russian Republics | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LyqIDCc-cSsC&dq | year=2005 | page=21|publisher=Black Rabbit Books| isbn=978-1-58340-606-9}}</ref> In August 1940, the [[Moldavian SSR]] was formed from parts of the Ukrainian SSR and [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina]]. The [[Estonian SSR|Estonian]], [[Latvian SSR|Latvian]] and [[Lithuanian SSR]]s were also [[Occupation and annexation of the Baltic states by the Soviet Union (1940)|admitted into the union]]. The [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]] was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).<ref>{{cite book | last=Feldbrugge, Ferdinand Joseph Maria | title=Russian Law: The Rnd of the Soviet system and the Role of Law | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq | year=1993 | page=94 |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] | isbn=0-7923-2358-0}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
! #
! Republic
! Map of the Union Republics between 1956–1991
|-
| 1
| {{flag|Russian SFSR}}
| rowspan="15" style="width:350px;" | [[File:Republics of the USSR.svg|600px]]
|-
| 2
| {{flag|Ukrainian SSR}}
|-
| 3
| {{flag|Byelorussian SSR}}
|-
| 4
| {{flag|Uzbek SSR}}
|-
| 5
| {{flag|Kazakh SSR}}
|-
| 6
| {{flag|Georgian SSR}}
|-
| 7
| {{flag|Azerbaijan SSR}}
|-
| 8
| {{flag|Lithuanian SSR}}
|-
| 9
| {{flag|Moldavian SSR}}
|-
| 10
| {{flag|Latvian SSR}}
|-
| 11
| {{flag|Kirghiz SSR}}
|-
| 12
| {{flag|Tajik SSR}}
|-
| 13
| {{flag|Armenian SSR}}
|-
| 14
| {{flag|Turkmen SSR}}
|-
| 15
| {{flag|Estonian SSR}}
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:DneproGES 1947.JPG|thumb|left|The [[DneproGES]], one of many [[hydroelectric]] power stations in the Soviet Union]]

The Soviet Union became the first country to adopt a [[planned economy]], whereby production and distribution of goods were centralised and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of [[War Communism]], which involved the nationalization of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate the circulation of money, as well as private enterprises and [[free trade]]. After the severe economic collapse caused by the war, Lenin replaced War Communism with the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP) in 1921, legalising free trade and private ownership of smaller businesses. The economy quickly recovered.<ref name="gregory2004">{{cite book | author=Gregory, Paul R. | title=The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives | pages=218–20 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2004 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hFHU5kaXhu8C&dq | isbn=0-521-53367-8}}</ref>

Following a lengthy debate among the members of Politburo over the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon [[Rise of Joseph Stalin|gaining control of the country]], [[Joseph Stalin]] abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|forced collectivisation of agriculture]] and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilised for [[Soviet industrialization|rapid industrialisation]], which greatly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s.<ref name="gregory2004"/> Preparation for war was one of the main driving forces behind industrialisation, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalistic world.<ref>{{cite book | author=Mawdsley, Evan | page=30 | title=The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953 | publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] | year=1998 | url=https://books.google.com/?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn=0-7190-4600-9}}</ref> As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Wheatcroft, S. G.; Davies, R. W.; Cooper, J. M. | pages=30–2 | title=Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941 | publisher=[[Economic History Review]] | year=1986 | url=https://books.google.com/?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn=978-0-7190-4600-1| volume=39 | issue=2}}</ref> During the war, the Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation and required extensive reconstruction.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm|accessdate =23 October 2010}}</ref>

[[Image:Armenian cotton.jpg|thumb|Picking cotton in [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenia]] in the 1930s]]
By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively [[Autarky|self-sufficient]]; for most of the period until the creation of [[Comecon]], only a very small share of domestic products was traded internationally.<ref name="foreign trade">{{cite web |title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0391%29|accessdate =23 October 2010}}</ref> After the creation of the [[Eastern Bloc]], external trade rose rapidly. Still the influence of the [[world economy]] on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on [[Foreign trade of the Soviet Union|foreign trade]].<ref>{{cite book | author=[[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] | title=A Study of the Soviet Economy | volume=1 | publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] | year=1991 | url=https://books.google.com/?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq | page=9 | isbn=0-14-103797-0}}</ref> Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s.<ref name="foreign trade"/> During the [[arms race]] of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the Soviet Union became the largest arms exporter to the [[Third World]]. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were [[International relations within the Comecon|allocated in aid]] to the other [[socialist states]].<ref name="foreign trade"/>

From the 1930s until its collapse in the late 1980s, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by [[economic planning|central planning]], carried out by [[Gosplan]] and organized in [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|five-year plans]]. In practice, however, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to ''ad hoc'' intervention by superiors. All key economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were normally denominated in [[Soviet ruble|rubles]] rather than in physical goods. [[Credit (finance)|Credit]] was discouraged, but widespread. Final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice the actual prices were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (between producer factories etc.) were widespread.<ref name="gregory2004"/>

A number of basic [[Service (economics)|services]] were state-funded, such as [[education in the Soviet Union|education]] and healthcare. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defense were assigned higher priority than the production of [[Consumer goods in the Soviet Union|consumer goods]].<ref name="economy"/> Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited choice. Under command economy, consumers had almost no influence over production, so the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices.<ref name="hanson">Hanson, Philip. ''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Economy: An Economic History of the USSR from 1945''. London: Longman, 2003.</ref> A massive unplanned second economy grew up alongside the planned one at low levels, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. Legalisation of some elements of the decentralised economy was attempted with the [[1965 Soviet economic reform|reform of 1965]].<ref name="gregory2004"/>

[[File:RIAN archive 633872 Workers of Soligorsk potash plant.jpg|thumb|190px|Workers of the [[Salihorsk]] potash plant, [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarus]], 1968]]
Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely,<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1057/ces.1997.1 | author=Bergson, Abram | year=1997 | title=How Big was the Soviet GDP? | journal=Comparative Economic Studies | volume=39 | issue=1| pages=1–14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/09668139308412080 | author=Harrison, Mark | year=1993 | title=Soviet Economic Growth Since 1928: The Alternative Statistics of G. I. Khanin | journal=Europe–Asia Studies | volume=45 | issue=1| pages=141–167 }}</ref> by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet economy experienced comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West.<ref>{{cite book | author=Gvosdev, Nikolas | title=The Strange Death of Soviet communism: A Postscript | publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] | year=2008 | url=https://books.google.com/?id=Q_xTyZUEqkYC&dq | isbn=1-4128-0698-4 | authorlink=Nikolas Gvosdev}}</ref> However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, [[Era of Stagnation|steadily declined]] much more quickly and consistently than in other countries despite a rapid increase in the [[capital stock]] (the rate of increase in capital was only surpassed by Japan).<ref name="gregory2004"/>

Overall, between 1960 and 1989, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries).{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} According to [[Stanley Fischer]] and [[William Easterly]], growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income of Soviet Union in 1989 should have been twice as high as it was considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to low productivity of capital in the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fischer |first1=Stanley |authorlink1=Stanley Fischer |last2=Easterly |first2=William |authorlink2=William Easterly |title=The Soviet Economic Decline, Historical and Republican Data |format=PDF |publisher=[[World Bank]] |year=1994 |url= http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/1994/04/01/000009265_3961006063138/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf |accessdate=23 October 2010}}</ref> Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living actually declined as a result of Stalin's despotism, and while there was a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |year=1996 |title=Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s |pages=956–987 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=48 |issue=6 |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |jstor=152635 |quote=The new evidence shows that administrative command planning and Stalin's forced industrialisation strategies failed in the 1930s and beyond. The economic miracle chronicled in official hagiographies and until recently faithfully recounted in Western textbooks has no basis in fact. It is the statistical artefact not of index number relativity (the Gerschenkron effect) but of misapplying to the calculation of growth cost prices that do not accurately measure competitive value. The standard of living declined during the 1930s in response to Stalin's despotism, and after a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation. Glasnost and post-communist revelations interpreted as a whole thus provide no basis for Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov's relatively favourable characterisation of the methods, economic achievements and human costs of Stalinism. The evidence demonstrates that the suppression of markets and the oppression of vast segments of the population were economically counterproductive and humanly calamitous, just as anyone conversant with classical economic theory should have expected.}}</ref>

In 1987, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] tried to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of ''[[perestroika]]''. His policies relaxed state control over enterprises, but did not yet allow it to be replaced by market incentives, ultimately resulting in a sharp decline in production output. The economy, already suffering from [[1980s oil glut|reduced petroleum export revenues]], started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and property was still largely state-owned until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref name="gregory2004"/><ref name="hanson"/> For most of the period after World War II up to its collapse, the Soviet economy was [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|the second largest in the world]] by GDP ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]), and was 3rd in the world during the middle of the 1980s to 1989,<ref>{{cite web | author=Central Intelligence Agency | title=GDP – Million 1990 | work=[[The World Factbook]] | year=1991 | url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html | accessdate =12 June 2010 | authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> though in [[GDP per capita|per capita]] terms the Soviet GDP was behind that of the [[First World]] countries.<ref>{{cite web | author=Central Intelligence Agency | title=GDP Per Capita – 1991 | work=[[The World Factbook]] | year=1992 | url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1991/rankings/gdp_per_capita_0.html | accessdate =12 June 2010 | authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>

===Energy===
{{main|Energy policy of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:1987 CPA 5858.jpg|thumb|Soviet stamp depicting the 30th anniversary of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], published in 1987, a year following the [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl nuclear disaster]]]]
The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s,<ref name="sovietenergydemanddecline">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=David |title=The Demand for Energy in the Soviet Union |year=1983 |publisher=Rowman and Littfield |isbn=9780709927044 |pages=105 to 108}}</ref> both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower,{{Clarify|date=March 2011}} only 2.6 percent.<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 295.</ref> David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40 percent of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse.<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 297.</ref> The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5 percent during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields.{{Clarify|date=March 2011}}<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 297–99.</ref> However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the [[First World]] (pre-[[Gorbachev era]]).<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 299.</ref>

In 1991, the Soviet Union had a [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] network of {{convert|82000|km|mi}} for [[crude oil]] and another {{convert|206500|km|mi}} for natural gas.<ref name="ciacom"/> Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web | title=Soviet Union – Economy | author=Central Intelligence Agency | year=1992 | work=[[The World Factbook]] | url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_economy.html | accessdate =23 October 2010 | authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> In the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn [[hard currency]].<ref name="foreign trade"/> At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Hardt, John Pearce; Hardt, John P. | title=Russia's Uncertain Economic Future: With a Comprehensive Subject Index | page=233 | publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] | year=2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IvKF3PKGYAcC&dq | isbn=0-7656-1208-9}}</ref>

===Science and technology===
{{main|Science and technology in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Soviet stamp showing the orbit of [[Sputnik]]]]
The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on [[Science and technology in the Soviet Union|science and technology]] within its economy,<ref name="science&technology">{{cite web |title=Science and Technology|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0413%29|accessdate=23 October 2010}}</ref> however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the [[Sputnik|world's first space satellite]], typically were the responsibility of the military.<ref name="economy">{{cite web |title=Economy|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0009%29|accessdate=23 October 2010}}</ref> Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhD's to women, compared to only 5% who received such a degree in the United States.<ref>Rose Eveleth (12 December 2013). [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today-180948141/?no-ist Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today]. ''[[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian.com]].'' Retrieved 26 June 2014.</ref> By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as [[energy physics]], selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and [[Nomenklatura|bureaucracy]], the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the [[First World]].

[[Project Socrates]], under the [[Reagan administration]], determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous [[research and development]] as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the Soviet Union was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology, while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, in addition, the Soviet Union's technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. It was this significant lack of flexibility that was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Global Tech Strategies Brought to U.S | journal=Washington Technology | date=3 May 1990 | first=Margo | last=MacFarland| id=}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=R.A. | last=Deckert | title=The science of uncovering industrial information | date=10 October 1990 | work=Business Journal of the Treasure Coast}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=U.S. Firms Must Trade Short-Term Gains for Long-Term Technology Planning | date=7 March 1991 | work=Inside the Pentagon}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{main|Transport in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Flag of the Aeroflot.svg|thumb|[[Aeroflot]]'s flag during the Soviet era]]
Transport was a key component of the [[economy of the Soviet Union|nation's economy]]. The [[First Five-Year Plan (Soviet Union)|economic centralization]] of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of [[Aeroflot]], an aviation [[Enterprises in the Soviet Union|enterprise]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Highman, Robert D.S.; Greenwood, John T.; Hardesty, Von | title=Russian Aviation and Air Power in the Twentieth Century | publisher=Routledge | year=1998 | url=http://books.google.no/books?id=cpynoFM-Jf4C&dq | isbn=978-0-7146-4784-5 | page=134}}</ref> The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air.<ref name=ciacom/> However, due to bad maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.<ref name="twocerofive"/>

Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world;<ref name="twocerofive">Wilson 1983, p. 205.</ref> it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts.<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 201.</ref> By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burden from the railways and to improve the Soviet [[state budget]].<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 166–67.</ref> The [[road network]] and [[Automobile industry of the Soviet Union|automobile industry]]<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 168.</ref> remained underdeveloped,<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 165.</ref> and [[dirt road]]s were common outside major cities.<ref name="Ambler 1985, p. 167">Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 167.</ref> Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones.<ref name="Ambler 1985, p. 167"/> Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction.<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 169.</ref> The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.<ref>[[International Monetary Fund]] and [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] 1991, p. 56.</ref>

Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.

The Soviet [[merchant fleet]] was one of the largest in the world.<ref name="ciacom">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_communications.html |title=Soviet Union – Communications |author=Central Intelligence Agency | work=[[The World Factbook]] |year=1991 |accessdate=20 October 2010 |authorlink= Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Population of former USSR.PNG|thumb|left|250px|Population of the USSR (red) and the [[post-Soviet states]] (blue) from 1961 to 2009]]

Excess deaths over the course of [[World War I]] and the [[Russian Civil War]] (including the postwar [[Russian famine of 1921|famine]]) amounted to a combined total of 18 million,<ref>{{cite book | author=Mark Harrison| title=Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945| url=https://books.google.com/?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167| date=18 July 2002| publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=978-0-521-89424-1| page=167 }}</ref> some 10 million in the 1930s,<ref name="1930s"/> and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar [[Demographics of the Soviet Union#Population 2|Soviet population]] was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued.<ref name="Geoffrey A. Hosking 2006 242"/> According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."<ref>{{cite book | author=Jay Winter, Emmanuel Sivan| title=War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZK2A5x7E8IkC&pg=PA64| date=2000| publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn =0521794366 | page=64 }}</ref>

The [[crude birth rate]] of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, largely due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The [[crude death rate]] demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics.<ref name="GSE">{{cite book | author=Government of the USSR|script-title=ru:Большая советская энциклопедия |trans_title=[[Great Soviet Encyclopaedia]] | volume=24 | page=15|year=1977|location=Moscow|publisher=[[State Committee for Publishing]]|language=Russian|authorlink=Government of the USSR}}</ref> Soviet Europe moved towards [[sub-replacement fertility]], while [[Soviet Central Asia]] continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.<ref>{{cite book | author=Anderson, Barbara A. |title=Growth and Diversity of the Population of the Soviet Union | volume=510 | pages=155–77 |year=1990|publisher=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences}}</ref>

The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country.<ref>{{cite book | author=Vallin, J.; Chesnais, J.C. |title=Recent Developments of Mortality in Europe, English-Speaking Countries and the Soviet Union, 1960–1970 | volume=29 | pages=861–898 |year=1970|publisher=Population Studies}}</ref> An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again.<ref>{{cite book | author=Ryan, Michael |title=Life Expectancy and Mortality Data from the Soviet Union | volume=296 | page=1,513–1515 |date=28 May 1988|work=[[British Medical Journal]]}}</ref> The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as largely real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services.<ref>{{cite book | author=Davis, Christopher; [[Murray Feshbach|Feshbach, Murray]] |title=Rising Infant Mortality in the USSR in the 1970s | page=95|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=United States Census Bureau}}</ref> The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the [[Soviet government]] simply stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed and researchers could delve into the real causes.<ref>{{cite book | author=Krimins, Juris |title=The Changing Mortality Patterns in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia: Experience of the Past Three Decades | date=3–7 December 1990}} Paper presented at the International Conference on Health, Morbidity and Mortality by Cause of Death in Europe.</ref>

===Education===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Milovice soviet pupils.jpg|thumb|Soviet pupils in [[Milovice (Nymburk District)|Milovice]], [[Czechoslovakia]], 1985]]
Before 1917, education was not free in the [[Russian Empire]] and was therefore either inaccessible or barely accessible for many children from lower-class working and peasant families. Estimates from 1917 recorded that 75–85 percent of the Russian population was [[illiterate]].

[[Anatoly Lunacharsky]] became the first [[People's Commissar]] for Education of Soviet Russia. At the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. People who were [[literate]] were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Joseph Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. Throughout the 1930s [[social mobility]] rose sharply, which has been attributed to Soviet reforms in education.<ref>[[Sheila Fitzpatrick]], ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/twentieth-century-european-history/education-and-social-mobility-soviet-union-19211934 Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union 1921–1934]'', [[Cambridge University Press]] (16 May 2002), ISBN 0521894239</ref> In the aftermath of the Great Patriotic War, the country's educational system expanded dramatically. This expansion had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all Soviet children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. [[Nikita Khrushchev]] tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the [[New Soviet Man|New Man]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Law |first=David A. |title=Russian Civilization |publisher=Ardent Media |year=1975 |pages=300–1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C&dq |isbn=0-8422-0529-2}}</ref>

The [[Education in the Soviet Union|country's system of education]] was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with [[affirmative action]] for applicants from nations associated with [[cultural backwardness]]. Citizens directly entering the work force had the constitutional right to a job and to free [[Vocational-technical school|vocational training]]. The Brezhnev administration introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local [[Komsomol]] party secretary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shlapentokh |first=Vladimir |title=Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power: The Post-Stalin Era |page=26 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |year=1990 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7VFqqE5995UC&dq |isbn=978-1-85043-284-5}}</ref> According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the U.S.<ref name="education">{{cite book |last=Pejovich |first=Svetozar |title=The Economics of Property Rights: Towards a Theory of Comparative Systems |page=130 |year=1990 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |url= https://books.google.com/?id=ocQKHRReKdcC |isbn=978-0-7923-0878-2}}</ref>

===Ethnic groups===
The Soviet Union was a very ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority were [[Russians]] (50.78%), followed by [[Ukrainians]] (15.45%) and [[Uzbeks]] (5.84%).<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_people.html |title=Soviet Union – People |author=Central Intelligence Agency | work=[[The World Factbook]] |year=1991 |accessdate=25 October 2010 |authorlink= Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>

All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 2.</ref> by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the [[Mingrelians]] of the [[Georgian SSR]], who were classified with the linguistically related [[Georgians]].<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 3.</ref> Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, [[Belarusians]], and Ukrainians shared close cultural ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-hosking/rulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union |title=Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union |author=Hosking, Geoffrey | date=13 March 2006 | work=[[History Today]] |accessdate=25 October 2010}} (pay-fee)</ref>{{POV-statement|date=February 2013}}

<gallery>
File:Ethnic map USSR 1941.jpg|Ethnographic map of the Soviet Union, 1941
File:Ukrainians in Russian regions 1926.jpg|Number and share of [[Ukrainians in Russia|Ukrainians]] in the population of the regions of the RSFSR ([[First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union|1926 census]])
File:Soviet Union Muslim Population 1979 (full).png|Map showing the distribution of [[Islam in the Soviet Union|Muslims]] within the Soviet Union in 1979
File:Ukrainians in Russian regions 1979.jpg|Number and share of Ukrainians in the population of the regions of the [[RSFSR]] (1979 census)
</gallery>

===Health===
{{main|Demographics of the Soviet Union#Life expectancy and infant mortality|l1=Health care in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:RussianAbortionPoster.jpg|thumb|right|An early Soviet-era poster discouraging unsafe [[abortion]] practices]]
In 1917, before the revolution, health conditions were significantly behind the developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice".<ref name="lane">Lane 1992, p. 353.</ref> The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the [[People's Commissariat for Health]] in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, this at the time being a revolutionary concept. Article 42 of the [[1977 Soviet Constitution]] gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before [[Leonid Brezhnev]] became head of state, the healthcare system of the Soviet Union was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed however, from Brezhnev's accession and [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s tenure as leader, the Soviet health care system was heavily criticised for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision.<ref>Lane 1992, p. 352.</ref> [[Ministry of Health (Soviet Union)|Minister of Health]] [[Yevgeniy Chazov]], during the [[19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], while highlighting such Soviet successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognised the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of [[Soviet ruble]]s were squandered.<ref>Lane 1992, p. 352–53.</ref> 

After the socialist revolution, the life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the [[Socialism (Marxism)|socialist system]] was superior to the [[Capitalism|capitalist system]]. These improvements continued into the 1960s, when the life expectancy in the Soviet Union surpassed that of the United States. It remained stable during most years, although in the 1970s, it went down slightly, possibly because of [[Alcoholism in Russia|alcohol abuse]]. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on this. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was highest, while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.<ref name="SeemingParadox">{{cite book | author= Dinkel, R.H. |title=The Seeming Paradox of Increasing Mortality in a Highly Industrialized Nation: the Example of the Soviet Union | pages=155–77|year=1990}}</ref> The USSR had several centers of excellence, such as the [[Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Complex]], founded in 1988 by Russian eye surgeon [[Svyatoslav Fyodorov]].

===Language===
{{main|Languages of the Soviet Union}}
The Soviet government headed by Vladimir Lenin gave small language groups their own writing systems.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 3–4.</ref> The development of these writing systems was very successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same [[multilingual]] situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed [[dialect]]ally greatly from each other.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 4.</ref> When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, that language would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore their speakers were forced to have a [[second language]].<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 25.</ref> There are examples where the Soviet government retreated from this policy, most notable under Stalin's regime, where education was discontinued in languages which were not widespread enough. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 26.</ref> During the [[Great Patriotic War]] (World War II), some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 27.</ref>

As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian ''de facto'' functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" ({{lang-ru|link=no|язык межнационального общения}}), but only assumed the ''[[de jure]]'' status as the official national language in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:ЗАКОН СССР ОТ 24 April 1990 О ЯЗЫКАХ НАРОДОВ СССР|publisher=[[Government of the Soviet Union]]|date=24 April 1990 | url = http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm|trans_title=Law of the USSR from 24 April 1990 On languages of the USSR |accessdate =24 October 2010|language=Russian}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Christ saviour explosion.jpg|thumb|The [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]], [[Moscow]], during its demolition in 1931]]

The religious made up a significant minority of the Soviet Union prior to break up. In 1990, the religious makeup was 20% Russian Orthodox, 10% Muslim, 7% Protestant, Armenian Apostolic, Georgian Orthodox, and Roman Catholic, less than 1% Jewish and 60% atheist.<ref>20% Russian Orthodox; 10% Muslim; 7% Protestant, Armenian Apostolic, Georgian Orthodox, and Roman Catholic; less than 1% Jewish; 60% atheist</ref>

[[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] had the greatest number of adherents among the Soviet state's religious citizens.<ref name="dailylife">{{cite book | author=Eaton, Katherine Bliss | title=Daily life in the Soviet Union | publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] | year=2004 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVFuYN8TS5AC&dq | isbn=0-313-31628-7 | pages=285 and 286 }}</ref> [[Eastern Christianity]] predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional [[Russian Orthodox Church]] being the Soviet Union's largest [[Christian denomination]]. About 90 percent of the Soviet Union's Muslims were [[Sunni]]s, with [[Shiite]]s concentrated in the [[Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic]].<ref name="dailylife"/> Smaller groups included [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], and a variety of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] sects.<ref name="dailylife"/>

Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions.<ref name="Simkin 2003">{{cite book | author=Silvio Ferrari|author2=W. Cole Durham |author3=Elizabeth A. Sewell | title=Law and religion in post-communist Europe| url=https://books.google.com/?id=QEucgny-0k4C| year=2003| publisher=Peeters Pub & Booksellers| isbn=978-90-429-1262-5| page=261 }}</ref> The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former [[ruling class]]es.<ref name="Simon 1974, 64-65">Simon 1974, pp. 64–65.</ref>

In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the [[Marxism|Marxist]] spirit of [[scientific materialism]].<ref name="Simon 1974, 64-65"/> In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.<ref name="Simon 1974, 64-65"/>

The 1918 [[Council of People's Commissars]] decree establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately."<ref name="Simon 1974, 209">Simon 1974, p. 209.</ref> Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929, a half-decade into Stalin's rule, included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized [[Bible study (Christian)|Bible study]].<ref name="Simon 1974, 64-65"/> Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90 percent of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.<ref name="Atwood 2001, 311">{{cite book | author=Atwood, Craig D. | title=Always Reforming: A History of Christianity Since 1300 | location=Macon, Georgia | publisher=[[Mercer University Press]] | year=2001 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72Ulz0fpr4cC | isbn =0-86554-679-7| page=311 }}</ref>

Convinced that religious [[anti-Sovietism]] had become a thing of the past, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s.<ref name = "Janz 1998, 38-39">Janz 1998, pp. 38–39.</ref> Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during [[Eastern Front (World War II)|the Soviet war with Nazi Germany]]. Amid other accommodations to religious faith, churches were reopened, [[Radio Moscow]] began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader [[Patriarch Sergius I of Moscow]] was held in 1943.<ref name = "Janz 1998, 38-39"/> The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.<ref name="Ro'i 1995, 263">{{cite book | author = Ro'i, Yaacov | title = Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union | location = London | publisher = [[Frank Cass]] | year = 1995 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bJBH5pxzSyMC | isbn = 0-7146-4619-9| page = 263 }}</ref> The [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in the USSR]] was persecuted.

The Soviet establishment again clashed with the churches under General Secretary [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s leadership in 1958–1964, a period when [[atheism]] was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views.<ref name="Janz 1998, 38-39"/> During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97.<ref name="Nahaylo & Swoboda 1990, 144">{{cite book | author=Nahaylo, Bohdan & Victor Swoboda | title=Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities Problem in the USSR | location=London | publisher=[[Hamish Hamilton]] | year=1990 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrG7vrPue4wC | isbn=0-02-922401-2 | page=144}}</ref> The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.<ref name="Nahaylo & Swoboda 1990, 144"/>

Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the [[Brezhnev era]].<ref name="Steinberg & Wanner 2008,">{{cite book | author=Mark D. Steinberg|author2=Catherine Wanner | title=Religion, morality, and community in post-Soviet societies| url=https://books.google.com/?id=LR6X3EY8oPIC| date=October 2008| publisher=Indiana University Press| isbn=978-0-253-22038-7| page=6}}</ref> Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the Soviet government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch [[Alexy I]] with the [[Order of the Red Banner of Labour]].<ref name="Janz 1998, 42">Janz 1998, p. 42.</ref> A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20 percent of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."<ref name="subculture">{{cite book | author=McKay, George; Williams, Christopher | title=Subcultures and New Religious Movements in Russia and East-Central Europe | publisher=[[Peter Lang (publishing company)|Peter Lang]] | year=2009 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpNBm-z7aOYC&dq | isbn=3-03911-921-4 | pages=231–32}}</ref>

=== Women ===
{{Expand section|date=March 2015}}
Soviet efforts to expand social, political and economic opportunities for women constitute "the earliest and perhaps most far-reaching attempt ever undertaken to transform the status and role of women."<ref>{{Harvnb|Warshofsky Lapidus|1978|p=[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNrx7oD42ScC&pg=PA3 3]}}.</ref>

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of the Soviet Union}}
{{see also|Soviet cuisine|Fashion in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Марш энтузиастов.ogg|thumb|The ''Enthusiast's March'', a 1930s song famous in the Soviet Union]]

The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's 70-year existence. During the first eleven years following the Revolution (1918–1929), there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, for example [[Nikolay Gumilev]] (shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime) and [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]] (banned).<ref>'On the other hand...' See the index of ''Stalin and His Hangmen'' by Donald Rayfield, 2004, Random House</ref>

The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers [[Maksim Gorky]] and [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]] were active during this time. Film, as a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, received encouragement from the state; much of director [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s best work dates from this period.

Later, during Stalin's rule, Soviet culture was characterised by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of [[socialist realism]], with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, for example [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]'s works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.<ref>Rayfield 2004, pp. 317–320.</ref>

Following the [[Khrushchev Thaw]] of the late 1950s and early 1960s, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed characterized by conformist public life and intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms were again permissible, with the result that more sophisticated and subtly critical work began to be produced. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author [[Yury Trifonov]] concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. An underground dissident literature, known as ''[[samizdat]]'', developed during this late period. In architecture the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch.

In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of ''[[perestroika]]'' and ''[[glasnost]]'' significantly expanded [[freedom of expression]] in the media and press.<ref>"Gorbachev, Mikhail." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 October 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037405>. "Under his new policy of glasnost ("openness"), a major cultural thaw took place: freedoms of expression and of information were significantly expanded; the press and broadcasting were allowed unprecedented candour in their reportage and criticism; and the country's legacy of Stalinist totalitarian rule was eventually completely repudiated by the government."</ref>

== Attempt to challenge the dissolution of the Soviet Union in Court ==
{{Commons category|Unconstitutional dissolution of the Soviet Union|Court documents On the recognition of the unconstitutional dissolution of the USSR}}
In 2014, on the initiative of the citizen of the city of [[Tolyatti]] Dmitry Tretyakov, born in 1981, took judicial attempts to challenge the alleged unconstitutional dissolution of the Soviet Union in court. In his claim to the [[government of Russia]], the applicant referred to the legislation of the Soviet Union, [[s:Закон СССР от 3 April 1990 № 1409-I|Law of the USSR No. 1409-I dated 3 April 1990]] "On the order of issues related to the secession of Union republics from the USSR".<ref>[http://www.nakanune.ru/articles/18876/ Resident Togliatti fighting for the recognition of the unconstitutional dissolution of the USSR]{{ru icon}}</ref><ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HtT6g5gkCPg VIDEO Togliatti tried to challenge the dissolution of the USSR]{{ru icon}}</ref>

On 10 January 2014 the [[Supreme Court of Russia]] issued a ruling, which refused to consider the claim, stating that "acts [[Standing (law)|do not affect the rights and freedoms or legitimate interests of the applicant]]". On 8 April, the [[appellate court]] upheld the first instance decision.<ref>[http://www.vsrf.ru/moving_case.php?findByNember=%C0%CA%CF%C814-17 The proceedings in civil case No. ACPI 14-17 from 10.01.2014, "On the recognition of the unconstitutional dissolution of the USSR"] Official website of the Supreme Court of Russia</ref><ref name=DeloUSSR>[http://www.rg.ru/2014/04/09/soyz.html Supreme Court of Russia asked to return to the legality of the collapse of the Soviet Union]// [[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]], 9 April 2014,</ref><ref name=DeloUSSR-2>[http://www.mk.ru/social/article/2014/04/08/1010696-sud-otkazalsya-rassmatrivat-zakonnost-razvala-sssr.html The Supreme Court refused to consider the legality of the collapse of the USSR]// [[Moskovskij Komsomolets]], 8 April 2014</ref>

On 29 May, the [[Constitutional Court of Russia]], with 18 judges, chaired by [[Valery Zorkin]], dismissed the complaint in a final unappealable decision.<ref>[http://www.nakanune.ru/news/2014/7/16/22360968/ Russian courts refuse to consider the application of the illegality of the collapse of the USSR]{{ru icon}}</ref>

On 27 November 2014, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] in [[Strasbourg]], under the chairmanship of judge [[Elisabeth Steiner]], decided to reject the complaint, additionally stating that the decision cannot be appealed to the Grand Chamber.<ref>[http://mignews.com.ua/sobitiya/inworld/4637490.html The European Court has refused to recognize the collapse of the USSR illegal]{{ru icon}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Soviet Union|Communism|Russia}}
*[[Soviet Empire]]
*[[Neo-Sovietism]]
*[[Eurasian Economic Union]]
*[[Commonwealth of Independent States]]
*[[Collective Security Treaty Organization]]
*[[Index of Soviet Union-related articles]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | author=Ambler, John; Shaw, Denis J.B.; Symons, Leslie | title=Soviet and East European Transport Problems | publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] | year=1985 | url=http://books.google.no/books?id=Rpg9AAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn=978-0-7099-0557-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Comrie, Bernard | title=The Languages of the Soviet Union | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press|Cambridge University Press (CUP) Archive]] | year=1981 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QTU7AAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn=978-0-521-29877-3 | authorlink=Bernard Comrie}}
* {{cite book | author=Janz, Denis | title=World Christianity and Marxism | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUVwrcnXwBsC | isbn=978-0-19-511944-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Lane, David Stuart | title=Soviet Society under Perestroika | publisher=Routledge | year=1992 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcXafOqyxgQC&dq | isbn=978-0-415-07600-5 }}
* {{cite book | author=Rayfield, Donald | title=[[Stalin and His Hangmen|Stalin and His Hangmen: An Authoritative Portrait of a Tyrant and Those Who Served Him]] | publisher=[[Viking Press]] | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-375-75771-6 | authorlink=Donald Rayfield}}
* {{cite book | author=Simon, Gerard | title=Church, State, and Opposition in the U.S.S.R. | location=Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher=University of California Press | year=1974 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTLc8H3b4vUC | isbn=978-0-520-02612-4}}
* {{cite book | author=Wilson, David | title=The Demand for Energy in the Soviet Union | publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] | year=1983 | url=http://books.google.no/books?id=1qgOAAAAQAAJ&dq | isbn=978-0-7099-2704-4 }}
* {{cite book | author=[[World Bank]] and [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] | title=A Study of the Soviet economy | volume=3 | publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] | year=1991 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiDpE5M9jRAC&dq | isbn=9789264134683}}
* {{cite book | title=Social Identities in Revolutionary Russia | last=Palat | first=Madhavan K. | authorlink=Madhavan K. Palat | year=2001 | publisher=Palgrave | location=UK | isbn=978-0-333-92947-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-d_QgAACAAJ | accessdate=26 May 2012}}
* {{Cite book | last = Warshofsky Lapidus | first = Gail | year = 1978 | title = Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development, and Social Change | location = Berkeley, CA | publisher = [[University of California Press]] | isbn = 978-0-520-03938-4 | ref = harv }}

==Further reading==
{{see also|List of primary and secondary sources on the Cold War}}
{{refbegin|30em}}

===Surveys===
* [http://rs6.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html ''A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former)'']. [[Library of Congress Country Studies]], 1991.
* Brown, Archie, et al., eds.: ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (Cambridge University Press, 1982).
* Gilbert, Martin: ''The Routledge Atlas of Russian History'' (London: Routledge, 2002).
* Gorodetsky, Gabriel, ed. ''Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1991: A Retrospective'' (2014)
* Grant, Ted. ''Russia, from Revolution to Counter-Revolution'', London, Well Red Publications, 1997
* Hosking, Geoffrey. ''The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within'' (2nd ed. Harvard UP 1992) 570pp
* Howe, G. Melvyn: ''The Soviet Union: A Geographical Survey'' 2nd. edn. (Estover, UK: MacDonald and Evans, 1983).
* Kort, Michael. ''The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath'' (7th ed. 2010) 502pp
* McCauley, Martin. ''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union '' (2007), 522 pages.
* Moss, Walter G. ''A History of Russia''. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005.
* [[Alec Nove|Nove, Alec]]. ''An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991''. (3rd ed. 1993)
* Pipes, Richard. ''Communism: A History'' (2003)
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Twentieth-Century Russia''. (2nd ed. 1999)

===Lenin and Leninism===
* Clark, Ronald W. ''Lenin'' (1988). 570 pp.
* Debo, Richard K. ''Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918–1921'' (1992).
* Marples, David R. ''Lenin's Revolution: Russia, 1917–1921'' (2000) 156pp. short survey
* Pipes, Richard. ''A Concise History of the Russian Revolution'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0679745440 excerpt and text search], by a leading conservative
* Pipes, Richard. ''Russia under the Bolshevik Regime.'' (1994). 608 pp.
* Service, Robert. ''Lenin: A Biography'' (2002), 561pp; standard scholarly biography; a short version of his 3 vol detailed biography
* Volkogonov, Dmitri. ''Lenin: Life and Legacy'' (1994). 600 pp.

===Stalin and Stalinism===
* Daniels, R. V., ed. ''The Stalin Revolution'' (1965)
* Davies, Sarah, and James Harris, eds. ''Stalin: A New History,'' (2006), 310pp, 14 specialized essays by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521616530 excerpt and text search]
* De Jonge, Alex. ''Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union'' (1986)
* Fitzpatrick, Sheila, ed. ''Stalinism: New Directions,'' (1999), 396pp excerpts from many scholars on the impact of Stalinism on the people (little on Stalin himself) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109468478 online edition]
* Hoffmann, David L. ed. ''Stalinism: The Essential Readings,'' (2002) essays by 12 scholars
* Laqueur, Walter. ''Stalin: The Glasnost Revelations'' (1990)
* Kershaw, Ian, and Moshe Lewin. ''Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521565219 excerpt and text search]
* Lee, Stephen J. ''Stalin and the Soviet Union'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/108215209?title=Stalin%20and%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* Lewis, Jonathan. ''Stalin: A Time for Judgement'' (1990)
* McNeal, Robert H. ''Stalin: Man and Ruler'' (1988)
* Martens, Ludo. ''Another view of Stalin'' (1994), a highly favorable view from a Maoist historian
* Service, Robert. ''Stalin: A Biography'' (2004), along with Tucker the standard biography
* Trotsky, Leon. ''Stalin: An Appraisal of the Man and His Influence,'' (1967), an interpretation by Stalin's worst enemy
* Tucker, Robert C. ''Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929'' (1973); ''Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929–1941.'' (1990) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103246514 online edition] with Service, a standard biography; [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]

===World War II===
* Barber, John, and Mark Harrison. ''The Soviet Home Front: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II,'' Longman, 1991.
* Bellamy, Chris. ''Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War'' (2008), 880pp [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0375724710/ excerpt and text search]
* [[Karel C. Berkhoff|Berkhoff, Karel C.]] ''Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule.'' Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.
* Berkhoff, Karel C. ''Motherland in Danger: Soviet Propaganda during World War II'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/Motherland-Danger-Soviet-Propaganda-during/dp/0674049241/ excerpt and text search] covers both propaganda and reality of homefront conditions
* Braithwaite, Rodric. ''Moscow 1941: A City and Its People at War'' (2006)
* Broekmeyer, Marius. ''Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945.'' 2004. 315 pp.
* Dallin, Alexander. ''Odessa, 1941–1944: A Case Study of Soviet Territory under Foreign Rule.'' Portland: Int. Specialized Book Service, 1998. 296 pp.
* Kucherenko, Olga. ''Little Soldiers: How Soviet Children Went to War, 1941–1945'' (2011) [http://www.amazon.com/Little-Soldiers-Soviet-Children-1941-1945/dp/0199585555/ excerpt and text search]
* Overy, Richard. ''Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945'' (1998) 432pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0140271694/ excerpt and txt search]
* Overy, Richard. ''Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0140271694/ excerpt and text search]
* Roberts, Geoffrey. ''Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953'' (2006).
* Schofield, Carey, ed. ''Russian at War, 1941-1945''. Text by Georgii Drozdov and Evgenii Ryabko, [with] introd. by Vladimir Karpov [and] pref. by Harrison E. Salisbury, ed. by Carey Schofield. New York: Vendome Press, 1987. 256 p., copiously ill. with b&2 photos and occasional maps. ''N.B''.: This is mostly a photo-history, with connecting texts. ISBN 978-0-86565-077-0
* Seaton, Albert. ''Stalin as Military Commander,'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100872346 online edition]{{dead link|date=December 2013}}
* Thurston, Robert W., and Bernd Bonwetsch, eds. ''The People's War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union'' (2000)
* Vallin, Jacques; Meslé, France; Adamets, Serguei; and Pyrozhkov, Serhii. "A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses During the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s." ''Population Studies'' (2002) 56(3): 249-264. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3092980 in JSTOR] Reports life expectancy at birth fell to a level as low as ten years for females and seven for males in 1933 and plateaued around 25 for females and 15 for males in the period 1941–44.

===Cold War===
* Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1989)
* Edmonds, Robin. ''Soviet Foreign Policy: The Brezhnev Years'' (1983)
* Goncharov, Sergei, John Lewis and Litai Xue, ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War'' (1993) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0804725217 excerpt and text search]
* Gorlizki, Yoram, and Oleg Khlevniuk. ''Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle, 1945–1953'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/read/105899376 online edition]
* Holloway, David. ''Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0300066643 excerpt and text search]
* [[Mastny, Vojtech]]. ''Russia's Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of Communism, 1941–1945'' (1979)
* [[Mastny, Vojtech]]. ''The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195126599 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98422373 online complete edition]
* Nation, R. Craig. ''Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917–1991'' (1992)
* Sivachev, Nikolai and Nikolai Yakolev, ''Russia and the United States'' (1979), by Soviet historians
* [[William Taubman|Taubman, William]]. ''[[Khrushchev: The Man and His Era]]'' (2004), Pulitzer Prize; [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0393324842 excerpt and text search]
* Ulam, Adam B. ''Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1973'', 2nd ed. (1974)
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''Inside the Kremlin's Cold War'' (1996) [http://search.live.com/results.aspx?q=&scope=books#q=zubok&filter=all&start=1 20% excerpt and online search]
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2007)

===Collapse===
* Beschloss, Michael, and Strobe Talbott. ''At the Highest Levels:The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War'' (1993)
* Bialer, Seweryn and Michael Mandelbaum, eds. ''Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy'' (1988).
* Carrère d'Encausse, Hélène. ''Decline of an Empire: the Soviet Socialist Republics in Revolt''. First English language ed. New York: Newsweek Books (1979). 304 p. ''N.B''.: Trans. of the author's ''L'Empire éclaté''. ISBN 0-88225-280-1
* Garthoff, Raymond. ''The Great Transition: American–Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War'' (1994), detailed narrative
* Grachev, A.S. ''Gorbachev's Gamble: Soviet Foreign Policy and the End of the Cold War'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0745643450/ excerpt and text search]
* Hogan, Michael ed. ''The End of the Cold War. Its Meaning and Implications'' (1992) articles from ''Diplomatic History''
* [[Roger Keeran]] and Thomas Keeny. ''Socialism Betrayed: Behind the Collapse of the Soviet Union'', International Publishers Co Inc., U.S. 2004
* Kotkin, Stephen. ''Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195368630/ excerpt and text search]
* Matlock, Jack. ''Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union'' (1995)
* Pons, S., Romero, F., ''Reinterpreting the End of the Cold War: Issues, Interpretations, Periodizations'', (2005) ISBN 0-7146-5695-X
* Remnick, David. ''Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire'', (1994), ISBN 0-679-75125-4
* Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr. ''Rebuilding Russia: Reflections and Tentative Proposals'', trans. and annotated by Alexis Klimoff. First ed. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1991. ''N.B''.: Also discusses the other national constituents of the U.S.S.R. ISBN 0-374-17342-7

===Specialty studies===
* Armstrong, John A. ''The Politics of Totalitarianism: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1934 to the Present.'' New York: Random House, 1961.
* Katz, Zev, ed.: ''Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities'' (New York: Free Press, 1975).
* Moore, Jr., Barrington. ''Soviet politics: the dilemma of power.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
* Rizzi, Bruno: ''The Bureaucratization of the World: The First English edition of the Underground Marxist Classic That Analyzed Class Exploitation in the USSR'', New York, NY: Free Press, 1985.
* Schapiro, Leonard B. ''The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955, 1966.
{{refend}}
{{loc}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Soviet Union|v=no|n=no|s=National Anthem of the Soviet Union|b=no}}
* {{Wikiatlas|the Soviet Union}}
* [http://ariwatch.com/VS/JD/ImpressionsOfSovietRussia.htm Impressions of Soviet Russia], by [[John Dewey]].
* [http://soviethistory.com/ Documents and other forms of media from the Soviet Union: 1917–1991.]
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former)]
* [http://soviet.globalmuseumoncommunism.org/ Soviet Union Exhibit at Global Museum on Communism with essay by Richard Pipes]
* [http://rt.com/news/ussr-collapse-mistake-poll-585/ Majority in former Soviet states believe breakup was harmful mistake – poll]. ''[[RT (TV network)|RT]]'', 21 December 2013.

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Battle of Königsberg

2015-01-10T12:01:30Z

Muta112: Undid revision 641591268 by 138.73.72.189 (talk)

{{refimprove|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Königsberg
|image=[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R98401, Königsberg, Volkssturm.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[Urban warfare]] during the [[Königsberg]] battle.
|partof=the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]], [[East Prussian Offensive]] of World War II
|place=[[Königsberg]], [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] (now: Kaliningrad, Russia)
|date=Late January to 9 April 1945 Final assault 6 April – 9 April
|result=Soviet Victory
|combatant1={{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
|combatant2={{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
|commander1={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Otto Lasch]]{{POW}}
|commander2={{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Aleksandr Vasilevsky|Aleksandr Vasilyevskiy]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Konstantin Konstantinovich Rokossovsky|Konstantin Rokossovskiy]]
|strength1=60,000<ref name=Duffy>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=KvQNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=k%C3%B6nigsberg+35.000+lasch&q| first = Christopher| last = Duffy |authorlink=Christopher Duffy | title = Red storm on the Reich: the Soviet march on Germany, 1945| publisher = Routledge| year = 1991 | page=207|isbn =0-415-03589-9}}</ref>–130,000, 4,000 artillery guns and mortars, 108 tanks and assault guns, 170 aircraft<ref name=Katerusha>{{cite web|url=http://kaliningrad.kp.ru/daily/25880.4/2843410/|title=Battle of Königsberg in numbers: Won by not quantity, but quality|author=Alexander Katerusha.|date=10 May 2012|publisher=Комсомольская правда|accessdate=2013-01-07|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Dorv1iM4|archivedate=2013-01-20}}</ref>

|strength2=137,000 (24,500 participated in active phase with rest supporting), 5,200 artillery guns and mortars, 528 tanks and SPG, 2174 aircraft<ref name="Katerusha"/>

|casualties1=50,000 casualties 80,000 taken prisoner According to Soviet information, the Germans lost 42,000 soldiers in combat and 92,000 were captured.<ref>[http://militarymaps.narod.ru/oper_1945.html#16 Кенигсбергская наступательная операция, 6-9 апреля 1945 г.]</ref>
|casualties2= 60,000 (3,700 casualties for the final assault<ref name="Katerusha"/>)
|campaignbox={{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
}}

The '''Battle of Königsberg''', also known as the '''Königsberg Offensive''', was one of the last operations of the [[East Prussian Offensive]] during World War II. In four days of violent [[urban warfare]], [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces of the [[1st Baltic Front]] and the [[3rd Belorussian Front]] captured the city of [[Königsberg]] – now [[Kaliningrad]], Russia. The siege started in late January 1945 when the Soviets initially surrounded the city. There was heavy fighting for the overland connection between Königsberg and the port of [[Pillau]], but by March 1945 Königsberg was hundreds of kilometres behind the main front line. The battle finished when the German garrison surrendered to the Soviets on 9 April after a three-day assault made their position untenable.

==The beginning: East Prussian Offensive==

{{main|East Prussian Offensive}}
The East Prussian Offensive was planned by the Soviet [[Stavka]] to prevent flank attacks on the armies rushing towards Berlin. Indeed, [[East Prussia]] held numerous troops that could be used for this. During initial Stavka planning, [[Joseph Stalin]] ordered Marshal [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]] to annihilate the Wehrmacht forces trapped there.

On 13 January 1945, almost 1,500,000 troops supported by several thousand tanks and aircraft of the 3rd Belorussian Front ([[11th Guards Army|11th Guards]], [[39th Army (Soviet Union)|39th]], [[43rd Guards Army (Soviet Union)|43rd]], [[50th Army (Soviet Union)|50th]], [[1st Air Army (Soviet Union)|1st Air]], [[3rd Air Army (Soviet Union)|3rd Air]], [[4th Air Army|4th Air]], and [[15th Air Army (Soviet Union)|15th Air Armies]]) entered East Prussia, which was transformed into a gigantic web of [[fortification]]s, defensive lines and [[minefield]]s. At first, the offensive was almost a failure. [[Red Army]] troops only advanced 1.5 kilometers the first day, through only three defensive lines. In five days, taking heavy losses, Soviet troops advanced only 20 kilometers, but were still unable to break through German lines into the open.

Nevertheless, after quickly overcoming the initial difficulties, the Soviet advance gathered steam, and on 24 January Soviet advance forces reached the shores of the [[Vistula Lagoon]] (part of the [[Baltic Sea]]), cutting off the German forces in East Prussia from a direct connection with Germany, forcing the Germans to supply the surrounded forces by sea. This operation was accomplished by the [[1st Baltic Front]] under the command of [[Hovhannes Bagramyan|General Hovhannes Bagramyan]], also known as Ivan Bagramyan.<ref>Jukes. Stalin's Generals, p. 30</ref>

==Encirclement==

On 25 January 1945, in a tacit acknowledgement that German forces in East Prussia and the [[Courland Pocket]] were far behind the new front line, Hitler renamed three army groups. [[Army Group North]] became [[Army Group Courland]]; [[Army Group Centre]] (the army group surrounded in the Königsberg pocket) became Army Group North and [[Army Group A]] became Army Group Centre.

Those forces, now redesignated as Army Group North, were compressed by further Soviet attacks into three pockets: one around Königsberg, one on the adjacent [[Sambia Peninsula]], and one on the coast of the ''[[Frisches Haff]]'' to the south-west (the [[Heiligenbeil Pocket]]).

By late January 1945 the [[3rd Belorussian Front]] had surrounded Königsberg on the landward side, severing the road down the Samland peninsula to the port of Pillau, and trapping the [[3rd Panzer Army]] and approximately 200,000 [[civilian]]s in the city.<ref>Beevor, pp.25</ref> The civilian provisions were so meagre that civilians were faced with three bleak alternatives:

# Remain in the city and starve – rations were cut during the siege to 180 grams of bread a day
# Cross the front lines and leave themselves at the mercies of the Soviets
# Cross the ice of the [[Frisches Haff]] to Pillau in hope of finding a place on an evacuation ship

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1972-093-65, Flüchtlinge auf Schiff.jpg|thumb|left|325px|Germans fleeing the encircled Königsberg aboard SS ''Wedel'']]

Hundreds chose to cross the front line, but about 2,000 women and children a day chose to cross the ice on foot to Pillau. On his return from a visit to [[Berlin]], [[Erich Koch]] the [[Gauleiter]] of East Prussia chose to stay in the relative safety of Pillau to organise the evacuation rather than return to Königsberg. The first evacuation steamer from Pillau carrying 1,800 civilians and 1,200 casualties reached safety on the 29 January.<ref>Beevor, pp. 49</ref>
Throughout February, there was desperate fighting as the Germans tried to maintain the narrow connection between Königsberg and Samland. For a time, Soviet troops were successful in severing that connection and cutting the city off completely.

However, on 19 February the 3rd Panzer Army and the [[4th Army (Wehrmacht)|4th Army]], attacked from the direction of Pillau, managing to force open a corridor from Königsberg to Pillau.<ref name="Beevor88-92">Beevor, pp.88–92</ref> Led by a captured Soviet [[T-34|T-34 tank]], this attack was spearheaded by the [[1st Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|1st Infantry Division]] from Königsberg, intended to link with General [[Hans Gollnick]]'s [[XXVIII Corps (Germany)|XXVIII Corps]], which held parts of the Samland peninsula, including the vital port of Pillau. Capturing the town of [[Metgethen]], the unit opened the way for the [[5th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|5th Panzer Division]] to join with Gollnick's forces near the town of [[Gross Heydekrug]] the next day. This action solidified the German defense of the area until April, re-opening the land route from Königsberg to Pillau, through which supplies could be delivered by ship and the wounded and refugees could be evacuated. This month-long battle is sometimes called the [[First Siege of Königsberg]].<ref name=Duffy/>

In March the situation had stabilized – by now, the main front line had moved hundreds of kilometers to the west, and capturing the city took a much lower priority for the Soviets. Even so, the garrison was intact and showed no signs of surrender. Eventually the Soviet command decided to capture the city by assault rather than a siege.

==Preparing the assault==

Assaulting Königsberg was not to be an easy task. Garrisoned inside the city were five full-strength divisions, for a total of 130,000 troops, along with impressive defensive positions constructed in 1888 that included fifteen [[fort]]s interconnected by tunnels with integrated accommodations for the troops, and designed to withstand the bombardment of [[Railway gun|super-guns]] being designed in that era following the [[Siege of Paris (1870–1871)]]. The Germans still held a narrow land connection to the adjacent German pocket on the Samland peninsula. The capture of the city required that this desperately defended link be severed. The German troops on the peninsula, the so-called [[XXVIII Army Corps (Germany)|Samland group]], could be expected to stage counter-attacks to prevent this from happening.

Königsberg was, according to [[Winston Churchill]], "a modernised heavily defended fortress".{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Three concentric rings of fortifications surrounded the city: the outer ring of defences reinforced by 12 [[Fortification|forts]] outside the town, the middle ring in the outskirts and the inner city, a single fortress of anti-tank defences, [[barricade]]s and [[landmine]]s, along with several other forts.

In order to face such defensive power, the Soviet command planned to heavily rely on [[Military aviation|aviation]] and [[artillery]] support, with densities reaching 250 guns per kilometre in some areas. The German troops were also subjected to [[propaganda]], explaining that their resistance was futile, and that the front line was far behind them — that they were trapped in a "[[Salients, re-entrants and pockets|pocket]]" and that it would be best to surrender. However, this propaganda had little to no effect.

After four days of preparatory artillery [[bombardment]], the assault started on 6 April 1945. The assault was planned to be "star-like". Troops would attack from many points around the perimeter and meet in the center of the city, compartmentalising the remaining defenders into isolated groups incapable of mutual support. There were two main fronts: North (held by the 39th and 43rd Armies which included the [[208th Rifle Division]]) and South ([[11th Guards Army]]). The 50th army was stationed in the northeast part of the front, but took only a limited part in the operation.

==The Assault==
[[File:Battle Of Königsberg Begin.png|right|400px|thumb|Königsberg defenses and Soviet attack from 6 to 9 April 1945.]]

===Day One: 6 April 1945===
In the southern part of the front, the attack started at dawn by intense artillery bombing, lasting three hours, followed by the first attack wave. The Soviet rifle divisions quickly went through the first defense line, because its defenders had been largely eliminated and the remainder were demoralized by several days of intense bombing. By noon, the Soviet leading regiments reached the second defensive line, where its progression was halted by a stronger opposition, forcing Soviet commanders to use their reserve forces. Three hours later, the second defense line was overrun in several places.

An especially bitter fight raged in the vicinity of fort eight. Built at the end of the 19th century and modernized since, the fort had thick walls, considerable firepower and was surrounded by a deep [[moat]], making a frontal assault almost impossible. Despite heavy artillery fire, its defenders prevented any attempt to approach the walls. Only at dusk were Soviet forces able to reach the moat and start using explosives to try to breach the walls.

In the main attack axis at the north, the attack started at the same time. By noon, the first defense line had fallen and the second line was badly shaken and broken in several places. In the afternoon, however, progress became increasingly slow, especially on the right flank, where German forces stationed in the western outskirts of the city (the so-called [[XXVIII Army Corps (Germany)|Samland Group]]) attempted several [[Flanking maneuver|flanking]] attacks.

The fort five, claimed to be the best fortification of the entire Königsberg position, formed a strong resistance. In front of such a situation, Soviet commanders decided to surround it and leave it behind, leaving the [[rear guard]] troops time to prepare a new assault.

At dusk, the battle stalled allowing both sides to consolidate their lines, regroup their forces and bring [[Military reserves|reserves]] to the front line. This first day had mixed results, since Soviet progress was not as good as expected. However, both city defenses and the defenders' [[morale]] were seriously shaken, and troops, including officers, began to surrender periodically.

During this first day of assault, bad weather prevented the Soviet troops from using [[precision bombing]] with as much effect as they would have liked. Additionally, even fortified, the terrain conquered by the Soviet troops during this day was not so densely populated as the central city would be, reducing problems associated with urban warfare.

===Day Two: 7 April 1945===

During the night, the German troops attempted several counterattacks, using their last reserves. Despite the bitter engagements and heavy losses on both sides, the counterattacks were driven off. The worst part of the front was still the one facing the Samland group, where a dozen such counterattacks were attempted.

The better weather conditions allowed the [[Red Army]] to make a profitable use of daylight precision bombing. Several hundred bombers belonging to 1st, 3rd and 15th Air Armies, supported with [[Baltic Fleet]] aviation, bombarded the downtown and the Samland group's bridgeheads.

Meanwhile, fort eight, blocked by Soviet troops, was still a strong pocket of resistance. After several unsuccessful attacks, a more cunning plan was developed. Using both smoke screens to conceal their approach and flamethrowers to weaken the defense positions, several hundred men managed to cross the moat and enter the fortress, where bitter [[Close quarters battle|close combat]] began. Once the outer defenses were weakened, a massive frontal assault began. Finally, the assault succeeded and the remainder of the garrison surrendered.

During the day, the 11th Guards Army sought to reach the [[Pregel]] river, eliminating all resistance on the southern side. However, their advance was slowed in the central area of the city, where every building had to be literally taken apart along with its defenders. A particularly bitter skirmish took place in the main [[railway station]] and its platforms, where almost every railcar was transformed into a firing point, and Soviet troops had to use armour and gun support to advance, taking losses. Only by dusk was the territory completely neutralized, allowing the attackers to approach the third inner defence perimeter, protecting the entrance to the city centre itself.

In the north, fort five proved to be a strong pocket of resistance as well. Soviet [[sappers]] finally managed to place explosives at the base of the walls, breaching them and allowing for a direct assault. As with the assault on fort eight, bitter close combat began in the fort, lasting all night and ceasing only in the morning when the last troops surrendered.

At the end of the day, seeing that further resistance was pointless, General [[Otto Lasch]] radioed [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[headquarters]] and asked for permission to surrender. Hitler's answer was "fight to the last soldier".{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

===Day Three: 8 April 1945===
During the night, the Pregel was crossed by the 11th Guards Army and despite enemy fire by dawn a full bridgehead was established on the opposite bank. Continuing their advance northwards, they linked up with the northern troops, completing the encirclement and cutting off the Samland group from the city.

In the afternoon, Marshal [[Aleksandr Vasilevsky]] once again asked the defenders to surrender. This offer was refused and the German forces attempted to break out of the encirclement, attacking both from the city centre and the Samland bridgehead. The latter managed to advance several kilometres before being stopped. Although another attack was prepared, the Germans' lack of air defenses allowed Soviet [[Ilyushin Il-2]] [[ground attack aircraft]] to destroy a large number of troops. During this campaign, Soviet aviation generally proved very effective.

By the end of the day, it was clear that any attempt by the Samland group to break out of the encirclement would be pointless. However, victory was nowhere near, as almost 40,000 men were garrisoned in the city centre, which was regularly subjected to heavy shelling.

===Day Four: 9 April 1945===

During the last day of the battle, the besieged German defenders were overwhelmed and the defence coordination fell apart. Having been comprehensively defeated, and in the realisation that further resistance was futile, Otto Lasch decided on his own initiative to send [[Diplomat|emissaries]] to negotiate the surrender. At 18:00, the emissaries arrived at the Soviet lines, and a delegation was sent to Lasch's bunker. Shortly before midnight, the surrender was acknowledged.

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R94432, Königsberg, gefangene deutsche Offiziere.jpg|right|thumb|220px|German POWs in front of the [[King's Gate (Kaliningrad)|King's Gate]]]]

==Aftermath==
Almost 80% of the city was destroyed; first by the [[Bombing of Königsberg in World War II|Royal Air Force in August 1944]], and then by Soviet shelling in April 1945. Almost all [[German people|German]] residents who remained at the end of the war, an estimated 200,000 out of the city's prewar population of 316,000, were [[Evacuation of East Prussia|expelled]] from the city.

During the operation main forces of German East Prussia group were destroyed. Only [[XXVIII Army Corps (Germany)|Army Detachment Samland]] remained which was annihilated on 25 April.

The operation itself was considered a major success for the Soviet Army due to the comparatively low casualties suffered during the capture of the heavily armored stronghold. The capture was celebrated in Moscow with an artillery salvo by 324 cannons firing 24 shells each. A [[Medal "For the Capture of Königsberg"]] was established and 98 military units were named after the Königsberg operation.

After the war, following the transfer of northern half of [[East Prussia]] to the [[Russian SFSR]], Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad, and was installed with predominantly Russian (and, to a lesser extent, Belarusian and Ukrainian) settlers from other areas of the [[Soviet Union]]. This area is now known as the [[Kaliningrad Oblast]].

==See also==
* [[German World War II strongholds]]
* [[East Prussian Offensive]]
* [[Evacuation of East Prussia]]
*[[Metgethen massacre]]

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist}}

;Bibliography
*[[Antony Beevor|Beevor, Antony]]. ''[[Berlin: The Downfall 1945]]'', [[Penguin Books]], 2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5

==Further reading==
* Galitzky, K.N. ''(commander of 11th Guards Army)'', Fighting for Eastern Prussia, Moscow, 1970.
* Shefov, Nikolai. ''Russian fights'', Lib. Military History, M. 2002 (Russian: ''Bitvy Rossii'' / Nikolai Shefov. Moskva : AST, 2002. SSEES R.XIII.1 SHE (see: [http://www.ssees.ac.uk/nbjan07.htm SSEES Library Recent Acquisitions: January 2007])

{{Commons category|Battle of Königsberg}}

{{coord missing|Russia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Konigsberg}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 in Germany]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Königsberg]]
[[Category:Urban warfare]]

History of the Soviet Union

2014-12-22T13:28:27Z

Muta112: /* 1982–1991 */

{{Soviet Union sidebar}}
The '''"History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union"''' reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. Though the terms "[[Soviet Russia#Early years (1917–1920)|Soviet Russia]]" and "[[Soviet Union]]" are synonymous in everyday vocabulary, when we talk about the foundations of the Soviet Union, "Soviet Russia" refers to the few years after the [[October Revolution]] of 1917, but before the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.

==1917–1927==
{{main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27)}}

Early in its conception, the Soviet Union strived to achieve harmony among all peoples of all countries. The original ideology of the state was primarily based on the works of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]. In its essence, Marx's theory stated that economic and political systems went through an inevitable evolution in form, by which the current [[Capitalism|capitalist system]] would be replaced by a [[Socialist state]] before achieving international cooperation and peace in a "Workers' Paradise," creating a system directed by, what Marx called, [[Pure communism|"Pure Communism."]]

Displeased by the relatively few changes made by the Tsar after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], Russia became a hotbed of [[anarchism]], [[socialism]] and other radical political systems. The dominant socialist party, the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] (RSDLP), subscribed to Marxist ideology. Starting in 1903 a series of splits in the party between two main leaders was escalating: the [[Bolsheviks]] (meaning "majority") led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the [[Mensheviks]] (meaning minority) led by [[Julius Martov]]. Up until 1912, both groups continued to stay united under the name "RSDLP," but significant differences between Lenin and Martov thought split the party for its final time. The need of political dominance began between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. Not only did these groups fight with each other, but also had common enemies, notably, those trying to bring the Tsar back to power. Following the [[February Revolution]], the Mensheviks gained control of Russia and established a provisional government, but this lasted only a few months until the Bolsheviks took power in the [[October Revolution]], also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution.

Under the control of the party, all politics and attitudes that were not strictly RCP were suppressed, under the premise that the RCP represented the [[proletariat]] and all activities contrary to the party's beliefs were "counterrevolutionary" or "anti-socialist." During the years of 1917 to 1923, the Soviet Union achieved peace with the Central Powers, their enemies in [[World War I]], but also fought the [[Russian Civil War]] against the [[White Army]] and foreign armies from [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], among others. This resulted in large territorial changes, albeit temporarily for some of these. Eventually crushing all opponents, the RCP spread Soviet style rule quickly and established itself through all of Russia. Following Lenin's death in 1924, [[Joseph Stalin]], General Secretary of the RCP, became Lenin's successor and continued as leader of the Soviet Union into the 1950s.

==1927–1953==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)}}

The History of the [[Soviet Union]] between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the [[Second World War]] victory against Germany, as the USSR was under the firm control of [[Joseph Stalin]]. He sought to destroy his enemies while transforming Soviet society with aggressive economic planning, in particular a sweeping [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of agriculture]] and rapid [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|development of heavy industry]]. Power within the party and the state was established and maintained by exploiting [[Stalin's cult of personality]]. [[Soviet secret police]] and the [[mass mobilization]] Communist party were Stalin's major tools in molding the [[Soviet society]]. Stalin's brutal methods in achieving his goals, which included [[Great Purge|party purges]], [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repression of general population]], and forced collectivization have led to millions of deaths, in [[Gulag]] [[labor camp]]s and during the [[Holodomor|man-made famine]].

World War II, known as "The [[Great Patriotic War]]" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR with about [[World War II casualties|one out of every three World War II deaths being a citizen of the Soviet Union]]. After World War II, the Soviet Union's armies occupied [[Eastern Europe]], where Socialist governments took power. By 1949, the [[Cold War]] started between the [[Western Bloc]] and the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern (Soviet) Bloc]], with [[Warsaw Pact]] pitched against the [[NATO]] in Europe. After 1945, Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his absolute rule until his death.

==1953–1964==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–64)}}

In the USSR, the eleven-year period from the death of [[Joseph Stalin]] (1953) to the political ouster of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1964), the national politics were dominated by the [[Cold War]]; the ideological [[United States|U.S.]]–[[Soviet Union|USSR]] struggle for the [[Power (philosophy)|planetary domination]] of their respective socio–economic systems, and the defense of [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Nonetheless, since the mid-1950s, despite the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) having disowned [[Stalinism]], the political culture of Stalinism — an omnipotent [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]], anti-[[Trotskyism]], a [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|five-year]] [[planned economy]] (post-[[New Economic Policy]]), and repudiation of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] secret protocols — remained the character of Soviet society until the accession of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as leader of the CPSU in 1985.

==1964–1982==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–82)}}

The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era, covers the period of [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR). This period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never fully carried out.

[[Nikita Khrushchev]] was ousted as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|First Secretary]] of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), as well as [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], on 14 October 1964 due to his failed reforms and disregard for Party and Government institutions. Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as First Secretary and [[Alexei Kosygin]] replaced him as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. [[Anastas Mikoyan]], and later [[Nikolai Podgorny]], became [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairmen]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]]. Together with [[Andrei Kirilenko (politician)|Andrei Kirilenko]] as organisational secretary, and [[Mikhail Suslov]] as Chief Ideologue, they made up a reinvigorated [[collective leadership]], which contrasted in form with the [[autocracy]] that characterized Khrushchev's rule.

The collective leadership first set out to stabilize the Soviet Union and calm [[Soviet society]], a task which they were able to accomplish. In addition, they attempted to speed up economic growth, which had slowed considerably during Khrushchev's last years as ruler. In 1965 Kosygin initiated several reforms to decentralize the [[Soviet economy]]. After initial success in creating economic growth, hard-liners within the Party halted the reforms, fearing that they would weaken the Party's prestige and power. No other radical economic reforms were carried out during the Brezhnev era, and economic growth began to stagnate in the early-to-mid-1970s. By Brezhnev's death in 1982, Soviet economic growth had, according to several historians, nearly come to a standstill.

The stabilization policy brought about after Khrushchev's removal established a ruling [[gerontocracy]], and [[political corruption]] became a normal phenomenon. Brezhnev, however, never initiated any large-scale anti-corruption campaigns. Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a [[superpower]] during Brezhnev's rule. The era ended with [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|Brezhnev's death]] on 10 November 1982.

==1982–1991==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1982–91)}}

The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991, spans the period from [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|death and funeral]] until the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. Due to the years of [[Soviet Armed Forces|Soviet military]] buildup at the expense of domestic development, economic growth stagnated {{Citation needed|reason=please give a reliable source for this assertion.|date=August 2012}}. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the [[Soviet War in Afghanistan|war in Afghanistan]] led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the [[Baltic states|Baltic republics]] and Eastern Europe.<ref>WorldBook online</ref>

Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], created an atmosphere of open criticism of the Soviet government. The dramatic drop of the [[1980s oil glut|price of oil in 1985 and 1986]] profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.<ref name = 'AEI-Gaidar-Grain and Oil'>

{{cite web | last = Gaidar | first = Yegor | authorlink = Yegor Gaidar | title = The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil| work = On the Issues: AEI online | publisher = American Enterprise Institute| date = ****-**-** | url = http://www.aei.org/issue/25991| accessdate = 2009-07-09 }} (Edited version of a speech given November **, **** at the American Enterprise Institute.)
</ref>

[[Nikolai Tikhonov]], the [[List of Premiers of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], was succeeded by [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]], and [[Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)|Vasili Kuznetsov]], the acting [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], was succeeded by [[Andrei Gromyko]], the former [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]].

Several [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]] began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The USSR's trade gap progressively emptied the coffers of the union, leading to eventual bankruptcy. The Soviet Union finally [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapsed]] in 1991 when [[Boris Yeltsin]] seized power in the aftermath of a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|failed coup]] that had attempted to topple [[Perestroika|reform-minded]] Gorbachev.

==See also==
* [[Historiography in the Soviet Union]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.soviethistory.org An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history]

{{Communist Eastern and Central Europe}}
{{Russia topics}}

[[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia| ]]
[[Category:Modern history by country|Soviet Union]]

History of the Soviet Union

2014-12-22T13:27:25Z

Muta112: /* 1927–1953 */ more neutral

{{Soviet Union sidebar}}
The '''"History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union"''' reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. Though the terms "[[Soviet Russia#Early years (1917–1920)|Soviet Russia]]" and "[[Soviet Union]]" are synonymous in everyday vocabulary, when we talk about the foundations of the Soviet Union, "Soviet Russia" refers to the few years after the [[October Revolution]] of 1917, but before the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.

==1917–1927==
{{main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27)}}

Early in its conception, the Soviet Union strived to achieve harmony among all peoples of all countries. The original ideology of the state was primarily based on the works of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]. In its essence, Marx's theory stated that economic and political systems went through an inevitable evolution in form, by which the current [[Capitalism|capitalist system]] would be replaced by a [[Socialist state]] before achieving international cooperation and peace in a "Workers' Paradise," creating a system directed by, what Marx called, [[Pure communism|"Pure Communism."]]

Displeased by the relatively few changes made by the Tsar after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], Russia became a hotbed of [[anarchism]], [[socialism]] and other radical political systems. The dominant socialist party, the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] (RSDLP), subscribed to Marxist ideology. Starting in 1903 a series of splits in the party between two main leaders was escalating: the [[Bolsheviks]] (meaning "majority") led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the [[Mensheviks]] (meaning minority) led by [[Julius Martov]]. Up until 1912, both groups continued to stay united under the name "RSDLP," but significant differences between Lenin and Martov thought split the party for its final time. The need of political dominance began between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. Not only did these groups fight with each other, but also had common enemies, notably, those trying to bring the Tsar back to power. Following the [[February Revolution]], the Mensheviks gained control of Russia and established a provisional government, but this lasted only a few months until the Bolsheviks took power in the [[October Revolution]], also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution.

Under the control of the party, all politics and attitudes that were not strictly RCP were suppressed, under the premise that the RCP represented the [[proletariat]] and all activities contrary to the party's beliefs were "counterrevolutionary" or "anti-socialist." During the years of 1917 to 1923, the Soviet Union achieved peace with the Central Powers, their enemies in [[World War I]], but also fought the [[Russian Civil War]] against the [[White Army]] and foreign armies from [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], among others. This resulted in large territorial changes, albeit temporarily for some of these. Eventually crushing all opponents, the RCP spread Soviet style rule quickly and established itself through all of Russia. Following Lenin's death in 1924, [[Joseph Stalin]], General Secretary of the RCP, became Lenin's successor and continued as leader of the Soviet Union into the 1950s.

==1927–1953==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)}}

The History of the [[Soviet Union]] between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the [[Second World War]] victory against Germany, as the USSR was under the firm control of [[Joseph Stalin]]. He sought to destroy his enemies while transforming Soviet society with aggressive economic planning, in particular a sweeping [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of agriculture]] and rapid [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|development of heavy industry]]. Power within the party and the state was established and maintained by exploiting [[Stalin's cult of personality]]. [[Soviet secret police]] and the [[mass mobilization]] Communist party were Stalin's major tools in molding the [[Soviet society]]. Stalin's brutal methods in achieving his goals, which included [[Great Purge|party purges]], [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repression of general population]], and forced collectivization have led to millions of deaths, in [[Gulag]] [[labor camp]]s and during the [[Holodomor|man-made famine]].

World War II, known as "The [[Great Patriotic War]]" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR with about [[World War II casualties|one out of every three World War II deaths being a citizen of the Soviet Union]]. After World War II, the Soviet Union's armies occupied [[Eastern Europe]], where Socialist governments took power. By 1949, the [[Cold War]] started between the [[Western Bloc]] and the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern (Soviet) Bloc]], with [[Warsaw Pact]] pitched against the [[NATO]] in Europe. After 1945, Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his absolute rule until his death.

==1953–1964==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–64)}}

In the USSR, the eleven-year period from the death of [[Joseph Stalin]] (1953) to the political ouster of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1964), the national politics were dominated by the [[Cold War]]; the ideological [[United States|U.S.]]–[[Soviet Union|USSR]] struggle for the [[Power (philosophy)|planetary domination]] of their respective socio–economic systems, and the defense of [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Nonetheless, since the mid-1950s, despite the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) having disowned [[Stalinism]], the political culture of Stalinism — an omnipotent [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]], anti-[[Trotskyism]], a [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|five-year]] [[planned economy]] (post-[[New Economic Policy]]), and repudiation of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] secret protocols — remained the character of Soviet society until the accession of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as leader of the CPSU in 1985.

==1964–1982==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–82)}}

The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era, covers the period of [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR). This period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never fully carried out.

[[Nikita Khrushchev]] was ousted as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|First Secretary]] of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), as well as [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], on 14 October 1964 due to his failed reforms and disregard for Party and Government institutions. Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as First Secretary and [[Alexei Kosygin]] replaced him as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. [[Anastas Mikoyan]], and later [[Nikolai Podgorny]], became [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairmen]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]]. Together with [[Andrei Kirilenko (politician)|Andrei Kirilenko]] as organisational secretary, and [[Mikhail Suslov]] as Chief Ideologue, they made up a reinvigorated [[collective leadership]], which contrasted in form with the [[autocracy]] that characterized Khrushchev's rule.

The collective leadership first set out to stabilize the Soviet Union and calm [[Soviet society]], a task which they were able to accomplish. In addition, they attempted to speed up economic growth, which had slowed considerably during Khrushchev's last years as ruler. In 1965 Kosygin initiated several reforms to decentralize the [[Soviet economy]]. After initial success in creating economic growth, hard-liners within the Party halted the reforms, fearing that they would weaken the Party's prestige and power. No other radical economic reforms were carried out during the Brezhnev era, and economic growth began to stagnate in the early-to-mid-1970s. By Brezhnev's death in 1982, Soviet economic growth had, according to several historians, nearly come to a standstill.

The stabilization policy brought about after Khrushchev's removal established a ruling [[gerontocracy]], and [[political corruption]] became a normal phenomenon. Brezhnev, however, never initiated any large-scale anti-corruption campaigns. Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a [[superpower]] during Brezhnev's rule. The era ended with [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|Brezhnev's death]] on 10 November 1982.

==1982–1991==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1982–91)}}

The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991, spans the period from [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|death and funeral]] until the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. Due to the years of [[Soviet Armed Forces|Soviet military]] buildup at the expense of domestic development, economic growth stagnated {{Citation needed|reason=please give a reliable source for this assertion.|date=August 2012}}. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the [[Soviet War in Afghanistan|war in Afghanistan]] led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the [[Baltic states|Baltic republics]] and Eastern Europe.<ref>WorldBook online</ref>

Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], created an atmosphere of open criticism of the [[communist regime]]. The dramatic drop of the [[1980s oil glut|price of oil in 1985 and 1986]] profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.<ref name = 'AEI-Gaidar-Grain and Oil'>

{{cite web | last = Gaidar | first = Yegor | authorlink = Yegor Gaidar | title = The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil| work = On the Issues: AEI online | publisher = American Enterprise Institute| date = ****-**-** | url = http://www.aei.org/issue/25991| accessdate = 2009-07-09 }} (Edited version of a speech given November **, **** at the American Enterprise Institute.)
</ref>

[[Nikolai Tikhonov]], the [[List of Premiers of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], was succeeded by [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]], and [[Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)|Vasili Kuznetsov]], the acting [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], was succeeded by [[Andrei Gromyko]], the former [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]].

Several [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]] began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The USSR's trade gap progressively emptied the coffers of the union, leading to eventual bankruptcy. The Soviet Union finally [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapsed]] in 1991 when [[Boris Yeltsin]] seized power in the aftermath of a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|failed coup]] that had attempted to topple [[Perestroika|reform-minded]] Gorbachev.

==See also==
* [[Historiography in the Soviet Union]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.soviethistory.org An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history]

{{Communist Eastern and Central Europe}}
{{Russia topics}}

[[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia| ]]
[[Category:Modern history by country|Soviet Union]]

History of the Soviet Union

2014-12-22T13:23:56Z

Muta112: /* 1917–1927 */ removed three last edits of IP - POV, no sources

{{Soviet Union sidebar}}
The '''"History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union"''' reflects a period of change for both Russia and the world. Though the terms "[[Soviet Russia#Early years (1917–1920)|Soviet Russia]]" and "[[Soviet Union]]" are synonymous in everyday vocabulary, when we talk about the foundations of the Soviet Union, "Soviet Russia" refers to the few years after the [[October Revolution]] of 1917, but before the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.

==1917–1927==
{{main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–27)}}

Early in its conception, the Soviet Union strived to achieve harmony among all peoples of all countries. The original ideology of the state was primarily based on the works of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]]. In its essence, Marx's theory stated that economic and political systems went through an inevitable evolution in form, by which the current [[Capitalism|capitalist system]] would be replaced by a [[Socialist state]] before achieving international cooperation and peace in a "Workers' Paradise," creating a system directed by, what Marx called, [[Pure communism|"Pure Communism."]]

Displeased by the relatively few changes made by the Tsar after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], Russia became a hotbed of [[anarchism]], [[socialism]] and other radical political systems. The dominant socialist party, the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] (RSDLP), subscribed to Marxist ideology. Starting in 1903 a series of splits in the party between two main leaders was escalating: the [[Bolsheviks]] (meaning "majority") led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], and the [[Mensheviks]] (meaning minority) led by [[Julius Martov]]. Up until 1912, both groups continued to stay united under the name "RSDLP," but significant differences between Lenin and Martov thought split the party for its final time. The need of political dominance began between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. Not only did these groups fight with each other, but also had common enemies, notably, those trying to bring the Tsar back to power. Following the [[February Revolution]], the Mensheviks gained control of Russia and established a provisional government, but this lasted only a few months until the Bolsheviks took power in the [[October Revolution]], also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution.

Under the control of the party, all politics and attitudes that were not strictly RCP were suppressed, under the premise that the RCP represented the [[proletariat]] and all activities contrary to the party's beliefs were "counterrevolutionary" or "anti-socialist." During the years of 1917 to 1923, the Soviet Union achieved peace with the Central Powers, their enemies in [[World War I]], but also fought the [[Russian Civil War]] against the [[White Army]] and foreign armies from [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], among others. This resulted in large territorial changes, albeit temporarily for some of these. Eventually crushing all opponents, the RCP spread Soviet style rule quickly and established itself through all of Russia. Following Lenin's death in 1924, [[Joseph Stalin]], General Secretary of the RCP, became Lenin's successor and continued as leader of the Soviet Union into the 1950s.

==1927–1953==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–53)}}

The History of the [[Soviet Union]] between 1927 and 1953 covers the period of the [[Second World War]] victory against Germany, as the USSR was under the firm control of [[Joseph Stalin]]. He sought to destroy his enemies while transforming Soviet society with aggressive economic planning, in particular a sweeping [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivization of agriculture]] and rapid [[Industrialization in the Soviet Union|development of heavy industry]]. Power within the party and the state was established and maintained by exploiting [[Stalin's cult of personality]]. [[Soviet secret police]] and the [[mass mobilization]] Communist party were Stalin's major tools in molding the [[Soviet society]]. Stalin's brutal methods in achieving his goals, which included [[Great Purge|party purges]], [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repression of general population]], and forced collectivization have led to millions of deaths, in [[Gulag]] [[labor camp]]s and during the [[Holodomor|man-made famine]].

World War II, known as "The [[Great Patriotic War]]" in the Soviet Union, devastated much of the USSR with about [[World War II casualties|one out of every three World War II deaths being a citizen of the Soviet Union]]. After World War II, the Soviet Union's armies occupied [[Eastern Europe]], where they put puppet Communist regimes in power. By 1949, the [[Cold War]] started between the [[Western Bloc]] and the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern (Soviet) Bloc]], with [[Warsaw Pact]] pitched against the [[NATO]] in Europe. After 1945, Stalin did not directly engage in any wars. Stalin continued his absolute rule until his death.

==1953–1964==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–64)}}

In the USSR, the eleven-year period from the death of [[Joseph Stalin]] (1953) to the political ouster of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1964), the national politics were dominated by the [[Cold War]]; the ideological [[United States|U.S.]]–[[Soviet Union|USSR]] struggle for the [[Power (philosophy)|planetary domination]] of their respective socio–economic systems, and the defense of [[Hegemony|hegemonic]] [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Nonetheless, since the mid-1950s, despite the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) having disowned [[Stalinism]], the political culture of Stalinism — an omnipotent [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]], anti-[[Trotskyism]], a [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|five-year]] [[planned economy]] (post-[[New Economic Policy]]), and repudiation of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] secret protocols — remained the character of Soviet society until the accession of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as leader of the CPSU in 1985.

==1964–1982==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–82)}}

The history of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982, referred to as the Brezhnev Era, covers the period of [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s rule of the [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR). This period began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity, but ended with a much weaker Soviet Union facing social, political, and economic stagnation. The average annual income stagnated, because needed economic reforms were never fully carried out.

[[Nikita Khrushchev]] was ousted as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|First Secretary]] of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), as well as [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], on 14 October 1964 due to his failed reforms and disregard for Party and Government institutions. Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as First Secretary and [[Alexei Kosygin]] replaced him as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. [[Anastas Mikoyan]], and later [[Nikolai Podgorny]], became [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairmen]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]]. Together with [[Andrei Kirilenko (politician)|Andrei Kirilenko]] as organisational secretary, and [[Mikhail Suslov]] as Chief Ideologue, they made up a reinvigorated [[collective leadership]], which contrasted in form with the [[autocracy]] that characterized Khrushchev's rule.

The collective leadership first set out to stabilize the Soviet Union and calm [[Soviet society]], a task which they were able to accomplish. In addition, they attempted to speed up economic growth, which had slowed considerably during Khrushchev's last years as ruler. In 1965 Kosygin initiated several reforms to decentralize the [[Soviet economy]]. After initial success in creating economic growth, hard-liners within the Party halted the reforms, fearing that they would weaken the Party's prestige and power. No other radical economic reforms were carried out during the Brezhnev era, and economic growth began to stagnate in the early-to-mid-1970s. By Brezhnev's death in 1982, Soviet economic growth had, according to several historians, nearly come to a standstill.

The stabilization policy brought about after Khrushchev's removal established a ruling [[gerontocracy]], and [[political corruption]] became a normal phenomenon. Brezhnev, however, never initiated any large-scale anti-corruption campaigns. Due to the large military buildup of the 1960s the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a [[superpower]] during Brezhnev's rule. The era ended with [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|Brezhnev's death]] on 10 November 1982.

==1982–1991==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1982–91)}}

The history of the Soviet Union from 1982 through 1991, spans the period from [[Leonid Brezhnev]]'s [[Death and funeral of Leonid Brezhnev|death and funeral]] until the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. Due to the years of [[Soviet Armed Forces|Soviet military]] buildup at the expense of domestic development, economic growth stagnated {{Citation needed|reason=please give a reliable source for this assertion.|date=August 2012}}. Failed attempts at reform, a standstill economy, and the success of the United States against the Soviet Union's forces in the [[Soviet War in Afghanistan|war in Afghanistan]] led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the [[Baltic states|Baltic republics]] and Eastern Europe.<ref>WorldBook online</ref>

Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], created an atmosphere of open criticism of the [[communist regime]]. The dramatic drop of the [[1980s oil glut|price of oil in 1985 and 1986]] profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.<ref name = 'AEI-Gaidar-Grain and Oil'>

{{cite web | last = Gaidar | first = Yegor | authorlink = Yegor Gaidar | title = The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil| work = On the Issues: AEI online | publisher = American Enterprise Institute| date = ****-**-** | url = http://www.aei.org/issue/25991| accessdate = 2009-07-09 }} (Edited version of a speech given November **, **** at the American Enterprise Institute.)
</ref>

[[Nikolai Tikhonov]], the [[List of Premiers of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], was succeeded by [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]], and [[Vasili Kuznetsov (politician)|Vasili Kuznetsov]], the acting [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], was succeeded by [[Andrei Gromyko]], the former [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]].

Several [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]] began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The USSR's trade gap progressively emptied the coffers of the union, leading to eventual bankruptcy. The Soviet Union finally [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapsed]] in 1991 when [[Boris Yeltsin]] seized power in the aftermath of a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|failed coup]] that had attempted to topple [[Perestroika|reform-minded]] Gorbachev.

==See also==
* [[Historiography in the Soviet Union]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.soviethistory.org An on-line archive of primary source materials on Soviet history]

{{Communist Eastern and Central Europe}}
{{Russia topics}}

[[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia| ]]
[[Category:Modern history by country|Soviet Union]]

Vienna offensive

2014-12-22T13:11:35Z

Muta112: Undid revision 639005362 by 108.175.81.168 (talk)

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Vienna Offensive
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Vienna Operations.jpg|260px]]
| date = 2–13 April 1945
| caption =
| place = [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]
| result = Soviet and Bulgarian victory
| combatant1 = {{flag|Nazi Germany|name=Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} [[File:Flag of the Bulgarian Homeland Front.svg|23px|border]] [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Rudolf von Bünau (father)|Rudolf von Bünau]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Wilhelm Bittrich]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Fyodor Tolbukhin]] [[File:Flag of the Bulgarian Homeland Front.svg|23px|border]] [[Vladimir Stoychev]]
| strength1 = One [[army]] (understrength) Local [[irregulars]]
| strength2 = Four armies (full strength) 644,700 Soviets 100,900 Bulgarians 85 divisions and 3 brigades{{sfn|Jukes|2002|p=68}}
| casualties1 = 19,000 killed 47,000 taken prisoner<ref>[http://schule.diefenbach.at/FBA/Wurzer/Teil3.htm#6 schule.diefenbach.at]</ref> 20,000 (Vienna) 5,000 (Surrounding Area) 20% of those casualties were civilians
| casualties2 = 18,000 killed<ref>[http://schule.diefenbach.at/FBA/Wurzer/Teil3.htm#6 schule.diefenbach.at].</ref>{{efn|Site [http://web.archive.org/web/20080505031426/http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter5_10_1.html soldat.ru] lists casualties of 139,815 for the 3rd Ukrainian Front and 9,805 for the 1st Bulgarian Army for the period 16 March to 15 April 1945, but this total includes other operations in Hungary and Czechoslovakia as well as including a longer period of time than the Vienna battle lasted.}}
| campaignbox =
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Hungary 1944-1945}}
}}

The '''Vienna Offensive''' was launched by the Soviet [[3rd Ukrainian Front]] in order to capture [[Vienna]] in
[[Austria]]. The offensive lasted from 2 to 13 April 1945. The city of Vienna was surrounded and under siege for most of the offensive.

==Background==

[[Joseph Stalin]] reached an agreement with the [[Western Allies]] prior to April 1945 concerning the relative postwar political influence of each party in much of Eastern and Central Europe; however, these agreements said virtually nothing about the fate of [[Austria]], then officially considered to be merely the [[Ostmark (Austria)|Ostmark]] area of Greater Germany after the [[Anschluss]]. As a result, the victory of a Soviet offensive toward Austria and the liberation (by the Red Army) of a large part of this country would be very beneficial for subsequent postwar negotiations with the Western Allies.{{sfn|Berzhkov|1987|loc=Chapter 5, Section 2}}

After the failure of [[Operation Frühlingserwachen|Operation ''Spring Awakening'']] (''Unternehmen Frühlingserwachen''), [[Sepp Dietrich]]'s [[6th Panzer Army|6th SS Panzer Army]] retreated in stages to the [[Vienna]] area.{{sfn|Dollinger|Jacobsen|1968|p=199}} The Germans desperately prepared defensive positions in an attempt to guard the city against the rapidly arriving Soviets.

In spring 1945, the advance of Soviet General [[Fyodor Tolbukhin]]'s [[3rd Ukrainian Front]] through western [[Hungary]] gathered momentum on both sides of the Danube.{{sfn|Laffin|1995|p=449}}

On 30 March, the advancing Soviets forced the [[Hron]] River, forced the [[Nitra River]], and after they took [[Sopron]] and [[Nagykanizsa]]; crossed the border between [[Hungary]] and [[Austria]].{{sfn|Dollinger|Jacobsen|1968|p=182}} Tolbukhin was now ready to advance into [[Austria]] and take [[Vienna]].

==The battle==
On 2 April, Vienna Radio denied that the Austrian capital had been declared an [[open city]]. On the same day, Soviet troops approached Vienna from the south after they overran [[Wiener Neustadt]], [[Eisenstadt]], [[Neunkirchen (Austrian district)|Neunkirchen]] and [[Gloggnitz]].{{sfn|Dollinger|Jacobsen|1968|p=182}} [[Baden bei Wien|Baden]] and [[Bratislava]] were overrun on 4 April.

After arriving in the Vienna area, the armies of the Soviet [[3rd Ukrainian Front]] surrounded, besieged, and attacked the city. Involved in this action were the [[Fourth Guards Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 4th Guards Army]], the Soviet [[6th Guards Tank Army]], the [[Soviet 9th Guards Army]], and the [[Soviet 46th Army]]. The "[[Austrian resistance|O-5 Resistance Group]]," Austrians led by [[Carl Szokoll]] wanting to spare Vienna destruction, actively attempted to sabotage the German defenses and to aid the entry of the Red Army.

The only major German force facing the Soviet attackers was the German [[II SS Panzer Corps]] of the [[6th Panzer Army|6th SS Panzer Army]], along with [[ad hoc]] forces made up of garrison and anti-aircraft units. Declared a defensive region, Vienna's defense was commanded by General [[Rudolf von Bünau (father)|Rudolf von Bünau]], with the II SS Panzer Corps units under the command of SS General [[Wilhelm Bittrich]].

The battle for the Austrian capital was characterized in some cases by fierce [[urban combat]], but there were also parts of the city the Soviets advanced into with little opposition. Defending in the [[Prater]] Park was the 6th Panzer Division, along the south side of the city were the 2nd and 3rd SS Panzer Divisions, and in the north was the ''Führer''-Grenadier Division.{{sfn|Gosztony|1978|p=261}} The Soviets assaulted into Vienna's eastern and southern suburbs with the 4th Guards Army and part of the 9th Guards Army. The German defenders kept the Soviets out of the city’s southern suburbs until 7 April. However, after successfully achieving several footholds in the southern suburbs, the Soviets then moved into the western suburbs of the city on 8 April with the 6th Guards Tank Army and the bulk of the 9th Guards Army. The western suburbs were especially important to the Soviets because they included Vienna's main [[railway station]]. The Soviet success in the western suburbs was followed quickly by [[infiltration tactic|infiltration]] of the eastern and northern suburbs later the same day. North of the Danube River, the 46th Army pushed westward through Vienna's northern suburbs. Central Vienna was now cut off from the rest of Austria.

By 9 April, the Soviet troops began to infiltrate the center of the city, but the street fighting continued for several days more. On the night of 11 April, the 4th Guards Army stormed the Danube canals, with the 20th Guards Rifle Corps and 1st Mechanized Corps moving on the ''Reichsbrücke'' Bridge. In a ''[[coup de main]]'' on 13 April, the Danube Flotilla landed troops of the 80th Guards Rifle Division and 7th Guards Airborne Division on both sides of the bridge, cutting demolition cables and securing the bridge.{{efn|Former members of O-5 tell a different story, claiming the bridge guards were actually O-5 members who turned their machine-guns on the Germans when they attempted to destroy the bridge. {{harvnb|Toland|1965|p=354}}. }} However, other important bridges were destroyed. Vienna finally fell when the last defenders in the city surrendered on the same day.{{efn|Descriptions of Soviet actions are from {{harvnb|Ustinov|1982|pp=238–239}}. }} Bittrich's II SS Panzer Corps, however, pulled out to the west on the evening of 13 April to avoid encirclement.{{sfn|Gosztony|1978|p=262}} The same day, the 46th Army took [[Essling]] and the [[Danube Flotilla]] landed naval infantry up the river by [[Klosterneuburg]].

While the street fighting was still intensifying in the southern and western suburbs of Vienna on 8 April, other troops of the [[3rd Ukrainian Front]] by-passed Vienna altogether and advanced on [[Linz]] and [[Graz]].{{sfn|Dollinger|Jacobsen|1968|p=182}}

On the 10th, all but two of the bridges in the city had been destroyed. The [[Floridsdorf]] bridge had been left intact by a [[Fuhrer Order]] dictating that the bridge be held at all costs. [[2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich|Das Reich]] left a dozen artillery pieces including 37mm anti-aircraft guns to hold off enemy attacks. That night, Das Reich, including their three dozen armored vehicles, pulled out of the city for a last time. Vienna had fallen, and the Germans now moved northwest to hold a next defensive line.<ref name="Reynolds">{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Michael|title=Sons of the Reich: II SS Panzer Corps|date=2009|publisher=Pen & Sword Military|location=Barnsley|isbn=978-184884-000-3}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
By 15 April, armies of the Soviet 3rd Ukrainian Front pushed even further into Austria. The completely exhausted remnants of what had been the 6th SS Panzer Army were forced to flee to the area between [[Vienna]] and [[Linz]]. Just behind the retreating Germans were elements of the Soviet 9th Guards Army and the Soviet 46th Army. The 26th Army and 27th Armies advanced towards the area north of [[Graz]] just behind the retreating [[6th Army (Wehrmacht)|6th Army]]. The 57th Army and the [[First Army (Bulgaria)|Bulgarian 1st Army]] advanced towards the area south of Graz (near [[Maribor]]) just behind the retreating [[2nd Panzer Army]]. None of these German armies was in any shape to do more than temporarily stall the advancing Soviet forces.

Some of Vienna's finest buildings lay in ruins after the battle. There was no water, electricity, or gas — and bands of people, both foreigners and Austrians, plundered and assaulted the helpless residents in the absence of a police force. While the Soviet assault forces generally behaved well, the second wave of Soviet troops to arrive in the city were badly disciplined, looting and raping in a several-week orgy of violence that has been compared to the worst aspects of the [[Thirty Years War]].{{sfn|Gosztony|1978|p=263}}

Like Bittrich, General von Bünau left Vienna before it fell to avoid capture by the Soviets. From 16 April until the war's end, he led ''Generalkommando von Bünau'', surrendering to the Americans on [[VE Day]]. von Bünau was held as a [[POW]] until April 1947. Bittrich also surrendered to U.S. forces and was held as a prisoner by the Allies until 1954. Fyodor Tolbukhin went on to command the Soviet Southern Group of Forces and the Transcaucasian Military District prior to his untimely death in 1949, reportedly from heart problems.

Austrian politician [[Karl Renner]] astutely set up a Provisional Government in [[Vienna]] sometime in April with the tacit approval of the victorious Soviet forces,{{sfn|Johnson|1989|pp=135–136}} and declared Austria's secession from the [[Third Reich]].

===Final orders of battle (after the Vienna Offensive)===

====German and German allied forces====
On 30 April, the following [[order of battle]] was recorded by the German Army High Command (''Oberkommando der Wehrmacht'', or [[OKW]]). From 20 April-2 May, OKW moved from [[Zossen]] (near Berlin) to [[Naval Academy Mürwik|Mürwik]] (part of [[Flensburg]] in north [[Germany]], near [[Denmark]]).{{sfn|Dollinger|Jacobsen|1968|p=177}} This order of battle shows what remained "on paper" of the German armies that fought in Hungary and Austria.

*German [[6th Panzer Army|6th SS Panzer Army]] – east of [[Linz]]
**[[117th Jäger Division]] (arriving)
**[[I SS Panzer Corps]]
***[[1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|1st SS Panzer Division]]
***[[12th SS Panzer Division]]<ref name="Reynolds" />
**[[II SS Panzer Corps]]
***[[2nd SS Panzer Division]]
***[[9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen]]<ref name="Reynolds" />
*[[6th Army (Wehrmacht)|German 6th Army]] – north of [[Graz]]
**[[IV SS Panzer Corps]]
***[[3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf]]
***[[5th SS Panzer Division Wiking|5th SS Panzer Division]]
***[[14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Galizien (1st Ukrainian)|14th SS Grenadier Division]]
**[[III Panzer Corps (Germany)|III Panzer Corps]]
***[[1st Mountain Division (Wehrmacht)|1st People's Mountain Infantry Division]]
***[[1st Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|1st Panzer Division]]

*[[2nd Panzer Army|German 2nd Panzer Army]] – south of Graz (near [[Maribor]])
**LXVIII Corps
***[[71st Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|71st Infantry Division]]
***[[13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian)|13th SS Alpine Division]]
***[[118th Jäger Division]]
**XXII Mountain Corps
***297th Infantry Division
***Hungarian [[Szent László Infantry Division]]
**I Cavalry Corps
***[[23rd Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|23rd Panzer Division]]
***4th Cavalry Division
***3rd Cavalry Division
***[[16th SS Panzergrenadier Division Reichsführer-SS|16th SS Panzergrenadier Division]]

====Soviet and Soviet allied forces====
[[File:Vienna-Red-Army-Monument-7091.jpg|thumb|Stalin's order congratulating the units that had participated in the Vienna Offensive is engraved on the Red Army Monument ([[Soviet War Memorial (Vienna)|Heldendenkmal der Roten Armee]]) that was erected by the Soviet occupation authorities later in 1945.]]

The order of battle for the [[3rd Ukrainian Front]] during the same period was:

*[[Fourth Guards Army (Soviet Union)|4th Guards Army]]
**[[20th Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[5th Guards Airborne Division]]
***[[7th Guards Airborne Division]]
***[[80th Guards Rifle Division]]
**[[21st Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[41st Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[62nd Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[66th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[69th Guards Rifle Division]]
**[[31st Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[4th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[34th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[40th Guards Rifle Division]]

*[[6th Guards Tank Army]]
**[[5th Guards Tank Corps]]
**[[9th Guards Mechanized Corps]]

*[[9th Guards Army]]
**[[37th Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[98th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[99th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[103rd Guards Rifle Division]]
**[[38th Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[104th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[105th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[106th Guards Rifle Division]]
**[[39th Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[100th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[107th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[114th Guards Rifle Division]]

*[[26th Army (Soviet Union)|26th Army]]
**[[30th Rifle Corps]]
***[[36th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[68th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[21st Rifle Division]]
**[[104th Rifle Corps]]
***[[74th Rifle Division]]
***[[93rd Rifle Division]]
***[[151st Rifle Division]]
**[[135th Rifle Corps]]
***[[233rd Rifle Division]]
***[[236th Rifle Division]]
[[File:RR5011-0016R.gif|thumb|[[Bank of Russia]] commemorative coin celebrating the 50th anniversary of victory in the Great Patriotic War and the capturing of Vienna]]
*[[27th Army (Soviet Union)|27th Army]]
**[[35th Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[Guards Airborne Division]]
***[[163rd Rifle Division]]
***[[202nd Rifle Division]]
**[[33rd Rifle Corps]]
***[[78th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|78th Rifle Division]]
***[[155th Rifle Division]]
***[[206th Rifle Division]]
***[[337th Rifle Division]]
**[[37th Rifle Corps]]
***[[108th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[316th Rifle Division]]
***[[320th Rifle Division]]

*[[57th Army (Soviet Union)|57th Army]]
**[[6th Guards Rifle Corps]]
***[[10th Guards Airborne Division]]
***[[20th Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[61st Guards Rifle Division]]
**[[64th Rifle Corps]]
***[[73rd Guards Rifle Division]]
***[[113th Rifle Division]]
***[[299th Rifle Division]]
**[[133rd Rifle Corps]]
***[[84th Rifle Division]]
***[[104th Rifle Division]]
***[[122nd Rifle Division]]

*[[17th Air Army]]
*[[5th Guards Cavalry Corps]]

*[[Soviet 1st Guards Mechanized Corps|1st Guards Mechanized Corps]]
*[[18th Tank Corps]]
*[[2nd Breakthrough Artillery Corps]]
**[[9th Breakthrough Artillery Division]]
**[[19th Breakthrough Artillery Division]]
**[[7th Breakthrough Artillery Division]]
*[[3rd Anti-aircraft Artillery Division]]
*[[4th Anti-aircraft Artillery Division]]
*[[9th Anti-aircraft Artillery Division]]
*[[22nd Anti-aircraft Artillery Division]]

*[[First Army (Bulgaria)|1st Bulgarian Army]]
**III Corps
***10th Infantry Division
***12th Infantry Division
***16th Infantry Division
**IV Corps
***3rd Infantry Division
***8th Infantry Division
***11th Infantry Division
**6th Infantry Division

==See also==
* [[Battle of Berlin]]
*[[Bombing of Vienna in World War II]]
*[[Eastern Front (World War II)]]
*[[History of Germany during World War II]]
*[[Battle of Budapest]] – 1944/45
*[[Operation Frühlingserwachen]] – 1945
*[[Battle of the Transdanubian Hills]] – 1945
*[[Nagykanizsa–Körmend Offensive]] – 1945
*[[Prague Offensive]] – 1945
*Soviet [[3rd Ukrainian Front]]
*German [[6th Panzer Army|6th SS Panzer Army]]
*[[End of World War II in Europe]]
*[[Siege of Vienna]] (1529)
*[[Battle of Vienna]] (1683)

==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book | last = Berzhkov | first = Velentin Mikhailovic | title = Страницы дипломатической истории | trans_title = The History of Diplomacy | year = 1987 | publisher = Международные отношения | location = Moskva | url = http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/berezhkov_vm2/04.html | isbn = | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Laffin | first = John | title = Brassey's Dictionary of Battles | year = 1995 | publisher = Barnes and Noble | location = New York | isbn = 0-7607-0767-7 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Dollinger | first1 = Hans | last2 = Jacobsen | first2 = Hans Adolf | title = The Decline and Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan | year = 1968 | publisher = Crown | location = New York | isbn = | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Gosztony | first = Peter | title = Endkampf an der Donau 1944/45 | year = 1978 | publisher = Molden Taschenbuch Verlag | location = Wien | language = German | isbn = 3-217-05126-2 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Johnson | first = Lonnie | title = Introducing Austria | year = 1989 | publisher = Ariadne Press | location = Riverside | isbn = 978-0-929497-03-7 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Jukes | first = Geoffrey | title = The Second World War (5): The Eastern Front 1941–1945 | publisher = Osprey Publishing | year = 2002 | isbn = 1-84176-391-8 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Ustinov | first = D. F. | title = Geschichte des Zweiten Welt Krieges | language = German | volume = 10 | year = 1982 | publisher = Militärverlag der DDR | location = Berlin | isbn = | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book | last = Toland | first = John | authorlink = John Toland | title = The Last 100 Days | year = 1965 | publisher = Random House | location = New York | isbn = | ref = harv}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite web | last = Glantz | first = David | authorlink = David Glantz | title = The Soviet‐German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay | date = 11 October 2001 | work = | publisher = Clemson University | format = PDF | url = http://sti.clemson.edu/publications-mainmenu-38/publications-library/cat_view/33-strom-thurmond-institute/153-sti-publications-by-subject-area/158-history}}

{{World War II}}

{{coord missing|Austria}}

[[Category:World War II aerial operations and battles of the Eastern Front]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles involving Hungary]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:Urban warfare]]
[[Category:Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II]]
[[Category:Austria in World War II]]
[[Category:History of Vienna]]
[[Category:1945 in Austria]]
[[Category:Austria–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Bulgaria]]
[[Category:20th century in Vienna]]

Battle of Bautzen (1945)

2014-09-21T11:14:34Z

Muta112: Undid revision 626347523 by 80.61.189.47 (talk) communism has never been achieved

{{Dablink|For the battle of the Napoleonic Wars see [[Battle of Bautzen]]}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Bautzen (1945)
|image=[[File:GedenksteinBautzen.jpg|220px|alt=Memorial in Bautzen]]
|caption=Memorial in [[Bautzen]] to Polish and Soviet civilians murdered near the town of Wuitschke.
|partof=[[World War II]]
|place=[[Bautzen]], Germany and surrounding rural areas
|date=21–30 April 1945
|result=contradictory statements Polish-Soviet victory<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/> local German victory<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003"/><ref name=Eberhardt/>
|combatant1={{flag|Nazi Germany}}
|combatant2={{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} {{flag|Poland}}
|commander1={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Ferdinand Schörner]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Wilhelm Schmalz]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hermann von Oppeln-Bronikowski]]
| units1 = [[4th Panzer Army]] (elements) and [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th]] Army (elements)
| units2 =[[Polish Second Army]] [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 52nd Army]] (elements) [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 5th Guards Army]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Yefimovich Petrov|Ivan Petrov]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} Vladimir Kostylev {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Karol Świerczewski]]
|strength1=50,000 300 tanks<ref name=zw/> 620 artillery pieces
|strength2=Polish Army: 90,000<ref name=zw/> 500 tanks<ref name=zw/> Soviet Army: at least 20,000
|casualties1=6,500 casualties according to contemporary Polish sources. Considered inflated by modern historians.<ref name=zw/>
|casualties2=Poland: 4,902 killed<ref name=zw/> 2,798 missing<ref name=zw/> 10,532 wounded<ref name=zw/> 250 tanks<ref name=zw/> Soviet Union: unknown
|}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Battle of Berlin}}
{{Location map many | Germany 1937
|float = right
|caption = <center>Location of the Battle of Bautzen</center>
|label='''Battle of Bautzen'''
|label_size=86
|position=right
|bg=white
|lat_deg=51 | lat_min= 11
|lon_deg=14 | lon_min= 25
|mark=Battle_icon_active_(crossed_swords).svg
|marksize=18
|label2=Königsberg
|pos2=left
|bg2=white
|lat2_deg=54 | lat2_min= 43
|lon2_deg=20 | lon2_min= 31
|mark2=Yellow pog.svg
|mark2size = 5
|label3=Warsaw
|pos3=left
|bg3=white
|lat3_deg=52 | lat3_min= 14
|lon3_deg=21 | lon3_min= 00
|mark3=Yellow pog.svg
|mark3size = 5
|label4=Berlin
|pos4=left
|bg4=white
|lat4_deg=52 | lat4_min= 30
|lon4_deg=13 | lon4_min= 24
|mark4=Yellow pog.svg
|mark4size = 5
}}
The '''Battle of Bautzen''' (or '''Battle of Budziszyn''', April 1945) was one of the last battles of the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] during [[World War II]]. It was fought on the extreme southern flank of the [[Battle of the Oder–Neisse#Spremberg-Torgau Offensive|Spremberg-Torgau Offensive]], seeing days of pitched street fighting between forces of the [[Polish Second Army]] and elements of the Soviet [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|52nd Army]] and [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|5th Guards Army]]{{Ref label|a|a|none}} on one side and elements of German [[Army Group Center]] in the form of the remnants of the [[4th Panzer Army|4th Panzer]] and [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th]] Armies on the other.

The battle took place during [[Ivan Konev]]'s [[1st Ukrainian Front]]'s push toward Berlin, which was part of the larger Soviet [[Battle of Berlin|Berlin Offensive]]. The battle was fought in the town of [[Bautzen]] ({{lang-pl|Budziszyn}}) and the rural areas to the northeast situated primarily along the Bautzen–[[Niesky]] line. Major combat began on 21 April 1945 and continued until 26 April although isolated engagements continued to take place until 30 April. The Polish Second Army under [[Karol Świerczewski]] suffered heavy losses, but with the aid of Soviet reinforcements prevented the German forces from breaking through to their rear. According to one historian{{Who|date=April 2013}} the Battle of Bautzen was one of the [[Polish Army]]'s bloodiest battles.

After the battle both sides claimed victory and modern views as to who won the battle remain contradictory. Because the war was almost over and the battle had no strategic impact on the ongoing Battle of Berlin, German historiography has focused more on its tactical aspects. The German operation successfully recaptured Bautzen and its surroundings, which were held until the end of the war. Polish historiography during the [[People's Republic of Poland]] portrayed the battle as difficult, but victorious. After the year 1989, Polish historians became much more critical of Świerczewski's command, blaming the near destruction of the Polish force on his incompetence and desire to capture [[Dresden]]. The battle's outcome is now generally seen in Poland as a very costly victory for the Soviets and their Polish allies.
==Background==
In the last months of World War II the Polish Second Army, under General Karol Świerczewski, took part in the Soviet drive on Berlin.<ref name="Komornicki1967-122"/> Part of Marshal Ivan Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front, the Poles operated in the centre of the front, flanked on the right by the 5th Guards Army and on the left by the [[7th Mechanized Corps]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/> Opposing these forces was the [[4th Panzer Army]] under General [[Fritz-Hubert Gräser]], of Field Marshal [[Ferdinand Schörner]]'s [[Army Group Center]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-122"/>

On 17 April, the Polish Second Army breached German defenses on the rivers [[Weißer Schöps|Weisser Schöps]]<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/> and [[Neisse]]. Their pursuit of retreating German forces toward [[Dresden]] threatened to cut off additional forces in the [[Muskau Park|Muskauer Forst]] region.<ref name="Komornicki1967-128"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> On 18 and 19 April elements of the Second Army (the 8th Infantry Division and [[1st Armoured Corps (Poland)|1st Armored Corps]]) engaged the Germans in the south and pushed them back while the remaining units (5th, 7th, 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions) drove on to Dresden, gaining bridgeheads on the river [[Spree]] north of Bautzen and destroying German forces in the Muskauer Forst.<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> The following day Soviet units of the 7th Mechanized Corps captured parts of Bautzen and secured the line south of [[Niesky]], taking [[Weißenberg]] and trapping several German formations.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name=Ahlfen207208/>

Świerczewski decided to prioritize the taking of Dresden over securing his southern flank, deviating from the plan he was given by Konev.<ref name=zw/> Meanwhile Schörner was concentrating his units (the "Görlitz Group") in the [[Görlitz]] (Zgorzelec) and [[Reichenbach (Oberlausitz)|Reichenbach]] region, and planned to launch a counteroffensive at the southern flank of the Polish Army. His aim was to stop the 1st Front's advance and break through to Berlin to relieve the trapped [[9th Army (Wehrmacht)|9th Army]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Germans were pinning their hopes on the idea that the Soviets might be fended off long enough for the city to be surrendered to the Western Allies.<ref name="Bahm2001"/> The concentration of Schörner's units went unnoticed by Soviet and Polish reconnaissance.<ref name=zw/>

==Prelude==

===Opposing forces===
German forces were composed of elements of the 4th Panzer Army and commanded by the headquarters for the ''Grossdeutschland'' and 57th Armored Corps. For the battle, the Germans had two armored divisions (the [[20th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|20th]] and ''[[Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring|Hermann Göring]]'' Divisions), two mechanized divisions (the ''[[Panzergrenadier Division Brandenburg|Brandenburg]]'' and ''[[Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier Division 2 Hermann Göring|Hermann Göring 2]]'' Divisions), an infantry division (the [[17th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|17th]]) as well as an infantry division battle group (the remnants of the 545th Volksgrenadier Division). This force counted some 50,000 soldiers, 300 tanks, and 600 guns.<ref name=Grzelak272/> The supply train of the [[10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg|10th SS Armored Division]] was also present near Bautzen.<ref name=LexikonWehrmacht/>{{Ref label|b|b|none}}

The Polish Second Army consisted of five infantry divisions: ([[Polish 5th Infantry Division|5th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 7th Infantry Division|7th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 8th Infantry Division|8th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 9th Infantry Division|9th Infantry Division]] and [[Polish 10th Infantry Division|10th Infantry Division]], the 1st Armored Corps, and smaller units), about 84,000–90,000 men, and 500 tanks.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Many of them were new recruits inexperienced in combat, incorporated from the recently retaken Polish territories.<ref name=zw/> The quality of the officer corps has also been questioned.<ref name=zw/> One of the major problems facing the People's Army was lack of a qualified cadre; a 1944 estimate showed that the army had one officer for each 1,200 soldiers.<ref name="Michta1990"/> Many of the officers in the Polish Army were Soviet officers of Polish descent.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/>

Overall, the German units were less numerous than the Polish forces, their equipment worn and supplies inferior. Polish sources describe the Germans as more experienced, however the German sources accentuate their mixed structure of experienced soldiers and inexperienced recruits of [[Hitlerjugend]] and [[Volkssturm]] units.<ref name=zw/><ref name=Eberhardt/>

==Battle==
[[File:Battle of Berlin 1945-a.png|thumb|Berlin operation|alt=Berlin operation]]
[[File:Battle of Berlin 1945-b.png|thumb|Berlin operation|alt=Berlin operation]]
[[File:Battle of Bautzen 1945-a.png|thumb|Map of the Battle of Bautzen (1)|alt=Map of the Battle of Bautzen (1)]]
[[File:Battle of Bautzen 1945-b.png|thumb|Map of the Battle of Bautzen (2)|alt=Map of the Battle of Bautzen (2)]]

===Drive on Dresden===
On 21 April, a gap had formed between the Polish infantry units (8th and 9th Infantry Divisions) and the 1st Armored Corps pushing towards Dresden, and the Polish units which were securing the Muskauer Forst region.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The 7th and 10th Infantry Divisions were engaged near Neisse and the 5th Infantry Division and the 16th Tank Brigade were in transit in between those two groups.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The Polish units were stretched over a line of {{convert|50|km|sp=us}}.<ref name=zw/> The Germans took the opportunity presented to them and pushed into this gap.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The events of 21 April marked the beginning of this battle.<ref name="zw"/> In the west 20th Panzer Division commenced its drive on Bautzen, while in the east 17th Infantry Division advanced on Niesky and Weißenberg, freeing a number of trapped German troops on its way.<ref name=Ahlfen208/> The Germans drove in between the Polish Second Army and the [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 52nd Army]] around Bautzen, some {{convert|40|km|sp=us}} north-east of Dresden and {{convert|25|km|sp=us}} west of Görlitz, sweeping the Soviet units of the [[48th Rifle Corps]], and driving towards [[Spremberg]].<ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> Major General [[M. K. Puteiko]], commander of the 52nd Army's [[254 Rifle Division]] of the [[73rd Rifle Corps]] was mortally wounded around Bautzen.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998"/> At first, Polish general Świerczewski continued with his attempt to take Dresden, which contributed to the growing chaos in the Polish forces, as many communication lines were cut.<ref name=zw/>

The Germans succeeded in linking up with the remnants of their forces in the Muskauer Forst, and throwing the local Polish and Soviet forces into chaos.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The Polish Second Army lost cohesion and split into four groups.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Several units of the Polish Second Army found themselves surrounded.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> In particular, the Polish 5th Infantry Division and 16th Tank Brigade were struck in the rear, suffering severe losses.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The headquarters of the 5th Division, defended only by sapper and training battalions, came under attack.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/> The command group managed to break through to the 16th Tank Brigade, but that unit itself was almost annihilated at [[Förstgen]] (Forsiegen), losing over 90 percent of its personnel; out of 1,300 soldiers, only about 100 survived.<ref name=zw/> The commanding general of the Polish 5th Infantry Division, [[Aleksander Waszkiewicz]], was killed.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/> In the village of Niederkaina, today a part of Bautzen, between 196 and 300 captured German members of the Volkssturm were locked in a barn which was set on fire by retreating Polish or Soviet troops.<ref name="Eberhardt"/><ref name=kiS/><ref name=ba/>

By 23 April the German breakthrough reached the [[Schwarzer Schöps]] River in the east, and [[Lohsa]], [[Oppitz]] and [[Grossdubrau]] in the west. The main body of the German forces was located in the forested region around Lohsa.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Germans continued their push toward [[Königswartha]] and [[Hoyerswerda]].<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

===Polish retreat===
Eventually, Świerczewski halted his force's advance on Dresden, and ordered it to pull back and secure the breach.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-132"/> On 22 April he ordered the 1st Armored Corps to change direction, retreat from Dresden and support the centre. The 8th Infantry Division was also recalled; however, the 9th remained near Dresden. For a while Świerczewski was out of communication with his superiors, including Marshal Konev.<ref name="Erickson1999"/> Konev also sent his chief of staff, General [[Ivan Yefimovich Petrov]], and his chief of operations, General [[Vladimir Ivanovich Kostylev]], to look at the situation.<ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> Petrov managed to re-establish communications, and left Kostylev in charge.<ref name="Bahm2001"/> Świerczewski was briefly relieved of his command for incompetence.<ref name="zw"/> To stabilize the situation, Konev ordered eight divisions from the Ukrainian Front to reinforce the Polish positions.<ref name=zw/> [[Soviet 14th Guards Rifle Division|Soviet 14th]] and [[Soviet 95th Guards Rifle Division]]s, as well as the [[4th Guards Kantemirovskaya Tank Division|Soviet 4th Guards Tank Corps]], were ordered to attack toward [[Kamenz]], Königswartha and [[Sdier]] to stop the Germans from advancing further north.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> [[2nd Air Army]] was also assigned to this theater.<ref name="Erickson1999"/>

Meanwhile the German advance to the southeast of Bautzen was successful. The Soviet 294th Rifle Division was encircled at Weißenberg by the ''Brandenburg'' Division.<ref name=Ahlfen208/> In its subsequent breakout on 24 April, large parts of the 294th Division were destroyed. At the same time at Bautzen the 20th Panzer Division was able to make contact with the trapped units in the town from the south. Bronikowski then lost no time and immediately ordered an attack into Bautzen. Coordinating with the trapped troops, he was able to break into the town. A hastily assembled Polish counterattack was not successful and most of Bautzen was then recaptured after several days of bloody [[house-to-house fighting|house-to-house combat]]. Several remaining pockets of resistance in the town were cleared during the next days.<ref name=Ahlfen208209/><ref name=B199942-46/> Outside the town the German advance stalled, as their troops were running low on fuel supplies.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/><ref name=Eberhardt/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> The recapture of Bautzen was one of the last successful German tactical victories on the Eastern Front.<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003"/>

By 25 April Polish units were able to stabilize a defense on the line Kamenz–[[Kuckau]]–north Bautzen–Spree–[[Spreewiese]]–[[Kreba-Neudorf|Heideanger]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> On that day, [[Hitler]] congratulated Schörner on his "victory".<ref name="Mcateer2009"/> The Polish 7th and 10th Infantry Divisions were ordered to advance toward Sdier-Heideanger.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The 7th and 10th Polish Infantry Divisions slowly advanced, with the 10th reaching north of [[Uhyst|Spreefurt]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> With the Soviet units on their right flank they also secured a road to Königswartha.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/>

The 9th Division found itself alone at the spearhead of the abandoned Polish push towards Dresden. It received orders to retreat on 26 April.<ref name=as/> Attempting to withdraw quickly and to form back with the main forces, it was intercepted by the Germans and sustained heavy losses.<ref name=zw/> The units were moving with insufficient security, on the assumption that the line of retreat was safe; at the same time the Germans captured Polish orders with details of their planned withdrawal routes.<ref name=zw/> Coordination between the units was also lacking.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> 26th Infantry Regiment from the 9th Division took very heavy casualties (75 percent) in the "valley of death" around [[Panschwitz-Kuckau]] and [[Crostwitz]].<ref name=zw/> A Polish [[military hospital]] convoy from the same division was ambushed near [[Horka, Saxony|Horka]], with [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|most of its personnel and wounded executed]] (about 300 casualties). There was only one survivor, chaplain Jan Rdzanek.<ref name=zw/><ref name="GrzelakStańczyk1993"/> The division commander, Colonel [[Aleksander Łaski]], was taken captive.<ref name=zw/><ref name=zw/> As a result of these losses, the 9th Division ceased to be an effective force; the remaining personnel were merged into the Soviet [[19th Guards Rifle Division]].<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

According to some sources, 26 April marks the end of this battle, although less severe and isolated clashes in that region continued until 30 April.<ref name=zw/> Other sources note that heavy fighting still took place on 27 April, and that the German advance was only completely halted by 28 April.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> By the end of the month, the Polish Second Army and the Soviet forces had repelled the German attack, forming a line toward Kamenz–[[Doberschütz]]–[[Dauban]], and was preparing to launch an offensive toward [[Prague]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Pomnik żołnierzy polskich Crostwitz.jpg|thumb|upright|Monument to Polish soldiers in [[Crostwitz]]]]
Both sides suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Polish casualties were particularly severe.<ref name=zw/> In a relatively short time the Polish Second Army lost more than 22 percent of its personnel and 57 percent of its tanks and armored vehicles (about 200 total).<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Official estimates claimed about 18,000 casualties (including almost 5,000 dead).<ref name=zw/> Some other estimates give the Polish casualties as up to 25,000.<ref name=zw/> According to Polish historian [[Zbigniew Wawer]], this was the most bloody battle that the [[Polish Army]] had been involved in since the [[battle of Bzura]] in 1939.<ref name=zw/>

German casualties were significant, but smaller than the Polish and Soviet ones; contemporary Polish sources estimated German losses at 6,500 personnel, which is now seen as an inflated estimate.<ref name=zw/> The German forces failed in their objective of breaking through the 1st Ukrainian Front and coming to the aid of Berlin.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-138"/> They managed, however, to inflict very serious casualties on the local Polish and Soviet units and stopped the Polish drive on Dresden (it was still in German hands at the time of the German capitulation on May 9).<ref name=zw/> The successful recapture of Bautzen, Weißenberg and surroundings is called one of the last successful German armored counterattacks of the war. Bautzen and surroundings stayed in German hands until [[German Instrument of Surrender|Germany's capitulation]]. Although the battle had no strategic impact on the battle raging in Berlin, it allowed most of the participating German units as well as numerous refugees from the east to escape to the west, surrendering to the Western Allies.<ref name=zw/><ref name=B199942-46/><ref name=Ahlfen209/>

==Historiography==
[[File:Karol Świerczewski 'Walter'.jpg|thumb|left|220px|General Karol Świerczewski|alt=General Karol Świerczewski]]
Despite the heavy Polish casualties—or according to one historian, possibly because of that very reason—the battle has been largely neglected in Polish [[historiography]].<ref name="zw"/> During the period of the [[People's Republic of Poland]] it was portrayed merely as a difficult but victorious battle.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-138"/> However, since the year 1989 modern Polish historians have been much more critical of Świerczewski's command, blaming his drive on Dresden for the near destruction of the Polish force.<ref name=zw/> Świerczewski's lack of competence, according to some sources, included commanding the battle while drunk.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Piecuch1997"/> He was briefly relieved of command by Marshal Konev,<ref name=zw/> but due to the backing of the Soviet high command (most likely the [[NKVD]]) he not only retained his position but all controversies were hushed up, and after the war was hailed as a hero.<ref name=zw/> The actions of other Polish officers have also been questioned, such as the 9th Infantry Division commander's decision to advance without sufficient reconnaissance and escort.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

In modern Polish historiography the battle's outcome is seen as a victory, if a very costly one, for the Polish and Soviet troops.<ref name=zw/> As noted by historians such as Wawer and Komorowski, despite the heavy casualties, the Polish–Soviet frontline was not seriously breached, and thus the German offensive was a failure.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

==Notes==
'''a''' {{Note label|a|a|none}} Wawer incorrectly identifies this formation as the [[5th Guards Tank Army]], which was near the Baltic coast at the time and subordinated to the 2nd Belorussian Front.<ref name=zw/> Komornicki correctly identifies the formation as the [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|5th Guards Army]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/>

'''b''' {{Note label|b|b|none}} Wawer and Solak assert that the 2nd SS Panzer Division was also present in the battle. This is an incorrect assertion as the 2nd SS Division fought in Hungary and Austria from January 1945 until the end of the war.<ref name=T145/> The 21st Panzer Division has also been mentioned in connection with this battle, but the 21st had already moved north as part of reinforcements provided by the 4th Panzer Army to the 9th Army. By the time the Battle of Bautzen had begun, both the 21st Panzer Division and the 10th SS Panzer Division (minus its supply train) were committed to support the 9th Army and both were encircled in the [[Battle of Halbe|Halbe Pocket]]. The assessments of Polish historian Kormonicki,<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> German general von Ahlfen, and Polish historian Grzelak all support the order of battle not including the 21st and 10th SS Divisions.


==References==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name=Ahlfen207208>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|pages=207–208|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen208>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|page=208|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen208209>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|pages=208–209|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen209>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|page=209|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=ba>{{cite web |url=http://www.bautzen-anzeiger.de/bautzen/gesellschaft/6794_gedenken-an-kriegsgraeuel-von-niederkaina.html |title= Gedenken an Kriegsgräuel von Niederkaina - Bautzner Anzeiger (Remembrance of the wartime atrocities of Niederkaina)|author=Delnja Kina|language= German|accessdate=17 December 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Bahm2001">{{cite book|author=Karl Bahm|title=Berlin 1945: The Final Reckoning|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=26 November 2001|publisher=Zenith Imprint|isbn=978-0-7603-1240-7|page=129}}</ref>

<ref name="Eberhardt">{{Cite book|title=Kriegsschauplatz Sachsen 1945; Die Kämpfe um Bautzen 18. bis 27. April 1945 (Battleground Saxony 1945; The battles around Bautzen 18-27 August)|first1=Eberhardt|last1=Berndt|publisher= |year=1995|isbn=978-3-9804226-2-8|place=Wölfersheim-Berstadt|pages=53–67|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=B199942-46>{{Cite book|title=Die Kämpfe um Weißenberg und Bautzen im April 1945 (The battles around Weißenberg and Bautzen in April 1945)|author=Eberhardt Berndt|publisher=Podzun-Pallas |year=1999|isbn=3-7909-0679-4|pages=42–46|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="Erickson1999">{{cite book|author=John Erickson|title=The road to Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6UaU6ZLqK4UC&pg=PA591|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=10 June 1999|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-07813-8|page=591}}</ref>

<ref name="GrzelakStańczyk1993">{{cite book|author1=Czesław Grzelak|author2=Henryk Stańczyk|author3=Stefan Zwoliński|title=Bez możliwości wyboru: Wojsko Polskie na froncie wschodnim, 1934–1945 (Without Any Choice: Polish Army on the Eastern Front, 1934-1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f1NnAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1993|publisher=Wydawn. Bellona|isbn=978-83-11-08252-6|page=71|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=Grzelak272>{{cite book|author1=Czesław Grzelak|author2=Henryk Stańczyk|author3=Stefan Zwoliński|title=Bez możliwości wyboru: Wojsko Polskie na froncie wschodnim, 1934–1945 (Without Any Choice: Polish Army on the Eastern Front, 1934-1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f1NnAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1993|publisher=Wydawn. Bellona|isbn=978-83-11-08252-6|page=272|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=kiS>{{Cite book|title=Kriegsverbrechen in Sachsen; Die vergessenen Toten von April/Mai 1945 (War crimes in Saxony; The forgotten dead of April/May 1945)|first1=Theodor|last1=Seidel|publisher=University of Leipzig |year=2005|isbn=978-3-86583-052-4|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-122">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the Battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=122}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-123">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=123}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-128">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=128}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-130">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=130}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-131">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=131}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-132">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=132}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-134">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=134}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-138">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=138}}</ref>

<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009">{{cite book|author1=Krzysztof Komorowski|author2=Poland. Wojskowe Biuro Badań Historycznych|title=Boje polskie 1939–1945: przewodnik encyklopedyczny (Polish Battles 1939-1945: Historical Guide)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XX5KcTNWbooC&pg=PA65|accessdate=12 May 2011|year=2009|publisher=Bellona|isbn=978-83-7399-353-2|pages=65–67|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=LexikonWehrmacht>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Gliederungen/PanzerdivisionenSS/10SSPD-R.htm |title= 10. SS Panzer-Division "Frundsberg" - Lexikon der Wehrmacht (Encyclopedia of the Wehrmacht)|author=Andreas Altenburger|language= German|accessdate=17 December 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998">{{cite book|author1=Aleksander A. Maslov|author2=David M. Glantz|title=Fallen Soviet generals: Soviet general officers killed in battle, 1941–1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l5aGjQbzkiYC&pg=PA180|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=30 September 1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-7146-4346-5|page=180}}</ref>

<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182">{{cite book|author1=Aleksander A. Maslov|author2=David M. Glantz|title=Fallen Soviet generals: Soviet general officers killed in battle, 1941–1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=c52tNnBdk7QC&pg=PA182|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=30 September 1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7146-4790-6|page=182}}</ref>

<ref name="Mcateer2009">{{cite book|author=Sean M. Mcateer|title=500 Days: The War in Eastern Europe, 1944–1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Bg8drRyDGhEC&pg=PA395|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=30 January 2009|publisher=Dorrance Publishing|isbn=978-1-4349-6159-4|page=395}}</ref>

<ref name="Michta1990">{{cite book|author=Andrew A. Michta|title=Red Eagle: the army in Polish politics, 1944–1988|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7Ff065RmrAsC&pg=PA40|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=November 1990|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-8861-6|pages=40–41}}</ref>

<ref name="Piecuch1997">{{cite book|author=Henryk Piecuch|title=Imperium służb specjalnych: od Gomułki do Kani (Empire of the Secret Services: from Gomułka to Kania)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vpq1AAAAIAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1997|publisher=Agencja Wydawn. CB|isbn=978-83-86245-16-1|page=35|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003">{{cite book|author1=Gordon Williamson|author2=Stephen Andrew|title=The Hermann Goring Division|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mMc9tLaOGzsC&pg=PA16|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=19 February 2003|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-84176-406-1|page=16}}</ref>

<ref name="as">{{cite web|last=Solak|first=Andrzej|title=Budziszyn 1945 –zapomniana bitwa (Forgotten Battle)|url=http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473|publisher=Myśl Polska, Nr 18-19 (1–8.05.2005)|archivedate=10 May 2011| accessdate=10 May 2011|archiveurl=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20070311005707/http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473|date=May 2005|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=T145>{{cite book|author=Georg Tessin|title=Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS 1939 – 1945 (Units and troops of the German Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS 1939-1945)|volume=II|year=1973|publisher=Biblio Verlag|place=Osnabrück|isbn=3-7648-0871-3|page=145|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="zw">{{cite web|last=Wawer|first=Zbigniew|title=Zapomniana bitwa (Forgotten Battle)|url=http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9205:zapomniana-bitwa&catid=116:historia&Itemid=145|publisher=polska-zbrojna.pl|accessdate=10 May 2011|date=26 August 2010|language=Polish}}</ref>
}}
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=Hans von Ahlfen|year=1977|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|location=Stuttgart|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Eberhard Berndt|chapter=Die Kämpfe um Bautzen 18. bis 27. April 1945|title=Kriegsschauplatz Sachsen 1945. Daten, Fakten, Hintergründe|editor=|location=Altenburg/Leipzig|year=1995}}
* {{cite book|author=Eberhard Berndt|title=Die Kämpfe um Weißenberg und Bautzen im April 1945|publisher=Wölfersheim-Berstadt|year=1999|isbn=3-7909-0679-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Wolfgang Fleischer|year=2004|title=Das Kriegsende in Sachsen 1945|publisher=Dörfler|isbn=978-3-89555-443-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Czesław Grzelak; Henryk Stańczyk; Stefan Zwoliński|year=2002|title=Armia Berlinga i Żymierskiego (Army of Berling and Żymierski)|publisher=Wydawnictwo Neriton|location=Warszawa|isbn=978-83-88973-27-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Kazimierz Kaczmarek|title=Polacy w bitwie pod Budziszynem (Poles in the Battle of Bautzen)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p-ZJAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1970|publisher=Interpress}}

==External links==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20070311005707/http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473 Forgotten battles (Polish)]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20060504060303/http://www.wp39.netlook.pl/str/uzup/map/map8.html Map (Polish)]

{{World War II}}
{{coord missing|Saxony}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Bautzen (1945)}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 in Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving Poland|Bautzen]]
[[Category:Poland–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Bautzen]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany|Bautzen]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]

Battle of Białystok–Minsk

2014-09-21T11:10:04Z

Muta112: /* Consequences */ I have added commentary to the IPN info

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Bialystok-Minsk
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Eastern Front 1941-06 to 1941-09.png|300px]]
| caption = German advances from 22 June to 1 September 1941
| date = 22 June–3 July 1941
| place = Eastern Poland, Belorussia
| territory =
| result = German victory
| combatant1 = {{Flag icon|Germany|Nazi}} [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{Flag icon|Germany|Nazi}} [[Fedor von Bock]]
| commander2 = {{Flag icon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Dmitry Pavlov]]
| strength1 = 750,000
| strength2 = 675,000
| casualties1 = 276 Aircraft Unknown land forces
| casualties2 = 341,073 killed or captured<ref>German accounts give 287,704 [[POW]]: Bergstrom 2007, p. 28: Cites Krivosheyev, ''Grif sekretnosti snyat. Poterivooruzhyonnykh sil SSSR v voynakh, boyevykh deystviyakh i voyennykh konfliktakh'', p. 162.</ref> 76,717 wounded 417,790 overall<ref name=g293/> 4,799 tanks 9,427 guns<ref name=g293>Glantz 1995, p. 293</ref> 1,669 Aircraft<ref>Bergstrom 2007, p. 28: Cites Pshenyanik, ''Sovtskie Voenno-vozdushnye sily v bor'be snemetsko fashistskoy aviatssiey v letne-osenney kampanii 1941'', p. 94.</ref>
| notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Barbarossa}}

The '''Battle of Białystok–Minsk''' was a German strategic operation conducted by the [[Army Group Centre]] during penetration of the Soviet border region during the opening stage of [[Operation Barbarossa]] lasting from 22 June–3 July 1941. Its goal, the encirclement of the [[Red Army]] forces around [[Minsk]], was accomplished. All major Russian counter-attacks and break-through attempts failed and the defenders were defeated, allowing for the [[Wehrmacht]] to take many Soviet prisoners<ref name=mspl>{{cite book|author=Mark Sołonin|authorlink=Mark Solonin|title=22 czerwca 1941 czyli Jak zaczęła się Wielka Wojna ojczyźniana|year=2007|pages=528–529|publisher=Dom Wydawniczy Rebis|location=Poznań, Poland|isbn=978-83-7510-130-0|edition=1|others=Tomasz Lisiecki (trans.)|language=Polish}} (the only English translations of Solonin's works seem to be, as of June 2011, [http://www.solonin.org/en/books these online chapters])</ref> and to further advance into the Soviet Union at a pace so swift that some believed the Germans had effectively won the war against Russia already.

==Prelude==
Commanded by [[Field Marshal]] [[Fedor von Bock]], Army Group Centre was tasked with attacking from Poland through the [[Białystok]] - [[Minsk]] - [[Smolensk]] axis towards [[Moscow]]. The Army Group included the [[9th Army (Wehrmacht)|9th]] and [[4th Army (Wehrmacht)|4th Armies]]. Its armored forces were Hoth's [[3rd Panzer Group]] and Guderian's [[2nd Panzer Group]]. The two infantry Armies fielded 33 divisions and the Panzer Armies fielded nine armored divisions, six motorized divisions and a cavalry division. Army Group Center could call upon ''[[Luftflotte 2]]'' for [[air support]].

Facing Army Group Center was the Red Army's [[Western Front (Soviet Union)|Western Front]] commanded by General of the Army [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Dmitry Pavlov]]. It included the [[3rd Army (Soviet Union)|3rd]], [[4th Army (Soviet Union)|4th]], and [[10th Army (Soviet Union)|10th Armies]] along the frontier. The [[13th Army (Soviet Union)|13th Army]] was held as part of the [[Stavka]] High Command Reserve and initially existed as a headquarters unit only, with no assigned forces. All together, the Soviet Western Front had 25 rifle and cavalry divisions, 13 tank and 7 motorized divisions.

The [[Red Army]] disposition in Belarus was based on the idea of an aggressive response to a German attack, carrying the war into German-occupied Poland, but suffered from weakness along the flanks, created by the line of demarcation placement following the [[Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union|division of Poland]] in 1939. The forward placement of both German and Soviet forces in a double-bulge position enabled both sides to try the [[Pincer movement|double envelopment]]. It was the [[OKH]] that undertook it successfully, severing most of the Soviet Western Front's forces from other Soviet fronts in a twin encirclement, centred on [[Białystok]] and [[Navahrudak]], to the west of [[Minsk]].

==Formations==

===Soviet===
*[[Western Front (Soviet Union)|Western Front]] - Commander Army General [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Pavlov]], Operations Officer General [[I.V. Boldin]]
**[[3rd Army (Soviet Union)]] - [[Vasily Kuznetsov (general)|V.I.Kuznetsov]]

**[[4th Army (Soviet Union)]]
***(including [[6th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)]])
**[[10th Army (Soviet Union)]] - [[K.D.Golubev]]
***(including [[6th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/>)

**Second echelon (pending formation)
***[[13th Army (Soviet Union)]] - Lieutenant (General [[Pjotr. M. Filatow|P. M. Filatow]])



===German===
*[[Army Group Centre]] ({{lang-de|Heeresgruppe Mitte}})- Commander Generalfeldmarschall [[Fedor von Bock]]
**[[3rd Panzer Group]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Hermann Hoth]]
***[[XXXIX Corps (Germany)|XXXIX Army Corps (mot)]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Rudolf Schmidt]]
***[[LVII Corps (Germany)|LVII Army Corps (mot)'']] - ''General der Panzertruppen'' [[Adolf-Friedrich Kuntzen|Adolf Kuntzen]]
***[[VI Army Corps (Germany)|VI Army Corps]] - ''General der Pioniere'' [[Otto-Wilhelm Förster]]
**[[9th Army (Wehrmacht)|9th Army]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Adolf Strauss]]
***[[V Army Corps (Germany)|V Army Corps]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Richard Ruoff]]
***[[VIII Army Corps (Germany)|VIII Army Corps]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Walter Heitz]]
***[[XX Army Corps (Germany)|XX Army Corps]]- ''General der Infanterie'' [[Friedrich Materna]]
**[[4th Army (Wehrmacht)|4th Army]] - ''Generalfeldmarschall'' [[Günther von Kluge]]
***[[VII Army Corps (Germany)|VII Army Corps]] - ''General der Artillerie'' [[Wilhelm Fahrmbacher]]
***[[IX Army Corps (Germany)|IX Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Hermann Geyer]]
***[[XII Corps (Germany)|XII Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Walther Schroth]]
***[[XIII Army Corps (Germany)|XIII Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Hans Felber]]
***[[XLIII Corps (Germany)|XLIII Corps]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Gotthard Heinrici]]
**[[2nd Panzer Group]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Heinz Guderian]]
***[[XXIV Corps (Germany)|XXIV Panzer Corps]] - ''General der Panzertruppen'' [[Leo Freiherr Geyr von Schweppenburg]]
***[[XLVI Corps (Germany)|XLVI Panzer Corps]] - General [[Heinrich von Vietinghoff|Heinrich von Viettinghoff-Scheel]]
***[[XLVII Corps (Germany)|XLVII Panzer Corps]]- ''General der Panzertruppen'' [[Joachim Lemelsen]]
***10th Infantry Division (mot.) - ''Generalleutnant'' [[Friedrich-Wilhelm von Loeper]]
***1st Cavalry Division - ''Generalleutnant'' [[Kurt Feldt]]
** Reserve: [[2nd Army (Wehrmacht)|2nd Army]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Maximilian von Weichs]]
***[[XXXV Corps (Germany)|XXXV Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Rudolf Kaempfe]]
***[[XLII Corps (Germany)|XLII Corps]] - ''General der Pioniere'' [[Walter Kuntze]]
***[[LIII Corps (Germany)|LIII Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Karl Weisenberger]]
***286th Backup Division - ''Generalleutnant'' [[Kurt Müller (officer)|Kurt Müller]]

===Tanks===

On 22 June 1941, the balance of tanks over the entire area of the Soviet Western Front was as follows.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! German corps !! German Panzer divisions !! Total German tanks<ref>Total German tanks includes non-combat "commander tanks" as well as outdated [[Panzer I]] and [[Panzer II]] tanks</ref> !! Tanks with 37 mm cannon (incl. [[Panzer 38(t)]] and [[Panzer III]]) !! Tanks with 50 mm or larger cannon (incl. [[Panzer III]] and [[Panzer IV]])
|-
| [[XXXIX. Armeekorps mot (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[7th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|7th]], [[20th Panzer Division|20th]] || 494 || 288 || 61
|-
| [[LVII Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[12th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|12th]], [[19th Panzer Division|19th]] || 448 || 219 || 60
|-
| [[XLVII Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[17th Panzer Division|17th]], [[18th Panzer Division|18th]] || 420 || 99 || 187
|-
| [[XLVI Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[10th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|10th]] || 182 || 0 || 125
|-
| [[XXIV Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[3rd Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|3rd]], [[4th Panzer Division|4th]] || 392 || 60 || 207
|-
| colspan=2 | Any other unit of Army Group Center<ref name=mspl/> || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| '''Total''' ||   || '''1936'''<ref name=mspl/> || 666 || 640
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Soviet corps !! Soviet divisions !! Total Soviet tanks !! [[T-34 tank|T-34]] and [[Kliment Voroshilov tank|KV]]
|-
| [[11th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 29th, 33rd, 204th || 414 || 20
|-
| [[6th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 4th, 7th, 29th || 1131 || 452<ref>On 1 June there were 114 KV tanks, 238 T-34 tanks, but another 100 T-34 tanks were received until 22 June 1941 (Solonin 2007, pp. 99–100).</ref>
|-
| [[13th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 25th, 31st, 208th || 282 || 0
|-
| [[14th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 22nd, 30th, 205th || 518 || 0
|-
| [[7th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 14th, 18th, 1st || 959 || 103
|-
| [[5th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 13th, 17th, (109th not incl.) || 861 || 17
|-
| [[17th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || (not fully formed) || 63 || N/A
|-
| [[20th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || (not fully formed) || 94 || N/A
|-
| (independent) || 57th division<ref name=mspl/> || 200 || 0
|-
| Tanks scattered over various other units || Ordinary rifle divisions, etc. || not incl. || -
|-
| '''Total''' ||   || '''4522'''<ref name=mspl/> || 592
|}

==The operation==
[[File:Invasion1941.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]

The Red Army's salient which jutted into German occupied Polish territory with its center at [[Białystok]] was essential for OKH planning. Beyond Białystok, [[Minsk]] was a key strategic railway junction and a defensive position of the main road and rail communications with Moscow.

Also caught in the German operation was part of the [[11th Army (Soviet Union)|11th Army]] of the [[Northwestern Front]]. In the north, 3rd Panzer Group attacked, cutting the 11th Army from Western Front, and crossed the [[Neman River]]. The 2nd Panzer Group crossed the [[Bug River]] and by 23 June had penetrated 60 km into Soviet territory. The Panzer Groups' objectives were to meet east of Minsk and prevent any Red Army withdrawal from the encirclement. Operating with the Panzer Groups to encircle the Soviet forces, the 9th Army and 4th Army cut into the salient, beginning to encircle Soviet Armies around Białystok. On 23 June, the Soviet 10th Army attempted a counter-attack in accordance with pre-war planning, but failed to achieve its goals. On 24 June, General Pavlov ordered his operations officer, General Boldin, to take charge of the [[6th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|6th]], [[11th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|11th Mechanized Corps]] and [[6th Cavalry Corps (Soviet Union)|6th Cavalry Corps]] for a counter-attack towards [[Hrodna]] to prevent the encirclement of Red Army formations near Białystok. This attack failed with heavy losses, although it may have allowed some units to escape the western encirclement towards Minsk.

In the evening of 25 June, the German [[XLVII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLVII Panzer Corps]] cut between [[Slonim]] and [[Vawkavysk]], forcing Pavlov to order the withdrawal of all troops in the salient behind the [[Shchara River]] at Slonim to avoid encirclement. Most formations could not break contact with the Germans, and due to the loss of fuel and transport assets those who could break out, had to withdraw on foot. This withdrawal opened the southern approaches of Minsk.

Five days after the invasion on 27 June, the pincer of Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group and Hoth's 3rd Panzer Group closed east of Minsk. The Panzer Groups had advanced 321 km into the Soviet Union and almost a third of the distance to Moscow. It was a stunning achievement. On 28 June, the 9th and 4th German Armies linked up east of Białystok splitting the encircled Soviet forces into two pockets: a smaller [[Białystok]] pocket containing the Soviet 10th Army and a larger [[Navahrudak]] pocket containing the 3rd and 13th Armies. Ultimately, in 17 days the Soviet Western Front lost 420,000 personnel from a total of 625,000. On 26 June Minsk, the capital of Belarus, fell to the ''Wehrmacht''.

A second Red Army counter-attack by the [[20th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|20th Mechanized Corps]] and [[4th Airborne Corps (Soviet Union)|4th Airborne Corps]] failed to breach the encirclement as well, and by 30 June the pocket was completely closed.

The German forces surrounded and eventually destroyed or took prisoner most of the Soviet 3rd and 10th, 13th Armies and part of the 4th Army, in total about 20 divisions, while the remainder of the 4th Army fell back eastwards towards the [[Western Berezina|Western Berezina River]].

The ''[[Luftwaffe]]''{{'}}s ''[[Luftflotte 2]]'' helped destroy the [[Red Air Force Western Front (Soviet Union)|VVS Western Front]]. Some 1,669 Soviet aircraft had been destroyed. The ''Luftwaffe'' lost 276 as destroyed and an additional 208 damaged. After only a week of fighting, the total serviceable strength of ''[[Luftflotte 1]]'', ''[[Luftflotte 2]]'' and ''[[Luftflotte 4]]'' had been reduced to just 960 machines.<ref>Bergstrom 2007, p. 28.</ref>

==Consequences==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-137-1009-17, Weißrussland, Minsk, Ruinen.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Ruins of Minsk - July 1941]]The Soviet troops trapped in the gigantic pockets continued fighting, and concluding operations resulted in high German casualties. Many Soviet troops escaped due to the lack of German infantry troops' motor transport that slowed the encirclement process.

The Polish Institute of National Remembrance claims that withdrawing Soviet troops committed regular crimes against the inhabitants of Białystok and its areas, including cases of whole families being executed by firing squads.<ref name=IPN>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/portal/en/19/202/Investigation_into_the_murders_of_several_Poles_in_Bialystok_and_its_area_in_Jun.html|title=Investigation into the murders of several Poles in Białystok and its area in June 1941}}</ref> However this note is dated back in 2002 and the investigation has not yielded any substantiated proof since then. This leads to a conclusion that this information is just a hypothesis if not a pure speculation.

On conclusion, 290,000 Soviet soldiers were captured, and 1,500 guns along with 2,500 tanks were destroyed, but 250,000 Soviet troops managed to escape (most of the prisoners [[Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs|would be dead within a few months]] because of inhumane conditions at the POW enclosures).

The quick advance East created the possibility for the ''Wehrmacht'' to advance rapidly towards the land bridge of Smolensk, from which an attack on Moscow could be planned. It also created the impression in the [[OKW]] that the war against the Soviet Union was already won, within days of its start. Despite this feat, Hitler blamed the panzer generals for leaving gaps in the lines and the panzer generals for their part were deeply frustrated as for almost a week their advance east had been stopped while they closed the pocket and waited for the infantry to catch up. They feared the momentum of the armored offensive would be lost.

The Front commander General Pavlov and his Front Staff were recalled to Moscow, accused of intentional disorganization of defense and retreat without battle. They were soon executed by the NKVD because of cowardice and "failure to perform their duties". Their families were repressed. They were "rehabilitated" in 1956. An exception to this was Pavlov's operations officer, general [[Ivan Boldin]], who had been cut off by the German advance at a forward headquarters in the first days of the invasion and subsequently fought his way back to Soviet lines with over a thousand other soldiers a month and a half later.

==Bibliography==
*Bergström, Christer (2007). ''Barbarossa - The Air Battle: July–December 1941''. London: Chervron/Ian Allen. ISBN 978-1-85780-270-2.
*Ziemke, E.F. 'Moscow to Stalingrad'
*{{cite book|title=When Titans clashed: how the Red Army stopped Hitler|year=1995|publisher=University Press of Kansas|author=David M. Glantz|authorlink=David Glantz|author2=Jonathan M. House}}
*{{cite book|title=Barbarossa: Hitler's invasion of Russia 1941|year=2001|publisher=Tempus|location=Stroud|isbn=0-7524-1979-X|edition=1.udg.|author=David M. Glantz|authorlink=David Glantz}}
*''The initial period of war on the Eastern Front, 22 June–August 1941 : proceedings of the Fourth Art of War Symposium, Garmisch, FRG, October 1987'' / edited by [[David Glantz|David M. Glantz]] ISBN 0-7146-3375-5.
*Bryan I. Fugate and Lev Dvoretsky, ''Thunder on the Dnepr : Zhukov-Stalin and the defeat of Hitler's Blitzkrieg''
*Geyer, H. ''Das IX. Armeekorps im Ostfeldzug''

==References==
{{More footnotes|date=October 2008}}
{{reflist|2}}

{{Coord missing|Belarus}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bialystok-Minsk}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Encirclements in World War II]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]

Yakov Sverdlov

2014-09-20T12:34:50Z

Muta112: Undid revision 626186410 by 217.194.202.179 (talk)

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Yakov Sverdlov Я́ков Свердло́в
| citizenship = [[Soviet people|Soviet]]
| nationality = [[Russian people|Russian]]
| image = YakovSverdlov.jpg
| office = [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] of the [[Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Secretariat]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Russian Communist Party]]
| term_start = 1918
| term_end = 16 March 1919
| predecessor = [[Elena Stasova]] (as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Technical Secretary]])
| successor = Elena Stasova
| office2 = [[List of leaders of the Russian SFSR#Heads of state|Chairman]] of the [[All-Russian Central Executive Committee|Central Executive Committee]] of the [[All-Russian Congress of Soviets|Congress of Soviets of the Russian SFSR]]
| term_start2 = 21 November 1917
| term_end2 = 16 March 1919
| predecessor2 = [[Lev Kamenev]]
| successor2 = [[Mikhail Vladimirsky]] (acting)
| birth_date = {{birth date|1885|6|3|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Nizhny Novgorod Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1919|3|16|1885|6|3|df=y}}
| death_place = Moscow, [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]
| spouse =
| religion = [[Atheism|None]]
| party = [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)]]
}}
'''Yakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov''' ({{lang-rus|link=no|Я́ков Миха́йлович Свердло́в|p=ˈjakəf mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪt͡ɕ svʲɪrdˈlof}}); known under pseudonyms "Andrei", "Mikhalych", "Max", "Smirnov", "Permyakov" {{OldStyleDate|3 June|1885|22 May}} – 16 March 1919) was a [[Bolshevik]] party leader and chairman of the [[All-Russian Central Executive Committee]].

==Early life==
Sverdlov was born in [[Nizhny Novgorod]] as Yakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov to Jewish parents Mikhail Izrailevich Sverdlov and Elizaveta Solomonova. His father was a politically active engraver who eventually went into [[forgery]], and arms storage and dealing partially to support his family. The Sverdlov family had six children: two daughters (Sophia and Sara) and four sons (Zinovy, Yakov, Veniamin, and Lev). After his wife's death in 1900, Mikhail converted himself and his family to the Russian Orthodox church and married Maria Aleksandrovna Kormiltsev and had two more sons (Herman and Alexander). His brother was adopted by [[Maxim Gorky]], who was a frequent guest at the house. Zinovy became better-known as [[Zinovy Peshkov]]. Yakov Sverdlov joined the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party]] in 1902, and then the Bolshevik faction, supporting [[Vladimir Lenin]]. He was involved in the [[1905 Russian Revolution|1905 revolution]].

After four years of high school, he became a prominent underground activist and speaker in [[Nizhny Novgorod]]. After his arrest in June 1906, for most of the time until 1917 he was either imprisoned or exiled. During the period 1914–1916 he was in internal exile in [[Turukhansk]], [[Siberia]], along with [[Joseph Stalin]].

==Work==
After the 1917 [[February Revolution]] he returned to [[Petrograd]] from exile and was re-elected to the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]]. He played an important role in planning the [[October Revolution]].

A book written in 1990 by the Moscow playwright [[Edvard Radzinsky]] claims that Sverdlov had a role in the killing of [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nicholas II]] and his family. According to this book, Sverdlov ordered their execution on 16 July 1918, which took place in the city of [[Yekaterinburg]]. This book as well as other Radzinsky's books were characterized as "[[folk history]]" (Russian term for [[pseudohistory]]) by journalists and academic historians.<ref name="knife">{{cite web|author=A. Balod|date=23 November 2005|url=http://www.netslova.ru/balod/8n.html#7|title=Восемь ножей в спину науке, которая называется "история" // 8 knives into the back of science called history|publisher=[[:ru:Сетевая Словесность]]|accessdate=27 March 2009}} {{ru icon}}</ref><ref>Н. Ажгихина // N. Azhgikhina [http://scireg.informika.ru/text/magaz/newpaper/messedu/cour0002/500.html Терминатор мировой истории // Terminator of the world history] // НГ-Наука ([[Nezavisimaya Gazeta]]), 19 January 2000. {{ru icon}}</ref><ref>Заболотный Е. Б., Камынин В.Д. // E. B. Zabolotny, V. D. Kamynin. К вопросу о функциях и месте историографических исследований в развитии исторической науки // On the question of function and place of historiographical studies in development of historical science // Вестник Тюменского государственного университета // Messenger of the Tyumen State University. 2004. № 1. С. 84 {{ru icon}}</ref><ref>I. Kolodyazhny // И. Колодяжный [http://www.litrossia.ru/article.php?article=126 Разоблачение фолк-хистори // Disclosure of the folk history]. – [[:ru:Литературная Россия]] // ''Literary Russia'', № 11. – 17 March 2006.</ref><ref name="novyymir">{{cite web|author=V. Myasnikov|title=Историческая беллетристика: спрос и предложение // Historical belles-lettres: demand and offer|url=http://magazines.russ.ru/novyi_mi/2002/4/mias.html|publisher= // Novy Mir (New World)|date=vol. 4 2002}}</ref> However [[Yuri Slezkine]] in his book ''The Jewish Century'' expressed the same opinion: "Early in the Civil War, in June 1918, Lenin ordered the killing of Nicholas II and his family. Among the men entrusted with carrying out the orders were Sverdlov, {{ill|ru|Filipp Goloshchekin|Голощёкин, Филипп Исаевич}} and [[Yakov Yurovsky]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Slezkine|first=Yuri|title=The Jewish Century|year=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691127606|page=178}}</ref>

This, by and large, originated from a 1922 book by a [[Russian White]] general, [[Mikhail Diterikhs]], ''The Murder of the Tsar’s Family and members of the House of Romanov in the Urals,'' in which the author sought to portray the murder of the royal family as a Jewish plot against Russia. There he referred to Sverdlov by his Jewish nickname "Yankel" and to Goloshchekin as "Isaac". This book in turn was based on an account by one [[Nikolai Sokolov]], special investigator for the [[Omsk]] regional court, whom Diterikhs assigned with the task of investigating the disappearance of the Romanovs while serving as regional governor under the White regime during the [[Russian Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Many Deaths of Tsar Nicholas II; Relics, remains and the Romanovs|last = Slater|first = Wendy|publisher = Routledge|year = 2007|isbn = 0-203-53698-3|location = Abingdon, Oxon, England|pages = 71-73}}</ref>

A close ally of [[Vladimir Lenin]], Sverdlov played an important role in the controversial decisions to close down the [[Russian Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] and to sign the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. It was claimed that Lenin provided the theories and Sverdlov made sure they worked. Later their relationship suffered as Lenin appeared to be too theoretical for practical Sverdlov.

He is sometimes referred to as the first [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|head of state of the Soviet Union]] but this is not correct since the [[Soviet Union]] came into existence in 1922, three years after Sverdlov's death. However, as chairman of the [[All-Russian Central Executive Committee]] (VTsIK) he was the ''de jure'' head of state of the [[Russian SFSR]] from shortly after the October Revolution until the time of his death.

==Death==
[[Image:Ekaterinbourg.jpeg|thumb|225px|Snow-covered statue of Sverdlov in [[Yekaterinburg]], formerly Sverdlovsk.]]

An official version is that Sverdlov died of [[influenza]] in [[Oryol]] during the [[1918 flu pandemic]], while returning to Moscow from [[Kharkiv]] during one of his political trips and got a flu during one of his outdoor speeches{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}}. He was a very thin individual. He is buried in the [[Kremlin Wall Necropolis]], in Moscow. Another version is that he died of tuberculosis{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}}.

Historian [[Arkadi Waksberg]] claimed that there were reliable rumours that Sverdlov was beaten to death by workers in [[Oryol]], due to his Jewish origins, and that the incident was covered up to prevent an [[anti-semitism|anti-semitic]] outburst{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}}. Another speculation is that he was eliminated due to his involvement in an attempt to [[Vladimir Lenin#Failed assassinations|assassinate Lenin]].<ref name=Waksberg>{{cite web|last=Waksberg|first=Arkadi|title=From Hell to Heaven and forth|url=http://www.aej.org.ua/History/596.html|accessdate=5 October 2011|language=Russian|date=21 January 2011}}</ref>

He was the first of the [[Old Bolshevik]]s to die.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} In 1924, [[Yekaterinburg]] was renamed Sverdlovsk in his honor. In 1991, Sverdlovsk was changed back to Yekaterinburg.

His son [[Andrei Sverdlov|Andrei]] had a long career as an officer for the Soviet security organs ([[NKVD]], [[OGPU]]). His niece Ida married NKVD chief [[Genrikh Yagoda]].

==Legacy==
* The [[Imperial Russian Navy]] destroyer leader [[Russian destroyer Novik (1911)|''Novik'']] (commissioned in 1913) was renamed [[Soviet destroyer Yakov Sverdlov|''Yakov Sverdlov'']] in 1923.
* The lead ship of the [[Sverdlov class cruiser|''Sverdlov'' class cruiser]]s was also named after him.
* The city of [[Yekaterinburg]] carried the name of Sverdlovsk in the Soviet Union (1924-1991).
* A few [[Sverdlovsky District (disambiguation)|locations in the former Soviet Union]] still bear Sverdlovsk's name, in the Russian Federation, in Ukraine and in Kyrgyzstan. Others have been renamed.

==See also==
*[[Zinovy Peshkov]] (Zinovy Sverdlov), Yakov's brother

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
*[http://marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1925/03/sverdlov.htm Leon Trotsky: Jacob Sverdlov – 1925 memorial essay]

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets]]|before=[[Lev Kamenev]]|after=[[Mikhail Vladimirsky]]|years=1917–1919}}
{{s-end}}
{{Heads of RSFSR}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=18018005}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Sverdlov, Yakov
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Soviet politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1885
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Russian Empire]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 1919
| PLACE OF DEATH = Moscow, [[Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sverdlov, Yakov}}
[[Category:1885 births]]
[[Category:1919 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Nizhny Novgorod]]
[[Category:People from Nizhny Novgorod Governorate]]
[[Category:Russian Jews]]
[[Category:Old Bolsheviks]]
[[Category:Russian atheists]]
[[Category:Russian leaders]]
[[Category:Soviet politicians]]
[[Category:Russian regicides]]
[[Category:Jewish atheists]]
[[Category:Jewish socialists]]
[[Category:Burials at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis]]

Battle of Białystok–Minsk

2014-09-19T14:23:19Z

Muta112: /* Consequences */ Polish Institute of National Remembrance is NOT a reliable source. It is an anti-Soviet and anti-communist propaganda made by Polish nationalists

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Bialystok-Minsk
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Eastern Front 1941-06 to 1941-09.png|300px]]
| caption = German advances from 22 June to 1 September 1941
| date = 22 June–3 July 1941
| place = Eastern Poland, Belorussia
| territory =
| result = German victory
| combatant1 = {{Flag icon|Germany|Nazi}} [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{Flag icon|Germany|Nazi}} [[Fedor von Bock]]
| commander2 = {{Flag icon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Dmitry Pavlov]]
| strength1 = 750,000
| strength2 = 675,000
| casualties1 = 276 Aircraft Unknown land forces
| casualties2 = 341,073 killed or captured<ref>German accounts give 287,704 [[POW]]: Bergstrom 2007, p. 28: Cites Krivosheyev, ''Grif sekretnosti snyat. Poterivooruzhyonnykh sil SSSR v voynakh, boyevykh deystviyakh i voyennykh konfliktakh'', p. 162.</ref> 76,717 wounded 417,790 overall<ref name=g293/> 4,799 tanks 9,427 guns<ref name=g293>Glantz 1995, p. 293</ref> 1,669 Aircraft<ref>Bergstrom 2007, p. 28: Cites Pshenyanik, ''Sovtskie Voenno-vozdushnye sily v bor'be snemetsko fashistskoy aviatssiey v letne-osenney kampanii 1941'', p. 94.</ref>
| notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Barbarossa}}

The '''Battle of Białystok–Minsk''' was a German strategic operation conducted by the [[Army Group Centre]] during penetration of the Soviet border region during the opening stage of [[Operation Barbarossa]] lasting from 22 June–3 July 1941. Its goal, the encirclement of the [[Red Army]] forces around [[Minsk]], was accomplished. All major Russian counter-attacks and break-through attempts failed and the defenders were defeated, allowing for the [[Wehrmacht]] to take many Soviet prisoners<ref name=mspl>{{cite book|author=Mark Sołonin|authorlink=Mark Solonin|title=22 czerwca 1941 czyli Jak zaczęła się Wielka Wojna ojczyźniana|year=2007|pages=528–529|publisher=Dom Wydawniczy Rebis|location=Poznań, Poland|isbn=978-83-7510-130-0|edition=1|others=Tomasz Lisiecki (trans.)|language=Polish}} (the only English translations of Solonin's works seem to be, as of June 2011, [http://www.solonin.org/en/books these online chapters])</ref> and to further advance into the Soviet Union at a pace so swift that some believed the Germans had effectively won the war against Russia already.

==Prelude==
Commanded by [[Field Marshal]] [[Fedor von Bock]], Army Group Centre was tasked with attacking from Poland through the [[Białystok]] - [[Minsk]] - [[Smolensk]] axis towards [[Moscow]]. The Army Group included the [[9th Army (Wehrmacht)|9th]] and [[4th Army (Wehrmacht)|4th Armies]]. Its armored forces were Hoth's [[3rd Panzer Group]] and Guderian's [[2nd Panzer Group]]. The two infantry Armies fielded 33 divisions and the Panzer Armies fielded nine armored divisions, six motorized divisions and a cavalry division. Army Group Center could call upon ''[[Luftflotte 2]]'' for [[air support]].

Facing Army Group Center was the Red Army's [[Western Front (Soviet Union)|Western Front]] commanded by General of the Army [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Dmitry Pavlov]]. It included the [[3rd Army (Soviet Union)|3rd]], [[4th Army (Soviet Union)|4th]], and [[10th Army (Soviet Union)|10th Armies]] along the frontier. The [[13th Army (Soviet Union)|13th Army]] was held as part of the [[Stavka]] High Command Reserve and initially existed as a headquarters unit only, with no assigned forces. All together, the Soviet Western Front had 25 rifle and cavalry divisions, 13 tank and 7 motorized divisions.

The [[Red Army]] disposition in Belarus was based on the idea of an aggressive response to a German attack, carrying the war into German-occupied Poland, but suffered from weakness along the flanks, created by the line of demarcation placement following the [[Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union|division of Poland]] in 1939. The forward placement of both German and Soviet forces in a double-bulge position enabled both sides to try the [[Pincer movement|double envelopment]]. It was the [[OKH]] that undertook it successfully, severing most of the Soviet Western Front's forces from other Soviet fronts in a twin encirclement, centred on [[Białystok]] and [[Navahrudak]], to the west of [[Minsk]].

==Formations==

===Soviet===
*[[Western Front (Soviet Union)|Western Front]] - Commander Army General [[Dmitry Pavlov (general)|Pavlov]], Operations Officer General [[I.V. Boldin]]
**[[3rd Army (Soviet Union)]] - [[Vasily Kuznetsov (general)|V.I.Kuznetsov]]

**[[4th Army (Soviet Union)]]
***(including [[6th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)]])
**[[10th Army (Soviet Union)]] - [[K.D.Golubev]]
***(including [[6th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/>)

**Second echelon (pending formation)
***[[13th Army (Soviet Union)]] - Lieutenant (General [[Pjotr. M. Filatow|P. M. Filatow]])



===German===
*[[Army Group Centre]] ({{lang-de|Heeresgruppe Mitte}})- Commander Generalfeldmarschall [[Fedor von Bock]]
**[[3rd Panzer Group]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Hermann Hoth]]
***[[XXXIX Corps (Germany)|XXXIX Army Corps (mot)]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Rudolf Schmidt]]
***[[LVII Corps (Germany)|LVII Army Corps (mot)'']] - ''General der Panzertruppen'' [[Adolf-Friedrich Kuntzen|Adolf Kuntzen]]
***[[VI Army Corps (Germany)|VI Army Corps]] - ''General der Pioniere'' [[Otto-Wilhelm Förster]]
**[[9th Army (Wehrmacht)|9th Army]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Adolf Strauss]]
***[[V Army Corps (Germany)|V Army Corps]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Richard Ruoff]]
***[[VIII Army Corps (Germany)|VIII Army Corps]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Walter Heitz]]
***[[XX Army Corps (Germany)|XX Army Corps]]- ''General der Infanterie'' [[Friedrich Materna]]
**[[4th Army (Wehrmacht)|4th Army]] - ''Generalfeldmarschall'' [[Günther von Kluge]]
***[[VII Army Corps (Germany)|VII Army Corps]] - ''General der Artillerie'' [[Wilhelm Fahrmbacher]]
***[[IX Army Corps (Germany)|IX Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Hermann Geyer]]
***[[XII Corps (Germany)|XII Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Walther Schroth]]
***[[XIII Army Corps (Germany)|XIII Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Hans Felber]]
***[[XLIII Corps (Germany)|XLIII Corps]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Gotthard Heinrici]]
**[[2nd Panzer Group]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Heinz Guderian]]
***[[XXIV Corps (Germany)|XXIV Panzer Corps]] - ''General der Panzertruppen'' [[Leo Freiherr Geyr von Schweppenburg]]
***[[XLVI Corps (Germany)|XLVI Panzer Corps]] - General [[Heinrich von Vietinghoff|Heinrich von Viettinghoff-Scheel]]
***[[XLVII Corps (Germany)|XLVII Panzer Corps]]- ''General der Panzertruppen'' [[Joachim Lemelsen]]
***10th Infantry Division (mot.) - ''Generalleutnant'' [[Friedrich-Wilhelm von Loeper]]
***1st Cavalry Division - ''Generalleutnant'' [[Kurt Feldt]]
** Reserve: [[2nd Army (Wehrmacht)|2nd Army]] - ''Generaloberst'' [[Maximilian von Weichs]]
***[[XXXV Corps (Germany)|XXXV Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Rudolf Kaempfe]]
***[[XLII Corps (Germany)|XLII Corps]] - ''General der Pioniere'' [[Walter Kuntze]]
***[[LIII Corps (Germany)|LIII Army Corps]] - ''General der Infanterie'' [[Karl Weisenberger]]
***286th Backup Division - ''Generalleutnant'' [[Kurt Müller (officer)|Kurt Müller]]

===Tanks===

On 22 June 1941, the balance of tanks over the entire area of the Soviet Western Front was as follows.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! German corps !! German Panzer divisions !! Total German tanks<ref>Total German tanks includes non-combat "commander tanks" as well as outdated [[Panzer I]] and [[Panzer II]] tanks</ref> !! Tanks with 37 mm cannon (incl. [[Panzer 38(t)]] and [[Panzer III]]) !! Tanks with 50 mm or larger cannon (incl. [[Panzer III]] and [[Panzer IV]])
|-
| [[XXXIX. Armeekorps mot (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[7th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|7th]], [[20th Panzer Division|20th]] || 494 || 288 || 61
|-
| [[LVII Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[12th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|12th]], [[19th Panzer Division|19th]] || 448 || 219 || 60
|-
| [[XLVII Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[17th Panzer Division|17th]], [[18th Panzer Division|18th]] || 420 || 99 || 187
|-
| [[XLVI Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[10th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|10th]] || 182 || 0 || 125
|-
| [[XXIV Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[3rd Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|3rd]], [[4th Panzer Division|4th]] || 392 || 60 || 207
|-
| colspan=2 | Any other unit of Army Group Center<ref name=mspl/> || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| '''Total''' ||   || '''1936'''<ref name=mspl/> || 666 || 640
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Soviet corps !! Soviet divisions !! Total Soviet tanks !! [[T-34 tank|T-34]] and [[Kliment Voroshilov tank|KV]]
|-
| [[11th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 29th, 33rd, 204th || 414 || 20
|-
| [[6th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 4th, 7th, 29th || 1131 || 452<ref>On 1 June there were 114 KV tanks, 238 T-34 tanks, but another 100 T-34 tanks were received until 22 June 1941 (Solonin 2007, pp. 99–100).</ref>
|-
| [[13th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 25th, 31st, 208th || 282 || 0
|-
| [[14th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 22nd, 30th, 205th || 518 || 0
|-
| [[7th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 14th, 18th, 1st || 959 || 103
|-
| [[5th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 13th, 17th, (109th not incl.) || 861 || 17
|-
| [[17th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || (not fully formed) || 63 || N/A
|-
| [[20th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || (not fully formed) || 94 || N/A
|-
| (independent) || 57th division<ref name=mspl/> || 200 || 0
|-
| Tanks scattered over various other units || Ordinary rifle divisions, etc. || not incl. || -
|-
| '''Total''' ||   || '''4522'''<ref name=mspl/> || 592
|}

==The operation==
[[File:Invasion1941.jpg|300px|thumb|right|]]

The Red Army's salient which jutted into German occupied Polish territory with its center at [[Białystok]] was essential for OKH planning. Beyond Białystok, [[Minsk]] was a key strategic railway junction and a defensive position of the main road and rail communications with Moscow.

Also caught in the German operation was part of the [[11th Army (Soviet Union)|11th Army]] of the [[Northwestern Front]]. In the north, 3rd Panzer Group attacked, cutting the 11th Army from Western Front, and crossed the [[Neman River]]. The 2nd Panzer Group crossed the [[Bug River]] and by 23 June had penetrated 60 km into Soviet territory. The Panzer Groups' objectives were to meet east of Minsk and prevent any Red Army withdrawal from the encirclement. Operating with the Panzer Groups to encircle the Soviet forces, the 9th Army and 4th Army cut into the salient, beginning to encircle Soviet Armies around Białystok. On 23 June, the Soviet 10th Army attempted a counter-attack in accordance with pre-war planning, but failed to achieve its goals. On 24 June, General Pavlov ordered his operations officer, General Boldin, to take charge of the [[6th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|6th]], [[11th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|11th Mechanized Corps]] and [[6th Cavalry Corps (Soviet Union)|6th Cavalry Corps]] for a counter-attack towards [[Hrodna]] to prevent the encirclement of Red Army formations near Białystok. This attack failed with heavy losses, although it may have allowed some units to escape the western encirclement towards Minsk.

In the evening of 25 June, the German [[XLVII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLVII Panzer Corps]] cut between [[Slonim]] and [[Vawkavysk]], forcing Pavlov to order the withdrawal of all troops in the salient behind the [[Shchara River]] at Slonim to avoid encirclement. Most formations could not break contact with the Germans, and due to the loss of fuel and transport assets those who could break out, had to withdraw on foot. This withdrawal opened the southern approaches of Minsk.

Five days after the invasion on 27 June, the pincer of Guderian's 2nd Panzer Group and Hoth's 3rd Panzer Group closed east of Minsk. The Panzer Groups had advanced 321 km into the Soviet Union and almost a third of the distance to Moscow. It was a stunning achievement. On 28 June, the 9th and 4th German Armies linked up east of Białystok splitting the encircled Soviet forces into two pockets: a smaller [[Białystok]] pocket containing the Soviet 10th Army and a larger [[Navahrudak]] pocket containing the 3rd and 13th Armies. Ultimately, in 17 days the Soviet Western Front lost 420,000 personnel from a total of 625,000. On 26 June Minsk, the capital of Belarus, fell to the ''Wehrmacht''.

A second Red Army counter-attack by the [[20th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|20th Mechanized Corps]] and [[4th Airborne Corps (Soviet Union)|4th Airborne Corps]] failed to breach the encirclement as well, and by 30 June the pocket was completely closed.

The German forces surrounded and eventually destroyed or took prisoner most of the Soviet 3rd and 10th, 13th Armies and part of the 4th Army, in total about 20 divisions, while the remainder of the 4th Army fell back eastwards towards the [[Western Berezina|Western Berezina River]].

The ''[[Luftwaffe]]''{{'}}s ''[[Luftflotte 2]]'' helped destroy the [[Red Air Force Western Front (Soviet Union)|VVS Western Front]]. Some 1,669 Soviet aircraft had been destroyed. The ''Luftwaffe'' lost 276 as destroyed and an additional 208 damaged. After only a week of fighting, the total serviceable strength of ''[[Luftflotte 1]]'', ''[[Luftflotte 2]]'' and ''[[Luftflotte 4]]'' had been reduced to just 960 machines.<ref>Bergstrom 2007, p. 28.</ref>

==Consequences==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-137-1009-17, Weißrussland, Minsk, Ruinen.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Ruins of Minsk - July 1941]]The Soviet troops trapped in the gigantic pockets continued fighting, and concluding operations resulted in high German casualties. Many Soviet troops escaped due to the lack of German infantry troops' motor transport that slowed the encirclement process.

On conclusion, 290,000 Soviet soldiers were captured, and 1,500 guns along with 2,500 tanks were destroyed, but 250,000 Soviet troops managed to escape (most of the prisoners [[Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs|would be dead within a few months]] because of inhumane conditions at the POW enclosures).

The quick advance East created the possibility for the ''Wehrmacht'' to advance rapidly towards the land bridge of Smolensk, from which an attack on Moscow could be planned. It also created the impression in the [[OKW]] that the war against the Soviet Union was already won, within days of its start. Despite this feat, Hitler blamed the panzer generals for leaving gaps in the lines and the panzer generals for their part were deeply frustrated as for almost a week their advance east had been stopped while they closed the pocket and waited for the infantry to catch up. They feared the momentum of the armored offensive would be lost.

The Front commander General Pavlov and his Front Staff were recalled to Moscow, accused of intentional disorganization of defense and retreat without battle. They were soon executed by the NKVD because of cowardice and "failure to perform their duties". Their families were repressed. They were "rehabilitated" in 1956. An exception to this was Pavlov's operations officer, general [[Ivan Boldin]], who had been cut off by the German advance at a forward headquarters in the first days of the invasion and subsequently fought his way back to Soviet lines with over a thousand other soldiers a month and a half later.

==Bibliography==
*Bergström, Christer (2007). ''Barbarossa - The Air Battle: July–December 1941''. London: Chervron/Ian Allen. ISBN 978-1-85780-270-2.
*Ziemke, E.F. 'Moscow to Stalingrad'
*{{cite book|title=When Titans clashed: how the Red Army stopped Hitler|year=1995|publisher=University Press of Kansas|author=David M. Glantz|authorlink=David Glantz|author2=Jonathan M. House}}
*{{cite book|title=Barbarossa: Hitler's invasion of Russia 1941|year=2001|publisher=Tempus|location=Stroud|isbn=0-7524-1979-X|edition=1.udg.|author=David M. Glantz|authorlink=David Glantz}}
*''The initial period of war on the Eastern Front, 22 June–August 1941 : proceedings of the Fourth Art of War Symposium, Garmisch, FRG, October 1987'' / edited by [[David Glantz|David M. Glantz]] ISBN 0-7146-3375-5.
*Bryan I. Fugate and Lev Dvoretsky, ''Thunder on the Dnepr : Zhukov-Stalin and the defeat of Hitler's Blitzkrieg''
*Geyer, H. ''Das IX. Armeekorps im Ostfeldzug''

==References==
{{More footnotes|date=October 2008}}
{{reflist|2}}

{{Coord missing|Belarus}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bialystok-Minsk}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Encirclements in World War II]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]

Stanisław Skalski

2014-09-13T19:25:56Z

Muta112: /* Biography */

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Stanisław Skalski
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|post-noms=DSO DFC**}}
|image= Stanislaw Skalski in color.jpg
|rank=[[Generał brygady]]
|birth_date={{Birth date|df=yes|1915|11|27}}
|birth_place=[[Kodyma]], [[Podolia Governorate]], [[Ukraine]]
|death_date={{death date and age|df=yes|2004|11|12|1915|11|27}}
|death_place=[[Warsaw]], [[Poland]]
|allegiance=[[Poland]]
|serviceyears=1938–1945, 1956–1972
|commands=Wing Commander in [[No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron|316 PAF]], [[commanding officer|CO]] of [[No. 317 Polish Fighter Squadron|317 PAF]], [[Polish Fighting Team|PFT]], [[No. 601 Squadron RAF|601 RAF]], 131st Fighter Wing, 133rd Fighter Wing
|battles=[[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Polish Defensive War]], [[World War II]]
|awards=[[Virtuti Militari]]; [[Polonia Restituta]]; [[Cross of Valour (Poland)|Cross of Valour]]; [[Distinguished Service Order]] (UK); [[Distinguished Flying Cross (UK)]]
}}

'''Stanisław Skalski''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR-cats|DSO|DFC**}} (27 November 1915 – 12 November 2004) was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[fighter ace]] of the [[Polish Air Force]] in [[World War II]], later rising to the rank of [[generał brygady]]. Stanisław Skalski was the top Polish fighter ace of the war and the first Allied fighter ace of the war, credited, according to official list, with 18 11/12 victories and two probable. Some sources, including Skalski himself, give a number of 22 11/12 victories.

==Biography==
[[File:Stanislaw Skalski 1.jpg|thumb|left|Stanisław Skalski]]

Stanisław Skalski was born on 27 October 1915 in [[Kodyma]] in [[Podolia Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]]. After completing Pilot Training School in 1938 Skalski was ordered to the 142nd Fighter Squadron in Torun (142 eskadra "Toruńska"). On 1 September 1939 he attacked a German [[Henschel Hs 126]] reconnaissance aircraft, which was eventually shot down by [[Marian Pisarek]]. Skalski then landed next to it, helped to bandage wounded crew members and arranged for them to be taken to a military hospital. By 16 September Skalski reached "ace" status, claiming a total of six German aircraft and making him the first Allied air ace of World War II.

His claims consisted of one [[Junkers Ju 86]], two [[Dornier Do 17]], one [[Junkers Ju 87]], two Hs 126s and one Hs 126 shared (official list credits him with four aircraft: two Do 17s, one Hs 126, one Ju 87 and one Hs 126 shared).<ref>Note: In this context "Ace" means shooting down five or more enemy aircraft.</ref> Soon after he fled the country with other Polish pilots to [[Romania]], and from there via [[Beirut]] to [[France]] and after went on to fight with the [[Royal Air Force]] in the [[Battle of Britain]].

In August 1940 [[Pilot Officer]] Skalski joined [[No. 501 Squadron RAF|501 Squadron]]. From 30 August to 2 September 1940 he shot down a He 111 bomber and three [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]]s. On 5 September Skalski himself was shot down.<ref>According to some sources, he shot down a He 111 bomber and two Bf 109s in that flight, but there is no firm evidence, these victories were not acknowledged officially, and several other pilots also claimed these Bf 109s.</ref> Skalski bailed out with severe burns that hospitalized him for six weeks. He returned to his unit in late October 1940. During the [[Battle of Britain]], he was credited with four planes shot down and one shared.

In March 1941 he was assigned to the Polish [[No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron|306 (Polish) Squadron]],<ref>Note: 306 Dywizjon Myśliwski "Toruński"; the unit insignia was derived from that of Skalski's original unit, 142 eskadry</ref> flying in ''Circus'' sorties<ref>Circus missions aimed to draw out enemy fighters in response to a perceived bombing attack</ref> over France. On 1 March 1942, he became a flight commander in [[No. 316 Polish Fighter Squadron|316 (Polish) Squadron]]. On 29 April 1942 [[Flight Lieutenant]] Skalski was made Commanding Officer of the [[No. 317 Polish Fighter Squadron|317 (Polish) Squadron]] for five months. From November 1942 he was an instructor with No. 58 Operation Training Unit.

In October 1942 he was given command of the [[Polish Fighting Team]] (PFT), or so called "Cyrk Skalskiego" (Skalski's Circus) - a Special Flight consisting of fifteen experienced Polish fighter pilot volunteers. The Poles arrived at Bu Grara airfield, west of [[Tripoli]] in March 1943 and attached to [[No. 145 Squadron RAF|145 Squadron]]. The PFT took part in actions in [[Tripolitania]] and in [[Sicily]]. On 6 May 1943 the "Skalski Circus" fought its last combat. The unit has been disbanded after the conclusion of the North African campaign.

During its two months on operations, the Polish pilots had claimed a total of 26 German and Italian aircraft shot down. Flight Lieutenant Skalski scored four aircraft, and Pilot Officer [[Eugeniusz Horbaczewski]] claimed five confirmed victories.

[[File:Skalski.JPG|thumb|left|[[Wing Commander (rank)|Wg Cdr]] Skalski with [[Air Marshal|Air Mshl]] [[Arthur Coningham (RAF officer)|Coningham]] (pictured left) and General [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]] (pictured right).]]

Skalski then became commander of [[No. 601 Squadron RAF|601 (County of London) Squadron]] the first Pole to command an RAF Squadron. He then took part in the [[invasion of Sicily]] and [[invasion of Italy]]. From December 1943 to April 1944 [[Wing Commander (rank)|Wing Commander]] Skalski commanded No. 131 Polish Fighter Wing. On 4 April 1944 he was appointed commander of No. 133 Polish Fighter Wing flying the Mustang Mk III. On 24 June 1944 Skalski scored two air victories over [[Rouen]].

He left for a tour of duty in the USA in September 1944, returning in February 1945 to a staff position at No. 11 Group.

After the war he returned to Poland in 1947 and joined the [[Air Force of the Polish Army]]. In 1948 however he was arrested under the false charge of espionage. Sentenced to death, he spent three years awaiting the execution, after which his sentence was changed to [[life imprisonment]] in [[Wronki Prison]].
[[File:Skalski Mustang III.jpg|right|thumb|A Mustang III flown by [[Wing Commander (rank)|Wing Commander]] Stanisław Skalski, C/O of 133(Polish) Fighter Wing, [[Coolham]], June 1944.]]

After the end of [[Stalinism]] in Poland, in 1956 he was released, rehabilitated, and allowed to join the military. He served at various posts in the Headquarters of the Polish Air Forces. He wrote memoires of the 1939 campaign ''Czarne krzyże nad Polską'' ("Black crosses over Poland", 1957). On 20 May 1968 he was nominated the secretary general of the [[Aeroklub Polski]] and on 10 April 1972 he retired. On 15 September 1988 he was promoted to the rank of [[Brigadier General]]. In 1990 he met with the German pilot he had rescued on the first day of the war.

Stanisław Skalski died in Warsaw on 12 November 2004.

==Awards==
[[File:POL Virtuti Militari Złoty BAR.svg|60px]] [[Virtuti Militari]], Golden Cross 
[[File:Virtuti Militari Ribbon.png|60px]] [[Virtuti Militari]], Silver Cross 
[[File:POL Krzyż Walecznych (1940) 4r BAR.PNG|60px]] [[Cross of Valour (Poland)]], four times 
[[File:POL Polonia Restituta Kawalerski BAR.svg|60px]] [[Order of Polonia Restituta]], Knight's Cross 
[[File:POL Order Krzyża Grunwaldu 3 Klasy BAR.svg|60px]] [[Order of the Cross of Grunwald]], 3rd class 
[[File:Dso-ribbon.png|60px]] [[Distinguished Service Order]] 
[[File:UK DFC w 2bars BAR.svg|60px]]
[[Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom)]] and two [[medal bar|bars]] 
[[File:39-45 Star w BoB clasp BAR.svg|60px]] [[1939-1945 Star]] with [[Battle of Britain]] clasp 
[[File:Italy Star BAR.svg|60px]] [[Italy Star]]

[[File:Stanislaw Skalski monument.jpg|right|thumb|Stanisław Skalski's monument, [[Warsaw]] ([[Poland]]), 30 July 2006]]

==References==

===Notes===

{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===

{{refbegin}}
* Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. ''Polskie lotnictwo myśliwskie w boju wrześniowym'' (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2000.
* Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. ''Polskie Siły Powietrzne w wojnie tom 1: 1939-43 (Polish Air Force in War pt. 1: 1939-43)'' (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2001. (Updated and revised edition of ''The Polish Air Force at War: The Official History, Vol.2 1939-1943''. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Books, 1998. ISBN 0-7643-0559-X.)
* Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. ''Polskie Siły Powietrzne w wojnie tom 2: 1943-45 (Polish Air Force in War pt. 2: 1943-45)'' (In Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 2002. (Updated and revised edition of ''The Polish Air Force at War: The Official History, Vol.2 1943-1945''. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Books, 1998. ISBN 0-7643-0560-3.)
* Grabowski, Franciszek. ''Gen. bryg. pil. Stanisław Skalski''. in: "Militaria i Fakty" 2/2005 (Polish)
* Grabowski, Franciszek. ''Stanisław Skalski''. Sandomierz, Poland/Redbourn, UK: Mushroom Model Publications, 2007. ISBN 83-89450-11-9.
* Gretzyngier, Robert. ''Poles in Defence of Britain: A Day-by-day Chronology of Polish Day and Night Fighter Pilot Operations - July 1940 - June 1941''. London: Grub Street, 2005. ISBN 1-904943-05-5.
* Ochabska, Katarzyna. ''Stanisław Skalski''. Gliwice, 2007.
* Skalski, Stanisław. ''Czarne krzyże nad Polską'' (in Polish). Warszawa, Poland, 1957 (New edition: De Facto, 2006).
{{refend}}

===Further reading===

{{refbegin}}
* Cynk, Jerzy Bogdam. ''History Of The Polish Air Force 1918-1968''. UK: Osprey Publications, 1972.
* Koniarek, Dr. Jan. ''Polish Air Force 1939-1945''. Carrollton, TX: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc.,1994. ISBN 0-89747-324-8.
* Kornicki, Franciszek. ''Polish Air Force- Chronicle of Main Events''. UK: Polish Air Force Association of Great Britain, 1993.
* Lisiewicz, Mieczyslaw (Translated from the Polish by Ann Maitland-Chuwen). ''Destiny can wait - The Polish Air Force in the Second World War''. London: Heinemann, 1949.
* Zamoyski, Adam. ''The Forgotten Few: The Polish Air Force in The Second World War''. UK: Leo Cooper Ltd., 2004. ISBN 1-84415-090-9.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* Krajewski, Wojciech. [http://www.muzeumwp.pl/download.php?FID=40&name=Genera%C5%82%20brygady%20pilot%20Stanis%C5%82aw%20Skalski,%20as%20polskiego%20lotnictwa.pdf&mine=application/pdf "Generał brygady pilot Stanisław Skalski as polskiego lotnictwa"]

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Skalski, Stanislaw
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Polish general
| DATE OF BIRTH =27 November 1915
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Kodyma]], [[Podolia Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]]
| DATE OF DEATH =12 November 2004
| PLACE OF DEATH =[[Warsaw]], [[Poland]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Skalski, Stanislaw}}
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:2004 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Kodyma Raion]]
[[Category:People from Podolia Governorate]]
[[Category:The Few]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Polish People's Army generals]]
[[Category:Polish World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:Knights of the Order of Polonia Restituta]]
[[Category:Gold Crosses of the Virtuti Militari]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross and two Bars (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Grunwald, 3rd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland) four times]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]

Łachwa Ghetto

2014-09-06T13:44:39Z

Muta112: /* Uprising and massacre */

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox Holocaust ghetto
| name = Łachwa Ghetto
| type = [[German camps in occupied Poland during World War II|Transit ghetto]]
| image = {{Infobox map
| map = WW2-Holocaust-Poland.PNG
| map_width = 250
| x% = 89.8
| y% = 44.9
| map_caption = {{small|Łachwa location east of [[Brześć Ghetto]] and [[Sobibór extermination camp]] during World War II}}
}}
| caption = [[File:Lakhvaghettomap.jpg|250px]] Łachwa Ghetto map
| location map = Belarus
| map size = 250
| map caption= Location in modern day Belarus
| latd = 52 | latm = 13 | lats = | latNS = N
| longd = 27 | longm = 6 | longs = | longEW = E
| coordinates type = region:PL-MA_type:landmark
| coordinates display = inline,title
| other names =
| known for = [[The Holocaust in Poland]]}}

'''Łachwa (or Lakhva) Ghetto''' was a [[Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe|World War II ghetto]] created on 1 April 1942 by [[Nazi Germany]] in the town of Łachwa in [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|occupied Poland]] (now [[Lakhva]], [[Belarus]]), with the aim of persecution, terror and exploitation of [[History of the Jews in Poland|the local Jews]]. The [[ghetto]] existed only until September. It was the location of one of the first,<ref name="EJ"/> and possibly ''the'' first,<ref name="MLMS">Michaeli, Lichstein, Morawczik, and Sklar (eds.). ''First Ghetto to Revolt: Lachwa''. (Tel Aviv: Entsyklopedyah shel Galuyot, 1957).</ref><ref name="Suhl">Suhl, Yuri. ''They Fought Back''. (New York: Paperback Library Inc., 1967), pp. 181–183.</ref> [[Jew]]ish [[ghetto uprising]] after the Nazi–Soviet [[Invasion of Poland]].

==Establishment of the ghetto==
The [[Wehrmacht|German army]] entered the [[Occupation of Poland#Treatment of Polish citizens under Soviet occupation|Soviet occupation zone]] on 22 June 1941 under the codename [[Operation Barbarossa]] and two weeks later, on 8 July 1941, overran the town of Łachwa, located in the [[Polesie Voivodeship]] of the [[Second Polish Republic]] before 1939.<ref name="SWC">''Lachva'', Multimedia Learning Centre: The Simon Wiesenthal Center. [http://motlc.learningcenter.wiesenthal.org/text/x14/xm1401.html] (last accessed 30 September 2006)</ref> Many young Jews escaped with the Red Army.<ref name="sztetl">{{cite web|url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/lachwa/5,history|title=Łachwa – History|publisher=''[[Virtual Shtetl]]'' [[Museum of the History of Polish Jews]]|accessdate=21 July 2011}}</ref> A [[Judenrat]] was established, headed by a former [[Zionism|Zionist]] leader, [[Dov Lopatyn]].<ref name="EJ">''Lachva'', [[Encyclopedia Judaica]], 2nd ed., Volume 12, pp. 425–426 (Macmillan Reference USA, 2007)</ref> Rabbi Hayyim Zalman Osherowitz was arrested by the Germans. His release was secured later only after the payment of a large ransom.<ref name="USHMM">Pallavicini, Stephen and Patt, Avinoam. "Lachwa", [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10007233 ''An Encyclopedic History of Camps, Ghettos, and Other Detention Sites in Nazi Germany and Nazi-Dominated Territories, 1933–1945'']: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</ref>

On 1 April 1942, the town's Jews were forcibly moved into a new ghetto consisting of two streets and 45 houses, and surrounded by a barbed wire fence.<ref name="Suhl"/><ref name="SWC"/> The ghetto housed roughly 2,350 people, which amounted to approximately {{convert|1|m2}} for every resident.<ref name="USHMM"/>

[[File:Yitzhak Rochzyn - Lachwa (Poland).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Yitzhak Rochzyn (or Icchak Rokchin), leader of the Lachwa ghetto underground, commander of the Jewish uprising]]

==Development of resistance==
The news of massacres, committed throughout the region by German [[Einsatzkommando#Einsatzgruppe B|''Einsatzkommandos'']], soon spread to Łachwa. The Jewish youth organized an [[Resistance during World War II|underground resistance]] under the leadership of Isaac Rochczyn (also spelled Yitzhak Rochzyn or Icchak Rokchin), the head of the local [[Betar]] group. With the assistance of Judenrat, the underground managed to stockpile axes, knives, and iron bars, although efforts to secure firearms were largely unsuccessful.<ref name="Suhl"/><ref name="SWC"/><ref name="USHMM"/>

By August 1942, the Jews in Łachwa knew that the nearby ghettos in Łuniniec (Luninets) and Mikaszewicze (now [[Mikashevichy]], Belarus) had been liquidated. On 2 September 1942, the local populace were informed that some farmers, summoned by the Nazis, had been ordered to dig large pits just outside the town. Later that day, 150 German soldiers from an ''[[Einsatzgruppen|Einsatzgruppe]]'' mobile killing squad with 200 [[Belarusian Auxiliary Police|local auxiliaries]] surrounded the ghetto. Rochczyn and the underground wanted to attack the ghetto fence at midnight to allow the population to flee, but others refused to abandon the elderly and children. Lopatyn asked that the attack be postponed until the morning.<ref name="SWC"/><ref name="USHMM"/><ref name="Yad">''This Month in Holocaust History: September 3, 1942''.</ref><ref>[http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_holocaust/month_in_holocaust/september/september_chronology/chronology_1942_september_03.html Yad Vashem, The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority]; accessed 27 April 2014.</ref>

==Uprising and massacre==
On 3 September 1942, the Germans informed [[Dov Lopatyn]] that the ghetto was to be liquidated, and ordered the ghetto inhabitants to gather for "deportation". To secure the cooperation of the ghetto's leaders, the Germans promised that the members of Judenrat, the ghetto doctor and 30 labourers (whom Lopatyn could choose personally) would be spared. Lopatyn refused the offer, reportedly responding: "Either we all live, or we all die."<ref name="Suhl"/><ref name="SWC"/><ref name="USHMM"/>

When the Germans entered the ghetto, Lopatyn set fire to the Judenrat headquarters, which was the signal to commence the uprising.<ref name="EJ"/> Other buildings were also set on fire. Members of the Ghetto underground attacked the Germans as they entered the ghetto, using axes, sticks, [[molotov cocktail]]s and their bare hands. This battle is believed to represent the first [[ghetto uprising]] of the war. Approximately 650 Jews were killed in the fighting or in the flames, with another 500 or so taken to the pits and shot. Six German soldiers and eight German and Ukrainian (or Belarusian) policemen were also killed. The ghetto fence was breached and approximately 1,000 Jews were able to escape, of whom about 600 were able to take refuge in the [[Pinsk Marshes|Prypeć (Pripet) Marshes]]. Rochczyn was shot and killed as he jumped into the Smierc River, after killing a German soldier with an axe to the head. Although an estimated 120 of the escapees were able to join [[Partisan (military)|partisan]] units, most of the others were eventually tracked down and killed. Approximately 90 residents of the ghetto survived the war.<ref name="Suhl"/> Dov Lopatyn joined a communist partisan unit and was killed on 21 February 1944 by a [[landmine]]. Lakhva was liberated by the [[Red Army]] in July 1944.<ref name="SWC"/>

==See also==
{{details|Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
Pre-war Polish topographic maps showing Łachwa
*[http://www.mapywig.org/m/WIG100_300DPI/P40_S44_DAWIDGRODEK_300dpi.jpg 1:100,000 map from 1932]
*[http://www.mapywig.org/m/wig25k/P40-S44-B_LACHWA_1938.jpg 1:25,000 map from 1938]

{{Einsatzgruppen}}
{{Holocaust Poland}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lachwa Ghetto}}
[[Category:Ghetto uprisings]]
[[Category:Jewish Belarusian history]]
[[Category:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland]]
[[Category:The Holocaust in Belarus]]
[[Category:The Holocaust in Poland]]

Battle of Bautzen (1945)

2014-08-30T10:33:55Z

Muta112:

{{Dablink|For the battle of the Napoleonic Wars see [[Battle of Bautzen]]}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Bautzen (1945)
|image=[[File:GedenksteinBautzen.jpg|220px|alt=Memorial in Bautzen]]
|caption=Memorial in [[Bautzen]] to Polish and Soviet civilians murdered near the town of Wuitschke.
|partof=[[World War II]]
|place=[[Bautzen]], Germany and surrounding rural areas
|date=21–30 April 1945
|result=contradictory statements Polish-Soviet victory<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/> local German victory<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003"/><ref name=Eberhardt/>
|combatant1={{flag|Nazi Germany}}
|combatant2={{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} {{flag|Poland}}
|commander1={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Ferdinand Schörner]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Wilhelm Schmalz]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hermann von Oppeln-Bronikowski]]
| units1 = [[4th Panzer Army]] (elements) and [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th]] Army (elements)
| units2 =[[Polish Second Army]] [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 52nd Army]] (elements) [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 5th Guards Army]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Yefimovich Petrov|Ivan Petrov]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} Vladimir Kostylev {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Karol Świerczewski]]
|strength1=50,000 300 tanks<ref name=zw/> 620 artillery pieces
|strength2=Polish Army: 90,000<ref name=zw/> 500 tanks<ref name=zw/> Soviet Army: at least 20,000
|casualties1=6,500 casualties according to contemporary Polish sources. Considered inflated by modern historians.<ref name=zw/>
|casualties2=Poland: 4,902 killed<ref name=zw/> 2,798 missing<ref name=zw/> 10,532 wounded<ref name=zw/> 250 tanks<ref name=zw/> Soviet Union: unknown
|}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Battle of Berlin}}
{{Location map many | Germany 1937
|float = right
|caption = <center>Location of the Battle of Bautzen</center>
|label='''Battle of Bautzen'''
|label_size=86
|position=right
|bg=white
|lat_deg=51 | lat_min= 11
|lon_deg=14 | lon_min= 25
|mark=Battle_icon_active_(crossed_swords).svg
|marksize=18
|label2=Königsberg
|pos2=left
|bg2=white
|lat2_deg=54 | lat2_min= 43
|lon2_deg=20 | lon2_min= 31
|mark2=Yellow pog.svg
|mark2size = 5
|label3=Warsaw
|pos3=left
|bg3=white
|lat3_deg=52 | lat3_min= 14
|lon3_deg=21 | lon3_min= 00
|mark3=Yellow pog.svg
|mark3size = 5
|label4=Berlin
|pos4=left
|bg4=white
|lat4_deg=52 | lat4_min= 30
|lon4_deg=13 | lon4_min= 24
|mark4=Yellow pog.svg
|mark4size = 5
}}
The '''Battle of Bautzen''' (or '''Battle of Budziszyn''', April 1945) was one of the last battles of the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] during [[World War II]]. It was fought on the extreme southern flank of the [[Battle of the Oder–Neisse#Spremberg-Torgau Offensive|Spremberg-Torgau Offensive]], seeing days of pitched street fighting between forces of the [[Polish Second Army]] and elements of the Soviet [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|52nd Army]] and [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|5th Guards Army]]{{Ref label|a|a|none}} on one side and elements of German [[Army Group Center]] in the form of the remnants of the [[4th Panzer Army|4th Panzer]] and [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th]] Armies on the other.

The battle took place during [[Ivan Konev]]'s [[1st Ukrainian Front]]'s push toward Berlin, which was part of the larger Soviet [[Battle of Berlin|Berlin Offensive]]. The battle was fought in the town of [[Bautzen]] ({{lang-pl|Budziszyn}}) and the rural areas to the northeast situated primarily along the Bautzen–[[Niesky]] line. Major combat began on 21 April 1945 and continued until 26 April although isolated engagements continued to take place until 30 April. The Polish Second Army under [[Karol Świerczewski]] suffered heavy losses, but with the aid of Soviet reinforcements prevented the German forces from breaking through to their rear. According to one historian{{Who|date=April 2013}} the Battle of Bautzen was one of the [[Polish Army]]'s bloodiest battles.

After the battle both sides claimed victory and modern views as to who won the battle remain contradictory. Polish historiography during the [[People's Republic of Poland]] portrayed the battle as difficult, but victorious. After the year 1989, Polish historians became much more critical of Świerczewski's command, blaming the near destruction of the Polish force on his incompetence and desire to capture [[Dresden]]. The battle's outcome is now generally seen in Poland as a very costly victory for the Soviets and their Polish allies. Because the war was almost over and the battle had no strategic impact on the ongoing Battle of Berlin, German historiography has focused more on its tactical aspects. The German operation successfully recaptured Bautzen and its surroundings, which were held until the end of the war.

==Background==
In the last months of World War II the Polish Second Army, under General Karol Świerczewski, took part in the Soviet drive on Berlin.<ref name="Komornicki1967-122"/> Part of Marshal Ivan Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front, the Poles operated in the centre of the front, flanked on the right by the 5th Guards Army and on the left by the [[7th Mechanized Corps]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/> Opposing these forces was the [[4th Panzer Army]] under General [[Fritz-Hubert Gräser]], of Field Marshal [[Ferdinand Schörner]]'s [[Army Group Center]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-122"/>

On 17 April, the Polish Second Army breached German defenses on the rivers [[Weißer Schöps|Weisser Schöps]]<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/> and [[Neisse]]. Their pursuit of retreating German forces toward [[Dresden]] threatened to cut off additional forces in the [[Muskau Park|Muskauer Forst]] region.<ref name="Komornicki1967-128"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> On 18 and 19 April elements of the Second Army (the 8th Infantry Division and [[1st Armoured Corps (Poland)|1st Armored Corps]]) engaged the Germans in the south and pushed them back while the remaining units (5th, 7th, 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions) drove on to Dresden, gaining bridgeheads on the river [[Spree]] north of Bautzen and destroying German forces in the Muskauer Forst.<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> The following day Soviet units of the 7th Mechanized Corps captured parts of Bautzen and secured the line south of [[Niesky]], taking [[Weißenberg]] and trapping several German formations.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name=Ahlfen207208/>

Świerczewski decided to prioritize the taking of Dresden over securing his southern flank, deviating from the plan he was given by Konev.<ref name=zw/> Meanwhile Schörner was concentrating his units (the "Görlitz Group") in the [[Görlitz]] (Zgorzelec) and [[Reichenbach (Oberlausitz)|Reichenbach]] region, and planned to launch a counteroffensive at the southern flank of the Polish Army. His aim was to stop the 1st Front's advance and break through to Berlin to relieve the trapped [[9th Army (Wehrmacht)|9th Army]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Germans were pinning their hopes on the idea that the Soviets might be fended off long enough for the city to be surrendered to the Western Allies.<ref name="Bahm2001"/> The concentration of Schörner's units went unnoticed by Soviet and Polish reconnaissance.<ref name=zw/>

==Prelude==

===Opposing forces===
German forces were composed of elements of the 4th Panzer Army and commanded by the headquarters for the ''Grossdeutschland'' and 57th Armored Corps. For the battle, the Germans had two armored divisions (the [[20th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|20th]] and ''[[Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring|Hermann Göring]]'' Divisions), two mechanized divisions (the ''[[Panzergrenadier Division Brandenburg|Brandenburg]]'' and ''[[Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier Division 2 Hermann Göring|Hermann Göring 2]]'' Divisions), an infantry division (the [[17th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|17th]]) as well as an infantry division battle group (the remnants of the 545th Volksgrenadier Division). This force counted some 50,000 soldiers, 300 tanks, and 600 guns.<ref name=Grzelak272/> The supply train of the [[10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg|10th SS Armored Division]] was also present near Bautzen.<ref name=LexikonWehrmacht/>{{Ref label|b|b|none}}

The Polish Second Army consisted of five infantry divisions: ([[Polish 5th Infantry Division|5th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 7th Infantry Division|7th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 8th Infantry Division|8th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 9th Infantry Division|9th Infantry Division]] and [[Polish 10th Infantry Division|10th Infantry Division]], the 1st Armored Corps, and smaller units), about 84,000–90,000 men, and 500 tanks.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Many of them were new recruits inexperienced in combat, incorporated from the recently retaken Polish territories.<ref name=zw/> The quality of the officer corps has also been questioned.<ref name=zw/> One of the major problems facing the People's Army was lack of a qualified cadre; a 1944 estimate showed that the army had one officer for each 1,200 soldiers.<ref name="Michta1990"/> Many of the officers in the Polish Army were Soviet officers of Polish descent.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/>

Overall, the German units were less numerous than the Polish forces, their equipment worn and supplies inferior. Polish sources describe the Germans as more experienced, however the German sources accentuate their mixed structure of experienced soldiers and inexperienced recruits of [[Hitlerjugend]] and [[Volkssturm]] units.<ref name=zw/><ref name=Eberhardt/>

==Battle==
[[File:Battle of Berlin 1945-a.png|thumb|Berlin operation|alt=Berlin operation]]
[[File:Battle of Berlin 1945-b.png|thumb|Berlin operation|alt=Berlin operation]]
[[File:Battle of Bautzen 1945-a.png|thumb|Map of the Battle of Bautzen (1)|alt=Map of the Battle of Bautzen (1)]]
[[File:Battle of Bautzen 1945-b.png|thumb|Map of the Battle of Bautzen (2)|alt=Map of the Battle of Bautzen (2)]]

===Drive on Dresden===
On 21 April, a gap had formed between the Polish infantry units (8th and 9th Infantry Divisions) and the 1st Armored Corps pushing towards Dresden, and the Polish units which were securing the Muskauer Forst region.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The 7th and 10th Infantry Divisions were engaged near Neisse and the 5th Infantry Division and the 16th Tank Brigade were in transit in between those two groups.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The Polish units were stretched over a line of {{convert|50|km|sp=us}}.<ref name=zw/> The Germans took the opportunity presented to them and pushed into this gap.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The events of 21 April marked the beginning of this battle.<ref name="zw"/> In the west 20th Panzer Division commenced its drive on Bautzen, while in the east 17th Infantry Division advanced on Niesky and Weißenberg, freeing a number of trapped German troops on its way.<ref name=Ahlfen208/> The Germans drove in between the Polish Second Army and the [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 52nd Army]] around Bautzen, some {{convert|40|km|sp=us}} north-east of Dresden and {{convert|25|km|sp=us}} west of Görlitz, sweeping the Soviet units of the [[48th Rifle Corps]], and driving towards [[Spremberg]].<ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> Major General [[M. K. Puteiko]], commander of the 52nd Army's [[254 Rifle Division]] of the [[73rd Rifle Corps]] was mortally wounded around Bautzen.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998"/> At first, Polish general Świerczewski continued with his attempt to take Dresden, which contributed to the growing chaos in the Polish forces, as many communication lines were cut.<ref name=zw/>

The Germans succeeded in linking up with the remnants of their forces in the Muskauer Forst, and throwing the local Polish and Soviet forces into chaos.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The Polish Second Army lost cohesion and split into four groups.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Several units of the Polish Second Army found themselves surrounded.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> In particular, the Polish 5th Infantry Division and 16th Tank Brigade were struck in the rear, suffering severe losses.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The headquarters of the 5th Division, defended only by sapper and training battalions, came under attack.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/> The command group managed to break through to the 16th Tank Brigade, but that unit itself was almost annihilated at [[Förstgen]] (Forsiegen), losing over 90 percent of its personnel; out of 1,300 soldiers, only about 100 survived.<ref name=zw/> The commanding general of the Polish 5th Infantry Division, [[Aleksander Waszkiewicz]], was killed.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/> In the village of Niederkaina, today a part of Bautzen, between 196 and 300 captured German members of the Volkssturm were locked in a barn which was set on fire by retreating Polish or Soviet troops.<ref name="Eberhardt"/><ref name=kiS/><ref name=ba/>

By 23 April the German breakthrough reached the [[Schwarzer Schöps]] River in the east, and [[Lohsa]], [[Oppitz]] and [[Grossdubrau]] in the west. The main body of the German forces was located in the forested region around Lohsa.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Germans continued their push toward [[Königswartha]] and [[Hoyerswerda]].<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

===Polish retreat===
Eventually, Świerczewski halted his force's advance on Dresden, and ordered it to pull back and secure the breach.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-132"/> On 22 April he ordered the 1st Armored Corps to change direction, retreat from Dresden and support the centre. The 8th Infantry Division was also recalled; however, the 9th remained near Dresden. For a while Świerczewski was out of communication with his superiors, including Marshal Konev.<ref name="Erickson1999"/> Konev also sent his chief of staff, General [[Ivan Yefimovich Petrov]], and his chief of operations, General [[Vladimir Ivanovich Kostylev]], to look at the situation.<ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> Petrov managed to re-establish communications, and left Kostylev in charge.<ref name="Bahm2001"/> Świerczewski was briefly relieved of his command for incompetence.<ref name="zw"/> To stabilize the situation, Konev ordered eight divisions from the Ukrainian Front to reinforce the Polish positions.<ref name=zw/> [[Soviet 14th Guards Rifle Division|Soviet 14th]] and [[Soviet 95th Guards Rifle Division]]s, as well as the [[4th Guards Kantemirovskaya Tank Division|Soviet 4th Guards Tank Corps]], were ordered to attack toward [[Kamenz]], Königswartha and [[Sdier]] to stop the Germans from advancing further north.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> [[2nd Air Army]] was also assigned to this theater.<ref name="Erickson1999"/>

Meanwhile the German advance to the southeast of Bautzen was successful. The Soviet 294th Rifle Division was encircled at Weißenberg by the ''Brandenburg'' Division.<ref name=Ahlfen208/> In its subsequent breakout on 24 April, large parts of the 294th Division were destroyed. At the same time at Bautzen the 20th Panzer Division was able to make contact with the trapped units in the town from the south. Bronikowski then lost no time and immediately ordered an attack into Bautzen. Coordinating with the trapped troops, he was able to break into the town. A hastily assembled Polish counterattack was not successful and most of Bautzen was then recaptured after several days of bloody [[house-to-house fighting|house-to-house combat]]. Several remaining pockets of resistance in the town were cleared during the next days.<ref name=Ahlfen208209/><ref name=B199942-46/> Outside the town the German advance stalled, as their troops were running low on fuel supplies.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/><ref name=Eberhardt/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> The recapture of Bautzen was one of the last successful German tactical victories on the Eastern Front.<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003"/>

By 25 April Polish units were able to stabilize a defense on the line Kamenz–[[Kuckau]]–north Bautzen–Spree–[[Spreewiese]]–[[Kreba-Neudorf|Heideanger]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> On that day, [[Hitler]] congratulated Schörner on his "victory".<ref name="Mcateer2009"/> The Polish 7th and 10th Infantry Divisions were ordered to advance toward Sdier-Heideanger.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The 7th and 10th Polish Infantry Divisions slowly advanced, with the 10th reaching north of [[Uhyst|Spreefurt]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> With the Soviet units on their right flank they also secured a road to Königswartha.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/>

The 9th Division found itself alone at the spearhead of the abandoned Polish push towards Dresden. It received orders to retreat on 26 April.<ref name=as/> Attempting to withdraw quickly and to form back with the main forces, it was intercepted by the Germans and sustained heavy losses.<ref name=zw/> The units were moving with insufficient security, on the assumption that the line of retreat was safe; at the same time the Germans captured Polish orders with details of their planned withdrawal routes.<ref name=zw/> Coordination between the units was also lacking.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> 26th Infantry Regiment from the 9th Division took very heavy casualties (75 percent) in the "valley of death" around [[Panschwitz-Kuckau]] and [[Crostwitz]].<ref name=zw/> A Polish [[military hospital]] convoy from the same division was ambushed near [[Horka, Saxony|Horka]], with [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|most of its personnel and wounded executed]] (about 300 casualties). There was only one survivor, chaplain Jan Rdzanek.<ref name=zw/><ref name="GrzelakStańczyk1993"/> The division commander, Colonel [[Aleksander Łaski]], was taken captive.<ref name=zw/><ref name=zw/> As a result of these losses, the 9th Division ceased to be an effective force; the remaining personnel were merged into the Soviet [[19th Guards Rifle Division]].<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

According to some sources, 26 April marks the end of this battle, although less severe and isolated clashes in that region continued until 30 April.<ref name=zw/> Other sources note that heavy fighting still took place on 27 April, and that the German advance was only completely halted by 28 April.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> By the end of the month, the Polish Second Army and the Soviet forces had repelled the German attack, forming a line toward Kamenz–[[Doberschütz]]–[[Dauban]], and was preparing to launch an offensive toward [[Prague]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Pomnik żołnierzy polskich Crostwitz.jpg|thumb|upright|Monument to Polish soldiers in [[Crostwitz]]]]
Both sides suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Polish casualties were particularly severe.<ref name=zw/> In a relatively short time the Polish Second Army lost more than 22 percent of its personnel and 57 percent of its tanks and armored vehicles (about 200 total).<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Official estimates claimed about 18,000 casualties (including almost 5,000 dead).<ref name=zw/> Some other estimates give the Polish casualties as up to 25,000.<ref name=zw/> According to Polish historian [[Zbigniew Wawer]], this was the most bloody battle that the [[Polish Army]] had been involved in since the [[battle of Bzura]] in 1939.<ref name=zw/>

German casualties were significant, but smaller than the Polish and Soviet ones; contemporary Polish sources estimated German losses at 6,500 personnel, which is now seen as an inflated estimate.<ref name=zw/> The German forces failed in their objective of breaking through the 1st Ukrainian Front and coming to the aid of Berlin.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-138"/> They managed, however, to inflict very serious casualties on the local Polish and Soviet units and stopped the Polish drive on Dresden (it was still in German hands at the time of the German capitulation on May 9).<ref name=zw/> The successful recapture of Bautzen, Weißenberg and surroundings is called one of the last successful German armored counterattacks of the war. Bautzen and surroundings stayed in German hands until [[German Instrument of Surrender|Germany's capitulation]]. Although the battle had no strategic impact on the battle raging in Berlin, it allowed most of the participating German units as well as numerous refugees from the east to escape to the west, surrendering to the Western Allies.<ref name=zw/><ref name=B199942-46/><ref name=Ahlfen209/>

==Historiography==
[[File:Karol Świerczewski 'Walter'.jpg|thumb|left|220px|General Karol Świerczewski|alt=General Karol Świerczewski]]
Despite the heavy Polish casualties—or according to one historian, possibly because of that very reason—the battle has been largely neglected in Polish [[historiography]].<ref name="zw"/> During the period of the [[People's Republic of Poland]] it was portrayed merely as a difficult but victorious battle.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-138"/> However, since the year 1989 modern Polish historians have been much more critical of Świerczewski's command, blaming his drive on Dresden for the near destruction of the Polish force.<ref name=zw/> Świerczewski's lack of competence, according to some sources, included commanding the battle while drunk.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Piecuch1997"/> He was briefly relieved of command by Marshal Konev,<ref name=zw/> but due to the backing of the Soviet high command (most likely the [[NKVD]]) he not only retained his position but all controversies were hushed up, and after the war was hailed as a hero.<ref name=zw/> The actions of other Polish officers have also been questioned, such as the 9th Infantry Division commander's decision to advance without sufficient reconnaissance and escort.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

In modern Polish historiography the battle's outcome is seen as a victory, if a very costly one, for the Polish and Soviet troops.<ref name=zw/> As noted by historians such as Wawer and Komorowski, despite the heavy casualties, the Polish–Soviet frontline was not seriously breached, and thus the German offensive was a failure.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

==Notes==
'''a''' {{Note label|a|a|none}} Wawer incorrectly identifies this formation as the [[5th Guards Tank Army]], which was near the Baltic coast at the time and subordinated to the 2nd Belorussian Front.<ref name=zw/> Komornicki correctly identifies the formation as the [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|5th Guards Army]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/>

'''b''' {{Note label|b|b|none}} Wawer and Solak assert that the 2nd SS Panzer Division was also present in the battle. This is an incorrect assertion as the 2nd SS Division fought in Hungary and Austria from January 1945 until the end of the war.<ref name=T145/> The 21st Panzer Division has also been mentioned in connection with this battle, but the 21st had already moved north as part of reinforcements provided by the 4th Panzer Army to the 9th Army. By the time the Battle of Bautzen had begun, both the 21st Panzer Division and the 10th SS Panzer Division (minus its supply train) were committed to support the 9th Army and both were encircled in the [[Battle of Halbe|Halbe Pocket]]. The assessments of Polish historian Kormonicki,<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> German general von Ahlfen, and Polish historian Grzelak all support the order of battle not including the 21st and 10th SS Divisions.


==References==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name=Ahlfen207208>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|pages=207–208|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen208>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|page=208|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen208209>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|pages=208–209|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen209>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|page=209|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=ba>{{cite web |url=http://www.bautzen-anzeiger.de/bautzen/gesellschaft/6794_gedenken-an-kriegsgraeuel-von-niederkaina.html |title= Gedenken an Kriegsgräuel von Niederkaina - Bautzner Anzeiger (Remembrance of the wartime atrocities of Niederkaina)|author=Delnja Kina|language= German|accessdate=17 December 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Bahm2001">{{cite book|author=Karl Bahm|title=Berlin 1945: The Final Reckoning|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=26 November 2001|publisher=Zenith Imprint|isbn=978-0-7603-1240-7|page=129}}</ref>

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<ref name=B199942-46>{{Cite book|title=Die Kämpfe um Weißenberg und Bautzen im April 1945 (The battles around Weißenberg and Bautzen in April 1945)|author=Eberhardt Berndt|publisher=Podzun-Pallas |year=1999|isbn=3-7909-0679-4|pages=42–46|language=German}}</ref>

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<ref name=Grzelak272>{{cite book|author1=Czesław Grzelak|author2=Henryk Stańczyk|author3=Stefan Zwoliński|title=Bez możliwości wyboru: Wojsko Polskie na froncie wschodnim, 1934–1945 (Without Any Choice: Polish Army on the Eastern Front, 1934-1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f1NnAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1993|publisher=Wydawn. Bellona|isbn=978-83-11-08252-6|page=272|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=kiS>{{Cite book|title=Kriegsverbrechen in Sachsen; Die vergessenen Toten von April/Mai 1945 (War crimes in Saxony; The forgotten dead of April/May 1945)|first1=Theodor|last1=Seidel|publisher=University of Leipzig |year=2005|isbn=978-3-86583-052-4|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-122">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the Battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=122}}</ref>

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<ref name="Komornicki1967-134">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=134}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-138">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=138}}</ref>

<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009">{{cite book|author1=Krzysztof Komorowski|author2=Poland. Wojskowe Biuro Badań Historycznych|title=Boje polskie 1939–1945: przewodnik encyklopedyczny (Polish Battles 1939-1945: Historical Guide)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XX5KcTNWbooC&pg=PA65|accessdate=12 May 2011|year=2009|publisher=Bellona|isbn=978-83-7399-353-2|pages=65–67|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=LexikonWehrmacht>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Gliederungen/PanzerdivisionenSS/10SSPD-R.htm |title= 10. SS Panzer-Division "Frundsberg" - Lexikon der Wehrmacht (Encyclopedia of the Wehrmacht)|author=Andreas Altenburger|language= German|accessdate=17 December 2011}}</ref>

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<ref name="Michta1990">{{cite book|author=Andrew A. Michta|title=Red Eagle: the army in Polish politics, 1944–1988|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7Ff065RmrAsC&pg=PA40|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=November 1990|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-8861-6|pages=40–41}}</ref>

<ref name="Piecuch1997">{{cite book|author=Henryk Piecuch|title=Imperium służb specjalnych: od Gomułki do Kani (Empire of the Secret Services: from Gomułka to Kania)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vpq1AAAAIAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1997|publisher=Agencja Wydawn. CB|isbn=978-83-86245-16-1|page=35|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003">{{cite book|author1=Gordon Williamson|author2=Stephen Andrew|title=The Hermann Goring Division|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mMc9tLaOGzsC&pg=PA16|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=19 February 2003|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-84176-406-1|page=16}}</ref>

<ref name="as">{{cite web|last=Solak|first=Andrzej|title=Budziszyn 1945 –zapomniana bitwa (Forgotten Battle)|url=http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473|publisher=Myśl Polska, Nr 18-19 (1–8.05.2005)|archivedate=10 May 2011| accessdate=10 May 2011|archiveurl=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20070311005707/http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473|date=May 2005|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=T145>{{cite book|author=Georg Tessin|title=Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS 1939 – 1945 (Units and troops of the German Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS 1939-1945)|volume=II|year=1973|publisher=Biblio Verlag|place=Osnabrück|isbn=3-7648-0871-3|page=145|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="zw">{{cite web|last=Wawer|first=Zbigniew|title=Zapomniana bitwa (Forgotten Battle)|url=http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9205:zapomniana-bitwa&catid=116:historia&Itemid=145|publisher=polska-zbrojna.pl|accessdate=10 May 2011|date=26 August 2010|language=Polish}}</ref>
}}
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=Hans von Ahlfen|year=1977|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|location=Stuttgart|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Eberhard Berndt|chapter=Die Kämpfe um Bautzen 18. bis 27. April 1945|title=Kriegsschauplatz Sachsen 1945. Daten, Fakten, Hintergründe|editor=|location=Altenburg/Leipzig|year=1995}}
* {{cite book|author=Eberhard Berndt|title=Die Kämpfe um Weißenberg und Bautzen im April 1945|publisher=Wölfersheim-Berstadt|year=1999|isbn=3-7909-0679-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Wolfgang Fleischer|year=2004|title=Das Kriegsende in Sachsen 1945|publisher=Dörfler|isbn=978-3-89555-443-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Czesław Grzelak; Henryk Stańczyk; Stefan Zwoliński|year=2002|title=Armia Berlinga i Żymierskiego (Army of Berling and Żymierski)|publisher=Wydawnictwo Neriton|location=Warszawa|isbn=978-83-88973-27-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Kazimierz Kaczmarek|title=Polacy w bitwie pod Budziszynem (Poles in the Battle of Bautzen)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p-ZJAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1970|publisher=Interpress}}

==External links==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20070311005707/http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473 Forgotten battles (Polish)]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20060504060303/http://www.wp39.netlook.pl/str/uzup/map/map8.html Map (Polish)]

{{World War II}}
{{coord missing|Saxony}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Bautzen (1945)}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 in Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving Poland|Bautzen]]
[[Category:Poland–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Bautzen]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany|Bautzen]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]

Battle of Bautzen (1945)

2014-08-30T10:31:54Z

Muta112: Undid revision 622749120 by 119.94.91.190 (talk)

{{Dablink|For the battle of the Napoleonic Wars see [[Battle of Bautzen]]}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Bautzen (1945)
|image=[[File:GedenksteinBautzen.jpg|220px|alt=Memorial in Bautzen]]
|caption=Memorial in [[Bautzen]] to Polish and Soviet civilians murdered near the town of Wuitschke.
|partof=[[World War II]]
|place=[[Bautzen]], Germany and surrounding rural areas
|date=21–30 April 1945
|result=contradictory statements Polish-Soviet victory<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/> local German victory<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003"/><ref name=Eberhardt/>
|combatant1={{flag|Nazi Germany}}
|combatant2={{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} {{flag|Poland}}
|commander1={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Ferdinand Schörner]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Wilhelm Schmalz]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hermann von Oppeln-Bronikowski]]
| units1 = [[4th Panzer Army]] (elements) and [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th]] Army (elements)
| units2 =[[Polish Second Army]] [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 52nd Army]] (elements) [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 5th Guards Army]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Yefimovich Petrov|Ivan Petrov]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} Vladimir Kostylev {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Karol Świerczewski]]
|strength1=50,000 300 tanks<ref name=zw/> 620 artillery pieces
|strength2=Polish Army: 90,000<ref name=zw/> 500 tanks<ref name=zw/> Soviet Army: at least 20,000
|casualties1=6,500 casualties according to contemporary Polish sources. Considered inflated by modern historians.<ref name=zw/>
|casualties2=Poland: 4,902 killed<ref name=zw/> 2,798 missing<ref name=zw/> 10,532 wounded<ref name=zw/> 250 tanks<ref name=zw/> Soviet Union: unknown
|}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Battle of Berlin}}
{{Location map many | Germany 1937
|float = right
|caption = <center>Location of the Battle of Bautzen</center>
|label='''Battle of Bautzen'''
|label_size=86
|position=right
|bg=white
|lat_deg=51 | lat_min= 11
|lon_deg=14 | lon_min= 25
|mark=Battle_icon_active_(crossed_swords).svg
|marksize=18
|label2=Königsberg
|pos2=left
|bg2=white
|lat2_deg=54 | lat2_min= 43
|lon2_deg=20 | lon2_min= 31
|mark2=Yellow pog.svg
|mark2size = 5
|label3=Warsaw
|pos3=left
|bg3=white
|lat3_deg=52 | lat3_min= 14
|lon3_deg=21 | lon3_min= 00
|mark3=Yellow pog.svg
|mark3size = 5
|label4=Berlin
|pos4=left
|bg4=white
|lat4_deg=52 | lat4_min= 30
|lon4_deg=13 | lon4_min= 24
|mark4=Yellow pog.svg
|mark4size = 5
}}
The '''Battle of Bautzen''' (or '''Battle of Budziszyn''', April 1945) was one of the last battles of the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] during [[World War II]]. It was fought on the extreme southern flank of the [[Battle of the Oder–Neisse#Spremberg-Torgau Offensive|Spremberg-Torgau Offensive]], seeing days of pitched street fighting between forces of the [[Polish Second Army]] and elements of the Soviet [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|52nd Army]] and [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|5th Guards Army]]{{Ref label|a|a|none}} on one side and elements of German [[Army Group Center]] in the form of the remnants of the [[4th Panzer Army|4th Panzer]] and [[17th Army (Wehrmacht)|17th]] Armies on the other.

The battle took place during [[Ivan Konev]]'s [[1st Ukrainian Front]]'s push toward Berlin, which was part of the larger Soviet [[Battle of Berlin|Berlin Offensive]]. The battle was fought in the town of [[Bautzen]] ({{lang-pl|Budziszyn}}) and the rural areas to the northeast situated primarily along the Bautzen–[[Niesky]] line. Major combat began on 21 April 1945 and continued until 26 April although isolated engagements continued to take place until 30 April. The Polish Second Army under [[Karol Świerczewski]] suffered heavy losses, but with the aid of Soviet reinforcements prevented the German forces from breaking through to their rear. According to one historian{{Who|date=April 2013}} the Battle of Bautzen was one of the [[Polish Army]]'s bloodiest battles.

After the battle both sides claimed victory and modern views as to who won the battle remain contradictory. Polish historiography during the [[People's Republic of Poland]] portrayed the battle as difficult, but victorious. After the [[fall of communism]], Polish historians became much more critical of Świerczewski's command, blaming the near destruction of the Polish force on his incompetence and desire to capture [[Dresden]]. The battle's outcome is now generally seen in Poland as a very costly victory for the Soviets and their Polish allies. Because the war was almost over and the battle had no strategic impact on the ongoing Battle of Berlin, German historiography has focused more on its tactical aspects. The German operation successfully recaptured Bautzen and its surroundings, which were held until the end of the war.

==Background==
In the last months of World War II the Polish Second Army, under General Karol Świerczewski, took part in the Soviet drive on Berlin.<ref name="Komornicki1967-122"/> Part of Marshal Ivan Konev's 1st Ukrainian Front, the Poles operated in the centre of the front, flanked on the right by the 5th Guards Army and on the left by the [[7th Mechanized Corps]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/> Opposing these forces was the [[4th Panzer Army]] under General [[Fritz-Hubert Gräser]], of Field Marshal [[Ferdinand Schörner]]'s [[Army Group Center]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-122"/>

On 17 April, the Polish Second Army breached German defenses on the rivers [[Weißer Schöps|Weisser Schöps]]<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/> and [[Neisse]]. Their pursuit of retreating German forces toward [[Dresden]] threatened to cut off additional forces in the [[Muskau Park|Muskauer Forst]] region.<ref name="Komornicki1967-128"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> On 18 and 19 April elements of the Second Army (the 8th Infantry Division and [[1st Armoured Corps (Poland)|1st Armored Corps]]) engaged the Germans in the south and pushed them back while the remaining units (5th, 7th, 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions) drove on to Dresden, gaining bridgeheads on the river [[Spree]] north of Bautzen and destroying German forces in the Muskauer Forst.<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> The following day Soviet units of the 7th Mechanized Corps captured parts of Bautzen and secured the line south of [[Niesky]], taking [[Weißenberg]] and trapping several German formations.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name=Ahlfen207208/>

Świerczewski decided to prioritize the taking of Dresden over securing his southern flank, deviating from the plan he was given by Konev.<ref name=zw/> Meanwhile Schörner was concentrating his units (the "Görlitz Group") in the [[Görlitz]] (Zgorzelec) and [[Reichenbach (Oberlausitz)|Reichenbach]] region, and planned to launch a counteroffensive at the southern flank of the Polish Army. His aim was to stop the 1st Front's advance and break through to Berlin to relieve the trapped [[9th Army (Wehrmacht)|9th Army]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Germans were pinning their hopes on the idea that the Soviets might be fended off long enough for the city to be surrendered to the Western Allies.<ref name="Bahm2001"/> The concentration of Schörner's units went unnoticed by Soviet and Polish reconnaissance.<ref name=zw/>

==Prelude==

===Opposing forces===
German forces were composed of elements of the 4th Panzer Army and commanded by the headquarters for the ''Grossdeutschland'' and 57th Armored Corps. For the battle, the Germans had two armored divisions (the [[20th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|20th]] and ''[[Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring|Hermann Göring]]'' Divisions), two mechanized divisions (the ''[[Panzergrenadier Division Brandenburg|Brandenburg]]'' and ''[[Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier Division 2 Hermann Göring|Hermann Göring 2]]'' Divisions), an infantry division (the [[17th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|17th]]) as well as an infantry division battle group (the remnants of the 545th Volksgrenadier Division). This force counted some 50,000 soldiers, 300 tanks, and 600 guns.<ref name=Grzelak272/> The supply train of the [[10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg|10th SS Armored Division]] was also present near Bautzen.<ref name=LexikonWehrmacht/>{{Ref label|b|b|none}}

The Polish Second Army consisted of five infantry divisions: ([[Polish 5th Infantry Division|5th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 7th Infantry Division|7th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 8th Infantry Division|8th Infantry Division]], [[Polish 9th Infantry Division|9th Infantry Division]] and [[Polish 10th Infantry Division|10th Infantry Division]], the 1st Armored Corps, and smaller units), about 84,000–90,000 men, and 500 tanks.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Many of them were new recruits inexperienced in combat, incorporated from the recently retaken Polish territories.<ref name=zw/> The quality of the officer corps has also been questioned.<ref name=zw/> One of the major problems facing the People's Army was lack of a qualified cadre; a 1944 estimate showed that the army had one officer for each 1,200 soldiers.<ref name="Michta1990"/> Many of the officers in the Polish Army were Soviet officers of Polish descent.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/>

Overall, the German units were less numerous than the Polish forces, their equipment worn and supplies inferior. Polish sources describe the Germans as more experienced, however the German sources accentuate their mixed structure of experienced soldiers and inexperienced recruits of [[Hitlerjugend]] and [[Volkssturm]] units.<ref name=zw/><ref name=Eberhardt/>

==Battle==
[[File:Battle of Berlin 1945-a.png|thumb|Berlin operation|alt=Berlin operation]]
[[File:Battle of Berlin 1945-b.png|thumb|Berlin operation|alt=Berlin operation]]
[[File:Battle of Bautzen 1945-a.png|thumb|Map of the Battle of Bautzen (1)|alt=Map of the Battle of Bautzen (1)]]
[[File:Battle of Bautzen 1945-b.png|thumb|Map of the Battle of Bautzen (2)|alt=Map of the Battle of Bautzen (2)]]

===Drive on Dresden===
On 21 April, a gap had formed between the Polish infantry units (8th and 9th Infantry Divisions) and the 1st Armored Corps pushing towards Dresden, and the Polish units which were securing the Muskauer Forst region.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The 7th and 10th Infantry Divisions were engaged near Neisse and the 5th Infantry Division and the 16th Tank Brigade were in transit in between those two groups.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The Polish units were stretched over a line of {{convert|50|km|sp=us}}.<ref name=zw/> The Germans took the opportunity presented to them and pushed into this gap.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The events of 21 April marked the beginning of this battle.<ref name="zw"/> In the west 20th Panzer Division commenced its drive on Bautzen, while in the east 17th Infantry Division advanced on Niesky and Weißenberg, freeing a number of trapped German troops on its way.<ref name=Ahlfen208/> The Germans drove in between the Polish Second Army and the [[52nd Army (Soviet Union)|Soviet 52nd Army]] around Bautzen, some {{convert|40|km|sp=us}} north-east of Dresden and {{convert|25|km|sp=us}} west of Görlitz, sweeping the Soviet units of the [[48th Rifle Corps]], and driving towards [[Spremberg]].<ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> Major General [[M. K. Puteiko]], commander of the 52nd Army's [[254 Rifle Division]] of the [[73rd Rifle Corps]] was mortally wounded around Bautzen.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998"/> At first, Polish general Świerczewski continued with his attempt to take Dresden, which contributed to the growing chaos in the Polish forces, as many communication lines were cut.<ref name=zw/>

The Germans succeeded in linking up with the remnants of their forces in the Muskauer Forst, and throwing the local Polish and Soviet forces into chaos.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The Polish Second Army lost cohesion and split into four groups.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Several units of the Polish Second Army found themselves surrounded.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> In particular, the Polish 5th Infantry Division and 16th Tank Brigade were struck in the rear, suffering severe losses.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/> The headquarters of the 5th Division, defended only by sapper and training battalions, came under attack.<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/> The command group managed to break through to the 16th Tank Brigade, but that unit itself was almost annihilated at [[Förstgen]] (Forsiegen), losing over 90 percent of its personnel; out of 1,300 soldiers, only about 100 survived.<ref name=zw/> The commanding general of the Polish 5th Infantry Division, [[Aleksander Waszkiewicz]], was killed.<ref name="Komornicki1967-131"/><ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182"/> In the village of Niederkaina, today a part of Bautzen, between 196 and 300 captured German members of the Volkssturm were locked in a barn which was set on fire by retreating Polish or Soviet troops.<ref name="Eberhardt"/><ref name=kiS/><ref name=ba/>

By 23 April the German breakthrough reached the [[Schwarzer Schöps]] River in the east, and [[Lohsa]], [[Oppitz]] and [[Grossdubrau]] in the west. The main body of the German forces was located in the forested region around Lohsa.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Germans continued their push toward [[Königswartha]] and [[Hoyerswerda]].<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

===Polish retreat===
Eventually, Świerczewski halted his force's advance on Dresden, and ordered it to pull back and secure the breach.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-132"/> On 22 April he ordered the 1st Armored Corps to change direction, retreat from Dresden and support the centre. The 8th Infantry Division was also recalled; however, the 9th remained near Dresden. For a while Świerczewski was out of communication with his superiors, including Marshal Konev.<ref name="Erickson1999"/> Konev also sent his chief of staff, General [[Ivan Yefimovich Petrov]], and his chief of operations, General [[Vladimir Ivanovich Kostylev]], to look at the situation.<ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> Petrov managed to re-establish communications, and left Kostylev in charge.<ref name="Bahm2001"/> Świerczewski was briefly relieved of his command for incompetence.<ref name="zw"/> To stabilize the situation, Konev ordered eight divisions from the Ukrainian Front to reinforce the Polish positions.<ref name=zw/> [[Soviet 14th Guards Rifle Division|Soviet 14th]] and [[Soviet 95th Guards Rifle Division]]s, as well as the [[4th Guards Kantemirovskaya Tank Division|Soviet 4th Guards Tank Corps]], were ordered to attack toward [[Kamenz]], Königswartha and [[Sdier]] to stop the Germans from advancing further north.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> [[2nd Air Army]] was also assigned to this theater.<ref name="Erickson1999"/>

Meanwhile the German advance to the southeast of Bautzen was successful. The Soviet 294th Rifle Division was encircled at Weißenberg by the ''Brandenburg'' Division.<ref name=Ahlfen208/> In its subsequent breakout on 24 April, large parts of the 294th Division were destroyed. At the same time at Bautzen the 20th Panzer Division was able to make contact with the trapped units in the town from the south. Bronikowski then lost no time and immediately ordered an attack into Bautzen. Coordinating with the trapped troops, he was able to break into the town. A hastily assembled Polish counterattack was not successful and most of Bautzen was then recaptured after several days of bloody [[house-to-house fighting|house-to-house combat]]. Several remaining pockets of resistance in the town were cleared during the next days.<ref name=Ahlfen208209/><ref name=B199942-46/> Outside the town the German advance stalled, as their troops were running low on fuel supplies.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/><ref name=Eberhardt/><ref name="Bahm2001"/><ref name="Erickson1999"/> The recapture of Bautzen was one of the last successful German tactical victories on the Eastern Front.<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003"/>

By 25 April Polish units were able to stabilize a defense on the line Kamenz–[[Kuckau]]–north Bautzen–Spree–[[Spreewiese]]–[[Kreba-Neudorf|Heideanger]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> On that day, [[Hitler]] congratulated Schörner on his "victory".<ref name="Mcateer2009"/> The Polish 7th and 10th Infantry Divisions were ordered to advance toward Sdier-Heideanger.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The 7th and 10th Polish Infantry Divisions slowly advanced, with the 10th reaching north of [[Uhyst|Spreefurt]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> With the Soviet units on their right flank they also secured a road to Königswartha.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/>

The 9th Division found itself alone at the spearhead of the abandoned Polish push towards Dresden. It received orders to retreat on 26 April.<ref name=as/> Attempting to withdraw quickly and to form back with the main forces, it was intercepted by the Germans and sustained heavy losses.<ref name=zw/> The units were moving with insufficient security, on the assumption that the line of retreat was safe; at the same time the Germans captured Polish orders with details of their planned withdrawal routes.<ref name=zw/> Coordination between the units was also lacking.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> 26th Infantry Regiment from the 9th Division took very heavy casualties (75 percent) in the "valley of death" around [[Panschwitz-Kuckau]] and [[Crostwitz]].<ref name=zw/> A Polish [[military hospital]] convoy from the same division was ambushed near [[Horka, Saxony|Horka]], with [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|most of its personnel and wounded executed]] (about 300 casualties). There was only one survivor, chaplain Jan Rdzanek.<ref name=zw/><ref name="GrzelakStańczyk1993"/> The division commander, Colonel [[Aleksander Łaski]], was taken captive.<ref name=zw/><ref name=zw/> As a result of these losses, the 9th Division ceased to be an effective force; the remaining personnel were merged into the Soviet [[19th Guards Rifle Division]].<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

According to some sources, 26 April marks the end of this battle, although less severe and isolated clashes in that region continued until 30 April.<ref name=zw/> Other sources note that heavy fighting still took place on 27 April, and that the German advance was only completely halted by 28 April.<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> By the end of the month, the Polish Second Army and the Soviet forces had repelled the German attack, forming a line toward Kamenz–[[Doberschütz]]–[[Dauban]], and was preparing to launch an offensive toward [[Prague]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Pomnik żołnierzy polskich Crostwitz.jpg|thumb|upright|Monument to Polish soldiers in [[Crostwitz]]]]
Both sides suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> The Polish casualties were particularly severe.<ref name=zw/> In a relatively short time the Polish Second Army lost more than 22 percent of its personnel and 57 percent of its tanks and armored vehicles (about 200 total).<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/> Official estimates claimed about 18,000 casualties (including almost 5,000 dead).<ref name=zw/> Some other estimates give the Polish casualties as up to 25,000.<ref name=zw/> According to Polish historian [[Zbigniew Wawer]], this was the most bloody battle that the [[Polish Army]] had been involved in since the [[battle of Bzura]] in 1939.<ref name=zw/>

German casualties were significant, but smaller than the Polish and Soviet ones; contemporary Polish sources estimated German losses at 6,500 personnel, which is now seen as an inflated estimate.<ref name=zw/> The German forces failed in their objective of breaking through the 1st Ukrainian Front and coming to the aid of Berlin.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name="Komornicki1967-138"/> They managed, however, to inflict very serious casualties on the local Polish and Soviet units and stopped the Polish drive on Dresden (it was still in German hands at the time of the German capitulation on May 9).<ref name=zw/> The successful recapture of Bautzen, Weißenberg and surroundings is called one of the last successful German armored counterattacks of the war. Bautzen and surroundings stayed in German hands until [[German Instrument of Surrender|Germany's capitulation]]. Although the battle had no strategic impact on the battle raging in Berlin, it allowed most of the participating German units as well as numerous refugees from the east to escape to the west, surrendering to the Western Allies.<ref name=zw/><ref name=B199942-46/><ref name=Ahlfen209/>

==Historiography==
[[File:Karol Świerczewski 'Walter'.jpg|thumb|left|220px|General Karol Świerczewski|alt=General Karol Świerczewski]]
Despite the heavy Polish casualties—or according to one historian, possibly because of that very reason—the battle has been largely neglected in Polish [[historiography]].<ref name="zw"/> During the period of the [[People's Republic of Poland]] it was portrayed merely as a difficult but victorious battle.<ref name="Komornicki1967-134"/><ref name=zw/><ref name="Komornicki1967-138"/> However, since the [[fall of communism]] modern Polish historians have been much more critical of Świerczewski's command, blaming his drive on Dresden for the near destruction of the Polish force.<ref name=zw/> Świerczewski's lack of competence, according to some sources, included commanding the battle while drunk.<ref name=zw/><ref name="Piecuch1997"/> He was briefly relieved of command by Marshal Konev,<ref name=zw/> but due to the backing of the Soviet high command (most likely the [[NKVD]]) he not only retained his position but all controversies were hushed up, and after the war was hailed as a hero.<ref name=zw/> The actions of other Polish officers have also been questioned, such as the 9th Infantry Division commander's decision to advance without sufficient reconnaissance and escort.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

In modern Polish historiography the battle's outcome is seen as a victory, if a very costly one, for the Polish and Soviet troops.<ref name=zw/> As noted by historians such as Wawer and Komorowski, despite the heavy casualties, the Polish–Soviet frontline was not seriously breached, and thus the German offensive was a failure.<ref name=zw/><ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009"/>

==Notes==
'''a''' {{Note label|a|a|none}} Wawer incorrectly identifies this formation as the [[5th Guards Tank Army]], which was near the Baltic coast at the time and subordinated to the 2nd Belorussian Front.<ref name=zw/> Komornicki correctly identifies the formation as the [[5th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|5th Guards Army]].<ref name="Komornicki1967-123"/>

'''b''' {{Note label|b|b|none}} Wawer and Solak assert that the 2nd SS Panzer Division was also present in the battle. This is an incorrect assertion as the 2nd SS Division fought in Hungary and Austria from January 1945 until the end of the war.<ref name=T145/> The 21st Panzer Division has also been mentioned in connection with this battle, but the 21st had already moved north as part of reinforcements provided by the 4th Panzer Army to the 9th Army. By the time the Battle of Bautzen had begun, both the 21st Panzer Division and the 10th SS Panzer Division (minus its supply train) were committed to support the 9th Army and both were encircled in the [[Battle of Halbe|Halbe Pocket]]. The assessments of Polish historian Kormonicki,<ref name="Komornicki1967-130"/> German general von Ahlfen, and Polish historian Grzelak all support the order of battle not including the 21st and 10th SS Divisions.


==References==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name=Ahlfen207208>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|pages=207–208|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen208>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|page=208|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen208209>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|pages=208–209|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=Ahlfen209>{{cite book|author=Hans Ahlfen|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945 (The Battle of Silesia 1944/1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1977|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0|page=209|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=ba>{{cite web |url=http://www.bautzen-anzeiger.de/bautzen/gesellschaft/6794_gedenken-an-kriegsgraeuel-von-niederkaina.html |title= Gedenken an Kriegsgräuel von Niederkaina - Bautzner Anzeiger (Remembrance of the wartime atrocities of Niederkaina)|author=Delnja Kina|language= German|accessdate=17 December 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="Bahm2001">{{cite book|author=Karl Bahm|title=Berlin 1945: The Final Reckoning|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xZ3IA0TiSGIC&pg=PA129|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=26 November 2001|publisher=Zenith Imprint|isbn=978-0-7603-1240-7|page=129}}</ref>

<ref name="Eberhardt">{{Cite book|title=Kriegsschauplatz Sachsen 1945; Die Kämpfe um Bautzen 18. bis 27. April 1945 (Battleground Saxony 1945; The battles around Bautzen 18-27 August)|first1=Eberhardt|last1=Berndt|publisher= |year=1995|isbn=978-3-9804226-2-8|place=Wölfersheim-Berstadt|pages=53–67|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name=B199942-46>{{Cite book|title=Die Kämpfe um Weißenberg und Bautzen im April 1945 (The battles around Weißenberg and Bautzen in April 1945)|author=Eberhardt Berndt|publisher=Podzun-Pallas |year=1999|isbn=3-7909-0679-4|pages=42–46|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="Erickson1999">{{cite book|author=John Erickson|title=The road to Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6UaU6ZLqK4UC&pg=PA591|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=10 June 1999|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-07813-8|page=591}}</ref>

<ref name="GrzelakStańczyk1993">{{cite book|author1=Czesław Grzelak|author2=Henryk Stańczyk|author3=Stefan Zwoliński|title=Bez możliwości wyboru: Wojsko Polskie na froncie wschodnim, 1934–1945 (Without Any Choice: Polish Army on the Eastern Front, 1934-1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f1NnAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1993|publisher=Wydawn. Bellona|isbn=978-83-11-08252-6|page=71|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=Grzelak272>{{cite book|author1=Czesław Grzelak|author2=Henryk Stańczyk|author3=Stefan Zwoliński|title=Bez możliwości wyboru: Wojsko Polskie na froncie wschodnim, 1934–1945 (Without Any Choice: Polish Army on the Eastern Front, 1934-1945)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=f1NnAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1993|publisher=Wydawn. Bellona|isbn=978-83-11-08252-6|page=272|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=kiS>{{Cite book|title=Kriegsverbrechen in Sachsen; Die vergessenen Toten von April/Mai 1945 (War crimes in Saxony; The forgotten dead of April/May 1945)|first1=Theodor|last1=Seidel|publisher=University of Leipzig |year=2005|isbn=978-3-86583-052-4|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-122">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the Battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=122}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-123">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=123}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-128">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=128}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-130">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=130}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-131">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=131}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-132">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=132}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-134">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=134}}</ref>

<ref name="Komornicki1967-138">{{cite book|author1=Stanisław Komornicki|title=Poles in the battle of Berlin|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=McFVHAAACAAJ|accessdate=10 May 2011|year=1967|publisher=Ministry of National Defense Pub.|page=138}}</ref>

<ref name="KomorowskiHistorycznych2009">{{cite book|author1=Krzysztof Komorowski|author2=Poland. Wojskowe Biuro Badań Historycznych|title=Boje polskie 1939–1945: przewodnik encyklopedyczny (Polish Battles 1939-1945: Historical Guide)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XX5KcTNWbooC&pg=PA65|accessdate=12 May 2011|year=2009|publisher=Bellona|isbn=978-83-7399-353-2|pages=65–67|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=LexikonWehrmacht>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de/Gliederungen/PanzerdivisionenSS/10SSPD-R.htm |title= 10. SS Panzer-Division "Frundsberg" - Lexikon der Wehrmacht (Encyclopedia of the Wehrmacht)|author=Andreas Altenburger|language= German|accessdate=17 December 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998">{{cite book|author1=Aleksander A. Maslov|author2=David M. Glantz|title=Fallen Soviet generals: Soviet general officers killed in battle, 1941–1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l5aGjQbzkiYC&pg=PA180|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=30 September 1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-7146-4346-5|page=180}}</ref>

<ref name="MaslovGlantz1998-182">{{cite book|author1=Aleksander A. Maslov|author2=David M. Glantz|title=Fallen Soviet generals: Soviet general officers killed in battle, 1941–1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=c52tNnBdk7QC&pg=PA182|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=30 September 1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7146-4790-6|page=182}}</ref>

<ref name="Mcateer2009">{{cite book|author=Sean M. Mcateer|title=500 Days: The War in Eastern Europe, 1944–1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Bg8drRyDGhEC&pg=PA395|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=30 January 2009|publisher=Dorrance Publishing|isbn=978-1-4349-6159-4|page=395}}</ref>

<ref name="Michta1990">{{cite book|author=Andrew A. Michta|title=Red Eagle: the army in Polish politics, 1944–1988|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7Ff065RmrAsC&pg=PA40|accessdate=11 May 2011|date=November 1990|publisher=Hoover Press|isbn=978-0-8179-8861-6|pages=40–41}}</ref>

<ref name="Piecuch1997">{{cite book|author=Henryk Piecuch|title=Imperium służb specjalnych: od Gomułki do Kani (Empire of the Secret Services: from Gomułka to Kania)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vpq1AAAAIAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1997|publisher=Agencja Wydawn. CB|isbn=978-83-86245-16-1|page=35|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name="WilliamsonAndrew2003">{{cite book|author1=Gordon Williamson|author2=Stephen Andrew|title=The Hermann Goring Division|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mMc9tLaOGzsC&pg=PA16|accessdate=12 May 2011|date=19 February 2003|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-84176-406-1|page=16}}</ref>

<ref name="as">{{cite web|last=Solak|first=Andrzej|title=Budziszyn 1945 –zapomniana bitwa (Forgotten Battle)|url=http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473|publisher=Myśl Polska, Nr 18-19 (1–8.05.2005)|archivedate=10 May 2011| accessdate=10 May 2011|archiveurl=http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20070311005707/http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473|date=May 2005|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name=T145>{{cite book|author=Georg Tessin|title=Verbände und Truppen der deutschen Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS 1939 – 1945 (Units and troops of the German Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS 1939-1945)|volume=II|year=1973|publisher=Biblio Verlag|place=Osnabrück|isbn=3-7648-0871-3|page=145|language=German}}</ref>

<ref name="zw">{{cite web|last=Wawer|first=Zbigniew|title=Zapomniana bitwa (Forgotten Battle)|url=http://www.polska-zbrojna.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9205:zapomniana-bitwa&catid=116:historia&Itemid=145|publisher=polska-zbrojna.pl|accessdate=10 May 2011|date=26 August 2010|language=Polish}}</ref>
}}
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=Hans von Ahlfen|year=1977|title=Der Kampf um Schlesien 1944/1945|publisher=Motorbuch Verlag|location=Stuttgart|isbn=978-3-87943-480-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Eberhard Berndt|chapter=Die Kämpfe um Bautzen 18. bis 27. April 1945|title=Kriegsschauplatz Sachsen 1945. Daten, Fakten, Hintergründe|editor=|location=Altenburg/Leipzig|year=1995}}
* {{cite book|author=Eberhard Berndt|title=Die Kämpfe um Weißenberg und Bautzen im April 1945|publisher=Wölfersheim-Berstadt|year=1999|isbn=3-7909-0679-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Wolfgang Fleischer|year=2004|title=Das Kriegsende in Sachsen 1945|publisher=Dörfler|isbn=978-3-89555-443-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Czesław Grzelak; Henryk Stańczyk; Stefan Zwoliński|year=2002|title=Armia Berlinga i Żymierskiego (Army of Berling and Żymierski)|publisher=Wydawnictwo Neriton|location=Warszawa|isbn=978-83-88973-27-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Kazimierz Kaczmarek|title=Polacy w bitwie pod Budziszynem (Poles in the Battle of Bautzen)|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p-ZJAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=11 May 2011|year=1970|publisher=Interpress}}

==External links==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20070311005707/http://www.myslpolska.icenter.pl/index.php?menu=historia&nr=2005050114473 Forgotten battles (Polish)]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20060504060303/http://www.wp39.netlook.pl/str/uzup/map/map8.html Map (Polish)]

{{World War II}}
{{coord missing|Saxony}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Bautzen (1945)}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 in Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving Poland|Bautzen]]
[[Category:Poland–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Bautzen]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany|Bautzen]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]

Soviet Union

2014-07-24T18:45:32Z

Muta112: Undid revision 618302187 by C50000 (talk)

{{pp-semi-indef}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{redirect10|USSR|CCCP|Soviet}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name=Союз Советских Социалистических Республик {{br}} ''Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik''
|conventional_long_name=Union of Soviet Socialist Republics {{br}} [[Official names of the Soviet Union|Other names]]
|common_name=Soviet Union (USSR)
|continent=Eurasia
|era=[[Interwar period]] / [[World War II]] / [[Cold War]]
|government_type=[[Political union|Union]], [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[single-party state]]
|year_start = 1922
|year_end = 1991<ref>[[:s:ru:Декларация Совета Республик ВС СССР от 26.12.1991 № 142-Н|Declaration № 142-Н]] of the [[Soviet of Nationalities|Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]], formally establishing the dissolution of the Soviet Union as a state and subject of international law. {{ru icon}}</ref>
|date_start = 30 December
|event_start = [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|Treaty of Creation]]
|date_end = 26 December
|event_end = [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Union dissolved]]
|image_flag = Flag of the Soviet Union.svg
|flag = Flag of the Soviet Union
|image_coat = Coat of arms of the Soviet Union.svg
|symbol = State Emblem of the Soviet Union
|symbol_type = State Emblem
|image_map = Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (orthographic projection).svg
|image_map_size = 220px
|image_map_caption = The Soviet Union after [[World War II]]
|capital = Moscow
|latd=55|latm=45|latNS=N|longd=37|longm=37|longEW=E
|largest_city =Moscow
|national_motto = Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! ([[Romanization of Russian|Translit.]]: ''Proletarii vsekh stran, soyedinyaytes'!'') English: [[Workers of the world, unite!]]
|national_anthem = "[[The Internationale#Russian lyrics|The Internationale]]" (1922–1944) <center>[[File:Internationale-ru.ogg]]</center> "[[National Anthem of the Soviet Union|State Anthem of the USSR]]" (1944–1991) <center>[[File:Soviet Anthem Instrumental 1955.ogg]]</center>
|common_languages = Russian, [[Languages of the Soviet Union|many others]]
|demonym = [[Soviet people|Soviet]]
|religion = None ([[state atheism]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1990-10-02/news/1990275061_1_supreme-soviet-religious-classes-atheism |title=73 Years of State Atheism in the Soviet Union, ended amid collapse in 1990 |publisher=Articles.baltimoresun.com |date=1990-10-02 |accessdate=2013-10-13}}</ref> ([[Soviet Union#Religion|see text]])
|currency = [[Soviet ruble]] (руб) (SUR)
|currency_code = SUR

|leader1 = [[Joseph Stalin]] (first)
|leader2 = [[Vladimir Ivashko]] (last)
|year_leader1 = 1922-1952
|year_leader2 = 1990-1991
|title_leader = [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]]
|
|representative1 = [[Mikhail Kalinin]] (first)
|representative2 = [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] (last)
|year_representative1 = 1922–1938
|year_representative2 = 1988–1991
|title_representative = [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|Head of State]]
|
|deputy1 = [[Vladimir Lenin]] (first)
|deputy2 = [[Ivan Silayev]] (last)
|year_deputy1 = 1922–1924
|year_deputy2 = 1991
|title_deputy = [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Head of Government]]
|
|legislature = [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]]
|house1 = [[Soviet of the Union]]
|house2 = [[Soviet of Nationalities]]
|stat_year1 = 1991
|stat_area1 = 22402200
|stat_pop1 = 293047571
|p1 = Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
|flag_p1 = Flag RSFSR 1918.svg
|p2 = Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
|flag_p2 = Flag of Transcaucasian SFSR.svg
|p3 = Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
|flag_p3 = Flag of the Ukrainian SSR (1927-1937).svg
|p4 = Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
|flag_p4 = Flag of the Byelorussian SSR (1919).svg
|s1 = Armenia
|flag_s1 = Flag of Armenia.svg
|s2 = Azerbaijan
|flag_s2 = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg
|s3 = Belarus
|flag_s3 = Flag of Belarus (1991-1995).svg
|s4 = Estonia
|flag_s4 = Flag of Estonia.svg
|s5 = Georgia (country){{!}}Georgia
|flag_s5=Flag of Georgia (1990-2004).svg
|s6 = Kazakhstan
|flag_s6 = Flag of Kazakhstan.svg
|s7 = Kyrgyzstan
|flag_s7 = Flag of Kyrgyz SSR.svg
|s8 = Latvia
|flag_s8 = Flag of Latvia.svg
|s9 = Lithuania
|flag_s9 = Flag of Lithuania 1989-2004.svg
|s10 = Moldova
|flag_s10 = Flag of Moldova.svg
|s11 = Russia
|flag_s11 = Flag of Russia 1991-1993.svg
|s12 = Tajikistan
|flag_s12 = Flag of Tajik SSR.svg
|s13 = Turkmenistan
|flag_s13 = Flag of Turkmen SSR.svg
|s14 = Ukraine
|flag_s14 = Flag of Ukraine.svg
|s15 = Uzbekistan
|flag_s15 = Flag of Uzbekistan.svg
|footnotes =Notes
#{{note|1}}Assigned on 19 September 1990, existing onwards.
For details on the [[succession of states]] see [[#Post-Soviet states|below]].
|utc_offset = +2 to +13
|cctld = [[.su]]{{ref|1|1}}
|calling_code = 7
}}
{{Soviet Union sidebar}}

The '''Union of Soviet Socialist Republics''' ({{lang-rus|Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик|r=Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik}}) abbreviated to '''USSR''' ({{lang-rus|СССР|r=SSSR}}) or shortened to the '''Soviet Union''' ({{lang-rus|Сове́тский Сою́з|r=Sovetskij Soyuz}}), was a [[socialist state]] on the [[Eurasia]]n continent that existed between 1922 and 1991. It was governed as a [[single-party state]] by the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] with [[Moscow]] as its capital.<ref>Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) ''Marxist Approaches in Anthropology'' Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 4: pp. 341–70 (October 1975) {{doi|10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013}}. William Roseberry (1997) ''Marx and Anthropology'' Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) {{doi|10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25}}</ref> A [[political union|union]] of multiple subnational [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]], its [[Politics of the Soviet Union|government]] and [[Economy of the Soviet Union|economy]] were highly centralized.

The Soviet Union had its roots in the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], which deposed the [[Russian Empire|imperial]] [[autocracy]]. The [[Bolshevik|majority faction]] of the [[Russian Social Democratic Labour Party|Social Democratic Labour Party]], led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], then led a [[October Revolution|second revolution]] which overthrew the [[Russian Provisional Government|provisional government]] and established the [[Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]] (renamed [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] in 1936), beginning a [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] between pro-revolution Reds and counter-revolution Whites. The [[Red Army]] entered several territories of the former [[Russian Empire]] and organized workers and peasants into [[Soviet (council)|soviets]] under Communist leadership. In 1922, the Communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian]], and [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian]] republics. Following Lenin's death in 1924, a [[Troika (triumvirate)|troika]] [[collective leadership]] and a brief power struggle, [[Joseph Stalin]] came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed political opposition to him and committed the state ideology to [[Marxism–Leninism]] and initiated a centrally [[planned economy]]. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid [[industrialisation]] and [[Collectivisation in the Soviet Union|collectivisation]] which laid the basis for its later war effort and dominance after World War II.<ref name="StalinRobertService">{{cite book | author = Robert Service| title = Stalin: a biography| url = http://books.google.com/?id=ITKUPwAACAAJ| date = 9 September 2005| publisher = Picador| isbn = 978-0-330-41913-0 }}</ref> However, Stalin established political paranoia, and introduced [[Great_Purge|arbitrary arrests on a massive scale]] after which authorities transferred many people (military leaders, Communist Party members, ordinary citizens alike) to [[GULAG|correctional labour camps]] or sentenced them to execution.

In the beginning of [[World War II]], the Soviet Union signed a [[Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union|non-aggression pact]] with [[Nazi Germany]], initially avoiding confrontation, but the treaty was disregarded in 1941 when the Nazis [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]], opening [[Eastern Front (World War II)|the largest and bloodiest theatre]] of combat in history. [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|Soviet war casualties]] accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the cost of acquiring the upper hand over [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces at intense battles such as [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]]. Soviet forces eventually drove through Eastern Europe and [[Battle of Berlin|captured Berlin]] in 1945, inflicting the vast majority of German losses.<ref>Norman Davies: "Since 75%–80% of all German losses were inflicted on the eastern front it follows that the efforts of the Western allies accounted for only 20%–25%". Source: Sunday Times, 05/11/2006.</ref> Soviet occupied territory conquered from Axis forces in Central and Eastern Europe became [[satellite states]] of the [[Eastern Bloc]]. Ideological and political differences with [[Western Bloc]] counterparts directed by the [[United States]] led to the forming of [[Comecon|economic]] and [[Warsaw Pact|military pacts]], culminating in the prolonged [[Cold War]].

Following Stalin's death in 1953, a period of moderate social and economic liberalization (known as "[[de-Stalinization]]") occurred under the administration of [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. The Soviet Union then went on to initiate significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including launching the [[Sputnik 1|first ever satellite]] and world's [[Vostok 1|first human spaceflight]], which led it into the [[Space Race]]. The 1962 [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] marked a period of extreme tension between the two superpowers, considered the closest to a mutual nuclear confrontation. In the 1970s, a [[detente|relaxation of relations]] followed, but tensions resumed when the Soviet Union began [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|providing military assistance]] in [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] at the request of its new socialist government in 1979. The campaign drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results.<ref>{{cite book | author = David Holloway| title = Stalin and the Bomb| url = http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300066647| date = 27 March 1996| publisher = Yale University Press| isbn = 978-0-300-06664-7| page = 18 }}</ref><ref name="turner23">{{Harvnb|Turner|1987|p=23}}</ref>

In the late 1980s the last Soviet leader, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], sought to reform the Union and move it in the direction of [[Nordic model|Nordic-style]] [[social democracy]],<ref>Philip Whyman, Mark Baimbridge and Andrew Mullen (2012). ''The Political Economy of the European Social Model (Routledge Studies in the European Economy).'' [[Routledge]]. ISBN 0415476291 [http://books.google.com/books?id=e-M_cdwdgoMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 108]
* "In short, Gorbachev aimed to lead the Soviet Union towards the Scandinavian social democratic model."</ref><ref>[[Naomi Klein|Klein, Naomi]] (2008). ''[[The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism]].'' [[Picador (imprint)|Picador]]. ISBN 0312427999 [http://books.google.com/books?id=PwHUAq5LPOQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA276#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 276]</ref> introducing the policies of ''[[glasnost]]'' and ''[[perestroika]]'' in an attempt to end the [[Era of Stagnation|period of economic stagnation]] and democratize the government. However, this led to the rise of strong [[Nationalism|nationalist]] and separatist movements. Central authorities initiated [[Soviet Union referendum, 1991|a referendum]], boycotted by the Baltic republics and Georgia, which resulted in the majority of participating citizens voting in favour of preserving the Union as a [[Union of Sovereign States|renewed federation]]. In August 1991, [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|a coup d'état was attempted]] by [[hardliners]] against Gorbachev, with the intention of reversing his policies. The [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup]] failed, with Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] playing a high-profile role in facing down the coup, resulting in the banning of the Communist Party. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the remaining twelve constituent republics emerged from the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] as independent [[post-Soviet states]].<ref name="Byrd">{{cite book | author = Iain McLean| title = The concise Oxford dictionary of politics| url = http://books.google.com/?id=UMuBAAAAMAAJ| year = 1996| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-285288-5 }}</ref> The [[Russian Federation]] (formerly the Russian SFSR) assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations and is recognised as its continued legal personality.<ref>"Russia is now a party to any Treaties to which the former Soviet Union was a party, and enjoys the same rights and obligations as the former Soviet Union, except insofar as adjustments are necessarily required, e.g. to take account of the change in territorial extent. [...] The Russian federation continues the legal personality of the former Soviet Union and is thus not a successor State in the sense just mentioned. The other former Soviet Republics are successor States.", United Kingdom Materials on International Law 1993, BYIL 1993, pp. 579 (636).</ref>

==Geography, climate and environment==
{{main|Geography of the Soviet Union}}

With an area of {{convert|22402200|km2}}, the Soviet Union was the world's largest state, a status that is retained by the [[Russian Federation]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia Russia - Encyclopedia Britannica]. Britannica.com (2010-04-27). Retrieved on 2013-07-29.</ref> Covering a sixth of the Earth's land surface, its size was comparable to that of North America.<ref>http://pages.towson.edu/thompson/courses/regional/reference/sovietphysical.pdf</ref> The European portion accounted for a quarter of the country's area, and was the cultural and economic center. The eastern part in Asia extended to the Pacific Ocean to the east and [[Afghanistan]] to the south, and, except some areas in [[Central Asia]], was much less populous. It spanned over {{Convert|10000|km}} east to west across 11 [[time zone]]s, and over {{Convert|7200|km}} north to south. It had five climate zones: [[tundra]], [[taiga]], [[steppe]]s, desert, and mountains.

The Soviet Union had the world's longest boundary, like Russia, measuring over {{Convert|60000|km}}, or {{sfrac|1|1|2}} circumferences of the [[Earth]]. Two-thirds of it were a coastline. Across the [[Bering Strait]] was the [[United States]]. The Soviet Union bordered [[Afghanistan]], [[China]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Finland]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Iran]], [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]], [[North Korea]], [[Norway]], [[People's Republic of Poland|Poland]], [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]], and [[Turkey]] from 1945 to 1991.

The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (now [[Ismoil Somoni Peak]]) in [[Tajikistan]], at {{Convert|7495|m}}. The Soviet Union also included most of the world's largest lake, the [[Caspian Sea]] (shared with Iran), and also [[Lake Baikal]], the world's largest freshwater and deepest lake, an internal body of water in Russia.

==History==
{{main|History of the Soviet Union}}

The last Russian [[Tsar]], [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], ruled the [[Russian Empire]] until his abdication in March 1917 in the aftermath of the [[February Revolution]], due in part to the strain of fighting in [[World War I]], which lacked public support. A short-lived [[Russian Provisional Government]] took power, to be overthrown in the [[October Revolution]] ([[New Style|N.S.]] 7 November 1917) by revolutionaries led by the [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]].

The Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 with the union of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian]], [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian]], and [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian]] Soviet republics, each ruled by local [[Bolshevik]] parties. Despite the foundation of the Soviet state as a federative entity of many constituent republics, each with its own political and administrative entities, the term "Soviet Russia"{{spaced ndash}}strictly applicable only to the Russian Federative Socialist Republic{{spaced ndash}}was often applied to the entire country by non-Soviet writers and politicians.

===Revolution and foundation===
{{main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)}}

Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the [[Decembrist Revolt]] of 1825. Although [[Russian serfdom|serfdom]] was abolished in 1861, it was done on terms unfavourable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the [[State Duma]]—was established in 1906 after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], but [[Tsar Nicholas II]] resisted attempts to move from [[Absolute monarchy|absolute]] to [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Social unrest]] continued and was aggravated during [[World War I]] by military defeat and food shortages in major Soviet cities.

[[File:Lenin-Trotsky 1920-05-20 Sverdlov Square (original).jpg|thumb|left|[[Vladimir Lenin]] addressing a crowd, 1920]]

A spontaneous popular uprising in [[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd]], in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the [[February Revolution]] and the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|toppling of the imperial government in March 1917]]. The [[tsarist autocracy]] was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government, which intended to conduct elections to the [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and to continue fighting on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] in World War I.

At the same time, [[workers' council]]s, known in [[Russian language|Russian]] as "[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]", sprang up across the country. The [[Bolshevik]]s, led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], pushed for [[Communist revolution|socialist revolution]] in the Soviets and on the streets. On 7 November 1917, the Red Guards stormed the [[Winter Palace]] in Petrograd, ending the rule of the Provisional Government and leaving all political power to the Soviets. This event would later be known as the [[Great October Socialist Revolution]]. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an [[armistice]] with the [[Central Powers]], though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war for good and signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]].

A long and bloody [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]] ensued between the [[Red Army|Reds]] and the [[White movement|Whites]], starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|foreign intervention]], the [[Shooting of the Romanov family|execution of the former tsar and his family]], and the [[Russian famine of 1921|famine of 1921]], which killed about five million.<ref>{{cite book | author = Evan Mawdsley| title = The Russian Civil War| url = http://books.google.com/?id=LUhXZD2BPeQC&pg=PA287| date = 1 March 2007| publisher = Pegasus Books| isbn = 978-1-933648-15-6| page = 287 }}</ref> In March 1921, during [[Polish–Soviet War|a related conflict with Poland]], the [[Peace of Riga]] was signed, splitting disputed territories in [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] between the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]] and Soviet Russia. Soviet Russia had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established [[Finland's Declaration of Independence|Republic of Finland]], the [[Estonian War of Independence|Republic of Estonia]], the [[Latvian War of Independence|Republic of Latvia]], and the [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Republic of Lithuania]].

===Unification of republics===
[[File:Soviet Union - Russian SFSR (before 1936 territorial changes).svg|thumb|The Russian SFSR as a part of the USSR before 1936 Russian territorial changes.]]
On 28 December 1922, a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]] approved the [[Treaty of Creation of the USSR]]<ref>Richard Sakwa ''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: 1917–1991''. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 9780415122900. pp. 140–143.</ref> and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.<ref>Julian Towster. ''Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State'' Oxford Univ. Press, 1948. p. 106.</ref> These two documents were confirmed by the 1st [[Congress of Soviets]] of the USSR and signed by the heads of the delegations,<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument Voted Unanimously for the Union.]{{dead link|date=December 2013}} {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument|date =20110722233249}}{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref> [[Mikhail Kalinin]], [[Mikhail Tskhakaya]], [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Grigory Petrovsky]], and [[Aleksandr Chervyakov]],<ref>{{Ru icon}} [http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html Creation of the USSR] at Khronos.ru. {{dead link|date=September 2011}}</ref> on 30 December 1922. The formal proclamation was made from the stage of the [[Bolshoi Theatre]].

On 1 February 1924, the USSR was recognized by the [[British Empire]]. The same year, a [[1924 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]] was approved, legitimizing the December 1922 union.

An intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was done according to the [[Bolshevik Initial Decrees]], government documents signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the [[GOELRO plan]], which envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The plan was developed in 1920 and covered a 10 to 15-year period. It included construction of a network of 30 regional [[power plants]], including ten large [[hydroelectric power plant]]s, and numerous electric-powered large industrial enterprises.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1023/A:1004107617449}}</ref> The plan became the prototype for subsequent [[Five-Year Plan for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] and was fulfilled by 1931.<ref name="Kuzbassenergo">{{Ru icon}} [http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/ On GOELRO Plan — at Kuzbassenergo.]{{dead link|date=December 2013}} {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/|date =20110723044724}}{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref>

===Stalin era===
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)}}

{{Multiple image|image1 = Voroshilov, Molotov, Stalin, with Nikolai Yezhov.jpg|image2 = The Commissar Vanishes 2.jpg|width = 160|footer = Stalin and [[Nikolai Yezhov]], head of the [[NKVD]]. After Yezhov was executed, he was [[Damnatio memoriae|edited out]] of the image.|direction = vertical}}
From its creation, the government in the Soviet Union was based on the [[Single-party state|one-party rule]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]].<ref>The consolidation into a single-party regime took place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, which included the period of [[War communism|War Communism]] and an election in which multiple parties competed. See Leonard Schapiro, ''The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922.'' Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1955, 1966.</ref> After the economic policy of "[[War Communism]]" during the Russian Civil War, as a prelude to fully developing [[socialism]] in the country, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist alongside nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax (see [[New Economic Policy]]).

The stated purpose of the one-party state was to ensure that capitalist exploitation would not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of [[Democratic Centralism]] would be most effective in representing the people's will in a practical manner. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for a power struggle in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin was to be replaced by a "[[Collective leadership|troika]]" consisting of [[Grigory Zinoviev]] of [[Ukraine]], [[Lev Kamenev]] of Moscow, and [[Joseph Stalin]] of [[Georgian people|Georgia]].

On 3 April 1922, Stalin was named the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. Lenin had appointed Stalin the head of the [[Rabkrin|Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate]], which gave Stalin considerable power. By [[Stalin's rise to power|gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and outmaneuvering his rivals within the party]], Stalin became the [[dictator|undisputed leader]] of the Soviet Union and, by the end of the 1920s, established [[totalitarian]] rule. In October 1927, Grigory Zinoviev and [[Leon Trotsky]] were expelled from the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]] and forced into exile.

In 1928, Stalin introduced the [[First Five-Year Plan]] for building a [[Socialist economics|socialist economy]]. In place of the [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalism]] expressed by Lenin throughout the Revolution, it aimed to build [[socialism in one country]]. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of industrialization. In agriculture, rather than adhering to the "lead by example" policy advocated by Lenin,<ref>{{cite book |last=Lenin |first=V.I. |title=Collected Works |pages=152–164, Vol. 31 |quote="The proletarian state must effect the transition to collective farming with extreme caution and only very gradually, by the force of example, without any coercion of the middle peasant."}}</ref> forced [[Collectivisation in the USSR|collectivisation of farms]] was implemented all over the country.

[[Droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR|Famines]] ensued, causing millions of deaths; surviving [[kulak]]s were persecuted and many sent to [[Gulag]]s to do [[Unfree labour|forced labour]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Stéphane Courtois|author2=Mark Kramer | title = Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression| url = http://books.google.com/?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206| date = 15 October 1999| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-07608-2| page = 206 }}</ref> Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Stalin's [[Great Purge]] resulted in the execution or detainment of many "[[Old Bolsheviks]]" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. According to declassified Soviet archives, in 1937 and 1938, the [[NKVD]] arrested more than one and a half million people, of whom 681,692 were shot. Over those two years that averages to over one thousand executions a day. <ref>{{cite book | author = Abbott Gleason| title = A companion to Russian history| url = http://books.google.com/?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373| year = 2009| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell| isbn = 978-1-4051-3560-3| page = 373 }}</ref> According to historian [[Geoffrey Hosking]], "...excess deaths during the 1930s as a whole were in the range of 10–11 million."<ref name="1930s">{{cite book | author = Geoffrey A. Hosking| title = Russia and the Russians: a history| url = http://books.google.com/?id=oh-5AAmboMUC&pg=PA469| year = 2001| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-00473-3| page = 469 }}</ref> Yet despite the turmoil of the mid-to-late 1930s, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before [[World War II]].

====1930s====
[[File:“Strengthen working discipline in collective farms” – Uzbek, Tashkent, 1933 (Mardjani).jpg|thumb|"Strengthen working discipline in collective farms" – Soviet propaganda poster issued in [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic|Uzbekistan]], 1933]]
The early 1930s saw closer cooperation between the West and the USSR. From 1932 to 1934, the Soviet Union participated in the [[World Disarmament Conference]]. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established when in November, the newly elected President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt chose to formally recognize Stalin's Communist government and negotiated a new trade agreement between the two nations.<ref>[http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html Ukrainian 'Holodomor' (man-made famine) Facts and History]. Holodomorct.org (2006-11-28). Retrieved on 2013-07-29.</ref> In September 1934, the Soviet Union joined the [[League of Nations]]. After the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican forces]] against the [[Spain under Franco|Nationalists]], who were supported by [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]].

In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]]. The constitution was seen as a personal triumph for Stalin, who on this occasion was described by ''[[Pravda]]'' as a "genius of the new world, the wisest man of the epoch, the great leader of communism." By contrast, Western historians and historians from former Soviet occupied countries have viewed the constitution as a meaningless propaganda document.

The late 1930s saw a shift towards the [[Axis powers]]. In 1939, almost a year after the United Kingdom and [[Third French Republic|France]] had concluded the [[Munich Agreement]] with Germany, the USSR dealt with the Nazis as well, both militarily and economically during [[German–Soviet Axis talks|extensive talks]]. The two countries concluded the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact]] and the [[German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1940)|German–Soviet Commercial Agreement]] in August 1939. The nonaggression pact made possible Soviet occupation of [[Occupation of the Baltic States|Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, northern Bukovina]], and [[Soviet invasion of Poland (1939)|eastern Poland]]. In late November of the same year, unable to coerce the [[Finland|Republic of Finland]] by diplomatic means into moving its border {{Convert|25|km}} back from [[Leningrad]], Joseph Stalin ordered the [[Winter War|invasion of Finland]].

In the east, the Soviet military won several decisive victories during [[Soviet–Japanese Border Wars|border clashes]] with the [[Japanese Empire]] in 1938 and 1939. However, in April 1941, USSR signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] with the [[Empire of Japan]], recognizing the territorial integrity of [[Manchukuo]], a Japanese [[puppet state]].

====World War II====
{{main|Eastern Front (World War II)}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R77767, Berlin, Rotarmisten Unter den Linden.jpg|thumb|Soviet soldiers in Berlin, May 1945]]
Although it has been debated whether the Soviet Union intended to invade Germany once it was strong enough,<ref>{{Ru icon}} Mel'tiukhov, Mikhail. ''Upushchennyi shans Stalina: Sovietskii Soiuz i bor'ba za Evropu'' 1939–1941. Moscow: Veche, 2000. ISBN 5-7838-1196-3.</ref> Germany itself broke the treaty and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941, starting what was known in the USSR as the "[[Eastern Front (WWII)|Great Patriotic War]]". The [[Red Army]] stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the [[Battle of Moscow]], aided by an unusually harsh winter. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to the Germans from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered in 1945]]. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.<ref>{{cite book | author = William J. Duiker| title = Contemporary World History| url = http://books.google.com/?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC| date = 31 August 2009| publisher = Wadsworth Pub Co| isbn = 978-0-495-57271-8| page = 128 }}</ref>

[[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|left|Left to right: Soviet Premier [[Joseph Stalin]], U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] confer [[Tehran Conference|in Tehran in 1943]].]]
The same year, the USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the [[Yalta Conference]], denounced the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945<ref name="denunciation">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp Denunciation of the neutrality pact] 5 April 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> and [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945)|invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories]] on 9 August 1945.<ref name="declarationofwar">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp Soviet Declaration of War on Japan], 8 August 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> [[Soviet–Japanese War (1945)|This conflict]] ended with a decisive Soviet victory, contributing to the unconditional [[surrender of Japan]] and the end of World War II.

The Soviet Union suffered greatly in the war, [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|losing around 27 million people]].<ref name="Geoffrey A. Hosking 2006 242">{{cite book | author = Geoffrey A. Hosking| title = Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union| url = http://books.google.com/?id=CDMVMqDvp4QC&pg=PA242| year = 2006| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-02178-5| page = 242 }}</ref> Despite this, it emerged as a superpower in the post-war period. Once denied [[diplomatic recognition]] by the Western world, the Soviet Union had official relations with practically every nation by the late 1940s. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the Soviet Union became one of the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[UN Security Council]], which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions (see [[Soviet Union and the United Nations]]).

The Soviet Union maintained its status as one of the world's two superpowers for four decades through its hegemony in Eastern Europe, military strength, economic strength, aid to [[Developing country|developing countries]], and scientific research, especially in space technology and weaponry.

====Cold War====
{{main|Cold War}}
During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union rebuilt and expanded its economy, while maintaining its [[planned economy|strictly centralized control]]. It aided post-war reconstruction in the countries of Eastern Europe, while turning them into [[satellite states]], binding them in a military alliance (the [[Warsaw Pact]]) in 1955, and an economic organization ([[Comecon|The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] or Comecon) from 1949 to 1991, the latter a counterpart to the [[European Economic Community]].<ref name="fas.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |title=Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies |publisher=Fas.org |accessdate=24 November 2008}}</ref> Later, the Comecon supplied aid to the eventually victorious [[Chinese Communist Party]], and saw its influence grow elsewhere in the world. Fearing its ambitions, the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, became its enemies. In the ensuing Cold War, the two sides clashed indirectly using mostly proxies.

===Khrushchev era===
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964)}}
[[File:Soviet empire 1960.png|thumb|left|The Soviet Union and other countries in the world under a communist government modelled on the country, after the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959 and before the official [[Sino–Soviet split]] of 1961.]]

Stalin died on 5 March 1953. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly. [[Nikita Khrushchev]], who had won the power struggle by the mid-1950s, [[Secret Speech|denounced Stalin's use of repression]] in 1956 and eased repressive controls over party and society. This was known as [[de-Stalinization]].

Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders, and ensured its control of the region by transforming the Eastern European countries into satellite states. Soviet military force was used to suppress anti-Stalinist uprisings in [[1956 Hungarian Revolution|Hungary]] and [[Poznań 1956 protests|Poland]] in 1956.

In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR's rapprochement with the West and what [[Mao Zedong]] perceived as Khrushchev's [[Marxist revisionism|revisionism]] led to the [[Sino–Soviet split]]. This resulted in a break throughout the global Communist movement, with [[Communist regime]]s in [[Albania]], Cambodia and [[Somalia]] choosing to ally with China in place of the USSR.

During this period, the Soviet Union continued to realize scientific and technological exploits: Launching the first artificial satellite, [[Sputnik 1]] in 1957; a living dog, [[Laika]] in 1957; the first human being, [[Yuri Gagarin]] in 1961; the first woman in space, [[Valentina Tereshkova]] in 1963; [[Alexey Leonov]], the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966 and the first moon rovers, [[Lunokhod 1]] and [[Lunokhod 2]].<ref name="lunokhod">{{cite episode|title=Tank on the Moon|series= The Nature of Things with David Suzuki|network= CBC-TV|airdate= 6 December 2007|url=http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html}}{{dead link|date=December 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Gagarin in Sweden-2.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], first human to travel into space]]
Khrushchev initiated "The Thaw" (better known as [[Khrushchev's Thaw]]), a complex shift in political, cultural and economic life in the Soviet Union. This included some openness and contact with other nations and new social and economic policies with more emphasis on commodity goods, allowing living standards to rise dramatically while maintaining high levels of economic growth. Censorship was relaxed as well.

Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive. In 1962, he precipitated a [[Cuban Missile Crisis|crisis with the United States]] over the Soviet deployment of [[nuclear missiles]] in Cuba. An agreement was made between the Soviet Union and the United States to remove enemy nuclear missiles from both Cuba and Turkey, concluding the crisis. This event caused Khrushchev much embarrassment and loss of prestige, resulting in his removal from power in 1964.

===Brezhnev era===
{{main|History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)|Era of Stagnation}}
Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of [[collective leadership]] ensued, consisting of [[Leonid Brezhnev]] as General Secretary, [[Alexei Kosygin]] as Premier and [[Nikolai Podgorny]] as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader. In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded [[Czechoslovakia]] to halt the [[Prague Spring]] reforms.

[[File:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|Presidents [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and [[Jimmy Carter]] sign the [[SALT II|SALT II arms limitation treaty]] in [[Vienna]] on 18 June 1979.]]
Brezhnev presided over a period of ''[[détente]]'' with the West (see [[SALT I]], [[SALT II]], [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]) while at the same time building up Soviet military might.

In October 1977, the [[1977 Soviet Constitution|third Soviet Constitution]] was unanimously adopted. The prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill", with an aging and ossified top political leadership.

=== Gorbachev era===
{{main|Cold War (1985–1991)|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt}}
[[File:Reagan and Gorbachev hold discussions.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in one-to-one discussions with U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]]]]
Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in ''[[Beyond Oil]]'' that the Reagan administration encouraged [[Saudi Arabia]] to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, so that the USSR's [[hard currency]] reserves became depleted.<ref>Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Beyond Oil: The View from Hubbert's Peak.</ref>

Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. [[Yuri Andropov]] was 68 years old and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].

Gorbachev made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called ''[[perestroika]]''. His policy of ''[[glasnost]]'' freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship.

[[File:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|withdrawing from Afghanistan]] in 1988]]
Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the Soviet Union abandoned its [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|nine-year war in Afghanistan]] and began to withdraw its forces. In the late 1980s, he refused military support to the Soviet Union's former satellite states, resulting in the toppling of multiple communist regimes. With the tearing down of the [[Berlin Wall]] and with [[East Germany]] and [[West Germany]] pursuing unification, the [[Iron Curtain]] came down.

In the late 1980s, the constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards potentially declaring [[sovereignty]] over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede.<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n12_v42/ai_9119705 The red blues — Soviet politics] by Brian Crozier, ''[[National Review]]'', 25 June 1990. {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n12_v42/ai_9119705|date =20110628194853}}</ref> On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum.<ref>[http://www.rspp.su/sobor/conf_2006/istoki_duh_nrav_crisis.html Origins of Moral-Ethical Crisis and Ways to Overcome it] by V.A.Drozhin Honoured Lawyer of Russia.</ref> Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the "[[War of Laws]]".

In 1989, the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory]] and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR's laws. After a landslide victory of [[Sąjūdis]] in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990.

A [[Soviet Union referendum, 1991|referendum for the preservation of the USSR]] was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those nine republics voting for preservation of the Union. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the [[New Union Treaty]], which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics.

[[File:Boris Yeltsin 19 August 1991-1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Boris Yeltsin]] stands on a tank in Moscow to defy the [[August Coup]], 1991]]
The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|August Coup]]—an attempted [[coup d'état]] by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterward the Party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending Communist rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside of Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected [[President of Russia]] in July 1991.

===Dissolution===
{{main|Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Commonwealth of Independent States}}
The remaining 12 republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union. However, by December, all except Russia and [[Kazakh SSR|Kazakhstan]] had formally declared independence. During this time, Yeltsin took over what remained of the Soviet government, including the Kremlin. The final blow was struck on 1 December, when Ukraine, the second most powerful republic, [[Ukrainian independence referendum, 1991|voted overwhelmingly for independence]]. Ukraine's secession ended any realistic chance of the Soviet Union staying together even on a limited scale.

On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Ukraine and [[Belarus]] (formerly Byelorussia), signed the [[Belavezha Accords]], which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the accords to do this, on 21 December 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]] signed the [[Alma-Ata Protocol]], which confirmed the accords. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as the President of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that had been vested in the presidency over to Yeltsin. That night, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, and the [[Russian tricolor]] was raised in its place.

The following day, the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, voted both itself and the Soviet Union out of existence. This is generally recognized as marking the official, final [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] as a functioning state. The Soviet Army originally remained under overall CIS command, but was soon absorbed into the different military forces of the newly independent states. The few remaining Soviet institutions that had not been taken over by Russia ceased to function by the end of 1991.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union on 26 December 1991, Russia was internationally recognized<ref name="uk">[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744935436 Country Profile: Russia]{{dead link|date=December 2013}} Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom.</ref> as its [[legal successor]] on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt and claimed overseas Soviet properties as its own. Under the 1992 [[Lisbon Protocol]], Russia also agreed to receive all nuclear weapons remaining in the territory of other former Soviet republics. Since then, the Russian Federation has assumed the Soviet Union's rights and obligations.
[[File:Refugeesaz.jpg|thumb|Internally displaced [[Azerbaijan]]is from Nagorno-Karabakh, 1993]]

===Post-Soviet states===
{{main|Post-Soviet states}}
The analysis of the [[succession of states]] with respect to the 15 [[post-Soviet states]] is complex. The [[Russian Federation]] is seen as the legal ''continuator'' state and is for most purposes the heir to the Soviet Union. It retained ownership of all former Soviet embassy properties, as well as the old Soviet UN membership and permanent membership on the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]].<ref name="Buhler">{{cite book |last=Buhler |first=Konrad G. |title=State Succession and Membership in International Organizations |series=Legal Aspects of International Organization Series |volume=Volume 38 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |year=2001 |url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA164 |isbn=9789041115539 |page=164}}</ref> The [[Baltic states]] are not successor states to the Soviet Union;<ref name="Talari">{{cite book |last=Talari |first=Pekka T. |title=State Succession in Respect of Debts: The Effect of State Succession in the 1990's on the Rules of Law |page=167 |volume=2 |series=The Finnish Yearbook of International Law |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |year=1996 |url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=9nKKnb8uiHsC&pg=PA167 |isbn=9789041104694}}</ref> they are instead considered to have [[de jure]] continuity with their pre-[[World War II]] governments through the non-recognition of the original Soviet incorporation in 1940.<ref name='Buhler'/> The other 11 post-Soviet states are considered newly-independent [[successor states]] to the Soviet Union.<ref name='Buhler'/>

There are additionally four states that claim independence from the other internationally recognized post-Soviet states, but [[List of states with limited recognition|possess limited international recognition]]: [[Abkhazia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], [[South Ossetia]], and [[Transnistria]]. The [[Chechnya]]n separatist movement of the [[Chechen Republic of Ichkeria]] lacks any international recognition.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of the Soviet Union|State ideology of the Soviet Union}}
{{Marxism–Leninism sidebar}}

There were three power hierarchies in the Soviet Union: the [[legislative branch]] represented by the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]], the government represented by the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|Council of Ministers]], and the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), the only legal party and the ultimate policymaker in the country.<ref name="sakwa">Sakwa, Richard. ''Soviet Politics in Perspective''. 2nd ed. London – N.Y.: Routledge, 1998.</ref>

===Communist Party===
{{main|Communist Party of the Soviet Union}}
At the top of the Communist Party was the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]], elected at [[Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Party Congresses]] and Conferences. The Central Committee in turn voted for a [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Politburo]] (called the Presidium between 1952–1966), [[Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee|Secretariat]] and the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] (First Secretary from 1953 to 1966), the de facto highest office in the USSR.<ref>{{cite book | author = Law, David A. | title = Russian Civilization | publisher = Ardent Media | year = 1975 | pages = 193–94 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C&dq | isbn = 978-0-8422-0529-0 }}</ref> Depending on the degree of power consolidation, it was either the Politburo as a collective body or the General Secretary, who always was one of the Politburo members, that effectively led the party and the country<ref>{{cite book | author = Zemtsov, Ilya | title = Chernenko: The Last Bolshevik: The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika | publisher = [[Transaction Publishers]] | year = 1989 | page = 325 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=hgscfLr5dCsC&dq | isbn = 978-0-88738-260-4}}</ref> (except for the period of the highly personalized authority of Stalin, exercised directly through his position in the Council of Ministers rather than the Politburo after 1941).<ref>{{cite book | author = Knight, Amy | title = Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1995 | page = 5 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=PxiuUGRQhUIC&dq | isbn = 0-691-01093-5}}</ref> They were not controlled by the general party membership, as the key principle of the party organization was [[democratic centralism]], demanding strict subordination to higher bodies, and elections went uncontested, endorsing the candidates proposed from above.<ref>{{cite book | author = Hough, Jerry F.; Fainsod, Merle | title = How the Soviet Union is Governed | publisher = Harvard University Press | year = 1979 | page = 486 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=38gMzMRXCpQC&dq | isbn = 0-674-41030-0 }}</ref>

The Communist Party maintained its dominance over the state largely through its control over the [[Nomenklatura|system of appointments]]. All senior government officials and most deputies of the Supreme Soviet were members of the CPSU. Of the party heads themselves, Stalin in 1941–1953 and Khrushchev in 1958–1964 were Premiers. Upon the forced retirement of Khrushchev, the party leader was prohibited from this kind of double membership,<ref>{{Cite book | author = Service, Robert | title = History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century | publisher = [[Penguin Books Ltd]] | year = 2009 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq | isbn = 0-14-103797-0| page = 378 | authorlink = Robert Service (historian) }}</ref> but the later General Secretaries for at least some part of their tenure occupied the largely ceremonial position of [[Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet]], the nominal [[List of heads of state of the Soviet Union|head of state]]. The institutions at lower levels were overseen and at times supplanted by [[Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Lower levels|primary party organizations]].<ref>{{Cite book | title = Конститутион оф тхе Руссиян Федератион: витх комментариес анд интерпретатион | publisher = [[Brunswick Publishing Corp]] | year = 1994 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=3mQjvzP8VSYC&dq | isbn = 1-55618-142-6 | page = 82 }}</ref>

In practice, however, the degree of control the party was able to exercise over the state bureaucracy, particularly after the death of Stalin, was far from total, with the bureaucracy pursuing different interests that were at times in conflict with the party.<ref>{{cite book | author = Ōgushi, Atsushi | title = The Demise of the Soviet Communist Party | publisher = Routledge | year = 2008 | pages = 31–32 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=N7mDUC1nOZsC&dq | isbn = 0-415-43439-4 }}</ref> Nor was the party itself monolithic from top to bottom, although factions were officially banned.<ref>{{Cite book | author = Taras, Ray | title = Leadership change in Communist states | publisher = Routledge | year = 1989 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=AlcVAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn = 0-04-445277-2 | page = 132 }}</ref>

===Government===
{{main|Government of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Supreme Soviet 1982.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Grand Kremlin Palace]], seat of the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]], 1982]]
The [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]] (successor of the [[Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union|Congress of Soviets]] and [[Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union|Central Executive Committee]]) was nominally the highest state body for most of the Soviet history,<ref>{{cite book | author = F. Triska, Jan; Slusser, Robert M. | title = The Theory, Law, and Policy of Soviet Treaties | publisher = [[Stanford University Press]] | year = 1962 | pages = 63–64 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=QmWmAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn = 0-8047-0122-9 }}</ref> at first acting as a rubber stamp institution, approving and implementing all decisions made by the party. However, the powers and functions of the Supreme Soviet were extended in the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, including the creation of new state commissions and committees. It gained additional powers when it came to the approval of the [[Five-Year Plan for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|Five-Year Plans]] and the Soviet [[state budget]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Deb, Kalipada | title = Soviet Union to Commonwealth: Transformation and Challenges | publisher = M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd | year = 1996 | page = 81 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=IvK6r-8Ogg0C&dq | isbn = 81-85880-95-6 }}</ref> The Supreme Soviet elected a [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]] to wield its power between plenary sessions,<ref name="COMSSP"/> ordinarily held twice a year, and appointed the [[Supreme Court of the Soviet Union|Supreme Court]],<ref>{{cite book | title = The Communist World | publisher = Ardent Media | year = 2001 | page = 441 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=h9FFVgu-Ff0C&dq | isbn = 0-271-02170-5}}</ref> the [[Procurator General of the Soviet Union|Procurator General]]<ref>{{cite book | author = Joseph Marie Feldbrugge, Ferdinand | title = Russian Law: The End of the Soviet System and the Role of Law | publisher = [[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] | year = 1993 | page = 205 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq | isbn = 0-7923-2358-0}}</ref> and the Council of Ministers (known before 1946 as the [[Council of People's Commissars]]), headed by the [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Chairman]] (Premier) and managing an enormous bureaucracy responsible for the administration of the economy and society.<ref name="COMSSP">{{cite book | author = Benson, Shirley | title = Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower | publisher = [[Penn State University Press]] | year = 2001 | pages = XIV | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=dQeahlZdM7sC&dq | isbn = 0-271-02170-5}}</ref> State and party structures of the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|constituent republics]] largely emulated the structure of the central institutions, although the Russian SFSR, unlike the other constituent republics, for most of its history had no republican branch of the CPSU, being ruled directly by the union-wide party until 1990. Local authorities were organized likewise into [[Organization of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Lower levels|party committees]], [[Soviet (council)|local Soviets]] and [[Ispolkom|executive committees]]. While the state system was nominally federal, the party was unitary.<ref>{{cite book | author = White, Stephen; J. Gill, Graeme; Slider, Darrell | title = The Politics of Transition: Shaping a post-Soviet Future | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1993 | page = 108 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=O9IGbITqT_EC&dq | isbn = 978-0-521-44634-1 }}</ref>

The state security police (the [[KGB]] and its predecessor agencies) played an important role in Soviet politics. It was instrumental in the [[Great Purge|Stalinist terror]],<ref>{{cite book | author = P. Hoffmann, Erik; Laird, Robin Frederick | title = The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era | publisher = [[Transaction Publishers]] | year = 1984 | pages = 313–315 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC&dq | isbn = 0-202-24165-3}}</ref> but after the death of Stalin, the state security police was brought under strict party control. Under [[Yuri Andropov]], KGB chairman in 1967–1982 and General Secretary from 1982 to 1983, the KGB engaged in the suppression of political dissent and maintained an extensive network of informers, reasserting itself as a political actor to some extent independent of the party-state structure,<ref>{{cite book | author = P. Hoffmann, Erik; Laird, Robin Frederick | title = The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era | publisher = [[Transaction Publishers]] | year = 1984 | pages = 315–319 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC&dq | isbn = 0-202-24165-3 }}</ref> culminating in the anti-corruption campaign targeting high party officials in the late 1970s and early 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal | title = The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era | work = [[Great Russian Encyclopedia]] | year = 2005 | publisher = Bol'shaya Rossiyskaya Enciklopediya Publisher | volume = 1 | page = 742 }}</ref>

===Separation of power and reform===
{{main|Perestroika}}
[[File:RIAN archive 699872 Dushanbe riots, February 1990.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-government [[1990 Dushanbe riots|riots in Dushanbe]], [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|Tajik SSR]], 1990]]
The [[Soviet constitution]]s, which were promulgated in [[Russian Constitution of 1918|1918]], [[1924 Soviet Constitution|1924]], [[1936 Soviet Constitution|1936]] and [[1977 Soviet Constitution|1977]],<ref>{{cite book | author = Sakwa, Richard | title = Soviet Politics in Perspective | publisher = Routledge | year = 1998 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=vX1U5G_xnqcC&dq | isbn = 0-415-07153-4| page = 106 | authorlink = Richard Sakwa }}</ref> did not limit state power. No formal [[separation of powers]] existed between the Party, Supreme Soviet and Council of Ministers<ref>{{cite book | author = Kucherov, Samuel | title = The Organs of Soviet Administration of Justice: Their History and Operation | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill Archive Publishers]] | year = 1970 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ssMUAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn = | page = 31 }}</ref> that represented executive and [[legislature|legislative]] branches of the government. The system was governed less by statute than by informal conventions, and no settled mechanism of leadership succession existed. Bitter and at times deadly power struggles took place in the Politburo after the deaths of Lenin<ref>{{cite book | author = Phillips, Steve | title = Lenin and the Russian Revolution | publisher = [[Heinemann (book publisher)|Heinemann]] | year = 2000 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_na0zfdhKQMC&dq | isbn = 978-0-435-32719-4 | page = 71 }}</ref> and [[Joseph Stalin]],<ref>{{cite book |author=''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''|year=2005|title=Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|isbn=|page=1014}}</ref> as well as after [[Nikita Khrushchev#Removal|Khrushchev's dismissal]],<ref>{{Cite book | author = Service, Robert | title = History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century | publisher = [[Penguin Books Ltd]] | year = 2009 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq | page = 379 | isbn = 0-14-103797-0 | authorlink = Robert Service (historian) }}</ref> itself due to a decision by both the Politburo and the Central Committee.<ref name="Khrushchevgoner"/> All Soviet party leaders before Gorbachev died in office, except [[Georgy Malenkov]]<ref>{{cite book | author = Polley, Martin | title = A–Z of modern Europe since 1789 | publisher = Routledge | year = 2000 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_f8Avd5N5Y4C&dq | isbn = 0-415-18597-1 | page = 88 }}</ref> and Khrushchev, both dismissed from the party leadership amid internal struggle within the party.<ref name="Khrushchevgoner">{{cite book |author=Khrushchev, Nikita|year=2007|title=Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, Volume 3: Statesman|publisher=[[Pennsylvania State University Press]]|isbn=978-0-271-02935-1|page=674|authorlink=Nikita Khrushchev}}</ref>

Between 1988 and 1990, facing considerable opposition, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] enacted reforms shifting power away from the highest bodies of the party and making the Supreme Soviet less dependent on them. The [[Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union|Congress of People's Deputies]] was established, the majority of whose members were directly elected in competitive elections held in March 1989. The Congress now elected the Supreme Soviet, which became a full-time parliament, much stronger than before. For the first time since the 1920s, it refused to rubber stamp proposals from the party and Council of Ministers.<ref name="countrystudies">{{cite web | publisher = [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] | title = Gorbachev's Reform Dilemma | url = http://countrystudies.us/russia/18.htm | accessdate =16 October 2010 }}</ref> In 1990, Gorbachev introduced and assumed the position of the [[President of the Soviet Union]], concentrated power in his executive office, independent of the party, and subordinated the government,<ref>{{cite book | author = Polmar, Norman | title = The Naval Institute Guide to the Soviet | publisher = [[United States Naval Institute]] | year = 1991 | url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=tkGDkpkQh-sC&dq | isbn = 0-87021-241-9 | page = 1 }}</ref> now renamed the [[Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR]], to himself.<ref>{{cite book | author = McCauley, Martin | title = The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union | publisher = [[Pearson Education]] | year = 2007 | url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=ycCZqmhhceMC&dq | isbn = 0-582-78465-4 | page = 490 }}</ref>

Tensions grew between the union-wide authorities under Gorbachev, reformists led in Russia by [[Boris Yeltsin]] and controlling the newly elected [[Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR]], and Communist Party hardliners. On 19–21 August 1991, a group of hardliners staged an [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|abortive coup attempt]]. Following the failed coup, the [[State Council of the Soviet Union]] became the highest organ of state power "in the period of transition".<ref>{{cite web | author= [[Government of the USSR]]: [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev, Mikhail]] |title=УКАЗ: ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ О МИНИСТЕРСТВЕ ЮСТИЦИИ СССР |trans_title= Law: About state governing bodies of USSR in a transition period On the bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR in Transition | url = http://www.sssr.su/zopp.html | accessdate=15 October 1991 |date=21 March 1972 |publisher=sssr.su|language=Russian}}</ref> Gorbachev resigned as General Secretary, only remaining President for the final months of the existence of the USSR.<ref>{{cite book | author = Vincent Daniels, Robert | title = A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev | publisher = [[University Press of New England]] (UPNE) | year = 1993 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=gTIZ2dvDKF0C&dq | isbn = 0-87451-616-1 | page = 388 }}</ref>

===Judicial system===
{{main|Law of the Soviet Union|Socialist law}}
The judiciary was not independent of the other branches of government. The [[Supreme Court of the Soviet Union|Supreme Court]] supervised the lower courts ([[People's Court (Soviet Union)|People's Court]]) and applied the law as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union used the [[inquisitorial system]] of [[Roman law]], where the judge, [[Procurator General of the Soviet Union|procurator]], and defense attorney collaborate to establish the truth.<ref>{{cite web |author=''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/288956/inquisitorial-procedure |title=Inquisitorial procedure (law) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|accessdate=30 October 2010}}</ref>

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Soviet Republic (system of government)|Republics of the Soviet Union}}

Constitutionally, the Soviet Union was a union of [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] (SSRs) and the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR), although the rule of the highly centralized Communist Party made the union merely nominal.<ref name="sakwa"/> The [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR]] was signed in December 1922 by four founding republics, the RSFSR, [[Transcaucasian SFSR]], [[Ukrainian SSR]] and [[Belorussian SSR]]. In 1924, during the [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union|national delimitation]] in Central Asia, the [[Uzbek SSR|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmen SSR]]s were formed from parts of the RSFSR's [[Turkestan ASSR]] and two Soviet dependencies, the [[Khorezm SSR|Khorezm]] and [[Bukharan SSR]]. In 1929, the [[Tajik SSR]] was split off from the Uzbek SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the constituents of the Transcaucasian SFSR, namely the [[Georgian SSR|Georgian]], [[Armenian SSR|Armenian]] and [[Azerbaijan SSR]]s, were elevated to union republics, while the [[Kazakh SSR|Kazakh]] and [[Kirghiz SSR]]s were split off from the RSFSR.<ref>{{cite book | last=Adams, Simon | title= Russian Republics | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=LyqIDCc-cSsC&dq | year=2005 | page=21|publisher=Black Rabbit Books| isbn=978-1-58340-606-9}}</ref> In August 1940, the Soviet Union formed the [[Moldavian SSR]] from parts of the Ukrainian SSR and [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina]]. It also [[Occupation and annexation of the Baltic states by the Soviet Union (1940)|annexed the Baltic states]] as the [[Estonian SSR|Estonian]], [[Latvian SSR|Latvian]] and [[Lithuanian SSR]]s. The [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]] was split off from the RSFSR in March 1940 and merged back in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).<ref>{{cite book | last=Feldbrugge, Ferdinand Joseph Maria | title= Russian Law: The Rnd of the Soviet system and the Role of Law | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq | year=1993 | page=94 |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] | isbn=0-7923-2358-0 }}</ref> Although it was nominally a union of equals, in practice the Soviet Union was dominated by the RSFSR, by far the largest and most powerful republic. For this reason, until the 1980s the Soviet Union was commonly—but incorrectly—called "Russia."

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|-
! #
! Republic
! Map of the Union Republics between 1956–1991
|-
| 1
| {{flag|Russian SFSR}}
| rowspan="15" style="width:350px;" | [[File:Republics of the USSR.svg|600px]]
|-
| 2
| {{flag|Ukrainian SSR}}
|-
| 3
| {{flag|Byelorussian SSR}}
|-
| 4
| {{flag|Uzbek SSR}}
|-
| 5
| {{flag|Kazakh SSR}}
|-
| 6
| {{flag|Georgian SSR}}
|-
| 7
| {{flag|Azerbaijan SSR}}
|-
| 8
| {{flag|Lithuanian SSR}}
|-
| 9
| {{flag|Moldavian SSR}}
|-
| 10
| {{flag|Latvian SSR}}
|-
| 11
| {{flag|Kirghiz SSR}}
|-
| 12
| {{flag|Tajik SSR}}
|-
| 13
| {{flag|Armenian SSR}}
|-
| 14
| {{flag|Turkmen SSR}}
|-
| 15
| {{flag|Estonian SSR}}
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:DneproGES 1947.JPG|thumb|left|The [[DneproGES]], one of many [[hydroelectric]] power stations in the Soviet Union]]

The Soviet Union became the first country to adopt a [[planned economy]], whereby production and distribution of goods were centralised and directed by the government. The first Bolshevik experience with a command economy was the policy of [[War Communism]], which involved nationalisation of industry, centralized distribution of output, coercive requisition of agricultural production, and attempts to eliminate the circulation of money, as well as private enterprises and [[free trade]]. After the severe economic collapse caused by the war, in 1921 Lenin replaced War Communism with the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP), legalising free trade and private ownership of smaller businesses. The economy quickly recovered.<ref name="gregory2004">{{cite book | author = Gregory, Paul R. | title = The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives | pages = 218–20 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2004 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=hFHU5kaXhu8C&dq | isbn = 0-521-53367-8 }}</ref>

Following a lengthy debate among the members of Politburo over the course of economic development, by 1928–1929, upon [[Rise of Joseph Stalin|gaining control of the country]], [[Joseph Stalin]] abandoned the NEP and pushed for full central planning, starting [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|forced collectivisation of agriculture]] and enacting draconian labor legislation. Resources were mobilised for [[Soviet industrialization|rapid industrialisation]], which greatly expanded Soviet capacity in heavy industry and capital goods during the 1930s.<ref name="gregory2004"/> Preparation for war was one of the main driving forces behind industrialisation, mostly due to distrust of the outside capitalistic world.<ref>{{cite book | author = Mawdsley, Evan | page = 30 | title = The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953 | publisher = [[Manchester University Press]] | year = 1998 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn = 0-7190-4600-9}}</ref> As a result, the USSR was transformed from a largely agrarian economy into a great industrial power, leading the way for its emergence as a superpower after [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Wheatcroft, S. G.; Davies, R. W.; Cooper, J. M. | pages = 30–2 | title = Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941 | publisher = [[Economic History Review]] | year = 1986 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn = 978-0-7190-4600-1| volume = 39 | issue = 2 }}</ref> During the war, the Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation and required extensive reconstruction.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm|accessdate =23 October 2010}}</ref>

[[Image:Armenian cotton.jpg|thumb|Picking cotton in [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenia]] in the 1930s]]
By the early 1940s, the Soviet economy had become relatively [[Autarky|self-sufficient]]; for most of the period until the creation of [[Comecon]], only a very small share of domestic products was traded internationally.<ref name="foreign trade">{{cite web |title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0391%29|accessdate =23 October 2010}}</ref> After the creation of the [[Eastern Bloc]], external trade rose rapidly. Still the influence of the [[world economy]] on the USSR was limited by fixed domestic prices and a state monopoly on [[Foreign trade of the Soviet Union|foreign trade]].<ref>{{cite book | author = [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] | title = A Study of the Soviet Economy | volume = 1 | publisher = [[International Monetary Fund]] | year = 1991 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq | page = 9 | isbn = 0-14-103797-0 }}</ref> Grain and sophisticated consumer manufactures became major import articles from around the 1960s.<ref name="foreign trade"/> During the [[arms race]] of the Cold War, the Soviet economy was burdened by military expenditures, heavily lobbied for by a powerful bureaucracy dependent on the arms industry. At the same time, the Soviet Union became the largest arms exporter to the [[Third World]]. Significant amounts of Soviet resources during the Cold War were [[International relations within the Comecon|allocated in aid]] to the other [[socialist states]].<ref name="foreign trade"/>

From the 1930s until its collapse in the late 1980s, the way the Soviet economy operated remained essentially unchanged. The economy was formally directed by [[economic planning|central planning]], carried out by [[Gosplan]] and organized in [[Five-Year Plans for the National Economy of the Soviet Union|five-year plans]]. In practice, however, the plans were highly aggregated and provisional, subject to ''ad hoc'' intervention by superiors. All key economic decisions were taken by the political leadership. Allocated resources and plan targets were normally denominated in [[Soviet ruble|rubles]] rather than in physical goods. [[Credit (finance)|Credit]] was discouraged, but widespread. Final allocation of output was achieved through relatively decentralized, unplanned contracting. Although in theory prices were legally set from above, in practice the actual prices were often negotiated, and informal horizontal links (between producer factories etc.) were widespread.<ref name="gregory2004"/>

A number of basic [[Service (economics)|services]] were state-funded, such as [[education in the Soviet Union|education]] and healthcare. In the manufacturing sector, heavy industry and defense were assigned higher priority than the production of [[Consumer goods in the Soviet Union|consumer goods]].<ref name="economy"/> Consumer goods, particularly outside large cities, were often scarce, of poor quality and limited choice. Under command economy, consumers had almost no influence over production, so the changing demands of a population with growing incomes could not be satisfied by supplies at rigidly fixed prices.<ref name="hanson">Hanson, Philip. ''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Economy: An Economic History of the USSR from 1945''. London: Longman, 2003.</ref> A massive unplanned second economy grew up alongside the planned one at low levels, providing some of the goods and services that the planners could not. Legalisation of some elements of the decentralised economy was attempted with the [[1965 Soviet economic reform|reform of 1965]].<ref name="gregory2004"/>

[[File:RIAN archive 633872 Workers of Soligorsk potash plant.jpg|thumb|190px|Workers of the [[Salihorsk]] potash plant, [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarus]], 1968]]
Although statistics of the Soviet economy are notoriously unreliable and its economic growth difficult to estimate precisely,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1057/ces.1997.1 | author = Bergson, Abram | year = 1997 | title = How Big was the Soviet GDP? | url = | journal = Comparative Economic Studies | volume = 39 | issue = 1| pages = 1–14 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/09668139308412080 | author = Harrison, Mark | year = 1993 | title = Soviet Economic Growth Since 1928: The Alternative Statistics of G. I. Khanin | url = | journal = Europe–Asia Studies | volume = 45 | issue = 1| pages = 141–167 }}</ref> by most accounts, the economy continued to expand until the mid-1980s. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet economy experienced comparatively high growth and was catching up to the West.<ref>{{cite book | author = Gvosdev, Nikolas | title = The Strange Death of Soviet communism: A Postscript | publisher = [[Transaction Publishers]] | year = 2008 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=Q_xTyZUEqkYC&dq | isbn = 1-4128-0698-4 | authorlink = Nikolas Gvosdev }}</ref> However, after 1970, the growth, while still positive, [[Era of Stagnation|steadily declined]] much more quickly and consistently than in other countries despite a rapid increase in the [[capital stock]] (the rate of increase in capital was only surpassed by Japan).<ref name="gregory2004"/>

Overall, between 1960 and 1989, the growth rate of per capita income in the Soviet Union was slightly above the world average (based on 102 countries).{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} According to [[Stanley Fischer]] and [[William Easterly]], growth could have been faster. By their calculation, per capita income of Soviet Union in 1989 should have been twice as high as it was considering the amount of investment, education and population. The authors attribute this poor performance to low productivity of capital in the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fischer |first1=Stanley |authorlink1=Stanley Fischer |last2=Easterly |first2=William |authorlink2=William Easterly |title=The Soviet Economic Decline, Historical and Republican Data |format=PDF |publisher=[[World Bank]] |year=1994 |url= http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/1994/04/01/000009265_3961006063138/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf |accessdate=23 October 2010}}</ref> Steven Rosenfielde states that the standard of living actually declined as a result of Stalin's despotism, and while there was a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |year=1996 |title=Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s |pages=956–987 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=48 |issue=6 |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |jstor=152635 |quote=The new evidence shows that administrative command planning and Stalin's forced industrialisation strategies failed in the 1930s and beyond. The economic miracle chronicled in official hagiographies and until recently faithfully recounted in Western textbooks has no basis in fact. It is the statistical artefact not of index number relativity (the Gerschenkron effect) but of misapplying to the calculation of growth cost prices that do not accurately measure competitive value. The standard of living declined during the 1930s in response to Stalin's despotism, and after a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation. Glasnost and post-communist revelations interpreted as a whole thus provide no basis for Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov's relatively favourable characterisation of the methods, economic achievements and human costs of Stalinism. The evidence demonstrates that the suppression of markets and the oppression of vast segments of the population were economically counterproductive and humanly calamitous, just as anyone conversant with classical economic theory should have expected.}}</ref>

In 1987, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] tried to reform and revitalize the economy with his program of ''[[perestroika]]''. His policies relaxed state control over enterprises, but did not yet allow it to be replaced by market incentives, ultimately resulting in a sharp decline in production output. The economy, already suffering from [[1980s oil glut|reduced petroleum export revenues]], started to collapse. Prices were still fixed, and property was still largely state-owned until after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref name="gregory2004"/><ref name="hanson"/> For most of the period after World War II up to its collapse, the Soviet economy was [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|the second largest in the world]] by GDP ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]), and was 3rd in the world during the middle of the 1980s to 1989.<ref>{{cite web | author = Central Intelligence Agency | title = GDP – Million 1990 | work = [[The World Factbook]] | year = 1991 | url = http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html | accessdate =12 June 2010 | authorlink = Central Intelligence Agency }}</ref> though in [[GDP per capita|per capita]] terms the Soviet GDP was behind that of the [[First World]] countries.<ref>{{cite web | author = Central Intelligence Agency | title = GDP Per Capita – 1991 | work = [[The World Factbook]] | year = 1992 | url = http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1991/rankings/gdp_per_capita_0.html | accessdate =12 June 2010 | authorlink = Central Intelligence Agency }}</ref>

===Energy===
{{main|Energy policy of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Soviet Union stamp 1987 CPA 5858.jpg|thumb|Soviet stamp depicting the 30th anniversary of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], published in 1987, a year following the [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl nuclear disaster]]]]
The need for fuel declined in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1980s,<ref name="sovietenergydemanddecline">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=David |title=The Demand for Energy in the Soviet Union |year=1983 |publisher=Rowman and Littfield |isbn=9780709927044 |pages=105 to 108}}</ref> both per ruble of gross social product and per ruble of industrial product. At the start, this decline grew very rapidly but gradually slowed down between 1970 and 1975. From 1975 and 1980, it grew even slower,{{Clarify|date=March 2011}} only 2.6 percent.<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 295.</ref> David Wilson, a historian, believed that the gas industry would account for 40 percent of Soviet fuel production by the end of the century. His theory did not come to fruition because of the USSR's collapse.<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 297.</ref> The USSR, in theory, would have continued to have an economic growth rate of 2–2.5 percent during the 1990s because of Soviet energy fields{{Clarify|date=March 2011}}.<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 297–99.</ref> However, the energy sector faced many difficulties, among them the country's high military expenditure and hostile relations with the [[First World]] (pre-[[Gorbachev era]]).<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 299.</ref>

In 1991, the Soviet Union had a [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] network of {{convert|82000|km|mi}} for [[crude oil]] and another {{convert|206500|km|mi}} for natural gas.<ref name="ciacom"/> Petroleum and petroleum-based products, natural gas, metals, wood, agricultural products, and a variety of manufactured goods, primarily machinery, arms and military equipment, were exported.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web | title = Soviet Union – Economy | author = Central Intelligence Agency | year = 1992 | work = [[The World Factbook]] | url = http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_economy.html | accessdate =23 October 2010 | authorlink = Central Intelligence Agency }}</ref> In the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union heavily relied on fossil fuel exports to earn [[hard currency]].<ref name="foreign trade"/> At its peak in 1988, it was the largest producer and second largest exporter of crude oil, surpassed only by [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Hardt, John Pearce; Hardt, John P. | title = Russia's Uncertain Economic Future: With a Comprehensive Subject Index | page = 233 | publisher = [[M.E. Sharpe]] | year = 2003 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=IvKF3PKGYAcC&dq | isbn = 0-7656-1208-9 }}</ref>

===Science and technology===
{{main|Science and technology in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Soviet stamp showing the orbit of [[Sputnik]]]]
The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on [[Science and technology in the Soviet Union|science and technology]] within its economy,<ref name="science&technology">{{cite web |title=Science and Technology|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0413%29|accessdate =23 October 2010}}</ref> however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the [[Sputnik|world's first space satellite]], typically were the responsibility of the military.<ref name="economy">{{cite web |title=Economy|publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url=http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0009%29|accessdate =23 October 2010}}</ref> Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhD's to women, compared to only 5% who received such a degree in the United States.<ref>Rose Eveleth (December 12, 2013). [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today-180948141/?no-ist Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today]. ''[[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian.com]].'' Retrieved June 26, 2014.</ref> By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as [[energy physics]], selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and [[Nomenklatura|bureaucracy]], the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the [[First World]].

[[Project Socrates]], under the [[Reagan administration]], determined that the Soviet Union addressed the acquisition of science and technology in a manner that was radically different from what the US was using. In the case of the US, economic prioritization was being used for indigenous [[research and development]] as the means to acquire science and technology in both the private and public sectors. In contrast, the Soviet Union was offensively and defensively maneuvering in the acquisition and utilization of the worldwide technology, to increase the competitive advantage that they acquired from the technology, while preventing the US from acquiring a competitive advantage. However, in addition, the Soviet Union's technology-based planning was executed in a centralized, government-centric manner that greatly hindered its flexibility. It was this significant lack of flexibility that was exploited by the US to undermine the strength of the Soviet Union and thus foster its reform.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Global Tech Strategies Brought to U.S | journal = Washington Technology | date = 3 May 1990 | first = Margo | last = MacFarland| id = }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = R.A. | last = Deckert | title = The science of uncovering industrial information | date = 10 October 1990 | work = Business Journal of the Treasure Coast}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = U.S. Firms Must Trade Short-Term Gains for Long-Term Technology Planning | date = 7 March 1991 | work = Inside the Pentagon}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{main|Transport in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Flag of the Aeroflot.svg|thumb|[[Aeroflot]]'s flag during the Soviet era]]
Transport was a key component of the [[economy of the Soviet Union|nation's economy]]. The [[First Five-Year Plan (Soviet Union)|economic centralization]] of the late 1920s and 1930s led to the development of infrastructure on a massive scale, most notably the establishment of [[Aeroflot]], an aviation [[Enterprises in the Soviet Union|enterprise]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Highman, Robert D.S.; Greenwood, John T.; Hardesty, Von | title = Russian Aviation and Air Power in the Twentieth Century | publisher = Routledge | year = 1998 | url = http://books.google.no/books?id=cpynoFM-Jf4C&dq | isbn = 978-0-7146-4784-5 | page = 134 }}</ref> The country had a wide variety of modes of transport by land, water and air.<ref name=ciacom/> However, due to bad maintenance, much of the road, water and Soviet civil aviation transport were outdated and technologically backward compared to the First World.<ref name="twocerofive"/>

Soviet rail transport was the largest and most intensively used in the world;<ref name="twocerofive">Wilson 1983, p. 205.</ref> it was also better developed than most of its Western counterparts.<ref>Wilson 1983, p. 201.</ref> By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Soviet economists were calling for the construction of more roads to alleviate some of the burden from the railways and to improve the Soviet [[state budget]].<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 166–67.</ref> The [[road network]] and [[Automobile industry of the Soviet Union|automobile industry]]<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 168.</ref> remained underdeveloped,<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 165.</ref> and [[dirt road]]s were common outside major cities.<ref name="Ambler 1985, p. 167">Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 167.</ref> Soviet maintenance projects proved unable to take care of even the few roads the country had. By the early-to-mid-1980s, the Soviet authorities tried to solve the road problem by ordering the construction of new ones.<ref name="Ambler 1985, p. 167"/> Meanwhile, the automobile industry was growing at a faster rate than road construction.<ref>Ambler, Shaw and Symons 1985, p. 169.</ref> The underdeveloped road network led to a growing demand for public transport.<ref>[[International Monetary Fund]] and [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] 1991, p. 56.</ref>

Despite improvements, several aspects of the transport sector were still riddled with problems due to outdated infrastructure, lack of investment, corruption and bad decision-making. Soviet authorities were unable to meet the growing demand for transport infrastructure and services.

The Soviet [[merchant fleet]] was one of the largest in the world.<ref name="ciacom">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_communications.html |title=Soviet Union – Communications |author=Central Intelligence Agency | work = [[The World Factbook]] |year=1991 |accessdate=20 October 2010 |authorlink= Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Population of former USSR.PNG|thumb|left|250px|Population of the USSR (red) and the [[post-Soviet states]] (blue) from 1961 to 2009]]

Excess deaths over the course of [[World War I]] and the [[Russian Civil War]] (including the postwar [[Russian famine of 1921|famine]]) amounted to a combined total of 18 million,<ref>{{cite book | author = Mark Harrison| title = Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945| url = http://books.google.com/?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167| date = 18 July 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-89424-1| page = 167 }}</ref> some 10 million in the 1930s,<ref name="1930s"/> and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar [[Demographics of the Soviet Union#Population 2|Soviet population]] was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued.<ref name="Geoffrey A. Hosking 2006 242"/> According to Catherine Merridale, "... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million."<ref>{{cite book | author = Jay Winter, Emmanuel Sivan| title = War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ZK2A5x7E8IkC&pg=PA64| date = 2000| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn =0521794366 | page = 64 }}</ref>

The [[crude birth rate]] of the USSR decreased from 44.0 per thousand in 1926 to 18.0 in 1974, largely due to increasing urbanization and the rising average age of marriages. The [[crude death rate]] demonstrated a gradual decrease as well – from 23.7 per thousand in 1926 to 8.7 in 1974. In general, the birth rates of the southern republics in Transcaucasia and Central Asia were considerably higher than those in the northern parts of the Soviet Union, and in some cases even increased in the post–World War II period, a phenomenon partly attributed to slower rates of urbanization and traditionally earlier marriages in the southern republics.<ref name="GSE">{{cite book | author= Government of the USSR|title=Большая советская энциклопедия |trans_title=[[Great Soviet Encyclopaedia]] | volume = 24 | page = 15|year=1977|location=Moscow|publisher=[[State Committee for Publishing]]|language=Russian|authorlink= Government of the USSR}}</ref> Soviet Europe moved towards [[sub-replacement fertility]], while [[Soviet Central Asia]] continued to exhibit population growth well above replacement-level fertility.<ref>{{cite book | author= Anderson, Barbara A. |title=Growth and Diversity of the Population of the Soviet Union | volume = 510 | pages = 155–77 |year=1990|publisher=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences}}</ref>

The late 1960s and the 1970s witnessed a reversal of the declining trajectory of the rate of mortality in the USSR, and was especially notable among men of working age, but was also prevalent in Russia and other predominantly Slavic areas of the country.<ref>{{cite book | author= Vallin, J.; Chesnais, J.C. |title=Recent Developments of Mortality in Europe, English-Speaking Countries and the Soviet Union, 1960–1970 | volume = 29 | pages = 861–898 |year=1970|publisher=Population Studies}}</ref> An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late-1970s and the early 1980s, adult mortality began to improve again.<ref>{{cite book | author= Ryan, Michael |title=Life expectancy and mortality data from the Soviet Union | volume = 296 | page = 1,513–1515 |date=28 May 1988|work=[[British Medical Journal]]}}</ref> The infant mortality rate increased from 24.7 in 1970 to 27.9 in 1974. Some researchers regarded the rise as largely real, a consequence of worsening health conditions and services.<ref>{{cite book | author= Davis, Christopher; [[Murray Feshbach|Feshbach, Murray]] |title=Rising Infant Mortality in the USSR in the 1970s | page = 95|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=United States Census Bureau}}</ref> The rises in both adult and infant mortality were not explained or defended by Soviet officials, and the [[Soviet government]] simply stopped publishing all mortality statistics for ten years. Soviet demographers and health specialists remained silent about the mortality increases until the late-1980s, when the publication of mortality data resumed and researchers could delve into the real causes.<ref>{{cite book | author= Krimins, Juris |title=The Changing Mortality Patterns in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia: Experience of the Past Three Decades | date = 3–7 December 1990}} Paper presented at the International Conference on Health, Morbidity and Mortality by Cause of Death in Europe.</ref>

===Education===
{{main|Education in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Milovice soviet pupils.jpg|thumb|Soviet pupils in [[Milovice (Nymburk District)|Milovice]], [[Czechoslovakia]], 1985]]
Before 1917, education was not free in the [[Russian Empire]] and was therefore either inaccessible or barely accessible for many children from lower-class working and peasant families. Estimates from 1917 recorded that 75–85 percent of the Russian population was [[illiterate]].

[[Anatoly Lunacharsky]] became the first [[People's Commissar]] for Education of Soviet Russia. At the beginning, the Soviet authorities placed great emphasis on the elimination of illiteracy. People who were [[literate]] were automatically hired as teachers. For a short period, quality was sacrificed for quantity. By 1940, Joseph Stalin could announce that illiteracy had been eliminated. In the aftermath of the Great Patriotic War, the country's educational system expanded dramatically. This expansion had a tremendous effect. In the 1960s, nearly all Soviet children had access to education, the only exception being those living in remote areas. [[Nikita Khrushchev]] tried to make education more accessible, making it clear to children that education was closely linked to the needs of society. Education also became important in giving rise to the [[New Soviet Man|New Man]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Law |first=David A. |title=Russian Civilization |publisher=Ardent Media |year=1975 |pages=300–1 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C&dq |isbn=0-8422-0529-2}}</ref>

The [[Education in the Soviet Union|country's system of education]] was highly centralized and universally accessible to all citizens, with [[affirmative action]] for applicants from nations associated with [[cultural backwardness]]. Citizens directly entering the work force had the constitutional right to a job and to free [[Vocational-technical school|vocational training]]. The Brezhnev administration introduced a rule that required all university applicants to present a reference from the local [[Komsomol]] party secretary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shlapentokh |first=Vladimir |title=Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power: The post-Stalin Era |page=26 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |year=1990 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=7VFqqE5995UC&dq |isbn=978-1-85043-284-5}}</ref> According to statistics from 1986, the number of higher education students per the population of 10,000 was 181 for the USSR, compared to 517 for the U.S.<ref name="education">{{cite book |last=Pejovich |first=Svetozar |title=The Economics of Property Rights: Towards a Theory of Comparative Systems |page=130 |year=1990 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |url= http://books.google.com/?id=ocQKHRReKdcC |isbn=978-0-7923-0878-2}}</ref>

===Ethnic groups===

The Soviet Union was a very ethnically diverse country, with more than 100 distinct ethnic groups. The total population was estimated at 293 million in 1991. According to a 1990 estimate, the majority were [[Russians]] (50.78%), followed by [[Ukrainians]] (15.45%) and [[Uzbeks]] (5.84%).<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_people.html |title=Soviet Union – People |author=Central Intelligence Agency | work = [[The World Factbook]] |year=1991 |accessdate=25 October 2010 |authorlink= Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>

All citizens of the USSR had their own ethnic affiliation. The ethnicity of a person was chosen at the age of sixteen<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 2.</ref> by the child's parents. If the parents did not agree, the child was automatically assigned the ethnicity of the father. Partly due to Soviet policies, some of the smaller minority ethnic groups were considered part of larger ones, such as the [[Mingrelians]] of the [[Georgian SSR]], who were classified with the linguistically related [[Georgians]].<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 3.</ref> Some ethnic groups voluntarily assimilated, while others were brought in by force. Russians, [[Belarusians]], and Ukrainians shared close cultural ties, while other groups did not. With multiple nationalities living in the same territory, ethnic antagonisms developed over the years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-hosking/rulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union |title=Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union |author=Hosking, Geoffrey | date = 13 March 2006 | work = [[History Today]] |accessdate=25 October 2010}} (pay-fee)</ref>{{POV-statement|date=February 2013}}

===Health===
{{main|Demographics of the Soviet Union#Life expectancy and infant mortality|l1=Health care in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:RussianAbortionPoster.jpg|thumb|right|An early Soviet-era poster discouraging unsafe [[abortion]] practices]]
In 1917, before the Bolshevik uprising, health conditions were significantly behind the developed countries. As Lenin later noted, "Either the lice will defeat socialism, or socialism will defeat the lice".<ref name="lane">Lane 1992, p. 353.</ref> The Soviet principle of health care was conceived by the [[People's Commissariat for Health]] in 1918. Health care was to be controlled by the state and would be provided to its citizens free of charge, this at the time being a revolutionary concept. Article 42 of the [[1977 Soviet Constitution]] gave all citizens the right to health protection and free access to any health institutions in the USSR. Before [[Leonid Brezhnev]] became head of state, the healthcare system of the Soviet Union was held in high esteem by many foreign specialists. This changed however, from Brezhnev's accession and [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s tenure as leader, the Soviet health care system was heavily criticised for many basic faults, such as the quality of service and the unevenness in its provision.<ref>Lane 1992, p. 352.</ref> [[Ministry of Health (Soviet Union)|Minister of Health]] [[Yevgeniy Chazov]], during the [[19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], while highlighting such Soviet successes as having the most doctors and hospitals in the world, recognised the system's areas for improvement and felt that billions of [[Soviet ruble]]s were squandered.<ref>Lane 1992, p. 352–53.</ref> 

After the socialist revolution, the life expectancy for all age groups went up. This statistic in itself was seen by some that the [[Socialism (Marxism)|socialist system]] was superior to the [[Capitalism|capitalist system]]. These improvements continued into the 1960s, when the life expectancy in the Soviet Union surpassed that of the United States. It remained stable during most years, although in the 1970s, it went down slightly, possibly because of [[Alcoholism in Russia|alcohol abuse]]. At the same time, infant mortality began to rise. After 1974, the government stopped publishing statistics on this. This trend can be partly explained by the number of pregnancies rising drastically in the Asian part of the country where infant mortality was highest, while declining markedly in the more developed European part of the Soviet Union.<ref name="SeemingParadox">{{cite book | author= Dinkel, R.H. |title=The Seeming Paradox of Increasing Mortality in a Highly Industrialized Nation: the Example of the Soviet Union | pages = 155–77|year=1990}}</ref> The USSR had several centers of excellence, such as the [[Fyodorov Eye Microsurgery Complex]], founded in 1988 by Russian eye surgeon [[Svyatoslav Fyodorov]].

===Language===
{{main|Languages of the Soviet Union}}
The Soviet government headed by Vladimir Lenin gave small language groups their own writing systems.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 3–4.</ref> The development of these writing systems was very successful, even though some flaws were detected. During the later days of the USSR, countries with the same [[multilingual]] situation implemented similar policies. A serious problem when creating these writing systems was that the languages differed [[dialect]]ally greatly from each other.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 4.</ref> When a language had been given a writing system and appeared in a notable publication, that language would attain "official language" status. There were many minority languages which never received their own writing system; therefore their speakers were forced to have a [[second language]].<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 25.</ref> There are examples where the Soviet government retreated from this policy, most notable under Stalin's regime, where education was discontinued in languages which were not widespread enough. These languages were then assimilated into another language, mostly Russian.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 26.</ref> During the [[Great Patriotic War]] (World War II), some minority languages were banned, and their speakers accused of collaborating with the enemy.<ref>Comrie 1981, p. 27.</ref>

As the most widely spoken of the Soviet Union's many languages, Russian ''de facto'' functioned as an official language, as the "language of interethnic communication" ({{lang-ru|link=no|язык межнационального общения}}), but only assumed the ''[[de jure]]'' status as the official national language in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |title=ЗАКОН СССР ОТ 24.04.1990 О ЯЗЫКАХ НАРОДОВ СССР|publisher=[[Government of the Soviet Union]]|date=24 April 1990 | url = http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm|trans_title=Law of the USSR from 24.04.1990 On languages of the USSR |accessdate =24 October 2010|language=Russian}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Christ saviour explosion.jpg|thumb|The [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]], [[Moscow]], during its demolition in 1931]]

[[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] had the greatest number of adherents among the Soviet state's religious citizens.<ref name="dailylife">{{cite book | author = Eaton, Katherine Bliss | title = Daily life in the Soviet Union | publisher = [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] | year = 2004 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=VVFuYN8TS5AC&dq | isbn = 0-313-31628-7 | pages = 285 and 286 }}</ref> [[Eastern Christianity]] predominated among Christians, with Russia's traditional [[Russian Orthodox Church]] being the Soviet Union's largest [[Christian denomination]]. About 90 percent of the Soviet Union's Muslims were [[Sunni]]s, with [[Shiite]]s concentrated in the [[Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic]].<ref name = "dailylife"/> Smaller groups included [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], and a variety of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] sects.<ref name = "dailylife"/>

Religious influence had been strong in the Russian Empire. The Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed a privileged status as the church of the monarchy and took part in carrying out official state functions.<ref name="Simkin 2003">{{cite book | author = Silvio Ferrari|author2=W. Cole Durham |author3=Elizabeth A. Sewell | title = Law and religion in post-communist Europe| url = http://books.google.com/?id=QEucgny-0k4C| year = 2003| publisher = Peeters Pub & Booksellers| isbn = 978-90-429-1262-5| page = 261 }}</ref> The immediate period following the establishment of the Soviet state included a struggle against the Orthodox Church, which the revolutionaries considered an ally of the former [[ruling class]]es.<ref name = "Simon 1974, 64-65">Simon 1974, pp. 64–65.</ref>

In Soviet law, the "freedom to hold religious services" was constitutionally guaranteed, although the ruling Communist Party regarded religion as incompatible with the [[Marxism|Marxist]] spirit of [[scientific materialism]].<ref name = "Simon 1974, 64-65"/> In practice, the Soviet system subscribed to a narrow interpretation of this right, and in fact utilized a range of official measures to discourage religion and curb the activities of religious groups.<ref name = "Simon 1974, 64-65"/>

The 1918 [[Council of People's Commissars]] decree establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) as a secular state also decreed that "the teaching of religion in all [places] where subjects of general instruction are taught, is forbidden. Citizens may teach and may be taught religion privately."<ref name = "Simon 1974, 209">Simon 1974, p. 209.</ref> Among further restrictions, those adopted in 1929, a half-decade into Stalin's rule, included express prohibitions on a range of church activities, including meetings for organized [[Bible study (Christian)|Bible study]].<ref name = "Simon 1974, 64-65"/> Both Christian and non-Christian establishments were shut down by the thousands in the 1920s and 1930s. By 1940, as many as 90 percent of the churches, synagogues, and mosques that had been operating in 1917 were closed.<ref name="Atwood 2001, 311">{{cite book | author = Atwood, Craig D. | title = Always Reforming: A History of Christianity Since 1300 | location = Macon, Georgia | publisher = [[Mercer University Press]] | year = 2001 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=72Ulz0fpr4cC | isbn =0-86554-679-7| page = 311 }}</ref>

Convinced that religious [[anti-Sovietism]] had become a thing of the past, the Stalin regime began shifting to a more moderate religion policy in the late 1930s.<ref name = "Janz 1998, 38-39">Janz 1998, pp. 38–39.</ref> Soviet religious establishments overwhelmingly rallied to support the war effort during [[Eastern Front (World War II)|the Soviet war with Nazi Germany]]. Amid other accommodations to religious faith, churches were reopened, [[Radio Moscow]] began broadcasting a religious hour, and a historic meeting between Stalin and Orthodox Church leader [[Patriarch Sergius I of Moscow]] was held in 1943.<ref name = "Janz 1998, 38-39"/> The general tendency of this period was an increase in religious activity among believers of all faiths.<ref name="Ro'i 1995, 263">{{cite book | author = Ro'i, Yaacov | title = Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union | location = London | publisher = [[Frank Cass]] | year = 1995 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=bJBH5pxzSyMC | isbn = 0-7146-4619-9| page = 263 }}</ref>

The Soviet establishment again clashed with the churches under General Secretary [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s leadership in 1958–1964, a period when [[atheism]] was emphasized in the educational curriculum, and numerous state publications promoted atheistic views.<ref name = "Janz 1998, 38-39"/> During this period, the number of churches fell from 20,000 to 10,000 from 1959 to 1965, and the number of synagogues dropped from 500 to 97.<ref name="Nahaylo & Swoboda 1990, 144">{{cite book | author = Nahaylo, Bohdan & Victor Swoboda | title = Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities Problem in the USSR | location = London | publisher = [[Hamish Hamilton]] | year = 1990 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=ZrG7vrPue4wC | isbn = 0-02-922401-2 | page = 144 }}</ref> The number of working mosques also declined, falling from 1,500 to 500 within a decade.<ref name = "Nahaylo & Swoboda 1990, 144"/>

Religious institutions remained monitored by the Soviet government, but churches, synagogues, temples, and mosques were all given more leeway in the [[Brezhnev era]].<ref name="Steinberg & Wanner 2008,">{{cite book | author = Mark D. Steinberg|author2=Catherine Wanner | title = Religion, morality, and community in post-Soviet societies| url = http://books.google.com/?id=LR6X3EY8oPIC| date = October 2008| publisher = Indiana University Press| isbn = 978-0-253-22038-7| page = 6 }}</ref> Official relations between the Orthodox Church and the Soviet government again warmed to the point that the Brezhnev government twice honored Orthodox Patriarch [[Alexy I]] with the [[Order of the Red Banner of Labour]].<ref name = "Janz 1998, 42">Janz 1998, p. 42.</ref> A poll conducted by Soviet authorities in 1982 recorded 20 percent of the Soviet population as "active religious believers."<ref name="subculture">{{cite book | author = McKay, George; Williams, Christopher | title = Subcultures and New Religious Movements in Russia and East-Central Europe | publisher = [[Peter Lang (publishing company)|Peter Lang]] | year = 2009 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=xpNBm-z7aOYC&dq | isbn = 3-03911-921-4 | pages = 231–32 }}</ref>

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of the Soviet Union}}
{{see also|Soviet cuisine|Fashion in the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Марш энтузиастов.ogg|thumb|The ''Enthusiast's March'', a 1930s song famous in the Soviet Union]]

The culture of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's 70-year existence. During the first eleven years following the Revolution (1918–1929), there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people. On the other hand, hundreds of intellectuals, writers, and artists were exiled or executed, and their work banned, for example [[Nikolay Gumilev]] (shot for alleged conspiring against the Bolshevik regime) and [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]] (banned).<ref>'On the other hand...' See the index of ''Stalin and His Hangmen'' by Donald Rayfield, 2004, Random House</ref>

The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers [[Maksim Gorky]] and [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]] were active during this time. Film, as a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, received encouragement from the state; much of director [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s best work dates from this period.

Later, during Stalin's rule, Soviet culture was characterised by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of [[socialist realism]], with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions, for example [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]'s works. Many writers were imprisoned and killed.<ref>Rayfield 2004, pp. 317–320.</ref>

Following the [[Khrushchev Thaw]] of the late 1950s and early 1960s, censorship was diminished. During this time, a distinctive period of Soviet culture developed characterized by conformist public life and intense focus on personal life. Greater experimentation in art forms were again permissible, with the result that more sophisticated and subtly critical work began to be produced. The regime loosened its emphasis on socialist realism; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author [[Yury Trifonov]] concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. An underground dissident literature, known as ''[[samizdat]]'', developed during this late period. In architecture the Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to the highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch.

In the second half of the 1980s, Gorbachev's policies of ''[[perestroika]]'' and ''[[glasnost]]'' significantly expanded [[freedom of expression]] in the media and press.<ref>"Gorbachev, Mikhail." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 October 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037405>. "Under his new policy of glasnost ("openness"), a major cultural thaw took place: freedoms of expression and of information were significantly expanded; the press and broadcasting were allowed unprecedented candour in their reportage and criticism; and the country's legacy of Stalinist totalitarian rule was eventually completely repudiated by the government."</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Soviet Union|Communism|Russia}}
*[[Eurasian Union]]
*[[Index of Soviet Union-related articles]]
*[[Soviet imperialism]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book | author = Ambler, John; Shaw, Denis J.B.; Symons, Leslie | title = Soviet and East European Transport Problems | publisher = [[Taylor & Francis]] | year = 1985 | url = http://books.google.no/books?id=Rpg9AAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn = 978-0-7099-0557-8 }}
*{{cite book | author = Comrie, Bernard | title = The Languages of the Soviet Union | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press|Cambridge University Press (CUP) Archive]] | year = 1981 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=QTU7AAAAIAAJ&dq | isbn = 978-0-521-29877-3 | authorlink = Bernard Comrie }}
*{{cite book | author = Janz, Denis | title = World Christianity and Marxism | location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1998 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=EUVwrcnXwBsC | isbn = 978-0-19-511944-2 }}
*{{cite book | author = Lane, David Stuart | title = Soviet Society under Perestroika | publisher = Routledge | year = 1992 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=rcXafOqyxgQC&dq | isbn = 978-0-415-07600-5 }}
*{{cite book | author = Rayfield, Donald | title = [[Stalin and His Hangmen|Stalin and His Hangmen: An Authoritative Portrait of a Tyrant and Those Who Served Him]] | publisher = [[Viking Press]] | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-375-75771-6 | authorlink = Donald Rayfield }}
*{{cite book | author = Simon, Gerard | title = Church, State, and Opposition in the U.S.S.R. | location = Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1974 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=sTLc8H3b4vUC | isbn = 978-0-520-02612-4 }}
*{{cite book | author = Wilson, David | title = The Demand for Energy in the Soviet Union | publisher = [[Taylor & Francis]] | year = 1983 | url = http://books.google.no/books?id=1qgOAAAAQAAJ&dq | isbn = 978-0-7099-2704-4 }}
*{{cite book | author = [[World Bank]] and [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] | title = A Study of the Soviet economy | volume = 3 | publisher = [[International Monetary Fund]] | year = 1991 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=fiDpE5M9jRAC&dq | isbn = 9789264134683 }}
*{{cite book | title = Social Identities in Revolutionary Russia | last = Palat | first = Madhavan K. | authorlink = Madhavan K. Palat | year = 2001 | publisher = Palgrave | location = UK | isbn = 978-0-333-92947-6 | url = http://books.google.com.au/books?id=T-d_QgAACAAJ | accessdate = 26 May 2012}}

==Further reading==
{{see also|List of primary and secondary sources on the Cold War}}
{{refbegin|30em}}

===Surveys===
* [http://rs6.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html ''A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former)'']. [[Library of Congress Country Studies]], 1991.
* Brown, Archie, et al., eds.: ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (Cambridge University Press, 1982).
* Gilbert, Martin: ''The Routledge Atlas of Russian History'' (London: Routledge, 2002).
* Gorodetsky, Gabriel, ed. ''Soviet foreign policy, 1917-1991: a retrospective'' (2014)
* Grant, Ted. ''Russia, from Revolution to Counter-Revolution'', London, Well Red Publications, 1997
*Hosking, Geoffrey. ''The First Socialist Society: A History of the Soviet Union from Within'' (2nd ed. Harvard UP 1992) 570pp
* Howe, G. Melvyn: ''The Soviet Union: A Geographical Survey'' 2nd. edn. (Estover, UK: MacDonald and Evans, 1983).
*Kort, Michael. ''The Soviet Colossus: History and Aftermath'' (7th ed. 2010) 502pp
*McCauley, Martin. ''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union '' (2007), 522 pages.
*Moss, Walter G. ''A History of Russia''. Vol. 2: Since 1855. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2005.
*[[Alec Nove|Nove, Alec]]. ''An Economic History of the USSR, 1917–1991''. (3rd ed. 1993)
* Pipes, Richard. ''Communism: A History'' (2003)
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Twentieth-Century Russia''. (2nd ed. 1999)

===Lenin and Leninism===
* Clark, Ronald W. ''Lenin'' (1988). 570 pp.
* Debo, Richard K. ''Survival and Consolidation: The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1918–1921'' (1992).
* Marples, David R. ''Lenin's Revolution: Russia, 1917–1921'' (2000) 156pp. short survey
* Pipes, Richard. ''A Concise History of the Russian Revolution'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0679745440 excerpt and text search], by a leading conservative
* Pipes, Richard. ''Russia under the Bolshevik Regime.'' (1994). 608 pp.
* Service, Robert. ''Lenin: A Biography'' (2002), 561pp; standard scholarly biography; a short version of his 3 vol detailed biography
* Volkogonov, Dmitri. ''Lenin: Life and Legacy'' (1994). 600 pp.

=== Stalin and Stalinism===
* Daniels, R. V., ed. ''The Stalin Revolution'' (1965)
* Davies, Sarah, and James Harris, eds. ''Stalin: A New History,'' (2006), 310pp, 14 specialized essays by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521616530 excerpt and text search]
* De Jonge, Alex. ''Stalin and the Shaping of the Soviet Union'' (1986)
* Fitzpatrick, Sheila, ed. ''Stalinism: New Directions,'' (1999), 396pp excerpts from many scholars on the impact of Stalinism on the people (little on Stalin himself) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109468478 online edition]
* Hoffmann, David L. ed. ''Stalinism: The Essential Readings,'' (2002) essays by 12 scholars
* Laqueur, Walter. ''Stalin: The Glasnost Revelations'' (1990)
* Kershaw, Ian, and Moshe Lewin. ''Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521565219 excerpt and text search]
* Lee, Stephen J. ''Stalin and the Soviet Union'' (1999) [http://www.questia.com/read/108215209?title=Stalin%20and%20the%20Soviet%20Union online edition]
* Lewis, Jonathan. ''Stalin: A Time for Judgement'' (1990)
* McNeal, Robert H. ''Stalin: Man and Ruler'' (1988)
* Martens, Ludo. ''Another view of Stalin'' (1994), a highly favorable view from a Maoist historian
* Service, Robert. ''Stalin: A Biography'' (2004), along with Tucker the standard biography
* Trotsky, Leon. ''Stalin: An Appraisal of the Man and His Influence,'' (1967), an interpretation by Stalin's worst enemy
* Tucker, Robert C. ''Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929'' (1973); ''Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1929–1941.'' (1990) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103246514 online edition] with Service, a standard biography; [http://www.historyebook.org/ online at ACLS e-books]

=== World War II===
* Barber, John, and Mark Harrison. ''The Soviet Home Front: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II,'' Longman, 1991.
* Bellamy, Chris. ''Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War'' (2008), 880pp [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0375724710/ excerpt and text search]
* [[Karel C. Berkhoff|Berkhoff, Karel C.]] ''Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule.'' Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.
* Berkhoff, Karel C. ''Motherland in Danger: Soviet Propaganda during World War II'' (2012) [http://www.amazon.com/Motherland-Danger-Soviet-Propaganda-during/dp/0674049241/ excerpt and text search] covers both propaganda and reality of homefront conditions
* Braithwaite, Rodric. ''Moscow 1941: A City and Its People at War'' (2006)
* Broekmeyer, Marius. ''Stalin, the Russians, and Their War, 1941–1945.'' 2004. 315 pp.
* Dallin, Alexander. ''Odessa, 1941–1944: A Case Study of Soviet Territory under Foreign Rule.'' Portland: Int. Specialized Book Service, 1998. 296 pp.
* Kucherenko, Olga. ''Little Soldiers: How Soviet Children Went to War, 1941–1945'' (2011) [http://www.amazon.com/Little-Soldiers-Soviet-Children-1941-1945/dp/0199585555/ excerpt and text search]
* Overy, Richard. ''Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945'' (1998) 432pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0140271694/ excerpt and txt search]
* Overy, Richard. ''Russia's War: A History of the Soviet Effort: 1941–1945'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0140271694/ excerpt and text search]
* Roberts, Geoffrey. ''Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953'' (2006).
* Schofield, Carey, ed. ''Russian at War, 1941-1945''. Text by Georgii Drozdov and Evgenii Ryabko, [with] introd. by Vladimir Karpov [and] pref. by Harrison E. Salisbury, ed. by Carey Schofield. New York: Vendome Press, 1987. 256 p., copiously ill. with b&2 photos and occasional maps. ''N.B''.: This is mostly a photo-history, with connecting texts. ISBN 0-85656-077-2
* Seaton, Albert. ''Stalin as Military Commander,'' (1998) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100872346 online edition]{{dead link|date=December 2013}}
* Thurston, Robert W., and Bernd Bonwetsch, eds. ''The People's War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union'' (2000)
* Vallin, Jacques; Meslé, France; Adamets, Serguei; and Pyrozhkov, Serhii. "A New Estimate of Ukrainian Population Losses During the Crises of the 1930s and 1940s." ''Population Studies'' (2002) 56(3): 249-264. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3092980 in JSTOR] Reports life expectancy at birth fell to a level as low as ten years for females and seven for males in 1933 and plateaued around 25 for females and 15 for males in the period 1941–44.

===Cold War===
* Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1989)
* Edmonds, Robin. ''Soviet Foreign Policy: The Brezhnev Years'' (1983)
* Goncharov, Sergei, John Lewis and Litai Xue, ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War'' (1993) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0804725217 excerpt and text search]
* Gorlizki, Yoram, and Oleg Khlevniuk. ''Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle, 1945–1953'' (2004) [http://www.questia.com/read/105899376 online edition]
* Holloway, David. ''Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956'' (1996) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0300066643 excerpt and text search]
* [[Mastny, Vojtech]]. ''Russia's Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of Communism, 1941–1945'' (1979)
* [[Mastny, Vojtech]]. ''The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195126599 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/98422373 online complete edition]
* Nation, R. Craig. ''Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917–1991'' (1992)
* Sivachev, Nikolai and Nikolai Yakolev, ''Russia and the United States'' (1979), by Soviet historians
* [[William Taubman|Taubman, William]]. ''[[Khrushchev: The Man and His Era]]'' (2004), Pulitzer Prize; [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0393324842 excerpt and text search]
* Ulam, Adam B. ''Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1973'', 2nd ed. (1974)
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''Inside the Kremlin's Cold War'' (1996) [http://search.live.com/results.aspx?q=&scope=books#q=zubok&filter=all&start=1 20% excerpt and online search]
* Zubok, Vladislav M. ''A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev'' (2007)

===Collapse===
* Beschloss, Michael, and Strobe Talbott. ''At the Highest Levels:The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War'' (1993)
* Bialer, Seweryn and Michael Mandelbaum, eds. ''Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy'' (1988).
* Carrère d'Encausse, Hélène. ''Decline of an Empire: the Soviet Socialist Republics in Revolt''. First English language ed. New York: Newsweek Books (1979). 304 p. ''N.B''.: Trans. of the author's ''L'Empire éclaté''. ISBN 0-88225-280-1
* Garthoff, Raymond. ''The Great Transition: American–Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War'' (1994), detailed narrative
* Grachev, A.S. ''Gorbachev's Gamble: Soviet Foreign Policy and the End of the Cold War'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0745643450/ excerpt and text search]
* Hogan, Michael ed. ''The End of the Cold War. Its Meaning and Implications'' (1992) articles from ''Diplomatic History''
* [[Roger Keeran]] and Thomas Keeny. ''Socialism Betrayed: Behind the Collapse of the Soviet Union'', International Publishers Co Inc., U.S. 2004
* Kotkin, Stephen. ''Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195368630/ excerpt and text search]
* Matlock, Jack. ''Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union'' (1995)
* Pons, S., Romero, F., ''Reinterpreting the End of the Cold War: Issues, Interpretations, Periodizations'', (2005) ISBN 0-7146-5695-X
* Remnick, David. ''Lenin's Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire'', (1994), ISBN 0-679-75125-4
* Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr. ''Rebuilding Russia: Reflections and Tentative Proposals'', trans. and annotated by Alexis Klimoff. First ed. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1991. ''N.B''.: Also discusses the other national constituents of the U.S.S.R. ISBN 0-374-17342-7

===Specialty studies===
* Armstrong, John A. ''The Politics of Totalitarianism: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1934 to the Present.'' New York: Random House, 1961.
* Katz, Zev, ed.: ''Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities'' (New York: Free Press, 1975).
* Moore, Jr., Barrington. ''Soviet politics: the dilemma of power.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
* [[Dmitry Orlov]], ''[http://www.newsociety.com/bookid/3991 Reinventing Collapse]'', New Society Books, 2008, ISBN 978-0-86571-606-3
* Rizzi, Bruno: "The Bureaucratization of the World: The First English edition of the Underground Marxist Classic That Analyzed Class Exploitation in the USSR", New York, NY : Free Press, 1985.
* Schapiro, Leonard B. ''The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955, 1966.
{{refend}}
{{loc}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Soviet Union|v=no|n=no|s=National Anthem of the Soviet Union|b=no}}
*{{Wikiatlas|the Soviet Union}}
* [http://ariwatch.com/VS/JD/ImpressionsOfSovietRussia.htm Impressions of Soviet Russia], by [[John Dewey]].
* [http://soviethistory.com/ Documents and other forms of media from the Soviet Union: 1917–1991.]
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former)]
* [http://soviet.globalmuseumoncommunism.org/ Soviet Union Exhibit at Global Museum on Communism with essay by Richard Pipes]
* [http://rt.com/news/ussr-collapse-mistake-poll-585/ Majority in former Soviet states believe breakup was harmful mistake – poll]. ''[[RT (TV network)|RT]]'', December 21, 2013.

{{Soviet Union topics}}
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Western Allied invasion of Germany

2014-06-11T16:30:50Z

Muta112:

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Invasion of Germany
|partof = the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] of World War II
|image = [[File:Wernberg1945.jpg|300px|United States Army soldiers supported by a M4 Sherman tank move through a smoke filled street in Wernberg, Germany during April 1945]]
|caption = [[United States Army]] soldiers supported by a [[M4 Sherman]] tank move through a smoke filled street in Wernberg, Germany during April 1945
|date = 19 March – 8 May 1945
|place = [[Germany]]
|result = Decisive Allied victory
*Fall of Nazi Germany
*End of World War II in Europe (concurrently with the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]])
|combatant1 ='''[[Western Allies]]'''
{{flag|United States|1912}}
 {{flag|United Kingdom}}
 {{flagicon|France}} [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|France]]
 {{flag|Canada|1921}}
 {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Polish Armed Forces in the West|Poland]]
 {{flag|Belgium}}
|combatant2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]
|commander1 = {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
*{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]]
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Omar Bradley]]
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Jacob L. Devers]]
|commander2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Adolf Hitler]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Albert Kesselring]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Gerd von Rundstedt]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Walther Model]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Paul Hausser]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Johannes Blaskowitz]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Heinrich Himmler]]
|units1 = {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[US 12th Army Group|12th Army Group]]
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[First United States Army|1st Army]]
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Third United States Army|3rd Army]]
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Fifteenth United States Army|15th Army]]
{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[21st Army Group]]
*{{flagicon|Canada|1921}} [[First Canadian Army|First Army]]
*{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Second Army (United Kingdom)|Second Army]]
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Ninth United States Army|9th Army]]
{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[US 6th Army Group|6th Army Group]]
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Seventh United States Army|7th Army]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[French 1st Army|1st Army]]
|units2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Army Group B]]
*{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[7th Army (Wehrmacht)|7th Army]]
*{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[15th Army (Wehrmacht)|15th Army]]
*{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[5th Panzer Army]]
[[Army Group G]]
*{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[1st Army (Wehrmacht)|1st Army]]
*{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[19th Army (Wehrmacht)|19th Army]]
{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Army Group H]]
*{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[25th Army (Wehrmacht)|25th Army]]
*{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[1st Parachute Army (Germany)|1st Parachute Army]]
|strength1 = 4.5 million troops (90 Divisions)<ref name="MacDonald, C 2005">MacDonald, C (2005), ''The Last Offensive: The European Theater of Operations''. University Press of the Pacific, p.322</ref>
|strength2 = ~1.0 million troops {{sfn|Glantz|1995|p=304}}{{sfn|Zimmerman|2008|p=277}}
|casualties1 =
|casualties2 =
|notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Central Europe}}
{{Campaignbox Western Front (World War II)}}

The '''Western Allied invasion of Germany''' was the military overrun of [[Nazi Germany]] that was conducted by the [[Western Allies]] in the final months of the [[European Theatre]] in [[World War II]]. The invasion started with the [[Western Allies]] crossing the [[Rhine]] before fanning out and overrunning all of western Germany from the Baltic in the north to Austria in the south before the Germans surrendered on 8 May 1945. This is known as the "Central Europe Campaign" in United States military histories.

By the early spring of 1945, events favored the Allied forces in Europe. On the [[Western Front (World War II)#Winter counter-offensives|Western Front]] the Allies had been fighting in Germany since the October [[Battle of Aachen]] and by January turned back the Germans in the [[Battle of the Bulge]]. The failure of this last major German offensive exhausted much of Germany's remaining combat strength, leaving it ill-prepared to resist the final Allied campaigns in Europe. Additional losses in the [[Rhineland]] further weakened the German Army, leaving shattered remnants of units to defend the east bank of the Rhine. By mid-March, the western Allies had pushed to the Rhine along most of the front, had seized an intact [[Ludendorff bridge|bridge at Remagen]], and had even established a small bridgehead on the river's east bank. German casualties during the Allied campaign to reach the Rhine in February–March 1945 are estimated at 400,000 men, including 280,000 men captured as prisoners of war.{{sfn|Zaloga|Dennis|2006|p=88}}

On the [[Eastern Front (World War II)#Autumn 1944|Eastern Front]], the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Red Army]] (including the [[Polish Armed Forces in the East|Polish Army]] under Soviet command) had [[Vistula-Oder Offensive|liberated most of Poland]] and were nearing [[Berlin]]. The Soviets also pushed into Hungary and eastern Czechoslovakia, and temporarily halted at what is now the modern German border on the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. These rapid advances on the Eastern Front destroyed additional veteran German combat units and severely limited [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ability to reinforce his Rhine defenses. Thus, as the western Allies completed their preparations for the final drive into the heart of Germany, victory seemed within sight.

==Order of battle==

===Allied forces===
At the very beginning of 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force, General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] had 73 divisions under his command in North-western Europe, of which 49 were infantry divisions, 20 armored divisions and four airborne divisions. Forty-nine of these divisions were American, 12 British, eight French, three Canadian and one Polish. Another seven American divisions arrived during February,{{sfn|Hastings|2005|p=465}} with continual further reinforcement of the other Allied powers′ divisions, and as the invasion of Germany commenced, Eisenhower had a total of 90 full-strength divisions under his command, with the number of armored divisions now reaching 25. He was in control of one of the largest and most potent forces ever committed to battle. The Allied front along the Rhine stretched {{convert|450|mi|km|abbr=on}} from the river's mouth at the North Sea in the Netherlands to the Swiss border in the south.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=3}}

The Allied forces along this line were organized into three army groups. In the north, from the North Sea to a point about {{convert|10|mi|km|}} north of Cologne, was the [[21st Army Group]] commanded by Field Marshal Sir [[Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]]. Within 21st Army Group the [[Canadian First Army]] under [[Harry Crerar]] held the left flank of the Allied line, with the [[Second Army (United Kingdom)|British Second Army]] ([[Miles Dempsey]]) in the center and the [[Ninth United States Army|U.S. 9th Army]] ([[William Hood Simpson]]) to the south. Holding the middle of the Allied line from the 9th Army's right flank to a point about {{convert|15|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of [[Mainz]] was the [[Twelfth United States Army Group|12th U.S. Army Group]] under the command of Lieutenant General [[Omar N. Bradley]]. Bradley had two American armies, the [[First United States Army|U.S. 1st Army]] ([[Courtney Hodges]]) on the left (north) and the [[Third United States Army|U.S. 3rd Army]] ([[George S. Patton]]) on the right (south). Completing the Allied line to the Swiss border was the [[Sixth United States Army Group|6th U.S. Army Group]] commanded by Lt. Gen. [[Jacob L. Devers]], with the [[Seventh United States Army|U.S. 7th Army]] ([[Alexander Patch]]) in the north and the [[French First Army|French 1st Army]] ([[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]]) on the Allied right, and southernmost, flank.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=3–6}}

As these three army groups cleared out the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' west of the Rhine, Eisenhower began to rethink his plans for the final drive across the Rhine and into the heart of Germany. Originally, Eisenhower had planned to draw all his forces up to the west bank of the Rhine, using the river as a natural barrier to help cover the inactive sections of his line. The main thrust beyond the river was to be made in the north by Montgomery's 21 Army Group, elements of which were to proceed east to a juncture with the 1st Army as it made a secondary advance northeast from below the Ruhr River. If successful, this pincer movement would envelop the industrial [[Ruhr]] area, neutralizing the largest concentration of German industrial capacity left.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=6}}

===German forces===
Facing the Allies was [[OB West|''Oberbefehlshaber West'']] ("Army Command West") commanded by [[Field Marshal (Germany)|Field Marshal]] [[Albert Kesselring]], who had taken over from Field Marshal [[Gerd von Rundstedt]] on 10 March. Although Kesselring brought an outstanding track record as a defensive strategist with him from the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Campaign]], he did not have the resources to make a coherent defense. During the fighting west of the Rhine up to March 1945, the German Army on the western front had been reduced to a strength of only 26 divisions organized into three army groups (''H'', ''B'' and ''G''). Little or no reinforcement was forthcoming as the [[German High Command]] continued to concentrate most forces against the Soviet forces; it was estimated that the Germans had 214 divisions on the eastern front in April.{{sfn|Keegan|1989|p=182}}

On 21 March, [[Army Group H]] headquarters became ''Oberbefehlshaber Nordwest'' ("Army Command Northwest") commanded by [[Ernst Busch (military)|Ernst Busch]] leaving the former Army Group H commander—[[Johannes Blaskowitz]]—to lead "Army Command Netherlands" ([[25th Army (Wehrmacht)|25th Army]]) cut off in the Netherlands. Busch—whose main unit was the German [[1st Parachute Army (Germany)|1st Parachute Army]] —was to form the right wing of the German defenses. In the center of the front, defending the Ruhr, Kesselring had Field Marshal [[Walther Model]] commanding [[Army Group B]] ([[15th Army (Wehrmacht)|15th Army]] and [[5th Panzer Army]]) and in the south [[Paul Hausser]]'s [[Army Group G]] ([[7th Army (Wehrmacht)|7th Army]], [[1st Army (Wehrmacht)|1st Army]] and [[19th Army (Wehrmacht)|19th Army]]).{{sfn|Keegan|1989|p=182}}<ref>{{cite web|first=Marcus|last=Wendel|url=http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=30|title= Heer|work=Axis History Factbook}}</ref>

==Eisenhower's plans==
After capturing the Ruhr, Eisenhower planned to have 21st Army Group continue its drive east across the [[North German Plain|plains of northern Germany]] to Berlin. The 12th and 6th U.S. Army Groups were to mount a subsidiary offensive to keep the Germans off balance and diminish their ability to stop the northern thrust. This secondary drive would also give Eisenhower a degree of flexibility in case the northern attack ran into difficulties.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=6}}

For several reasons, Eisenhower began to readjust these plans toward the end of March. First, his headquarters received reports that Soviet forces held a bridgehead over the [[Oder River]], {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} from Berlin. Since the Allied armies on the Rhine were more than {{convert|300|mi|km|abbr=on}} from Berlin, with the [[Elbe River]], {{convert|200|mi|km|abbr=on}} ahead, still to be crossed it seemed clear that the Soviets would capture Berlin long before the western Allies could reach it. Eisenhower thus turned his attention to other objectives, most notably a rapid meet-up with the Soviets to cut the German Army in two and prevent any possibility of a unified defense. Once this was accomplished the remaining German forces could be [[defeat in detail|defeated in detail]].{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=6}}

In addition, there was the matter of the Ruhr. Although the Ruhr area still contained a significant number of Axis troops and enough industry to retain its importance as a major objective, Allied intelligence reported that much of the region's armament industry was moving southeast, deeper into Germany. This increased the importance of the southern offensives across the Rhine.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=6}}

Also focusing Eisenhower's attention on the southern drive was concern over the "[[National Redoubt]]." According to rumor, Hitler's most fanatically loyal troops were preparing to make a lengthy, last-ditch stand in the natural fortresses formed by the rugged alpine mountains of southern Germany and western Austria. If they held out for a year or more, dissension between the Soviet Union and the western Allies might give them political leverage for some kind of favorable peace settlement. In reality, by the time of the Allied Rhine crossings the ''Wehrmacht'' had suffered such severe defeats on both the Eastern and Western Fronts that it could barely manage to mount effective delaying actions, much less muster enough troops to establish a well organized alpine resistance force. Still, Allied intelligence could not entirely discount the possibility that remnants of the German Army would attempt a suicidal last stand in the Alps. Denying this opportunity became another argument for rethinking the role of the southern drive through Germany.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=7}}

Perhaps the most compelling reason for increasing the emphasis on this southern drive had more to do with the actions of Americans than those of Germans. While Montgomery was carefully and cautiously planning for the main thrust in the north, complete with massive artillery preparation and an airborne assault, American forces in the south were displaying the kind of basic aggressiveness that Eisenhower wanted to see. On 7 March, elements of Lt. Gen. [[Courtney H. Hodges]]'s 1st Army had captured [[Ludendorf Bridge|a bridge over the Rhine]] at [[Remagen]] and had been steadily expanding the bridgehead.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=7}}

To the south in the [[Saarpfalz-Kreis|Saar-Palatinate]] region, Lt. Gen. [[George S. Patton]]'s 3rd Army had dealt a devastating blow to the German 7th Army and, in conjunction with the U.S. 7th Army, had nearly destroyed the German 1st Army. In five days of battle, from 18–22 March, Patton's forces captured over 68,000 Germans. These bold actions eliminated the last German positions west of the Rhine. Although Montgomery's drive was still planned as the main effort, Eisenhower believed that the momentum of the American forces to the south should not be squandered by having them merely hold the line at the Rhine or make only limited diversionary attacks beyond it. By the end of March, the Supreme Commander thus leaned toward a decision to place more responsibility on his southern forces. The events of the first few days of the final campaign would be enough to convince him that this was the proper course of action.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=7}}

==Occupation process==
When American or other western soldiers arrived in a town, its leaders and remaining residents typically used white flags, bedsheets, and tablecloths to signal surrender. The officer in charge of the unit capturing the area, typically a company or battalion, accepted responsibility over the town. Soldiers posted copies of Eisenhower's ''[[:ru:Файл:Proklamation Nr. 1 - Zweisprachige Bekanntmachung des Obersten Befehlshabers der alliierten Streitkräfte Dwight D. Eisenhower (deuschsprachiger Teil).jpg|Proclamation No. 1]]'', which began with "We come as conquerors, not as oppressors." The proclamation demanded compliance with all orders by the commanding officer, instituted a strict curfew and limited travel, and confiscated all communications equipment and weapons. After a day or two, specialized [[Office of Military Government, United States]] (OMGUS) units took over. Soldiers requisitioned housing and office space as needed from residents. At first this was done informally with occupants evicted immediately and taking with them few personal possessions, but the process became standardized, with three hours' notice and OMGUS personnel providing receipts for buildings' contents. The involuntarily displaced residents nonetheless had to find housing on their own.{{sfn|Baker|2004|pp=38–39}}

==Operations==
On 19 March, Eisenhower told Bradley to prepare the 1st Army for a breakout from the Remagen bridgehead anytime after 22 March. The same day, in response to the 3rd Army's robust showing in the Saar-Palatinate region, and to have another strong force on the Rhine's east bank guarding the 1st Army's flank, Bradley gave Patton the go-ahead for an assault crossing of the Rhine as soon as possible.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=8}}

These were exactly the orders Patton had hoped for. The American general felt that if a sufficiently strong force could be thrown across the river and significant gains made, then Eisenhower might transfer responsibility for the main drive through Germany from Montgomery's 21st Army Group to Bradley's 12th. Patton also appreciated the opportunity he now had to beat Montgomery across the river and win for the 3rd Army the coveted distinction of making the first assault crossing of the Rhine in modern history. To accomplish this, he had to move quickly.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=8}}

On 21 March, Patton ordered his [[XII Corps (United States)|XII Corps]] to prepare for an assault over the Rhine on the following night, one day before Montgomery's scheduled crossing. While this was certainly short notice, it did not catch the XII Corps completely unaware. As soon as Patton had received the orders on the 19th to make a crossing, he had begun sending assault boats, bridging equipment, and other supplies forward from depots in [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]] where they had been stockpiled since autumn in the expectation of just such an opportunity. Seeing this equipment moving up, his frontline soldiers did not need any orders from higher headquarters to tell them what it meant.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=9}}

The location of the river-crossing assault was critical. Patton knew that the most obvious place to jump the river was at Mainz or just downstream, north of the city. The choice was obvious because the [[Main River]], flowing northward {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of and parallel to the Rhine, turns west and empties into the Rhine at Mainz and an advance south of the city would involve crossing two rivers rather than one. However, Patton also realized that the Germans were aware of this difficulty and would expect his attack north of Mainz. Thus, he decided to feint at Mainz while making his real effort at [[Nierstein-Oppenheim|Nierstein and Oppenheim]], {{convert|9|-|10|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of the city. Following this primary assault, which the XII Corps would undertake, the [[VIII Corps (United States)|U.S. VIII Corps]] would execute supporting crossings at [[Boppard]] and [[Sankt Goar|St. Goar]], {{convert|25|-|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} northwest of Mainz.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=9}}

The terrain in the vicinity of Nierstein and Oppenheim was conducive to artillery support, with high ground on the west bank overlooking relatively flat land to the east. However, the same flat east bank meant that the bridgehead would have to be rapidly and powerfully reinforced and expanded beyond the river since there was no high ground for a bridgehead defense. The importance of quickly obtaining a deep bridgehead was increased by the fact that the first access to a decent road network was over {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=on}} inland at the town of Grossgerau.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=9}}

===U.S. 12th Army Group crosses the Rhine (22 March)===
[[File:Crossing of the Rhine.jpg|thumb|The crossing of the Rhine between 22 and 28 March 1945]]

On 22 March, with a bright moon lighting the late-night sky, elements of the U.S. XII Corps′ [[5th Infantry Division (United States)|5th Infantry Division]] began the 3rd Army's Rhine crossing. At Nierstein assault troops did not met any resistance. As the first boats reached the east bank, seven startled Germans surrendered and then paddled themselves unescorted to the west bank to be placed in custody. Upstream at Oppenheim, however, the effort did not proceed so casually. The first wave of boats was halfway across when the Germans began pouring machine-gun fire into their midst. An intense exchange of fire lasted for about thirty minutes as assault boats kept pushing across the river and those men who had already made it across mounted attacks against the scattered defensive strongpoints. Finally the Germans surrendered, and by midnight units moved out laterally to consolidate the crossing sites and to attack the first villages beyond the river. German resistance everywhere was sporadic, and the hastily mounted counterattacks invariably burned out quickly, causing few casualties. The Germans lacked both the manpower and the heavy equipment to make a more determined defense.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=9–10}}

By midafternoon on 23 March, all three regiments of the 5th Infantry Division were in the bridgehead, and an attached regiment from the [[90th Infantry Division (United States)|90th Infantry Division]] was crossing. Tanks and tank destroyers had been ferried across all morning, and by evening a treadway bridge was open to traffic. By midnight, infantry units had pushed the boundary of the bridgehead more than {{convert|5|mi|km|abbr=on}} inland, ensuring the unqualified success of the first modern assault crossing of the Rhine.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=10}}

Two more 3rd Army crossings—both by the VIII Corps—quickly followed. In the early morning hours of 25 March, elements of the [[87th Infantry Division (United States)|87th Infantry Division]] crossed the Rhine to the north at Boppard, and then some 24 hours later elements of the [[89th Infantry Division (United States)|89th Infantry Division]] crossed {{convert|8|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of Boppard at St. Goar. Although the defense of these sites was somewhat more determined than that the XII Corps had faced, the difficulties of the Boppard and St. Goar crossings were compounded more by terrain than by German resistance. The VIII Corps crossing sites were located along the [[Rhine Gorge]], where the river had carved a deep chasm between two mountain ranges, creating precipitous canyon walls over {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=on}} high on both sides. In addition, the river flowed quickly and with unpredictable currents along this part of its course. Still, despite the terrain and German machine-gun and {{convert|20|mm|in|2|abbr=on}} [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] [[Autocannon|cannon]] fire, VIII Corps troops managed to gain control of the east bank's heights, and by dark on 26 March, with German resistance crumbling all along the Rhine, they were preparing to continue the drive the next morning.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=11}}

===U.S. 6th Army Group crosses the Rhine (26 March)===
Adding to the Germans′ woes, the U.S. 6th Army Group made an assault across the Rhine on 26 March. At [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], about {{convert|25|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of Mainz, the 7th Army's [[XV Corps (United States)|XV Corps]] established a bridgehead, which it consolidated with the southern shoulder of the 3rd Army's bridgehead early the next day. After overcoming stiff initial resistance, the XV Corps also advanced beyond the Rhine, opposed primarily by small German strongpoints sited in roadside villages.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=11}}

===British 21st Army Group plans ''Operation Plunder''===
On the night of 23/24 March, after the XII Corps′ assault of the Rhine, Bradley had announced his success. The 12th U.S. Army Group commander said that American troops could cross the Rhine anywhere, without aerial bombardment or airborne troops, a direct jab at Montgomery whose troops were at that very moment preparing to launch their own Rhine assault following an intense and elaborate aerial and artillery preparation and with the assistance of two airborne divisions.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=11}}

Field Marshal Montgomery was exhibiting his now legendary meticulous and circumspect approach to such enterprises, a lesson he had learned early in the [[North African campaign]] against Rommel and one he could not easily forget. Thus, as his forces had approached the east bank of the river, Montgomery proceeded with one of the most intensive buildups of material and manpower of the war. His detailed plans, code-named [[Operation Plunder]], were comparable to the Normandy invasion in terms of numbers of men and extent of equipment, supplies, and ammunition to be used. The 21st Army Group had 30 full-strength divisions, 11 each in the British Second and U.S. 9th Armies and eight in the Canadian First Army, providing Montgomery with more than 1,250,000 men.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=11}}

Plunder called for the Second Army to cross at three locations along the 21st Army Group front—at [[Rees, Germany|Rees]], [[Xanten]], and [[Rheinberg]]. The crossings would be preceded by several weeks of aerial bombing and a final massive artillery preparation. A heavy bombing campaign by USAAF and RAF forces, known as the "Interdiction of Northwest Germany", designed primarily to destroy the [[lines of communication]] and supply connecting the Ruhr to the rest of Germany had been underway since February.<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/III/AAF-III-21.html Chapter 21: From the Rhine to the Elbe]</ref> The intention was to create a line from Bremen south to Neowied. The main targets were rail yards, bridges, and communication centers, with a secondary focus on fuel-processing and storage facilities and other important industrial sites. During the three days leading up to Montgomery's attack, targets in front of the 21st Army Group zone and in the Ruhr area to the southeast were pummeled by about 11,000 sorties, effectively sealing off the Ruhr while easing the burden on Montgomery's assault forces.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=12}}

Montgomery had originally planned to attach one corps of the U.S. 9th Army to the British Second Army, which would use only two of the corps′ divisions for the initial assault. The rest of the 9th Army would remain in reserve until the bridgehead was ready for exploitation. The 9th Army's commander—Lt. Gen. [[William H. Simpson]]—and the Second Army's Lt. Gen. Sir [[Miles C. Dempsey]] took exception to this approach. Both believed that the plan squandered the great strength in men and equipment that the 9th Army had assembled and ignored the many logistical problems of placing the Ninth Army's crossing sites within the Second Army's zone.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=12}}

Montgomery responded to these concerns by making a few small adjustments to the plan. Although he declined to increase the size of the American crossing force beyond two divisions, he agreed to keep it under 9th Army rather than Second Army control. To increase Simpson's ability to bring his army's strength to bear for exploitation, Montgomery also agreed to turn the bridges at [[Wesel]], just north of the inter-army boundary, over to the 9th Army once the bridgehead had been secured.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=12}}

In the southernmost sector of the 21st Army Group's attack, the 9th Army's assault divisions were to cross the Rhine along an {{convert|11|mi|km|abbr=on}} section of the front, south of Wesel and the [[Lippe River]]. This force would block any German counterattack from the Ruhr. Because of the poor road network on the east bank of this part of the Rhine, a second 9th Army corps was to cross over the promised Wesel bridges through the British zone north of the Lippe River, which had an abundance of good roads. After driving east nearly {{convert|100|mi|km|abbr=on}}, this corps was to meet elements of the 1st Army near [[Paderborn]], completing the encirclement of the Ruhr.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=12}}

Another important aspect of Montgomery's plan was [[Operation Varsity]], in which two divisions of the [[XVIII Airborne Corps]] were to make an airborne assault over the Rhine. In a departure from standard airborne doctrine, which called for a jump deep behind enemy lines several hours prior to an amphibious assault, Varsity′S drop zones were close behind the German front, within Allied artillery range. Additionally, to avoid being caught in the artillery preparation, the paratroopers would jump only after the amphibious troops had reached the Rhine's east bank. The wisdom of putting lightly-armed paratroopers so close to the main battlefield was debated, and the plan for amphibious forces to cross the Rhine prior to the parachute drop raised questions as to the utility of making an airborne assault at all. However, Montgomery believed that the paratroopers would quickly link up with the advancing river assault forces, placing the strongest force within the bridgehead as rapidly as possible. Once the bridgehead was secured the [[British 6th Airborne Division]] would be transferred to Second Army control, while the [[U.S. 17th Airborne Division]] would revert to 9th Army control.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=13}}

===Montgomery launches ''Operation Plunder'' (23 March)===
Plunder began on the evening of 23 March with the assault elements of the British Second Army massed against three main crossing sites: Rees in the north, Xanten in the center, and Wesel in the south. The two 9th Army divisions tasked for the assault concentrated in the Rheinberg area south of Wesel. At the northern crossing site, elements of [[XXX Corps (United Kingdom)|XXX Corps]] began the assault (Operations Turnscrew) about 21:00, attempting to distract the Germans from the main crossings at Xanten in the center and Rheinberg to the south. The initial assault waves crossed the river quickly, meeting only light opposition. Meanwhile, Operation Widgeon began as {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Wesel a 2nd Army [[1st Special Service Brigade|1st Commando Brigade]] slipped across the river and waited within a mile of the city while it was demolished by one thousand tons of bombs delivered by [[RAF Bomber Command]]. Entering in the night, the commandos secured the city late on the morning of 24 March, although scattered resistance continued until dawn on the 25th. The Second Army's 12th Corps and the 9th Army's XVI Corps began the main effort about 02:00 on 24 March, following a massive artillery and air bombardment.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=13}}

For the American crossing, the 9th Army commander—General Simpson—had chosen the veteran [[30th Infantry Division (United States)|30th]] and [[79th Infantry Division (United States)|79th Infantry Division]]s of the [[XVI Corps (United States)|XVI Corps]]. The 30th was to cross between Wesel and Rheinberg while the 79th assaulted south of Rheinberg. In reserve were the XVI Corps′ [[8th Armored Division (United States)|8th Armored Division]], and 35th and [[75th Infantry Division (United States)|75th Infantry Divisions]], as well as the 9th Army's [[XIII Corps (United States)|XIII]] and [[XIX Corps (United States)|XIX Corps]], each with three divisions. Simpson planned to commit the XIX Corps as soon as possible after the bridgehead had been secured, using the XIII Corps to hold the Rhine south of the crossing sites.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=13}}

After an hour of extremely intense artillery preparation, which General Eisenhower himself viewed from the front, the 30th Infantry Division began its assault. The artillery fire had been so effective and so perfectly timed that the assault battalions merely motored their storm boats across the river and claimed the east bank against almost no resistance. As subsequent waves of troops crossed, units fanned out to take the first villages beyond the river to only the weakest of opposition. An hour later, at 03:00, the 79th Infantry Division began its crossing upriver, achieving much the same results. As heavier equipment was ferried across the Rhine, both divisions began pushing east, penetrating {{convert|3|-|6|mi|km|abbr=on}} into the German defensive line that day.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=16}}
[[File:C-47 transport planes release hundreds of paratroops.jpg|thumb|left|[[Douglas C-47]] transport aircraft drop hundreds of paratroopers on 24 March as part of Operation Varsity.]]

To the north, the British crossings had also gone well, with the ground and airborne troops linking up by nightfall. By then, the paratroopers had taken all their first day's objectives in addition to 3,500 prisoners.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=16}}

To the south, the discovery of a defensive gap in front of the 30th Infantry Division fostered the hope that a full-scale breakout would be possible on 25 March. When limited objective attacks provoked little response on the morning of the 25th, the division commander—Maj. Gen. [[Leland S. Hobbs]]—formed two mobile task forces to make deeper thrusts with an eye toward punching through the defense altogether and breaking deep into the German rear. Unfortunately, Hobbs had not fully taken into account the nearly nonexistent road network in front of the XVI Corps bridgehead. Faced with trying to make rapid advances through dense forest on rutted dirt roads and muddy trails, which could be strongly defended by a few determined soldiers and well placed roadblocks, the task forces advanced only about {{convert|2|mi|km|abbr=on}} on the 25th. The next day they gained some more ground, and one even seized its objective, having slogged a total of {{convert|6|mi|km|abbr=on}}, but the limited progress forced Hobbs to abandon the hope for a quick breakout.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=16}}

In addition to the poor roads, the 30th Division's breakout attempts were also hampered by the German [[16th Infantry Division (Germany)|116th Panzer Division]]. The only potent unit left for commitment against the Allied Rhine crossings in the north, the 116th began moving south from the Dutch-German border on 25 March against what the Germans considered their most dangerous threat, the U.S. 9th Army. The enemy armored unit began making its presence felt almost immediately, and by the end of 26 March the combination of the ''panzer'' division and the rough terrain had conspired to sharply limit the 30th Division's forward progress. With the 79th Infantry Division meeting fierce resistance to the south, General Simpson's only recourse was to commit some of his forces waiting on the west bank of the Rhine. Late on 26 March, the 8th Armored Division began moving into the bridgehead.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=16}}

Although the armored division bolstered his offensive capacity within the bridgehead, Simpson was more interested in sending the XIX Corps across the Wesel bridges, as Montgomery had agreed, and using the better roads north of the Lippe to outflank the enemy in front of the 30th Division. Unfortunately, because of pressure from the Germans in the northern part of the 2nd Army bridgehead, the British were having trouble completing their bridges at Xanten and were therefore bringing most of their traffic across the river at Wesel. With Montgomery allowing use of the Wesel bridges to the 9th Army for only five out of every 24 hours, and with the road network north of the Lippe under 2nd Army control, General Simpson was unable to commit or maneuver sufficient forces to make a rapid flanking drive.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=17}}

===German Army Group B surrounded in the Ruhr pocket (1 April)===
[[File:Encirclement of the Ruhr.jpg|thumb|300px|Encirclement of the Ruhr and other Allied operations between 29 March and 4 April 1945]]

By 28 March, the 8th Armored Division had expanded the bridgehead by only about {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on}} and still had not reached [[Dorsten]], a town about {{convert|15|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of the Rhine, whose road junction promised to expand the XVI Corps′ offensive options. On the same day, however, Montgomery announced that the east bound roads out of Wesel would be turned over to the 9th Army on 30 March with the Rhine bridges leading into that city changing hands a day later. Also on 28 March, elements of the U.S. 17th Airborne Division—operating north of the [[Lippe River]] in conjunction with British armored forces—dashed to a point some {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of Wesel, opening a corridor for the XIX Corps and handily outflanking Dorsten and the enemy to the south. General Simpson now had both the opportunity and the means to unleash the power of the 9th Army and begin in earnest the northern drive to surround the Ruhr.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=17}}

Simpson began by moving elements of the XIX Corps′ [[2nd Armored Division (United States)|2nd Armored Division]] into the XVI Corps bridgehead on 28 March with orders to cross the Lippe east of Wesel, thereby avoiding that city's traffic jams. After passing north of the Lippe on 29 March, the 2nd Armored Division broke out late that night from the forward position that the [[XVIII Airborne Corps (United States)|XVIII Airborne Corps]] had established around [[Haltern]], {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}} northeast of Dorsten. On the 30th and 31st, the 2nd Armored made an uninterrupted {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}} drive east to [[Beckum, Germany|Beckum]], cutting two of the Ruhr's three remaining rail lines and severing the autobahn to Berlin. As the rest of the XIX Corps flowed into the wake of this spectacular drive, the 1st Army was completing its equally remarkable thrust around the southern and eastern edges of the Ruhr.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=17}}

The 1st Army's drive from the Remagen bridgehead began with a breakout before dawn on 25 March. German Field Marshal [[Walter Model]]—whose ''Army Group B'' was charged with the defense of the Ruhr—had deployed his troops heavily along the east-west [[Sieg]] River south of [[Cologne]], thinking that the Americans would attack directly north from the Remagen bridgehead. Instead, the 1st Army struck eastward, heading for [[Gießen|Giessen]] and the [[Lahn River]], {{convert|65|mi|km|abbr=on}} beyond Remagen, before turning north toward [[Paderborn]] and a linkup with the 9th Army. All three corps of the 1st Army participated in the breakout, which on the first day employed five infantry and two armored divisions. The [[VII Corps (United States)|U.S. VII Corps]], on the left, had the hardest going due to the German concentration north of the bridgehead, yet its armored columns managed to advance {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=on}} beyond their line of departure. The [[III Corps (United States)|U.S. III Corps]], in the center, did not commit its armor on the first day of the breakout, but still made a gain of {{convert|4|mi|km|abbr=on}}. The [[V Corps (United States)|U.S. V Corps]] on the right advanced {{convert|5|-|8|mi|km|abbr=on}}, incurring minimal casualties.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=20}}

Beginning the next day, 26 March, the armored divisions of all three corps turned these initial gains into a complete breakout, shattering all opposition and roaming at will throughout the enemy's rear areas. By the end of 28 March, General Hodges′ 1st Army had crossed the Lahn, having driven at least {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} beyond the original line of departure and capturing thousands of German soldiers in the process. Nowhere, it seemed, were the Germans able to resist in strength. On 29 March, the 1st Army turned toward Paderborn, about {{convert|80|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Giessen, its right flank covered by the 3rd Army, which had broken out of its own bridgeheads and was headed northeast toward [[Battle of Kassel (1945)|Kassel]].{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=20}}

A task force of the VII Corps′ [[3rd Armored Division (United States)|3rd Armored Division]], which included some of the new [[M26 Pershing]] heavy tanks, spearheaded the drive for Paderborn on 29 March. By attaching an infantry regiment of the [[104th Infantry Division (United States)|104th Infantry Division]] to the armored division and following the drive closely with the rest of the 104th Division, the VII Corps was well prepared to hold any territory gained. Rolling northward {{convert|45|mi|km|abbr=on}} without casualties, the mobile force stopped for the night {{convert|15|mi|km|abbr=on}} from its objective. Taking up the advance again the next day, it immediately ran into stiff opposition from students of an SS ''panzer'' replacement training center located near Paderborn. Equipped with about 60 tanks, the students put up a fanatical resistance, stalling the American armor all day. When the task force failed to advance on 31 March, Maj. Gen. [[J. Lawton Collins]]—commander of the VII Corps—asked General Simpson if his 9th Army—driving eastward north of the Ruhr—could provide assistance. Simpson, in turn, ordered a combat command of the 2nd Armored Division—which had just reached Beckum—to make a {{convert|15|mi|km|abbr=on}} advance southeast to [[Lippstadt]], midway between Beckum and the stalled 3rd Armored Division spearhead. Early in the afternoon of 1 April elements of the 2nd and 3rd Armored Divisions met at Lippstadt, linking the 9th and 1st Armies and sealing the prized [[Ruhr Area|Ruhr industrial complex]]—along with Model's ''[[Army Group B]]''—within American lines.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=20}}

As March turned to April the offensive east of the Rhine was progressing in close accordance with Allied plans. All the armies assigned to cross the Rhine had elements east of the river, including the Canadian 1st Army in the north, which sent a division through the British bridgehead at Rees, and the French 1st Army in the south, which on 31 March established its own bridgehead by assault crossings at [[Germersheim]] and [[Speyer]], about {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of Mainz. With spectacular thrusts being made beyond the Rhine nearly every day and the enemy's capacity to resist fading at an ever accelerating rate, the campaign to finish Germany was transitioning into a general pursuit.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=21}}

In the center of the Allied line, Eisenhower inserted a new army—the [[Fifteenth United States Army|15th Army]], under U.S. 12th Army Group control—to hold the western edge of the [[Ruhr Pocket]] along the Rhine while the 9th and 1st Armies squeezed the remaining German defenders there from the north, east, and south. Following the reduction of the Ruhr, the 15th Army was to take over occupation duties in the region as the 9th,{{sfn|Universal Newsreel staff|1945}} 1st, and 3rd Armies pushed farther into Germany.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=21}}

===Eisenhower switches his main thrust to U.S. 12th Army Group front (28 March)===
On 28 March, as these developments unfolded, Eisenhower announced his decision to adjust his plans governing the future course of the offensive. Once the Ruhr was surrounded, he wanted the 9th Army transferred from the British 21st Army Group to the U.S. 12th Army Group. After the reduction of the Ruhr Pocket, the main thrust east would be made by Bradley's 12th Army Group in the center, rather than by Montgomery's 21st Army Group in the north as originally planned. Montgomery's forces were to secure Bradley's northern flank while Devers′ 6th U.S. Army Group covered Bradley's southern shoulder. Furthermore, the main objective was no longer Berlin, but [[Leipzig]] where a juncture with the Soviet Army would split the remaining German forces in two. Once this was done, the 21st Army Group would take [[Luebeck]] and [[Wismar]] on the [[Baltic Sea]], cutting off the Germans remaining in the [[Jutland]] peninsula of [[Denmark]], while the 6th U.S. Army Group and the 3rd Army drove south into Austria.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=21}}

The British Prime Minister and Chiefs of Staff strongly opposed the new plan. Despite the Russian proximity to Berlin, they argued that the city was still a critical political, if not military, objective. Eisenhower—supported by the American Chiefs of Staff—disagreed. His overriding objective was the swiftest military victory possible. Should the U.S. political leadership direct him to take Berlin, or if a situation arose in which it became militarily advisable to seize the German capital, Eisenhower would do so. Otherwise, he would pursue those objectives that would end the war soonest. In addition, since Berlin and the rest of Germany had already been divided into occupation zones by representatives of the Allied governments at the [[Yalta Conference]], Eisenhower saw no political advantage in a race for Berlin. Any ground the western Allies gained in the future Soviet zone would merely be relinquished to the Soviets after the war. In the end the campaign proceeded as Eisenhower had planned it.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=22}}

===Ruhr pocket cleared (18 April)===
[[File:Advance through Germany - 5-18 April 1945.jpg|thumb|300px|The reduction of the Ruhr Pocket and advance to Elbe and Mulde rivers between 5 and 18 April 1945]]

The first step in realizing Eisenhower's plan was the eradication of the Ruhr Pocket. Even before the encirclement had been completed, the Germans in the Ruhr had begun making attempts at a breakout to the east. All had been unceremoniously repulsed by the vastly superior Allied forces. Meanwhile, the 9th and 1st Armies began preparing converging attacks using the east-west Ruhr River as a boundary line. The 9th Army's XVI Corps—which had taken up position north of the Ruhr area after crossing the Rhine—would be assisted in its southward drive by two divisions of the XIX Corps, the rest of which would continue to press eastward along with the XIII Corps. South of the Ruhr River, the 1st Army's northward attack was to be executed by the XVIII Airborne Corps, which had been transferred to Hodges after Operation VARSITY, and the III Corps, with the 1st Army's V and VII Corps continuing the offensive east. The 9th Army's sector of the Ruhr Pocket—although only about 1/3 the size of the 1st Army's sector south of the river—contained the majority of the densely urbanized industrial area within the encirclement. The 1st Army's area, on the other hand, was composed of rough, heavily forested terrain with a poor road network.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=22–23}}

By 1 April, when the trap closed around the Germans in the Ruhr, their fate was sealed. In a matter of days they would all be killed or captured. On 4 April, the day it shifted to Bradley's control, the 9th Army began its attack south toward the Ruhr River. In the south, the 1st Army's III Corps launched its strike on the 5th, and the XVIII Airborne Corps joined in on the 6th, both pushing generally northward. German resistance, initially rather determined, dwindled rapidly. By 13 April, the 9th Army had cleared the northern part of the pocket, while elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps′ [[8th Infantry Division (United States)|8th Infantry Division]] reached the southern bank of the Ruhr, splitting the southern section of the pocket in two. Thousands of prisoners were being taken every day; from 16–18 April, when all opposition ended and the remnants of German ''Army Group B'' formally surrendered, German troops had been surrendering in droves throughout the region. Army Group B commander [[Walther Model]] committed suicide on 21 April.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=23}}

The final tally of prisoners taken in the Ruhr reached 325,000, far beyond anything the Americans had anticipated. Tactical commanders hastily enclosed huge open fields with barbed wire creating makeshift prisoner of war camps, where the inmates awaited the end of the war and their chance to return home. Also looking forward to going home, tens of thousands of freed forced laborers and Allied prisoners of war further strained the American logistical system.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=23}}

===U.S. 12th Army Group prepares its final thrust===
Meanwhile, the remaining Allied forces north, south, and east of the Ruhr had been adjusting their lines in preparation for the final advance through Germany. Under the new concept, Bradley's 12th U.S. Army Group would make the main effort, with Hodges′ 1st Army in the center heading east for about {{convert|130|mi|km|abbr=on}} toward the city of Leipzig and the [[Elbe]] River. To the north, the 9th Army's XIX and XIII Corps would also drive for the Elbe, toward [[Magdeburg]], about {{convert|65|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Leipzig, although the army commander, General Simpson, hoped he would be allowed to go all the way to Berlin. To the south, Patton's 3rd Army was to drive east to [[Chemnitz]], about {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}} southeast of Leipzig, but well short of the Elbe, and then turn southeast into [[Austria]]. At the same time, General Devers′ 6th U.S. Army Group would move south through [[Bavaria]] and the [[Black Forest]] to Austria and the [[Alps]], ending the threat of any Nazi last-ditch stand there.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=23,26}}

On 4 April, as it paused to allow the rest of the 12th U.S. Army Group to catch up, the 3rd Army made two notable discoveries. Near the town of Merkers, elements of the 90th Infantry Division found a sealed salt mine containing a large portion of the German national treasure. The hoard included vast quantities of German paper currency, stacks of priceless paintings, piles of looted gold and silver jewelry and household objects, and an estimated $250,000,000 worth of gold bars and coins of various nations. The other discovery the 3rd Army made on 4 April horrified and angered those who saw it. When the 4th Armored Division and elements of the 89th Infantry Division captured the small town of [[Ohrdruf]], a few miles south of [[Gotha (town)|Gotha]], they found the [[Ohrdruf concentration camp|first concentration camp]] taken by the western Allies.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=26}}

===U.S. 12th Army Group advances to the Elbe (9 April)===
The 4 April pause in the 3rd Army advance allowed the other armies under Bradley's command to reach the [[Leine]] River, about {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of Paderborn. Thus all three armies of the 12th U.S. Army Group were in a fairly even north-south line, enabling them to advance abreast of each other to the Elbe. By 9 April, both the 9th and 1st Armies had seized bridgeheads over the Leine, prompting Bradley to order an unrestricted eastward advance. On the morning of 10 April, the 12th U.S. Army Group's drive to the Elbe began in earnest.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=26}}

The Elbe River was the official eastward objective, but many American commanders still eyed Berlin. By the evening of 11 April, elements of the 9th Army's 2nd Armored Division—seemingly intent on demonstrating how easily their army could take that coveted prize—had dashed {{convert|73|mi|km|abbr=on}} to reach the Elbe southeast of Magdeburg, just {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} short of the German capital. On 12 April, additional 9th Army elements attained the Elbe and by the next day were on the opposite bank hopefully awaiting permission to drive on to Berlin. But two days later, on 15 April, they had to abandon these hopes. Eisenhower sent Bradley his final word on the matter: the 9th Army was to stay put—there would be no effort to take Berlin. Simpson subsequently turned his troops' attention to mopping up pockets of local resistance.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=26}}
[[File:Coburg1945.jpg|thumb|left|American tanks in Coburg on 25 April]]

In the center of the 12th U.S. Army Group, Hodges′ 1st Army faced somewhat stiffer opposition, though it hardly slowed the pace. As its forces approached Leipzig, about {{convert|60|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of Magdeburg and {{convert|15|mi|km|abbr=on}} short of the [[Mulde River]], the 1st Army ran into one of the few remaining centers of organized resistance. Here the Germans turned a thick defense belt of antiaircraft guns against the American ground troops with devastating effects. Through a combination of flanking movements and night attacks, First Army troops were able to destroy or bypass the guns, moving finally into Leipzig, which formally surrendered on the morning of 20 April. By the end of the day, the units that had taken Leipzig joined the rest of the 1st Army on the [[Mulde]], where it had been ordered to halt.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=27}}

Meanwhile, on the 12th U.S. Army Group's southern flank, the 3rd Army had advanced apace, moving {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} eastward to take [[Erfurt]] and [[Weimar]], and then, by 12 April, another {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} through the old 1806 [[Battle of Jena-Auerstedt|Jena Napoleonic battlefield]] area. On that day, Eisenhower instructed Patton to halt the 3rd Army at the Mulde River, about {{convert|10|mi|km|abbr=on}} short of its original objective, Chemnitz. The change resulted from an agreement between the American and Soviet military leadership based on the need to establish a readily identifiable geographical line to avoid accidental clashes between the converging Allied forces. However, as the 3rd Army began pulling up to the Mulde on 13 April, the XII Corps—Patton's southernmost force—continued moving southeast alongside the 6th U.S. Army Group to clear southern Germany and move into Austria. After taking [[Coburg]], about {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of Erfurt, on 11 April, XII Corps troops captured [[Bayreuth]], {{convert|35|mi|km|abbr=on}} farther southeast, on 14 April.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=30}}

As was the case throughout the campaign, the German ability to fight was sporadic and unpredictable during the drive to the [[Elbe-Mulde line]]. Some areas were stoutly defended while in others the enemy surrendered after little more than token resistance. By sending armored spearheads around hotly contested areas, isolating them for reduction by subsequent waves of infantry, Eisenhower's forces maintained their eastward momentum. A German holdout force of 70,000 in the [[Harz]] Mountains—{{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Erfurt—was neutralized in this way, as were the towns of Erfurt, [[Jena]], and Leipzig.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=30}}

===U.S. First Army makes first contact with the advancing Russians (25 April)===
[[File:Final Operations - 19 April-7 Mai 1945.jpg|300px|thumb|The final operations of the Western Allied armies between 19 April and 7 May 1945 and the change in the Soviet front line over this period.]]

Every unit along the Elbe-Mulde line was anxious to be the first to meet the [[Red Army]]. By the last week of April, it was well known that the Soviets were close, and dozens of American patrols were probing beyond the east bank of the Mulde, hoping to meet them. Elements of the 1st Army's V Corps made first contact. At 11:30 on 25 April, a small patrol from the [[69th Infantry Division (United States)|69th Infantry Division]] met a lone Russian horseman in the village of [[Nünchritz|Leckwitz]]. Several other patrols from the 69th had similar encounters later that day, and on 26 April the division commander—Maj. Gen. [[Emil F. Reinhardt]]—met Maj. Gen. [[Vladimir Rusakov]] of the Russian 58th Guards Infantry Division at [[Torgau]] in the first official link-up ceremony. After a nearly flawless thrust through the middle of Germany, the 12th U.S. Army Group had succeeded in splitting Hitler's forces in two.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=30}}


25 April is known as [[Elbe Day]].

===U.S. 6th Army Group heads for Austria===
While the 12th U.S. Army Group made its eastward thrust, General Devers′ 6th U.S. Army Group to the south had the dual mission of protecting the 12th U.S. Army Group's right flank and eliminating any German attempt to make a last stand in the Alps of southern Germany and western Austria. To accomplish both objectives, Lt. Gen. [[Alexander Patch]]'s 7th Army on Devers′ left was to make a great arc, first driving northeastward alongside Bradley's flank, then turning south with the 3rd Army to take [[Nuremberg]] and [[Munich]], ultimately continuing into Austria. The French 1st Army—under General [[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]]—was to attack to the south and southeast, taking [[Stuttgart]] before moving to the Swiss border and into Austria.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=31}}

Initially, the opposition in the 6th U.S. Army Group's sector was stiffer than that facing the 12th U.S. Army Group. The German forces there were simply in less disarray than those to the north. Nevertheless, the 7th Army broke out of its Rhine bridgehead, just south of [[Frankfurt]], on 28 March, employing elements of three corps—the [[XV Corps (United States)|XV Corps]] to the north, the [[XXI Corps (United States)|XXI Corps]] in the center, and the [[VI Corps (United States)|VI Corps]] to the south. The XV Corps′ [[45th Infantry Division (United States)|45th Infantry Division]] fought for six days before taking the city of [[Aschaffenburg]], {{convert|35|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of the Rhine, on 3 April. To the south, elements of the VI Corps met unexpectedly fierce resistance at [[Battle of Heilbronn (1945)|Heilbronn]], {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}} into the German rear. Despite a wide armored thrust to envelop the enemy defenses, it took nine days of intense fighting to bring Heilbronn fully under American control. Still, by 11 April 7th Army had penetrated the German defenses in depth, especially in the north, and was ready to begin its wheeling movement southeast and south. Thus, on 15 April when Eisenhower ordered Patton's entire 3rd Army to drive southeast down the [[Danube]] River valley to [[Linz]], and south to [[Salzburg]] and central Austria, he also instructed the 6th U.S. Army Group to make a similar turn into southern Germany and western Austria.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=31–32}}
[[File:3. US Inf.-Div. in Nürnberg, 20.04.1945.jpg|thumb|left|Soldiers of the US [[3rd Infantry Division (United States)|3rd Infantry Division]] in Nuremberg on 20 April]]

Advancing along this new axis the Seventh Army's left rapidly overran [[Bamberg]], over {{convert|100|mi|km|abbr=on}} east of the Rhine, on its way to Nuremberg, about {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} to the south. [[Battle of Nuremberg (1945)|As its forces reached Nuremberg]] on 16 April, the Seventh Army ran into the same type of anti-aircraft gun defense that the 1st Army was facing at Leipzig. Only on 20 April, after breaching the ring of anti-aircraft guns and fighting house-to-house for the city, did its forces take Nuremberg.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=32}}

Following the capture of Nuremberg, the 7th Army discovered little resistance as the XXI Corps′ [[12th Armored Division (United States)|12th Armored Division]] dashed {{convert|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} to the Danube, crossing it on 22 April, followed several days later by the rest of the corps and the XV Corps as well.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=32}}

Meanwhile, on the 7th Army's right the VI Corps had moved southeast alongside the French 1st Army. In a double envelopment, the French captured Stuttgart on 21 April, and by the next day both the French and the VI Corps had elements on the Danube. Similarly, the 3rd Army on the 6th U.S. Army Group's left flank had advanced rapidly against very little resistance, its lead elements reaching the river on 24 April.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=32}}

As the 6th U.S. Army Group and the 3rd Army finished clearing southern Germany and approached Austria, it was clear to most observers, Allied and German alike, that the war was nearly over. Many towns flew white flags of surrender to spare themselves the otherwise inevitable destruction suffered by those that resisted, while German troops surrendered by the tens of thousands, sometimes as entire units.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=32}}

===Link-up of U.S. forces in Germany and Italy (4 May)===
On 30 April, elements of 7th Army's XV and XXI Corps captured Munich, {{convert|30|mi|km|abbr=on}} south of the Danube, while the first elements of its VI Corps had already entered Austria two days earlier. On 4 May, the 3rd Army's V Corps and XII Corps advanced into [[Czechoslovakia]], and units of the VI Corps met elements of the [[Fifth United States Army|U.S. 5th Army]] on the Italian frontier, linking the European and Mediterranean theaters. Also on 4 May, after a shift in inter-army boundaries that placed [[Salzburg]] in the 7th Army sector, that city surrendered to elements of the XV Corps. The XV Corps also captured ''[[Berchtesgaden]]'', the town that would have been Hitler's command post in the [[National Redoubt#Nazi Germany|National Redoubt]]. With all passes to the Alps now sealed, however, there would be no final redoubt in Austria or anywhere else. In a few days the war in Europe would be over.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=32–33}}

===British 21st Army Group crosses the Elbe (29 April)===
[[File:Hamburg Liberation 04.jpg|thumb|A British tank in Hamburg on 4 May]]

While the Allied armies in the south marched to the Alps, the 21st Army Group drove north and northeast. The right wing of the British Second Army reached the Elbe southeast of Hamburg on 19 April. Its left fought for a week to capture Bremen, which fell on 26 April. On 29 April, the British made an assault crossing of the Elbe, supported on the following day by the recently reattached XVIII Airborne Corps. The bridgehead expanded rapidly, and by 2 May Lubeck and Wismar, {{convert|40|-|50|mi|km|abbr=on}} beyond the river, were in Allied hands, sealing off the Germans in the [[Jutland Peninsula]].{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=33}}

On the 21st Army Group's left, one corps of the Canadian 1st Army reached the North Sea near the Dutch-German border on 16 April, while another drove through the central Netherlands, trapping the German forces remaining in that country. However, concerned that the bypassed Germans would flood much of the nation and cause complete famine among a Dutch population already near starvation, Eisenhower approved an agreement with the local enemy commanders to allow the Allies to air-drop food into the country in return for a local ceasefire on the battlefield. The [[Operations Manna and Chowhound|ensuing airdrops]], which began on 29 April,{{sfn|RAF staff|2005|loc=April 1945}} marked the beginning of what was to become a colossal American-led effort to put war-torn Europe back together again.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=33–34}}

===German surrender (8 May)===
[[File:Allied army positions on 10 May 1945.png|right|thumb|Final positions of the Allied and Soviet armies, May 1945.]]
{{main|End of World War II in Europe}}

By the end of April, the [[Third Reich]] was in tatters. Of the land still under Nazi control almost none was actually in Germany. With his escape route to the south severed by the 12th U.S. Army Group's eastward drive and Berlin surrounded by the Soviets, [[Adolf Hitler]] committed suicide on 30 April, leaving to his successor, Grand Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]], the task of capitulation. After attempting to strike a deal whereby he would surrender only to the western Allies—a proposal that was summarily rejected—on 7 May Dönitz granted his representative, General [[Alfred Jodl]], permission to effect a complete surrender on all fronts. The appropriate documents were signed on the same day and became effective on 8 May. Despite scattered resistance from a few isolated units, the war in Europe was over.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=34}}

==Analysis==
[[File:U.S Airfields in Europa as of 8 May 1945.jpg|right|thumb||U.S Airfields in Europe as of 8 May 1945.]]

By the beginning of the Central Europe Campaign, Allied victory in Europe was inevitable. Having gambled his future ability to defend Germany on the [[Battle of the Bulge|Ardennes offensive]] and lost, Hitler had no real strength left to stop the powerful Allied armies. The Allies still had to fight, often bitterly, for victory. Even when the hopelessness of the German situation became obvious to his most loyal subordinates, Hitler refused to admit defeat. Only when Soviet artillery was falling around his Berlin headquarters bunker did he begin to perceive the final outcome.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=34}}

The crossing of the Rhine, the encirclement and reduction of the Ruhr, and the sweep to the Elbe-Mulde line and the Alps all established the final campaign on the Western Front as a showcase for Allied superiority in maneuver warfare. Drawing on the experience gained during the [[Invasion of Normandy|campaign in Normandy]] and the [[Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine]], the western Allies demonstrated in Central Europe their capability of absorbing the lessons of the past. By attaching mechanized infantry units to armored divisions, they created a hybrid of strength and mobility that served them well in the pursuit warfare through Germany. Key to the effort was the logistical support that kept these forces fueled, and the determination to maintain the forward momentum at all costs. These mobile forces made great thrusts to isolate pockets of German troops, which were mopped up by additional infantry following close behind. The Allies rapidly eroded any remaining ability to resist.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|pp=34–35}}

For their part, captured German soldiers often claimed to be most impressed not by American armor or infantry but by the artillery. They frequently remarked on its accuracy and the swiftness of its target acquisition—and especially the prodigious amount of artillery ammunition expended.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=35}}

In retrospect, very few questionable decisions were made concerning the execution of the campaign. Perhaps Patton could have made his initial Rhine crossing north of Mainz and avoided the losses incurred crossing the Main. The airborne operation in support of the 21st Army Group's crossing of the Rhine was probably not worth the risk.

But these decisions were made in good faith and had little bearing on the ultimate outcome of the campaign. On the whole, Allied plans were excellent as demonstrated by how rapidly they met their objectives. In the end, just as the Red Army's destruction of the ''Wehrmacht'' in the east established the Soviet Union's position as a postwar superpower, so the U.S. Army's leading role in the final conquest of Germany, not only in providing manpower and materiel, but also in terms of strategy and tactics, presaged the important new position the United States would occupy in the postwar world.{{sfn|Bedessem|1996|p=35}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Baker |first=Anni P. |year=2004 |title=American Soldiers Overseas: The Global Military Presence |publisher=Praeger |location=Westport, Connecticut |pages=38–39 |isbn=0-275-97354-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Bedessem |first=Edward M. |url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/centeur/centeur.htm |title=Central Europe, 22 March – 11 May 1945 |series=CMH Online bookshelves: The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II |publisher=US Army Center of Military History |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1996 |id=CMH Pub 72-36 |isbn=0-16-048136-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Glantz |first=David |title=When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army stopped Hitler |publisher=University Press of Kansas |year=1995 |isbn=0-7006-0899-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Hastings |first=Max |title=Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945 |publisher=Vintage |year=2005 |isbn=0-375-71422-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Keegan |editor1-first=John |title=The Times Atlas of the Second World War |publisher=Times Books |year=1989 |location=London |isbn=0-7230-0317-3 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite web |author=RAF staff |date=6 April 2005 |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr45.html |chapter=Bomber Command: Campaign Diary: April–May 1945 |title=RAF History - Bomber Command 60th Anniversary |ref=harv |archiveurl=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20070706011932/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/apr45.html|archivedate=6 July 2007}}
* {{cite video |author=Universal Newsreel staff|year=1945 |title=Video: Allies Overrun Germany Etc. (1945) |url=http://www.archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39165 |publisher=[[Universal Newsreel]] |accessdate =21 February 2012 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zaloga |first1=Steve |last2=Dennis |first2=Peter |title=Remagen 1945: Endgame Against the Third Reich |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1-84603-249-0 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zimmermann |first=John |title=Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Vol. 10 Part 1) |publisher=Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-421-06237-6}}

;Attribution
* {{USGovernment |sourceURL=[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/brochures/centeur/centeur.htm Central Europe, 22 March – 11 May 1945, by Edward M. Bedessem]}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Western Allied invasion of Germany}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Western Allied Invasion Of Germany}}
[[Category:1945 in Germany]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1945]]
[[Category:World War II invasions]]
[[Category:World War II operations and battles of the Western European Theatre]]

Dutch intervention in Bali (1906)

2012-02-23T19:09:53Z

Muta112: photographs reconstruction

{{Warbox
| conflict = Dutch intervention in Bali (1906)
| image = [[File:Dutch troops landing at Sanur 1906.jpg|250px]] Dutch troops landing at [[Sanur (Bali)|Sanur]], 1906. [[File:Dutch cavalry at Sanur 1906.jpg|250px]] Dutch cavalry at Sanur.
| caption =
| date = September–October 1906
| place = [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]
| result = Decisive Dutch victory. Dutch control of southern Bali.
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|25px]] [[The Netherlands]]
| combatant2 = [[Badung]] [[Tabanan]] [[Klungkung]]
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|25px]] Major General [[Marinus Bernardus Rost van Tonningen|Rost van Tonningen]]
| commander2 =
| strength1 = 3 infantry [[battalion]]s 1 cavalry [[detachment]] 2 artillery [[Artillery battery|batteries]] Navy fleet<ref>Hanna, p.140</ref>
| strength2 =
| casualties1 = Minimal
| casualties2 = over 1,000 killed
}}
{{Dutch interventions in Bali}}
{{Dutch colonial campaigns}}
[[File:Badung Puputan 1906.jpg|thumb|Corpses of the [[puputan]] at Denpasar. Dutch troops are standing on the left.]]
The '''Dutch intervention in Bali in 1906''' was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] military intervention in [[Bali]], which destroyed the southern Bali kingdom of [[Badung]] and [[Tabanan]], and weakened the kingdom of [[Klungkung]]. It was the sixth Dutch military intervention in Bali.<ref name=h140>Hanna, pp.140–141</ref>

==Context==
{{main|History of Bali}}
The Netherlands had already conquered northern Bali by the middle of the 19th century, integrating the kingdoms of [[Jembrana]], [[Buleleng]] and [[Karangasem]] into the [[Dutch East Indies]], but the southern kingdoms of [[Tabanan]], [[Badung]] and [[Klungkung]] had managed to remain independent. Various disputes took place between the Dutch and the southern kingdoms, and it was expected that the Dutch would intervene militarily once a pretext presented itself.<ref>Hanna, pp.139–140</ref>

There were recurrent disputes between the Dutch and Balinese kings regarding the right to plunder ships that foundered off the reefs surrounding Bali. According to Balinese tradition called ''tawan karang'', the Balinese king traditionally considered such wrecks as their property, while the Dutch insisted they were not. On 27 May 1904, a Chinese [[schooner]] named ''Sri Kumala'' struck the reef near [[Sanur]], and was plundered by the Balinese. Upon request for compensation by the Dutch, the kings of Badung refused to pay anything, supported by the king of Tabanan and the king of Klungkung.<ref name=h140/> The ruler of Tabanan had also caused Dutch discontent by authorizing in 1904 the practice of ''[[suttee]]'' (ritual self-sacrifice of relatives upon the death of a ruler, also called ''wesatia'') despite a Dutch formal request to abandon it.<ref name=h140/>

In June 1906, the Dutch started a blockade of the southern coasts and sent various ultimata.<ref name=h140/>

== Intervention ==
On September 14, 1906, a substantial force of the [[Royal Dutch East Indies Army]], named the ''Sixth Military Expedition'', landed at the northern part of [[Sanur (Bali)|Sanur]] beach. It was under the command of Major General [[M.B. Rost van Tonningen]].<ref name=h140/><ref>{{cite book|title=Colonial collections revisited|page=146|year=2007|publisher=CNWS Publication|isbn=9057891522|author=Pieter ter Keurs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pOgsuCFVmOgC&pg=PA146}}</ref> Badung soldiers made some attacks on the bivouacs of the Dutch at Sanur on September 15, and there was some resistance again at Intaran village.<ref>Notice at the Bali Museum</ref>

=== Kesiman ===
Overall, the force managed to move inland without much resistance, and arrived in the city of [[Kesiman]] on 20 September 1906. There, the local king, a vassal of the king of [[Badung]], had already been killed by his own priest, as he had refused to lead an armed resistance against the Dutch, the palace was in flame and the city was deserted.<ref name=h140/>

=== Denpasar ===
The force marched to [[Denpasar]], [[Bali]], as if in a dress parade.<ref name=h140/> They approached the royal palace, noting smoke rising from the ''[[Puri (disambiguation)|puri]]'' and hearing a wild beating of drums coming from within the palace walls.

Upon their reaching the palace, a silent procession emerged, led by the ''[[Raja]]'' being borne by four bearers on a [[palanquin]]. The Raja dressed in traditional white cremation garments, wore magnificent jewelry, and was armed with a ceremonial [[kris]]. The other people in the procession consisted of the Raja's officials, guards, priests, wives, children and retainers, all of whom were similarly attired.<ref name=h140/> They had received the rites of death, were dressed in white, and had had their ritual [[kris]] blessed.<ref name=b49>Barski, p.49</ref>

[[File:Body of the Raja Denpasar 1906.jpg|thumb|Wrapping the body of the Raja.]]
When the procession was a hundred paces from the Dutch force, they halted and the Raji stepped down from the palanquin and signaled a priest who plunged his dagger into the Raja's breast. The rest of the procession began killing themselves and others, in a rite known as ''[[Puputan]]'' ("Fight to the death").<ref name=h140/> Women mockingly threw jewelry and gold coins at the troops.<ref name=h140/>

A 'stray gunshot' and an 'attack by lance and spear' prompted the Dutch to open fire with [[rifles]] and [[artillery]]. As more people emerged from the palace, the mounds of corpses rose higher and higher.<ref name=h140/> The whole procession numbered hundreds,<ref name=b49/> and is said to have been over 1,000 people in all. It was mown down by Dutch gunfire.<ref name=haer38>Haer, p.38</ref>

Alternative accounts describe that the Dutch first opened fire on the Balinese mass moving outside of the palace gate, only equipped with traditional krises, spears and shields, and that survivors killed themselves, or had themselves killed by their followers according to the dictates of the ''puputan''.<ref name=haer38 />

The soldiers stripped the corpses of the valuables and sacked the ruins of the burned palace. The palace of Denpasar was razed to the ground.<ref name=haer38 />

The same afternoon, similar events occurred in the nearby palace of Pemecutan, where the co-ruler Gusti Gede Ngurah resided. The Dutch let the nobility at Pemecutan kill themselves, and proceeded with the looting.

[[File:1906 Puputan monument in Denpasar.jpg|thumb|Monument to the 1906 Puputan, located in Taman Puputan, [[Denpasar]], [[Bali]].]]

The massacre is being remembered locally as the "Badung Puputan" and is glorified as an example of resistance to foreign aggression. A huge bronze monument was elevated on the central square of Denpasar, where the royal palace used to stand, glorifying Balinese resistance in the Puputan.

=== Tabanan ===
The Dutch force continued to the kingdom of [[Tabanan]], where the king [[Gusti Ngurah Agung]] and his son fled, then surrendered to the Dutch, and attempted to negotiate a settlement to become a regency of the Dutch.

The Dutch only offered them exile to nearby [[Madura]] or [[Lombok]], and they preferred to kill themselves (puputan) in prison two days later.<ref name=b49/><ref>Hanna, pp.143–144</ref> Their palace was plundered and razed by the Dutch.<ref name=h144>Hanna, p.144</ref>

=== Klungkung ===
[[File:Dewa Agung arriving in Gianyar to negotiate with the Dutch 1906.jpg|thumb|[[Dewa Agung]] of [[Klungkung]], nominal ruler of all Bali, arriving in [[Gianyar]] to negotiate with the Dutch.]]

The Dutch also moved troops to [[Klungkung]] and considered an attack on king [[Dewa Agung]], the nominal ruler of all Bali, but eventually refrained from it as Dewa Agung refrained from military action against the Dutch and agreed to sign agreements to destroy his fortifications, deliver his firearms and renounce import and export taxes.<ref name=h144 />

A strong pretext for the Dutch to attack Klunkung would appear later, and materialize in the [[Dutch intervention in Bali (1908)|1908 Dutch intervention in Bali]], which would put a final end to [[autochthonous]] rule in Bali.

== Aftermath ==
In the short term, the 1906 Dutch invasion in Bali, and [[Dutch intervention in Bali (1908)|its sequel in 1908]], sealed the Dutch control of the island.

The Dutch invasion however was followed closely by media coverage, and reports of the sanguinary conquest of the southern part of the island filtered to the West. The disproportion between the offense and harshness of the punitive actions was pointed out. The image of the Netherlands as a benevolent and responsible colonial power was seriously affected as a consequence.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tourism, development and terrorism in Bali|author=Michael Hitchcock, Nyoman Darma Putra|year=2007|page=14|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DTqNb0zra1gC&pg=PA14|isbn=0754648664}}</ref>

The Netherlands, also under criticism for their policies in [[Java]], [[Sumatra]] and the eastern island, decided to make amends, and announced the establishment of an "[[Dutch Ethical Policy|Ethical policy]]".<ref name=h171>Hanna, p.171</ref> As a consequence, the Dutch in Bali turned students and protectors of Balinese culture and endeavored to preserve it in addition to their initial modernization role.<ref name=h171 /> Efforts were made at preserving Bali culture and at making it a "living museum" of classical culture,<ref name=b49 /> and in 1914, Bali was opened to tourism.<ref>Barski, p.50</ref> The very harshness of the 1906 and 1908 military invasions thus paradoxically triggered an international uproar which contributed to the preservation of Bali's culture, to make the island one of the most popular tourist destinations today.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Balinese soldiers 1880s.jpg|Balinese soldiers in the 1880s.
File:Dutch column moving forward to Denpasar 1906.jpg|Dutch column moving forward to Denpasar.
File:Dutch artillery in the fight against the Balinese 1906.jpg|Dutch artillery in the fight against the Balinese, 1906.
File:Dutch troops in Bali 1906.jpg|Dutch troops in Bali 1906.
File:Ruins of Denpasar 1906.jpg|Ruins of Denpasar after the conflict. [[W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp]].
Dutch cavalry in front of the Royal Palace at Tabanan 1906.jpg|Dutch cavalry in front of the Royal Palace at [[Tabanan]].
</gallery>

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

== References ==
*{{cite book|author=Willard A. Hanna|title=Bali Chronicles|publisher=Periplus, Singapore|year=2004|isbn=079460272X}}
*{{cite book|author=Andy Barski, Albert Beaucort and Bruce Carpenter, Barski|title=Bali and Lombok|year=2007|publisher=Dorling Kindersley, London|isbn=9780756628789}}
*{{cite book|author=Debbie Guthrie Haer, Juliette Morillot and Irene Toh, Haer|title=Bali, a traveller's companion|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year= 2001|isbn=9789814217354}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dutch Intervention In Bali (1906)}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1906]]
[[Category:Dutch East Indies]]
[[Category:1906 in Indonesia]]
[[Category:History of Bali]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Netherlands]]

[[ru:Голландское вторжение на Бали (1906)]]

Philippine–American War

2012-01-28T22:06:30Z

Muta112: photograph

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2012}}
{{Expand Spanish|Guerra filipino-estadounidense|date=January 2012}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Philippine–American War
|image = [[File:Fil-American War Feb 04,1899.jpg|300px]]
|caption = ''The Battle of Manila, February 1899.''
|date = '''Filipino Rebellion:''' June 2, 1899 – July 4, 1902{{ref label|a|a|a}} '''Moro Rebellion:''' 1899–1913
|place = [[Philippines]], Southeast Asia
|result = United States victory and dissolution of the [[First Philippine Republic]].
|territory = The Philippines [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|becomes]] an [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]] of the United States.
|combatant2 = {{flag|United States|1896}} [[Philippine Constabulary]]
|combatant1 = {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}} [[First Philippine Republic]] [[Image:Philippine revolution flag kkk1.svg|22px]] [[Katipunan]] {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}} [[Pulajanes]] [[Image:Late 19th Century Flag of Sulu.svg|22px]] [[Sultanate of Sulu]] {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}} [[Moro people|Moro]]
|commander2 = {{Flag icon|United States|1896}} [[William McKinley]] {{Flag icon|United States|1896}} [[Theodore Roosevelt]] {{Flag icon|United States|1896}} [[Elwell Stephen Otis|Elwell Otis]] {{Flag icon|United States|1896}} [[Arthur MacArthur, Jr.|Arthur MacArthur]] {{Flag icon|United States|1896}} [[John J. Pershing|John Pershing]] {{Flag icon|United States|1896}} [[Jacob H. Smith|Jacob Smith]]
|commander1 = {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}} [[Emilio Aguinaldo|Gen.Emilio Aguinaldo]] {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}}[[Gen. Antonio Luna]] {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}} [[Miguel Malvar|Gen.Miguel Malvar]] {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}} [[Manuel Tinio|Gen.Manuel Tinio]] [[Image:Philippine revolution flag kkk1.svg|22px]] [[Arcadio Maxilom]] [[Image:Philippine revolution flag kkk1.svg|22px]] [[Macario Sakay]] {{Flag icon|Philippines|1898}} [[Papa Isio|Dionisio Seguela]] [[Image:Late 19th Century Flag of Sulu.svg|22px]] [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sultan of Sulu]]
|strength2 = ~126,000 total<ref name=JHUG20060410>{{Citation|url=http://www.jhu.edu/~gazette/2006/10apr06/10paul.html|title=Historian Paul Kramer revisits the Philippine–American War|publisher=Johns Hopkins University|journal=The JHU Gazette|date=April 10, 2006|volume=35|issue=29|accessdate=March 18, 2008}}</ref><ref name=deady2005p62>{{Harvnb|Deady|2005|p=62}}</ref> 
~24,000 to ~44,000 field strength<ref name="Deady2005p55"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Ramsey|2007|p=115}}</ref>
|strength1 =100,000–1,200,000{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}}
|casualties2={{flagicon|United States|1896}} 4,165 killed (about 75% from disease),<ref name=HackRettig2006p200>{{Harvnb|Hack|Rettig|2006|p=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=IFNrC0lVLvAC&pg=PA172 172]}}.</ref> ~3,000 wounded;
2,000 [[Philippine Constabulary]] killed or wounded<ref name="Oxford">{{Harvnb|Chambers|Anderson|1999}}</ref>|
|casualties1=~12,000–20,000 killed<ref name=JHUG20060410/><ref name=reCasualties/>
|casualties3='''Filipino civilian dead''': ~200,000 to 1,500,000<ref name=reCasualties>{{citation |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1683&dat=20040208&id=gbIaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GEUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5222,6070988 |author=Guillermo, Emil |title=A first taste of empire |journal=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel |date=February 8, 2004 |pages=03J |postscript=. }}.</ref><ref name= "Smallman-Raynor">{{Harvnb|Smallman-Raynor|1998}}</ref><ref name=burdeos2008p14casualties>{{Harvnb|Burdeos|2008|p=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=tN__4jLTnd8C&pg=PA14&dq=250,000+1,000,000 14]}}.</ref>
|notes={{note label|a|a|a}}July 4, 1902 is the official ending date of the war, though the [[Moro people|Moro]], the [[Pulahan]]es, the remnants of the [[Katipunan]], and the [[Tagalog Republic]], continued hostilities until June 15, 1913.<ref name="Past" /><ref name="agoncillo1990pp247-297"/>
|}}
{{Campaignbox Philippine-American War}}
{{Campaignbox Moro Rebellion}}

The '''Philippine–American War''', also known as the '''Philippine War of Independence''' or the '''Philippine Insurrection''' (1899–1902),<ref>{{citation
|last=Wolters
|first=W.G.
|editor=Keat Gin Ooi
|chapter=Philippine War of Independence
|chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1075
|publisher=ABC-CLIO
|place=Santa Barbara, CA
|year=2004
|title=Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor
|volume=II
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |isbn=1576077705}}</ref> was an armed conflict between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries. The conflict arose from the struggle of the [[First Philippine Republic]] to gain independence following annexation by the United States.<ref>{{citation
|url = http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp
|title = Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December 10, 1898
|publisher = [[Yale University]]
}}</ref><ref>{{citation
|title=The Law and Policy of Annexation
|author=Carman Fitz Randolph
|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC
|year=2009
|isbn=9781103324811
|chapter=Chapter I, The Annexation of the Philippines
|chapter-url=http://books.google.com/books?id=g07Vz_oKDMcC&pg=PA1
|url=http://books.google.com/?id=g07Vz_oKDMcC
}}</ref> The war was part of a series of conflicts in the [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|Philippine struggle for independence]], preceded by the [[Philippine Revolution]] and the [[Spanish–American War]].

Fighting erupted between U.S. and Filipino revolutionary forces on February 4, 1899, and quickly escalated into the 1899 [[Battle of Manila (1899)|Battle of Manila]]. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic officially declared war against the United States.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kalaw|1927|Ref=Kalaw1927appC|pp=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=afj2233.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=219&size=100 199–200]}}.</ref> The war officially ended on July 4, 1902.<ref name=worcester1914p180>{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=180 180]|Ref=worcester1914ch9}}.</ref> However, members of the [[Katipunan|Katipunan society]] continued to battle the American forces. Among them was General [[Macario Sacay]], a veteran Katipunan member who assumed the presidency of the proclaimed [[Tagalog Republic]], formed in 1902 after the capture of President Aguinaldo. Other groups, including the [[Moro people]] and [[Pulahanes]], continued hostilities until their defeat at the [[Battle of Bud Bagsak]] on June 15, 1913.<ref name="Past">{{Harvnb|Constantino|1975}}</ref><ref name = agoncillo1990pp247-297 />

Opposition to the war inspired [[Mark Twain]] to found the [[American Anti-Imperialist League|Anti-Imperialist League]] on June 15, 1898. The war and occupation by the United States would change the cultural landscape of the islands, as the people dealt with an estimated 34,000–1,000,000 casualties, disestablishment of the Catholic Church as the Philippine state religion (as the United States allowed freedom of religion), and the introduction of the English language as the primary language of government and most businesses. In 1916, the United States promised some self-government, a limited form of which came in 1935. In 1946, following World War II, the United States gave the territory [[Philippine Independence|independence]] through the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]].

==Background==
===Philippine Revolution===
{{Main|Philippine Revolution}}
[[Image:Katipuneros.jpg|thumb|left|150px|A late 19th century photograph of Filipino [[Katipunan|Katipuneros]].]]
On July 7, 1892 [[Andrés Bonifacio]], a [[warehouseman]] and [[clerk (position)|clerk]] from [[Manila]], established the ''[[Katipunan]]'', a revolutionary organization which aimed to gain independence from Spanish colonial rule by armed revolt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=149}}</ref> The ''Katipunan'' spread throughout the provinces, and the [[Philippine Revolution]] of 1896 was led by its members, called ''Katipuneros''.<ref name="Past" /><ref name=agoncillo1990pp149-166>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=149–166}}</ref> Fighters in [[Cavite]] province won early victories. One of the most influential and popular Cavite leaders was [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], mayor of [[Kawit, Cavite|Cavite El Viejo]] (modern-day [[Kawit, Cavite|Kawit]]), who gained control of much of eastern Cavite. Eventually Aguinaldo and his faction gained control of the leadership of the movement. In 1897, Aguinaldo was elected president of an insurgent government while the “outmaneuvered”<ref name="Past" /> Bonifacio was executed for treason.<ref name="Past" /><ref name=agoncillo1990pp180-181>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=180–181}}</ref> Aguinaldo is officially considered the first [[president of the Philippines]].

===Aguinaldo's exile and return===
[[Image:Gen Aguinaldo.jpg|thumb||150px|Emilio Aguinaldo in the field.]]
By December 1897 the struggle had come to a stalemate. In August 1897 armistice negotiations were opened between Aguinaldo and the current Spanish governor-general, [[Fernando Primo de Rivera]]. By mid-December an agreement was reached in which the governor would pay Aguinaldo a sum described in the agreement as "$800,000 (Mexican)" in three installments if Aguinaldo would go into exile.<ref name=Aguinaldo1899ch2>{{Harvnb|Aguinaldo|1899|Ref=Aguinaldo1899ch2}} Ch.2</ref><ref>The Mexican dollar at the time was worth about 50 U.S. cents, according to {{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=126 126]||Ref=Halstead1898ch12}}</ref> Aguinaldo then established himself in Hong Kong.<ref name=Aguinaldo1899ch2 /><ref name=agoncillo1990p187>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=187}}</ref> Before leaving, Aguinaldo denounced the Revolution, exhorted Filipino combatants to disarm and declared those who continued hostilities to be bandits.<ref name="Past" /> However, some Filipino revolutionaries did continue armed struggle against the Spanish colonial government.<ref name="Past" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=34}}</ref><ref name="novel">{{Citation
| first =Ambeth R.
| last =Ocampo
| year =2005
| month =January 7
| title =The First Filipino Novel
| journal =Philippine Daily Inquirer
| postscript =.
}}</ref><ref name="timeline">{{Cite web
| title =Chronology of Significant Events Relating to the Career of Emilio Aguinaldo with Respect to the Various Imperialist and Anti-Imperialist Campaigns in the Philippines
| work =randolf.bol.ucla.edu
| url =http://randolf.bol.ucla.edu/aguichron.htm
| accessdate=May 20, 2006
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060918062708/http://randolf.bol.ucla.edu/aguichron.htm |archivedate = September 18, 2006}} (from internet archive)</ref><ref name="brands">{{Harvnb|Brands|1992|p=46}}</ref><ref name="David">{{Harvnb|Steinberg|1972|p=167}}, Citing {{Harvnb|Kalaw|1926|pp=92–98}}. (Miller states that the amount was $800,000. {{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=35}})</ref>

Aguinaldo wrote retrospectively in 1899 that he had met with U.S. Consuls E. Spencer Pratt and Rounceville Wildman in Singapore in 1898 between April 22 and 25 and that they persuaded him to again take up the mantle of leadership in the revolution, with Pratt communicating with Admiral [[George Dewey]] (the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron commander) by telegram, passing assurances from Dewey to Aguinaldo that the United States would at least recognize the independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy, and adding that there was no necessity for entering into a formal written agreement because the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were in fact equivalent to the most solemn pledge that their verbal promises and assurance would be fulfilled to the letter and were not to be classed with Spanish promises or Spanish ideas of a man’s word of honor.<ref name=Aguinaldo1899ch3 /> Aguinaldo reports agreeing to return to the Philippines, traveling from Singapore to Hong Kong aboard the steamship ''Malacca'', onwards from Hong Kong on American dispatch-boat ''McCulloch'', and arriving in Cavite on May 19.<ref name=Aguinaldo1899ch3>{{Harvnb|Aguinaldo|1899|Ref=Aguinaldo1899ch3}}</ref> ''The New York Times'' wrote on August 6, 1899 that Pratt had obtained a court order enjoining the publication of certain statements "... which might be regarded as showing a positive connection" between himself and Aguinaldo.<ref name=NYTimes1899-08-26>{{Citation
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9F0DE3D61530EE32A25755C2A96E9C94689ED7CF&oref=slogin
|title=Spencer-Pratt and Aguinaldo
|work=The New York Times
|date=August 26, 1899
|accessdate =December 26, 2007
| format=PDF}}</ref> ''The Times'' reports the court ruling to uphold Mr. Pratt's position that he had "no dealings of a political character" with Aguinaldo and the book publisher withdrew from publication statements to the contrary.<ref name=NYTimes1899-08-26 />

In Camiguin, Aguinaldo reports meeting with Admiral Dewey, and recalls: "I asked ''whether it was true that he had sent all the telegrams to the Consul at Singapore, Mr. Pratt, which that gentleman had told me he received in regard to myself. The Admiral replied in the affirmative, adding that the United States had come to the Philippines to protect the natives and free them from the yoke of Spain. He said, moreover, that America is exceedingly well off as regards territory, revenue, and resources and therefore needs no colonies, assuring me finally that there was no occasion for me to entertain any doubts whatever about the recognition of the Independence of the Philippines by the United States.''"<ref name=Aguinaldo1899ch3 /> By late May Dewey had been ordered by the U.S. [[Department of the Navy]] to distance himself from Aguinaldo lest he make untoward commitments to the Philippine forces.<ref name=LOC-outbreak />


[[Image:Philippine-American War.png|thumb|right|160px|1899 political cartoon by [[Winsor McCay]]. Uncle Sam (representing the United States), gets entangled with rope around a tree labelled "Imperialism" while trying to subdue a bucking colt or mule labeled "Philippines" while a figure representing Spain walks off over the horizon carrying a bag labeled "$20,000,000".]]
In a matter of months after Aguinaldo's return, Filipino revolutionary forces conquered nearly all of Spanish-held ground within the Philippines. With the exception of Manila, which was completely surrounded by revolutionary forces some 12,000 strong, the Filipinos now controlled the Philippines. Aguinaldo also turned over 15,000 Spanish prisoners to the Americans, offering them valuable intelligence. On June 12 Aguinaldo declared [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|independence]] at his house in Cavite El Viejo.

On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a peace protocol had been signed between Spain and the United States on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html |title=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War |publisher=U.S. Library of Congress |accessdate=October 10, 2007}}</ref> Governor-General Fermin Jaudenes had made a secret agreement with Dewey and General [[Wesley Merritt]]. Jaudenes specifically requested to surrender only to the Americans, not to the Filipino rebels. To save face, he proposed a mock battle with the Americans preceding the Spanish surrender; the Filipinos would not be allowed to enter the city. Dewey and Merritt agreed to this, and no one else in either camp knew about the agreement. On the eve of the mock battle, General [[Thomas M. Anderson]] telegraphed Aguinaldo, “Do not let your troops enter Manila without the permission of the American commander. On this side of the Pasig River you will be under fire”.<ref name=agoncillo1990p196>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=196}}</ref>

At the beginning of the war allies against Spain in all but name; now Spanish and Americans were in a partnership that excluded the Filipino insurgents. Fighting between American and Filipino troops almost broke out as the former moved in to dislodge the latter from strategic positions around Manila on the eve of the attack. Aguinaldo had been told bluntly by the Americans that his army could not participate and would be fired upon if it crossed into the city. The insurgents were infuriated at being denied triumphant entry into their own capital, but Aguinaldo bided his time. Relations continued to deteriorate, however, as it became clear to Filipinos that the Americans were in the islands to stay.<ref name=LOC-outbreak>{{Citation
|editor-last=Dolan
|editor-first=Ronald E.
|url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html
|title=Philippines: A Country Study
|location=Washington
|publisher=Library of Congress
|year=1991
|chapter-url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ph0023)
|chapter=Historical Setting—Outbreak of War, 1898
|last=Seekins 
|first=Donald M.
|accessdate=December 25, 2007}}</ref>

The June 12 declaration of Philippine independence had not been recognized by either the United States or Spain, and the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|1898 Treaty of Paris]], which was signed on December 10, 1898, in consideration for an indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets lost.

On January 1, 1899 Aguinaldo was declared [[President of the Philippines]]—the only president of what would be later called the [[First Philippine Republic]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jaycox|2005|p=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=6yLQ2NsC9wIC&pg=PA130 130]}}.</ref> He later organized a Congress at [[Malolos]], [[Bulacan]] to draft a [[Constitution of the Philippines|constitution]].<ref name=agoncillo1990pp199-212>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=199–212}}</ref>

Admiral Dewey later argued that he had promised nothing regarding the future:
{{quote|"From my observation of Aguinaldo and his advisers I decided that it would be unwise to co-operate with him or his adherents in an official manner… In short, my policy was to avoid any entangling alliance with the insurgents, while I appreciated that, pending the arrival of our troops, they might be of service."<ref name="brands" />}}

==War against the United States==
=== Conflict origins ===
[[Image:Filipino soldiers outside Manila 1899.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Filipino soldiers outside Manila in 1899.]]

Filipino historian [[Teodoro Agoncillo]] writes of "American Apostasy", saying that it was the Americans who first approached Aguinaldo in Hong Kong and Singapore to persuade him to cooperate with Dewey in wresting power from the Spanish. Conceding that Dewey may not have promised Aguinaldo American recognition and Philippine independence (Dewey had no authority to make such promises), he writes that Dewey and Aguinaldo had an informal alliance to fight a common enemy, that Dewey breached that alliance by making secret arrangements for a Spanish surrender to American forces, and that he treated Aguinaldo badly after the surrender was secured. Agoncillo concludes that the American attitude towards Aguinaldo "... showed that they came to the Philippines not as a friend, but as an enemy masking as a friend."<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=213–214}}.</ref>

[[File:Americans guarding Pasig River bridge, 1898.jpg|left|thumb|240px|American soldiers guard a bridge ca. 1898.]]
On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a [[Benevolent assimilation|Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation]]. General Otis delayed its publication until January 4, 1899, then publishing an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms "sovereignty", "protection", and "right of cessation" which were present in the unabridged version.<ref>The text of the amended version published by General Otis is quoted in its entirety in {{Citation|author1=José Roca de Togores y Saravia|author2=Remigio Garcia|author3=National Historical Institute (Philippines)|title=Blockade and siege of Manila|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lhZ3AAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=National Historical Institute|isbn=978-971-538-167-3|pages=148–150}} 
See also [[Wikisource:Letter from E.S. Otis to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands, January 4, 1899]].</ref> However, General Marcus Miller, then in Iloilo and unaware that an altered version had been published by Otis, passed a copy of the unabridged proclamation to a Filipino official there. The unaltered version then found its way to Aguinaldo who, on January 5, issued a counter-proclamation:<ref name=Agoncillo1990pp214-215>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=214–215}}.</ref> "My government cannot remain indifferent in view of such a violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by a nation which arrogated to itself the title of champion of oppressed nations. Thus it is that my government is disposed to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the Visayan islands. I denounce these acts before the world, in order that the conscience of mankind may pronounce its infallible verdict as to who are true oppressors of nations and the tormentors of mankind.<ref name=Agoncillo1990p215>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=215}}.</ref>" In a revised proclamation issued the same day, Aguinaldo protested "most solemnly against his intrusion of the United States Government on the sovereignty of these islands.<ref name=Agoncillo1990p216>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=216}}.</ref>"

Otis regarded these two proclamations as tantamount to war, alerting his troops and strengthening observation posts. On the other hand, Aguinaldo's proclamations energized the masses with a vigorous determination to fight what was perceived as an ally turned enemy.<ref name=Agoncillo1990p216 /> On the evening of February 4, two American sentries, one of which was Pvt. Robert William Greyson, on guard duty at Manila's San Juan del Monte bridge fired the shots which began the [[Battle of Manila (1899)|1899 Battle of Manila]]. The following day, General Arthur MacArthur, without investigating the cause of the firing, ordered his troops to advance against Filipino troops, beginning a full-scale armed clash.<ref name=Agoncillo1990p217>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=217}}.</ref>

===First Philippine Commission===
{{Main|Schurman Commission}}
[[Image:Wounded American soldiers at Santa Mesa.jpg|thumb|190px|Wounded American soldiers at [[Santa Mesa, Manila]] in 1899.]]
On January 20, 1899, President McKinley had appointed Dr. [[Jacob Gould Schurman]] to chair a commission, with [[Dean C. Worcester]], [[Charles Harvey Denby|Charles H. Denby]], Admiral Dewey, and General Otis as members, to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations. Fighting had erupted between U.S. and Filipino forces in February, and the non-military commission members found General Otis looking on the commission as an infringement upon his authority when they arrived in March.<ref>{{Citation|last=Bernstein|first=David|title=The Philippine Story|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bEmpifMnO6EC|date=March 2007|publisher=READ BOOKS|isbn=9781406744644|pages=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=bEmpifMnO6EC&pg=PA82 82–83]}}</ref><ref name=miller1982p132>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=132}}</ref><ref name=LoC>{{Cite web
|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm
|title=Philippines: United States Rule
|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress
|accessdate=July 4, 2007}}</ref><ref name=worcester1914p180 />

In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it. Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian control over Manila (Otis would have veto power over the city’s government), creation of civilian government as rapidly as possible, especially in areas already declared “pacified” (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including the establishment of a [[bicameral]] legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools.<ref name=miller1982p132 />

On November 2, 1900 Dr. Schurman signed the following statement:

{{quote|"Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, self-governing, and united Philippine commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the Filipino point of view of maintaining American sovereignty over the archipelago is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even by those insurgents who desire an American protectorate. The latter, it is true, would take the revenues and leave us the responsibilities. Nevertheless, they recognize the indubitable fact that the Filipinos cannot stand alone. Thus the welfare of the Filipinos coincides with the dictates of national honour in forbidding our abandonment of the archipelago. We cannot from any point of view escape the responsibilities of government which our sovereignty entails; and the commission is strongly persuaded that the performance of our national duty will prove the greatest blessing to the peoples of the Philippine Islands. [...]"<ref>{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=0K5Tn28PcrcC&pg=PA309 309]|Ref=worcester1914ch18}}, citing Report Philippine Commission, Vol. I, p. 183.</ref>}}

===Second Philippine Commission===
The Second Philippine Commission (the [[Taft Commission]]), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by [[William Howard Taft]], was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. Between September 1900 and August 1902 it issued 499 laws. A [[Judiciary|judicial system]] was established, including a [[Supreme court|Supreme Court]], and a [[legal code]] was drawn up to replace antiquated Spanish ordinances. A civil service was organized. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on [[township|municipal]] boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected [[province|provincial]] governors.<ref name=LoC/><ref name="organicactof1902">{{Citation
|url=http://www.chanrobles.com/philippinebillof1902.htm
|title=An Act Temporarily to provide for the administration of the affairs of civil government in the Philippine Islands, and for other purposes. (Philippine Bill of 1902)
|publisher=Chan Robles law library
|accessdate=July 31, 2010}}</ref>

===American War Strategy===
==== American Tactics ====
The American military strategy in the Philippines shifted from a conventional footing against Spain to a suppression footing against the insurrection. Tactics were changed toward control of key areas and segregation of the civilian population from the guerrilla population. The use of concentration camps or "zones of protection" theoretically prevented an undue loss of civilian life that would have occurred had the US Army engaged in total war on the Filipino population. However, due to unsanitary conditions, many of the interned died from dysentery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lone|2007|pp=58}}</ref>

Support for American actions in the Philippines was justified by those in the U.S. government and media who supported the conflict through the use of moralistic oration. Stuart Creighton Miller writes "Americans altruistically went to war with Spain to liberate the Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and Filipinos from their tyrannical yoke. If they lingered on too long in the Philippines, it was to protect the Filipinos from European predators waiting in the wings for an American withdrawal and to tutor them in American-style democracy."<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p={{Page needed|date=September 2010}}}}.</ref>

====General Otis's Actions====
General Otis gained a significant amount of notoriety for his actions in the Philippines. Although multiple orders were given to Otis from Washington to avoid military conflict, he did very little to circumvent the breakout of war. Notably, shortly after fighting began he turned down a proposal from Emilio Aguinaldo to end the fighting, stating “fighting, having begun, must go on to the grim end.” Otis refused to accept anything but unconditional surrender from the Philippine Army. He often made major military decisions on his own, without first consulting leadership in Washington at all. He acted aggressively in dealing with the Filipinos under the impression that their resistance would collapse quickly; even after this proved false, he continued to insist that the insurgency had been defeated, and that the remaining casualties were caused by “isolated bands of outlaws”.<ref name=miller1982pp63-66>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|pp=63–66}}.</ref>

Otis also played a large role in suppressing information about American military tactics from the media. When letters describing American atrocities reached the American media, the War Department became involved and demanded that General Otis investigate their authenticity. Each press clipping was forwarded to the original writer’s commanding officer, who would then convince or force the soldier to write a retraction of the original statements.<ref name=miller1982p89 />

Meanwhile, Otis claimed that Filipino insurgents tortured American prisoners in “fiendish fashion”.<ref name="Miller 1982 92–93">{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|pp=92–93}}</ref> During the closing months of 1899 Emilio Aguinaldo attempted to counter General Otis’s account by suggesting that neutral parties—foreign journalists or representatives of the [[International Red Cross]]—inspect his military operations. Otis refused, but Emilio Aguinaldo managed to smuggle four reporters—two English, one Canadian, and one Japanese—into the Philippines. The correspondents returned to Manila to report that American captives were “treated more like guests than prisoners,” were “fed the best that the country affords, and everything is done to gain their favor.” The story went on to say that American prisoners were offered commissions in the Filipino army and that three had accepted. The four reporters were expelled from the Philippines as soon as their stories were printed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=93}}</ref><ref>Public Opinion volume 27 (1899), p. 291</ref><ref>[[San Francisco Call]] February 14, 21, 23, March 30, 31, May 29, June 9, July 17, 1899.</ref>

Naval Lieutenant J.C. Gilmore, whose release was forced by American cavalry pursuing Aguinaldo into the mountains, insisted that he had received “considerable treatment” and that he was no more starved than were his captors. Otis responded to these two articles by ordering the “capture” of the two authors, and that they be “investigated”, therefore questioning their loyalty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=93}}</ref><ref>[[Literary Digest]] Volume 18 (1899), p. 499</ref>

When F.A. Blake of the International Red Cross arrived at Emilio Aguinaldo’s request, Otis kept him confined to Manila, where Otis’s staff explained all of the Filipinos' violations of civilized warfare. Blake managed to slip away from an escort and venture into the field. Blake never made it past American lines, but even within American lines he saw burned out villages and “horribly mutilated bodies, with stomachs slit open and occasionally decapitated.” Blake waited to return to San Francisco, where he told one reporter that “American soldiers are determined to kill every Filipino in sight.”<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=94}};</ref><ref>[[Boston Globe]] June 27, 1900</ref><ref>[[Literary Digest]] Volume 20 (1900), p. 25;</ref><ref>[[San Francisco Call]] December 8, 1899, February 16, 1900</ref>

=== Philippine war strategy ===
[[Image:Harpersweeklyapr241899.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Manila]]—Filipino attack on the barracks of Co. C, 13th Minnesota Volunteers, during the Tondo Fire.]]
Estimates of the Filipino forces vary between 100,000 to 1,000,000, with tens of thousands of auxiliaries.<ref name="Deady2005p55">{{Harvnb|Deady|2005|p=55}}</ref> Lack of weapons and ammunition was a significant impediment to the Filipinos, so most of the forces were only armed with [[bolo knife]], bows and arrows, and spears.

The goal, or end-state, sought by the First Philippine Republic was a sovereign, independent, socially stable Philippines led by the ''ilustrado'' ([[intellectual]]) [[oligarchy]].<ref name=Deady2005p57>{{Harvnb|Deady|2005|p=57}}</ref> Local chieftains, landowners, and businessmen were the ''[[principalia|principales]]'' who controlled local politics. The war was strongest when ''illustrados'', ''principales'', and peasants were unified in opposition to [[annexation]].<ref name=Deady2005p57 /> The peasants, who provided the bulk of guerrilla manpower, had interests different from their ''illustrado'' leaders and the ''principales'' of their villages.<ref name=Deady2005p57 /> Coupled with the ethnic and geographic fragmentation, unity was a daunting task. The challenge for Aguinaldo and his generals was to sustain unified Filipino public opposition; this was the revolutionaries' strategic [[Center of gravity (military)|center of gravity]].<ref name=Deady2005p57 />

The Filipino operational center of gravity was the ability to sustain its force of 100,000 irregulars in the field.<ref name=Deady2005p58>{{Harvnb|Deady|2005|p=58}}</ref> The Filipino general [[Francisco Macabulos]] described the Filipinos' war aim as, “not to vanquish the U.S. Army but to inflict on them constant losses.” They sought to initially use conventional tactics and an increasing toll of U.S. casualties to contribute to McKinley's defeat in the 1900 presidential election.<ref name=Deady2005p58 /> Their hope was that as President the avowedly anti-[[imperialism|imperialist]] [[William Jennings Bryan]] would withdraw from the Philippines.<ref name=Deady2005p58 /> They pursued this short-term goal with [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla tactics]] better suited to a protracted struggle.<ref name=Deady2005p58 /> While targeting McKinley motivated the revolutionaries in the short term, his victory demoralized them and convinced many undecided Filipinos that the United States would not depart precipitately.<ref name=Deady2005p58 />

===Guerrilla war phase===
For most of 1899, the revolutionary leadership had viewed [[guerrilla warfare]] strategically only as a tactical option of final recourse, not as a means of operation which better suited their disadvantaged situation. On November 13, 1900, Emilio Aguinaldo decreed that guerrilla war would henceforth be the strategy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linn|2000|pp=186–187, 362 (notes 5 and 6)}}.</ref> This made American occupation of the Philippine [[archipelago]] all the more difficult over the next few years. In fact, during just the first four months of the guerrilla war, the Americans had nearly 500 casualties.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sexton|2008|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=vCTmJeh1OHwC&pg=PA237 237]}}</ref> The Philippine Army began staging bloody ambushes and raids, such as the guerrilla victories at [[Battle of Paye|Paye]], [[Siege of Catubig|Catubig]], [[Battle of Makahambus|Makahambus]], [[Battle of Pulang Lupa|Pulang Lupa]], [[Balangiga Massacre|Balangiga]] and [[Battle of Mabitac|Mabitac]]. At first, it even seemed as if the Filipinos would fight the Americans to a stalemate and force them to withdraw. This was even considered by President McKinley at the beginning of the phase.

The shift to guerrilla warfare drove the US Army to a "total-war" doctrine. Civilians were given identification and forced into [[Internment_camps#Concentration_camps|concentration camps]] with a publicly announced deadline after which all persons found outside of camps without identification would be shot on sight. Thousands of civilians died in these camps due to poor conditions. However this brought the war to a quick end.<ref>Philip A.(2004)COLONIALISM IN DENIAL: US PROPAGANDA IN THE PHILIPPINE— AMERICAN WAR. Social Alternatives Vol. 23 No.3, Third quarter, 2004</ref>

===Decline and fall of the First Philippine Republic===
[[Image:Filipinoinsurgentssurrender.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A group of Filipino combatants are photographed just as they lay down their weapons prior to their surrender.]]
The Philippine Army continued suffering defeats from the better armed United States Army during the conventional warfare phase, forcing Aguinaldo to continually change his base of operations, which he did for nearly the length of the entire war.

On March 23, 1901 General [[Frederick Funston]] and his troops captured Aguinaldo in [[Palanan, Isabela]], with the help of some Filipinos (called the [[Philippine Scouts|Macabebe Scouts]] after their home locale<ref>{{Citation|last=Birtle|first=Andrew J.|title=U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine 1860–1941|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fW_aeCJJ9J0C|publisher=Government Printing Office|year=1998|pages=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=fW_aeCJJ9J0C&pg=PA116 116–118]|id=GGKEY:L7YTZRK1ESC|isbn=9780160613241}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Keenan|first=Jerry |title=Encyclopedia of the Spanish–American & Philippine–American wars|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JMRwK4ng_zYC|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576070932|pages=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=JMRwK4ng_zYC&pg=PA211 211–212]}}</ref>) who had joined the Americans' side. The Americans pretended to be captives of the Scouts, who were dressed in Philippine Army uniforms. Once Funston and his "captors" entered Aguinaldo's camp, they immediately fell upon the guards and quickly overwhelmed them and the weary Aguinaldo.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linn|2000|p=175}}.</ref>

On April 1, 1901, at the [[Malacañang Palace]] in Manila, Aguinaldo swore an oath accepting the authority of the United States over the Philippines and pledging his allegiance to the American government. On April 19, he issued a Proclamation of Formal Surrender to the United States, telling his followers to lay down their weapons and give up the fight. “Let the stream of blood cease to flow; let there be an end to tears and desolation,” Aguinaldo said. “The lesson which the war holds out and the significance of which I realized only recently, leads me to the firm conviction that the complete termination of hostilities and a lasting peace are not only desirable but also absolutely essential for the well-being of the Philippines.”<ref name=aguinaldo1901>{{Citation
|url=http://filipino.biz.ph/history/ag010419.html
|title=Aguinaldo's Proclamation of Formal Surrender to the United States
|date=April 19, 1901
|publisher=y Filipino.biz.ph – Philippine Culture
|accessdate=December 5, 2009
}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Brands|1992|p=59}}</ref>

The capture of Aguinaldo dealt a severe blow to the Filipino cause, but not as much as the Americans had hoped. General [[Miguel Malvar]] took over the leadership of the Filipino government, or what remained of it.<ref>Cruz, Maricel V. [http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20081211205431/http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2008/jan/02/yehey/top_stories/20080102top6.html "Lawmaker: History wrong on Gen. Malvar."] ''[[Manila Times]]'', January 2, 2008 (archived from [http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2008/jan/02/yehey/top_stories/20080102top6.html the original] on December 11, 2008)</ref> He originally had taken a defensive stance against the Americans, but now launched all-out offensive against the American-held towns in the [[Batangas]] region.<ref name = agoncillo1990pp247-297>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=247–297}}</ref> General [[Vincente Lukban]] in Samar, and other army officers, continued the war in their respective areas.<ref name = agoncillo1990pp247-297 />

In response General [[J. Franklin Bell]] adopted tactics to counter Malvar's guerrilla strategy. Forcing civilians to live in concentration camps, Use of [[Water cure_(torture)|water cure]] interrogation, and his [[scorched earth]] campaigns took a heavy toll on the Filipino revolutionaries.<ref name=ScorchedEarth>{{Harvnb|Schirmer|Shalom|1987|pp=[http://books.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC&pg=PA18 18], [http://books.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC&pg=PA40-41]}}</ref>
[[File:24th Infantry.jpg|thumb|The [[24th Infantry Regiment (United States)|24th U.S. Infantry]] at drill, Camp Walker, Philippine Islands 1902]]
Bell also relentlessly pursued Malvar and his men, breaking ranks, dropping morale, and forcing the surrender of many of the Filipino soldiers. Finally, Malvar surrendered, along with his sick wife and children and some of his officers, on April 13, 1902. By the end of the month nearly 3,000 of Malvar's men had also surrendered. With the surrender of Malvar, the Filipino war effort began to dwindle even further.<ref>{{harvnb|Tucker|2009|pp=[http://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA477 477–478]}}.</ref>

===Official end to the war===
The [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]], approved on July 1, 1902, ratified McKinley's previous executive order which established the Philippine Commission, and stipulated that a legislature would be established composed of a popularly elected lower house, the [[Philippine Assembly]], and an upper house consisting of the Philippine Commission. The act also provided for extending the United States Bill of Rights to Filipinos.<ref name=LoC/><ref name="organicactof1902" />

On July 2. the U.S. Secretary of War telegraphed that since the insurrection against the U.S. had ended and provincial civil governments had been established, the office of military governor was terminated. On July 4, [[Theodore Roosevelt]], who had succeeded to the U.S. Presidency after [[William McKinley assassination|the assassination of President McKinley]] on September 5, 1901, proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all people in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict.<ref name=worcester1914p180 /><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D0DE2D81330E733A25757C0A9619C946397D6CF
|title=GENERAL AMNESTY FOR THE FILIPINOS; Proclamation Issued by the President
|date=July 4, 1902
|accessdate=February 5, 2008
| format=PDF
| work=The New York Times}}</ref>

===Irreconcilables===
Historian Constantino has suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a decade since remnants of the [[Katipunan]] and other resistance groups, collectively known as ''Irreconcilables'', remained active fighting the [[United States Military]] or [[Philippine Constabulary]].<ref name="Past" /> After the close of the war, however, Governor General Taft preferred to rely on the Philippine Constabulary and to treat the Irreconcibiles as a law enforcement concern rather than a military concern requiring the involvement of the American army. He was, in fact, criticized for this.<ref name=worcester1914ch14p240>{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=240 240]|Ref=worcester1914ch14}} Ch.14</ref>

On September 25, 1903 in Bicol, Simeon Ola of [[Guinobatan, Albay]] surrenderred in place of Malvar, becoming arguably the last Filipino general to surrender.<ref>Dy-Liacco, Leonor R. (1996). ''Sarung Dolot sa Satuyang Ina.'' J & R Printing Co. Inc.</ref>

In 1902 [[Macario Sakay]] a veteran ''Katipunan'' member formed another [[Tagalog Republic]], called ''Katagalugan'' after Bonifacio's, in southern [[Luzon]]. The republic ended in 1906 when Sakay and his top followers were arrested and executed the following year by the American authorities as bandits, after they had accepted an amnesty offer.<ref name="Past" /><ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.bibingka.com/phg/sakay/default.htm
|last= Froles
|first= Paul
|title= Macario Sakay: Tulisán or Patriot?
|publisher=Philippine History Group of Los Angeles}}</ref><ref>For accounts of Sakay's surrender, imprisonment, and execution, see 
*{{Citation|author=Reynaldo Clemeña Ileto|title=Pasyon and revolution: popular movements in the Philippines, 1840–1910|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UuMthgJ1KH4C|year=1997|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|isbn=9789715502320|pages=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=UuMthgJ1KH4C&pg=PA193 193–197]}}
* Arnaldo Dumindin, [http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/thelastholdouts.htm Philippine–American War, 1899–1902], [http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com philippineamericanwar.webs.com].</ref>

===Pulajanes===
[[File:Major Cornelius C. Smith 1904.jpg|thumb|Captain [[Cornelius C. Smith]], a [[Medal of Honor]] recipient, with members of the [[14th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|14th U.S. Cavalry]] in 1904.]]
Quasi-religious armed groups also fought Americans in assorted provinces. These groups included the ''[[pulajan]]es'', so called because of their red garments; the ''colorum,'' from a corruption of the Latin ''in saecula saeculorum'' part of the [[Glory Be to the Father]] prayer; and ''Dios-Dios,'' literally "God-God". They were mostly composed of farmers and other poor people, led by messianic leaders such as Dionisio Seguela, a.k.a. [[Papa Isio]] ("Isio the Pope"), and subscribed to a blend of Roman Catholic and folk belief. For example, they believed [[amulet]]s, called ''agimat'' or ''anting-anting'', would make them bulletproof. These movements were all dismissed by the American government as bandits, fanatics or cattle rustlers.<ref name="Past" /> The last of these groups were defeated or had surrendered by 1913.<ref name="Past" />

===Moro Rebellion===
{{main|Moro Rebellion}}
The American government had a peace treaty with the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] at the outbreak of the war with Aguinaldo that was supposed to prevent war in [[Bangsamoro|Moro territory]]. However, after the resistance in the north was crippled, the United States began to colonize [[Moro people|Moro]] land, which provoked the [[Moro Rebellion]]. Beginning with the [[Battle of Taraca|Taraca]], which occurred on April 4, 1904, American forces battled Datu Ampuanagus, who surrendered after losing 200 members of his people.<ref name="Past" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Mindinao, Sulu, and ARMM | url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/hero/armm/page3.html |publisher=msc.edu | accessdate =April 27, 2008}}</ref> Numerous battles would occur after that up until the end of the conflict on June 15, 1913. During the conflict, the battles of [[First battle of Bud Dajo|Bud Dajo]] and [[Battle of Bud Bagsak|Bud Bagsak]] were among the most notable since casualties included women and children.<ref name = agoncillo1990pp247-297 />

==Political atmosphere==
===American opposition===

Some Americans, notably [[William Jennings Bryan]], [[Mark Twain]], [[Andrew Carnegie]], [[Ernest Crosby]], and other members of the [[American Anti-Imperialist League]], strongly objected to the annexation of the Philippines. Anti-imperialist movements claimed that the United States had become a colonial power, by replacing Spain as the colonial power in the Philippines. Other anti-imperialists opposed annexation on [[racism|racist]] grounds. Among these was Senator [[Benjamin Tillman]] of [[South Carolina]], who feared that annexation of the Philippines would lead to an influx of non-white immigrants into the United States. As news of atrocities committed in subduing the Philippines arrived in the United States, support for the war flagged.

Mark Twain famously opposed the war by using his influence in the press. He said the war betrayed the ideals of American democracy by not allowing the Filipino people to choose their own destiny.

{{quote |“There is the case of the Philippines. I have tried hard, and yet I cannot for the life of me comprehend how we got into that mess. Perhaps we could not have avoided it—perhaps it was inevitable that we should come to be fighting the natives of those islands—but I cannot understand it, and have never been able to get at the bottom of the origin of our antagonism to the natives. I thought we should act as their protector—not try to get them under our heel. We were to relieve them from Spanish tyranny to enable them to set up a government of their own, and we were to stand by and see that it got a fair trial. It was not to be a government according to our ideas, but a government that represented the feeling of the majority of the Filipinos, a government according to Filipino ideas. That would have been a worthy mission for the United States. But now—why, we have got into a mess, a quagmire from which each fresh step renders the difficulty of extrication immensely greater. I'm sure I wish I could see what we were getting out of it, and all it means to us as a nation.”<ref>{{citation |author=Twain, Mark |title= Mark Twain, The Greatest American Humorist, Returning Home |journal=New York World| date=October 6, 1900 |url=http://shs.westport.k12.ct.us/conetta/US+History+Docs/mark_twain+anti-imperialism.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061010154645/http://shs.westport.k12.ct.us/conetta/US+History+Docs/mark_twain+anti-imperialism.htm |archivedate=October 10, 2006}}.</ref>}}

In a diary passage removed by Twain's first biographical editor Thomas Bigelow Paine, Twain refers to American troops as “our uniformed assassins” and describes their killing of “six hundred helpless and weaponless savages” in the Philippines as “a long and happy picnic with nothing to do but sit in comfort and fire the Golden Rule into those people down there and imagine letters to write home to the admiring families, and pile glory upon glory.”<ref>{{citation |author=Rohter, Larry |title=Dead for a Century, Twain Says What He Meant |journal=NY Times, July 9, 2010 |date=July 9, 2010 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/10/books/10twain.html?_r=3&pagewanted=1&src=twr}}.</ref>

Some later historians, such as [[Howard Zinn]] and Daniel Boone Schirmer, cite the Philippine–American War as an example of [[American imperialism#US foreign interventions|American imperialism]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Zinn|1999}}; {{Harvnb|Schirmer|1972}}</ref>

===Filipino collaboration===
Some of Aguinaldo's associates supported America, even before hostilities began. [[Pedro Paterno]], Aguinaldo's prime minister and the author of the 1897 armistice treaty with Spain, advocated the incorporation of the Philippines into the United States in 1898. Other associates sympathetic to the U.S. were Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Benito Legarda, prominent members of Congress; Gregorio Araneta, Aguinaldo's Secretary of Justice; and Felipe Buencamino, Aguinaldo's Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Buencamino is recorded to have said in 1902: "I am an American and all the money in the Philippines, the air, the light, and the sun I consider American." Many such people subsequently held posts in the colonial government.<ref name= "Past" />

U.S. Army Captain [[Matthew Arlington Batson]] formed the [[Macabebe Scouts]]<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9406E6DF173FE433A25754C1A9619C946197D6CF&scp=2&sq=Macabebe&st=p NEW FILIPINO HORSE.; Four Troops of Macabebes to be Formed with Americans as Officers], NY Times, July 17, 1900.</ref> as a native guerrilla force to fight the insurgency.

==Atrocities==
===American atrocities===
[[Image:Phillipines.gif|right|thumb|220px|Enraged by a guerrilla massacre of U.S. troops on the Island of [[Samar]], General [[Jacob H. Smith]] retaliated by carrying out an indiscriminate attack upon its inhabitants.<ref name="Britannica_Smith">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/549768/Jacob-F-Smith "Jacob F. Smith."](2010). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved September 30, 2010.</ref> His order "''KILL EVERY ONE OVER TEN''" became a caption in the ''[[New York Journal]]'' cartoon on May 5, 1902. The [[Old Glory]] draped an [[Great Seal of the United States|American shield]] on which a [[vulture]] replaced the [[bald eagle]]. The bottom caption exclaimed, "Criminals Because They Were Born Ten Years Before We Took the Philippines". Published in the ''[[New York Journal-American]]'', May 5, 1902. Smith was eventually court-martialed by the American military and forced to retire.<ref name="Britannica_Smith"/>]]
The number of Filipino casualties was at the time, and still is, intensely debated and politicized.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} It is estimated that some 34,000 Filipino soldiers lost their lives and that as many as 200,000 civilians may have died directly or indirectly as a result of the war, most due to a major [[cholera]] epidemic that broke out near its end.<ref>[http://www3.wooster.edu/History/jgates/book-ch3.html John M. Gates, Ch. 3, "The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare"]</ref>

In 1908 [[Manuel Arellano Remondo]], in ''General Geography of the Philippine Islands'', wrote:
“The population decreased due to the wars, in the five-year period from 1895 to 1900, since, at the start of the first insurrection, the population was estimated at 9,000,000, and at present (1908), the inhabitants of the Archipelago do not exceed 8,000,000 in number.”<ref>{{Harvnb|Boot|2003|p=125}}</ref> In light of the massive casualties suffered by the civilian population, Filipino historian [[E. San Juan, Jr.]], alleges that the death of 1.4 million Filipinos constitutes an act of genocide on the part of the United States.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.selvesandothers.org/article9315.html
|archiveurl=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090622095234/http://www.selvesandothers.org/article9315.html
|archivedate=June 22, 2009
|title=U.S. Genocide in the Philippines: A Case of Guilt, Shame, or Amnesia?
|author=[[E. San Juan, Jr.]]
|date=March 22, 2005
|accessdate=October 3, 2007}}
</ref>

Atrocities were committed on both sides.<ref>"[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ph0025) Philippines – War of Resistance]". [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].</ref> United States attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns<ref name=ScorchedEarth /> in which entire villages were burned and destroyed, the use of torture (''[[water cure (torture)|water cure]]''<ref>[[wikisource:Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare|Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare]], Wikisource (multiple mentions)</ref>) and the concentration of civilians into "protected zones".<ref>[[wikisource:Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare#The Orders of Bell and Smith|Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare#The Orders of Bell and Smith]], Wikisource.</ref> In November 1901, the Manila correspondent of the ''Philadelphia Ledger'' reported:"The present war is no bloodless, opera bouffe engagement; our men have been relentless, have killed to exterminate men, women, children, prisoners and captives, active insurgents and suspected people from lads of ten up, the idea prevailing that the Filipino as such was little better than a dog...."<ref>quoted in ''[[A People's History of the United States]]'' (1980), [[Howard Zinn]], Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-014803-9</ref>

====American soldiers' letters and response====
Throughout the entire war American soldiers would write home about the horrors and atrocities which the United States committed in the Philippines. In these letters they would criticize General Otis and the U.S. military; when these letters reached anti-imperialist editors they became national news and forced the War Department to look into their truthfulness. Two of the letters went as follows:
#A New York-born soldier: “The town of Titatia [sic] was surrendered to us a few days ago, and two companies occupy the same. Last night one of our boys was found shot and his stomach cut open. Immediately orders were received from General Wheaton to burn the town and kill every native in sight; which was done to a finish. About 1,000 men, women and children were reported killed. I am probably growing hard-hearted, for I am in my glory when I can sight my gun on some dark skin and pull the trigger (Benevolent Assimilation, p. 88).”<ref name="miller1982p88">{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=88}}.</ref>
#Corporal Sam Gillis: “We make everyone get into his house by seven p.m., and we only tell a man once. If he refuses we shoot him. We killed over 300 natives the first night. They tried to set the town on fire. If they fire a shot from the house we burn the house down and every house near it, and shoot the natives, so they are pretty quiet in town now.”<ref name=miller1982p88 />

However, General Otis’s investigation of the content of these letters consisted of sending a copy of them to the author’s superior and having him force the soldier/author to write a retraction. Then, when a soldier refused to do so, as Private Charles Brenner of the Kansas regiment did, he was, remarkably, court-martialed. In the case of Private Brenner, the charge was “for writing and conniving at the publication of an article which…contains willful [sic] falsehoods concerning himself and a false charge against Captain Bishop.”<ref name=miller1982p89>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=89}}.</ref> This is not to say that all American soldiers’ letters home explained the atrocities committed by the U.S. so as to bring about the American public’s and General Otis’s displeasure. Many portrayed U.S. actions as the result of Filipino “insurgent” provocation and thus entirely justified. One such letter home was written by Private Hermann Dittner and was titled “the trouble with the nigs”. It went as follows:

:“It then became apparent that a fight was imminent. So on February 3 we posted our sentry at the same old place. The insurgents kicked but without avail. Our colonel was down there and an insurgent called him a s – n – -b – h. Of course this made Stotsenburg mad and he gave orders to arrest the lieutenant as soon as they could catch him.”<ref name=miller1982p60>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=60}}.</ref>

====Concentration camps====
Filipino villagers were forced into concentration camps called reconcentrados which were surrounded by free-fire zones, or in other words “dead zones.” Furthermore, these camps were overcrowded and filled with disease, causing the death rate to be extremely high. Conditions in these “reconcentrados” are generally acknowledged to have been inhumane. Between January and April 1902, 8,350 prisoners of approximately 298,000 died. Some camps incurred death rates as high as 20 percent. "One camp was two miles by one mile (3.2 by 1.6 km) in area and 'home' to some 8,000 Filipinos. Men were rounded up for questioning, tortured, and summarily executed."<ref name=dumindin-holdouts>{{Citation|last=Dumindin |first=Arnaldo |title=Philippine–American War, 1899–1902 |url=http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/ |chapter=The Last Holdouts: General Vicente Lukban falls, Feb. 18, 1902 |chapter-url=http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/thelastholdouts.htm |publisher=self-published |accessdate=June 1, 2010}}</ref>

In Batangas Province, where General Franklin Bell was responsible for setting up a concentration camp, a correspondent described the operation as “relentless.” General Bell ordered that by December 25, 1901, the entire population of both Batangas Province and Laguna Province had to gather into small areas within the “poblacion” of their respective towns. Barrio families had to bring everything they could carry because anything left behind—including houses, gardens, carts, poultry and animals—was to be burned by the U.S. Army. Anyone found outside the concentration camps was shot. General Bell insisted that he had built these camps to "protect friendly natives from the insurgents, assure them an adequate food supply" while teaching them "proper sanitary standards." The commandant of one of the camps referred to them as the "suburbs of Hell."<ref name=dumindin-holdouts />

===Filipino atrocities===
U.S. Army General Otis stated that Filipino insurgents tortured American prisoners in “fiendish fashion”. According to Otis, many were buried alive or were placed up to their necks in anthills. He said others had their genitals removed and stuffed into their mouths and were then executed by suffocation or bleeding to death. It was also reported that Spanish priests were horribly mutilated before their congregations, and natives who refused to support Emilio Aguinaldo were slaughtered by the thousands. American newspaper headlines announced the “Murder and Rapine” by the “Fiendish Filipinos.”<ref name="Miller 1982 92–93"/> [[Joseph Wheeler|General “Fighting Joe” Wheeler]] insisted that it was the Filipinos who had mutilated their own dead, murdered women and children, and burned down villages, solely to discredit American soldiers.<ref name="Miller 1982 92–93"/>

In January 1899, the ''[[New York World]]'' published a story about an American soldier, Private William Lapeer, who had allegedly been deliberately infected with leprosy. The veracity of the story, however, has been questioned, and the opinion expressed that the name Lapeer itself is probably a [[pun]].<ref name="brody">{{cite book|author=David Brody|title =Visualizing American Empire: Orientalism and Imperialism in the Philippines|publisher =University of Chicago Press|year =2010|page=69–71|isbn =9780226075341|url =http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=CVaxuyXEpZoC&lpg=PP1&hl=en&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>

Other events dubbed atrocities included those attributed by the Americans to General Vicente Lukban, allegedly the Filipino commander who masterminded the [[Balangiga massacre]] in [[Samar]] province, a surprise Filipino attack that killed almost fifty American soldiers. Media reports stated that many of the bodies were mutilated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Boot|2003|p=204}}</ref> The attack itself triggered American reprisals in Samar, ordered by General [[Jacob H. Smith|Jacob Hurd Smith]], who reportedly ordered his men to kill everyone over ten years old. To his credit, Major [[Littleton Waller]] countermanded it to his own men.<ref name="Miller 1982 p=220">{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=220}}</ref> Smith was court-martialed for this order and found guilty in 1902, which ended his career in the U.S. Army.<ref name=Couttie>"[http://www.philnews.com/2005/da4.html Bob Couttie]"</ref> Waller was acquitted of killing eleven Filipino guides.<ref>{{Harvnb|Simmons|2003|p=[http://books.google.com/books?id=-3SWUovKGzIC&pg=PA78 78]}}.</ref>

Sergeant Hallock testified in the [[Lodge Committee]] that natives were given the [[water cure (torture)|water cure]], “...in order to secure information of the murder of Private O'Herne of Company I, who had been not only killed, but roasted and otherwise tortured before death ensued.”<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9F07E3D61130E132A25757C0A9639C946397D6CF&oref=slogin
|title=THE WATER CURE DESCRIBED.; Discharged Soldier Tells Senate Committee How and Why the Torture Was Inflicted
|date=May 4, 1902
|work=The New York Times
|page=13
|accessdate=March 29, 2008
| format=PDF}}</ref>

On the Filipino side, information regarding atrocities comes from the eyewitnesses and the participants themselves. In his ''History of the Filipino People'' [[Teodoro Agoncillo]] writes that the Filipino troops could match and even exceed American brutality on some prisoners of war. Kicking, slapping, and spitting at faces were common. In some cases, ears and noses were cut off and salt applied to the wounds. In other cases, captives were buried alive. These atrocities occurred regardless of Aguinaldo's orders and circulars concerning the good treatment of prisoners.<ref name=agoncillo1990pp227-231>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=227–231}}</ref>

Worcester recounts two specific Filipino atrocities as follows:
{{quote|"A detachment, marching through Leyte, found an American who had disappeared a short time before crucified, head down. His abdominal wall had been carefully opened so that his intestines might hang down in his face.

Another American prisoner, found on the same trip, had been buried in the ground with only his head projecting. His mouth had been propped open with a stick, a trail of sugar laid to it through the forest, and a handful thrown into it.

"Millions of ants had done the rest."<ref name=worcester1914ch14p237>{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=237 237]|Ref=worcester1914ch14}} Ch.14</ref>}}

==Consequences==
[[File:CoffinsPhilippine.jpg|thumb|Coffins of fallen Americans in c. 1906.]]

===Cultural impact===
The Roman Catholic Church was disestablished and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed. The land amounted to {{convert|170917|ha|acre}}, for which the Church asked $12,086,438.11 in March 1903.<ref>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|pp=223,224}}.</ref> The purchase was completed on December 22, 1903 at a sale price of $7,239,784.66.<ref>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|p=226}}.</ref> The land redistribution program was stipulated in at least three laws: the [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]],<ref name="organicactof1902" /> the Public Lands Act<ref name=Act926>[http://www.chanrobles.com/acts/actsno926.html Act No. 926], enacted October 7, 1903, ChanRobles law library.</ref> and the Friar Lands Act.<ref>[http://www.chanrobles.com/acts/actsno1120.html Act No. 1120], enacted April 26, 1904.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|p=218}}.</ref> Section 10 of the Public Land Act limited purchases to a maximum of 16 hectares for an individual or 1024 hectares for a corporation or like association.<ref name=Act926 /><ref name=escalante2007p219>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|p=219}}.</ref> Land was also offered for lease to landless farmers, at prices ranging from fifty centavos to one peso and fifty centavos per hectare per annum.<ref name=Act926 /><ref name=escalante2007p219 /> Section 28 of the Public Lands Act stipulated that lease contracts may run for a maximum period of 25 years, renewable for another 25 years.<ref name=Act926 /><ref name=escalante2007p219 />

U.S. President McKinley, in his instructions to the First Philippine Commission in 1898, ordered the use of the Philippine languages as well as English for instructional purposes. The American administrators, finding the local languages to be too numerous and too difficult to learn and to write teaching materials in, ended up with a monolingual system in English with no attention paid to the other Philippine languages except for the token statement concerning the necessity of using them eventually for the system.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/019/0487/jmmd0190487.pdf
|format=PDF|title=The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines
|author=Andrew Gonzalez
|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development
|volume=19
|issue=5&6
|year=1998
|publisher=De La Salle University, via multilingual-matters.net
|page=513
|accessdate=April 9, 2008}}</ref>

In 1901 at least five hundred teachers (365 males and 165 females) arrived from the U.S. aboard the [[USS Thomas (1894)|USS ''Thomas'']]. The name ''[[Thomasites|Thomasite]]'' was adopted for these teachers, who firmly established education as one of America's major contributions to the Philippines. Among the assignments given were [[Albay]], [[Catanduanes]], [[Camarines Norte]], [[Camarines Sur]], [[Sorsogon]], and [[Masbate]]. Twenty-seven of the original Thomasites either died of tropical diseases or were murdered by Filipino rebels during their first 20 months of residence. Despite the hardships, the Thomasites persisted, teaching and building learning institutions that prepared students for their chosen professions or trades. They opened the Philippine Normal School (now [[Philippine Normal University]]) and the Philippine School of Arts and Trades (PSAT) in 1901 and reopened the Philippine Nautical School, established in 1839 by the Board of Commerce of Manila under Spain. By the end of 1904, primary courses were mostly taught by Filipinos under American supervision.<ref>{{Citation
|url=http://www.gov.ph/news/default.asp?i=3748
|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080429124823/http://www.gov.ph/news/default.asp?i=3748
|archivedate=April 29, 2008
|title=Thomasites: An army like no other
|date=October 12, 2003
|publisher=Government of the Philippines
|accessdate=April 9, 2008}}</ref>

===Philippine independence===
On January 20, 1899, [[William McKinley|President McKinley]] appointed the First Philippine Commission (the Schurman Commission), a five-person group headed by [[Jacob Gould Schurman|Dr. Jacob Schurman]], president of [[Cornell University]], to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations. In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it. Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]], autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a new system of free public elementary schools.<ref name=LoCphilippines16>{{Citation|chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm|chapter=United States Rule|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines|editor=Ronald E. Dolan|title=Philippines: A Country Study|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress|year=1991|accessdate=January 5, 2008}}</ref>

The Second Philippine Commission (the [[Taft Commission]]), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by [[William Howard Taft]], was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws. A judicial system was established, including a Supreme Court, and a legal code was drawn up to replace Spanish ordinances. A civil service was organized. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors. In July 1901 the Philippine Constabulary was organized as an archipelago-wide police force to control brigandage and deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement. After military rule was terminated on July 4, 1901, the Philippine Constabulary gradually took over from United States army units the responsibility for suppressing guerrilla and bandit activities.<ref name=LoCphilippines16 />

From the very beginning, United States presidents and their representatives in the islands defined their colonial mission as tutelage: preparing the Philippines for eventual independence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Karnow|1990|pp=227–228}}.</ref><ref name=escalante2007pp48-54>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|pp=48–54}}.</ref> Except for a small group of "retentionists," the issue was not whether the Philippines would be granted self-rule, but when and under what conditions.<ref name=escalante2007pp48-54 /><ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|pp=18–19}}.</ref> Thus political development in the islands was rapid and particularly impressive in light of the complete lack of representative institutions under the Spanish. The [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]] of July 1902 stipulated that, with the achievement of peace, a legislature would be established composed of a lower house, the [[Philippine Assembly]], which would be popularly elected, and an upper house consisting of the Philippine Commission, which was to be appointed by the president of the United States.<ref name=LoCphilippines16 />

The [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Act]], passed by the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] in 1916 to serve as the new [[organic law]] in the Philippines, promised eventual independence and instituted an elected [[Philippine senate]]. The [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] (officially the Philippine Independence Act; Public Law 73-127) approved on March 24, 1934 provided for self-government of the [[Philippines]] and for Filipino independence (from the United States) after a period of ten years. World War II intervened, bringing the [[History of the Philippines#World War II and Japanese occupation|Japanese occupation]] between 1941 and 1945. In 1946, the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)]] between the governments of the U.S. and the Republic of the Philippines provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.

==See also==
* [[Amigo (film)]]
* [[Campaigns of the Philippine Insurrection]]
* [[Benevolent assimilation]]
* [[Filipino American]]
* [[History of the Philippines]]
* [[List of Philippine–American War Medal of Honor recipients]]
* [[Lodge Committee]]
* [[Moro Rebellion]]
* [[Battle of Cagayan de Misamis]], now the City of Cagayan de Oro
* [[Philippine Constabulary]]
* [[Philippine Scouts]]
* [[Timeline of Philippine–American War]]
* [[The White Man's Burden]], written in regard to the U.S. conquest of the Philippines and other former Spanish colonies

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Refbegin}}
*Philip A.(2004) COLONIALISM IN DENIAL: US PROPAGANDA IN THE PHILIPPINE—AMERICAN WAR. Social Alternatives Vol. 23 No.3, Third quarter, 2004. ([http://research.usc.edu.au/vital/access/manager/Repository/usc:173 Abstract] at research.usc.edu.au).
*“Race-Making and Colonial Violence in the U.S. Empire: The Philippine–American War as Race War,” Diplomatic History, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2006), 169–210. ([http://www.japanfocus.org Adapted version] at Japanfocus.org).
{{Refend}}
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/10/books/10twain.html?_r=3&pagewanted=1&src=twr Dead for a Century, Twain Says What He Meant]. The New York Times, July 9, 2010.

==References==
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{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{Citation |last=Delmendo |first=Sharon |publication-date=2004|title=The Star-Entangled Banner: One Hundred Years of America in the Philippines |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=0813534119 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=N6nkB_PDdXcC |year=2004
}}
* Legarda, Benito J. Jr. (2001). ''The Hills of Sampaloc: the Opening Actions of the Philippine–American War, February 4–5, 1899''. Makati: Bookmark. ISBN 9789715694186.
* Silbey, David J. ''A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine–American War, 1899–1902'' (2008)
* Stewart, Richard W. General Editor, Ch. 16, [http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch16.htm Transition, Change, and the Road to war, 1902–1917"], in [http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ "American Military History, Volume I: The United States Army and the Forging of a Nation, 1775–1917"], Center of Military History, United States Army, ISBN 0-16-072362-0.
* Wilcox, Marrion. ''Harper's History of the War''. Harper, New York and London 1900, reprinted 1979. [Alternate title: ''Harper's History of the War in the Philippines'']. Also reprinted in the Philippines by Vera-Reyes.

===Primary sources===
* The "[[Lodge Committee]]" (a.k.a. Philippine Investigating Committee) hearings and a great deal of documentation were published in three volumes (3000 pages) as S. Doc. 331, 57th Cong., 1st Session An abridged version of the oral testimony can be found in: ''American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection: Testimony Taken from Hearings on Affairs in the Philippine Islands before the Senate Committee on the Philippines—1902''; edited by Henry F Graff; Publisher: Little, Brown; 1969. ASIN: B0006BYNI8
* [[Moorfield Storey|Storey, Moorfield]] and [[Julian Codman]] legal counsel for the [[Philippine Investigating Committee]]. (1902). [[s:Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare|Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare – Wikisource]].

==External links==
{{Commons category|Philippine-American War}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/ |title=Philippine–American War, 1899–1902 |author=Arnaldo Dumindin}}
* {{Cite web
| title =Images from the Philippine-United States War
| work =historicaltextarchive.com
| url =http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=479
| accessdate=May 20, 2006
}}
* {{Cite web
| title =The Philippine Centennial Celebration
| work =MSC Computer Training Center.
| url =http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/
| accessdate=May 20, 2006
}}
* [http://www.historyguy.com/PhilipineAmericanwar.html A brief description of the war between the United States and the Philippines, which began in 1899.]
* [http://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/birth-american-empire-lesson-3-matter-philippines The Matter of the Philippines, from Birth of an American Empire], [http://edsitement.neh.gov EDSITEment]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20061015214308/http://de.geocities.com/hispanofilipino/Articles/Estadisticas03.htm El Primer Genocido] (Spanish) (archived from [http://web.archive.org/web/20091027104028/http://de.geocities.com/hispanofilipino/Articles/Estadisticas03.html the original] on 2006-10-15)
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20080213193324/http://pinoynewsmagazine.com/default.asp?sourceid=&smenu=66&twindow=Default&mad=No&sdetail=260&wpage=1&skeyword=&sidate=&ccat=&ccatm=&restate=&restatus=&reoption=&retype=&repmin=&repmax=&rebed=&rebath=&subname=&pform=&sc=1536&hn=pinoynewsmagazine&he=.com "August 13, 1898 and RP’s short-lived republic"] by Mariano "Anong" Santos, Pinoy Newsmagazine, August 2006 (archived from [http://pinoynewsmagazine.com/default.asp?sourceid=&smenu=66&twindow=Default&mad=No&sdetail=260&wpage=1&skeyword=&sidate=&ccat=&ccatm=&restate=&restatus=&reoption=&retype=&repmin=&repmax=&rebed=&rebath=&subname=&pform=&sc=1536&hn=pinoynewsmagazine&he=.com the original] on 2008-02-13)
* [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54a/051.html "Imperial Amnesia"] by John B. Judis, Foreign Policy, July/August 2004
* The [http://www.filipiniana.net/microsite/prr/index.jsp Philippine Revolutionary Records]''' at '''[http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090525184131/http://filipiniana.net/index.jsp Filipiniana.net] (archived from [http://www.filipiniana.net/index.jsp the original] on 2009-05-25).
* [http://www.philaprintshop.com/images/kurzpaceo.jpg "Battle of Paceo", 1899 painting by Kurz and Allison]
* [http://www.philaprintshop.com/images/kurzquinqua.jpg "Battle Of Quingua", 1899 painting by Kurz and Allison]
*[http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/ Images of Philippine–American War] {{dead link|date=March 2011|url=http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/}}
*[http://www.booknotes.org/Watch/7773-1/Stanley+Karnow.aspx ''Booknotes'' interview with Stanley Karnow on ''In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines'', May 28, 1989.]

{{American conflicts}}
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Soviet Air Forces

2012-01-08T21:39:48Z

Muta112: + polish

{{More footnotes|date=April 2009}}
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name=Военно-воздушные силы СССР ''Voyenno-vozdushnye sily SSSR''
|image=[[Image:Flag of the Soviet Air Force.svg|300px]]
|caption=Flag of the Soviet Air Force
|dates=24 May 1918
|country=[[Soviet Union|USSR]]
|garrison=Moscow
|garrison_label=Main Staff
|current_commander=
|battles=
|notable_commanders=
|anniversaries=}}
The '''Soviet Air Force''', officially known in [[Russian language|Russian]] as '''Военно-воздушные силы''' or (in the [[Latin alphabet]]) '''''Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily''''' (literally, "Military Air Forces") and often abbreviated '''''VVS''''' ('''ВВС''' in [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]) was the official designation of one of the [[air force]]s of the [[Soviet Union]]. The other was the [[Soviet Air Defence Forces]]. The Air Forces were formed from components of the [[Imperial Russian Air Force]] in 1917, faced their greatest test during World War II, were involved in the [[Korean War]], and dissolved along with the Soviet Union itself in 1991-92.

==Origins==
The ''All-Russia Collegium for Direction of the Air Forces of the Old Army'' (translation is uncertain) was formed on 20 December 1917. This was a [[Bolshevik]] aerial headquarters initially led by [[Konstantin Akashev]]. Along with a general postwar military reorganisation, the collegium was reconstituted as the "Workers' and Peasants' Red Air Fleet" (''Glavvozduhflot''), established on 24 May 1918 and given the top-level departmental status of "Main Directorate".<ref>Source: http://www.rkka.ru/handbook/high/guvvs.htm. See also {{Cite web |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= The Command Structure of the Soviet Air Forces, 1918-1941 |work= |publisher= OnAirpower.org |year= 2008 |url= http://www.onairpower.org/docs/Command_Structure_of_the_Soviet_Air_Forces%2C_1918-1941 |accessdate=2011-02-04 }}</ref>

It became the Directorate of the USSR Air Forces on 28 March 1924, and then the Directorate of the Workers-Peasants Red Army Air Forces on 1 January 1925. Gradually its influence on [[Aeronautics|aircraft design]] became greater. From its earliest days, the force [[mimic]]ked ground forces' organization especially in the 1930s, by then being made up of [[Air Army (Soviet Union)|Air armies]], Aviation Corps, [[Aviation Division]]s, and [[Russian Aviation Regiment|aviation regiments]].
{{-}}{{Soviet military}}
After the creation of the Soviet state many efforts were made in order to modernize and expand aircraft production, led by its charismatic and energetic commander, General [[Yakov Alksnis]], an eventual victim of Stalin's purges.<ref>Higham, Robin, and Greenwood, John T., ''Russian Aviation and Air Power in the Twentieth Century'', Routledge Press (1998), ISBN 0-7146-4784-5, 9780714647845, pp. 40–46</ref> Domestic aircraft production increased significantly in the early years of the 1930s and towards the end of the decade the Soviet Air Force was able to introduce [[Polikarpov I-15|I-15]] and [[Polikarpov I-16|I-16]] fighters and [[Tupolev SB]] and SB-bis and [[DB-3]] bombers.
{{Air Forces of Russia and the Soviet Union}}
One of the first major tests for the VVS came in 1936 with the [[Spanish Civil War]], in which the latest aircraft designs, both Soviet and German, were employed against each other in fierce air-to-air combat. At first, the [[Polikarpov I-16]] fighters proved superior to any of the German Luftwaffe fighter aircraft, and managed to achieve local air superiority wherever they were employed. However, the Soviets refused to supply the plane in adequate numbers, and their aerial victories were soon squandered because of their limited use. Later German [[Messerschmitt Bf 109|Bf-109]]s delivered to Franco's Spanish Nationalist air forces secured [[air superiority]] for the Nationalists, one they would never relinquish. The defeats in Spain coincided with the arrival of Stalin's [[Great Purge]] of the ranks of the military leadership, which severely affected the combat capabilities of the rapidly expanding Soviet Air Forces. Newly promoted officers lacked flying and command experience, while older commanders, witnessing the fate of General Alksnis and others, lacked initiative, frequently referring minor decisions to Moscow for approval, and insisting that their pilots strictly comply with standardized and predictable procedures for both aerial attack and defence.

On 19 November 1939, VVS headquarters was again titled the Main Directorate of the Red Army Air Forces.

==The War with Finland==
Some practical combat experience had been gained in participating in the Spanish Civil War, and against Japan in the Far-East. Shortly before the start of war with Germany a [[Soviet Volunteer Group]] was sent to [[China]] to train the pilots from the [[Republic of China Air Force]] for the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|continuing war]] with the Japanese. However, these experiences proved of little use in the [[Winter war]] against Finland in 1939, where scores of inexperienced Soviet bomber and fighter pilots were shot down by a relatively small number of [[Finnish_Air_Force#Winter_War_1939–40|Finnish Air Force]] (FAF) pilots. The VVS soon learned that established Soviet air defence procedures derived from the Spanish Civil War, such as forming defensive circles when attacked, did not work well against the Finns, who employed dive-and-zoom tactics to shoot down their Soviet opponents in great numbers. The effects of the [[Great Purge]] in 1937–38 on the Red Army's [[officer corps]] undoubtedly played a role in the slow reaction of the VVS and its command to the new realities of air combat. The Soviet Air Force as well as the Soviet aircraft industry would eventually learn from these combat experiences, though not before the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.

On 1 January 1941, six months prior to [[Operation Barbarossa]], the Air Forces of the Soviet Red Army had 363,900 serving personnel, accounting for 8.65% of all military force personnel of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=Von |title=Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945 |origyear=1982 |year=1991 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0874745101 |page=55 |chapter=Where Was Our Air Force?}}</ref>

The first three Air Armies, designated [[Air Army|Air Armies]] of Special Purpose were created between 1936 and 1938.<ref>2nd Army was created on 15 March 1937 in the Far East, and somewhat later the 3rd Air Army was created in the [[North Caucasus Military District]]</ref> On 5 November 1940 these were reformed as the Long Range Bombardment Aviation of the High Command of the Red Army (until February 1942) due to lack of combat performance during the [[Winter War|conflict with Finland]].<ref>http://www.allaces.ru/cgi-bin/s2.cgi/sssr/struct/main.dat Kharin</ref>

The Air Force was hit hard by the [[Red Army purges in 1941]].

==World War II==
{{main|Air warfare of World War II}}
At the outbreak of [[World War II]], the [[Military of the Soviet Union|Soviet military]] was not yet at a level of readiness suitable for winning a war: [[Joseph Stalin]] had said in 1931 that Soviet industry was "50 to 100 years behind"<ref name='Socialist Worker Online 2007-03-29'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Why did Stalin rise to power? | date=2003-08-01 | publisher= | url =http://www.socialistworker.org/2003-2/462/462_08_Stalin.shtml | work =Socialist Worker Online | pages = | accessdate = 2011-02-04 | language = }}</ref> the Western powers. By the end of the war, [[World War II aircraft production|Soviet annual aircraft production]] had rose sharply with annual Soviet production reaching to 40,241 aircraft in 1944. Some 157,261 aircraft were produced during the [[Great Patriotic War]], of them 125,655 combat types.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=Von |title=Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945 |origyear=1982 |year=1991 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0874745101 |page=225 |chapter=Barbarossa to Berlin: A Summing Up}}</ref>

[[Image:Red star.svg|thumb|left|Original star roundel in World War II]]
The main reason for the large aircraft losses in the initial period of war with Germany was not the lack of modern tactics, but the lack of experienced pilots and ground support crews, the destruction of many aircraft on the runways due to command failure to disperse them, and the rapid advance of the Wehrmacht ground troops, forcing the Soviet pilots on the defensive during [[Operation Barbarossa]], while being confronted with more modern German aircraft.<ref name="buckley">
{{cite book
|title=Air Power in the Age of Total War
|first=John
|last=Buckley
|publisher=Indiana University Press
|year=1999
|isbn=0-253-33557-4
|pages=134, 143
}}
</ref> In the first few days of [[Operation Barbarossa]] the [[Luftwaffe]] destroyed some 2000 Soviet aircraft, most of them on the ground, at a loss of only 35 aircraft (of which 15 were non-combat-related).<ref>Ratley, III, Maj. Lonnie O. (March–April 1983). "[http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1983/mar-apr/ratley.htm A Lesson of History: The Luftwaffe and Barbarossa]". ''Air University Review''.</ref>

The principal aircraft of the VVS during World War II were the [[Ilyushin Il-2]] ''Shturmovik'' ground assault model and the [[Yakovlev Yak-1]] fighter in its many variants;<ref name="buckley"/> each of which became the most produced aircraft of all time in its class, together accounting for about half the strength of the VVS for most of the Great Patriotic War. The Yak-1 was a modern 1940 design and had room for development, unlike the mature design of the [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]]. The [[Yak-9]] brought the VVS to parity with the Luftwaffe, eventually allowing it to gain the upper hand over the Luftwaffe until in 1944, when many Luftwaffe pilots were deliberately avoiding combat with the last and best variant, the out-of-sequence numbered [[Yak-3]]. The other main VVS aircraft types were Lavochkin fighters, mainly the [[Lavochkin La-5]], the [[Petlyakov Pe-2]] twin engined attack-bombers, and a basic but functional and versatile medium bomber, the [[Ilyushin Il-4]].

The 31st Bomber Aviation Regiment, equipped with [[Pe-2]]s and commanded by Colonel Fyodor Ivanovich Dobysh, was one of the first Guards bomber units in the Air Forces - the 4th Guards Bomber Aviation Regiment ([[:ru:4-й гвардейский пикирующий бомбардировочный авиационный полк]]).<ref>Michael Holm, [http://www.ww2.dk/new/air%20force/regiment/bap/4gvbap.htm 4th Guards Novgorodskiy Bomber Aviation Regiment], accessed August 2011</ref> The title was conferred on the regiment for its actions on the [[Leningrad Front]] in November–December 1941 during defensive operations and the Soviet counterattack near Tikhvin.

Alone among World War II combatants, the Soviet Air Force initiated a program to bring women with existing air training into combat air groups. [[Marina Raskova]], one of very few women in the VVS prior to the war, used her influence with Stalin to form three all-female air regiments: the 586th Fighter Aviation Regiment, the 587th Bomber Aviation Regiment and the 588th Night Bomber Aviation Regiment (a.k.a. the ''[[Night Witches]]''.) Because of their achievements in battle, the latter two units were honored by being renamed [[Guards unit]]s.
Beyond the three official regiments, individual Soviet women sometimes served alongside airmen in otherwise all-male groups.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=Von |title=Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945 |origyear=1982 |year=1991 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0874745101 |page=193 |chapter=At Full Stride |quote=...over the Gulf of Finland on 5 May 1943, when the Luftwaffe downed a Lend-Lease Havoc A-20, the Germans were considerably shocked to discover that the three-member crew included a woman—a gunner.}}</ref> Women pilots, navigators, gunners, mechanics, armament specialists and other female ground personnel made up more than 3,000 fighting members of the VVS. Women pilots flew 24,000 sorties. From this effort came the world's only two female fighter aces: [[Lydia Litvyak]] and [[Katya Budanova]].

While there were scores of Red Army divisions on the ground formed from specific Soviet republics, there appears to have been very few aviation regiments formed from nationalities, among them being the 1st Latvian Night Aviation Regiment.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title= 1st Latvian Night Aviation Regiment (''legkobombardirovochny rezhitsky'') |work= |publisher= AllAces.ru |date = |url = http://www.allaces.ru/cgi-bin/s2.cgi/sssr/struct/p/bap1l.dat |language = Russian |accessdate =2011-02-04 }}</ref>

Chief Marshal of Aviation [[Alexander Novikov]] led the VVS from 1942 to the end of the war, and was credited with introducing several new innovations and weapons systems. For the last year of the war German military and civilians retreating towards Berlin were hounded by the presence of "low flying aircraft" strafing and bombing them, an activity in which even the ancient [[Polikarpov Po-2]], a much produced biplane of 1920s design, took part. However, this was but a small measure of the experience [[Wehrmacht]] front-lines were receiving of the sophistication and superiority the Red Air Force had achieved. In one strategic operation alone, the [[Jassy–Kishinev Offensive (August 1944)|Yassy-Kishinev Strategic Offensive]], the [[5th Air Army|5th]], [[17th Air Army|17th]] [[Air army (Soviet Union)|Air Armies]] and the Black Sea Fleet Naval Aviation aircraft achieved a 3.3:1 superiority in aircraft over the [[Luftflotte 4]] and the [[Royal Romanian Air Force]], allowing almost complete freedom from air harassment for the ground troops of the [[2nd Ukrainian Front|2nd]] and [[3rd Ukrainian Front]]s.<ref>Wagner, Ray (ed.), and Leland Fetzer (trans.). ''The Soviet Air Force in World War II: The Official History''. Melbourne: Wren Publishing, 1973, p.301. ISBN 0-85885-194-6.</ref>

As with many allied countries in [[World War II]] the Soviet Union received western aircraft by [[Lend-Lease]], mostly [[P-39 Airacobra]]s, [[P-63 Kingcobra]]s, [[Hawker Hurricane]]s, [[Curtiss P-40]] Kittyhawks and [[A-20 Havoc]]s. Soviets in P-39s scored the highest individual kill totals of any pilot ever to fly a U.S. aircraft.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} Two air regiments were equipped with [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire Mk. Vb]] in early 1943 but immediately experienced unrelenting losses due to [[friendly fire]] as the British aircraft looked too much like its German nemesis, the Bf 109 {{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}. Lend-Lease aircraft from the US and UK accounted for nearly 12% of total Soviet air power.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hardesty |first=Von |title=Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945 |origyear=1982 |year=1991 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=0874745101 |page=253 |chapter=Appendixes}}</ref>

The greatest Soviet fighter ace of World War II was [[Ivan Nikitovich Kozhedub]], who scored 62 individual aerial victories from 6 July 1943 to 16 April 1945, the top score for any [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] fighter pilot of World War II.

{{See also|Soviet Air Forces Order of Battle 1 May 1945}}

==Cold War==
{{More footnotes|section|date=July 2010}}
[[Image:F-14 with Bear.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet [[Tu-95]] escorted by US Navy [[F-14 Tomcat]]]]
[[Image:DN-SN-86-03127.JPEG|thumb|right|An air-to-air right underside rear view of a Soviet MiG-25 Foxbat aircraft carrying four AA-6 Acrid missiles]]
In the late 1940s and in the 1950s, the WPKA Army Air Forces became the Soviet Air Forces once again, and its capabilities increased. The force became one of the best services of the Soviet Armed Forces due to the various types of aircraft being flown.

During the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Air Force was rearmed, strengthened and modern air doctrines were introduced. At its peak in the 1980s, it could deploy approximately 10,000 aircraft, and at the beginning of the 1990s the Soviet Union had an air force that in terms of quantity and quality fulfilled superpower standards.<ref name=Avreg>{{cite web| title = Russian Aviation Regiments 1941– | publisher = David R. Hames | url = http://www.samolet.co.uk/rregs.html }}{{dead link|date=February 2011}}</ref>

In 1977 the VVS (Air Force) and the [[Soviet Air Defense Forces]] were re-organised in the Baltic states and the [[Leningrad Oblast]], as a trial run for the larger re-organisation in 1980 covering the whole country.<ref>Michael Holm, [http://www.ww2.dk/new/air%20force/division/iad/1gviad.htm 1st Guards Fighter Aviation Division], accessed August 2011</ref> All fighter units in the PVO were transferred to the VVS, the Air Defence Forces only retaining the anti-aircraft missile units and radar units. The [[6th Air Army|6th independent Air Defense Army]] was disbanded, and the 15th Air Army became the VVS [[Baltic Military District]].
Though the experiment was then applied countrywide in 1980, it was reversed in 1986.

According to a 1980 [[TIME Magazine]] article citing analysts from [[RAND Corporation]], allegedly [[Demographics of the Soviet Union|Soviet non-Slavs]], including Jews, Armenians, and Asians were generally barred from senior ranks and from joining elite or strategic positions in the Air Force, [[Strategic Rocket Forces]], and the [[Soviet Navy]] because of doubts regarding the loyalty of ethnic minorities. RAND analyst S. Enders Wimbush said, "Soldiers are clearly recruited in a way that reflects the worries of society. The average Russian citizen and Soviet decision maker have questions about the allegiance of the non-Slav, especially the Central Asian."<ref>{{Cite web|last = |first = |authorlink = |coauthors = |title =The U.S.S.R.: Moscow's Military Machine |work = |publisher =[[TIME magazine]] | date =23 June 1980 | url =http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922025-2,00.html#ixzz1Ci099B7P | accessdate=2011-02-04 }}</ref><ref>Steve Zaloga and Ron Volstad, ''Inside the Soviet army today'' (1987) p 9</ref><ref>William E. Odom, ''The Collapse of the Soviet Military'' (Yale University Press, 2000) p 45-46 notes that 97% of the officer corps was Russian, Ukrainian or Belorussian.</ref><ref>Brian Moynahan, ''Claws of the Bear: The History of the Red Army from the Revolution to the Present'' (1989) p 337</ref><ref>S. Enders Wimbush and Alex Alexiev, ''The ethnic factor in the Soviet Armed Forces'' (RAND, 1982) p. vii</ref>

During the [[Cold War]] the VVS was divided into three main branches (equivalent to commands in Western air forces): [[Long Range Aviation]] (''Dal'naya Aviatsiya'' or "DA"), focused on long-range [[bomber]]s; [[Frontal Aviation]] (''Frontovaya Aviatsiya'' or "FA"), focused on battlefield air defence, [[close air support]], and [[Air interdiction|interdiction]]; and [[Military Transport Aviation]] (''Voenno-Transportnaya Aviatsiya'' or "VTA"), which controlled all transport aircraft. The [[Soviet Air Defence Forces]] (''Voyska protivovozdushnoy oborony'' or ''[[Voyska PVO]]''), which focused on air defence and [[interceptor aircraft]], was then a separate and distinct service within the Soviet military organisation.
[[Image:MiG-29 fuselage.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet [[MiG-29 Fulcrum]] fighter aircraft in 1989.]]

Yet another independent service was the [[Soviet Navy]]'s air arm, the [[Soviet Naval Aviation]] (''Aviatsiya Voenno Morskogo Flota'' or "AV-MF").

The official day of VVS was the [[Soviet Air Fleet Day]], that often featured notable [[Soviet air shows|air shows]] meant to display Soviet air power advancements through the years, held in Moscow's [[Tushino airfield]].

===1980s fighter programs===

In the 1980s the [[Soviet Union]] acknowledged the development of the [[F-22 Raptor|Advanced Tactical Fighter]] in the USA and began the development of an equivalent fighter.

Two programs were initiated, one of which was proposed to directly confront the United States' then-projected Advanced Tactical Fighter (that was to lead to the development of the [[F-22 Raptor]]/[[YF-23 Black Widow II]]). This future fighter was designated as ''Mnogofounksionalni Frontovoi Istrebitel'' (''MFI'') (Multifunctional Frontline Fighter) and designed as a heavy multirole aircraft, with air-supremacy utmost in the minds of the designers.

In response to the American [[Boeing X-32|X-32]]/[[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter|F-35]] project, Russia began the ''LFI'' program, which would develop a fighter reminiscent of the X-32/F-35 with a single engine, without the capabilities of a true multirole aircraft.{{citation needed|date=January 2011|reason=No. In US, F-35 was considered multirole fighter, and F-22 was primarily air superiority (with very weak air-to-surface capability)}}

Russia would later change the designation of the ''LFI'' project to ''LFS'', making it a multirole aircraft with primarily emphasized ground attack capability. During the 1990s the Russian military cancelled the ''LFS'' projects and continued with the ''MFI'' project, with minimal funding, believing that it was more important than the production of a light fighter aircraft. Most recently, the ''PAK FA'' was planned, no advanced fighter successor to the Su-27 and MiG-29 family has entered service. [[Sukhoi]] won the latest [[Sukhoi PAK FA|PAK FA]] competition in 2002. The aircraft's first flight took place on 29 January 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |last = |first= |title=First flight of fifth-generation fighter successful |language=Russian |work=Lenta.ru |publisher=[[Rambler Media Group]] |year=2011 |url=http://www.lenta.ru/news/2010/01/29/firstflight/ |accessdate=2011-02-04 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Sukhoi Company launches flight tests of PAK FA advanced tactical frontline fighter |work=Sukhoi News |publisher=[[Sukhoi|Sukhoi Company (JSC)]] |date=2011-01-29 |url=http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/news/company/?id=3143 |accessdate=2011-02-04 }}</ref>

===Breakup of the Soviet Union===
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the aircraft and personnel of the Soviet VVS were divided among the newly independent states. Russia received the plurality of these forces, approximately 40% of the aircraft and 65% of the manpower, with these forming the basis for the new [[Russian Air Force]].

=== Forces in the late 1980s===
[[Image:Su-27 05.jpg|thumb|right|[[Su-27 Flanker]] Soviet fighter aircraft.]]
[[Image:DD-ST-88-09319.JPEG|thumb|right|[[MiG-31]] fighter/interceptor aircraft.]]
Soviet Air Armies in the last years of the Soviet Union included:

'''Aviation formations directly subordinated to Headquarters, VVS'''

====Long Range Aviation====

*[[30th Air Army]] VGK ([[Irkutsk]], [[Long Range Aviation]])
*[[37th Air Army]] VGK (Special subordination) (Moscow, [[Long Range Aviation]])
*46th Air Army VGK ([[Smolensk]], [[Long Range Aviation]])

====Frontal Aviation in Groups of Forces====

*[[16th Air Army]] ([[Group of Soviet Forces in Germany]])
*''4th Air Army'' VGK (Special purpose)
*[[36th Air Army]] ([[Southern Group of Forces]], [[Hungary]])
*[[131st Mixed Aviation Division]] ([[Central Group of Forces]]), [[Milovice]], [[Czechoslovakia]]

====Military Transport Aviation====

[[Military Transport Aviation]] included six separate regiments, and five divisions with a total of 18 military transport aviation regiments in 1988. The divisions were the 3rd Guards Military Transport Aviation Division (VTAD) at [[Vitebsk]] (four regiments), the 6th Military Transport Aviation Division at [[Krivoy Rog]] (two regiments), the 8th Division at [[Omsk Chkalovsk]] near [[Omsk]] (three OSNAZ regiments), the 12th Military Transport Aviation Division at [[Migalovo]], which traced its heritage to the 12th Bomber Aviation Division of the World War II period, and had three regiments, and the 18th Military Transport Aviation Division at [[Šiauliai International Airport|Shaulyai]], tracing its history to the wartime 6th Guards Bomber Aviation Division, and had three regiments. (Feskov et al 2004, p. 146)

====Frontal Aviation====

*[[5th Air Army]] (Frontal Aviation) (Odessa [[Military District]])
*[[15th Air Army]] ([[Baltic Military District]])
*[[26th Air Army]] ([[Belarussian Military District]]) On 15 June 1992, by decree No. 05 of the Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Belarus, the 26th Air Army headquarters became the command of the [[Belarusian Air Force|Air Forces of the Republic of Belarus]].
*[[14th Air Army]] VVS
*[[17th Air Army]] ([[Kiev Military District]]) (primarily a training force)
*[[24th Air Army]] VGK (Special purpose) (South-Western Strategic Direction) At the dissolution of the Soviet Union this Army had forces in Belarus and Ukraine. In Ukraine forces consisted of the 32nd Bomber Aviation Division, at [[Starokonstantinov]], the 56th Bomber Aviation Division at Cherlyany, and the 138th Fighter Aviation Division at Mirgorod. In Ukraine in 1991–92, this Army had available over 140 Su-24 Fencer, over 35 Yak-28 electronic warfare aircraft, and 40 MiG-27 Floggers and 40 Su-27 Flankers for strike escort.<ref>Steven J. Zaloga, "Armed Forces in Ukraine", ''[[Jane's Intelligence Review]]'', March 1992, p.135.</ref>
*[[34th Air Army]] ([[Transcaucasian Military District]])
*[[73rd Air Army]] (Tashkent, Turkestan Military District)
*[[76th Air Army]] (Leningrad, [[Leningrad Military District]])
*VVS [[Moscow Military District]]
*[[23rd Air Army]] ([[Transbaikal Military District]])
*[[1st Air Army]] of Frontal Aviation ([[Far Eastern Military District]])
*VVS Of [[Volga-Urals Military District]]

====Soviet Air Defence Forces (Voyska PVO) ====
Independent air defense component of the Soviet Armed Forces under Headquarters, V-PVO.

*2nd Independent Army of PVO ([[Soviet Air Defence Forces]]) (part)
*[[4th Air Army|4th Independent Army of PVO]] (Air Defence)
*8th Independent Army of PVO (Soviet Air Defence Force)
*19th Independent Army of PVO ([[Soviet Air Defence Force]])
*12th Independent Army of PVO ([[Soviet Air Defence Forces]])
*[[6th Air Army|6th Independent Army of PVO]] ([[Soviet Air Defence Forces]])
*10th Independent Army of PVO ([[Soviet Air Defence Forces]])
*[[11th Air Army|11th Independent Army of PVO]] ([[Far East Military District]])
*[[14th Air Army|14th Independent Army of PVO]] ([[Soviet Air Defence Forces]])

====Training schools of the VVS and PVO====
In 1988, schools included:<ref>Michael Holm, [http://www.ww2.dk/new/air%20force/division/schools/schools.htm Flying Schools and Training Centres], accessed August 2011</ref>
*5th Central Course for Preparation and Improvement of Aviation Personnel, [[Bishkek|Frunze]], [[Chuy Province|Chui Oblast]], [[Kyrgyz SSR]] (HQ VVS)
*796th Red Banner Center for Preparation of Officers for Fighter and Fighter-Bomber Aviation, [[Totskoye]], [[Orenburg Oblast]] (HQ VVS)
*[[Armavir Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots]] PVO (Air Forces of the [[North Caucasus Military District]])
*Balashov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Air Forces of the [[Volga-Ural Military District]])
*Barnaul Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Air Forces of the Siberian Military District)
*Borisoglebsk Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots ([[Borisoglebsk (air base)|Borisoglebsk]])(VVS NCMD)
*[[Chelyabinsk Red Banner Military Aviation Institute of Navigators|Chelyabinsk Higher Military Aviation School of Navigators]]
*Chernigov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots ([[Chernihiv (air base)|Chernigov]]) (VVS [[Kiev Military District]])
*Kacha Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots ([[Volgograd]]) (HQ VVS)
*Kansk Military Aviation School of Air Rifle-Radio Operators VVS ([[Kansk]]) (VVS Siberian Military District)
*Kharkov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots ([[Kharkov]]-[[Chuguyev]]) (VVS [[Kiev Military District]])
*Krasnodar Higher United Flight-Technical School ([[Krasnodar]]) (VVS NCMD)
*Orenburg Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots ([[Orenburg]]) (VVS Volga-Ural Military District)
*Saratov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots (Saratov) (VVS Volga-Urals Military District)(helicopter training)
*Stavropol Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots and Navigators PVO ([[Stavropol]]) (VVS [[North Caucasus Military District]])
*Syzran Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots
*Tambov Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots ([[Tambov]], [[Tambov Oblast]])(VVS [[Moscow Military District]])
*Ufa Higher Military Aviation School of Pilots ([[Ufa]])
*Voroshilovgrad Higher Military Aviation School of Navigators ([[Lugansk]])
*Yeysk Higher Military Aviation School ([[Yeysk]])

There is also a [[list of Soviet Air Force bases]] listing the various air bases of the force.

==Commanders-in-Chief==
[[Image:URSS-Russian aviation red star.svg‎|thumb|Star roundel of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Arkadi Rozengoltz]] (1923–1924)
* [[Pyotr Baranov]] (1924–1931)
* [[Yakov Alksnis]] (1931–1937)
* Colonel General [[Aleksandr Loktionov]] (1937–1939)
* Lieutenant General [[Yakov Smushkevich]] (1939–1940)
* [[Chief Marshal|Chief Marshal of Aviation]] [[Alexander Novikov]] (1942–1946)
* Chief Marshal of Aviation Vershinin Konstantin Andreyevich ({{lang-ru|Вершинин Константин Андреевич}}) (1946–1949, 1957–1969)
* Chief Marshal of Aviation Zhigarev Pavel Fedorovich ({{lang-ru|Жигарев Павел Федорович}}) (1949–1957)
* Chief Marshal of Aviation [[Pavel Stepanovich Kutakhov]] ({{lang-ru|Кутахов Павел Степанович}}) (1969–1984)
* [[Marshal|Marshal of Aviation]] Yefimov Aleksandr Nikolayevich ({{lang-ru|Ефимов Александр Николаевич}}) (1984–1990)
* Marshal of Aviation [[Yevgeny Shaposhnikov]] (1990–1991)

==Soviet Air Force inventory as of 1990==
[[Image:Tu-16 Badger E.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet [[Tu-16]]]]
[[Image:MiG-23MLD.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet [[MiG-23]]MLD (NATO – Flogger K) aircraft.]]
[[Image:Su-15 Flagon.jpg|thumb|right|Sukhoi Su-15 (NATO code Flagon)]]
[[Image:Su-24 Fencer right rear view.jpg|thumb|right|Sukhoi Su-24 ground attack aircraft.]]
[[Image:Mi-8MT NTW 1-93.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet Mil Mi-8T helicopter.]]
{{See also|List of military aircraft of the Soviet Union and the CIS}}
;205 strategic bombers<ref name=global-avstrat>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title =Russia: Long-range aviation |work= |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |year=2010 |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/av-strat.htm |accessdate=2011-02-04 }}</ref>
:160 [[Tupolev Tu-95|Tupolev Tu-95 Bear]]
:15 [[Tupolev Tu-160|Tupolev Tu-160 Blackjack]]
:30 [[Myasishchev M-4|Myasishchev M-4 Bison]]

;230 medium [[bomber]]s<ref name=global-avstrat />
:30 [[Tupolev Tu-22M|Tupolev Tu-22M Backfire]]
:80 [[Tupolev Tu-16|Tupolev Tu-16 Badger]]
:120 [[Tupolev Tu-22|Tupolev Tu-22 Blinder]]

;1,755 [[fighter aircraft|fighter]]s<ref name=global-avmain>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title =Russia: Air forces inventory |work= |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |year =2010 |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/av-main.htm |accessdate=2011-02-04 }}</ref>
: 90 [[Su-27 Flanker]]
: 540 [[MiG-29 Fulcrum]]
: 700 [[MiG-23 Flogger]]
: 185 [[MiG-21 Fishbed]]
: 200 [[MiG-31 Foxhound]]
: 40 [[MiG-25 Foxbat]]

;2,135 attack aircraft<ref name=global-avmain />
: 630 [[Su-24 Fencer]]
: 535 [[Su-17|Su-17 Fitter]]
: 130 [[Su-7|Su-7 Fitter-A]]
: 500 [[MiG-27|MiG-27 Flogger-D]]
: 340 [[Su-25 Frogfoot]]

;84 tankers
:34 [[Ilyushin Il-78|Ilyushin Il-76 Midas]]
:30 [[Myasishchev M-4|Myasishchev M-4 'Molot' Bison]]
:20 [[Tupolev Tu-16|Tupolev Tu-16 Badger]]

;40 [[Airborne Early Warning and Control|AWACS]]
: 40 [[Beriev A-50|Beriev A-50 Mainstay]]

;1,015 [[Reconnaissance]] and [[Electronic countermeasures|ECM]] aircraft
: 50 [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Fishbed]]
: 170 [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25|Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 Foxbat]]
: 190 [[Su-7|Sukhoi Su-7R]]
: 235 [[Sukhoi Su-24|Sukhoi Su-24 Fencer]]
: 200 [[Yakovlev Yak-28|Yakovlev Yak-28 Brewer]]
: 130 [[Tu-16|Tu-16 Badger]]
: 30 [[Tu-22M|Tu-22M Backfire]]
: 10 [[Ilyushin Il-18|Il-20 Coot]]

;620 transport aircraft
: 45 [[Antonov An-124|Antonov An-124 'Ruslan' Condor]]
: 55 [[Antonov An-22|Antonov An-22 'Antey' Cock]]
: 210 [[Antonov An-12|Antonov An-12 Cub]]
: 310 [[Ilyushin Il-76|Ilyushin Il-76 Candid]]
: 2,935 civilian and other transport aircraft, usually [[Aeroflot]] aircraft which were easily converted

==See also==
*[[List of Russian aviators]]
*[[List of Russian aerospace engineers]]
*[[Soviet air shows]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Andersson, Lennart. ''Soviet Aircraft and Aviation, 1917–1941''. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1994. ISBN 1-55750-770-8.
*Boyd, Alexander. ''The Soviet Air Force Since 1918''. New York: Stein and Day, 1977. With section of black-and-white photographic plates, charts. maps and diagrams, together with index. First published in ''The Soviet Air Force'' by Macdonald and Janes ([[UK]]) in 1977.
*Gunston, Bill. ''Aircraft of the Soviet Union: The Encyclopedia of Soviet Aircraft Since 1917''. London: Osprey, 1983. ISBN 0-85045-445-X.
*Loza, D. F. ''Attack of the Airacobras: Soviet Aces, American P-39s, and the Air War Against Germany''. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2001. ISBN 0-7006-1140-1.
*Palmer, Scott W. ''Dictatorship of the Air: Aviation Culture and the Fate of Modern Russia''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-521-85957-3.
*Pennington, Reina. ''Wings, Women, and War: Soviet Airwomen in World War II Combat''. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2002. ISBN 0-7006-1145-2.



== External links ==
{{Commons category|Soviet Air Force}}
*[http://www.dictatorshipoftheair.com Dictatorship of the Air] Website and blog devoted to Soviet/Russian aviation history
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/av.htm Globalsecurity.org on Russian air arms, useful for structure of Soviet Air Force]

{{Air Forces of the countries former Soviet Union}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}

[[Category:Soviet Air Force|*]]
[[Category:Disbanded air forces]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1918]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1991]]
[[Category:1918 establishments in Russia]]

[[ar:القوات الجوية السوفيتية]]
[[ca:Força Aèria Soviètica]]
[[es:Fuerza Aérea Soviética]]
[[id:Angkatan Udara Uni Soviet]]
[[it:Sovetskie Voenno-vozdušnye sily]]
[[he:חיל האוויר הסובייטי]]
[[ms:Tentera Udara Soviet]]
[[nl:Luchtmacht van de Sovjet-Unie]]
[[ja:ソ連空軍]]
[[pl:Radzieckie Siły Powietrzne]]
[[ru:Военно-воздушные силы СССР]]
[[sl:Vojno letalstvo Sovjetske zveze]]
[[tr:Sovyet Hava Kuvvetleri]]
[[uk:Військово-повітряні сили СРСР]]
[[vi:Không quân Xô viết]]
[[zh:蘇聯空軍]]

11th Army (Soviet Union)

2011-12-14T16:30:59Z

Muta112: /* Great Patriotic War */

{{Infobox Military Unit
|unit_name=11th Soviet Red Army
|image=[[File:Red Army in Tiflis Feb 25 1921.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Soldiers of the 11th Red Army entering the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]'s capital of [[Tiflis]] in February 1921
|dates=
|country=[[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]]/[[Soviet Union]]
|allegiance=
|branch=Rifle/Combined Arms
|type=
|role=
|size=70,000 - 100,000 (Russian Civil War <ref>{{cite book
| last =Figes
| first =Orlando
| authorlink =Orlando Figes
| title =A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891-1924
| publisher =Penguin Books
| year =1998
| location =New York
| pages =712, 715
| isbn =0-14-024364-X }}</ref>
|command_structure=
|current_commander=
|garrison=
|identification_symbol=
|march=
|mascot=
|battles=
|notable_commanders=[[Pavel Kurochkin]]
}}
[[Image:11thRedArmyYerevan.jpg|thumb|305px|The 11th Red Army marching down a street in [[Yerevan]], the capital of the [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]] on November 29, 1920.]]
The '''11th Army''' (1st formation) of the [[Red Army]] was a unit of the then newly created [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[armed forces]]. It was formed by the [[Bolsheviks]] on October 3, 1918 from the Red Northern Caucasus Army.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Kenez
| first =Peter
| authorlink =Peter Kenez
| title= Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army
| publisher = [[University of California Press]]
| year =1971
| location =[[Berkeley, California]]
| isbn =
| page =184}}</ref> In February 1919 it was dissolved and was again deployed in March 1919 as a subdivision of the Caspian-Caucasian Front. It took a prominent part in the sovietization of the three republics of the southern Caucasus in 1920-21, when [[Azerbaijan]], [[Armenia]], and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] were brought within the orbit of Soviet Russia. In 1939 the 11th Army (2nd formation) was formed in the [[Belarussian Military District|Belarussian Special Military District]] (BSMD) from the former Minsk Army Group.

==Russian Civil War==
Since the Russian Empire's [[Caucasus Front (Russian Empire)]] dissolved, it did not have a true successor organization. The Army of the North Caucasus, which was renamed 11th Army on October 3, 1918, constituted the main army of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian Republic]] in the area during the [[Russian Civil War]]. During the [[Russian Civil War]] the 11th Army fought against the [[White Movement|White]] troops of General [[Anton Denikin]]'s [[Volunteer Army]] in the western part of the [[North Caucasus]]. It was the main strength of the Caspian-Caucasian Army Group. In January 1919, the front of 200 miles held by the Red troops along the Caucasus foothills and South Russian steppes was cut into two by the White forces, which resulted in the panic flight of the 11th Red Army.<ref>Evan Mawdsley (2007), ''The Russian Civil War'', p. 161. Pegasus Books, ISBN 1-933648-15-5</ref>

By 1921, the 11th Red Army is characterized by the modern French historian [[Marie Broxup]] as "a purely Russian army led by Russian commanders and Russian political cadres."<ref>Broxup, Marie. "The Last Ghazawat: The 1920-1921 Uprising," cited in John B. Dunlop (1998), ''Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 40, ISBN 0-521-63619-1.</ref> In May 1921 the army lost its name and was integrated into the Caucasian Front, later part of the [[North Caucasus Military District]].

The first country to fall in the South Caucasus was the [[Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan]], which was made a Soviet republic in May 1920. Taking advantage of its quarrels with neighboring Armenia, the 11th Army had little difficulty in initially sovietizing Azerbaijan. Although it soon was embroiled in a fierce anti-Soviet insurgency, the army remained poised to advance into the two remaining republics, Armenian and Georgia.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Hovannisian
| first =Richard G.
| authorlink =Richard G. Hovannisian
| title =The Republic of Armenia, Vol. IV: Between Crescent and Sickle - Partition and Sovietization
| publisher = University of California Press
| year =1996
| location =Berkley, California
| isbn =0-520-08804-2
| page =62 }}</ref>

For the time being, however, the authorities in Moscow ordered the army to stand down while negotiations between Russia and Armenia were being carried out.<ref>Hovannisian. ''The Republic of Armenia'', pp. 62-63</ref> In that brief span the Red Army did aid Armenian communists fighting against the Armenian government in the [[Ijevan]] region of Armenia.

The head of the 11th Army's Revolutionary Military Council was [[Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze|Sergo Ordzhonikidze]]. The military leaders of the 11th Army were in 1921: V.P. Raspopov, J.P. Butyagin, M.I. Vasilenko, M.K. Levandovski and [[Anatoli Gekker]]. Military decisions were supervised by the Army's ''Council of War''. Its members were in 1921: [[Sergey Kirov]], [[Valerian Kuybyshev]], J.P. Butyagin, K.A. Mekhonoshin, Sokolov, J.I. Vesnik, Lukin, B.D. Mikhailov, Kvirkeliya, S.S. Eliava, J.I. Vesnik and P.I. Kushner.

==Great Patriotic War==
In 1939 the 11th Army (2nd formation) was formed in the [[Belarussian Military District|Belarussian Special Military District]] (BSMD) from the former Minsk Army Group. It took part in the [[Soviet invasion of Poland (1939)]]. In summer 1940 it became part of the [[Baltic Military District]] (from August, 17th, 1940 the Baltic Special military district).

When the Germans invaded in June 1941 the 11th Army comprised the [[16th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|16th Rifle Corps]](which included the [[5th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|5th]], [[33rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|33rd]] and [[188th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|188th Rifle Division]]s) and [[29th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|29th Rifle Corps]] ([[179th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|179th]] and [[184th Rifle Division]]s) and the [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd Mechanised Corps]] (640 tanks), the [[23rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|23rd]], [[126th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|126th]] and [[128th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|128th Rifle Division]]s, the [[42nd Fortified Region|42nd]] and [[46th Fortified Region]]s, and other smaller formations and units. It participated in military operations as part of the Soviet [[Northwestern Front]] west and south-western of [[Kaunas]] and [[Vilnius]].

Since July 9, 1941, it had under its command the [[41st Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|41st]] and [[22nd Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|22nd Rifle Corps]] and the [[1st Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|1st Mechanised Corps]]. On 1 September 1941 its structure included the [[180th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|180th]], [[182nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|182nd]], [[183rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|183rd]], [[202nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|202nd]], and [[254th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|254th Rifle Division]]s, 21st Motor Rifle Regiment, 9 арт. бригада ПТО, [[614th Corps Artillery Regiment]], 698 ап ПТО, the 87th and 110th Independent Tank Battalions, [[7th Mixed Aviation Division]], and a number of separate formations.<ref>http://www.tashv.nm.ru/BoevojSostavSA/1941/19410901.html</ref> In 1942 and 1943 it participated in attacks against the [[Wehrmacht]] near [[Solzy]] and [[Staraya Russa]] and in the [[Demyansk]] Operation. In summer and fall 1943 it was part of the Western Front. In mid July 1943 the Army comprised the [[53rd Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|53rd Rifle Corps]], the [[4th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|4th]], [[96th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|96th]], [[260th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|260th]], [[273rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|273rd]] and [[323rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)| 323rd Rifle Division]], the 225th Tank Regiment and other units. From July 30 11th Army joined the [[Bryansk Front]], and fought in the [[Battle of Kursk]]. In December 1943 the 11th Army was dissolved, with the personnel being integrated into other Soviet armies.

The commanders of the 11th Army were:
*1939 - V. I. Morosov, P. A. Kurtoshkin, A. I. Lopatin and I. I. Fedyuninski.
*[[Pavel Kurochkin]] commanded the 11th Army from November 1942 to March 1943

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*Orbat.com/Niehorster, [http://orbat.com/site/ww2/drleo/012_ussr/41_oob/baltic/army_11.html Order of Battle, 22 June 1941]
*{{de icon}} [http://www.biologie.de/biowiki/11._Armee_%28RABA%29 History of the 11th Soviet Red Army]

{{Armies of the Soviet Army}}

[[Category:Field armies of the Soviet Union|011]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1918]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1943]]
[[Category:20th century in Armenia]]
[[Category:1918 establishments in Russia]]

[[es:11.º Ejército (Unión Soviética)]]
[[id:Pasukan ke-11 Uni Soviet]]
[[ru:11-я армия (СССР)]]
[[tr:11. Ordu (SSCB)]]
[[uk:11-а армія (СРСР)]]

11th Army (Soviet Union)

2011-12-14T16:29:46Z

Muta112: /* Great Patriotic War */

{{Infobox Military Unit
|unit_name=11th Soviet Red Army
|image=[[File:Red Army in Tiflis Feb 25 1921.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Soldiers of the 11th Red Army entering the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]'s capital of [[Tiflis]] in February 1921
|dates=
|country=[[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]]/[[Soviet Union]]
|allegiance=
|branch=Rifle/Combined Arms
|type=
|role=
|size=70,000 - 100,000 (Russian Civil War <ref>{{cite book
| last =Figes
| first =Orlando
| authorlink =Orlando Figes
| title =A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution: 1891-1924
| publisher =Penguin Books
| year =1998
| location =New York
| pages =712, 715
| isbn =0-14-024364-X }}</ref>
|command_structure=
|current_commander=
|garrison=
|identification_symbol=
|march=
|mascot=
|battles=
|notable_commanders=[[Pavel Kurochkin]]
}}
[[Image:11thRedArmyYerevan.jpg|thumb|305px|The 11th Red Army marching down a street in [[Yerevan]], the capital of the [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]] on November 29, 1920.]]
The '''11th Army''' (1st formation) of the [[Red Army]] was a unit of the then newly created [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[armed forces]]. It was formed by the [[Bolsheviks]] on October 3, 1918 from the Red Northern Caucasus Army.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Kenez
| first =Peter
| authorlink =Peter Kenez
| title= Civil War in South Russia, 1918: The First Year of the Volunteer Army
| publisher = [[University of California Press]]
| year =1971
| location =[[Berkeley, California]]
| isbn =
| page =184}}</ref> In February 1919 it was dissolved and was again deployed in March 1919 as a subdivision of the Caspian-Caucasian Front. It took a prominent part in the sovietization of the three republics of the southern Caucasus in 1920-21, when [[Azerbaijan]], [[Armenia]], and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] were brought within the orbit of Soviet Russia. In 1939 the 11th Army (2nd formation) was formed in the [[Belarussian Military District|Belarussian Special Military District]] (BSMD) from the former Minsk Army Group.

==Russian Civil War==
Since the Russian Empire's [[Caucasus Front (Russian Empire)]] dissolved, it did not have a true successor organization. The Army of the North Caucasus, which was renamed 11th Army on October 3, 1918, constituted the main army of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian Republic]] in the area during the [[Russian Civil War]]. During the [[Russian Civil War]] the 11th Army fought against the [[White Movement|White]] troops of General [[Anton Denikin]]'s [[Volunteer Army]] in the western part of the [[North Caucasus]]. It was the main strength of the Caspian-Caucasian Army Group. In January 1919, the front of 200 miles held by the Red troops along the Caucasus foothills and South Russian steppes was cut into two by the White forces, which resulted in the panic flight of the 11th Red Army.<ref>Evan Mawdsley (2007), ''The Russian Civil War'', p. 161. Pegasus Books, ISBN 1-933648-15-5</ref>

By 1921, the 11th Red Army is characterized by the modern French historian [[Marie Broxup]] as "a purely Russian army led by Russian commanders and Russian political cadres."<ref>Broxup, Marie. "The Last Ghazawat: The 1920-1921 Uprising," cited in John B. Dunlop (1998), ''Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 40, ISBN 0-521-63619-1.</ref> In May 1921 the army lost its name and was integrated into the Caucasian Front, later part of the [[North Caucasus Military District]].

The first country to fall in the South Caucasus was the [[Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan]], which was made a Soviet republic in May 1920. Taking advantage of its quarrels with neighboring Armenia, the 11th Army had little difficulty in initially sovietizing Azerbaijan. Although it soon was embroiled in a fierce anti-Soviet insurgency, the army remained poised to advance into the two remaining republics, Armenian and Georgia.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Hovannisian
| first =Richard G.
| authorlink =Richard G. Hovannisian
| title =The Republic of Armenia, Vol. IV: Between Crescent and Sickle - Partition and Sovietization
| publisher = University of California Press
| year =1996
| location =Berkley, California
| isbn =0-520-08804-2
| page =62 }}</ref>

For the time being, however, the authorities in Moscow ordered the army to stand down while negotiations between Russia and Armenia were being carried out.<ref>Hovannisian. ''The Republic of Armenia'', pp. 62-63</ref> In that brief span the Red Army did aid Armenian communists fighting against the Armenian government in the [[Ijevan]] region of Armenia.

The head of the 11th Army's Revolutionary Military Council was [[Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze|Sergo Ordzhonikidze]]. The military leaders of the 11th Army were in 1921: V.P. Raspopov, J.P. Butyagin, M.I. Vasilenko, M.K. Levandovski and [[Anatoli Gekker]]. Military decisions were supervised by the Army's ''Council of War''. Its members were in 1921: [[Sergey Kirov]], [[Valerian Kuybyshev]], J.P. Butyagin, K.A. Mekhonoshin, Sokolov, J.I. Vesnik, Lukin, B.D. Mikhailov, Kvirkeliya, S.S. Eliava, J.I. Vesnik and P.I. Kushner.

==Great Patriotic War==
In 1939 the 11th Army (2nd formation) was formed in the [[Belarussian Military District|Belarussian Special Military District]] (BSMD) from the former Minsk Army Group. It took part in the [[Soviet invasion of Poland (1939)]]. In summer 1940 it became part of the [[Baltic Military District]] (from August, 17th, 1940 the Baltic Special military district).

When the Germans invaded in June 1941 the 11th Army comprised the [[16th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|16th Rifle Corps]](which included the [[5th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|5th]], [[33rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|33rd]] and [[188th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|188th Rifle Division]]s) and [[29th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|29th Rifle Corps]] ([[179th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|179th]] and [[184th Rifle Division]]s) and the [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd Mechanised Corps]] (640 tanks), the [[23rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|23rd]], [[126th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|126th]] and [[128th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|128th Rifle Division]]s, the [[42nd Fortified Region|42nd]] and [[46th Fortified Region]]s, and other smaller formations and units. It participated in military operations as part of the Soviet [[Northwestern Front]] west and south-western of [[Kaunas]] and [[Vilnius]].

Since July 9, 1941, it had under its command the [[41st Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|41st]] and [[22nd Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|22nd Rifle Corps]] and the [[1st Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|1st Mechanised Corps]]. On 1 September 1941 its structure included the [[180th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|180th]], [[182nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|182nd]], [[183rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|183rd]], [[202nd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|202nd]], and [[254th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|254th Rifle Division]]s, 21st Motor Rifle Regiment, 9 арт. бригада ПТО, [[614th Corps Artillery Regiment]], 698 ап ПТО, the 87th and 110th Independent Tank Battalions, [[7th Mixed Aviation Division]], and a number of separate formations.<ref>http://www.tashv.nm.ru/BoevojSostavSA/1941/19410901.html</ref> In 1942 and 1943 it participated in attacks against the [[Wehrmacht]] near [[Solzy]] and [[Staraya Russa]] and in the [[Demyansk]] Operation. In summer and fall 1943 it was part of the Western Front. In mid July 1943 the Army comprised the [53rd Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|53rd Rifle Corps]], the [[4th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|4th]], [[96th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|96th]], [[260th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|260th]], [[273rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)|273rd]] and [[323rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union)| 323rd Rifle Division]], the 225th Tank Regiment and other units. From July 30 11th Army joined the [[Bryansk Front]], and fought in the [[Battle of Kursk]]. In December 1943 the 11th Army was dissolved, with the personnel being integrated into other Soviet armies.

The commanders of the 11th Army were:
*1939 - V. I. Morosov, P. A. Kurtoshkin, A. I. Lopatin and I. I. Fedyuninski.
*[[Pavel Kurochkin]] commanded the 11th Army from November 1942 to March 1943

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*Orbat.com/Niehorster, [http://orbat.com/site/ww2/drleo/012_ussr/41_oob/baltic/army_11.html Order of Battle, 22 June 1941]
*{{de icon}} [http://www.biologie.de/biowiki/11._Armee_%28RABA%29 History of the 11th Soviet Red Army]

{{Armies of the Soviet Army}}

[[Category:Field armies of the Soviet Union|011]]
[[Category:History of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:History of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1918]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1943]]
[[Category:20th century in Armenia]]
[[Category:1918 establishments in Russia]]

[[es:11.º Ejército (Unión Soviética)]]
[[id:Pasukan ke-11 Uni Soviet]]
[[ru:11-я армия (СССР)]]
[[tr:11. Ordu (SSCB)]]
[[uk:11-а армія (СРСР)]]

Battle of Raseiniai

2011-10-02T08:31:51Z

Muta112:

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Rasienai
| image =
| caption =
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of World War II
| place = [[Raseiniai]], [[Lithuania]]
| date = 23 June 1941 – 27 June 1941
| result = Decisive German victory
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erich Hoepner|Gen. Erich Hoepner]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Col.-Gen. Fyodor I. Kutznetsov]]
| strength1 = 245 tanks<ref>Chris Bishop, German Wehrmacht Panzer Divisions 1939-1945, 2005, p66</ref><ref>Brian Taylor, Barbarossa to Berlin - A Chronology of the Campaigns on the Eastern Front 1941-1945, 2003, p14</ref>{{ref label|Note9|I|I}}
| strength2 = 749 tanks<ref name="ReferenceA">[[David Glantz]], The Battle for Leningrad 1941-1944, 2002, p32</ref>
| casualties1 = Light
| casualties2 = 704 Tanks<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
| campaignbox =
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Barbarossa}}
}}
The '''Battle of Raseiniai''' (23–27 June 1941) was a tank battle fought between the elements of the [[Fourth Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzer Group]] commanded by [[Erich Hoepner|Gen. Erich Hoepner]] and the [[20th Guards Motor Rifle Division|3rd Mechanized Corps]] <ref name="Glantz, Stumbling Colossus 1998, p155">Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, 1998, p155-p156</ref>{{ref label|Note1|a|a}} commanded by Major General Kurkin & [[12th Mechanised Corps]] <ref name="Glantz, Stumbling Colossus 1998, p155"/>{{ref label|Note2|b|b}} commanded by Major General Shestapolov in [[Lithuania]] 75 km northwest of [[Kaunas]] in the attempt by the commander of the [[Northwestern Front]], [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]] to contain and destroy German troops that had crossed the [[Neman River]] (Nemunas). The result of the battle was the almost complete destruction of Soviet armoured forces of the [[Northwestern Front]], clearing the way for the continued German offensive towards the crossings of the [[Daugava River]] (Western Dvina). This was one of the major battles during the initial phases of [[Operation Barbarossa]] known in Soviet history as the [[Border Defensive Battles]] (22–27 June 1941) as part of the larger [[Baltic Operation|Baltic Strategic Defensive Operation]].

==Prelude==
[[Army Group North]], commanded by Field Marshal [[Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb]], and staging in [[East Prussia]] prior to the commencement of the offensive, was the northern of three Army Groups participating in the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion]] of the Soviet Union. [[Army Group North]] controlled the [[18th Army (Germany)|18th]] and [[16th Army (Germany)|16th Armies]], along with the [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzer Group]] commanded by General [[Erich Hoepner]]. In total, the Germans had 20 infantry divisions, three Panzer and three motorized infantry divisions. Air support was provided by the [[Luftflotte 1|1st Air Fleet]].

The military administrative control over the [[Baltic republics]] area where the [[Army Group North]] would be deployed was exercised by the [[Baltic Military District|Special Baltic Military District]] which after the invasion was renamed into the [[Northwestern Front]], Commanded by Colonel General [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]]. The front fielded [[8th Army (Soviet Union)|8th]] and [[11th Army (Soviet Union)|11th Armies]] with the [[27th Army (Soviet Union)|27th Armies]] in its second echelon. All together, Northwestern Front had 28 rifle, 4 tank, and 2 motorized divisions.

==The operation==
[[Army Group North]]'s [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzer Group]] advanced in two spearheads, led by the [[XXXXI Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLI Panzer Corps]] and [[LVI Panzer Corps (Germany)|LVI Panzer Corps]]. Their objectives was to cross the [[Neman River|Neman]] and [[Daugava]], the most difficult natural obstacles in front of [[Army Group North]]'s drive towards [[Leningrad]].

German bombers destroyed many of the signals and communications centers, naval bases, and the Soviet aerodromes in particular; from [[Riga]] to [[Kronstadt]], on [[Šiauliai]], [[Vilnius]] and [[Kaunas]] the bombs rained on carefully selected targets. Soviet aircraft had been on one-hour alert, but were held on their airfields after the first wave of German bombers passed.

At 9:30 AM on 22 June, Colonel General [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]], ordered [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd]] and [[12th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|12th]] [[mechanized corps]] to take up their counterattack positions, intending to use them in flanking attacks on the [[Fourth Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzer Group]], which had broken through to the river [[Dubysa]] (Dubissa). By noon, the Soviet divisions began to fall back. The German columns then began to swing towards [[Raseiniai]], where [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]] was concentrating his own armor for a major counterattack on the next day. By the evening, Soviet formations had fallen back to the [[Dubysa]]. Northwest of [[Kaunas]], forward elements of [[Erich von Manstein]]'s [[LVI Panzer Corps]] reached the [[Dubysa]] and seized the vital [[Ariogala]] road viaduct across it. Without this crossing, Germans tanks might have been trapped in what was a giant natural tank ditch. A dash to [[Daugavpils|Dvinsk]] would have been wholly ruled out. Meanwhile southwest of [[Vilnius]] more armor from the [[Third Panzer Army (Germany)|3rd Panzer Army]], which had ripped through the Soviet [[11th Army (Soviet Union)|11th]], moved across the [[Niemen River]] over the intact bridges.

By the end of 22 June, the German armoured spearheads had crossed the [[Niemen River|Niemen]] and penetrated 80 kilometres (50 mi). The next day, [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]] committed his armoured forces to battle. Near [[Raseiniai]], the [[XXXXI Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLI Panzer Corps]] was counter-attacked by the tanks of the Soviet [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd]] and [[12th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|12th]] Mechanised Corps. But this concentration of soviet armour was detected by the Luftwaffe, which immediately directed heavy air attacks against tank columns of the [[12th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|12th Mechanised Corps]] south west of [[Šiauliai]]. These attacks went unopposed by any Soviet fighters and were carried out with great success. The Soviet 23rd Tank Division sustained particularly severe losses. [[Ju 88|Ju 88's]] from [[Luftflotte 1]] thundering in at low level, setting ablaze 40 vehicles, including tanks and lorries.<ref>Christer Bergstrom, 'Barbarossa - The Air Battle: July–December 1941, 2007, p23</ref> The battle would last four days. [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-267-0115-24, Russland-Mitte, sowjetischer Soldat in T 26 B.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet [[T-26]] tanks were superior<ref>Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, 1998, p. 119</ref> to their German equivalents]][[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-209-0091-11, Russland-Nord, russischer Panzer KW-2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A [[KV-2]] tank; a single tank of this type held for one day the entire [[6th Panzer Division (Germany)|6th Panzer Division]]<ref>Steve Newton, Panzer Operations on the Eastern Front - The Memoirs of General Raus, 2003, p. 33</ref>]]

It was here that German forces encountered a unit equipped with the Soviet [[Kliment Voroshilov tank|KV heavy tank]]s for the first time. Gen. E.N. Soliankin's 2nd Tank Division from Soviet [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd Mechanised Corps]] attacked and overran elements of the German [[6th Panzer Division (Germany)|6th Panzer Division]]<ref>Steve Newton, Panzer Operations on the Eastern Front - The Memoirs of General Raus, 2003, p13</ref>{{ref label|Note3|c|c}}{{ref label|Note9|I|I}} near [[Skaudvilė]] on 23 June. The Germans' [[Panzer 35(t)]] tanks and antitank weapons were practically ineffective against the Soviet heavy tanks—some of them were out of ammunition, but closed with and destroyed German antitank guns by literally driving over them.<ref>Zaloga 1995, pp 17–18.</ref><ref>Steve Newton, Panzer Operations on the Eastern Front - The Memoirs of General Raus, 2003, p21-p25</ref>{{ref label|Note6|f|f}} Attempts to destroy these armoured giants concentrated on first immobilising them by firing at their tracks and then by tackling them with [[artillery]], AA Guns, or by blowing them up at close range by high explosive charges of the [[Hafthohlladung|Sticky Bomb]] type. An account by the Thuringian [[1st Panzer Division (Germany)|1st Panzer Division]] describes this battle. {{quotation| '' The [[KV-1]] & [[KV-2]], which we first met here, were really something! Our companies opened fire at about 800 yards, but it remained ineffective. We moved closer and closer to the enemy, who for his part continued to approach us unconcerned. Very soon we were facing each other at 50 to 100 yards. A fantastic exchange of fire took place without any visible German success. The Russian tanks continued to advance, and all armour-piercing shells simply bounced off them. Thus we were presently faced with the alarming situation of the Russian tanks driving through the ranks of 1st Panzer Regiment towards our own infantry and our hinterland. Our Panzer Regiment therefore about turned and rumbled back with the KV-1s and KV-2s, roughly in line with them. In the course of that operation we succeeded in immobilizing some of them with special purpose shells at very close range 30 to 60 yards. A counter attack was launched and the Russians were thrown back. A protective front established & defensive fighting continued. ''<ref>Hitler Moves East by Paul Carrell 1964 pp 23-24</ref>}} The next day, a single [[KV-2]] heavy tank, at a crossroads in front of [[Raseiniai]], managed to cut off elements of the [[6th Panzer Division]] which had established bridgeheads on the [[Dubysa]]. It stalled the Division's advance for a full day while being attacked by a variety of antitank weapons, until it finally ran out of ammunition.<ref>Zaloga 1995, pp 18–19.</ref><ref>Steve Newton, Panzer Operations on the Eastern Front - The Memoirs of General Raus, 2003, p33</ref>{{ref label|Note4|d|d}}{{ref label|Note5|e|e}}

In the south, by 23 June, [[11th Army (Soviet Union)|11th Army]] commander Lieutenant-General Morozov ordered the units falling back to the old fortress town [[Kaunas]] on the [[Niemen River|Niemen]] to move on to [[Jonava]] some 30 miles to the north-east. By the evening of 25 June, the Soviet [[8th Army (Soviet Union)|8th Army]] fell back towards [[Riga]] and the 11th towards [[Vilnius]] to the [[Desna River|Desna]]. A breach gaped in the Soviet front from [[Ukmergė]] to [[Daugavpils]].

By 26 June, the [[XXXXI Panzer Corps|XLI's Panzer Corps]] [[1st Panzer Division (Germany)|1st Panzer Division]] & [[36th Infantry Division (Germany)|36th Motorised Infantry]] & following infantry Divisions had cut through the rear of the Soviet Mechanised Corps and linked up. The Soviet [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd Mechanised Corps]] had obligingly run out of fuel, & Gen. E.N. Soliankin's 2nd Tank Division was encircled & almost completely destroyed.<ref>[[David Glantz]], The Battle for Leningrad 1941-1944, 2002, p33</ref> The 5th Tank Division & 84th Motorised Rifle Division were severely depleted due to losses in vehicles and personnel.<ref>Boyevoye Doneseniye No.1, HQ North-western Front, 2 July 1941, 24:00// Sbornik boyevykh dokumentov vol. 34, Moscow, Voyennoye Izdatelstvo Ministerstva Oborony, 1958 and E. Drig, "Mekhanizirovannye korpusa RKKA v boyu", AST, Moscow, 2005 , via http://rkkaww2.armchairgeneral.com/formation/mechcorps/3mk.htm</ref><ref>Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, 1998, p126</ref>{{ref label|Note7|g|g}} The [[12th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|12th Mechanized Corps]] pulled out of the trap, but by now was very short of fuel and ammunition.<ref>Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, 1998, p128</ref> {{ref label|Note8|h|h}}

The Soviet Baltic Fleet was withdrawn from bases in [[Liepāja]], [[Ventspils|Windau]], and [[Riga]] by 26 June. Meanwhile, [[Erich von Manstein|Von Manstein's]]'s [[LVI Panzer Corps]] dashed for the River [[Daugava River|Dvina]] and in a remarkable coup seized bridges near [[Daugavpils|Dvinsk]] intact.

==After the operation==
After the seizure of the [[Daugava River|Dvina]] bridges and the fall of [[Dvinsk]], the leading formations of [[LVI Panzer Corps]] furiously set about enlarging the bridgehead. On 25 June, Marshal [[Semyon Timoshenko]] ordered Colonel General [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]] to organize a defense of the [[Daugava River|Western Dvina]], by deploying the [[8th Army (Soviet Union)|8th Army]] on the right bank of the river from [[Riga]] to [[Livani]] while the [[11th Army (Soviet Union)|11th Army]] would defend [[Livani]]-[[Kraslava]] sector. Colonel General Kuznetsov also decided to use Major-General Berzarin's 27th Army. Berzarin was to pull his troops off the [[Hiiumaa]] and [[Saaremaa]] islands and out of [[Riga]] and bring them to [[Daugavpils]]. At the same time the Soviet high command ([[Stavka]]) released Major-General Lelyushenko's [[21st Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|21st Mechanised Corps]] from the Moscow Military District to co-operate with the [[27th Army (Soviet Union)|27th Army]]; Lelyushenko had 98 tanks and 129 guns.

At 5:00 AM, on 28 June, [[Dmitry Lelyushenko|Lelyushenko]] attacked upon [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]]'s orders in an attempt to destroy the German bridgehead near [[Daugavpils]]. [[Erich von Manstein|Von Manstein]] halted on the [[Daugava River|Dvina]], but attacked on the next day, striking along the [[Daugavpils]]-[[Ostrov, Pskov Oblast|Ostrov]] highway. At [[Riga]] on the afternoon of 29 June, the Germans crossed the railway bridge over the [[Daugava River|Dvina]]. On 30 June Soviet troops withdrew on the right bank of the river, and by 1 July were in retreat to [[Estonia]]. A priceless opportunity now offered itself to the Germans. An immediate drive forwards would make it almost impossible for the Soviets to defend [[Leningrad]]. However, it was not to be: orders received with disbelief by the tankers were to wait for the infantry to arrive. In the end the wait would last almost a week.

Colonel General [[Fyodor Isodorovich Kuznetsov|Kutznetsov]] was removed as front commander by [[Semyon Timoshenko|Timoshenko]], and [[8th Army (Soviet Union)|8th Army]] commander Major-General Sobennikov took over the front on 4 July. [[Semyon Timoshenko|Timoshenko]] issued a directive on 29 June to the [[Northwestern Front]] stipulating that in the event of a withdrawal from the [[Daugava River|Daugava]], the next river line, the [[Velikaya]], was to be held and every effort made to get Soviet troops emplaced there. Despite this, the river [[Velikaya River|Velikaya]] line fell rapidly on 8 July, with the rail and road bridges remaining intact. [[Pskov]] itself fell on the evening of 9 July. The [[11th Army (Soviet Union)|11th Army]] commander was therefore ordered to move to [[Dno]]. The crumbling of the [[Northwestern Front]] on the [[Velikaya]] and the German sweep to [[Luga]] were grave setbacks for the Soviets, and the 8th Army was being rammed inexorably towards the [[Gulf of Finland]]. But the German pause had given time for more troops to be rushed in to [[Siege of Leningrad]], and the battle for the city would be long and hard.

==Footnotes==
*{{note label|Note1|a|a}}On 22 June 1941 [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd Mechanised Corps]] had 31,975 men & 651 Tanks including (10 [[T-34]] & 2 Battalions of 50 Heavy [[KV tank|Kv-1s]]).
*{{note label|Note2|b|b}}On 22 June 1941 [[12th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|12th Mechanized Corps]] had 28,832 men & 749 Tanks including only lighter Soviet [[T-26 tank|T-26]], [[BT-8|Bt Series]] Tanks.
*{{note label|Note3|c|c}}Which were [[Kampfgruppe]] Von Seckendorff consisting of the 114th [[Motorized infantry]] [[Regiment]], [[Aufklärungsabteilung|Panzer Reconnaissance]] [[Battalion]] 57, one [[company]] of [[Panzerjäger]] [[Battalion]] 41 & Motorcycle [[Battalion]] 6 (Morning).
*{{note label|Note4|d|d}}General [[Erhard Raus]] the Officer in Command of [[6th Panzer Division]]'s [[Kampfgruppe]] [[Erhard Raus|Raus]] which was the Unit held up by the lone vehicle disagrees, he says the vehicle was damaged by several shots from a [[88 mm gun|88]] [[Anti-tank warfare|Anti-Tank Gun]] firing at the vehicle from behind whilst it was distracted by [[Panzer 35(t)]] tanks from Panzer Battalion 65 & the crew were killed by [[Grenades]] from a [[Combat engineering|Pioneer Engineer]] unit who pushed the [[grenades]] through two holes made by the gun whilst the turret had started moving again. The other five or six shots having not apparently penetrated completely. The crew had remarkably only been apparently stunned by the shots which had entered the turret. Afterwards they were buried nearby with honours by the German Soldiers of the Unit held up.
*{{note label|Note5|e|e}}[[Kampfgruppe]] [[Erhard Raus|Raus]] consisted of Panzer Regiment 11, one [[Battalion]] of the 4th [[Motorized infantry]] [[Regiment]], The 1st & 3rd [[Battalion]]s the 76th [[Field artillery|Artillery]] [[Regiment]], one Company of [[Combat engineering|Panzer Engineer]] [[Battalion]] 57, one company from [[Panzerjäger]] [[Battalion]] 41, one [[Artillery battery|Battery]] of the 2nd [[Battalion]] [[Anti-aircraft warfare|Flak]] [[Regiment]] 411 & Motorcycle [[Battalion]] 6 (Afternoon).
*{{note label|Note6|f|f}}The Tanks were eventually destroyed by [[Artillery battery|Batteries]] of [[88 mm gun|88mm Flak Guns]] & [[Field artillery|100mm Artillery Guns]] employed in [[Anti-tank warfare|Anti-Tank]] role.
*{{note label|Note7|g|g}}On 11 July 1941 Col P Poluboiarov, [[Northwestern Front]] armoured directorate reported that the [[3rd Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd Mechanised Corps]] had 'completely perished' having only 400 men remaining who escaped encirclement with 2nd Tank Division & only 1 [[BT-8|Bt 7]] tank. German Sources reported the destruction of more than 200 tanks, including 29 [[KV tank|Kv-1s]], 150 guns & hundreds of trucks & vehicles. The 5th Tank Division was at [[Yelnya]] by 4 July 1941 and consisted of 2,552 men and a total of 2 [[BT-7]] tanks and four armoured cars. It was destroyed at the [[Battle of Białystok–Minsk]].
*{{note label|Note8|h|h}}Colonel Grinberg temporary commander of the [[12th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)|12th Mechanized Corps]] after the death of his corps' original commander Major General Shestopalov, reported on 29 July that the strength of his corps had fallen to under 17,000 men after the first two weeks of combat.
*{{note label|Note9|I|I}}On entering the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]] the [[6th Panzer Division]] had a total of 245 tanks which consisted of 47 [[Panzer II]], 155 [[Panzer 35(t)]], only 30 [[Panzer IV]]s, 5 Panzerbef 35(t)'s (command tanks) & 8 Panzerbef's.

==Sources & References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Zaloga, Steven J., Jim Kinnear, and Peter Sarson (1995). ''KV-1 & 2 Heavy Tanks 1939–1945''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-496-2.
* Steven H Newton, 'Panzer Operations on the Eastern Front- The Memoirs of General Raus 1941-1945' (2003) Da Capo Press ISBN 0-306-81247-9
* [[David Glantz]] (1998), 'Stumbling Colossus - The Red Army On The Eve of World War', Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-0879-6
* [[David Glantz]] (2002), 'The Battle for Leningrad 1941-1944', Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1208-4
* Christer Bergstrom, (2007) 'Barbarossa - The Air Battle: July–December 1941, Ian Allan Publishing.ISBN 1-85780-270-5

{{coord missing|Lithuania}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Raseiniai 1941}}
[[Category:History of Lithuania (1940–1945)]]
[[Category:1941 in Lithuania]]
[[Category:Tank battles]]
[[Category:Operation Barbarossa]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]

[[ru:Расейняйское сражение]]
[[tr:Raseiniai Muharebesi]]
[[vi:Trận Raseiniai]]

Burma campaign

2011-09-30T20:03:59Z

Muta112: /* Thai army enters Burma */

{{For|the British non-governmental organisation|Burma Campaign UK}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Burma Campaign
| partof = the [[Pacific War]] during [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Burma topo en.jpg|300px]]
| caption = [[Geography of Myanmar|Geography of Burma]]
| date = January 1942 – July 1945
| place = [[British Burma]]
| casus =
| territory =
| result = Decisive Allied victory, leading to later Independence of Burma in 1948
| combatant1 = [[Allies of WWII|Allies]]: {{flag|United Kingdom}} 
*{{flagicon|India|British}} [[British Raj|British India]]
*{{flagicon|Burma|1937}} [[British Burma]]
{{flagicon|Republic of China}} [[Republic of China]] 
{{flag|United States|1912}}
| combatant2 = [[Axis powers|Axis]]: {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Empire of Japan]] 
*{{flagicon|Burma|1943}} [[State of Burma]]
{{flag|Thailand}} 
{{flagicon|India|1931}} [[Free India]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|UK}} [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Louis Mountbatten]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[William Slim]] {{flagicon|Republic of China}} [[Wei Lihuang]] {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Joseph Stilwell]] {{flagicon|Burma|1937}} [[Aung San]] (from 1945)
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Shōjirō Iida]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Masakazu Kawabe]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Hyotaro Kimura]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Renya Mutaguchi]] {{flagicon|Burma|1943}} [[Aung San]] (until 1945) {{flagicon|Thailand}} [[Jarun Rattanakuln Seriroengrit]] {{flagicon|India|1931}} [[Subhash Chandra Bose|Subhas C. Bose]]
| strength1 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} 60,000{{When|date=November 2010}} {{flagicon|Republic of China}} 42,000 (1942)1; 100,000 (1944)2
| strength2 = {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} 316,700 (1944)<ref>Allen, ''Burma: The Longest War'', p.662</ref> {{flagicon|Thailand}} 35,000 {{flagicon|India|1931}} 43,000 (1945)
| casualties1 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} 71,244 killed and wounded<ref>Allen, ''Burma: The Longest War'', p.638. Minimum of 6,665 dead, but not all fatalities recorded</ref>
| casualties2 = {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} 144,000 killed; possibly another 70,000 wounded. Total: ~200,000.3
| notes = 1 [[Chinese Expeditionary Force in Burma]]. 2 The [[X Force]] and Y Force. 3 [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]]
}}
{{Campaignbox South-East Asia}}
{{Campaignbox Burma}}

The '''Burma Campaign''' in the [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|South-East Asian Theatre]] of [[World War II]] was fought primarily between [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]], [[China|Chinese]] and [[United States]] forces against the forces of the [[Empire of Japan]], [[Thailand]], and the [[Indian National Army]]. British Commonwealth land forces were drawn primarily from [[British Raj|British India]]. The [[Burmese Independence Army]] initially fought for the Japanese though they later switched sides.

The campaign had a number of notable features. The geographical characteristics of the region meant that factors like weather, disease and terrain had a major effect on operations. The lack of transport infrastructure placed an emphasis on military engineering and air transport to move and supply troops, and evacuate wounded. The campaign was also politically complex, with the British, Americans and Chinese all having different strategic priorities.

The climate of the region is dominated by the seasonal [[monsoon]] rains, which allowed effective campaigning for only just over half of each year. This, together with other factors such as famine and disorder in British India and the priority given by the Allies to the defeat of [[Nazi Germany]], prolonged the campaign and divided it into four phases: the Japanese invasion which led to the expulsion of British, Indian and Chinese forces in 1942; failed attempts by the Allies to mount offensives into Burma, from late 1942 to early 1944; the Japanese invasion of India which ultimately failed following the battles of Imphal and Kohima; and, finally, the successful Allied offensive which reoccupied Burma from late-1944 to mid-1945.

==Japanese conquest of Burma==
{{Main|Japanese conquest of Burma}}
{{See also|Malayan Campaign|Battle of Singapore|Netherlands East Indies campaign}}
Japanese objectives in Burma were initially limited to the capture of [[Rangoon]], the capital and principal seaport. This would close the overland supply line to China and provide a strategic bulwark to defend Japanese gains in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and the [[Indonesia|Dutch East Indies]]. The [[Fifteenth Army (Japan)|Japanese Fifteenth Army]] under Lieutenant General [[Shojiro Iida]], initially consisting of only two infantry divisions, moved into northern Thailand (which had signed a treaty of friendship with Japan), and launched an attack over jungle-clad mountain ranges into the southern Burmese province of [[Tenasserim]] in January 1942.

The Japanese successfully attacked over the Kawkareik Pass, and captured the port of [[Mawlamyaing|Moulmein]] at the mouth of the [[Salween River]] after overcoming stiff resistance. They then advanced northwards, outflanking successive British defensive positions. Troops of the [[17th Indian Infantry Division|17th Indian Division]] tried to retreat over the [[Sittaung River|Sittang River]], but Japanese parties reached the vital bridge before they did. On 22 February, the bridge was demolished to prevent its capture, a decision that has since been extremely contentious.

The loss of two brigades of 17th Indian Division meant that Rangoon could not be defended. General [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]], the commander-in-chief of the [[American-British-Dutch-Australian Command|ABDA Command]], nevertheless ordered Rangoon to be held as he was expecting substantial reinforcements from the Middle East. Although some units arrived, counterattacks failed and the new commander of Burma Army (General [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Harold Alexander]]), ordered the city to be evacuated on 7 March after its port and oil refinery had been destroyed. The remnants of Burma Army broke out to the north, narrowly escaping encirclement.

===Japanese advance to the Indian frontier===
After the fall of Rangoon, the Allies attempted to make a stand in the north of the country (Upper Burma), having been reinforced by a [[Chinese Expeditionary Force in Burma]]. The Japanese had also been reinforced by two divisions made available by the capture of Singapore, and defeated both the newly organised [[Burma Corps]] and the Chinese force. The Allies were also faced with growing numbers of Burmese insurgents and the civil administration broke down in the areas they still held. With their forces cut off from almost all sources of supply, the Allied commanders finally decided to evacuate their forces from Burma.

The retreat was conducted in very difficult circumstances. Starving refugees, disorganised stragglers, and the sick and wounded clogged the primitive roads and tracks leading to India. Burma Corps managed to make it most of the way to [[Imphal]], in [[Manipur]] in India just before the monsoon broke in May 1942, having lost most of their equipment and transport. There, they found themselves living out in the open under torrential rains in extremely unhealthy circumstances. The army and civil authorities in India were very slow to respond to the needs of the troops and civilian refugees.

Due to lack of communication, when the British retreated from Burma, almost none of the Chinese knew about the retreat. Realising that they could not win without British support, some of the Chinese troops committed by Chiang Kai-shek made a hasty and disorganised retreat to India where they were put under the command of the American General [[Joseph Stilwell]]. After recuperating they were re-equipped and retrained by American instructors. The rest of the Chinese troops tried to return to [[Yunnan]] through remote mountainous forests and out of these at least half died.

===Thai army enters Burma===
[[File:Thai Army enter Kengtung.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Thai [[Type 95 Ha-Go]] enter Kengtung]]
A Thai military alliance with Japan had been signed on 21 December 1941. Three Thai infantry and one cavalry division, spearheaded by armoured reconnaissance groups and supported by the [[Royal Thai Air Force|air force]], started their advance into Burma on 10 May, and engaged the retreating Chinese 93rd Division. [[Kengtung]], the main objective, was captured on 27 May. Renewed offensives in June and November drove the Chinese back into Yunnan.

The boundary between the Japanese and Thai operations was generally the Salween. However, that area south of the Shan States known as [[Karenni States]], the homeland of the Karens, was specifically retained under Japanese control.

==Allied setbacks, 1942 – 1943==
{{Main|Burma Campaign 1942–1943}}
The Japanese did not renew their offensive after the monsoon ended. They installed a nominally independent Burmese government under [[Ba Maw]], and reformed the Burma Independence Army on a more regular basis as the Burma National Army under [[Aung San]]. In practice, both government and army were strictly controlled by the Japanese authorities.

On the Allied side, operations in Burma over the remainder of 1942 and in 1943 were a study of military frustration. Britain could only maintain three active campaigns, and immediate offensives in both the Middle East and Far East proved impossible through lack of resources. The Middle East was accorded priority, being closer to home and in accordance with the "Germany First" policy in London and Washington.

The Allied build up was also hampered by the disordered state of Eastern India at the time. There were violent [[Quit India movement|"Quit India"]] protests in [[Bengal state|Bengal]] and [[Bihar]],<ref>Bayly and Harper (2005) ''Forgotten Armies: Britain's Asian Empire and the War with Japan'' (London: Penguin Books)pp.247–249</ref> which required large numbers of British troops to suppress. There was also a disastrous [[Bengal famine of 1943|famine in Bengal]], which may have led to 3 million deaths through starvation, disease and exposure. In such conditions of chaos, it was difficult to improve the inadequate lines of communication to the front line in Assam or make use of local industries for the war effort. Efforts to improve the training of Allied troops took time and in forward areas poor morale and endemic disease combined to reduce the strength and effectiveness of the fighting units.

Nevertheless, the Allies mounted two operations during the 1942–1943 dry season. The first was a small offensive into the coastal [[Rakhine State|Arakan]] region of Burma. The Indian "[[Eastern Army]]" intended to reoccupy the Mayu peninsula and Akyab Island, which had an important airfield. A division advanced to Donbaik, only a few miles from the end of the peninsula but was halted by a small but well entrenched Japanese force. At this stage of the war, the Allies lacked the means and tactical ability to overcome strongly constructed Japanese bunkers. Repeated British and Indian attacks failed with heavy casualties. Japanese reinforcements arrived from Central Burma and crossed rivers and mountain ranges which the Allies had declared to be impassable, to hit the Allies' exposed left flank and overrun several units. The exhausted British were unable to hold any defensive lines and were forced to abandon much equipment and fall back almost to the Indian frontier.

The second action was controversial. Under the command of Brigadier [[Orde Wingate]], a long-range penetration unit known as the [[Chindits]] infiltrated through the Japanese front lines and marched deep into Burma, with the initial aim of cutting the main north-south railway in Burma in an operation codenamed Operation ''Longcloth''. Some 3,000 men entered Burma in many columns. They damaged communications of the Japanese in northern Burma, cutting the railway for possibly two weeks but they suffered heavy casualties. Though the results were questioned the operation was used to propaganda effect, particularly to insist that British and Indian soldiers could live, move and fight as effectively as the Japanese in the jungle, doing much to restore morale among Allied troops.

==The Balance Shifts 1943–1944==
{{Main|Burma Campaign 1944}}
From December 1943 to November 1944 the strategic balance of the Burma campaign shifted decisively. Improvements in Allied leadership, training and logistics, together with greater firepower and growing Allied air superiority, gave Allied forces a confidence they had previously lacked. In the Arakan, [[XV Indian Corps]] withstood, and then broke, a Japanese counterstroke, while the Japanese invasion of India resulted in unbearably heavy losses and the ejection of the Japanese back beyond the Chindwin.

===Allied plans===
[[File:SE 000014 Mountbatten as SACSEA during Arakan tour.jpg|left|thumb|[[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Louis Mountbatten]], Supreme Allied Commander, seen during his tour of the Arakan Front in February 1944.]]
In August 1943 the Allies created [[South East Asia Command]] (SEAC), a new combined command responsible for the South-East Asian Theatre, under Admiral [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Louis Mountbatten]]. The training, equipment, health and morale of Allied troops under [[British Fourteenth Army]] under Lieutenant General [[William Slim]] was improving, as was the capacity of the [[Northeast Indian Railways during World War II|lines of communication in North-eastern India]]. An innovation was the extensive use of aircraft to transport and supply troops.

SEAC had to accommodate several rival plans, many of which had to be dropped for lack of resources. Amphibious landings on the Andaman Islands (Operation "Pigstick") and in Arakan were abandoned when the landing craft assigned were recalled to Europe in preparation for the [[Normandy Landings]].

The major effort was intended to be by American-trained Chinese troops of [[Northern Combat Area Command]] under General Joseph Stilwell, to cover the construction of the [[Ledo Road]]. Orde Wingate had controversially gained approval for a greatly expanded Chindit force,
which was given the task of assisting Stilwell by disrupting the Japanese lines of supply to the northern front. Chiang Kai-shek had also agreed reluctantly to mount an offensive from the Yunnan.

Under British Fourteenth Army, [[XV Corps (British India)|XV Corps]] prepared to renew the advance in Arakan province, while [[IV Corps (United Kingdom)|IV Corps]] launched a tentative advance from Imphal in the centre of the long front to distract Japanese attention from the other offensives.

===Japanese plans===
[[File:Kawabe Masakazu.jpg|right|thumb|Lieutenant General Kawabe]]About the same time that SEAC was established, the Japanese created [[Burma Area Army]] under Lieutenant General [[Masakazu Kawabe]], which took under command the Fifteenth Army and the newly-formed [[Twenty-Eighth Army (Japan)|Twenty-Eighth Army]].

The new commander of Fifteenth Army, Lieutenant General [[Renya Mutaguchi]] was keen to mount an offensive against India. Burma Area Army originally quashed this idea, but found that their superiors at [[Southern Expeditionary Army Group]] HQ in Singapore were keen on it. When the staff at Southern Expeditionary Army were persuaded that the plan was inherently risky, they in turn found that [[Imperial General Headquarters]] in Tokyo was in favour of Mutaguchi's plan.

The Japanese were influenced to an unknown degree by [[Subhas Chandra Bose]], commander of the [[Indian National Army]]. This was composed largely of Indian soldiers who had been captured in Malaya or Singapore, and Indians ([[Tamil people|Tamil]]s) living in Malaya. At Bose's instigation, a substantial contingent of the INA joined in this [[Chalo Delhi]] ("March on Delhi"). Both Bose and Mutaguchi emphasised the advantages which would be gained by a successful attack into India. With misgivings on the part of several of Mutaguchi's superiors and subordinates, [[Operation U-Go]] was launched.<ref>Allen, ''Burma: the Longest Campaign'', pp. 157–170</ref>

===Northern and Yunnan front 1943/44===
Stilwell's forces (designated [[X Force]]) initially consisted of two American-equipped Chinese divisions with a Chinese-manned [[Stuart tank|M3 Light Tank]] battalion and an American long-range penetration brigade known as "[[Merrill's Marauders]]".

In October 1943 the [[Chinese 38th Division]] (led by [[Sun Li-jen]]) began to advance from [[Ledo, Assam|Ledo]] towards [[Myitkyina]] and [[Mogaung]] while American engineers and Indian labourers extended the [[Ledo Road]] behind them. The [[18th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|Japanese 18th Division]] was repeatedly outflanked by the Marauders and threatened with encirclement.

In [[Chindits#Operation Thursday|Operation Thursday]] the Chindits were to support Stilwell by interdicting Japanese communications in the region of [[Indaw]]. A brigade began marching across the [[Patkai]] mountains on 5 February 1944. In early March three other brigades were flown into landing zones behind Japanese lines by the [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Army Air Forces|USAAF]] established defensive strongholds around Indaw.

Meanwhile, the Chinese forces on the Yunnan front ([[Y Force]]) mounted an attack starting in the second half of April, with nearly 40,000 troops crossing the Salween river on a {{convert|300|km|mi}} front. Soon some twelve Chinese divisions of 72,000 men, under General [[Wei Lihuang]], were attacking the [[56th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|Japanese 56th Division]]. The Japanese forces in the North were now fighting on two fronts in northern Burma.

On 17 May, control of the Chindits passed from Slim to Stilwell. The Chindits now moved from the Japanese rear areas to new bases closer to Stilwell's front, and were given additional tasks by Stilwell for which they were not equipped. They achieved several objectives, but at the cost of heavy casualties. By the end of June, they had linked up with Stilwell's forces but were exhausted, and were withdrawn to India.

Also on 17 May, a force of two Chinese regiments, Unit Galahad (Merrill's Marauders) and kachin guerillas captured the airfield at [[Myitkyina]].<ref>Allen, ''Burma: The Longest War'', pp. 364–365</ref> The Allies did not immediately follow up this success and the Japanese were able to reinforce the town, which fell only after a siege which lasted until 3 August. The capture of Myitkyina airfield nevertheless immediately helped secure the air link from India to [[Chungking]] in China over [[the Hump]].

By the end of May the Yunnan offensive, though hampered by the monsoon rains and lack of air support, succeeded in annihilating the garrison of [[Tengchung]] and eventually reached as far as Lungling. Strong Japanese reinforcements then counter-attacked and halted the Chinese advance.

===Southern front 1943/44===
In Arakan, Indian XV Corps under Lieutenant General [[Philip Christison]] renewed the advance on the Mayu peninsula. Ranges of steep hills channeled the advance into three attacks each by an Indian or West African division. The [[5th Indian Infantry Division]] captured the small port of [[Maungdaw]] on 9 January 1944. The Corps then prepared to capture two railway tunnels linking Maungdaw with the Kalapanzin valley but the Japanese struck first. A strong force from the [[55th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|Japanese 55th Division]] infiltrated Allied lines to attack the [[7th Indian Infantry Division]] from the rear, overrunning the divisional HQ.

[[File:IND 002994 7th Indian Division Sikhs in Ngakyedauk Pass.jpg|thumb|left|Sikhs of the 7th Indian Division at an observation post in the Ngakyedauk Pass, February 1944.]]
Unlike previous occasions on which this had happened, the Allied forces stood firm against the attack and supplies were dropped to them by parachute. In the [[Battle of the Admin Box]] from 5 February to 23 February, the Japanese concentrated on XV Corps' Administrative Area, defended mainly by line of communication troops but they were unable to deal with tanks supporting the defenders, while troops from 5th Indian Division broke through the [[Ngakyedauk Pass]] to relieve the defenders of the box. Although battle casualties were approximately equal, the result was a heavy Japanese defeat. Their infiltration and encirclement tactics had failed to panic Allied troops and as the Japanese were unable to capture enemy supplies, they starved.

Over the next few weeks, XV Corps' offensive ended as the Allies concentrated on the Central Front. After capturing the railway tunnels, XV Corps halted during the monsoon.

==The Japanese Invasion of India 1944==
[[File:Kohima.jpg|350px|right|thumb|Imphal and Kohima Campaign]]
{{Main|U Go Offensive|Battle of Imphal|Battle of Kohima}}
IV Corps, under Lieutenant-General [[Geoffrey Scoones]], had pushed forward two divisions to the Chindwin River. One division was in reserve at Imphal. There were indications that a major Japanese offensive was building. Slim and Scoones planned to withdraw and force the Japanese to fight with their logistics stretched beyond the limit. However, they misjudged the date on which the Japanese were to attack, and the strength they would use against some objectives.

The Japanese Fifteenth Army consisted of three infantry divisions and a brigade-sized detachment ("Yamamoto Force"), and initially a regiment from the Indian National Army. Mutaguchi, the Army commander, planned to cut off and destroy the forward divisions of [[IV Corps (United Kingdom)|IV Corps]] before capturing [[Imphal]], while the [[IJA 31st Division|Japanese 31st Division]] isolated Imphal by capturing [[Kohima]]. Mutaguchi intended to exploit the capture of Imphal by capturing the strategic city of [[Dimapur]], in the [[Brahmaputra River]] valley. If this could be achieved, the lines of communication to General Stilwell's forces and the airbases used to supply the Chinese over the Hump would be cut.

The Japanese troops crossed the Chindwin River on 8 March. Scoones (and Slim) were slow to order their forward troops to withdraw and the [[17th Indian Infantry Division]] was cut off at [[Tiddim]]. It fought its way back to Imphal with aid from Scoones's reserve division, supplied by parachute drops. North of Imphal, [[50th Indian Parachute Brigade]] was defeated at Sangshak by a regiment from the Japanese 31st Division on its way to Kohima. Imphal was thus left vulnerable to an attack by the [[15th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|Japanese 15th Division]] from the north but because the diversionary attack launched by Japanese in Arakan had already been defeated, Slim was able to move the 5th Indian Division by air to the Central Front. Two brigades went to Imphal, the other went to Dimapur from where it sent a detachment to Kohima.

[[File:IND 003714 Battlefield on Scraggy Hill at Shenam.jpg|left|thumb|The scene on Scraggy Hill, captured by the 10th Gurkhas during the Battle of Imphal]]
By the end of the first week in April, IV Corps had concentrated in the Imphal plain. The Japanese launched several offensives during the month, which were repulsed. At the start of May, Slim and Scoones began a counter-offensive against the Japanese 15th Division north of Imphal. Progress was slow, as movement was made difficult by monsoon rains and IV Corps was short of supplies.

Also at the beginning of April, the Japanese 31st Division under Lieutenant-General [[Kotoku Sato]] reached Kohima. Instead of isolating the small British garrison there and pressing on with his main force to Dimapur, Sato chose to capture the [[hill station]]. The siege lasted from 5 April to 18 April, when the exhausted defenders were relieved. A new formation HQ, the [[XXXIII Corps (British India)|Indian XXXIII Corps]] under Lieutenant-General [[Montagu Stopford]], now took over operations on this front. The [[2nd British Infantry Division]] began a counter-offensive and by 15 May, they had prised the Japanese off Kohima Ridge itself. After a pause during which more Allied reinforcements arrived, XXXIII Corps renewed its offensive.

By now, the Japanese were at the end of their endurance. Their troops (particularly 15th and 31st Divisions) were starving, and during the monsoon, disease rapidly spread among them. Lieutenant-General Sato had notified Mutaguchi that his division would withdraw from Kohima at the end of May if it were not supplied. In spite of orders to hold on, Sato did indeed retreat. The leading troops of IV Corps and XXXIII Corps met at Milestone 109 on the Dimapur-Imphal road on 22 June, and the siege of Imphal was raised.
[[File:IND 003698 Garrison Hill Kohima.jpg|thumb|right|View of the Garrison Hill battlefield, the key to the British defences at Kohima.]]
Mutaguchi (and Kawabe) continued to order renewed attacks. 33rd Division and Yamamoto Force made repeated efforts, but by the end of June they had suffered so many casualties both from battle and disease that they were unable to make any progress. The Imphal operation was finally broken off early in July, and the Japanese retreated painfully to the Chindwin River.

It was the greatest defeat to that date in Japanese history. They had suffered 55,000 casualties, including 13,500 dead. Most of these losses were the result of disease, malnutrition and exhaustion. The Allies suffered 17,500 casualties. Mutaguchi had already relieved all his divisions' commanders; he was subsequently relieved of command himself.

During the monsoon from August to November, Fourteenth Army pursued the Japanese to the Chindwin River. While the [[11th East Africa Division]] advanced down the [[Kabaw Valley]] from Tamu, the 5th Indian Division advanced along the mountainous Tiddim road. By the end of November, Kalewa had been recaptured, and several bridgeheads were established on the east bank of the Chindwin.

==The Allied Reoccupation of Burma 1944–1945==
{{Main|Burma Campaign 1944–1945}}
The Allies launched a series of offensive operations into Burma during late 1944 and the first half of 1945. The command on the front was rearranged in November 1944. Eleventh Army Group HQ was replaced by [[Allied Land Forces South East Asia]] and NCAC and XV Corps were placed directly under this new headquarters. Although the Allies were still attempting to complete the [[Ledo Road]], it was apparent that it would not materially affect the course of the war in China.

The Japanese also made major changes in their command. The most important was the replacement of General Kawabe at Burma Area Army by [[Hyotaro Kimura]]. Kimura threw Allied plans into confusion by refusing to fight at the Chindwin River. Recognising that most of his formations were weak and short of equipment, he withdrew his forces behind the [[Ayeyarwady River|Irrawaddy River]], forcing the Allies to greatly extend their lines of communication.

===Southern Front 1944/45===
[[File:SE 002256 landings on Ramree island.jpg|thumb|right|British troops in a landing craft make their way ashore on Ramree Island, 21 January 1945.]]
In Arakan, XV Corps resumed its advance on Akyab Island for the third year in succession. This time the Japanese were far weaker, and retreated before the steady Allied advance. They evacuated Akyab Island on 31 December 1944. It was occupied by XV Corps without resistance on 3 January 1945 as part of Operation Talon, the amphibious landing at Akyab.

Landing craft had now reached the theatre, and XV Corps launched amphibious attacks on the [[Myebon Peninsula]] on 12 January 1945, and at [[Kangaw]] ten days later, to cut off the retreating Japanese. There was severe fighting until the end of the month, in which the Japanese suffered heavy casualties.

An important objective for XV Corps was the capture of [[Ramree Island]] and [[Cheduba Island]], to construct airfields which would support the Allies' operations in Central Burma. There was severe fighting on [[Battle of Ramree Island|Ramree]], in which most of the Japanese garrison died. XV Corps operations on the mainland were curtailed to release transport aircraft to support Fourteenth Army.

===Northern Front 1944/45===
NCAC resumed its advance late in 1944, although it was progressively weakened by the [[The Hump#Operation Grubworm|flyout of Chinese troops]] to the main front in China. On 10 December 1944, the [[36th British Infantry Division]] on NCAC's right flank made contact with units of Fourteenth Army near Indaw in Northern Burma. Five days later, Chinese troops on the command's left flank captured the city of [[Bhamo]].

NCAC made contact with Chiang's Yunnan armies on 21 January 1945, and the Ledo road could finally be completed, although by this point in the war its value was uncertain. Chiang ordered the American General [[Daniel Isom Sultan|Sultan]], commanding NCAC, to halt his advance at Lashio, which was captured on 7 March. This was a blow to British plans as it endangered the prospects of reaching Rangoon before the onset of the monsoon, expected at the beginning of May. Winston Churchill, British Prime Minister, appealed directly to American chief of staff George Marshall for the transport aircraft which had been assigned to NCAC to remain in Burma.<ref>Churchill (1954), Chapter 18.</ref> From 1 April, NCAC's operations stopped, and its units returned to China and India. A US-led guerrilla force, [[OSS Detachment 101]], took over the remaining military responsibilities of NCAC.

===Central Front 1944/45===
{{Main|Battles of Meiktila and Mandalay}}
Fourteenth Army, now consisting of IV Corps and XXXIII Corps, made the main offensive effort into Burma. Although the Japanese retreat over the Irrawaddy forced the Allies to completely change their plans, such was the Allies' material superiority that this was done. IV Corps was switched in secret from the right to the left flank of the army and aimed to cross the Irrawaddy near [[Pakokku]] and seize the Japanese line-of-communication centre of [[Meiktila]], while XXXIII Corps continued to advance on [[Mandalay]].

[[File:SE 003071 Shermans driving on Meiktila.jpg|left|thumb|Sherman tanks and trucks of 63rd Motorised Brigade advancing on Meiktila, March 1945.]]
During January and February, 1945, XXXIII Corps seized crossings over the Irrawaddy River near Mandalay. There was heavy fighting, which attracted Japanese reserves and fixed their attention. Late in February the 7th Indian Division leading IV Corps, seized crossings at Nyaungu near Pakokku. 17th Indian Division and [[255th Indian Armoured Brigade]] followed them across and struck for Meiktila. In the open terrain of Central Burma, this force outmanoeuvered the Japanese and fell on Meiktila on 1 March. The town was captured in four days, despite resistance to the last man.

The Japanese tried first to relieve the garrison at Meiktila and then to recapture the town and destroy its defenders. Their attacks were not properly coordinated and were repulsed. By the end of March the Japanese had suffered heavy casualties and lost most of their artillery, their chief anti-tank weapon. They broke off the attack and retreated to Pyawbwe.

XXXIII Corps had renewed its attack on Mandalay. It fell to 19th Indian Division on 20 March, though the Japanese held the former citadel which the British called [[Fort Dufferin]] for another week. Much of the historically and culturally significant portions of Mandalay were burned to the ground.

===Race for Rangoon===
[[File:IND 004652 Stuart tank advancing on Rangoon.jpg|thumb|A Stuart light tank of an Indian cavalry regiment during the advance on Rangoon, April 1945]]
Though the Allied force had advanced successfully into central Burma, it was vital to capture the port of Rangoon before the monsoon to avoid a logistics crisis. In the spring of 1945, the other factor in the race for Rangoon was the years of preparation by the liaison organisation, [[Force 136]], which resulted in a national uprising within Burma and the defection of the entire [[Burma National Army]] to the allied side. In addition to the allied advance, the Japanese now faced open rebellion behind their lines.

XXXIII Corps mounted Fourteenth Army's secondary drive down the Irrawaddy River valley against stiff resistance from the [[Twenty-Eighth Army (Japan)|Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army]]. IV Corps made the main attack, down the "Railway Valley", which was also followed by the [[Sittang River]]. They began by striking at a Japanese delaying position (held by the remnants of the [[Thirty-Third Army (Japan)|Japanese Thirty-Third Army]]) at [[Pyawbwe]]. The attackers were initially halted by a strong defensive position behind a dry chaung, but a flanking move by tanks and mechanized infantry struck the Japanese from the rear and shattered them.

From this point, the advance down the main road to Rangoon faced little organised opposition. An uprising by [[Karen people|Karen]] guerillas prevented troops from the reorganised Japanese Fifteenth Army reaching the major road centre of [[Toungoo]] before IV Corps captured it. The leading Allied troops met Japanese rearguards north of [[Pegu]], {{convert|40|mi|km}} north of Rangoon, on 25 April. Kimura had formed the various service troops, naval personnel and even Japanese civilians in Rangoon into the 105 Independent Mixed Brigade. This scratch formation held up the British advance until April 30 and covered the evacuation of the Rangoon area.

===Operation Dracula===
{{Main|Operation Dracula|Battle of Elephant Point}}
The original conception of the plan to re-take Burma had envisaged XV Corps making an amphibious assault on Rangoon well before Fourteenth Army reached the capital, in order to ease supply problems. This operation, codenamed Operation Dracula, was postponed several times as the necessary landing craft were retained in Europe and finally dropped in favour of an attack on [[Phuket Province|Phuket Island]], off the west coast of Thailand.

Slim feared that the Japanese would defend Rangoon to the last man through the monsoon, which would put Fourteenth Army in a disastrous supply situation. He therefore asked for Operation Dracula to be re-mounted at short notice. The naval forces for the attack on Phuket were diverted to Operation Dracula, and units of XV Corps were embarked from Akyab and Ramree.

On 1 May, a Gurkha parachute battalion was dropped on Elephant Point, and cleared Japanese rearguards from the mouth of the [[Rangoon River]]. The [[26th Indian Infantry Division]] landed by ship the next day. When they arrived they discovered that Kimura had ordered Rangoon to be evacuated, starting on 22 April. After the Japanese withdrawal, Rangoon had experienced an orgy of looting and lawlessness similar to the last days of the British in the city in 1942. On the afternoon of 2 May 1945 the monsoon rains began in full force. The Allied drive to liberate Rangoon before the rains had succeeded with only a few hours to spare.

The leading troops of the 17th and 26th Indian divisions met at Hlegu, {{convert|28|mi|km}} north of Rangoon, on 6 May.

==Final operations==
Following the capture of Rangoon, a new [[British Twelfth Army|Twelfth Army]] headquarters was created from XXXIII Corps HQ to take control of the formations which were to remain in Burma.

The Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army, after withdrawing from Arakan and resisting XXXIII Corps in the Irrawaddy valley, had retreated into the [[Pegu Yomas]], a range of low jungle-covered hills between the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers. They planned to break out and rejoin Burma Area Army. To cover this breakout, Kimura ordered Thirty-Third Army to mount a diversionary offensive across the Sittang, although the entire army could muster the strength of barely a regiment. On 3 July, they attacked British positions in the "Sittang Bend". On 10 July, after a battle for country which was almost entirely flooded, both the Japanese and the Allies withdrew.

The Japanese had attacked too early. [[Shōzō Sakurai|Sakurai's]] Twenty-Eighth Army was not ready to start the breakout until 17 July. The breakout was a disaster. The British had placed ambushes or artillery concentrations on the routes the Japanese were to use. Hundreds of men drowned trying to cross the swollen Sittang on improvised bamboo floats and rafts. Burmese guerrillas and bandits killed stragglers east of the river. The breakout cost the Japanese nearly 10,000 men, half the strength of Twenty-Eighth Army. British and Indian casualties were minimal.

Fourteenth Army (now under Lieutenant General [[Miles Dempsey]]) and XV Corps had returned to India to plan the next stage of the campaign to re-take south east Asia. A new corps, the [[Indian XXXIV Corps]], under Lieutenant-General [[Ouvry Lindfield Roberts]] was raised and assigned to Fourteenth Army for further operations.

This was to be an amphibious assault on the western side of Malaya codenamed [[Operation Zipper]]. The dropping of the atomic bombs forestalled this operation, but it was undertaken post-war as the quickest way of getting occupation troops into Malaya.

==Results==
The military and political results of the Burma campaign have been contentious on the Allied side. In military terms, the Japanese retained control of Burma until the result of the campaign was irrelevant to the fate of Japan. It was recognised by many contemporary authorities and later historians that the campaign was a "sideshow" and (apart from distracting some Japanese land forces from China or the Pacific) did not contribute to the defeat of Japan, although the recovery of Burma was reckoned a triumph for the British Indian Army. After the war ended, a combination of the pre-war agitation among the Burman population for independence, the economic ruin of Burma during the four years' campaign and the military and political humiliation of the British far eastern empire during the Japanese invasions made it impossible for the former regime to be resumed. Within three years, both Burma and India were independent.

Against these criticisms, the attempted Japanese invasion of India in 1944 was launched on unrealistic premises and resulted in the greatest defeat the Japanese armies had suffered to that date. After the Singapore debacle and the loss of Burma in 1942, the British were bound to defend India at all costs, as a successful invasion by Japanese Imperial forces would have been disastrous. The defence operations at Kohima and Imphal in 1944 have since taken on huge symbolic value as the turning of the tide in British fortunes in the war in the East.

The American historian Raymond Callahan concluded "Slim's great victory ... helped the British, unlike the French, Dutch or, later, the Americans, to leave Asia with some dignity."<ref>{{cite book|last=Callahan|first=Raymond|authorlink=Raymond Callahan|title=Burma 1942-1945: The Politics And Strategy Of The Second World War|publisher=Davis-Poynter|year=1978|isbn=978-0706702187}}</ref>

American goals in Burma had been to aid the Nationalist Chinese regime. Apart from the "Hump" airlift, these bore no fruit until so near the end of the war that they made little contribution to the defeat of Japan. These efforts have also been criticised as fruitless because of the self-interest and corruption of Chiang Kai-Shek's regime.

==See also==
* [[Japanese occupation of Burma]]
* [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Allen, Louis ''Burma: The Longest War''
* Bayly, Christopher & Harper, Tim. ''Forgotten Armies''
* Carew, Tim. ''The Longest Retreat''
* [[Mike Calvert|Calvert, Mike]]. ''Fighting Mad'' has content related to the 1944 Chindit campaign
* {{cite book| first=Winston| last=Churchill| title=The Second World War. Volume 6: Triumph and Tragedy| year=1954| location=London| publisher=Cassel| oclc=312199790}}
* Dillon, Terence. ''Rangoon to Kohima''
* {{cite book | last = Drea | first = Edward J. | year = 1998 | chapter = An Allied Interpretation of the Pacific War | title = In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army | publisher = University of Nebraska Press | location = Nebraska | isbn = 0-8032-1708-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Fraser|first=George MacDonald|title=Quartered Safe Out Here: A Harrowing Tale of World War II|year=2007|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing|isbn=978-1602391901|pages=358|url=http://www.amazon.com/Quartered-Safe-Out-Here-Harrowing/dp/1602391904/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_b}}
* Fujino, Hideo. ''Singapore and Burma''
* Grant, Ian Lyall & Tamayama, Kazuo ''Burma 1942: The Japanese Invasion''
* [[Shojiro Ida|Ida, Shojiro]] ''From the Battlefields''
* Ikuhiko Hata ''Road to the Pacific War''
* {{cite book|last=Hastings|first=Max|authorlink=Max Hastings|title=Nemesis|publisher=Harper Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0007219827}}
* Hickey, Michael. ''The Unforgettable Army''
* Hodsun, J.L. ''War in the Sun''
* {{cite book
| last = Jackson
| first = Ashley
| title = The British Empire and the Second World War
| publisher = Hambledon Continuum
| year = 2006
| location = London
| pages = 387–388
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 978-1-85285-517-8 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Keegan (ed)
| first = John
| authorlink =John Keegan
| coauthors = Duncan Anderson
| title = Churchill's Generals
| publisher = [[Orion Publishing Group|Cassell]] Military
| year = 1991
| location = London
| pages = 243–255
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-304-36712-5 }}
* Latimer, Jon. ''Burma: The Forgotten War''
* Moser, Don and editors of Time-Life Books ''World War II: China-Burma-India''',1978, Library of Congress no 77-93742
* [[William Slim|Slim, William]] (1956) ''Defeat Into Victory''. Citations from the Cassell 1956 edition, but also available from NY: Buccaneer Books ISBN 1-56849-077-1, Cooper Square Press ISBN 0-8154-1022-0; London: Cassell ISBN 0-304-29114-5, Pan ISBN 0-330-39066-X.
* Ochi, Harumi. ''Struggle in Burma''
* Reynolds, E. Bruce. ''Thailand and Japan's Southern Advance''
* Rolo, Charles J. ''Wingate's Raiders''
* Sadayoshi Shigematsu '' Fighting Around Burma''
* {{cite book
| last = Shores
| first = Christopher
| title = Air War for Burma: The Allied Air Forces Fight Back in South-East Asia 1942-1945 (Bloody Shambles, Volume 3)
| publisher = Grub Street
| year = 2005
| location =
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 1904010954 }}
* [[Sir John Smyth, 1st Baronet|Smyth John]] ''Before the Dawn''
* Sugita, Saiichi. ''Burma Operations''
* [[Robert Grainger Ker Thompson|Thompson, Robert]]. ''Make for the Hills'' has content related to the 1944 Chindit campaign
* Webster, Donovan. ''The Burma Road : The Epic Story of the China-Burma-India Theater in World War II''
*[[James Howard Williams|Williams, James Howard]] was Elephant Advisor to the Fourteenth Army, see his ''Elephant Bill'' (1950) and ''Bandoola'' (1953)
* Young, Edward M. ''Aerial Nationalism: A History of Aviation in Thailand''

==Further reading==
*{{cite book| title = Burma, 1942| first = Clayton R| last = Newell| url = http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/burma42/burma42.htm| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]| id = CMH Pub 72-21 | series = World War II Campaign Brochures| location = Washington D.C.}}
*{{cite book| title = India-Burma| first = David W| last = Hogan| url = http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/indiaburma/indiaburma.htm | publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]| id = CMH Pub 72-5 | series = World War II Campaign Brochures| location = Washington D.C.}}
*{{cite book| title = Central Burma| first = George L| last = MacGarrigle| url = http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/centburma/centburma.htm | publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]| id = CMH Pub 72-37 | series = World War II Campaign Brochures| location = Washington D.C.}}
*{{cite book|last=Burchett|first=Wilfred G.|title=Trek Back from Burma|year=1943|publisher=Kitabistan|location=Allhabad}}

==External links==
===Associations===
* [http://www.burmastar.org.uk/ Burma Star Association]
* [http://www.national-army-museum.ac.uk/pages/Second-war/far-east.html national-army-museum.ac.uk] History of the British Army: Far East, 1941–45

===Museums===
* [http://www.iwm.org.uk/upload/package/1/burma/summary.htm Imperial War Museum London] Burma Summary
*[http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_part16.htm#burma Royal Engineers Museum] Engineers in the Burma Campaigns
*[http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_part16.htm#chindits Royal Engineers Museum] Engineers with the Chindits
* [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/operations/burma_e.html Canadian War Museum: Newspaper Articles on the Burma Campaigns, 1941–1945]

===Media===
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/launch_ani_burma_campaign.shtml World War II animated campaign maps]

===Primary sources===
* {{London Gazette|issue=37728|supp=yes|startpage=4663|endpage=4671|date=17 September 1946|accessdate=2007-11-19}} "Operations in Eastern Theatre, Based on India from March 1942 to December 31, 1942", official despatch by [[Field Marshal]] The [[Viscount Wavell]]
* {{London Gazette|issue=38274|startpage=2651|endpage=2684|date=27 April 1948|accessdate=2007-11-19}} "Operations in the Indo-Burma Theatre Based on India from 21 June 1943 to 15 November 1943" official despatch by Field Marshal Sir [[Claude E. Auchinleck]], War Office. (or [http://www.britain-at-war.org.uk/ww2/london%5Fgazette/indo%2Dburma%5Fjune%5Fto%5Fnov%5F1943/ see this html version])
*{{London Gazette|issue=39195|supp=yes|startpage=1881|endpage=1963|date=6 April 1951|accessdate=2007-11-19}} "Operations in Burma from 12 November 1944 to 15 August 1945" official despatch by Lieutenant General Sir [[Oliver Leese]]

===History===
* [http://www.cpamedia.com/history/thailand_in_shan_state/ A Forgotten Invasion: Thailand in Shan State, 1941–45 ]
* [http://stonebooks.com/history/siam.shtml Siam goes to war]
* [http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history/secondwar/asia/cansouthasia Canadians in south east Asia]
* [http://www.regiments.org/wars/ww2/burma.htm List of Regimental Battle Honours in the Burma Campaign (1942 – 1945) – also some useful links]
{{Indian National Army}}

{{coord missing|Burma}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Campaign, Burma}}
[[Category:World War II Southeast Asia Theatre|Burma]]
[[Category:Military history of Thailand during World War II|Burma]]
[[Category:Military history of Burma during World War II|Burma]]
[[Category:Military history of India during World War II|Burma]]
[[Category:Indian National Army]]
[[Category:1942 in Burma]]
[[Category:1943 in Burma]]
[[Category:1944 in Burma]]
[[Category:1945 in Burma]]
[[Category:World War II operations and battles of the Pacific Theatre|Burma]]

{{Link GA|ja}}
[[ca:Campanya de Birmània]]
[[de:Burmafeldzug]]
[[es:Campaña de Birmania]]
[[fa:نبرد برمه]]
[[fr:Campagne de Birmanie]]
[[id:Kampanye Burma]]
[[he:המערכה על בורמה]]
[[hu:Burmai hadjárat]]
[[ja:ビルマの戦い]]
[[no:Felttoget i Burma]]
[[ru:Бирманская кампания]]
[[sl:Burmanska kampanja]]
[[uk:Бірманська операція]]

Belgorod–Bogodukhov offensive operation

2011-09-18T10:48:22Z

Muta112:

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Belgorod-Bogodukhov Offensive Operation
| image = [[File:Belgorod, august 1943.jpg|250px]]
| caption = Belgorod, August 1943
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| place = [[Belgorod]]
| date = 23 July – 14 August 1943
| result = Soviet victory
| combatant1 = {{flag|Nazi Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erich von Manstein]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]]
| units1=[[4th Panzer Army|4th Panzer Army]] [[German Army Detachment Kempf|Army Group "Kempf"]] [[XLVIII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLVIII Panzer Corps]] [[III Panzer Corps (Germany)|III Panzer Corps]] [[XI Army Corps (Germany)|XI Army Corps]] [[Panzer-Grenadier-Division Großdeutschland|Großdeutschland Panzergrenadier Division]]
| units2=[[Voronezh Front]] [[Steppe Front]] [[1st Guards Tank Army|1st Guards Tank Army]] [[5th Guards Tank Army]] [[6th Guards Army]] [[5th Guards Army]] [[53rd Army]] [[69th Army]] [[7th Guards Army]] [[27th Army]]
| strength1 = 60,000 men<ref name=sajer>Sajer (1967)</ref> 250 tanks
| strength2 = 400,000-500,000 men<ref name=sajer>Sajer (1967)</ref> 1859 Tanks <ref name=nipe>Nipe, Fedorowicz, p.376</ref>
|casualties1=20,000 killed<ref name=sajer>Sajer (1967)</ref> 80 Tanks/Assault Guns
|casualties2=50,000 killed 800 Tanks
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Kursk}}

The '''Belgorod-Bogodukhov Offensive Operation''' (23 July – 14 August 1943) was a combat operation executed as part of [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev]] by the [[Red Army]] against the [[Wehrmacht]] forces. It was one of the operations that followed the [[Battle of Kursk]].

==Prelude==
During the [[Battle of Kursk]], German armored units south of the Kursk salient failed to penetrate the defences between the [[Voronezh Front|Voronezh]] and [[Steppe Front]]s in the [[Belgorod]] sector. The Red Army's [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev]] followed [[Operation Citadel]] and included as its objectives the immediate liberation of [[Belgorod]], assigned to the [[Voronezh Front|Voronezh]] and [[Steppe Front]]s. On July 23, German forces of the [[XI Army Corps (Germany)|XI Army Corps]] returned to their old, well fortified positions on both sides of [[Belgorod]]. Their combat strength had been reduced by as much as 50% following the Battle.<ref name="Newton, p.212">Newton, p.212</ref>{{note label|Note1|a|a}}

==The Belgorod-Bogodukhov Offensive Operation==
Early on 3 August 1943, the Forces of the [[Voronezh Front|Voronezh]] and [[Steppe Front]]s {{note label|Note2|b|b}} advancing on a wide front between [[Sumy]] and [[Volchansk]] (175 km), crossed the [[Vorskla River|Vorskla river]] & quickly penetrated the defences of the [[332nd Static Infantry Division (Germany)|332nd Infantry Division]] & [[167th Infantry Division (Germany)|167th Infantry Division]] to a depth of 100 km<ref name="Newton, p.212"/> between [[Tomarovka]] & [[Belgorod]] on the northern flank, and as far as [[Bogodukhov]] sweeping aside the weakened [[19th Panzer Division (Germany)|19th Panzer Division]]. By 5 August [[Belgorod]] which was defended by [[XI Army Corps (Germany)|XI Armeecorps]] (Raus) was also being surrounded and isolated, requiring attempts by the German [[German Army Detachment Kempf|Armeeabteilung Kempf]] and [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzerarmee]] Armies to relieve the garrison which was ordered by Hitler to defend the city. [[Erhard Raus|General Raus]] explains:{{quotation|'' On 3 August after Soviet artillery had fired heavily for one hour, the enemy offensive began along the [[Belgorod]]-[[Kursk]] highway, with the aim of pushing through the salient around [[Belgorod]] where the boundary between the [[4th Panzer Army|4th Panzerarmee]] & [[German Army Detachment Kempf|Armeeabteilung Kempf]] was situated and thereby dislocate the entire defensive line. In this they succeeded completely. Their heavy barrage hit the [[167th Infantry Division (German)|167th Infantry Division]], which had taken up positions in a former soviet antitank ditch, located a few kilometres in front of the fortified line. Within a short time massed Red Army tanks had crossed this ditch; by noon they passed the corps command post and poured into the depth of German positions, all the while firing on our fleeing trains. On the following morning (6 August), after a night time forced march, Russian spearheads had reached the surprised headquarters of the [[4th Panzer Army|4th Panzerarmee]] at [[Bogodukhov]]. Since [[Hermann Hoth|Colonel General Hermann Hoth's]] army had no reserves available to close the ten-kilometre gap in his front between [[Tomarovka]] & [[Belgorod]], or even to stop the flood of enemy tanks that had already broken through to a depth of 100 kilometres, Russian spearheads reached the area north-east of [[Poltava]] and [[Akhtyrka]] on 7 August.These illustrate the dangerous situation into which this development thrust [[XI Army Corps (Germany)|XI Armeecorps]] which had been fighting with its front to the east.On the very first day of the offensive, [[XI Army Corps (Germany)|XI Armeecorps]] had been attacked in the rear by enemy tank forces situated thirty kilometres in the depth of our positions. These tank forces exerted crushing pressure on our unprotected left flank. At this critical moment, [[XI Army Corps (Germany)|XI Armeecorps]] had not only been left to its own devices but also had been handicapped by a direct fuehrer order, which had arrived at the last minute & insisted that [[Belgorod]] was to be held under all circumstances. The Corps front now formed a deep salient into enemy territory, which might have disintegrated with complete encirclement as its final destiny. This would have meant a widening of the existing [[Belgorod]]-[[Tomarovka]] gap from 25 to 80 kilometres and the immediate loss of several divisions. With these considerations I decided-Hitler's order notwithstanding-to fight a delaying action in successive positions until the withdrawal reached [[Kharkov]] and then hold the city. During the night of 5-6 August, I ordered the [[168th Infantry Division (German)|168th Infantry Division]] (on the corps left & resisting heavy pressure North of [[Belgorod]]) to pivot 180 degrees around the city. We evacuated the city after heavy street fighting and occupied a new defensive line prepared on the high ground immediately south of [[Belgorod]].''<ref>Newton, pp.213-215</ref>}} Germany had an initial strenght of 60,000 men, including 18,000 [[Hitlerjugend]]<ref name=sajer>Sajer (1967)</ref>. While the German intention was to "pinch off" the Red Army's offensive thrust at the base of the penetration between [[Borisovka, Belgorod Oblast|Borisovka]] and [[Grayvoron]] south of [[Vorskla River|Vorskla river]], the rapid tempo of the [[Steppe Front|Steppe]] and [[Voronezh Front]]s offensive meant that by the time the counter-attacks were executed the city had been evacuated on 6 August, and German forces were now defending [[Kharkov]]. The Wehrmacht's Mobile Forces were heading into an encounter with the main thrust of the Soviet Front tank armies. The German counter-attacks were carried out by the [[III Panzer Corps (Germany)|III Panzercorps]] of the [[German Army Detachment Kempf|Armeeabteilung "Kempf"]] in the [[Olshany]] area, and the [[XLVIII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLVIII Panzercorps]] of the [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzerarmee]] in the two-pincer manoeuvre of the [[Krasnokutsk]] and [[Akhtyrka]] areas.<ref>Nipe, Fedorowicz pp. 259-330</ref> In the fighting that took place on both sides of the Merla & Merchik rivers, the superiority of the German Panzer Divisions was clearly evident, in spite of being involved in combat operations continuously since the 5th of July. Whilst [[5th SS Panzer Division|5th SS Panzer Division 'Wiking']] & [[3rd Panzer Division]] conducted primarily defensive operations, [[2nd SS Division Das Reich|2nd SS Panzer Division 'Das Reich']], [[3rd SS Panzer Division|3rd SS Panzer Division 'Totenkopf']] repeatedly blunted attacks of Soviet elements south of the rivers and [[Bogodukhov]]. As at [[Prokhorovka]], the Russians enjoyed tremendous numerical superiority in tanks. Both [[1st Guards Tank Army|1st Tank Army]] & [[5th Guards Tank Army]] began the operations with over 500 tanks each, while the SS Divisions never had more than about 30-50 tanks each at any time during August. in spite of this, all Soviet attempts to penetrate to the railroad line were repulsed with bloody losses in men and tremendous loss in tanks. Katukov's [[1st Guards Tank Army|1st Tank Army]] thrusts south of the Merchik were repeatedly cut off & destroyed by [[III Panzer Corps (Germany)|III Panzercorps]]. The attempts by Rotmistrov's [[5th Guards Tank Army]] Army to penetrate to the rail line from east of [[Bogodukhov]] were frustrated by [[3rd Panzer Division]] & [[5th SS Panzer Division|'Wiking']], with key defensive fighting by elements of [[2nd SS Division Das Reich|'Das Reich']]. [[3rd SS Panzer Division|'Totenkopf']] executed a masterful attack that cut off elements of infantry and armour from the [[27th Army]] & [[6th Guards Army]] south of [[Krasnokutsk]] and then rolled down the line of supply toward Kolomak, south of Konstantinovka. Subsequent attacks encircled disorganized elements of several Russian Divisions and destroyed major portions of them after brief fighting. Subsequently [[3rd SS Panzer Division|'Totenkopf']] drove to the Merla & forced a crossing of that river and linked up with [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzerarmee]] spearheads at [[Parchomovka]]. However [[Großdeutschland Division|''Großdeutschland'']] was forced to withdraw from that town by Soviet pressure on its Northern flank, & this success could not be followed up.<ref>Nipe, Fedorowicz, p.365</ref>

==Aftermath==
Combined deaths during the operation are over 72,000. Germany lost about 20,000 men, among them were 6,000 [[Hitlerjugend]].<ref name=sajer>Sajer (1967), p. 197</ref> After [[Belgorod]] was retaken on 6 August 1943<ref name="Nipe, Fedorowicz, p.264">Nipe, Fedorowicz, p.264</ref> by the [[Steppe Front|Steppe Front's]] [[69th Army|69th]] and [[7th Guards Army|7th Guards Armies]], following its evacuation,<ref name="Nipe, Fedorowicz, p.264"/>{{note label|Note3|c|c}}the way was now clear for the concentration of forces for the liberation of [[Kharkiv]].

==Footnotes==
*{{note label|Note1|a|a}}XI Armeecorps suffered the following casualties during the Battle of Kursk. 106th Infantry Division - 3,244 (forty-six officers), 320th Infantry Division - 2,839 (thirty officers) & 168th Infantry Division - 2,671 (127 officers) a Total of 8,754 combat effective soldiers.
*{{note label|Note2|b|b}}Consisting of the 1st Guards Tank Army, 5th Guards Tank Army, 6th Guards Army, 5th Guards Army, 40th Army, 69th Army, 7th Guards Army, 27th Army.
*{{note label|Note3|c|c}}by the German [[168th Infantry Division (Germany)|168th Infantry Division]].

==Citations and notes==
{{refs}}

==References==
* Nipe, George M. Jr., & Fedorowicz, J.J., ''Decision in the Ukraine: Summer 1943, II SS & III Panzerkorps'', Publishing Inc., 1996 ISBN 0-921991-35-5

* Newton, Steven H., ''Panzer Operations: The Eastern Front Memoir of General Raus 1941-1945'', Da Capo Press, 2003 ISBN 0-306-81247-9

* Sajer, Guy., ''The Forgotten Soldier'', Editions Robert Laffont, S.A., 1967 ASIN: B001Q797JQ

* Ziemke, Earl F., ''Stalingrad to Berlin: The German Defeat in the East'', Dorset Press, 1968

{{coord missing|Russia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Belgorod, Battle of}}
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:1943 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]

[[pl:Bitwa o Biełgorod]]
[[ro:Bătălia de la Belgorod]]
[[tr:Belgorod Muharebesi]]
[[zh:別爾哥羅德戰役]]

Battle of Brody (1941)

2011-09-13T13:19:10Z

Muta112:

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Brody (1941)
| image = [[File:Battle of Dubno.svg|300px]]
| caption = Drive of [[11th Panzer Division (Germany)|11 Pz Div]] during the Battle of Brody
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| place = [[Brody]], [[Ukraine]]
| date = 23–30 June 1941
| result = German victory
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} Colonel-General [[Mikhail Kirponos]]
| strength1 = 800 Tanks<ref name="popel">Попель Н.К. В тяжкую пору. — М.-СПб.: Terra Fantastica, 2001. 2001 г. — 480 стр., стр 414. ISBN 5-17-005626-5, 5-7921-0392-5</ref><ref name=mspl>{{cite book|author=Mark Sołonin|authorlink=Mark Solonin|title=22 czerwca 1941 czyli Jak zaczęła się Wielka Wojna ojczyźniana|year=2007|pages=528–529|publisher=Dom Wydawniczy Rebis|location=Poznań, Poland|isbn=9788375101300|edition=1|translation=Tomasz Lisiecki|language=Polish}} (the only English translations of Solonin's works seem to be, as of June 2011, [http://www.solonin.org/en/books these online chapters])</ref>
| strength2 = 2500 tanks<ref name="popel" />
| casualties1 = only against 8th Mech. Corps: ~ 200 tanks lost<ref name=bfru>http://www.battlefield.ru/en/articles/168-8mechanized-corps-offensive.html</ref>
| casualties2 = only 8th Mech. Corps: ~ 800 tanks lost<ref name=bfru />
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Barbarossa}}

The '''Battle of Brody''' (other names in use include '''Battle of Dubna''', '''Battle of Dubno''', '''Battle of Rovne''', '''Battle of Rovne-Brody''') was a tank battle fought between the [[1st Panzer Army (Germany)|Panzer Group 1's]] [[III Army Corps (Germany)|IIIrd]], [[XLVIII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLVIII Army Corps (Motorized)]] and five Soviet Mechanized Corps of the Soviet [[5th Army (Russia)|5th Army]] and [[6th Army (Soviet Union)|6th Army]] in the triangle formed by the towns [[Dubno]], [[Lutsk]] and [[Brody]] in [[Ukraine]] between 23 and 30 June 1941 known in Soviet historiography as a part of the [[Border Defensive Battles (1941)|Border Defensive Battles]]. Although the [[Red Army]] formations inflicted heavy losses on the German forces, they were outmaneuvered and suffered large losses in tanks. This was one of the most intense armoured engagements in the opening phase of [[Operation Barbarossa]] and remained the largest tank battle of World War II until the [[Battle of Kursk]] two years later.

==Prelude==
[[1st Panzer Army (Germany)|Panzer Group 1]] led by [[Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist|Kleist]] was ordered to secure the [[Bug River]] crossings, and advance to [[Rovno]] and [[Korosten]] with the strategic objective of [[Kiev]]. It deployed two Corps forward and advanced between [[Lviv]] and [[Rovno]] in the attempt to cut the Lviv - Kiev railway line, driving a wedge along junction point between the Soviet 5th and 6th Armies.

The Southwestern Front under the command of Mikhail Kirponos, despite incomplete intelligence on the size and direction of the German attack were surprised by the decision of STAVKA to order a general counterattack on the authority of Georgy Zhukov, under the title of directive No. 3. Most of the headquarters staff were convinced that the general order would be to remain in a defensive posture until the situation clarified. Later [[Hovhannes Baghramyan|H. Baghramyan]], a staff officer of the front headquarters, who was charged with writing the initial report to Moscow, said that "our first combat report to Moscow was full of generalities and unclarities."

Despite this, or perhaps because of it, the general orders of directive No. 3, read:

:"While maintaining strong defense of the state border with Hungary, the 5th and 6th armies are to carry out concentric strikes in the direction of [[Lublin]], utilizing at least five mechanized corps and aviation of the Front, in order to encircle and destroy the enemy group of forces advancing along the front Vladimir-Volynski-Krystonopol, and by the end of June 24th to capture the vicinity of Lublin."<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941 }}</ref>

By the end of the night of the 22nd, Chief of General Staff [[Georgy Zhukov|G. K. Zhukov]] was on his way to the Southwestern Front headquarters at [[Tarnopol]] along with [[Nikita Khrushchev]], the former head of Organizational Department of the Ukrainian Communist Party's Central Committee, to ensure these orders were carried out.

==Disposition of Forces==
Six Soviet mechanized corps, with over 2,500 tanks, were massed to take part in a concentric counterattack through the flanks of Panzer Group 1 in an effort to convert it into a pincer movement from the north (5th Army) and south (6th Army) that met west of Dubno in order to trap parts of the 6th and 17th German Armies, the northern flank of the [[Army Group South]].

To achieve this the 8th Mechanized Corps was transferred from the command of the 26th Army, positioned to the south of the 6th Army, and placed under the command of N. I. Muzychenko's 6th Army. This in essence brought the entire mobile assets of the South Western Front to bear against the base of von Kleist's thrust toward Kiev.

The primary German infantry formation operating on this sector of the front, [[IV Army Corps (Germany)|IV Army Corps]] (von Schwedler) of the [[17th Army (Germany)|17th Army]] ([[Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel]]) were advancing in the south-easterly direction with the objective of cutting Lviv-Kiev railway line.

==Balance of the tank forces==

On 22 June 1941, the balance of tanks over the entire area of the [[German Army Group South]] and the [[Soviet Southwestern Front]], including but not limited to the main battle of Brody, was as follows.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! German corps !! German divisions !! Total German tanks<ref>Total German tanks includes non-combat "commander tanks" as well as outdated [[Panzer I]] and [[Panzer II]] tanks</ref> !! Tanks with 37 mm cannon (incl. [[Panzer 38(t)]] and [[Panzer III]]) !! Tanks with 50 mm or larger cannon (incl. [[Panzer III]] and [[Panzer IV]])
|-
| [[III Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[13th Panzer Division|13th]], [[14th Panzer Division|14th]] || 296 || 42 || 140
|-
| [[XXXXVIII Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[11th Panzer Division|11th]], [[16th Panzer Division|16th]] || 289 || 47 || 135
|-
| [[XIV Panzer Corps (Germany)]]<ref name=mspl/> || [[9th Panzer Division|9th]] || 143 || 11 || 80
|-
| colspan=2 | Any other unit of Army Group South<ref name=mspl/> || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| '''Total''' ||   || '''728'''<ref name=mspl/> ||   || 355
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Soviet corps !! Soviet divisions !! Total Soviet tanks !! [[T-34 tank|T-34]] and [[Kliment Voroshilov tank|KV]]
|-
| [[22nd Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 19th, 41st, 215th || 712 || 31
|-
| [[19th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 10th, 37th, 212th || 749 || 136
|-
| [[4th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 8th, 32nd, 81st || 979 || 414
|-
| [[8th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 12th, 34th, 7th || 899 || 171
|-
| [[9th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 20th, 35th, 131st || 316 || 0
|-
| [[19th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 40th, 43rd, 213th || 453 || 5
|-
| [[16th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 15th, 39th, 240th || 478 || 76
|-
| [[24th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 45th, 49th, 216th || 222 || 0
|-
| (from the [[Soviet Western Front]]) || 109th Armored Division || 209 || 0
|-
| [[2nd Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 11th, 16th, 15th || 527 || 60
|-
| [[18th Mechanized Corps (Soviet Union)]]<ref name=mspl/> || 44th, 47th, 218th || 282 || 0
|-
| Tanks scattered over various other units || Ordinary rifle divisions, etc. || not incl. || -
|-
| '''Total''' ||   || '''5826'''<ref name=mspl/> || 893
|}

==Battle in the Air==
The condition of the VVS South-Western front air force followed the pattern of the entire front line, with the great majority of its aircraft being destroyed on the ground, as a result of Stalin's refusal to put Soviet forces on alert, disregarding intelligence that German attack was imminent. In one example, Lieutenant Arkhipenkos 17th Fighter regiment were caught on the ground and finished off by the third day of the war, the remainder of the regiment, comprising only ten [[I-153]]'s and one [[Mig 1]] were retreated to a reserve airfield near [[Rovno]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 149 }}</ref>

Still the Soviet's sent whatever aircraft that had survived to support the offensive.
The air battle resulted in heavy casualties for the attacking Soviets. [[JG 3]] under the command of ''Fliegerkorps IV'' shot down 24 [[Tupolev SB]]s on the first day. Among the casualties was the Commander of 86 SBAP, ''Podpolkovnik'' Sorokin. Just 20 of the initial 251 SBs remained with the unit. German losses were also heavy, 28 destroyed and 23 damaged (including 8 [[He 111]]s and [[Ju 88]]s).<ref>Bergström 2007, p. 38.</ref>

The efforts of the Red Army Air force were not without effect and the Southwestern Front Air force flew 523 sorties between June 22 and 24th and dropped 2,500 bombs. Gustav Shrodek a tank commander of the 15th Panzer regiment ([[11th Panzer Division]]): "At dawn of June 24th, the regiment underwent its first attack by Russian bombers. It shall not be the only one this day; completely the opposite. As a result of this the regiment now has several dead and wounded."<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 152 }}</ref>

Otherwise, near total Luftwaffe air superiority was to be a major factor in breaking up the Soviet counterattack.

==Mobilization==
The attack combined six mechanized corps under the command 5th Army to the north and the 6th Army to the south, under the general direction of the [[Southwestern Front]] commander [[Mikhail Kirponos|Kirponos]]. Under the 5th Army command, [[Konstantin Rokossovsky|K.K. Rokossovsky]]'s 9th and N. V. Feklenko's 19th Mechanized Corps were to be deployed north-west of [[Rovno]], while the 22nd Mechanized Corps was to assemble northeast of Lutsk. To the south, under the command of the 6th Army, [[Dmitry Ryabyshev|Ryabyshev]]'s 8th and I. Karpezo's 15th Mechanized Corps were to be deployed to the south-west and north-east of [[Brody]], while The 4th Mechanized Corps under [[Andrey Vlasov|A. Vlasov]] was to be deployed between [[Sokal]] and [[Radekhiv|Radekhov]], on the left flank of the 15th Mechanized Corps.

The plan called for these forces to assemble and begin offensive operations at 2200 hours, on 23 June, 36 hours after the initial German onslaught, in an attempt to catch the attackers off guard, and before they could solidify their position by bringing up reinforcements from the rear in support of their fast advancing 11th Panzer Division.

The Soviet Corps commanders suffered under conditions of confusion caused by the shock of the initial German attack, loss of communications, constant harassment by the Luftwaffe, lack of transportation and the outflow of massive number of refugees and retreating soldiers fleeing the German advance, clogging the roads and making it difficult for the counter-attacking forces to properly assemble at their jumping off points.

While communication between the Front headquarters and the individual army commands was generally good, communication to the front line units themselves was seriously flawed because it was dependent on the civilian telephone and telegraph network.<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 113 }}</ref> German sappers, air attacks, and even Ukrainians nationalists guerrillas had aggressively targeted this system with the desired result. Operating in the dark, many front line Soviet front line commanders were left to their own devises, and this had numerable impacts on the effectiveness of Soviet command and control. In one instance, the commander to the 41st Tank Division of the 22nd Mechanized Corps, for want of any new directives followed pre-war plan and moved his division to the predesignated assembly point for his corps at [[Kovel]], and in so doing, moved his division away from the fighting.<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 101 }}</ref>

Another endemic problem was the lack of transport for the infantry component of the Mechanized Corps. These were "motorized" division in name only. Many of these divisions only had partial compliments of their full transportation establishment. Individual corps commanders had to improvise solutions to bring their full complement of soldiers to their assembly points.

Rokossovsky succeeded in commandeering 200 trucks from the district reserve at Shepetovka, but this still left him in the position of mounting much of his infantry on tanks. Even then much of his infantry had to walk, since the trucks were used for carrying critical munitions and supplies.<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 118 }}</ref> In one case, valuable heavy artillery belonging to the 22nd Mechanized Corps, was simply left behind for want of tractors to pull them.<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 111 }}</ref> The commander of the 19th Mechanized, simply marched his corps forward in two echelons, with the tank divisions far in advance of his lagging infantry, meaning that his armored units arrived in the battle fields without infantry support.<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 120 }}</ref> Ryabyshev the commander of the 8th Mechanized reported similar problems, since its artillery was towed by exceedingly slow tractors that held up the movement of the entire columns: "The columns were moving at top speed. Unfortunately, the tractor towed corps artillery was falling severely behind; the difference in speed was slowing down the overall concentration of forces." <ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 156 }}</ref>

These complications were compounded by the apparent inability of the Soviet commanders to assess an appropriate axis of attack in the context of the rapidly developing German salient—Between June 22 and June 24, the 8th Mechanized Corps was given three separate instructions about the precise point at which it was supposed to assemble, the original order from the Front Command, a new one from the commander of the 6th Army, and then again on the 24th of June again another new order from the Front command, meaning that the Corps crossed its own path and backtracked several times before finally arriving at Brody.

Later, the commander of the 8th Mechanized Corps, D. I. Ryabyshev, was to write:

:"Around the second half of June 25, the Corps’ units deployed to the northwest of Brody. During the nearly 500 kilometer march, the Corps lost up to half of its older tanks and a substantial portion of its artillery and anti-tank guns to both enemy air attack and mechanical breakdowns. All of the tanks still in service also required varying degrees of maintenance work and were not capable of operating over long distances. Thus, even before the start of the counteroffensive the Corps found itself in a drastically weakened state."<ref name="Lieutenant General D.I. Ryabyshev">{{cite book | author = Lieutenant General D.I. Ryabyshev | url=http://www.battlefield.ru/en/articles/168-8mechanized-corps-offensive.html | title = On the role of the 8th Mechanized Corps in the June 1941 counteroffensive mounted by the South-Western Front }}</ref>

As a consequence of the multiple problems of assembling the forces proposed for the attack the original ambitious schedule of attack was set back 6 hours to 0400 on the 24th of June.<ref name="Victor Kamenir">{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 127 }}</ref>

By the time this decision was made on the evening of the 23rd of June, barely 48 hours since the war had begun, the 11th Panzer Division had already penetrated 40 miles into Soviet territory with the [[16th Panzer Division]] traveling in its wake. The [[14th Panzer Division]] and [[13th Panzer Division]] were well their way up the road to [[Lutsk]], with the objective of reaching the [[Styr River]] on the 24th, and the [[298th Infantry Division (Germany)|298th Infantry Division]], the [[44th Infantry Division (Germany)|44th Infantry Division]] and the [[299th Infantry Division (Germany)|299th Infantry Division]] moving up to consolidate the advance.<ref name="Victor Kamenir"/>

==The Counterattack==
Even with the delayed schedule the counterattack would begin piecemeal since the full complement of the force proposed for the counterattack could not be brought into the position until two days later. Vlasov's 4th Mechanized Corps had gotten bogged down in local fighting en route and the 8th, 9th and 19th were still on the march. Supporting infantry corps were even further away.

Kirponos's Chief of Staff, General [[Maksim Purkayev|Purkayev]], argued against the political officer attached to the Southwest Front, Commissar [[Nikolai Vashugin]], on this point but Vashugin and Zhukov won out: the attack would begin without delay. Only two tank divisions of 15th Mechanized Corps in the south and a single tank division of 22nd Mechanized Corps in the north were in position to begin the attack on the 24th.<ref>{{cite book | author = Victor Kamenir | url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=3tRQ6wRRFRAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bloody+triangle&source=bl&ots=r4JCAcZF35&sig=4CVATKmLzGckKe_VoKNmTsojRM0&hl=en&ei=zAytTZynGuHj0QHe8fi3Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false | title = The Bloody Triangle: The Defeat of Soviet Armor in the Ukraine, June 1941, pg 126 }}</ref>

When the 8th Mechanized Corps finally arrived on the scene on the 25th, Ryabyshev notes that the exact scale of the intended attack or the precise role of his corps in that plan were not communicated to him, and "the Corps battle orders spoke only to its own mission objectives". There was little to no apparent communication between the individual corps to ensure co-ordination partly because the Luftwaffe proved adept at locating and destroying the Soviet command posts, and therefore their corps radio equipment. Despite these haphazard arrangements and difficulties the Soviet attack seemed to have met with a certain amount of initial success, catching the Germans on the move and outside of prepared positions, their tanks sweeping aside hastily arranged German anti-tank positions manned by motorcycle troops attached to the [[XLVIII Panzer Corps (Germany)|48th Panzer Corps]], on the 26th of June. These moves were met with strong counterattacks.

At the same time the leading edge of the main German attack threatened to outflank and encircle the Soviet forces attacking from the south. This led Kirponos to issue orders for a halt to the offensive and a general retreat in order rationalize (shorten) his front line, "so as to prevent the enemy tank groupings from penetrating into the rear of the 6th and 26th Armies", according to H. Baghramyan.<ref name="Lieutenant General D.I. Ryabyshev"/>

Georgy Zhukov was quick to have these orders countermanded after a debate with the Front commander and his staff. Orders for a renewed attack were issued two hours later. This led to even more of the confusion that was symptomatic of the Soviet command at the Battle of Brody. Rokossovsky, who was in command of the 9th Mechanized Corps attacking from the north, simply balked at these new orders stating that "We had once again received an order to counterattack. However, the enemy outnumbered us to such a degree, that I took on the personal responsibility of ordering to halt the counteroffensive and to meet the enemy in prepared defenses",<ref name="Lieutenant General D.I. Ryabyshev"/> while Ryabyshev commanding the 8th Mechanized Corps to the south dutifully complied and remounted the attack.

The renewed effort of the 8th Mechanized Corps on the 27th of June again met with some success, reportedly causing heavy losses to elements of the [[11th Panzer Division (Germany)|11th Panzer Division]] when they were caught in march formation by the 34th Tank Division. However, the overall offensive was stymied when the 7th Motorized Division failed to meet its objective of crossing the [[Plyashevka River]] by nightfall, and the [[17th Panzer Division (Germany)|17th Panzer Division]] took up positions on the opposing bank.

Later Ryjabyshev caustically stated "that if the counteroffensive was mounted not by one but by six mechanized corps, the consequences for the enemy would have been much more serious". The situation was considered "serious" by the German high command, as [[Franz Halder|General Halder]] noted in his diary:

:"In the Army Group South sector, heavy fighting continues on the right flank of Panzer Group 1. The Russian 8th Tank Corps has effected a deep penetration of our front and is now in the rear of the 11th Panzer Division. This penetration has seriously disrupted our rear areas between Brody and Dubno. The enemy is threatening Dubno from the southwest…the enemy also has several separate tank groups acting in the rear of Panzer Group 1, which are managing to cover considerable distances."<ref name="Lieutenant General D.I. Ryabyshev"/>
By 28 June the 8th Mechanized Corps came under attack by elements of [[16th Infantry Division (Germany)|16th Motorized]] and the [[75th Infantry Division (Germany)|75th Infantry Division]] and the [[16th Infantry Division (Germany)|16th Panzer Division]], and the Soviet counterattack was for all intents and purposes over.

For all its efforts the 8th Mechanized Corps unsupported and deep behind enemy lines was eventually cut off and mostly destroyed. Ryabyshev reports that "on July 1, 1941, the operational strength of the 8th Mechanized Corps, now comprising the 12th Tank and 7th Motorized Divisions, amounted to 19,000 men, 21 armored cars and 207 tanks, including 43 KVs, 31 T-34s, 69 BT-7s, 57 T-26s and 7 T-40s," these surviving elements were folded into what became the [[38th Army (Soviet Union)|38th Army]].

==Decision, Indecision and Confusion of Command: The Historical Debate==

The exact effect of the hesitation and confusion of command on the 27th of June on the outcome of the battle and the German attack into Ukraine is hard to determine.

Ryabyshev seems to take the position held by Zhukov at the time, which is that if the attack had continued aggressively, and without delay, the Soviet effort might have been met with eventual success. On the other hand subsequent events seem to vindicate Kirponos's position, which was that the attack was premature and would destabilize the solvency of the entire front. Shortly after the routing of the Soviet counter-attack Marshal [[Semyon Budyonny]] was given overall command of the combined Southwestern and Southern Front. Disaster unfolded at the [[Battle of Uman]] and one and a half million Soviet soldiers fell into captivity when the 26th and 12th Armies were encircled after Army Group South renewed its attack by pivoting south from the positions it had achieved during the Battle of Dubno -- an outcome that Kirponos had foreshadowed in his arguments with Zhukov about the wisdom of the counter attack at Dubno.

After the morning of the 27th the fact that Rokossovsky and Ryabyshev were following different scripts unknown to each other, can not have helped matters either way.

The confrontation between Kirponos and Zhukov is no doubt what led Zhukov to tell the Southwestern Front political officer, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], "I am afraid your commander (Kirponos) here is pretty weak",<ref>Krushchev Remembers, Krushchev 1970, hardcover p. 175.</ref> a charge that Kirponos would never be able to answer since he died in the battle of Kiev after it was surrounded.

==Summary==
The battle between Panzer Group 1 and the Soviet mechanized corps was the fiercest of the whole invasion, lasting a full four days. The Soviets fought furiously and crews of German tank and anti-tank guns found to their horror that the new Soviet [[T-34]] tanks were almost immune to their weapons. The new [[KV-1]] and [[KV-2]] heavy tanks were impervious to virtually all German anti-tank weapons, but the Red Army's supply had completely broken down due to ''Luftwaffe'' attacks.

The German ''Kampfgeschwader'', namely [[KG 51]], [[KG 54]] and [[KG 55]] contributed a series of heavy low-level attacks against the Soviet ground targets. The headquarters of the Soviet 15th Mechanised Corps was destroyed, and its commander, ''General-Major'' Ignat Karpezo, was wounded. The ''Luftwaffe'' destroyed some 201 Soviet tanks in this area.<ref>Bergström 2007, p. 39.</ref>

The five Red Army corps were mishandled while being concentrated into large powerful groups. The German troops sought to isolate individual units, and destroy them. Meanwhile the ''Luftwaffe'' was ranging over the battlefields and were able to separate the supporting infantry and deny them resupply of fuel and ammunition.<ref>Deichmann 1999{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}</ref> Ultimately due to lack of adequate planning and overall coordination the Soviet counter-attack failed to meet at Dubno.

==After the Battle==
Panzer Group 1 took a severe battering in the battles around Dubno losing large numbers of its tanks, nevertheless it survived the battle still capable of operations. The Soviet forces on the other side took severe casualties rendering most of its forces non-operational. This defensive success enabled the Germans to continue their offensive, even if it had been delayed substantially by the surprising tenacity of the Soviet counterattack.

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Bergström, Christer (2007). ''Barbarossa - The Air Battle: July–December 1941''. London: Chervron/Ian Allen. ISBN 978-1-8578-0-270-2.
* [[Paul Deichmann|Deichman, Paul]], ''Spearhead for Blitzkrieg:Luftwaffe operations in support of the Army 1939-1945'', Alfred Price ed., Ivy Books, New York, 1999
* Haupt, Werner (1997). ''Army Group Centre: The Wehrmacht in Russia 1941-1945''. Schiffer Military History. Atglen. ISBN 0-7643-0-266-3

{{coord missing|Ukraine}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brody (1941), Battle Of}}
[[Category:Tank battles]]
[[Category:Operation Barbarossa]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]

[[bg:Битка при Дубно]]
[[cs:Bitva u Brodů]]
[[de:Panzerschlacht bei Dubno-Luzk-Riwne]]
[[fr:Bataille de Brody (1941)]]
[[it:Battaglia di Dubno]]
[[pl:Bitwa o Brody (1941)]]
[[ru:Битва за Дубно — Луцк — Броды]]
[[tr:Brodi Muharebesi (1941)]]
[[vi:Trận Dubno - Lutsk - Brody]]

Charles Bond (pilot)

2011-09-12T15:35:56Z

Muta112:

{{Infobox military person
|name=Charles Rankin Bond, Jr.
|birth_date=April 22, 1915
|death_date=August 18, 2009 (age 94)
|image=[[File:Charles R. Bond.jpg|250px]]
|caption=Charles Bond (photo from Museum of Flight)
|nickname=
|birth_place=[[Dallas, Texas]]
|death_place=Dallas, Texas
|placeofburial=
|placeofburial_label=Place of burial
|allegiance=[[Republic of China]] [[United States|United States of America]]
|branch=[[United States Army Air Corps]] [[United States Army Air Forces]]
|serviceyears=1932–1968
|rank=[[Major General (United States)|Major General]]
|unit=
|commands=
|battles=[[World War II]]
*[[Burma Campaign]]
*[[China Burma India Theater of World War II|China-Burma-India Theater]]
|awards=[[Distinguished Service Medal (United States)|Distinguished Service Medal]] [[Legion of Merit]] (2) [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] [[Purple Heart]]
|relations=
|laterwork=}}
[[File:Flying tigers pilot.jpg|right|thumb|175px|The Flying Tigers insignia painted on tne side of their planes was designed by The Walt Disney Company.<ref name=tiger1>{{cite web|last=Rossi |first=J.R. |url=http://www.flyingtigersavg.22web.net/tiger1.htm |title= History: The Flying Tigers - American Volunteer Group - Chinese Air Force}}</ref>]]
'''Charles Rankin Bond, Jr.''' (April 22, 1915 – August 18, 2009) was an American pilot and [[U.S. Air Force]] officer. He served with the [[Flying Tigers]] in Burma and China during [[World War II]]. He was shot down twice and was credited with shooting down nine-and-a-half Japanese airplanes. He later served in the [[Soviet Union]] as an aide and personal pilot to [[Averill Harriman]]. He rose to the level of Brigadier General and, during the [[Vietnam War]], he was the deputy commanding officer of the 2nd Air Division in Vietnam and the 13th Air Force in the Philippines. He retired from the [[U.S. Air Force]] in 1968 as commander of the [[Twelfth Air Force]]. In 1984, Bond's diary of his service with the Flying Tigers was published and became a best-seller.

==Biography==
===Early years===
Bond was born in [[Dallas, Texas]], the son of Charles R. Bond, Sr., and Magnolia Turner Bond. His father operated a small business painting and hanging wallpaper.<ref>{{cite book|author=Terry H. Anderson and Charles R. Bond|title=A Flying Tiger's Diary, p. 12|publisher=Texas A&M University|year=1984|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=voeOKZ8FdI0C&dq=%22flying+tiger's+diary%22&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=egcNvMIVcU&sig=0HmK3RY2-QVC-R9l3Og7tnK4Wc4&hl=en&ei=yVuoSqaLHIj-tQOYkdX6BA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false|isbn=9780890964088}}</ref> Bond was an honor student in high school and a participant in the [[Reserve Officer Training Corps]].<ref name="Bond and Anderson, p. 13">Bond and Anderson, p. 13</ref> He joined the [[Texas National Guard]] while in high school. His family could not afford to send him to college. In 1935 he enlisted in the [[U.S. Army]] and enrolled in a West Point preparatory program hoping to be selected to attend the [[U.S. Military Academy]].<ref name="Bond and Anderson, p. 13"/> After failing to secure an appointment to the Military Academy, he returned home and worked for his father in the painting business.<ref name="Bond and Anderson, p. 13"/>

In 1938 Bond learned of a program through which high school graduates could take an examination in lieu of college for acceptance as a pilot in the [[U.S. Army Air Corps]]. He passed the exam and reported to [[Randolph Air Force Base|Randolph Field]] for pilot training.<ref name="Bond and Anderson, p. 14">Bond and Anderson, p. 14</ref> He received his commission as a pilot in January 1939.<ref name="Bond and Anderson, p. 14"/><ref name=LAT>{{cite news|author=Joe Holley|title=Charles R. Bond Jr. dies at 94; retired Air Force general, former Flying Tiger|publisher=Los Angeles Times|date=2009-09-09|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-charles-bond7-2009sep07,0,7271174.story}}</ref> In February 1939 he was assigned to the Second Bomb Group at Langley, Virginia, where he served under [[Curtis E. LeMay]].<ref>Bond and Anderson, p. 15</ref> In March 1941 he was assigned to the newly formed U.S. Army Air Corps Ferrying Command in [[Long Beach, California]].<ref>Bond and Anderson, p. 16</ref>

===World War II===
Upon learning in June 1941 about the formation of the [[American Volunteer Group]] under the command of [[Claire Chennault]], Bond immediately volunteered and departed in September 1941 to serve in the Pacific.<ref>Bond and Anderson, pp. 19-21</ref> After stops in Hawaii, Java, and Singapore, he arrived in Burma on November 12, 1941.<ref>Bond and Anderson, pp. 30-37</ref> The unit, based in Burma and China, was tasked with protecting supply routes between China and Burma and with supplying Chinese forces fighting the Japanese.<ref name=LAT/> The group was credited with shooting down 299 Japanese aircraft. It became known as the "Flying Tigers".<ref name=tiger1/> After seeing a picture of an [[RAF]] plane in [[North African Campaign|North Africa]] the group painted a shark mouth on the nose of their planes.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rossi |first=Dick |url=http://www.flyingtigersavg.22web.net/tiger2.htm |title=A Flying Tigers Story |date=1980s |work=The Flying Tigers - American Volunteer Group - Chinese Air Force}}</ref> Bond was the first to paint his P-40.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rossi |first=J.R. |url=http://www.flyingtigersavg.22web.net/bio-Bond.htm |title=Bond biography |date= |work=The Flying Tigers - American Volunteer Group - Chinese Air Force}}</ref> Bond was credited with shooting down nine-and-a-half Japanese aircraft,<ref name=DMN>{{cite news|author=Joe Simnacher|title=Charles R. Bond Jr.: Pilot with famed WWII Flying Tigers|publisher=The Dallas Morning News|url=http://www.wfaa.com/sharedcontent/dws/news/localnews/tv/stories/DN-bondob_25met.ART.State.Edition1.4ba326a.html}}</ref> including three during a single 1942 mission. Bond was also shot down twice during his Flying Tigers service: in May 1942, he was shot down over [[Paoshan, China]], and he parachuted into a cemetery after his plane and clothing caught fire. He was hospitalized but returned to combat and was shot down again in June 1942; he suffered head injuries but returned to combat within a week.<ref name=LAT/>

The Flying Tigers received $500 for each Japanese plane they shot down, and Bond used the money to help his parents buy a house.<ref name=LAT/> He was awarded China's [[Order of the Cloud and Banner]], fifth grade, and [[Seven Star Wing Medal]] for his service in the Flying Tigers.<ref name=Cav>{{cite web|title=Major General Charles R. Bond, Jr.: AVG Flying Tigers Ace|publisher=Cavanaugh Flight Museum |url=http://www.cavanaughflightmuseum.com/Bond.htm}}</ref> In addition to the Chinese decorations, Bond was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Medal (United States)|Distinguished Service Medal]], the [[Legion of Merit]] with one oak leaf cluster, the [[Army Commendation Medal]], the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]], the [[Purple Heart]] and several other service and campaign medals.<ref name=Cav/>

Bond returned to the United States in 1942 and was honored by the [[United States Junior Chamber|Dallas Junior Chamber of Commerce]] as one of the most outstanding young men in Texas.<ref name=Cav/> In October 1942 he rejoined the Army Air Corps. During the latter part of [[World War II|the war]], Bond served as an aide and the personal pilot for [[Averell Harriman]], the American ambassador to the [[Soviet Union]] during the war. In that position Bond met Soviet Premier [[Joseph Stalin]] and many Russian officials. Bond was forced to make an emergency landing at [[Stalingrad]] after the [[Battle of Stalingrad|famous battle for that city]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Retired Aggie generals recall war days for A&M|publisher=Galveston Daily News|date=1981-10-17}}</ref>

===Post-war military service===
In 1949 Bond received a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in management engineering from [[Texas A&M University]].<ref name=Cav/> He worked briefly worked as a commercial pilot, but rejoined the Army Air Forces after a few months of civilian work.<ref name=LAT/> In the post-war years, Bond had assignments with the [[9th Operations Group#Army Air Force School of Applied Tactics|Army Air Force School of Applied Tactics]] and as chief of the Air Division of the U.S. Military Mission in Moscow.

In 1957 Brigadier General Bond assumed command of the 25th Air Division (Defense) with headquarters at [[McChord Air Force Base]].<ref>{{cite news|title=TAKES COMMAND MCCHORD AIR FORCE BASE|publisher=Walla Walla Union-Bulletin|date=1957-09-09}}</ref>
[[File:12th Air Force.png|thumb|right|175px|At the time of his retirement, Bond was commander of the [[Twelfth Air Force]] (''insignia pictured'').]]
During the Vietnam War, he served as deputy commanding officer of the 2nd Air Division in Vietnam and the 13th Air Force in the Philippines.<ref name=LAT/> In 1967 and 1968 he was commander of the 12th Air Force in [[Waco, Texas]].<ref name=DMN/> In January 1968 President [[Lyndon Johnson]] presented a Minuteman flag to Bond in ceremonies at [[Bergstrom Air Force Base]] in Texas. Bond accepted the flag on behalf of the entire 12th Air Force.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bonded Tribune|publisher=The Argus (CA)|date=1968-01-12}}</ref> Bond retired from the military in 1968.<ref>{{cite news|title=To Command 12th Air Force: Coolidge General Gets New Job|publisher=The Mexia Daily News|date=1968-07-29}}</ref>

===Later years===
After retiring from the military, Bond worked as a consultant for [[Texas Instruments]] for ten years.<ref name=DMN/> He also worked for a skylight manufacturing company before retiring in 1983.

In 1984 Bond co-authored "A Flying Tiger's Diary," with [[Terry H. Anderson]], historian at [[Texas A&M University]].<ref name=TAM>{{cite news|title=Charles R. Bond, Jr., 1915-2009|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|date=2009-08-20|url=http://tamupress.blogspot.com/2009/08/charles-r-bond-jr-1915-2009.html}}</ref> The best-selling book was based on a handwritten diary in which Bond made entries at the end of each day in 1941 and 1942 while serving with the Flying Tigers.<ref>Bond and Anderson, "A Flying Tiger's Diary," p. xii</ref>

Bond died at an assisted-living facility in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] from the effects of [[dementia]].<ref name=LAT/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata 
|NAME =Bond, Charles
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
|DATE OF BIRTH =1915-04-22
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Dallas, Texas]]
|DATE OF DEATH =2009-04-18
|PLACE OF DEATH= Dallas, Texas}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bond, Charles}}
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:American World War II flying aces]]
[[Category:People from Dallas, Texas]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (United States)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cloud and Banner]]

[[Category:Recipients of the Army Commendation Medal]]
[[Category:Republic of China Air Force personnel]]
[[Category:Texas A&M University alumni]]
[[Category:United States Air Force generals]]
[[Category:United States Army Air Forces officers]]
[[Category:United States Army Air Forces pilots of World War II]]

Battle of Kiev (1943)

2011-07-25T08:17:42Z

Muta112:

{{Expert-subject|Military history|date=November 2008}}
{{Multiple issues|tone = July 2008}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = '''Second Battle of Kiev'''
| image =
| caption =
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| place = [[Kiev]], [[USSR]]
| date = November, 1943 — December, 1943
| result = Soviet victory
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erich von Manstein]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hermann Hoth]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Nikolai Vatutin]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]]
| strength1 = [[German Fourth Panzer Army|4th Panzer Army]]
| strength2 = [[1st Ukrainian Front]] {{flagdeco|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czechoslovak military units on Eastern front|Czechoslovakian Independent Brigade]]
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
}}

The 1943 '''Battle of Kiev''' describes three strategic operations (two offensive and one defensive) by the [[Soviet Red Army]], and one operational counterattack by the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' which took place in the wake of the failed German offensive at [[Kursk]] during [[World War II]]. These four operations took place between 3 October and 22 December 1943.

==Overview==
The Red Army launched their first summer offensive of the war, pushing [[Erich von Manstein]]'s battered [[Army Group South]] back towards the [[Dnieper River]]. There, Manstein intended to rest and refit his troops, but that was not to be. [[STAVKA]] ordered the [[Central Front (Soviet Union)|Central Front]] (Byelorussian Front 20 Oct 1943) and the [[Voronezh Front]] (1st Ukrainian Front 20 Oct 1943) to force crossings of the Dnieper before the Germans could catch their breath. When this was unsuccessful in October, the effort was handed over to the [[1st Ukrainian Front]], with some support from the [[2nd Ukrainian Front]]. The 1st Ukrainian Front, commanded by [[Nikolai Vatutin]], was able to secure bridgeheads north and south of [[Kiev]]. His opponent would be the veteran [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzer Army]], commanded by [[Hermann Hoth]].

The structure of the strategic operations from the Soviet planning point of view was:
*[[Battle of Kiev#First attempt|Kiev Strategic Offensive Operation (October)]] (1–24 October 1943) by the [[Central Front (Soviet Union)|Central]] and [[Voronezh Front]]s
:[[Chernobyl-Radomysl Offensive Operation]] (1–4 October 1943)
:[[Chernobyl-Gornostaipol Defensive Operation]] (3–8 October 1943)
:[[Lyutezh Offensive Operation]] (11–24 October 1943)
:[[Bukrin Offensive Operation]] (12–15 October 1943)
:[[Bukrin Offensive Operation]] (21–24 October 1943)
*[[Battle of Kiev#Initial stage of second attempt|Kiev Strategic Offensive Operation (November)]] (3–13 November 1943)
:[[Battle of Kiev#Rauss counterattacks|Rauss' November 1943 counterattack]]
*[[Battle of Kiev#Final stage of second attempt|Kiev Strategic Defensive Operation (1943)]] (13 November 1943–22 December 1943)

==First attempt==
In October 1943, several of Vatutin's armies were having serious trouble trying to break out of the rugged terrain of the [[Bukrin bend]], the southern bridgehead. The [[German XXIV Panzer Corps|24th Panzer Corps]] of [[Walther Nehring]], in an effective defensive position, had the opposing Soviet forces squeezed in. As a result, Vatutin decided to concentrate his strength at the northern bridgehead at [[Lyutezh]].

The [[3rd Guards Tank Army]], commanded by [[Pavel Rybalko]], moved northwards towards the Lyutezh bridgehead under cover of darkness and diversionary attacks out of the Bukrin bend. Masses of artillery were shifted northwards, unnoticed by the Germans.

==Initial stage of second attempt==
Early in the morning of 3 November 1943, the 4th Panzer Army was subjected to a massive Soviet bombardment. The German forces screening the bridgehead were defeated, and Kiev was quickly conquered. [[1st Ukrainian Front]]'s objectives were to drive quickly westwards to take the towns of [[Zhitomir]], [[Korosten]], [[Berdichev]], and [[Fastov]], to cut the rail link to [[Army Group Center]]; this would be the first step towards the encirclement of [[Army Group South]].

The plan went very well for Vatutin; Manstein, however, became worried. As Rybalko's tanks moved through the streets of Kiev on 5 November, Manstein pleaded with [[Hitler]] to release the 48th and [[40th Panzer Corps]] in order to have sufficient forces to retake Kiev. The [[48th Panzer Corps]] was committed to Manstein. Hitler refused to divert the 40th Panzer Corps, and replaced Hoth with [[Erhard Raus]], who was ordered to blunt the Soviet attack and secure Army Group South's northern flank and communications with Army Group North. A number of sources give 6 November as the date for the conquering of Kiev<ref>[http://www.whatson-kiev.com/index.php?go=News&in=view&id=977] accessed 26 August 2007</ref><ref>Andrew Gregorovich, Ukrainian Review No. 92, Spring 1995 http://www.infoukes.com/history/ww2/page-28.html. accessed 26 August 2007</ref><ref>1943: Kiev in Flames : in our pages:100, 75 and 50 years ago, Monday, 8 November 1993 [http://www.iht.com/articles/1993/11/08/edold_15.php] accessed 26 August 2007</ref>. The 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade seems to have started the assault, at 12.30 on 5 November, reaching the Dniepr at 02.00 on the 6th, after sweeping through the western suburbs of the City, with Kiev finally being conquered at 06.50 on the 6th.<ref>Michal Gelbič, Czechoslovak military units in the USSR (1942–1945) [http://www.czechpatriots.com/csmu/bri-combats.php]. accessed on 26 August 2007</ref>

==Rauss counterattacks==
Rauss, even with the new Panzer Corps attached, was in difficulty. However, 4th Panzer Army was soon reinforced, especially with artillery and rockets. Despite suffering heavy casualties in the initial stages of Vatutin's offensive, the German divisions were bolstered by the arrival on 7 November of the newly formed [[German 25th Panzer Division|25th Panzer Division]] of the 48th Panzer Corps, commanded by General der Panzertruppen [[Georg Jauer]]. Its drive on Fastov was halted by the [[7th Guards Tank Corps]]. Rybalko was soon just {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}} from Berdichev. Zhitomir was taken by the [[38th Army]]; the [[60th Army]] was at the gates of Korosten; [[40th Army (Soviet Union)|40th Army]] was moving south from Kiev. The only respite for the Germans came when the [[27th Army (Soviet Union)|27th Army]] exhausted itself and went over to the defensive in the Bukrin bend.

The 4th Panzer Army was in deep trouble. However, the situation changed with the arrival of the elite [[1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|1st SS Division]], [[1st Panzer Division|1st]] and [[7th Panzer Division]]s, under the command of 48th Panzer Corps. These new forces drove north to [[Brusilov]] and then west to retake Zhitomir. Rybalko sent the [[7th Guards Tank Corps]], to counter the German assault, and a huge tank battle ensued, although not quite on the scale seen at [[Battle of Kursk|Kursk]]. This continued until the latter part of November, when the autumn mud halted all operations.

Both sides suffered heavy losses. The casualty ratio was fairly balanced, though the Soviets lost slightly more than the Germans. 4th Panzer had gained some breathing space with the recapture of Zhitomir and Korosten. Vatutin, while temporarily halted, had given a good account of himself during the German counterattack. STAVKA was also releasing substantial reserve forces to the First Ukrainian Front.

==Final stage of second attempt==
[[File:5011-0007-reverse.gif|129px|left|]]
By 5 December, the mud had frozen in the Russian winter. 48th Panzer Corps conducted a wide sweeping attack north of Zhitomir. Catching the Soviets by surprise, the Germans sought to trap the Soviet 60th Army, and the 13th Corps. Reinforced with the [[2nd Parachute Division (Germany)|2nd ''Fallschirmjäger'' Division]], the Germans drove eastward, putting the Soviets on the defensive. With Fastov also being threatened, the 60th Army withdrew from Korosten.

Vatutin was forced to ask STAVKA for more reserves, and was granted [[1st Guards Tank Army (Soviet Union)|1st Tank Army]] and [[18th Army (Soviet Union)|18th Army]]. These new units, along with additional Corps from other sectors, were hastily rushed westward. Thus, the Soviets stopped the German advance, went back on the offensive, and retook Brusilov. Both sides were exhausted by late December and the battle for Kiev was over.

==Aftermath==
{{Quote farm|date=April 2011}}
{{cquote|''The day is not far off when we will completely liberate [[Ukrainian SSR|the Ukraine]], and [[Byelorussian SSR|the White Russia]], [[Leningrad Oblast|Leningrad]] and [[Kalinin Oblast|Kalinin]] regions from the enemy; when we will liberate… the people of [[Crimean ASSR|the Crimea]] and [[Lithuanian SSR|Lithuania]], [[Latvian SSR|Latvia]], [[Estonian SSR|Estonia]], [[Moldavian SSR|Moldavia]] and [[Karelo-Finnish SSR|Karelo-Finnish Republic]].''}}
<center> — [[Joseph Stalin]] in a public speech broadcast in [[Moscow]] during the Battle of Kiev, November 1943<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885191,00.html World Battlefronts: BATTLE OF RUSSIA: The Ousting is at Hand], ''[[TIME Magazine]]'', November 15, 1943</ref></center>

Though the Soviets had failed to break the rail link with Army Group Center or envelop Army Group South, they had conquered Kiev, broken the Dnieper line, and inflicted massive casualties on the 4th Panzer Army. The Germans, for their part, had destroyed several sizable Soviet formations and kept the vital rail link open. But there was to be no rest. A few days after 48th Panzer Corps was pulled out to rest and refit, the Soviets launched [[Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive|their winter offensive]] on Christmas Eve. The renamed [[Voronezh Front]] Offensive succeeded in pushing the Germans back to the 1939 Polish border by 3 January 1944.

According to soviet information the Germans lost from 3 until 6 November 1943 in the Kiev Offensive Operation 15,000 dead, 6,200 captured, 286 tanks and 156 aircraft.<ref>http://9may.ru/31.12.1943/inform/m4422</ref>

{{externalimage|align=right|image1=[http://rkkaww2.armchairgeneral.com/maps/1943SW/Ukraine/s06_38Adecision_Kiev_43.gif Map of the battle of Kiev]<ref>Alex aka AMVAS, ''RKKA in World War II'', Moscow, March 6'2007 [http://rkkaww2.armchairgeneral.com/maps/maps1943SW.htm#Ukraine43 Maps 1943 South-West]</ref> |align=right|image2=[http://www.czechpatriots.com/csmu/kiev1943CSMU.php Map of the battle of Kiev]<ref>[http://www.czechpatriots.com/csmu/kiev1943CSMU.php Battle map – Battle Of Kiev]</ref>}}

==Source==
*Radey, Jack, Bongard, David, O'Connor, Dave, ''Fire Brigade: The Battle for Kiev 1943'', Panther Games Pty.Ltd., Canberra, 1988 [[Home of the Underdogs]]' [http://www.homeoftheunderdogs.net/game.php?id=2480 game entry]

==References==
<references/>

{{Coord missing|Ukraine|date=December 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kiev, Battle Of (1943)}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:1943 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:History of Kiev|Battle of Kiev]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Czechoslovakia – Soviet Union relations]]

[[ca:Batalla de Kíev (1943)]]
[[cs:Bitva o Kyjev]]
[[it:Battaglia di Kiev (1943)]]
[[no:Slaget om Kiev]]
[[pl:Bitwa o Kijów (1943)]]
[[ro:Bătălia de la Kiev (1943)]]
[[ru:Киевская наступательная операция]]
[[sk:Druhá bitka o Kyjev]]
[[tr:İkinci Kiev Muharebesi]]
[[uk:Битва за Київ (1943)]]
[[vi:Trận Kiev (1943)]]
[[zh:基輔戰役 (1943年)]]

Battle of Kursk

2011-07-24T17:40:02Z

Muta112: /* Prokhorovka */

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Kursk
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| image = [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Zschaeckel-206-35, Schlacht um Kursk, Panzer VI (Tiger I).jpg|300px]]
| caption = Soldiers with a [[Tiger I]] of the [[2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich#Back to the Eastern Front - 1943|SS-Panzergrenadier-Division ''Das Reich'']] advance through the southern [[Voronezh Front]]
| date = ''German offensive phase:'' 4 – 20 July 1943 ''Soviet offensive phase:'' 4 July – 23 August 1943
| place = [[Kursk, Russia|Kursk]], [[Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
| result = Decisive Soviet victory{{#tag:ref|With the final destruction of German forces at Kharkov, the Battle of Kursk came to an end. Having won the strategic initiative, the [[Red Army]] advanced along a {{convert|2000|km|mi}} front.<ref>Taylor and Kulish 1974, p. 171.</ref>|group=nb}}{{#tag:ref|After Kursk, Germany could not even pretend to hold the strategic initiative in the East.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=175}}|group=nb}}
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{ubl | [[Erich von Manstein]] | [[Günther von Kluge]] | [[Hermann Hoth]] | [[Walther Model]] | [[Hans Seidemann]] | [[Robert Ritter von Greim]] }}
| commander2 = {{ubl | [[Georgy Zhukov]] | [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]] | [[Nikolai Vatutin|Nikolay Vatutin]] | [[Aleksandr Vasilevsky]] | [[Ivan Konev]] }}
| strength1 = 780,900 men{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=338}} 2,928 tanks{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=338}} 9,966 guns and mortars{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=165}} 2,110 aircraft{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=123–125}}<ref group="nb" name="a-archives" />
| strength2 = 1,910,361 men{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=}}{{page needed|date=June 2011}} 5,128 tanks{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=}}{{page needed|date=June 2011}} 25,013 guns and mortars{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=165}} 2,792 aircraft{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=127–128}}{{#tag:ref|1,030 of 2. VA, and 611 of 17 VA on the Southern flank, and 1,151 on the Northern sector,{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=21}} figures from Russian archives; Russian aviation trust; Russian Central Military Archive TsAMO, Podolsk; Russian State Military Archive RGVA, Moscow; Monino Air Force Museum, Moscow|group=nb}}
| casualties1 = '''Operation Zitadelle:'''<ref name="ReferenceA" group="nb">Operation Zitadelle means the time of the German attack from 4–16 July, Soviet losses are for the period of 5–23 July</ref> 54,182 men {{#tag:ref|9,063 KIA 43,159 WIA 1,960MIA{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=154}}|group=nb}} 323 destroyed<ref>Glantz & House, p. 276.</ref> tanks and assault guns 159 aircraft<ref>{{harvnb|Frieser|2007|p=154}}. Luftflotte 6 45 losses Luftflotte 4 144 losses.</ref> ~500 guns<ref>No numbers available; estimation by {{harvnb|Frieser|2007|p=}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} '''Battle of Kursk:'''<ref name="KurskA" group="nb">The whole Battle of Kursk means the time of the German attack and the two Soviet counterattacks from 4 July to 23 August.</ref> 203,000 casualties<ref>Zetterling/Frankson Kursk 1943 pages 117, 116, and endnote 18. For all participating armies in the Kursk area, there were 203,000 casualties for July and August.</ref> 720 destroyed tanks and assault guns<ref>{{harvnb|Frieser|2007|p=201}}. Exact numbers are unknown; the entire "ostfront" lost 1,331 tanks and assault guns for July and August, so the number of 720 is an estimation.</ref> 681 aircraft<ref>{{harvnb|Bergström|2008|p=120}}: Figures for 5–31 July, as given by the ''Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe''.</ref> guns unknown
| casualties2 = '''Operation Zitadelle:'''<ref name="ReferenceA" group="nb" /> 177,847 men<ref name="ReferenceB">Krivosheev [http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter5_10_1.html&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&usg=ALkJrhjOU8LIn5wNisOFl1ybg6uffTr3IA#5_10_23 Kursk]</ref> 1,614<ref name="Kvivosheevtech">Krivosheev [http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/chapter5_13_09.html&rurl=translate.google.com&usg=ALkJrhhwHg9YwpYvBluIhD5nOhXctk_89g Kursk equipment]</ref> – 1,956{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=150}} tanks and assault guns 459<ref name="Kvivosheevtech" /> – 1,961{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=150}} aircraft 3,929 guns '''Battle of Kursk:'''<ref name="KurskA" group="nb" /> 863,303 casualties{{#tag:ref|kursk-defence: 177,847; orel-counter: 429,890; belgorod-counter: 255,566<ref>Krivosheev p.188-190</ref>|group=nb}} 6,064 tanks and assault guns{{#tag:ref|Kursk-defence; 1,614. Orel-counter; 2,568. Belgorod-counter; 1,864.<ref>Krivosheev p. 370.</ref>|group=nb}} 1,626<ref name="Kvivosheevtech" /> aircraft 5,244 guns<ref name="Kvivosheevtech" />
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Kursk}}
[[File:Eastern Front 1943-02 to 1943-08.png|300px|thumb|The eastern front at the time of Operation Citadel. Orange areas show the destruction of an earlier Soviet breakthrough that ended with the [[Kharkov offensive operation]]. Green areas show German advances on Kursk.]]

The '''Battle of Kursk''' took place when [[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces confronted each other on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] during [[World War II]] in the vicinity of the city of [[Kursk]], ({{convert|450|km|disp=/}} south of [[Moscow]]) in the [[Soviet Union]] in July and August 1943. It remains both the largest series of [[armored warfare|armored clashes]], including the [[Battle of Prokhorovka]], and the costliest single day of [[aerial warfare]]. It was the final strategic offensive the Germans were able to mount in the east. The resulting decisive Soviet victory gave the [[Red Army]] the strategic initiative for the rest of the war.

The Germans hoped to shorten their lines by eliminating the Kursk [[Salients, re-entrants and pockets|salient]] (also known as the Kursk bulge), created in the aftermath of their defeat at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]. They envisioned pincers breaking through its northern and southern flanks to achieve a great [[encirclement]] of Red Army forces. The Soviets, however, had intelligence of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s intentions. This and German delays to wait for new weapons, mainly [[Tiger I|Tiger]] and [[Panther tank|Panther]] tanks,{{sfn|Dunn|1997|p=[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OweCrOMU0iIC&pg=PR15&lpg=PR15&dq=Battle+of+Kursk+%2B+delay&source=bl&ots=yF_5RMrB-H&sig=bIWouIibn2FwfA1p8xLLpATPcYA&hl=en&ei=RUDASdvXAYnKtQOE4dUv&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result p. x]}}<ref>Kasdorf, p. 16.</ref> gave the Red Army time to construct a series of defense lines and gather large reserve forces for a strategic counterattack.<ref>Glantz 1989, pp. 149–59.</ref>

Kursk as a whole demonstrated the failure of [[Blitzkrieg]] against a prepared, flexible, and multiply-redundant strategy of [[defense in depth]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} Well-advised months in advance that the attack would fall on the neck of the Kursk salient, the Soviets designed a system to slow, redirect, exhaust, and progressively [[attrition warfare|attrit]] the powerful German [[Armored spearhead|panzer spearheads]] by forcing them to attack through a vast interconnected web of [[minefield]]s, pre-sighted artillery fire zones, and concealed [[anti-tank gun|anti-tank strongpoints]] comprising eight progressively spaced defense lines 250 km deep — more than 10 times as deep as the vaunted [[Maginot Line]] — and featuring a greater than 1:1 ratio of [[anti-tank gun]]s to attacking vehicles, it was by far the most statistically formidable{{Peacock term|date=June 2011}} defensive works ever constructed. It eventually proved to be more than three times the depth necessary to contain the furthest extent of the German attack.{{sfn|Keegan|2006|p=}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}

When the German forces had exhausted themselves against the defences, the Soviets responded with their own [[counter-offensive]]s, which allowed the Red Army to retake [[Oryol|Orel]] and [[Belgorod]] on 5 August and [[Kharkov]] on 23 August, and push the Germans back across a broad front.

Although the Red Army had had success in winter, this was the first successful strategic Soviet summer offensive of the war. The model strategic operation earned a place in war college curricula.<ref group="nb" name="c-infallibility-of-blitzkrieg">When the week of combat around Kursk had ended, the perceived infallibility of ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' was destroyed, along with the hopes of the German Army for victory or even stalemate in the east. Kursk announced to the world that for every offensive theory there is a suitable defensive one available to those who devote enough thought to develop it.</ref>{{sfn|Glantz|1986|p=}}{{page needed|date=June 2011}} The Battle of Kursk was the first battle in which a [[Blitzkrieg]] offensive had been defeated before it could break through enemy defences and into its strategic depths.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=167}}

==Background==
In the winter of 1942–43 the Red Army conclusively won the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]. About 800,000 German and other Axis troops were lost, including the entire [[German Sixth Army]], seriously depleting Axis strength in the east.

In 1917 the Germans had built the famous [[Hindenburg Line]] on the [[Western Front (WWI)|Western Front]], shortening their lines and thereby strengthening their defense. They planned on repeating this strategy in the USSR and started construction of a massive series of [[fortification|defensive works]] known as the [[Panther-Wotan line]]. They intended to retreat to the line late in 1943 and bleed the Soviets against it while their own forces recuperated.

In February and March 1943, [[Generalfeldmarschall|German Field Marshal]] [[Erich von Manstein]] won the [[Third Battle of Kharkov]], which left the front line running roughly from [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] in the north to [[Rostov-on-Don|Rostov]] in the south. In the middle lay a large 200 km (120 mi) wide and 150 km (90 mi) deep Soviet-held salient, or bulge, in the lines between German forward positions near [[Oryol|Orel]] in the north, and [[Kharkov]] in the south.

Most of the German front commanders agreed a defensive stance should be the priority, to contain Soviet offensives and deliver counter blows. Hitler accepted this advice. Erich von Manstein insisted a first strike was still an option and an offensive to pinch out the Soviet bulge at Kursk would be achievable before moving further south to recover more lost territory. Manstein wanted to attack in May but, owing to the poor tank strength of the German Army, Hitler delayed until July when newer tanks minimized the risk of defeat. The High Command ([[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]] or OKW) hoped to regain the initiative on the Eastern Front.{{sfn|Overy|1995|p=87}}

===German plans===
[[File:Kursk-1943-Plan-GE.svg|thumb|upright|German plans]]
Manstein pressed for a new offensive along the same lines he had successfully pursued at Kharkov, where he had cut off an overextended Red Army offensive. He suggested tricking the [[Red Army]] into attacking in the south against the desperately re-forming Sixth Army, which would lead them into the [[Donets Basin]] in eastern [[Ukraine]]. He would then turn south from Kharkov on the eastern side of the [[Seversky Donets|Donets River]] towards Rostov and trap the entire southern wing of the [[Soviet Army|Red Army]] against the [[Sea of Azov]].

[[Oberkommando des Heeres|German Army High Command]] (OKH) did not approve of Manstein's plan and instead turned their attention to the obvious bulge in the lines between Orel and Kharkov. Two Red Army [[Front (Soviet Army)|Fronts]], the [[Voronezh Front|Voronezh]] and [[Central Front (Soviet Union)|Central]] Fronts, occupied the ground in and around the salient and pinching it off would trap almost a fifth of the Red Army's manpower. It would also result in a much straighter and shorter line and recapture the strategically useful railway city of [[Kursk]], located on the main north-south railway line from Rostov to [[Moscow]].

In March, the plans crystallized. [[Walter Model]]'s [[German Ninth Army|9th Army]] would attack southwards from Orel while [[Hermann Hoth]]'s [[German Fourth Panzer Army|4th Panzer Army]] and [[German Army Detachment Kempf|Army Detachment ''Kempf'']] under the overall command of Manstein would attack northwards from Kharkov. They planned to meet near Kursk but if the offensive went well, they would have permission to continue forward on their own initiative, with a general plan to re-establish a new line at the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]], several weeks' march to the east.

Contrary to his recent behavior, Hitler gave the OKH considerable control over the planning of the operation. Over the next few weeks, they continued to increase the scope of the forces attached to the front, stripping other areas of the German line of anything useful for deployment in the operation. They first set the attack for 4 May, but delayed in order to allow more time for new weapons to arrive from Germany, especially the new Tiger and Panther tanks. Hitler postponed the offensive several more times. On 5 May, the launch date became 12 June. Due to the potential threat of an Allied landing in Italy and delays in armor deliveries, Hitler set the launch date to 20 June. On 17 June, he further postponed it until 3 July, and then later to 5 July.<ref name = Kulish-170>Kulish & Taylor 1974, p. 170.</ref><ref group="nb">Source: German Nation Archive microfilm publication T78, Records of the German High Command (''[[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]]'') Roll 343, Frames 6301178–180 confirms Hitler's teletype to Rommel about reinforcing southern Italy with armored forces destined to be used for ''Zitadelle''.</ref>{{sfn|Mulligan|1987|p=329}}

The concept behind the German offensive was the traditional (and for the Germans usually successful) [[Pincer movement|double-envelopment]], or ''[[Kesselschlacht]]'' (cauldron battle). The German Army had long favored such a [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae-style]] method and the tools of ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' made these types of tactics even more effective. ''Blitzkrieg'' depended on mass, shock, and speed to surprise an enemy and defeat him through disruption of command and supply rather than by destroying all his forces in a [[pitched battle]].

Such breakthroughs were easier to achieve by attacking in unexpected locations, as the Germans had done in the [[Battle of France|Ardennes]] in 1940, [[Kiev]] in 1941, and towards [[Stalingrad]] and the [[Caucasus]] in 1942. The OKH's plan for the attack on the Kursk salient, "Operation Citadel", violated the principle of surprise: anyone with a basic grasp of military strategy could deduce that the Kursk salient was the most obvious target for a potential German attack. A number of German commanders questioned the idea, notably [[Heinz Guderian|Guderian]], who asked Hitler:

{{quotation|"Was it really necessary to attack Kursk, and indeed in the east that year at all? Do you think anyone even knows where Kursk is? The entire world doesn't care if we capture Kursk or not. What is the reason that is forcing us to attack this year on Kursk, or even more, on the Eastern Front?" Perhaps more surprisingly, Hitler replied: "I know. The thought of it turns my stomach."{{sfn|Clark|1966|p=275}}{{sfn|Clark|1966|p=325}}}}

The German force numbered fifty divisions, including 17 [[Panzer]] and [[Panzergrenadier]]e, among them the elite Wehrmacht [[Großdeutschland Division|''Großdeutschland'' Division]] as well as [[Waffen-SS]] divisions [[Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|1st SS PzGrenDiv ''Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler'']], [[2nd SS Division Das Reich|2nd SS PzGrenDiv ''Das Reich'']] and [[3rd SS Division Totenkopf|3rd SS PzGrenDiv ''Totenkopf'']] grouped into the [[II SS Panzer Corps]]. The High Command concentrated all their armor, the [[Tiger I|Tiger]] and new Panther tanks and the new [[Elefant|Ferdinand]] [[tank destroyer]], which were used as [[assault gun]]s. They massed a high proportion of their available air units and artillery; there was also a formidable concentration of armor.

The German deception plan included defensive-sounding names for major formations. For example, the ''9.Armee'' was given the name "''Festungsstab II''", Fortress Staff II. Model ordered that recordings were to be made of massed German tanks' engines. This noise was to be played on loudspeakers to confuse the Soviets as to the whereabouts of German armor concentrations.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=16}} Many German AFVs were painted with new divisional insignia used only for this campaign. These deception measures were generally unsuccessful.

===Soviet plans===
[[File:Na zapad.jpg|thumb|upright|''To the West!'' calls this Soviet poster, while a Soviet soldier destroys the German ''To the East!'' sign]]

The Red Army had also begun planning their [[Eastern Front (World War II)#Eastern Front in Summer 1944|summer offensives]] and had settled on a plan that mirrored that of the Germans. Attacks in front of Orel and Kharkov would flatten the line and potentially lead to a breakout near the [[Pinsk Marshes|Pripyat Marshes]].

Soviet commanders had considerable concerns over the German plans. The locations of all previous German attacks had caught the Red Army by surprise but, in this case, Kursk seemed the obvious target. Moscow received warning of the German plans through the [[Lucy spy ring]] in [[Switzerland]]. The Russian government also received important information from [[John Cairncross]] in the UK, who forwarded decoded [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma|Enigma]] data from [[Bletchley Park]].<ref>Cairncross 1997, The Enigma Spy</ref> [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshal]] [[Georgiy Zhukov]] had already predicted the site of the German attack as early as 8 April, when he wrote his initial report to ''[[Stavka]]'' (the Red Army General Staff), in which he also recommended the strategy eventually followed by the Red Army. [[Anastas Mikoyan]] wrote in his memoirs that he was notified about the attack in general details by Stalin on 27 March.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://militera.lib.ru/memo/russian/mikoyan/04.html |title=ВОЕННАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА -[ Мемуары ]- Микоян А.И. Так было |publisher=Militera.lib.ru |date= |accessdate=2010-08-06}}</ref>

The pattern of the war up until this point had been one of German offensive success. ''Blitzkrieg'' had worked against all opponents, including the Red Army. On the other hand, Soviet results during both winters had shown that their own offensives were now effective. [[Joseph Stalin]] and some ''Stavka'' officers wanted to strike first. The overwhelming majority of ''Stavka'', most notably Zhukov, advised waiting for the Germans to exhaust themselves. Zhukov wrote in a letter to Stalin on 8 April 1943:

{{quotation|I consider it inadvisable for our forces to go over to the offensive in the very first days of the campaign in order to forestall the enemy. It would be better to make the enemy exhaust himself against our defences, and knock out his tanks and then, bringing up fresh reserves, to go over to the general offensive which would finally finish off his main force.<ref name=Kulish-168/>}}

The German delay in launching their offensive gave the Red Army four months in which to turn the salient into one of the most heavily defended areas in history. Two [[Front (Soviet Army)|fronts]], the [[Central Front (Soviet Union)|Central]] and [[Voronezh Front|Voronezh]], manned the defensive lines and the [[Steppe Front]] was available as a reserve. The Red Army and thousands of civilians laid altogether 434,667 [[land mine]]s and built 604 powerful [[Anti-tank warfare|anti-tank barriers]].<ref>Kurowski, Franz, ''Panzer Aces: German Tank Commanders of WWII'', Stackpole Books, 2004, p. 170.</ref> A [[Trench warfare|trench]] system 5000 km (3000 mi) wide to a depth of 175 km (95 mi) was also constructed{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}. They massed a huge army, including some 1,300,000 men, 3,600 tanks, 20,000 artillery pieces, and 2,792 aircraft. This amounted to 26% of the total manpower of the Red Army, 26% of its mortars and artillery, 35% of its aircraft, and 46% of its tanks.<ref name=Kulish-168>V.M Kulish & A.J.P Taylor 1974, p. 168.</ref> Due to the disparity in population size, industrial capability{{sfn|Clark|1966|p=313}} and continual German delays in tank production, the Red Army could build up forces faster than the Germans; each month they pulled further ahead in men and [[materiel|matériel]]. The Germans received reports of rapid and powerful Soviet concentrations in the Kursk area and delayed the offensive to allow for more Panther tanks to reach the front line.{{sfn|Clark|1966|p=327}}

Many of the forces assigned to the defense of the salient were recent veterans of the Battle of Stalingrad but the Red Army also added over one million new men in the first half of 1943. Thus the Red Army was larger than in 1942, even after the losses at Stalingrad. The long delay between the identification of the likely site of the German attack and the beginning of the offensive gave the new units an unusually long time to train.

The density of artillery in the salient was unusual; there were more artillery regiments in the salient than infantry regiments. The Red Army was determined to grind down attacking German units with a combination of mines and artillery fire. Indirect fire from [[howitzer]]s would stop the German infantry, while direct fire from [[45 mm anti-tank gun M1942 (M-42)|45mm]], [[57 mm anti-tank gun M1943 (ZiS-2)|57mm]], and 85 mm towed [[anti-tank gun]]s and [[76 mm divisional gun M1942 (ZiS-3)|76.2mm divisional field guns]] would destroy the tanks. In the 13th Army sector (facing the German 9th Army on the northern face of the salient) the density of anti-tank guns was 23.7 guns per kilometre of defended front. In the [[6th Army (Soviet Union)|6th]] and [[7th Guards Army]] sectors in the south the density was lower, with about 10 guns per kilometre.

[[File:Kursk Soviet machineguns.JPG|thumb|left|[[Red Army]] machine gun crew in action]]
The preparation of the battlefield by Red Army [[military engineer]]s was thorough. Reports indicate 503,993 [[anti-tank mine]]s and 439,348 [[Land mine#Anti-personnel mines|anti-personnel mines]] were laid in the defended area. On average, 1,500 anti-tank and 1,700 anti-personnel mines were laid per kilometre of front. In the sectors eventually attacked, densities were never lower than 1,400 per kilometre and sometimes reached as high as 2,000 per kilometre. Red Army engineers also constructed miles of trenches, laid [[barbed wire]], built anti-tank obstacles, and constructed thousands of gun and mortar positions.

Like the intended German deceptions, the Soviet deception plans were elaborate. The Soviet ruses, unlike the German plans, were generally successful. Dummy positions were constructed and dummy aircraft were placed on false airfields and false radio traffic sent to confuse German intelligence. Camouflaging of actual positions and minefields was excellent; the first warning most German units had of the presence of Soviet minefields or dug-in guns was their own vehicles exploding.

===State of the Red Air Force===
The [[Soviet Air Forces|Red Air Force]] (VVS) had lost over 36,900 aircraft in 1941–1942. The Soviet aircraft industry was able to replace losses in machines and had now rearmed, while dispensing with obsolete types such as the [[Polikarpov I-16|I-16]], [[MiG-3]] and the [[LaGG-3]]. The most widely used Soviet fighters in the Kursk battle were the [[Yakovlev Yak-1|Yak-1]], [[Yakovlev Yak-7|Yak-7B]] and [[Lavochkin La-5|La-5]]. The La 5FN was considered to be a match for both the [[Messerschmitt Bf 109|Bf 109]] and [[Focke-Wulf 190|Fw 190]].{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=22}}

However, pilot training was scanty. The 13,383 Soviet pilots who were trained in 1942 received 13–15 flight hours before combat. [[Ilyushin Il-2|''Shturmovik'']] and bomber pilots received just 18 and 15 hours respectively. Of the Soviet bomber and ground attack units, just seven percent of its pilots had seen action prior to Kursk.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=23}} Most Soviet pilots were forced to train on the aircraft they would fly in combat. Training accidents cost the Soviets 10,600 aircraft up until the summer of 1943.<ref>Bergström, Mikhailov, Dikov & Antipov 2000, p. 16.</ref> The Soviets possessed highly skilled leaders, such as Colonel General [[Aleksandr Novikov]], Commander-in-Chief of the VVS in the Kursk region, but a lack of experience at lower levels led to costly losses.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=23}}

In the aftermath of Kursk, Soviet aviation rapidly improved its coordination with ground forces. Its pilots also benefited from a rapidly improving training program. As a result, the Soviets were able to build the ''Red Banner'' units of highly skilled fighter pilots. Just six months after Kursk, the ratio of Soviet to German aircraft losses had decreased from 4:1 to 3:2.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=44}}

===Opposing forces===
{{See also|Battle of Kursk order of battle}}

====Wehrmacht====
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 100%; margin: 0;"
|-
! colspan="6" | Order of battle: Army Group Center (Field Marshal [[Günther von Kluge]])
|-
! Army
! Commander
! Note
! Corps
! Commander
! Divisions
|-
| [[9th Army (Germany)|9th Army]]
| [[Walter Model]]
|
| XX. Army corps
| [[Rudolf Freiherr von Roman|R. von Roman]]
| [[45th Infantry Division (Germany)|45th]], [[72nd Infantry Division (Germany)|72nd]], 137th, & 251st Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| XLVI. Army corps
| [[Hans Zorn|H. Zorn]]
| [[7th Infantry Division (Germany)|7th]], 31st, [[102nd Infantry Division (Germany)|102nd]],& 258th Infantry Division
|-|
|
|
| XLI. Army corps
| [[Josef Harpe|J. Harpe]]
| [[18th Panzer Division (Germany)|18th]] Panzer Division & 86th, & [[292nd Infantry Division (Germany)|292nd]] Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| XLVII. Panzer corps
| [[Joachim Lemelsen|J. Lemelsen]]
| [[2nd Panzer Division (Germany)|2nd]], [[9th Panzer Division (Germany)|9th]] & [[20th Panzer Division (Germany)|20th]] Panzer Division & [[6th Infantry Division (Germany)|6th]] Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| XXIII. Army corps
| [[Johannes Frießner|J. Frießner]]
| [[216th Infantry Division (Germany)|216th]], & 383rd Infantry Division & [[78th Infantry Division (Germany)|78th]] Sturmdivision
|-
|
|
|
| Army reserve
|
| [[4th Panzer Division (Germany)|4]] & [[12th Panzer Division (Germany)|12th]] Panzer Division & 10th Panzer Grenadier Division
|-
| [[2nd Panzer Army (Germany)|2nd Panzer Army]]
| [[Erich Clößner|Erich-Heinrich Clößner]]
|
| XXXV. Army corps
| [[Lothar Rendulic|L. Rendulic]]
| 34th 56th 262nd & [[299th Infantry Division (Germany)|299th]] Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| LIII. Army corps
| [[Friedrich Gollwitzer|F. Gollwitzer]]
| [[208th Infantry Division (Germany)|208th]], 211th & 293rd Infantry Division & 25th Panzer Grenadier Division
|-
|
|
|
| LV. Army corps
| [[Erich Jaschke|E. Jaschke]]
| [[110th Infantry Division (Germany)|110th]], 134th 296th & 339th Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| Army reserve
|
| 112. Infantry Division
|-
| Army Group Reserve
|
|
|
|
| [[5th Panzer Division (Germany)|5th]] & [[8th Panzer Division (Germany)|8th]] Panzer Division
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 100%; margin: 0;"
|-
! colspan="6" | Order of battle: Army Group South (Field Marshal [[Erich von Manstein]])
|-
! Army
! Commander
! Note
! Corps
! Commander
! Divisions
|-
| [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzer Army]]
| [[Hermann Hoth]]
|
| LII. Army corps
| [[Eugen Ott (general)|E. Ott]]
| 57th, 255th & 332nd Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| XLVIII. Panzer corps
| [[Otto von Knobelsdorff]]
| [[3rd Panzer Division (Germany)|3rd]] & [[11th Panzer Division (Germany)|11th]] Panzer Division & 167th Infantry Division und [[Panzer-Grenadier-Division Großdeutschland]]
|-
|
|
|
| [[II SS Panzer Corps]]
| [[Paul Hausser|P. Hausser]]
| [[1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|1st]], [[2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich|2nd]] & [[3rd SS Division Totenkopf|3rd]] SS-Panzer Grenadier Division
|-
| [[German Army Detachment Kempf|Army Detachment Kempf]]
| [[Werner Kempf]]
|
| III. Panzer corps
| H. Breith
| 6th, 7th, & 19th Panzer Division & 168th Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| Korps Raus
| [[Erhard Raus|E. Raus]]
| 106th & 320th Infantry Division
|-
|
|
|
| XLII. Army corps
| F. Mattenklot
| 39th, 161st & 282nd Infantry Division
|-
| Army Group Reserve
|
|
| XXIV. Tank corps
|
| [[5th SS Panzer Division Wiking|5th SS-Panzer Grenadier Division]] & [[17th Panzer Division (Germany)|17th]]. Panzer Division
|}

====Red Army====
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 100%; margin: 0;"
|-
! colspan="6" | Order of battle: Central Front (Army General [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]])
|-
! Army
! Commander
! Note
! Corps
! Division
|-
| [[13th Army (Soviet Union)|13th Army]]
| N. Puchow
|
| 17th Guards Rifle Corps
| 6th, 70th & 75th Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 18th Guards Rifle Corps
| 2nd, 3rd & 4th Airborne Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 15th Rifle Corps
| 8. 74 & 148. Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 29th Rifle Corps
| 15th, 81st & 307th Rifle Division
|-
| 48th Army
| P. Romanenko
|
| 42nd Rifle Corps
| 6th, 70th & 75th Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 73rd Rifle Corps
| 2nd, 3rd & 4th Airborne Guards Rifle Division
|-
| 60th Army
| I. Tschernjachowski
|
| 24th Rifle Corps
| 42nd, & 112th. Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 30. Rifle Corps
| 121st, 141st & 322nd Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| Independent
| 55th Rifle Division
|-
| 65th Army
| I. Tschernjachowski
|
| 18th Rifle Corps
| 69th, 149th & 246th Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 27th Rifle Corps
| 60th & 193rd Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| Independent
| 37th Garde Rifle Division & 181st, 194th & 354th Rifle Division
|-
| 70th Army
| I. Galanin
|
| 28th Rifle Corps
| 132nd, 211th & 280th Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| Independent
| 102nd, 106th, 140th & 162nd Rifle Division
|-
| 2nd Tank Army
| A. Rodin
|
| 3rd Tank Corps
|
|-
|
|
|
| 16th Tank Corps
|
|-
| Front Assets
|
|
| 9th Tank Corps
|
|-
|
|
|
| 19th Tank Corps
|
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 100%; margin: 0;"
|-
! colspan="6" | Order of battle: Voronezh Front (Army General [[Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin|Nikolai Vatutin]])
|-
! Army
! Commander
! Note
! Corps
! Divisions
|-
| 6th Guards Army
| i. Tschistjakow
|
| 22nd Guards Rifle Corps
| 61st, 71st & 90th Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 23rd Guards Rifle Corps
| 51st & 52nd Guards Rifle Division & 375th Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| Independent
| 89th Guards Rifle Division
|-
| [[7th Guards Army]]
| M. Schumilow
|
| 24th Guards Rifle Corps
| 15th, 36th & 72nd Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 25th Guards Rifle Corps
| 73rd, 78th & 81st Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| Independent
| 213th Rifle Division
|-
| [[40th Army (Soviet Union)|40th Army]]
| K. Moskalenko
|
| 47th Rifle Corps
| 161st, 206th & 237th Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 52nd Rifle Corps
| 100th, 219th & 309th Rifle Division
|-
| 69th Army
| W. Krutschenkin
|
| 48th Rifle Corps
| 107th, 183rd & 307th Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 49th Rifle Corps
| 111th & 270th Rifle Division
|-
| [[1st Guards Tank Army (Soviet Union)|1st Guards Tank Army]]
| [[Mikhail Katukov|M. Katukov]]
|
| 6th Tank Corps
|
|-
|
|
|
| 31st Tank Corps
|
|-
|
|
|
| 3rd Mechanized Corps
|
|-
| Front Assets
|
|
| 35th Guards Rifle Corps
| 92nd,93rd & 94th Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| Independent
| 2nd & 3rd Guards Tank Corps
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width: 100%; margin: 0;"
|-
! colspan="6" | Order of battle: Steppe Front ([[Ivan Konev]])
|-
! Army
! Commander
! Note
! Corps
! Divisions
|-
| 5th Guards Army
| A. Zhadov
|
| 32nd Guards Rifle Corps
| 13th % 66th Guards Rifle Division 6th Airborne Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| 33rd Guards Rifle Corps
| 95th & 97nd Guards Rifle Division & 9th Airborne Guards Rifle Division
|-
|
|
|
| Independent
| 42nd Guards Rifle Division & 10th Tank Corps
|-
| 5th Guards Tank Army
| P.Rotmistrov
|
| 5th Guards Rifle Corps
|
|-
|
|
|
| 29th Tank Corps
|
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Strengths, as tallied by David M. Glantz and Karl-Heinz Frieser
|-
! rowspan="2" | German offensive phase (''Zitadelle'')

! colspan="3" | Men
! colspan="3" | Tanks
! colspan="3" | Guns
|-
! Soviet
! Ratio
! German
! Soviet
! Ratio
! German
! Soviet
! Ratio
! German
|-
! Frieser{{#tag:ref|Frieser uses combat strengths{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=100}}|group="nc"}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1,426,352
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.8:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 518,271
| style="text-align: right;" | 4,938{{#tag:ref|Frieser counts only operational tanks{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=91}}|group="nc"}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 2:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.465
| style="text-align: right;" | 31,415
| style="text-align: right;" | 4:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 7,417
|-
! Glantz{{#tag:ref|Glantz uses total strengths<ref>Glantz p. 338.</ref>|group="nc"}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1,910,361
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.5:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 780,900
| style="text-align: right;" | 5,128
| style="text-align: right;" | 1.7:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 2,928
| style="text-align: right;" |
| style="text-align: right;" |
| style="text-align: right;" |
|-
| colspan="11" | {{refbegin}}<references group="nc" />{{refend}}
|}

For their attack, the Wehrmacht used three armies and a large proportion of their tanks on the eastern front. The 9th Army in the north had 335,000 men (223,000 combat troops), the 4th Panzer Army had 223,907 men (149,271) and Army detachment Kempf had 100,000 men (66,000) for a grand total of 778,907 men (518,271).

The Red Army used two Fronts (Army groups) for the defence and one Front as a reserve. The Central and Voronezh Fronts fielded 12 armies. Central Front had 711,575 men (510,983 combat troops), Voronezh Front had 625,591 men (446,236) and Steppe Front had 573,195 men (449,133) for a grand total of 1,910,361 (1,426,352).

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Strengths, as tallied by David M. Glantz and Karl-Heinz Frieser
|-
! rowspan="2" | Soviet offensive phase

! colspan="3" | Men
! colspan="3" | Tanks
! colspan="3" | Guns
|-
! Soviet
! Ratio
! German
! Soviet
! Ratio
! German
! Soviet
! Ratio
! German
|-
! Frieser{{#tag:ref|Frieser uses combat strengths{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=100}}|group="nd"}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 1,987,463
| style="text-align: right;" | 3.2:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 625,271
| style="text-align: right;" | 8,200
| style="text-align: right;" | 3:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 2,699{{#tag:ref|Frieser counts only operational tanks{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=91}}|group="nd"}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 47,416
| style="text-align: right;" | 5:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 9,467
|-
! Glantz{{#tag:ref|Glantz uses total strengths{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=346}}|group="nd"}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 2,500,000
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.7:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 940,900
| style="text-align: right;" | 7,360{{#tag:ref|Glantz does not count reinforcements<ref>Glantz p. 342.</ref>|group="nd"}}
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.3:1
| style="text-align: right;" | 3,253
| style="text-align: right;" |
| style="text-align: right;" |
| style="text-align: right;" |
|-
| colspan="11" | {{refbegin}}<references group="nd" />{{refend}}
|}

When the Red Army launched their counteroffensive in the north, the German 2nd Panzer Army was attacked by two Soviet Fronts: Brijansk and West. The 107,000 men of the 2nd Panzer Army and some reinforcements in the south brought the Wehrmacht troops to approximately to 950,000 men (approximately 650,000 combat troops). The two Soviet Fronts brought the Red Army to 2,629,458 men (1,987,463 combat troops).

==Sub-operations and nomenclature==
[[File:Battle of Kursk (map).jpg|thumb|upright|Battle of Kursk]]
For [[Wehrmacht]]'s [[OKH]], the Battle of Kursk was a part of the strategic '''Operation Citadel''' Offensive ({{lang-de|Unternehmen Zitadelle}}).

For Soviet historians the series of operations conducted as part of the [[Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II#Summer-Autumn Campaign of 1943 (1 July - 31 December)|Summer–Autumn Campaign of 1943]] (1 July – 31 December) include:<ref>Glantz (1990), pp. 82–113</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2008}}
* [[Kursk Strategic Defensive Operation]] (5–23 July 1943)
: [[Orel-Kursk Defensive Operation]] (5–11 July)
: [[Belgorod-Kursk Defensive Operation]] (5–23 July)
: [[Denial air operations over the Kursk Bulge]] (5–23 July)
: [[Air superiority operations in Operation Kutuzov]]
* [[Operation Kutuzov|Orel Strategic Counter-offensive Operation]] (codenamed ''Operation Kutuzov'') (12 July – 18 August 1943)
: [[Volkhov-Orel Offensive Operation]] (12 July – 18 August)
: [[Kromy-Orel Offensive Operation]] (15 July – 18 August)
: [[Air superiority operations in Operation Rumyantsev]]
* [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev|Belgorod–Kharkov Counter-offensive Offensive Operation]] (codenamed ''Operation Rumyantsev'') (3–23 August 1943)
: [[Battle of Belgorod|Belgorod–Bogodukhov Offensive Operation]] (3–23 August)
: [[Belgorod–Khar'kov Offensive Operation]] (3–23 August)
:: [[Battle of Prokhorovka]] (12 July 1943)
: [[Zmiyev Offensive Operation]] (12–23 August)

The exact definition of the operations varies. The Germans saw it only as the Operation Citadel offensive, while the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and Russian historians continue today to combine Citadel and the subsequent Soviet [[counter-offensive]]s, [[Operation Kutuzov]] and [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev]], as a single strategic event.

==Preliminaries==
===Aviation===
[[File:RIAN archive 225 IL-2 attacking.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet IL-2 planes attacking a Nazi column on the Voronezh Front.]]

The [[Soviet Air Forces|Soviet Air Forces (VVS)]] played a significant role in hampering German preparations. On 17 April 1943, a raid on the German airfield at Orsha-South destroyed five [[Ju 88]] reconnaissance aircraft from 1.(F)/''Aufklärungsgruppe'' 100 and 4.(F)/121, and three [[Do 17]]s/[[Do 217]]s of ''2. Nachtaufklärungsstaffel''. Three days later, another ten high-level reconnaissance aircraft were destroyed on the ground. As a result, the only operational strategic reconnaissance ''Staffel'' was 4.(F)/14.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=16–17}}

The Luftwaffe was also busy before the main operation. The tank factory at ''[[GAZ|Gorkovsky Avtomobilny Zavod]]'' (GAZ) was subjected to a series of heavy attacks throughout June 1943. On the night of 4/5 June, [[He 111]]s of ''[[Kampfgeschwader 1]]'' (KG 1), ''[[KG 3]]'', ''[[KG 4]]'', ''[[KG 55]]'' and ''[[Kampfgeschwader 100|KG 100]]'' dropped 179 tons of bombs, causing massive destruction to buildings and production lines. All of GAZ No. 1 plant's 50 buildings, {{convert|9000|m|ft}} of conveyors, 5,900 pieces of equipment and 8,000 tank engines were destroyed.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=20}} However, the Germans made an error in target selection. The GAZ plant No. 1 produced only the T-70 light tank. Factory No. 112, the second-biggest producer of the more formidable T-34, continued production undisturbed: 2,851 tanks were produced in 1943, 3,619 in 1944, and 3,255 in 1945.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=20}} Soviet production facilities were repaired or rebuilt within six weeks. The ''Luftwaffe'' also failed to hit the Gorkiy Artillery Factory (No. 92) and the aircraft plant where the [[Lavochkin La-5]] and La-5FN were made.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=20}}

===Ground===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Cantzler-077-39, Russland, Angehörige der Waffen-SS in einer Stellung.jpg|thumb|[[Waffen-SS]] soldiers assemble in preparation for the attack]]

It took four months before [[Hitler]] allowed [[Manstein]] to attack, by which time the Germans had added 90 [[Elefant]] [[Panzerjäger]]s (the total number produced as such), all 79 flyable [[Henschel Hs 129]] [[ground attack aircraft]],{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=124–125}} as well as 270 [[Tiger I|Tigers]], late model [[Panzer IV|Panzer Mark-IVs]] and even a number of captured [[T-34]]s.<ref>Töppel 2002, p. 33–34.</ref> In total, they assembled some 3,000 tanks and assault guns, 2,110 aircraft{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=123–125}}<ref group="nb" name="a-archives">figures from German archives. Bundesarchiv-Militararchiv, Freiburg; Luftfahrtmuseum, Hannover-Laatzen; WASt Deutsche Dienststelle, Berlin.</ref> and 435,000 men. It formed one of the greatest concentrations of German fighting power ever put together. Even so, Hitler expressed doubts about its adequacy.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}}

By this time, Allied action in Western Europe was beginning to have a significant impact on German military strength. Although [[North African Campaign|actions in North Africa]] hardly constituted the Red Army's longed-for [[Two Front War|second front]], the operation there did begin to tell on the Germans, and in the last quarter of 1942 and the first half of 1943, 40% of [[Luftwaffe]] losses occurred in the battles over [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|Malta]] and [[Tunisia Campaign|Tunisia]]. German [[air superiority]] was no longer guaranteed. The Soviet Air Force outnumbered the Luftwaffe and was gaining in technological quality as well. Both air forces possessed very effective ground-attack aircraft types capable of destroying armor: the Soviet [[Ilyushin Il-2|Ilyushin Il-2 ''Shturmovik'']] and the German [[Junkers Ju 87]]G (Initially Ju 87D-3/5 with a pair of added ''Bordkanone'' 37 mm gunpods).{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=79–81; 102; 106; 114; 118}}{{#tag:ref|The air operation is misunderstood in most accounts. The German ''Freya'' radar stations established in Belgorod and Kharkov in 1943 had only picked up Soviet formations approaching from Belgorod and were not responsible for the failure of the strike.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=26–27}}|group=nb| name="e-Freya"}}

The start date for the offensive had been moved repeatedly as delays in preparation had forced the Germans to postpone the attack. Finally, on 1 July, the orders were issued to attack on 5 July. The following day, [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshal]] [[Aleksandr Vasilevsky]] warned the Front commanders ([[Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin|N. F. Vatutin]], [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]] and [[Ivan Konev|I. S. Konev]]) that the long-awaited German offensive would begin sometime between 3 and 6 July. For months, the Soviets had been receiving detailed information on the planning of the offensive from the [[Red Orchestra (spy)|Red Orchestra spy ring]] (German: ''Rote Kapelle''), and the "[[Lucy spy ring|Lucy Group]]" [[espionage]] organization, whose sources allegedly included officers in [[Hermann Göring]]'s [[German Air Ministry|aviation ministry]] and other parts of the Nazi administration.{{sfn|Mulligan|1987|pp=236, 254}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Cantzler-077-24, Russland, Vormarsch deutscher Panzer.jpg|thumb|Two Tiger tanks and a StuG with infantry]]
Preliminary fighting started on 4 July 1943 in the south, as [[4th Panzer Army]] elected to try to take Soviet outposts prior to the main assault on 5 July, sacrificing tactical surprise. [[Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin]], having received reports that the German offensive was imminent, ordered Voronezh Front to bombard German positions on the night of 4 July.{{sfn|Clark|1966|p=329}}

In the afternoon [[Junkers Ju 87|''Stuka'' dive bombers]] attacked the Soviet front lines on the north, and then returned to their airfields while the German [[artillery]] opened up to continue the pounding. Kempf's [[armored spearhead]], the [[III Panzer Corps (Germany)|III Panzer Corps]], then advanced on the Soviet positions around [[Zavidovka]]. At the same time, the ''Großdeutschland'' Division attacked [[Butovo]] in torrential rain and the [[German 11th Panzer Division|11th Panzer Division]] took the high ground around Butovo. To the west of Butovo the going proved tougher for ''Großdeutschland'' and the [[3rd Panzer Division (Germany)|3rd Panzer Division]]; they met stiff Soviet resistance and did not secure their objectives until midnight. The [[II SS Panzer Corps]] launched preliminary attacks to secure observation posts and again met with strong resistance, until assault troops equipped with [[flamethrower]]s cleared the [[bunker]]s and outposts.

At 02:30, the Red Army hit back with an [[artillery]] bombardment in the north and south. This barrage by over 3,000 guns and mortars expended about half of the artillery ammunition for the entire operation. The goal was to delay and disorganize the German attack. In the northern face, the Central Front artillery fired mostly against German artillery positions and managed to suppress 50 of the 100 German batteries they attacked, resulting in much weaker German artillery fire on the opening day of the attack. This bombardment disrupted German units and caused them to attack at different times on 5 July. In the south, the Red Army chose to fire largely against the German infantry and tanks in their assembly areas. This was partially successful in delaying the German attack but caused few casualties.

==Main operations — the northern face==
===German onslaught===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-J14813, Bei Orel, Panzer VI (Tiger I).jpg|thumb|[[Tiger I tank|Tiger I]] tanks spearhead the assault in the northern sector]]

The [[9th Army (Germany)|9th Army]] attack in the north fell far short of its objectives on 5 July. The attack sector had been correctly anticipated by the Red Army Central Front. Attacking on a 45 kilometre wide front, the Germans found themselves trapped in the huge defensive minefields and needed engineering units to come up and clear them under artillery fire. Although a few [[Goliath tracked mine|Goliath]] and Borgward remote-controlled engineering vehicles were available to clear lanes in the minefields, they were not generally successful. Even when the vehicles cleared mines, they had no on-board marking system to show following tanks where the cleared lanes were. Red Army units covered the minefields with small arms and artillery fire, delaying German engineers clearing manually; German losses were high.

For example, the German 653rd Heavy Panzerjäger Battalion began the attack with 49 "Ferdinand" (known in the West as "[[Elefant]]") [[tank destroyer|heavy tank destroyers]]; 37 of them were lost in the minefields before 17:00 on 5 July. Although most of the lost vehicles were [[mobility kill]]s rather than permanent losses, they were out of action until they could be repaired. They were also easier for Red Army artillery to knock out permanently. However, since the Germans were advancing, any repairable vehicles could be recovered, repaired, and put back into action. After the first day of attack, the German units penetrated 8 km deep into the Russian lines for the loss of 1,287 killed and missing and 5,921 wounded.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=108}}

The Germans noted a fundamental flaw in their armored vehicles, particularly the Elefant. Although excellent against any Soviet tank at long to medium range, they lacked secondary armament and were vulnerable to attacks from Soviet slit trenches, once they were separated from the heavy machine gun protection of the lighter tanks, vehicles and infantry. Guderian noted in his diary:

{{quote|Once they had broken through into the enemy's infantry zone they literally had to go quail-shooting with cannons. They did not manage to neutralise, let alone destroy, the enemy's rifle and machine guns, so that our own infantry was unable to follow up behind them. By the time they reached the Soviet artillery they were on their own.{{sfn|Clark|1966|p=333}}}}

On the second day, the Central Front under Rokossovsky started a counter-attack against the German 9th Army, particularly the XLVI Tank Corps. The Red Army attacked with the 2nd Tank Army and the XIX Tank Corps, but this operational counter-attack was launched too early.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=108}} Soviet tanks sustained heavy losses in their first combat with Tiger tanks of s.Pz.Abt 505. The 107th and 164th Tank Brigade lost 69 tanks and the Soviet attack was stopped.<ref>Glantz p. 93.</ref> After the encounter with German Tigers, Rokossovsky decided to dig in most of his tanks and use them as static anti-tank guns.<ref>Rokossovsky p. 266.</ref>

The next two days of the attack saw heavy fighting around the strong point of Ponyri (on the Orel–Kursk railway), which was one of the most fortified positions in the northern sector. Both sides saw this area as a vital point; a very intense battle took place. The German tanks were awaited by 70 antitank guns per km.<ref>Piekalkiewice, ''Unternehmen Zitadelle'', p. 154.</ref> On 7 July the 86th and 292nd German Infantry Divisions attacked Ponyri and captured the town after intense house to house fighting. The Soviets counter-attacked and forced the German troops to withdraw temporarily; many counter-attacks by both sides followed and the town changed hands many times. Not before the evening of 8 July did the German units capture most of the town. The heavy Ferdinands were called into action to take Hill 253.3 and succeeded on 9 July. It developed into a battle of attrition with heavy casualties for both sides; Keegan called Ponyri "the new [[Fort Douaumont|Douaumont]]".{{sfn|Keegan|2006|p=72}} German units were exhausted, while Russian reserves were committed.

Model decided to pause to rearrange his units.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=110}} On 10 July, he renewed his attack with additional air support, but his gains were minor. Fresh Soviet formations repelled German attacks and only limited penetrations were achieved; the diary of the 9th Army describes the heavy fighting as a "new type of mobile attrition battle".{{#tag:ref|KTB AOK9 9 July ( Daily war diary of the 9th Army){{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=110}}|group=nb}} Model canceled the new attack.

The cancellation of the attack changed German plans; Model accepted that his forces did not have enough power to advance directly through the Soviet strongpoints. He decided to bypass the heights of Ol'chovatka and shift the ''[[schwerpunkt]]'' to XLVI Panzercorps. He also decided to use the uncommitted 12th Pz. Div. For the first time in the northern sector, a heavy concentration of tanks was planned. Model's hesitation to use the concept of concentration, which is described as the decisive element of an armored attack,<ref>Guderian, Achtung-Panzer!</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} led to a slow advance of the 9th Army. Because of the limited action of the tank units, only 63 tanks and assault guns were written off by 12 July.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=111}}

Soviet formations, including the 3rd Tank Army and the 11th Guards Army, attacked the German 2nd Panzer Army, positioned in the rear of 9th Army. The outnumbered 2nd Panzer Army had trouble with the Soviet attack. Soviet formations made a deep penetration and threatened German supply routes. With their advance on Orel the encirclement of the 9th Army was possible.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=111}}{{sfn|Overy|1995|p=205}}

===The end of ''Zitadelle'' in the north===
The 9th Army had to withdraw and used an opportunity created for them by the Luftwaffe. Their part in the offensive was over. Because the German armor was not concentrated and used with the same intensity as in the south, the German armor losses were comparatively light — 143 vehicles were the total losses between 5 and 14 July.{{sfn|Restayn|Moller|2002|pp=333–336}} Central Front losses were 526 tanks.{{#tag:ref|651 knocked out tanks, 526 write offs, primary source: CAMO (Ministry of Defence of Russia){{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=111}}|group=nb}} This failed to keep up with the steady influx of new soldiers and matériel arriving for the Red Army. Few Red Army guns were captured and those Red Army units that retreated did so on orders. The German attack had nearly broken through the main Soviet defence zones but stalled. The Soviet counter-offensive compelled Model to withdraw or risk the destruction of both German Armies.{{sfn|Overy|1995|pp=204–205}}

====Northern analysis====
A number of factors explain the 9th Army's lack of progress, mainly the combination of Soviet defensive planning and German lack of concentration of force. German armor was committed piecemeal rather than in strength and often without sufficient infantry support.{{sfn|Restayn|Moller|2002|p=333}} Soviet defensive preparation was also a major factor. The Central Front under Marshal Rokossovsky had correctly anticipated the likely areas of German attack and had [[fortification|fortified]] those areas very heavily, holding other areas more thinly. The [[13th Army (Soviet Union)|13th Army]], which bore the brunt of the German attack, was far stronger in men and [[anti-tank gun]]s than the other Central Front units and held the strongest defensive positions in the salient.

Model's army had fewer tanks than Manstein had in the south and the German 9th Army committed major units piecemeal because Model was afraid of the Bryansk Front, which stood ready for counterattack to the north of his army. Model decided to place his most powerful corps, Gruppe Esebeck (2 Pz. Div and 10 Pz. Gren. Div), far behind the frontline to use it as "fire brigade" against a possible onslaught by the Bryansk Front. Model's decision not to use his Panzer divisions as a concentrated force can be seen as the most significant reason for the poor penetration of the northern pincer.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=107}} Finally, the 9th Army led with reinforced infantry divisions that were already in the line facing the Red Army, rather than attacking with uncommitted units.

Review of attack frontages and depth of German penetration clearly shows the success of the Red Army defensive tactics. While it began with a 45 km wide attack front on 5 July, the next day the German 9th Army's front was reduced to 40 km. This dropped to 15 km wide by 7 July and to only 2 km on 8–9 July. Each day, the depth of the German advance slowed: 5 km on the first day, 4 on the second, never more than 2 km each succeeding day. By 10 July the 9th Army had been stopped.{{sfn|Overy|1995|p=204}}

Much of the Soviet defensive success is attributable to its method of fire control, known to the Germans as ''[[Pakfront]]''. This relied upon a group of 10 or more anti-tank guns under a commander, which would fire at one target at a time. These positions were protected with heavy concentrations of mortar and machine gun nests, which were ordered to fire on German infantry only.{{sfn|Clark|1966|pp=331–332}}

==Main operations — the southern face==
===German attack===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Groenert-019-23A, Schlacht um Kursk, Panzer VI (Tiger I).jpg|thumb|A Waffen-SS Tiger I engages enemy armor. The Tiger's advanced optics and accurate main gun allowed it to hit targets at long range.]]

Von Manstein's troops in the south were better equipped than Model's in the north. The 4th Tank Army and Army Group Kempf had 1,377 tanks and assault guns while the 9th Army possessed 988 tanks and assault guns.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=112}} The 1,377 tanks included 102 Tiger I tanks and 200 Panthers.

The 4th Tank Army ([[Hermann Hoth|Hoth]]) attacked in two directions with the [[XLVIII Panzer Corps (Germany)|48th Panzer Corps]] and the [[2nd SS Panzer Corps]]. The flanks of the spearheads were protected by the [[LII Army Corps (Germany)|52nd Corps]] on the left and by Army Group Kempf on the right. The XLVIII Tank Corps was to be the lead spearhead so they were reinforced with 200 Panthers. Their opponent was the [[Voronezh Front]].

At 04:00 the attack began; nearly all units advanced with good speed despite encountering well prepared defensive positions and minefields. Manstein's tanks were much more successful than their northern counterparts. The main reason for this was his better use of tanks in concentrated spearheads.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=112}} In the south the Red Army had not been able to pinpoint the German attack sectors; this forced them to spread out their defenses evenly. Three of the four armies of the Voronezh Front had about 10 antitank guns per kilometre of front, whereas in the Central Front, guns were distributed twice as heavily in the active sectors. The Voronezh Front made the decision to hold the tactical zone thinly, leaving a higher proportion of units in deeper positions than in the Central Front. The Voronezh Front was weaker than the Central Front, and it faced much stronger German forces.

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Zschaeckel-208-25, Schlacht um Kursk, Panzer III.jpg|thumb|left|The crew of a [[Panzer III|PzKpfw III]] tank assigned to the 2nd SS Panzer Division, ''Das Reich,'' resting after heavy fighting in the southern sector.]]

The new Panther tanks proved unreliable and failed to perform to expectations. When they moved to their assembly areas, 45 out of 200 new tanks experienced mechanical problems requiring repair.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=113}} When the remaining Panthers launched their attack, they immediately ran into a minefield and many were immobilised.

In the first two days the 2nd SS Tank Corps penetrated 25 km into the Russian lines and took Jakovlevo. The 200 Panthers of the 48th Tank Corps to their left spent more time in the workshops than fighting the enemy. Army Group Kempf, which was to assist the 2nd SS Tank Corps, was outnumbered{{Clarify|reason=outmatched?|date=February 2010}} and had problems crossing the Donec.

The steady progress of the German units forced the Russian leaders to commit some of their strategic reserves, as nearly all operational reserves were in action. The [[Steppe Front]] had been formed in the months leading up to the operation as a central reserve. As early as 6 July, Stavka decided to send the 2nd and 10th Tank Corps and the 5th Guards Tank Army to the southern sector; a day later other formations got their marching orders. Vatutin planned an operational counterstrike against the German units but decided to cancel it after the failure of the northern counter-attack. Instead of seeking open battle against the German tanks, Vatutin let his tanks dig in, as Rokossovsky did in the north.<ref>Glantz & House, p. 102.</ref> Zhukov protested against this use of the tanks but Vatutin's decision stood.

German officers reported that they were slowed down by the "silent tanks" (''Schweigepanzer''), because it cost much time to overcome these camouflaged "bases".{{Clarify|date=April 2010|reason=what does this mean?}}{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=116}} Despite the order to dig in many of their tanks, the Soviet units still had enough tanks to launch some counterattacks. On 8 July a German tank commanded by SS ''Unterscharführer'' [[Franz Staudegger]] met a group of about 50 T-34s. In the ensuing battle, Staudegger knocked out 22 T-34s; he was the first Tiger commander to be awarded the first Knight's Cross.<ref>Wendt p.18</ref>

The German tanks' advance was slowed. On the 9 July the first German units reached the [[Psel River]]. The next day the first infantry units crossed the Psel. By 10 July German units in the south had lost 166 tanks. Despite the deep defensive system and minefields, German tank losses were remarkably low.<ref>Geheime Kommandosache</ref> The 11th of July was a successful day for German units; Army Group Kempf achieved a breakthrough and the 3rd Panzer Corps penetrated deep into Russian lines. The next night the 6th Panzer Division took a bridge over the Donets with a swift surprise attack.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=118}} Kempf's 3rd Panzer Corps advanced to Prokhorovka from the south and the 2nd SS Panzer Corps from the west, almost trapping the Russian 69th Army. At this moment Manstein thought he had achieved the final breakthrough and could now operate freely and destroy the Russian reserves.<ref>Manstein p. 500</ref> Meanwhile the Red Army planned a huge counterattack to destroy the spearheads of Army Group South.

====Prokhorovka====
{{Main|Battle of Prokhorovka}}
Accounts of this battle are controversial. The original Soviet account of a brave but reckless, although ultimately successful, massive Red Army assault on heavy German armor is now generally discounted; the most recent revisionist accounts suggest a Soviet debacle, with the Soviet charge on German armor being disrupted not by German tanks but because many T-34s fell into a Soviet anti-tank ditch.<ref name="Evans_vol3">Richard J. Evans, ''The Third Reich at War'', London, Allen Lane, 2008, p. 488.</ref>

What is generally not disputed is that the Red Army did enough, at great cost, to stop a German breakthrough. In that sense Prokhorovka remains a crucial turning point of the battle and indeed of the Great Patriotic War: here the German army was stopped.

[[File:ProkhorovkaMonument.jpg|thumb|upright|Memorial on Prokhorovka Field]]
On the morning of 12 July, Hoth, determined to push for a breakthrough, collected reserves of the 4th Panzer Army and advanced on [[Prokhorovka]]. At the same time the [[5th Guards Tank Army]] launched a series of attacks as part of multi-front counteroffensive in an attempt to catch the Germans off balance. The SS and Guards units collided west of Prokhorovka in country punctuated by farms, rolling hills and gullies.

In stifling heat, an eight-hour battle began. The German units had 494 tanks and self-propelled artillery pieces in the attack, 90% of them operational.<ref>Frankson, p. 30.</ref> The German force found itself heavily outnumbered by the 5th Guards Tank Army, who, moving mainly at night, had brought 593 tanks and 37 self-propelled artillery pieces into position at Stary Oskol.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=77}} They had not yet been committed to battle, so they were fresh.

The Soviet 31st Guards Tank Corps and the 33rd Guards Rifle Corps fought the [[3rd SS Division Totenkopf|3rd SS ''Totenkopf'']] to a standstill by getting in close to the German armor and attacking the vulnerable sides of the Tigers. The [[II SS Panzer Corps|2nd SS]] was soon forced onto the defensive. Although the German formation held, it lost half its armor in a prolonged engagement. By the night of 11–12 July, the only success the Germans had to show for their losses was a captured bridgehead over the Donets river at Rzavets. The [[1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|1st SS Division ''Leibstandarte'']] had been stopped by the Soviet 18th Tank Corps, while the 3rd Panzer Corps and [[2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich|2nd SS Panzer Division]] were checked by the [[2nd Guards Tank Corps]] and two other Soviet reserve corps.{{sfn|Healy|1992|pp=84–87}}

The air battle was also intense. Von Manstein had intended it to be the decisive blow against the Red Army forces to prevent a breakthrough to Oboyan and Kursk. ''Sturmoviks'' from 291 ShAD attacked the 2nd SS Panzer Division throughout the day, causing significant damage to German armored formations. Simultaneously, waves of Hs 129s and Ju 87s inflicted losses on the 69th Army and 5th Guards Army. Although Soviet tank losses are unknown, a report from the 29th Tank Corps reported "heavy losses in tanks through enemy aircraft and artillery". Losses were so heavy that the advance had to be halted and a switch to the defensive ordered.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=79–80}}

The Luftwaffe had complete air superiority over Prokhorovka, due to the ''VVS'' being concentrated over the flanks of the 4th Panzer Army.

The battle can best be described as a costly tactical loss but an operational draw for the Red Army. Neither the 5th Guards Tank Army nor the 2nd SS Panzer Corps accomplished their missions that day. After the battle was over, the Soviets held the area and were able to recover their disabled tanks and wounded crews.{{sfn|Clark|1966|p=337}}{{sfn|Healy|1992|pp=76–77}}

Tank losses in the battle have been a contentious subject. Red Army losses have been given from 200 to 822 tanks, but the records show about 300 complete losses and as many damaged. German losses have been reported to be as low as 80 and as high as several hundred. The Soviets claim the Germans lost 400 tanks in this battle and 3,500 soldiers killed,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://militera.lib.ru/h/samsonov2/11.html | title = чпеообс мйфетбфхтб -[ чПЕООБС ЙУФПТЙС ]- уБНУПОПЧ б.н. лТБИ ЖБЫЙУФУЛПК БЗТЕУУЙЙ 1939–1945 | publisher = Militera.lib.ru | date = | accessdate = 2010-08-06 }}</ref> but never research suggest only about 500 lost men and much lower tank losses, with only a few tanks completely destroyed and about 40-80 damaged.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=81}}<ref name=brand>[http://www.bmlv.gv.at/omz/ausgaben/artikel.php?id=158 Dieter Brand Generalmajor a.D : "Vor 60 Jahren: Prochorowka (Teil II)"]</ref><ref name="Frieser pp. 130, 132">Frieser pp. 130, 132.</ref><ref>Glantz 1999, p. 275.</ref> In any event, the losses of both the 2nd SS Panzer Corps and the 5th Guards Tank Army in what has been called the greatest tank battle of all time were not of the epic proportions sometimes attributed to the Prokorovka engagement.

===The end of ''Zitadelle'' in the south===
While the German offensive had been stopped in the north by 10 July, in the south the overall situation still hung in the balance, even after 12 July. German forces on the southern wing, exhausted and heavily depleted, had breached the first two defensive belts and believed that they were about to break through the last belt. In fact at least five more defensive zones awaited them, although they were not as strong as the initial belts, and some of them did not have troops deployed. Red Army defenders had been weakened, and major parts of their reserve forces had been committed. Still, the available uncommitted Red Army reserves were far larger than the few available German reserves.

On 16 July, German forces withdrew to their start line. Severely depleted, the Germans then had to face ''[[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev]]'', an offensive launched to smash the German forces in the Belgorod–Kharkov area on 3 August. Belgorod fell on 5 August, and on 23 August, Kharkov fell, despite fierce resistance from German forces. With the capture of Kharkov, the Soviets considered the Battle of Kursk over.<ref name="Taylor & Kulish 1974, p. 171">Taylor & Kulish 1974, p. 171.</ref>

====Southern analysis====
The German forces made steady progress, but, as in the north, attack frontage width and penetration depth tended to drop as the attack proceeded. The trend was not as marked as in the north, however. A 30 km wide attack frontage on 5 July became 20 km wide by 7 July and 15 km by 9 July. Likewise, the depth of penetration dropped from 9 km on 5 July to 5 km on 8 July and 2–3 km each day thereafter until the attack was cancelled.

Red Army minefields and artillery were successful in delaying the German attack and inflicting losses. The ability of dug-in Red Army units to delay the Germans allowed their own reserves to be brought up into threatened sectors. Over 90,000 additional mines were laid during the operations by small mobile groups of engineers, generally working at night immediately in front of the expected German attack areas. There were no large-scale captures of prisoners nor any great loss of artillery, indicating that Soviet units were giving ground in good order.

German losses can be seen in the example of the [[Großdeutschland Division|''Großdeutschland'' Division]], which began the operation with 118 tanks. On 10 July, after five days of fighting, the division reported it had 3 Tigers, 6 Panthers, and 11 Pzkw-III and Pzkw-IV tanks operational. XLVIII Panzer Corps reported, overall, 38 Panthers operational with 131 awaiting repair, out of the 200 it started with on 5 July.

==Hitler cancels the operation==
On the night of 9–10 July, the [[Allies of World War II|Western Allies]] mounted an [[Operation Husky|amphibious invasion]] of [[Sicily]]. Three days later, [[Hitler]] summoned [[Günther von Kluge]] and [[Erich von Manstein]] to his ''[[Wolfsschanze]]'' headquarters in [[East Prussia]] and declared his intention to "temporarily" call off Operation ''Zitadelle''. Von Manstein attempted to dissuade him, arguing that ''Zitadelle'' was on the brink of victory: "on no account should we let go of the enemy until the mobile reserves which he had committed were decisively beaten". In an unusual reversal of their roles, Hitler gave von Manstein a few more days to continue the offensive, but on 17 July, he ordered a withdrawal and canceled the operation. He then ordered the entire ''SS Panzer Korps'' to be transferred to Italy.{{sfn|Clark|1966|pp=337–38}}

Hitler's decision to call off the operation at the height of the tactical battle has since been strongly criticized by German generals in their memoirs,<ref>Manstein, ''[[Verlorene Siege]]'' p. 504.</ref> and by some historians.<ref>Engelmann, Zitadelle p. 5.</ref> For example, it has been pointed out that the SS Panzer Korps would have taken three months to be transferred to Sicily, and thus could not possibly have affected the outcome there, while its contribution to the Kursk operation was vital.{{sfn|Carell|1966–1971|p=}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}

Only one German division, [[Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|1st SS Panzer ''Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler'']], departed for Italy, without their equipment. The remainder stayed to face the Red Army counteroffensive launched in the wake of the failed German offensive.

===Reasons for the failure of ''Zitadelle''===
Historian Karl-Heinz Frieser points out these reasons for the failure of Operation ''Zitadelle'':

* The Soviets had numerical superiority. Frieser points out that the biggest problem of the [[OKW]] was the shortage of infantry. The [[OKH]] had no operational reserve while the Red Army could field an entire [[Front (Soviet Army)|front]] ([[Steppe Front]]) as reserve. That the Red Army had more tanks than the Wehrmacht had less influence on the outcome according to Frieser.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=149}}<ref name="Krivosheev p. 188-190">Krivosheev, p. 188–190.</ref><ref>Zetterling/Frankson p. 116, 117.</ref>

* Repeated delays by Hitler gave the Red Army enough time to fortify the bulge around Kursk to an enormous fortress. High officers like Manstein and Zeitzler pushed for a fast attack to catch the Red Army unprepared and low on morale after the third battle of Kharkov. The overlap with the [[Allied invasion of Sicily]] made Hitler's date for the attack the "most adverse possible".<ref>Magenheimer, die Militärstrategie Deutschlands 1940–1945 p.244</ref>

[[Military historian]] and Soviet military expert [[David Glantz]] draws these conclusions:

* The German defeat at Kursk did not come about by the "often-exaggerated numerical superiority" of the Soviet armed forces. The principal factor at Kursk was the revolution in Soviet command, staff, operational and tactical techniques. The General Staff had learned lessons from previous battles and disseminated "war experience" based on "exhaustive" analysis of battles, operations and campaigns. These lessons were added to Soviet doctrine ([[Soviet deep battle]]), producing new procedures.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=176}} Glantz and House have asserted the tank strength was even, between 1:1 and 1.5:1 in the Soviets' favour.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|pp=149–150}}

* The Soviets introduced new operational and tactical techniques, and had solved many of the problems of integrating arms and services into "a true [[combined arms]] operation". He emphasises "sophisticated understanding of intelligence, deception, and anti-tank defence". Similar improvements were made in the combined use of artillery, tanks, engineers, and infantry to break German defences on a narrow front. At Prokhorovka and in the Kutuzov operations, the Red Army gained experience with mobile armored formations and mechanized corps that became the hallmark of [[Soviet deep battle|Soviet deep operations]]. These formations demonstrated their ability to match the best efforts of the German Panzer force. Operations still needed to be perfected to reduce huge casualties. Nevertheless, the German command recognised that at Kursk they faced an entirely new and more competent Red Army.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=176}}<ref>Glantz 1991, pp. 132–133.</ref>

* Defensive tactics had improved. Skillful use of anti-tank artillery in strong points and the use of separate tank brigades, tank regiments and self-propelled gun units to support them offered mobile defence support. These units participated in wearing down tactical attacks against enemy spearheads. The transitional year of 1943 was decisive for the Soviet war effort. Operational and tactical techniques tested and smoothed out in 1943 would be refined further and perfected in 1944 and 1945. "The elementary education the Red Army received in 1941–42 gave way to the secondary education of 1943. In 1944 and 1945 the Soviets would accomplish university-level and graduate study in the conduct of war".<ref>Glantz 1991, pp. 136–137.</ref>

Military expert [[Steven Zaloga]] offers these insights about the Red Army at Kursk:

* The popular perception of Soviet victory "by numbers" was a myth created by German generals in their memoirs written in the 1950s. He rejects the caricature of the Red Army relying on mass rather than tactical skill, but accepts that at the tactical end (the [[platoon]] and [[company]] level), the Red Army was not particularly impressive and received significantly poorer training.<ref>Zagola 1989, p. 6.</ref> Zaloga points out that there were still many tactical lessons to be learned; however by 1943 the gap between Soviet and German tanker training had "narrowed greatly", and the Soviets were soon at a comparable level with the Germans.<ref name="Zagola 1989, p. 18">Zagola 1989, p. 18.</ref>

* The Soviets, in terms of operational art, were adept at using mobile tank formations.<ref name="Zagola 1989, p. 18" /> Zaloga asserts that Soviet operational methods were superior, allowing Soviet field commanders to bluff, baffle and overwhelm their opponents.<ref>Zagola 1989, p. 7.</ref>

Historian [[Richard Overy]] makes the following interpretations:

* The quality of the two air forces were even. The Soviets had introduced air-to-ground communications, radar, a proper maintenance system, and depots for forward fuel reserves. This allowed aircraft to fly twenty missions in the heat of the battle (while the Luftwaffe suffered shortages).{{sfn|Bergström|2007|pp=48–49}}{{sfn|Overy|1995|p=192}}

* The Soviets were not inferior in the quality of their tanks. Although the T-34 model (with its 76 mm main gun) was out-ranged by German Tiger and Panther tanks, it was faster and more manoeuvrable than the former and the latter had too many mechanical difficulties{{sfn|Overy|1995|p=207}} at the [[Battle of Prokhorovka]]. To counter the Tiger tank, the Soviets used their tanks in a "hand-to-hand" combat role. Crews were ordered to close the range so that it would not become an issue.{{sfn|Overy|1995|pp=207–209}} According to Glantz and House the Soviet tanks pressed home their initial attacks despite significant German advantages: the range of the German tanks' 88mm gun, German air superiority, and attacking a well dug-in enemy while covering flat rolling terrain. Even so, the loss ratio was less than 2:1, 320 German and 400 Soviet AFVs.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=167}}

==Russian counterattacks==
===In the north: Operation Kutuzov===
{{Main|Operation Kutuzov}}

[[Operation Kutuzov]] was launched on 12 July against the southern wing of Army Group Centre. The counterattack was launched before the Germans had stopped their attack, so Operation Kutuzov had a bigger effect on the outcome of ''Zitadelle'' when compared to the southern counterattack, which was launched after the cancellation of ''Zitadelle''.

The [[Bryansk Front]] (commanded by [[Markian Popov]]) and parts of the [[Western Front (Soviet Union)|Western Front]] (commanded by [[Vasily Sokolovsky]]) attacked the largely undefended German north flank of the 2nd Panzer Army on 12 July. The 2nd Panzer Army was diminished as many tanks were transferred to other armies before ''Zitadelle''. On 12 July the attacking forces numbered 487,111 combat troops supported by 1,401 tanks and 15,109 guns.<ref>Koltunov, p. 80.</ref> Three days later the second phase of Operation Kutuzov started with the attack of the German 9th Army by several Russian armies. The combined troops deployed for Kutuzov now numbered 1,286,049 men supported by 2,409 tanks and 26,379 guns.<ref>Koltunov, p. 82.</ref>

The operations of the Bryansk Front marked the beginning of the Russian summer offensive. The artillery barrage was heavy and the first German lines were overrun. German defensive lines were deeper than expected and many Russian spearheads were slowed and sustained heavy casualties,<ref>Rendulic, ''Die Schlacht von Orel'', p. 134.</ref> but in some areas the Russian units achieved deep penetrations.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=185}} The Germans lacked reserves to block these penetrations, so the situation became very dangerous for the 2nd Panzer Army.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=185}} On 13 July Army Group Centre gave command of the 2nd Panzer Army to Model, who already commanded the German 9th Army. Model now was in control of all German units in the Orel area.

The situation for the Germans worsened as Russian breakthroughs threatened the entire 9th Army. Model sent nearly all of his Panzer units to aid the 2nd Panzer Army whose northern front was about to collapse, while the 4th Army in the north sent the 253rd Infantry Division. German units achieved a temporary stabilization of the front but meanwhile the 9th Army started to withdraw from the captured ground. Initially, the Russian Central Front followed hesitantly, but then started attacking in earnest with heavy air support.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=185}} On 18 July the 9th Army was at the same position as on 5 July, before the start of ''Zitadelle''.

Russian tank formations failed to achieve an operational breakthrough despite their numerical superiority.<ref>Rotmistrov, ''The Role of Armoured Forces'' p. 173.</ref> Red Army tank armies repeated their attacks against the same positions with the same methods and suffered heavy casualties in men and tanks. For example, the 4th Tank Army lost 84% of their T-34s and 46% of their light tanks within a few days.<ref name="Sutov/Ramanicev p. 277">Sutov/Ramanicev, p. 277.</ref> After two weeks of fighting the 3rd Guards Tank Army had lost half of their 800 tanks.<ref name="Sutov/Ramanicev p. 277" /> The German armies conducted a fighting withdrawal to Hagen-Stellung.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=188}}

Organized by the Red Army, approximately 100,000 partisans supported the Russian operations.<ref>{{harvnb|Frieser|2007|p=187}}, according to Soviet numbers.</ref> German movements were hampered by partisans disrupting German supply routes, especially railway lines. On 3 August partisans launched a large operation against the German rear, the so called "Railway-war".

By shortening their line the Wehrmacht freed 19 divisions, which could be used elsewhere or held as reserves.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=188}} Nevertheless, the Soviets achieved a complete breakthrough. The Soviets massed a concentration of artillery and tanks on small narrow fronts and used sophisticated artillery techniques to defeat German fortified positions despite tenacious German defences. Operation Kutuzov "was a perfect example of the newly sophisticated Soviet way of war".{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=168}} On 5 August the 3rd Guards Tank Army entered Orel and by 18 August, the Bryansk Front had reached the city Bryansk, "completely eliminating the German salient in the region".{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=168}}

The battle was the bloodiest of the three major operations during the Battle of Kursk. The German overall losses were 86,064 men;{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=188}} the Red Army lost 112,529 men and 317,361 were wounded.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=297}} The losses for the Red Army were particularly high for tanks and assault guns: 2,586 of them were written off during Kutuzov.<ref>Krivosheev, p. 278.</ref> German tank losses are not available for this battle, but Heeresgruppe Mitte (Army Group Center) lost 343 during whole ''Zitadelle'' and Kutuzov.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=188}}

Some of the Soviet commanders were displeased, complaining that an even greater victory might have been won. Marshal Rokossovsky said, "Instead of encircling the enemy, we only pushed them out of the bulge... The operation would have been different if we had used our force for two heavy punches which met at Bryansk". Zhukov held a similar opinion.<ref name="Zhukov188">Zhukov p. 188.</ref> Stalin instead thought encirclement tactics could wait: "It is our task to push them from our territory. We can trap them when they are weaker".<ref name="Zhukov188" />

===In the south: Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev===
{{Main|Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev}}
[[File:Battle of Kursk, southern sectorV2.png|thumb|Southern sector of the Battle of Kursk.]]

To the south the Red Army needed time to regroup after the losses sustained in July, and could not launch another offensive until 3 August, when [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev]] commenced. ''[[Stavka]]'' planned Operation Rumyantsev as the major thrust of their summer offensive. The aim was to destroy Manstein's 4th Army and Army Group Kempf and later the southern wing of Heeresgruppe Süd (Army Group South). The German 1st Tank Army and newly formed 6th Army were to be trapped by an advance to the Black Sea.<ref>Glantz & House p. 241.</ref> The Russian [[Southern Front (Soviet Union)|Southern Front]] and the [[Southwestern Front (Soviet Union)|Southwest Front]] attacked as early as 17 July.

The Voronezh Front and the Steppe Front deployed about 1,144,000 men<ref>Krivosheev. p. 190.</ref> supported by 2,418 tanks<ref name="Koltunov p. 81">Koltunov p. 81.</ref> and 13,633 guns and rocket launchers<ref name="Koltunov p. 81" /> for the attack. At the start of "Rumyantsev" the Germans fielded only 237 tanks and assault guns. Manstein believed that the Soviets were incapable of launching an offensive in the southern sector, and dispatched his reserves (II SS Panzerkorps, XXIV Korps and XXXXVIII Panzerkorps) southward to deal with Soviet offensives across the Dnieper and Mius Rivers. The Soviet operations in those regions were actually carefully planned diversion operations. The Soviet plan worked; German reserves were removed from the critical Kharkov axis (conforming to ''[[Maskirovka]]'': military deception).{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=168}} The tactical operations across the Mius were unsuccessful, but achieved their primary aim of diverting German forces further away from Kharkov, although by Soviet accounts, the ''Stavka'' had wished for more.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=352}}

For the Kharkov offensive the Red Army focused enormous firepower on a 30 km front. The 5th and 6th Guards Armies, two elements that had borne the brunt of the German offensive, and the Soviet 53rd Army took part. The artillery concentration was necessary to puncture the first five German defence lines between Kursk and Kharkov. The 1st Tank Army and 5th Guards Army, supported by two additional mobile corps, would act as a mobile operational unit to encircle Kharkov from the north and west. To the west, four separate tank corps would support the 27th and 40th Armies would make supporting attacks. To the east and south-east, the 69th and 7th Guards Armies, followed by the 57th Army of the Southwestern Front, would also support the attack.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|pp=168–169}}

On 3 August the initial attack demonstrated the growing sophistication of Soviet tactical art. Heavy and long-range artillery bombarded German positions, supported by anti-tank shock groups, ready to repel counter attacks. The German defence was tenacious, and two tank armies had to enter the battle to secure a penetration. By 5 August the Soviets had broken deep into the German rear and captured [[Belgorod]], advancing some 60 km into German lines. Each combined-arms army pressed the German defences from the north and east.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=169}}

German reserves were rushed from the Orel sector and north from the Donbas regions (where Soviet ''maskirovka'' operations had diverted them) and tried to break up Soviet attacks. The only success was achieved by the ''Grossdeutschland'' Division, which succeeded in delaying the 40th Army on 6–7 August. Four infantry divisions and seven Panzer and motorised divisions were assembled under the III Panzerkorps. Manstein tried to repeat the success of the [[Third Battle of Kharkov]], where the Soviets had been over-extended and defeated. This time the Soviets were alert to the danger, and it was the German forces that were worn down.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|pp=169–170}} On 12 August, units of the newly arrived 2nd SS Panzergrenadierdivision "Das Reich" and SS Panzergrenadierdivision "Totenkopf" started a counterattack against two Soviet Armies near Bogodukhov, 30 km northwest of Kharkov. The Waffen-SS units trapped and annihilated many Soviet units during the following maneuver battles. To assist the 6th Guards Army and the 1st Tank Army, the 5th Guards Tank Army joined the battles. All three Soviet armies suffered heavily and the tank armies lost more than 800 of their initial 1,112 tanks.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=196}}{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=249}} After the counterattack of the two German divisions, the Soviet tank armies were no longer capable of offensive actions.{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=249}} The Soviet advance around Bogodukhov was stopped so the German units now tried to close the gap between Achtryrka and Krasnokutsk. The counterattack started on 18 August and on 20 August "Totenkopf" and "Großdeutschland" met behind the Soviet units.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=196}} Parts of two Soviet armies and two tank corps were trapped, but the trapped units heavily outnumbered the German units. Many Soviet units were able to break out while suffering heavy casualties.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=196}}{{sfn|Glantz|House|2004|p=251}} After this setback the Soviet troops focused on Kharkov and captured it after heavy fighting on 23 August. The battle is usually referred to as the Fourth Battle of Kharkov by the Germans and the Belgorod–Kharkov offensive operation by the Soviets.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=70}}

Soviet casualties in the Belgorod–Kharkov sector during this operation were 71,611 killed and 183,955 wounded; 1,864 tanks were lost and 423 artillery guns were lost.{{sfn|Glantz|House|1995|p=297}}

German losses were 10,000 killed and 20,000 wounded. German tank losses are estimated at least 8 times lower than Soviet tank losses of 1,864.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=199}}

==Results==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-022-2948-19, Russland, Unternehmen "Zitadelle". Soldatengrab.jpg|thumb|upright|The battlefield grave of Heinz Kühl, a German soldier. The Third Reich did not recover from the losses sustained at Kursk and found itself in a strategic retreat for the remainder of the campaign in the east.]]
The campaign was a decisive Soviet success. For the first time, a major German offensive had been stopped before achieving a breakthrough. The Germans, despite using more technologically advanced armor than in previous years, were unable to break through the in-depth defenses of the Red Army, and were surprised by the significant operational reserves of the Red Army. This was an outcome that few had predicted, and it changed the pattern of operations on the Eastern Front. The victory had not been cheap; the [[Soviet Army|Red Army]], although preventing the Germans from achieving their goals, lost considerably more men and matériel than the [[Wehrmacht]].

{{cquote|With the failure of ''Zitadelle'' we have suffered a decisive defeat. The armoured formations, reformed and re-equipped with so much effort, had lost heavily in both men and equipment and would now be unemployable for a long time to come. It was problematical whether they could be rehabilitated in time to defend the Eastern Front... Needless to say the Russians exploited their victory to the full. There were to be no more periods of quiet on the Eastern Front. From now on, the enemy was in undisputed possession of the initiative.{{sfn|Bergström|2007|p=121}}|30px||[[Heinz Guderian]]}}

[[File:Prokhorovka Cathedral.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Prokhorovka]] Cathedral on the former battlefield commemorates the Red Army losses and victory.]]

From this point on, a new pattern emerged. The initiative had firmly passed to the Red Army, while the Germans spent the rest of the war reacting rather than attacking. A new front had opened in [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italy]], diverting some of Germany's resources and attention.<ref name="Taylor & Kulish 1974, p. 171" /> Both sides had their losses, but only the Soviets had the manpower and the industrial production to recover fully. The Germans never regained the initiative after Kursk and never again launched a major offensive in the East.

The loss convinced Hitler of the incompetence of his [[OKH|General Staff]]. His interference in military matters progressively increased, so that by the end of the war he was involved in tactical decisions. The German Army went from loss to loss as Hitler attempted personally to [[micromanage]] the day-to-day operations of what soon became a three-front war. The opposite was true for Stalin. After seeing Stavka's planning justified on the battlefield, he trusted his advisors more, and stepped back from operational planning, only rarely overruling military decisions. The Red Army gained more freedom and became more and more fluid as the war continued.

===Casualties===
====German====
According to German historian [[:de:Karl-Heinz Frieser|Karl-Heinz Frieser]], who interpreted German archives, the ''Wehrmacht'' suffered 54,182 casualties in total during ''Operation Citadel'' (4–16 July). Of these 9,036 personnel were killed in action, another 1,960 were reported missing in action, and 43,159 wounded in action. The [[German Ninth Army]] (under the command of [[Army Group Centre]]) suffered 23,345 casualties while and [[Army Group South]] suffered 30,837 casualties.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=154}}

For [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev]] Frieser states between the 1–20 August,''Wehrmacht'' and ''Waffen SS'' units suffered 25,068 casualties, including 8,933 killed and missing. For Rumyantzev he estimated ~30,000 men lost with 10,000 killed and missing. For [[Operation Kutuzov]] Frieser gives 86,064 casualties with 14,215 killed, 11,300 missing and 60,549 wounded.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=202}} Total casualties for the "Battle of Kursk" were ~170,000 men.

According to Frieser, the ''Wehrmacht'' lost 252 tanks and assault guns during ''Operation Zitadelle'' (until 20 July). Army Group South admitted losses of 161 tanks and 14 assault guns by 16 July. The German Ninth Army reported the loss of 41 tanks and 17 assault guns up to and including the 14 July. Among these were ten ''[[Tiger I|Tiger]]'' tanks, 42 ''[[Panther tank|Panther]]'' and 19 ''"Ferdinand"'' or ''"Elefant"'' heavy tank destroyers. Other losses included 109 [[Panzer IV]]s, 38 [[Panzer III]]s, 3 [[flame tank]]s and 31 assault guns.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=151}}

The number of lost tanks for ''Zitadelle'' and the Soviet counter offensives is hard to establish. Frieser gives the number of 1,331 tanks destroyed for the entire [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] for July and August. Frieser estimates the number of tanks destroyed during the Battle of Kursk as 760. Frieser explains that many of these tanks were beyond repair and abandoned.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=202}}

[[David Glantz]] gives a total of 49,822 casualties.{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=338}} Glantz asserts German losses during the Soviet counter offensives are unavailable.{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=345}}

Glantz estimates that 1,612 tanks and assault guns were knocked out and/or damaged, of which 323 were destroyed.{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=276}} Tank losses from counterattacks are uncertain according to Glantz.

Aircraft losses, according to Frieser, totaled 524. For ''Zitadelle'' (5–20 July) 159 were lost, while 218 were destroyed during the Soviet Operation Kutuzov and a further 147 during Polkovodets Rumyantsev.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|p=204}}

According to Christer Bergström, the ''Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe'' reported 97 aircraft lost between 5–8 July (''[[8th Air Corps (Germany)|Fliegerkorps VIII]]'' 58 and ''[[Luftflotte 6]]'' 39). For the period 5–31 July, ''Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe'' gives figures of 681 lost from the two air fleets (335 for ''Fliegerkorps VIII'' and 346 for ''Luftflotte 6''). Of this total 420 were written off; 192 from ''Fliegerkorps VIII'' and 229 from ''Luftflotte 6''.{{sfn|Bergström|2008|p=120}}

According to Soviets claims the Red Army smashed thirty German divisions, inflicting the following casualties between 5 July and 23 August 1943: 500,000 dead, wounded, and captured soldiers; 1,500 tanks and 3,700 planes destroyed.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://militarymaps.narod.ru/oper_1943.html#14 | title = Основные операции Советских Вооруженных Сил в ВОВ, начавшиеся в 1943 году | publisher = MilitaryMaps.narod.ru | date = | accessdate = 2010-08-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author = Пигарев Ростислав Владимирович | url = http://www.biograph-soldat.ru/OPER/ARTICLES/021-kursk.htm | title = Курская Битва | publisher = Biograph-soldat.ru | date = | accessdate = 2010-08-06 }}</ref>

====Soviet====
David Glantz quotes [[Grigoriy Krivosheyev]] as the most reliable source. According to Glantz' interpretation of Krivosheev's work, which interpreted Soviet archives, Soviet losses at Kursk during ''Citadel'' (known to the Soviets as the Kursk strategic defensive operation, 5–20 July) amounted to 177,874 casualties.{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=274}} The [[Central Front (Soviet Union)|Central Front]] suffered 15,336 killed and 18,561 sick or wounded for a total of 33,897 casualties. The [[Voronezh Front]] suffered 27,542 killed and 46,350 sick or wounded for a total of 73,892 casualties. The [[Steppe Front]] suffered 27,452 killed with 42,606 sick or wounded for a total of 70,085 casualties.{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=275}}

Glantz estimates Soviet losses during [[Operation Kutuzov]] at 112,529 killed and 317,361 wounded for a total of 429,890 casualties;{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=276}} the [[Western Front (Soviet Union)|Western Front]] as losing 25,585 killed and 76,856 wounded and sick; the [[Bryansk Front]] suffered 39,173 killed and 123,234 wounded and sick. The Central Front lost 47,771 killed and 117,271 wounded and sick.{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=276}} Total casualties for the "Battle of Kursk" were 863,303 men.

The Soviet losses during [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev]] (3–23 August), according to Glantz and official Soviet sources, were 255,556 casualties, including 71,611 killed and 183,955 wounded. The Voronzeh Front lost 48,339 killed and 108,954 wounded for a total of 157,293 casualties. The Steppe Front lost 23,272 killed and 75,001 wounded for a total of 98,273 casualties.{{sfn|Glantz|Orenstein|1999|p=276}} Soviet material losses for ''Citadel'' (5–20 July) amounted to 2,586 tanks and [[Self-propelled artillery]] out of 3,925 committed to combat (well over 50 percent). Roughly, this was seven times the number of German losses. The number of losses in the ''Polkovodets Rumyantsev'' operation were also heavy. Glantz quotes Krivosheyev's numbers of 1,864 tanks and self-propelled artillery guns out of 2,439 engaged, well over 50 percent. The loss ratio was roughly 5:1 in favor of the Germans.{{sfn|Glantz|1999|pp=276–277}}

Frieser also supports Krivosheyev's casualty figures for men and armor.{{sfn|Frieser|2007|pp=150, 200 onward}}

According to Christer Bergström, [[Red Air Force]] losses amounted to 677 on the northern flank and 439 on the southern flank of the bulge during ''Citadel''. In the north, 5–11 July, Soviet losses amounted to 430 destroyed aircraft. The [[2nd Air Army]] suffered 433 casualties in total in the north during July 1943. Total losses for the 17th Air Army were 244 during the same period. Other unit casualties are uncertain. Bergström's research indicates total Soviet air losses were 1,104 between 12 July and 18 August, covering Operations ''Citadel'' and ''Kutuzov''.{{sfn|Bergström|2008|p=121}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|group=nb}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| last = Bergström
| first = Christer
| title = Kursk — The Air Battle: July 1943
| publisher = Chervron/Ian Allen
| location = Hersham
| year = 2007
| isbn = 978-1-903223-88-8
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Bergström
| first = Christer
| title = Bagration to Berlin — The Final Air Battle in the East: 1941–1945
| publisher = Chervron/Ian Allen
| location = Burgess Hill
| year = 2008
| isbn = 978-1-903223-91-8
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Carell
| first1 = Paul
| last2 = Osers
| first2 = Ewald
| authorlink = Paul Carell
| others = Translated from the German ''Unternehmen Barbarossa''
| title = Hitler's War on Russia: V1: Hitler Moves East, V2: Scorched Earth
| year = 1966–1971
| publisher = Corgi
| location = London
| isbn = 9780552086387
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Clark
| first = Alan
| authorlink = Alan Clark
| title = Barbarossa: The Russian-German Conflict 1941–1945
| publisher = William Morrow
| location = New York
| year = 1966
| oclc = 40117106
| isbn = 0688042686
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Dunn
| first = Walter
| title = Kursk: Hitler's Gamble, 1943
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| location = Westport, Conn
| year = 1997
| isbn = 978-0-275957-33-9
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Frieser
| first = Karl-Heinz
| coauthors = Klaus Schmider, Klaus Schönherr, Gerhard Schreiber, Kristián Ungváry, Bernd Wegner
| title = Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg – Vol. 8: Die Ostfront 1943/44 – Der Krieg im Osten und an den Nebenfronten
| publisher = Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt München
| location = München
| year = 2007
| isbn = 978-3-421-06235-2
| language = German
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Glantz
| first1 = David M.
| last2 = House
| first2 = Jonathon
| authorlink = David Glantz
| title = When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler
| publisher = University of Kansas Press
| location = Lawrence, Kan
| year = 1995
| isbn = 9780700608997
| lastauthoramp = yes
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Glantz
| first = David M.
| last2 = Orenstein
| first2 = Harold S.
| year = 1999
| title = The Battle for Kursk 1943: The Soviet General Staff Study
| publisher = Frank Cass
| location = London; Portland, OR
| isbn = 0714649333
| lastauthoramp = yes
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Glantz
| first = David M.
| first2 = Jonathan M.
| last2 = House
| title = The Battle of Kursk
| publisher = University Press of Kansas
| location = Lawrence, Kan
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0700613358
| lastauthoramp = yes
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| first = David M.
| last = Glantz
| title = The Role of Intelligence in Soviet Military Strategy in World War II
| publisher = Presidio Press
| location = Novato, CA
| year = 1990
| isbn = 0891413804
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Glantz
| first = David M.
| year = 1989
| title = Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War
| publisher = Routledge
| location = London
| isbn = 9780714633473
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Glantz
| first = David M.
| title = Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943
| journal = U.S. Army Command and General Staff College
| location= Ft. Belvoir
| month = September
| year = 1986
| volume = Soviet Army Studies Office Combined Arms Center Combat Studies Institute
| issue = CSI Report No. 11
| url = http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/glantz2/glantz2.asp
| accessdate =
| oclc = 320412485
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Healy
| first = Mark
| title = Kursk 1943: Tide Turns in the East
| publisher = Osprey Publishers
| location = London
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-1-855322-11-0
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| first = Colonel Bruno
| last = Kasdorf
| title = The Battle of Kursk – An Analysis of Strategic and Operational Principles
| publisher = [[U.S. Army War College]]
| url = http://www.theblackvault.com/documents/ADA377406.pdf
| format = PDF
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| editor-first = John
| editor-last = Keegan
| editor-link = John Keegan
| title = Atlas of World War II
| publisher = Collins
| location = London
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-00-721465-0
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Krivosheev
| first = Grigoriy
| authorlink = Grigoriy Krivosheyev
| title = Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century
| location = London
| publisher = Greenhill Books
| year = 1997
| isbn = 1853672807
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Krivosheev
| first = Grigoriy
| authorlink = Grigoriy Krivosheyev
| title = Россия и СССР в войнах XX века: Потери вооруженных сил: Статистическое исследование
| trans_title = Russia and the USSR in the Wars of the 20th Century: Loss of Armed Forces: Statistical Study
| url = http://www.soldat.ru/doc/casualties/book/
| language = Russian
| isbn = 9785224015153
| publisher = Olma Press
| ref = harv
}} [http://translate.google.com/translate?js=y&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=1&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soldat.ru%2Fdoc%2Fcasualties%2Fbook%2F&sl=auto&tl=en Google translation]
* {{cite book
| last = Manstein
| first = Erich von
| authorlink = Erich von Manstein
| title = Verlorene Siege
| publisher = Monch
| location = München
| year = 2000
| language = German
| isbn = 3763752536
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Mawdsley
| first = Evan
| title = Thunder in the East: The Nazi-Soviet War, 1941–1945
| year = 2007
| isbn = 0340613920
| publisher = Hodder Arnold
| location = London
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Mulligan
| first = Timothy P.
| year = 1987
| title = Spies, Ciphers and 'Zitadelle': Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943
| journal = Journal of Contemporary History
| volume = 22
| issue = 2
| pages = 235–260
| doi = 10.1177/002200948702200203
| url = http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/content/citation/22/2/235
| format = PDF
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Newton
| first = Stephen H.
| title = Kursk: The German View
| publisher = Westview Press
| location = Cambridge, Mass
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0306811502
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Nipe
| first = George
| title = Decision In the Ukraine, Summer 1943, II. SS and III. Panzerkorps
| publisher = J.J. Fedorowicz
| location = Winnipeg
| year = 1996
| isbn = 0921991355
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| first = Richard
| last = Overy
| authorlink = Richard Overy
| title = Why the Allies Won
| publisher = Norton Press
| location = New York City
| year = 1995
| isbn = 9780393039252
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Restayn
| first = Jean
| first2 = N.
| last2 = Moller
| title = Operation "Citadel", A Text and Photo Album, Volume 1: The South
| year = 2002
| publisher = J.J. Fedorowicz Publishing
| location = Altona, Man
| isbn = 0921991703
| lastauthoramp = yes
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Restayn
| first = Jean
| first2 = N.
| last2 = Moller
| title = Operation "Citadel", A Text and Photo Album, Volume 2: The North
| year = 2006
| publisher = J.J. Fedorowicz Publishing
| location = Altona, Man
| isbn = 092199172X
| lastauthoramp = yes
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Robbins
| first = David L.
| title = Last Citadel
| year = 2004
| publisher = Orion
| location = London
| isbn = 0752859250
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Taylor
| last2 = Kulish
| first1 = A.J.P
| first2 = V.M
| authorlink1 = A. J. P. Taylor
| title = A History Of World War Two
| year = 1974
| publisher = Octopus Books
| location = London
| isbn = 0-70640-399-1
| lastauthoramp = yes
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Töppel
| first = Roman
| title = Die Offensive gegen Kursk 1943 – Legenden, Mythen, Propaganda
| year = 2001
| format = MA Thesis
| publisher = Technical University
| location = Dresden
| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Zetterling
| first = Niklas
| last2 = Frankson
| first2 = Anders
| title = Kursk 1943: A Statistical Analysis
| series = Cass Series on the Soviet (Russian) Study of War
| publisher = Routledge
| location = London
| year = 2000
| isbn = 0714650528
| lastauthoramp = yes
| ref = harv
}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|title=Zitadelle: The German Offensive Against the Kursk Salient 4–17 July 1943 |last=Healy |first=Mark |publisher=The History Press |location=Stroud |isbn=9780752457161 }}
* irbergui (YouTube id), [http://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=03DC0345FAB5EC2B German newsreels showing the Battle of Kursk], [[YouTube]], Retrieved 2008-09-19
* Licari, Michael J. [http://www.uni.edu/~licari/citadel.htm The Battle of Kursk: Myths and Reality], [http://www.uni.edu/~licari/ Mike Licari's Home Page], Retrieved 2008-09-19
* Licari, Michael J. [http://www.uni.edu/~licari/review15.html A Review Essay: Books on the Battle of Kursk], [http://www.uni.edu/~licari/ Mike Licari's Home Page], Retrieved 2008-09-19
* Staff. [http://www.sixthscalebattle.com/ Sixth Scale Battle]
* Vázquez, Rodolfo Torres, [http://rtvmodeler.com/portalrtv1.htm rtvmodeler.com], Retrieved 2008-09-19
* Wilson, Alan [http://www.vy75.dial.pipex.com/data.htm Kursk – Raw Data to Download], 6 February 1999. —Information from the US Army KOSAVE II study on the southern face battle
* Wilson, Alan [http://dialspace.dial.pipex.com/town/avenue/vy75/kskmap01.htm The Kursk Region, 5 July 1943] (map), 27 October 1999

{{World War II}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kursk}}
[[Category:1943 in the Soviet Union|Battle of Kursk]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:Tank battles]]

{{Link GA|no}}
{{Link GA|sr}}

[[ar:معركة كورسك]]
[[bn:কুর্স্কের যুদ্ধ]]
[[bs:Bitka kod Kurska]]
[[bg:Битка при Курск]]
[[ca:Batalla de Kursk]]
[[cv:Курск патĕнчи çапăçу]]
[[cs:Bitva v Kurském oblouku]]
[[cy:Brwydr Kursk]]
[[da:Panserslaget ved Kursk]]
[[de:Unternehmen Zitadelle]]
[[et:Kurski lahing]]
[[el:Μάχη του Κουρσκ]]
[[es:Batalla de Kursk]]
[[eo:Batalo ĉe Kursko]]
[[fa:نبرد کورسک]]
[[fr:Bataille de Koursk]]
[[gl:Batalla de Kursk]]
[[ko:쿠르스크 전투]]
[[hr:Bitka kod Kurska]]
[[id:Pertempuran Kursk]]
[[it:Battaglia di Kursk]]
[[he:קרב קורסק]]
[[lt:Kursko mūšis]]
[[hu:Kurszki csata]]
[[mk:Курската битка]]
[[mr:कुर्स्कची लढाई]]
[[nl:Slag om Koersk]]
[[ja:クルスクの戦い]]
[[no:Slaget ved Kursk]]
[[nn:Slaget ved Kursk]]
[[oc:Batalha de Kursk]]
[[pl:Bitwa na Łuku Kurskim]]
[[pt:Batalha de Kursk]]
[[ro:Bătălia de la Kursk]]
[[ru:Курская битва]]
[[sk:Bitka v Kurskom oblúku]]
[[sl:Bitka pri Kursku]]
[[sr:Битка код Курска]]
[[sh:Kurska bitka]]
[[fi:Kurskin taistelu]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Kursk]]
[[th:ยุทธการเคิร์สก์]]
[[tr:Kursk Muharebesi]]
[[uk:Битва на Курській дузі]]
[[vi:Trận Vòng cung Kursk]]
[[zh:库尔斯克会战]]

Allied submarines in the Pacific War

2011-07-15T09:21:36Z

Muta112: polish

[[Image:Wahoo-periscope-view.jpg|thumb|250px|Japanese freighter ''Nittsu Maru'' sinks after being torpedoed by {{USS|Wahoo|SS-238|6}} on 21 March 1943.]]

[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] [[submarine]]s were used extensively during the [[Pacific War]] and were a key contributor to the defeat of the [[Empire of Japan]]. During the war, submarines of the [[United States Navy]] were responsible for 55% of Japan's [[Ship transport|merchant marine]] losses; other Allied navies added to the toll.<ref name="Graham">Euan Graham, [http://books.google.com/books?id=EaiT_nSgsMcC&printsec=frontcover#PPA82,M1 Japan's Sea Lane Security, 1940-2004: A Matter of Life and Death?] RoutledgeCurzon, ISBN 0415356407.</ref> The war against shipping was the single most decisive factor in the collapse of the Japanese economy. Allied submarines also conducted reconnaissance patrols, landed [[special forces]] and [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] troops and performed [[search and rescue]] tasks.<ref>Blair, Clay, Jr. ''Silent Victory'' (Bantam, 1947), pp.508, 521-2, 568, 574, 576, 609, 646, 724, 745-6, 784, 806, 818, 825, 827, 829, 842, 865-6, & 868-9.</ref> The majority of the submarines involved were from the U.S. Navy, with the British [[Royal Navy]] and the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] contributing smaller numbers of boats.

The Allied submarine campaign is one of the least-publicized feats in [[military history]],<ref name="Graham"/> due in large part to the efforts of Allied governments to ensure their own submarines' actions were not reported in the media. The U.S. Navy adopted an official policy of [[unrestricted submarine warfare]], and it appears the policy was executed without the knowledge or prior consent of the government.<ref>Holwitt, Joel I. ''"Execute Against Japan"'', Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 2005, pp.212-217 & 232-249 ''passim''.</ref> The [[London Naval Treaty]], to which the U.S. was signatory.<ref>Holwitt, ''passim''.</ref> required submarines to abide by [[prize rules]] (commonly known as "cruiser rules"). It did not prohibit arming merchantmen,<ref>Holwitt, p.6.</ref> but arming them, or having them report contact with submarines (or [[Commerce raiding|raider]]s), made them ''de facto'' naval auxiliaries and removed the protection of the cruiser rules.<ref>Dönitz, Karl. ''Memoirs: Ten Years and Twenty Days''; von der Poorten, Edward P. ''The German Navy in World War II'' (T. Y. Crowell, 1969); Milner, Marc. ''North Atlantic run: the Royal Canadian Navy and the battle for the convoys'' (Vanwell Publishing, 2006)</ref> This made restrictions on submarines effectively moot.<ref>Holwitt, p.6.</ref> While the Allies were conducting a massive propaganda campaign against the actions of German [[U-boat]]s, their own submarines were operating exactly as the Germans did.<ref>Blair, ''passim''; [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/juddoeni.asp Judgement: Dönitz] the [[Avalon Project]] at the [[Yale Law School]].</ref>

==Strategic implications==
Throughout the war, Japan was dependent on sea transport to provide adequate resources, including food, to the [[Japanese Archipelago|home islands]] and supply its military at garrisons across the Pacific. Before the war, Japan estimated the nation required {{convert|5900000|LT|t|lk=on|abbr=on}} of shipping to maintain the domestic economy and military during a major war, which was considerably less than the {{convert|6400000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of shipping in the Japanese merchant fleet and {{convert|1200000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of smaller craft at the time of the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]].<ref>Parillo (1993), pg 37–38.</ref> Despite the awareness shipping was vital, the Japanese military accorded [[anti-submarine warfare]] a low priority and allocated few warships and aircraft to protecting merchant shipping<ref>Parillo (1993), pg 63–73.</ref> For instance, their destroyers had deficiencies in sonar and radar compared to equivalents of other navies, despite their impressive night fighting capabilities, even though these warships formed the bulk of convoy protection.<ref>[http://www.combinedfleet.com/dd.htm]</ref> Moreover, [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] doctrine in relation to [[convoy|commerce defense]] was derisively bad.<ref>Parillo; Peattie & Evans, ''Kaigun''.</ref> The Japanese also seriously underestimated the threat from Allied submarines, whose ineffectiveness in the early part of the war<ref name="Blair, Silent Victory, p.439">Blair, ''Silent Victory'', p.439.</ref> reinforced Japanese overconfidence.<ref>Parillo.</ref>

The size and effectiveness of the Allied submarine force increased greatly during the Pacific War. At the start of the war, a high proportion of the submarines deployed against the Japanese were obsolete, and U.S. boats were hampered by defects in their primary weapon, the [[Mark 14 torpedo]], as well as by poor training (an excessive reliance on [[sonar]], due to an undue fear of [[destroyer]]s' sonar and aircraft),<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', p.156.</ref> insufficiently aggressive skippers,<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.361, 553, & ''passim''.</ref> poor dispositions (scattered on close surveillance of Japan's major bases),<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.361 & 551.</ref> and divided command (which kept submarines out of one of the best hunting areas, the [[Luzon Strait]], for fear of [[fratricide]]).<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.509 ''et al.''.</ref> Growing numbers of modern submarines became available from 1942 onwards. The efforts of Admiral [[Charles A. Lockwood]] were crucial for the rectification of the Mark 14's problems (which were nevertheless not resolved until September 1943),<ref name="Blair, Silent Victory, p.439"/> and for the selection of more aggressive submarine skippers. As a result of all of these developments, assisted by [[signals intelligence]] (breaking the "''maru'' code" in January 1943, after a gaffe by U.S. Customs prewar had caused Japan to change it),<ref>Blair; Farago, ''Broken Seal''.</ref> U.S. submarines inflicted devastating losses on Japanese merchant shipping in 1943 and 1944. In conjunction with attacks by aircraft, including aerial [[minelaying]], U.S. submarines had effectively destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet by January 1945.<ref>Blair, pp.819 & 967ff.</ref> Poor torpedoes claimed at least two U.S. submarines<ref>{{USS|Tullibee|SS-284|2}} to the Mk14, {{USS|Tang|SS-306|2}} to the Mk18, both from circular runs; given the prevalence of circulars, there were probably others. Blair, ''Silent Victory''.</ref> out of 42 lost in action.<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.991-92.</ref>

==Prelude==
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
The U.S. had the largest and most powerful submarine force of all the Allied countries in the Pacific at the outbreak of war.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} Pre-war U.S. Navy doctrine—like that of all major navies—specified the main role of submarines was to support the surface fleet by conducting reconnaissance and attacking large enemy warships. Merchant ships were regarded as secondary targets, and the circumstances in which they could be attacked were greatly limited by [[prize rules]] set out in the [[London Naval Treaty]], to which the U.S. was a signatory. In order to meet their role with the surface fleet the U.S. Navy built large submarines which boasted long range, a relatively fast cruising speed and a heavy armament of [[torpedo]]s. U.S. submarine habitability was greatly enhanced by [[air conditioning]] (which German [[U-boat]]s, for instance, lacked) and [[Distillation|water distilleries]], and were more comfortable, hence better suited to long patrols in the [[tropics]], than those of the other major powers. The submarines' commanders and crewmen were considered an elite and enjoyed a strong ''esprit''.<ref>Spector (1984), pp.480–483.</ref> On 7 December 1941, the USN had 55 [[fleet submarine|fleet]] and 18-medium sized submarines ([[United States S class submarine|S-boat]]s) in the Pacific, 38 submarines elsewhere, and 73 under construction.<ref>Morison (1949), p.188.</ref> (By war's end, the U.S. would complete 228 submarines.)<ref>Lenton, H. T. ''American Submarines'' (Navies of the Second World War Series; New York: Doubleday, 1973), p.5 table.</ref>

While [[United Kingdom|Britain]] stationed a force of submarines in the Far East prior to the outbreak of war, none were available in December 1941. The British had 15 modern submarines in the Far East in September 1939. These submarines formed part of the [[China Station]] and were organised into the 4th Flotilla. Although the number of British submarines in the Far East increased in early 1940 when the 8th Flotilla arrived at [[Ceylon]], both [[flotilla]]s and all their submarines were withdrawn in mid-1940 to reinforce the [[Mediterranean Fleet]].<ref>Mars (1971), pg 27, 62 and 64.</ref>

The [[Netherlands]] also maintained a submarine force in the Far East in order to protect the [[Netherlands East Indies]] (NEI). In December 1941, this force comprised 15 boats based at [[Surabaya]], most of which were obsolete.<ref>Mars (1971), pg 212.</ref><ref name="AustDutch">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/alliesinadversity/australia/submarines.asp|title=Dutch submarines in Australian waters|year=2006|work=Allies in Adversity. Australia and the Dutch in the Pacific War|publisher=Australian War Memorial|accessdate=2008-06-08}}</ref>

==Countering the Japanese offensive==
[[Image:Torpedoed Japanese destroyer HD-SN-99-02974.JPEG|thumb|Torpedoed Japanese destroyer {{Ship|Japanese destroyer|Yamakaze||2}} photographed through the periscope of American submarine {{USS|Nautilus|SS-168|6}} on 25 June 1942.]]
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}

In a break with pre-war doctrine (which, like Japan's, had presumed a rush across the Pacific and a [[Alfred Mahan|"decisive battle"]] between [[battleship]]s)<ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first= Edward S.|title=War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945|publisher=Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute Press|year=1991}}</ref> and the London Naval Treaty, U.S. naval commanders in the Pacific were ordered to "execute unrestricted air and submarine warfare against Japan" on the afternoon of 7 December 1941, a mere six hours after the Japanese attack;<ref>Spector (1984), pp.478–479; Blair, ''Silent Victory'', p.106.</ref> Hart—on his own initiative (but knowing [[Harold Rainsford Stark|Stark]] intended to do so)—issued the same order at 03:45 Manila time (09:15 in Hawaii, 14:45 in DC).<ref>Holwitt, Joel I. ''"Execute Against Japan"'', Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 2005, pp.212-217 ''passim''.</ref> The [[United States Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]] Submarine Force had emerged unscathed from the attack on Pearl Harbor and {{USS|Gudgeon|SS-211|6}} departed on the fleet's first offensive war patrol on 11 December. The [[United States Asiatic Fleet|Asiatic Fleet]]'s 27 submarines (including more fleet boats than at Pearl Harbor)<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory''.</ref> also went into action on the first day of the war, beginning war patrols in the waters around the [[Philippines]] and [[Indochina]].<ref>Christley (2006), p.39.</ref> Thanks to inadequate prewar planning, which made no provision for defensive [[naval mine|minelaying]],<ref>Willmott, H. P. ''Barrier and the Javelin''?</ref> nor placing submarines on station around the Philippines,<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.157-158.</ref> nor off enemy harbors,<ref>Blair, ''Silent Victory'', pp.156-8.</ref> the Asiatic Fleet's efforts to counter the [[Battle of the Philippines (1941–42)|Japanese invasion of the Philippines]] were unsuccessful and the Fleet's surviving submarines were forced to withdraw to [[Surabaya]] in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (DEI).<ref>Morison (1948), p.303.</ref>

British, Dutch, and U.S. submarines took part in [[Malayan Campaign|the unsuccessful defense of British Malaya]] and the DEI in late 1941 and early 1942. In December 1941, five Dutch submarines attacked the Japanese invasion fleet [[Battle of Malaya|off Malaya]]. These submarines sank two Japanese merchant ships and damaged four others, but three of the attackers were sunk. The two surviving Dutch submarines were withdrawn to defend the DEI where they were assisted by two British submarines, which had been transferred from the [[Mediterranean Fleet (United Kingdom)|Mediterranean Fleet]], and several U.S. boats.<ref>Mars (1971), pp.211–213.</ref> The U.S. Asiatic Fleet's submarine force left Surabaya for [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] in [[Australia]] on 1 March. (They would remain in Australia, on the most hazardous and unproductive stations for U.S. submarines, for the duration.)<ref name="Blair, Silent Victory">Blair, ''Silent Victory''.</ref> By this date, the Asiatic Fleet's 27 submarines had sunk only 12 Japanese ships for the loss of four U.S. boats.<ref>Morison (1948), pp.303–305.</ref> Following the fall of the DEI, only a handful of British and Dutch submarines were based in the [[Indian Ocean]], and these had little impact on Japanese forces in the area.<ref>Mars (1971), pp.214–215.</ref>

==War of attrition==
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
After the [[Battle of Coral Sea]], the U.S. Navy detached eight submarines to finish off the damaged [[aircraft carrier]] {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Shōkaku||2}}, but she evaded all of them. At the [[Battle of Midway]], although the attack on the [[battleship]] {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Kirishima||2}} by {{USS|Nautilus|SS-168|6}} had been unsuccessful, it drew the destroyer ''Arashi'' temporarily away from the main fleet to drop depth charges, and the destroyer's return was traced by {{USS|Enterprise|CV-6|6}}'s [[VB-6]] to the Japanese task force, where the dive bombers promptly sank four fleet carriers.<ref name="kirishimamove">{{cite web | last = | first = | year = 2006 | url = http://www.combinedfleet.com/Kirishima.html | title = IJN KIRISHIMA: Tabular Record of Movement | work = Senkan! | publisher = combinedfleet.com | accessdate = 2007-06-06}}</ref><ref>Bicheno, Hugh. ''Midway'' (Sterling Publishing Company, 2001), p.134.</ref><ref>Lord, ''Incredible Victory'' p. 213; Parshall & Tully, ''Shattered Sword'', pp.302–303.</ref> Overall in 1942, U.S. submarines had only managed to sink the [[heavy cruiser]] {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Kako||2}} and the [[light cruiser]] {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Tenryū||2}}.

As a result of several key improvements the previous year, U.S. submarines inflicted tremendous losses to the heavy units of the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1944. They destroyed the Japanese fleet carriers ''Shōkaku'' and {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Taihō||2}} in the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]], and sank or disabled three [[Takao class cruiser|''Takao''-class]] cruisers at the start of the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf#The submarine action in Palawan Passage (October 29)|Battle of Leyte Gulf]]. Also sunk that year were the battleship {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Kongō||2}} and the carrier {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Shinano||''Shinano''}}, the latter being the largest vessel ever lost to submarine torpedoes.

From 1943, Allied submarines waged an increasingly effective campaign against Japanese merchant shipping and the IJN. By the end of the war in August 1945, the Japanese merchant marine had less than a quarter of the tonnage it had in December 1941. Overall, U.S. Navy submarines sank around 1300 Japanese merchant ships, as well as roughly 200 warships.<ref>[http://www.2worldwar2.com/submarines.htm]</ref> Despite the need to maintain sea lanes for its empire, the Japanese never successfully developed a cost-effective [[destroyer escort]] better suited for convoy duties, while it also did not have the industrial-military complex to replace the losses of its heavily-armed destroyers,<ref>[http://www.combinedfleet.com/lancers.htm#intro]</ref><ref>[http://www.combinedfleet.com/ships/matsu]</ref> nor of its ill-protected merchantmen.

===British and Dutch submarine operations===
The British submarine force in the Far East was greatly expanded from August 1943. The British [[Eastern Fleet]] was responsible for submarine operations in the [[Bay of Bengal]], [[Strait of Malacca]] as far as Singapore, and the western coast of [[Sumatra]] to the Equator. Few large Japanese cargo ships operated in this area, and the British submarines' main targets were small craft operating in inshore waters.<ref>Mars (1971), p.216.</ref> The submarines were deployed to conduct reconnaissance, interdict Japanese supplies travelling to [[Burma]], and attack U-boats operating from Penang. The Eastern Fleet's submarine force continued to expand during 1944, and by October 1944 had sunk a cruiser, three submarines, six small naval vessels, {{convert|40000|LT|t|abbr=on}} of merchant ships, and nearly 100 small vessels.<ref>McCartney (2006), pp.40–42.</ref>

The British submarine force expanded its areas of operation in the last months of the war. In late 1944, the Eighth Flotilla—with 11 British and Dutch submarines—was transferred to Fremantle and operated in the [[Java Sea]] and surrounding areas under the command of the [[United States Seventh Fleet|U.S 7th Fleet]]. The Fourth Flotilla and the newly-formed Second Flotilla remained at Ceylon. By March 1945, British boats had gained control of the Strait of Malacca, preventing any supplies from reaching the Japanese forces in Burma by sea. By this time, there were few large Japanese ships in the region, and the submarines mainly operated against small ships which they attacked with their deck guns. In April the Eighth Flotilla moved to [[Subic Bay]] in the Philippines and the Fourth Flotilla replaced it at Fremantle. At this time, there were 38 British and Dutch submarines in the theater, and an additional five boats on their way from Europe. The submarine {{HMS|Trenchant|P331|6}} torpedoed and sank the heavy cruiser {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Ashigara||2}} in the [[Bangka Strait]], taking down some 1,200 Japanese army troops.

Three British submarines ({{HMS|Stonehenge|P232|6}}, {{HMS|Stratagem|P234|2}}, and {{HMS|Porpoise|N14|2}}) were sunk by the Japanese during the war.<ref>McCartney (2006), pp.42–43.</ref>

===Merchant shipping losses===
As figures for the size of the Japanese merchant marine and its losses differ between different sources, it is impossible to provide a definitive accounting of the state of the merchant marine over the course of the war. The following tables show different assessments of Japanese losses and construction.

'''Size of the Japanese merchant fleet during World War II''' (all figures in tons)<ref>Parillo (1993), pg 242.</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
|'''Date'''
|'''Additions'''
|'''Losses'''
|'''Net change'''
|'''End of period total'''
|'''Index'''
|----
|12/07/1941
|
|
|
|6,384,000
|100
|----
|12/1941
|44,200
|51,600
| -7,400
|6,376,600
|99
|----
|1942
|661,800
|1,095,800
| -434,000
|5,942,600
|93
|----
|1943
|1,067,100
|2,065,700
| -998,600
|4,494,400
|77
|----
|1944
|1,735,100
|4,115,100
| -2,380,000
|2,564,000
|40
|----
|1/45 - 8/45
|465,000
|1,562,100
| -1,097,100
|1,466,900
|23
|----
|}

'''Japanese merchant fleet losses during World War II''' (all figures in tons, taken from [[Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee|JANAC]])<ref>Blair, pp.360, 552, 816, 878, 970, 975, 977, 979, 980, & 982.</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
|'''Date'''
|'''Starting tonnage'''
|'''Additions'''
|'''Losses'''
|'''Net change'''
|'''End of period total'''
|----
|1942 (including 12/41)
|5,975,000
|111,000
|725,000
| -89,000
|5,886,000
|----
|1943
|5,886,000
|177,000
|1,500,000
| -1,323,000
|4,963,000
|----
|1944
|4,963,000
|624,000
|2,700,000
| -2,076,000
|2,887,000
|----
|1945
|2,887,000
| ?
|415,000
| -415,000
|2,472,000
|----
|end of war
|
|
|
|-3,903,000
|1,983,000
|----
|}

One Japanese reference reports 15,518 civilian ships lost.<ref>[http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?f=65&t=121018]</ref> JANAC reports 2,117 Japanese merchant ships lost with a total tonnage of {{convert|7913858|LT|t|abbr=on}} and 611 IJN ships lost with a total tonnage of {{convert|1822210|LT|t|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/IJN/JANAC-Losses/JANAC-Losses-2.html]</ref>

==Other duties==
[[File:MakinRaidPeriscope.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Makin Island taken from USS ''Nautilus'' during the raid on the island in August 1942.]]

Allied submarines served in a range of other duties during the Pacific War. U.S. Navy submarines were often used for surveillance. This included taking photos of areas of interest (such as potential beaches for [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious landings]]), and reporting on the movements of IJN warships. U.S. submarines landed and supplied [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines#Resistance|reconnaissance and guerrilla forces]] and played a role in sustaining the guerrilla movement in the Philippines,<ref>Adamson, Hans Christian. ''Guerrilla Submarines''</ref> at the cost of their diversion from productive use in attacks on Japanese commerce.<ref>Blair, p.357.</ref> They also occasionally transported [[commando]]s, such as [[USS Nautilus (SS-168)#Second patrol — the Makin Raid|''Nautilus'']] and {{USS|Argonaut|SM-1|2}} landing [[Marine Raiders]] for an abortive raid on [[Butaritari|Makin Atoll]].<ref>Blair, pp.308-9. This had unintended consequences, drawing Japanese attention to the weak defenses, which were strengthened when the U.S. [[Battle of Makin|invaded]] in November 1943.</ref> From early 1944 U.S. submarines were also used to rescue the crews of aircraft which had been forced down over the ocean. By the end of the war, submarines had rescued 504 airmen (including [[George H. W. Bush]], who later became the 41st [[President of the United States]]).<ref>Christley (2006), pp.42–44.</ref> British and Dutch submarines also landed and supplied [[special forces]] troops, rescued airmen, and shelled shore installations on nine occasions.<ref>McCartney (2006), p.42.</ref>

Britain also deployed a flotilla of [[midget submarine]]s to the Far East which were used to conduct sabotage raids. The Fourteenth Flotilla, which was equipped with six [[XE class submarine|''XE''-class submarines]], arrived in Australia in April 1945 but was almost disbanded in May as no suitable targets could be found. The Flotilla's fortunes improved in early June, however, when undersea telegraph lines in the South China Sea were identified as being worthwhile targets along with a [[heavy cruiser]] at Singapore.<ref>Jones and Nunan (2005), pp.239–242.</ref> On 31 July, [[XE class submarine|''XE4'']] cut the submerged Singapore-Saigon telegraph cable near Cape St. Jacques in [[French Indochina]] and [[XE class submarine|''XE5'']] cut the Hong Kong-Saigon cable close to [[Lamma Island]], [[Hong Kong]].<ref>McCartney (2006), p.43.</ref> At the same time, [[XE class submarine|''XE1'']] and [[XE class submarine|''XE3'']] penetrated the [[Straits of Johor]] where they severely damaged the Japanese heavy cruiser {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Takao||2}} with [[limpet mine]]s.<ref>Mars (1971), p.225.</ref>

==Post-war==
Allied actions in the Pacific are believed to have been a mitigating factor in reducing the sentence of ''Großadmiral'' [[Karl Dönitz]] following the [[Nuremberg Trials]], who was accused of similar actions in the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)|Battle of the Atlantic]]; indeed, Admiral [[Chester W. Nimitz|Nimitz]] provided Dönitz with a statement saying his boats behaved no differently.<ref>Dönitz, Karl. ''Memoirs: Ten Years and Twenty Days''.</ref>

==See also==
*[[United States Submarine Operations in World War II]]
*[[Submarine#Submarines during World War II|Submarines during World War II]]
*[[Operation Starvation]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{Commons category|Allied submarines in the Pacific War}}
*{{cite book|last=Blair|first=Clay|title=Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan | publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|date=2001 reprint|isbn=155750217X }}
*{{cite book|last=Christley|first=Jim|title=US Submarines 1941–45|publisher=Ospery Publishing| location=Oxford|year=2006|isbn=1841768596}}
*{{cite book|last=Jones|first=David|coauthors=Nunan, Peter|title=U.S. Subs Down Under. Brisbane, 1942–1945|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|year=2005|isbn=1591146445}}
*{{cite book|last=Mars|first=Alastair|title=British Submarines at War 1939-1945|publisher=William Kimber|location=London|year=1971|isbn=718302028}}
*{{cite book|last=McCartney|first=Innes|title=British Submarines 1939–45|publisher=Ospery Publishing|location=Oxford|year=2006|isbn=1846030072}}
*{{cite book|last=Morison|first=Samuel Eliot|title=The Rising Sun in the Pacific|publisher= University of Illinois Press|location=Urbana|date=1948 (2001 reprint)|series=History of United States Naval Operations in World War II|volume=|isbn=0252069730}}
*{{cite book|last=Morison|first=Samuel Eliot|title=Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions| publisher=University of Illinois Press|location=Urbana|date=1949 (2001 reprint)|series=History of United States Naval Operations in World War II|volume=|isbn=0252069951}}
*{{cite book|last=Parillo|first=Mark P.|title=The Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II| publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis|year=1993|isbn=1557506779}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/pac-campaign.html|title=Results of the American Pacific Submarine Campaign of World War II|last=Poirier|first=Michel Thomas|year=1999|publisher=Chief of Naval Operations Submarine Operations Division|accessdate= 2008-06-07}}
*{{cite book|last=Spector|first=Ronald H.|title=Eagle Against the Sun. The American War with Japan |publisher=Cassel & Co|location=London|year=1984|isbn=0304359793}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.anesi.com/ussbs01.htm|title=United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (Pacific War)|last=United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS)|year=1946| accessdate=2008-06-07}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/IJN/JANAC-Losses/index.html|title=Japanese Naval and Merchant Shipping Losses During World War II by All Causes|last=Joint Army-Navy Assessment Committee |year=1947|publisher=Hyperwar|accessdate=2009-03-15}}
*{{cite web|url=http://hnsa.org/doc/subreports.htm|title=Submarine war patrol reports|publisher= Historical Naval Ships Association|accessdate=2009-06-12}}

==External links==
*[http://www.combinedfleet.com/whatsnew.htm Combined Fleet Website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Allied Submarines In The Pacific War}}
[[Category:Far East naval theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:History of the United States Navy]]
[[Category:Submarine warfare]]

[[pl:Wojna podwodna na Pacyfiku 1941–1945]]

Defence of the Reich

2011-06-28T08:15:39Z

Muta112:

{{stack
| {{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Defence of the Reich
|partof = [[Campaigns of World War II#Strategic bombing campaign in Europe|Campaigns of World War II]]
|image = [[Image:Second world war europe 1941-1942 map en.png|300px]]
|caption = Scope of the ''Defence of the Reich'' campaign.<ref>The scope of the Defence of the Reich campaign grew over time. By July 1944, it included: [[Germany]], [[East Prussia]], [[Austria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Denmark]], [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], central eastern, and north eastern [[France]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]] and [[Lithuania]]. Boog 2001, pp. 216-217. (German language version)</ref>
|date = 4 September 1939 – 8 May 1945<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 9.</ref>
|place = [[German–occupied Europe]]
|result = Allied victory
|combatant1 = {{GBR}} {{USA}} {{flag|Canada|1921}} {{flag|Australia}} {{flag|New Zealand}} {{flag|South Africa|1928}} |combatant2 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}} {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Hungary}} {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}} {{flagicon|Slovakia|1938}} [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovakia]]
|commander1 = {{flagicon|Canada|1921}} [[Lloyd Samuel Breadner|L. B. Breadner]] {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[James H. Doolittle]] {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Ira C. Eaker]] {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Charles Portal, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford|Charles Portal]]
*{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet|Arthur Harris]]
*{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Trafford Leigh-Mallory]]
*{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder|Arthur Tedder]]
{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Carl Spaatz]] |commander2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hermann Göring]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hans Jeschonnek]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hans-Jürgen Stumpff]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Josef Kammhuber]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hugo Sperrle]] 
|strength1 =
|strength2 =
|casualties1 = 22,000 British aircraft<ref name="Beaumont 1987, p. 13"/> 79,281 British airmen<ref name="Beaumont 1987, p. 13"/> 18,000 American aircraft<ref name="Beaumont 1987, p. 13">Beaumont 1987, p. 13.</ref> 79,265 American airmen<ref name="Beaumont 1987, p. 13"/> 
|casualties2 = at least 15,430 aircraft in combat<ref>Boog 2001, p. 180 and Hooton 1997, p. 284. Figures are for 1943 and 1944 only. Boog gives the loss of "8,286 defensive aircraft" in 1943 and Hooton gives 3,706 day fighters and 664 night fighters for 1944. Added are 2,634 day and 142 night fighters lost in "Western Sorties" in 1944.</ref> Est. 18,000 aircraft through bombing<ref name="MacIsaac 1976, p. 9">MacIsaac 1976, p. 9.</ref> 97 submarines<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 3) 2006, p. 276.</ref> at least 23,000 motor vehicles<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 3) 2006, p. 268. Figures for June to December 1944.</ref> At least 700-800 tanks<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 2) 1961, p. 253. Figure given in footnote: Period October 1943 to July 1944.</ref> 500,000 civilians<ref name="Beaumont 1987, p. 13"/> at least 450 locomotives (1943 only)<ref name="Cox 1998, p. 155">Cox 1998, p. 115</ref> at least 4,500 passenger wagons (1943 only)<ref name="Cox 1998, p. 155">Cox 1998, p. 115.</ref> at least 6,500 goods wagons (1943 only)<ref name="Cox 1998, p. 155"/>
}}
{{Campaignbox Western Front (World War II)}}
}}

The '''Defence of the Reich''' is the name given to the [[military strategy|strategic]] defensive aerial campaign fought by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' over [[German occupied Europe]] and [[Germany]] itself during [[World War II]]. Its aim was to prevent the destruction of German military and civil industries by the [[Western Allies]]. The day and night air battles over Germany during war involved thousands of aircraft, units and aerial engagements to counter the Allied [[strategic bombing]] campaign. The campaign was one of the longest sustained in the history of [[aerial warfare]]. Along with the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)|Battle of the Atlantic,]] and Allied [[Blockade of Germany (1939 - 1945)|blockade of Germany]], it was the longest campaign during 1939–1945. The ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s fighter force (''[[Jagdwaffe]]''), defended the airspace of German occupied territory against attack, first by [[RAF Bomber Command]], and then Bomber Command and the [[United States Army Air Force]]s (USAAF).

In the early years, the ''Luftwaffe'' was able to inflict a string of defeats on Allied strategic air forces. In 1939, RAF Bomber Command was forced to operate at night as casualties to unescorted heavy bombers became too heavy. In 1943, the USAAF suffered several reverses in daylight and called off the offensive over Germany in October that year. The British built up their bomber force, introduced navigational aids and tactics such as the [[bomber stream]] that enabled them to mount larger and larger attacks with an acceptable loss rate.

In February 1944, the USAAF introduced the [[P-51 Mustang]], a [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] capable of escorting the USAAF bombers to and from their targets. By the spring 1944, the aerial defenders of the [[Third Reich|Third ''Reich'']], the ''Reichsluftverteidigung'' (RLV), were stretched to the limit and the ''Luftwaffe'' lost air superiority. By the summer 1944, the ''Luftwaffe'' was suffering from chronic fuel shortages and a lack of trained pilots. It ceased to be an effective fighting force by 1945.

The intensification of night bombing by the RAF and daylight attacks by the USAAF added to the destruction of German industries and cities which caused the economy to collapse in the winter of 1944. By this time, the Allied armies had reached the German border and the strategic campaign became fused with the tactical battles over the front. The air campaign continued until April 1945 when the last strategic bombing missions were flown. It ended indefinitely upon the capitulation of Germany in May 1945.

==German defensive strategy==
The ''Luftwaffe'' lacked an effective air defence system early in the war. The daylight actions over German controlled territory were sparse in 1939–1940. The responsibility of the defence of German air space fell to the ''Luftgaukommandos'' (air district commands). The defence systems relied mostly on the [[Anti-aircraft warfare|Anti-aircraft artillery (AAA)]] arm. The defences were not coordinated and communication was poor. This lack of understanding between the AAA and flying branches of the defence would plague the ''Luftwaffe'' throughout the war.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 42">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 42.</ref>
Adolf Hitler in particular wanted the defence to rest on AAA as it gave the civilian population a "psychological crutch" no matter how ineffective the weapons.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 132">Murray 1938, p. 132.</ref><ref>Overy 1980, p. 409.</ref> The [[Ruhr]] region of Germany at this time, there was little that could have been done to defend it. The only air units available were the ''Luftgaukommandos'' and they were assigned specific objectives and lacked an effective ground-to-air control system making intercpetion difficult.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 42"/>

On 21 September 1939, [[Hans Jeschonnek]] the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s Chief of Staff, clarified the role of the day fighter force in the defence of German territory. Fighter units earmarked for specific defensive tasks would remain under local air-defence command. However, all other fighter units would be organized under one of several ''[[Luftflotte]]n'' (Air Fleets), which would prosecute the defence of German targets in a manner "linked directly with the strategic concept for the continued conduct of the air war". In other words the ''Luftwaffe'' fighter force would act as both a defensive and offensive force, maintaining air superiority over enemy air space would prevent enemy attacks on German-held territory.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 43">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 43.</ref>

This kind of strategy worked well at the front, but it soon became clear that a lack of training, experience and coordination between the ''Fliegerdivisions'' (Flying Divisions) and the AAA arm, when dealing with strategic defensive operations, made an effective defence difficult.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 43"/> With the AAA defences ineffective and seven ''Gruppen'' covering German air space, the vital industries were not well protected. This system remained in place for so long because the Allied air forces were too weak to take advantage of the situation.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 43"/>

Most of the battles fought by the ''Luftwaffe'' on the Western Front would be against the RAF's ''Circus'' raids and the occasional daylight raid into German air space. This was a fortunate position since the ''Luftwaffe's'' strategy of focusing its striking power on one front started to unravel with the failure of ''[[Operation Barbarossa]]'', the invasion of the [[Soviet Union]]. The "peripheral" strategy of the ''Luftwaffe'', advocated by Jeschonnek, had been to deploy its fighter defences at the edges of Axis occupied territory, with little protecting the inner depths.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 46">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 46.</ref>

==German weaknesses==
Although the ''Luftwaffe'' eventually allocated more resources to the coming campaign than the RAF did during the [[Battle of Britain]] in 1940, it failed to commit these resources at a time when the Allied air offensives might have been checked. The ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s crucial mistakes in leadership, production and training decisions that eventually cost it the campaign were made in 1940-1942. The German leadership failed to develop a coherent strategy for a long war. Strategic and operational ineffectiveness coupled with a failure to assign air defence as a top priority undermined the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s efforts in 1943-1945. German strategy, termed the [[cult of the offensive]], worked in 1939-41, but when faced with an attrition war, the growing power of its enemies, its forces spread thin over four fronts, the failure to develop defensive doctrines, tactics and plans led to defeat.<ref>Caldwell and Muller 2007, p. 288.</ref>

===Organisation and planning===
The ''Jagdwaffe'' defences of Germany were not considered a part of the offensive air effort. The German strategy of focusing on offensive aviation to achieve superiority on the enemy, thus home fronts, meant the force was considered second-rate and unimportant. It did not receive the investment it needed and was too weak in respect of other Luftwaffe arms for proper expansion after the start of hostilities. As a consequence, the force had no representation in the High Command. The organisation remained split under different Air Fleets and was not put under a unified command. When the need for some sort of air defence was recognised before the outbreak of war, the rush to build the ''Jagdwaffe'' was so fast that quality in cohesion and organisation suffered. The expansion, when it did come, came too late. Only nine ''Jagdgeschwader'' were in existence in 1939, and no new ''[[Geschwader]]'' (Wings) were created until 1942. The years 1940 and 1941 were wasted. Only eight were created for defence duties, and the force increased in size by only ⅓. The growth of the force and its concepts owed much to the activity of its enemies. The planning of defence was always reactive.<ref>Caldwell and Muller 2007, p. 286.</ref>

===Developments and equipment===
No tactical-technical section existed in either the RLM or OKL. The ''Luftwaffe'' was therefore unable to provide appropriate equipment for the task asked of its units. Starting in 1940, all planning was short-sighted as a matter of policy. The need for technical improvements was resisted as pushing through upgrades would have reduced production rates of standard aircraft. Hardware would have to be turned over to the production of new types, causing a drop in output. This meant obsolete sub-variant or main types were kept in production too long. Adding to this failure, the OKL failed to produce adequate numbers of aircraft and refused to cut bomber production in favour of fighters until mid-1944. Even when these events were corrected, procurement was poor. Aircraft like the [[Heinkel He 162]] (or [[Messerschmitt Me 163]]) were illogical owing to the short endurance of the fighters. The [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] could not be introduced fast enough and too much time was wasted between operational testing, tactical-doctrinal development and training. ''[[General der Jagdflieger]]'' (General of Fighters) [[Adolf Galland]] took responsibility for this failure.<ref>Caldwell and Muller 2007, pp. 285-286.</ref>

===Pilot selection and training===
One of the most damaging elements of this aspect was the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s intent on giving preference to the bomber arm when it came to highly trained personnel. Flight schools were more interested in turning out bomber pilots than fighter pilots. The ''Luftwaffe'' failed to recruit engineers and highly educated personnel like the ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' and ''[[Waffen SS]]''. The organisation lacked a sufficient supply of commissioned pilots of fighter forces. This neglect meant a lack of combat leaders later in the war. Galland himself noted that pilot training for trainees was too limited in flying hours received. Too little training was received on operational types, formation flying, gunnery training, combat training, and a complete lack of instrument training were mistakes. Galland asserted that the lack of instrument training had not been corrected until late in the war.<ref>Caldwell and Muller 2007, pp. 285, 287.</ref>

===Staff training===
Staff training was also uneven and neglected. Systematic training of formation leaders was not begun until after 1943. It created a lack of trained and experienced flight leaders in 1943-1945. This was far too late to help in the Defence of the ''Riech'' campaign. The trained and experienced leaders that did exist were replaced in 1940 by younger and less experienced leaders too quickly (owing to Göring's frustration with them during the [[Battle of Britain]]). Later, Göring did the same thing with ''Jagddivision'' (Fighter Division) commanders. The high turn over made impossible for them to gain experience. Making matters worse, there were no fighter command organisations at the start of the war and there were never enough good officers to staff those that were set up. The ''Luftwaffe'' had very few General Staff Officers.<ref>Caldwell and Muller 2007, p. 287.</ref>

Damaging the German effort further, just 5% of ''Luftwaffe'' staff officers had technical degrees, and most held technicians in low esteem.<ref name="Hooton 2010, p. 38">Hooton 2010, p. 38.</ref> Most came from classical schools (''Haumanistische Gymnasien'') rather than technical schools (''Real Gymnasien''). This caused a lack of interest and understanding of critical technology, particularly radar, which was underestimated. There was also a tendency to neglect both intelligence and logistics. Examples of these failings was the appointment of [[Hans Jeschonnek]], who was promoted to a position beyond his capabilities.<ref name="Hooton 2010, p. 38"/>

===Strategic and Operational tactics===
The successive mistakes meant the ''Jagdwaffe'' was overloaded with missions after 1942. The successive draining of resources from the Defence of the ''Reich'' to the Eastern Front went on for too long which hampered an early build-up of RLV forces. It was slow and piecemeal and lacked any formal planning. The OKL damaged the fighting efficiency of fighter groups by transferring them away from their Geschwader command. Logistics, organisation and communications were neglected when moving units causing confusion and reducing operational readiness.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 287-288">Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 287-288.</ref>

Bad weather operations completely overtaxed fighter units and inflicted high losses which caused a drop in morale and confidence in the High Command. The OKL itself did not understand the need for economical employment of strength with respect to the RLV. All raids had to be met at full strength, rapidly wearing down the defenders. Contributing to the wearing down of fighter units was the insistence on using the Bf 110 and Me 410, with unwieldy and large cannon. Both types had to be withdrawn from daylight combat due to losses.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 287-288"/>

In 1944, bomber commanders were allowed to conduct flight operations with disastrous results. They were not qualified to lead fighter formations. Heavy losses ensued which required rest and reorganisation. During the course of the conflict, the OKL never understood the importance of time, the need to rest, plan and recover to prolong defensive operations. Keeping units in the frontline wore them out.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 287-288"/>

Another contributory factor was the lack of attention paid to [[Adolf Galland]]'s basic rules of combat. In the tactical battle, he argued that the fighter must fight on the offensive, even when on defensive missions. There was no place for a defensive posture. An example of this dictum being ignored was the instance of having Bf 109 groups escort vulnerable and modified Fw 190s, which reduced the power of interception formations. Combat cohesiveness was also often lost, and the integrity of the formations became compromised (owing to a lack of experienced leaders). This aspect of maintaining integrity regardless of the situation was often ignored. Fixed tactics contributed to failures as well. Rigid tactics were allowed to take root, and technique suffered. Using surprise, cunning and manoeuvrability had to be combined with aggressiveness and improvisation depending on the situation. This tactical nouse was lost over time.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 287-288"/>

===German production failures===
No effort was made to address the low production output of the German aviation industry to support the expected increased attrition rates as the so-called "Göring program" envisaged the defeat of the Soviet Union in 1941.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133">Murray 1938, p. 133.</ref> Even as early as September 1939, the industry was failing to reach planned production by as much as 33%.<ref>Overy 1975, p. 786.</ref> Erhard Milch's reforms expanded production rates. In 1941, an average of 981 aircraft (including 311 fighters) were produced monthly.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133"/> In 1942, this rose to 1,296 aircraft of which 434 were fighters.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133"/> But increases were complicated by the demand for production by the other two services. Milch informed Göring that the aviation industry was allocated 74% of all [[aluminium]] resources, but {{convert|5116|ST|t|lk=on|abbr=on}} went into production for ammunition such as shell cases for artillery units.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133"/> Milch considered this a mistake. He pointed out such reserves could have built 1,000 [[Dornier Do 217]] heavy bombers and 4,000 Messerschmitt Bf 109.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133"/> Milch ordered a crack down on wasteful practices. He ordered metals to be recycled, and metals from crashed aircraft to be used again.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133"/> This way he increased the availability of metals by 57%.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133"/> In spite of the failures of the High Command and Göring, the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s resourceful administrators just managed to stabilize German aircraft numbers.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 133"/>

Hans Jeschonnek initially opposed Milch's planned production increases. But in June, he changed his mind and suggested 900 fighters per month should be the average output. By the winter of 1941–1942, just 39% of the fighter force was operational and possessed just 60 more combat aircraft than it did in June 1941, despite its increased commitments.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 138">Murray 1938, p. 138.</ref> Throughout 1942, the ''Luftwaffe'' was out produced in fighter aircraft by 250% and in twin-engine aircraft by 196%.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 139">Murray 1938, p. 139.</ref>

The intensification of Allied bombing caused the dispersion of production and prevented an efficient acceleration of Milch's expansion program. The German aviation production reached about 36,000 aircraft for 1944. However, by the time this was achieved the ''Luftwaffe'' lacked the fuel and trained pilots to make this achievement worthwhile.<ref name="Murray 1983, pp. 253–255">Murray 1938, pp. 253–255.</ref> The failure to maximize production immediately after the failures in the Soviet Union and North Africa ensured the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s effective defeat in the period of September 1943–February 1944. Despite the tactical victories won, they failed to achieve a decisive victory. By the time production reached acceptable levels, it was too little too late.<ref name="Murray 1983, pp. 253–255"/>

==Repelling RAF Bomber Command (1939–1941)==
===Daylight operations===
The RAF developed a doctrine of industrial air bombardment in the years leading to the Second World War. RAF strategists deemed the attacks on large areas of industrial cities were the best that could be achieved due to a lack of accuracy in bombing technology.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 107"/> This doctrine was also a result of the RAF's Air Chief Marshal, [[Charles Portal]]'s conviction that attacking German morale would be a key method of forcing capitulation.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 106">Overy 1980, p. 106.</ref> Portal presented a convincing argument that "morale bombing" would complement strategic bombing as it would target German industrial workers, either undermining their morale or killing them, thus crippling German military industry.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 106"/> This belief stemmed from the policy of [[Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard|Hugh Trenchard]], the first Air Chief Marshal, of carrying the offensive war to the enemy homeland, a policy which originated during the [[First World War]].<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 106"/> It was hoped that such physical and psychological damage would be done, in Germany and German-occupied territories, that the people would take up arms and overthrow the system.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 106"/>

Despite this ambitious strategy, the RAF had entered the Second World War without a bomber fleet that was fit for the purpose of large-scale strategic bombing. In common with all unescorted bombers, was vulnerable in daylight raids to [[fighter aircraft]].<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 34–35.</ref> From September 1939-May 1940, both sides resorted to avoiding civilian targets.<ref>Koch 1991, p. 127.</ref> In the case of Bomber Command, dropping leaflets was the main task.<ref>Koch 1991, p. 124.</ref>

The longest defensive air campaign of the Second World War began on the afternoon of 4 September 1939, just one day after [[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s declaration of war on Germany. The target for RAF Bomber Command was the German naval base at [[Wilhelmshaven]]. These raids continued into December 1939.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 31.</ref><ref>Caldwell & Muller 207, pp. 36–37.</ref> In the aerial engagement dubbed the [[Battle of the Heligoland Bight (1939)|Battle of the Heligoland Bight on 18 December 1939]], the RAF lost 12 of 22 bombers.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 40.</ref> Bomber Command had been forced to admit defeat in the opening days of the war, and switched to night bombing.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 108">Overy 1980, p. 108.</ref>

British strategists argued over the nature of British strategy in the 1939–1941 period, the essence of which would form the fundamental base of RAF strategy throughout the war. Bombing results were also wrangled over and formed the key to the issue. Some in the Air Ministry argued that the bombing technology was not accurate and as a result of this precision attacks could not be undertaken.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 110">Overy 1980, p. 110.</ref> To support their findings, they used the [[Butt report]], which indicated only 30% of RAF bombers arrived within the target area, and just 10% within the [[Ruhr area|Ruhr region]].<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 110"/> Those in RAF Bomber Command who were in favour of precision bombing of selected targets criticised the report as "selective". When Air Marshal [[Sir Arthur Harris, 1st Baronet|Arthur Harris]] took over RAF Bomber Command in 1942, he was to use this as a tool to push for his area bombing policies.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 110"/>

===Night operations===
Kammhuber recruited pilots Hermann Diehl and [[Wolfgang Falck]] to his command. They were important figures in developing the night fighter system. Using Freyar, they could bring interceptors within {{convert|500|m|yd|abbr=on}} of enemy aircraft. Diehl had helped develop radar controlled defences for daylight operations which were used at the Battle of the Heliogoland Bight in December 1939. Falck used two Würzburg sets during night operations in April 1940 and both recommended a command and control system using these technologies. Falck himself developed ''Hellenachtjagd'' (Bright Night Fighting).<ref>Hooton 1997, p. 121.</ref> It involved Würzburg-controlled searchlights supported by 12 purpose-built nightfighters. This concept was limited, as searchlights could not operate in thick vapour of more than {{frac|5|10}} cloud conditions.<ref name="Hooton 2010, p. 92">Hooton 2010, p. 92.</ref>

Although Kammhuber was sceptical about radar, he established ''Kombinierte Nachtjagdgebeite'' (Combined Night Fighting Zones) around prime targets in which fighters cooperated with Würzburg sets supported by AAA. Although not successful at first, results soon improved. It was halted around October 1940, as a lack of long-range radar made it an unsuitable method.<ref>Hooton 1997, pp. 122-123 and Hooton 2010, p. 92.</ref> A second system, suggested by Diehl, invloved a ''Freya'' married to a searchlight (''Parasitanlage'', or Parasite installation). It was designated ''Dunkelnachtjagd'' (Dark Night Fighting). It proved difficult to implement owing to production delays with the ''Freya''. Kammhuber began to realise the potential of airborne radar at this time. After consulting [[Wolfgang Martini]], a technical specialist in the ''Luftwaffe'', the development of [[Lichtenstein radar]] began.<ref name="Hooton 2010, p. 92"/>

Despite the Germans having only a fledgling defence, most of Bomber Command's operations against Germany in 1940-1941 failed. In the second half of 1940 170 RAF bombers failed to return. Only 72 of these were due to growing German competence in night fighting; 42 were claimed by the ''Luftwaffe'' and 30 by AAA units. The rest simply ran out of fuel. Most of these cases were caused by poor navigation training in the pre-war era. RAF loss rates were twice those of the Luftwaffe during [[The Blitz]] in the period, July 1940 and June 1941.<ref>Hooton 1997, p. 123.</ref> The defeat of the night offensives were achieved by a force with less than 60 aircraft in 16 ''staffeln'' (Squadrons).<ref>Hooton 1997, p. 122.</ref> Night fighter defences claimed 421 RAF bombers in 1941.<ref>Hooton 1997, p. 125.</ref>

One notable tactic was Kammhuber's offensive action. In keeping with the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s defence by offensive action over enemy territory, Kammhuber suggested tracking bombers and attacking them as they took off from their bases in Britain. Hitler refused in the grounds that the German people needed to see the British bombers being brought down over Germany so as to be convinced they were being defended. After October 1941, the ''Luftwaffe'' stopped their mini offensive.<ref name="Hastings 1979, p. 235">Hastings 1979, p. 235.</ref> Hitler's decision relieved Harris and Bomber Command. In 1940–1941 these intruders had been responsible for two-thirds of the RAF losses. The chance to wreak havoc on the bomber offensive was lost.<ref name="Hastings 1979, p. 235"/> In response, Kammhuber concentrated on building the [[Kammhuber Line]].<ref name="Hastings 1979, p. 235"/>

===Organisation of defence===
The failure of the ''Luftwaffe'' to protect [[Berlin]] from a series of small scale raids made by RAF Bomber Command during the [[Battle of Britain]] led to the construction of a solid air defence programmes. ''[[Luftflotte Reich]]'' was eventually produced, which protected all of Germany and [[Central Europe]]. ''[[Reichsmarschall]]'' [[Hermann Göring]] ordered ''[[General-Leutnant]]'' ([[Lieutenant General]]) [[Hubert Weise]], who had commanded the ''I.Flakkorps'' (1st Flak Corps) with distinction during the [[Battle of France]], to form ''Luftgaukommando III'' on 27 September 1940.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 44">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 44.</ref> This Command was originally meant to protect Berlin but grew to encompass all air-defences as far south as [[Dresden]]. Weise formed ''Luftwaffenbefehlshaber Mitte'' (Central Air Force Command or "Air Command Central" – ''Lw Bfh Mitte'') on 24 March 1941. Weise also created the ''Nachtjagddivision'' (Night-Fighter Division) under the command of [[Major-General]] [[Josef Kammhuber]] to combat the night operations of Bomber Command.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 44"/> However, the defence of southern Germany was given to [[Hugo Sperrle]]'s [[Luftflotte 3|''Luftflotte'' 3]]. This caused coordination problems as the two forces were competing. [[Erhard Milch]] urged Göring to unite the fighter force under one command as had been the case for [[RAF Fighter Command]] in the [[Battle of Britain]]. Göring refused. Until ''Luftflotte'' 3 was practically destroyed in the [[Operation Overlord|Normandy Campaign]] in August 1944, the home defences remained split between rival commanders.<ref>Murray 1983, p. 177.</ref>

===Growth of night defences===
[[Image:Kammhuber Line Map - Agent Tegal.png|thumb|left|A map of part of the ''Kammhuber Line'' stolen by a [[Belgian]] agent and passed-on to the British in 1942. The 'belt' and [[nightfighter]] 'boxes' are shown.]]

The German attitude to air defence was built on the 'counterair' action. Air superiority would be attained and won over enemy airspace, safeguarding the homeland from attack. Despite this, many of the ingredients for an improvised defence were on hand or under development in 1939. The Germans possessed large numbers of AAA batteries, of good quality and varying calibers supported by searchlights, sound detectors and visual ranging apparatus. They were also deploying ''Freyar'' radar on the coastlines supported by observer networks. Shortly, the Würzburg set was to be introduced. This radar was fire-controlling, allowing AAA installations to deliver well-aimed AAA fire. The ''Luftwaffe'' supported its defences with its main dayfighter, the [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]] while it had no [[night fighter]]s. There was also no centralised control system and air units were not directed closely from the ground, as was the case with [[RAF Fighter Command]].<ref>Hall 1998, p. 113.</ref>

When Bomber Command began attacks by night in May 1940, the Germans had no way of intercepting incoming formations of RAF bombers. Attempts began at creating a night fighter defence. These trials, which started pre-war, used a warning service based on sound detectors and searchlights. Night fighters orbited the beacons at altitude outside illuminated area, when a bomber was caught in the light, the fighter engaged the aircraft. Any focusing of searchlights at altitude signaled the night fighter to enter the illuminated zone and attack. AAA units were ordered to fire at every given opportunity, other than when the fighters were in the combat zone. These experiments ceased in August 1939. By 1940, fighters were reliant on searchlight-aided AAA.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 114.</ref>

In response to Bomber Command's offensive in 1940, [[Josef Kammhuber]] was asked to develop a night defence. Over the next three years he developed a sophisticated defence known to the British as the [[Kammhuber Line]]. Kammhuber began by expanding the illuminated zone which extended from occupied [[Denmark]] to northern [[France]]. Early warning relied on ''Freyar'' radar, sound detection devices and observers. Control of the night fighters and AAA batteries was provided by short-range Würzburg sets. The next step was the need to procure a capable night fighter design. The Germans did not have one, but improvised and used the [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] heavy fighter and [[Junkers Ju 88]] medium bomber. They both proved exceptional in the role.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 115.</ref>

With an operational system now online, tactical considerations were developed. The first was airborne raid sets, installed on fighters. German pilots complained about this as it created drag and reduced the performance of their aircraft. They preferred to acquire the target visually once ground control had guided them onto the bomber stream. A second change involved the removal of AAA installations and searchlights from the line and grouping them around cities for their defence.<ref>Hall 1998, pp. 115-117.</ref>

The system had some weaknesses. The line was composed of a series of contiguous boxes. The boundaries were defined by [[Würzburg radar]]. The awkwardness of the plotting system used within each box prior to 1942 and the absence of an air-mounted IFF (Identification Friend or Foe), meant that only one fighter at a time could be controlled from the ground. One Würzburg controlled the fighter, the other tracked the bomber. The two plots were not represented on a single radarscope; they came from to different individual operators, each of whom projected a different coloured circle on a plotting table. The controller radioed directions to the fighter on the basis of data provided by the plotting table. Until IFF became available, blips could not be identified.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 117.</ref>

When operators lost fighters, which often happened, they had to return to the beacon in that particular box. Moreover, Würzburg radar measurements from two sets, could be as much as {{convert|500|m|yd|abbr=on}} out. Compounding command, control and communication problems, a failure to intercept usually resulted. Airborne radar solved this problem. Initially, the [[UHF]]-band ''Lichtenstein BC'' radar seta, the first such radar unit used by the ''Luftwaffe'', had a narrow search angle and when a bomber employed radical evasive manoeuvres, contact could be lost. Despite its weaknesses, growing sophistication and better organisation, the Kammhuber Line would become a formidable obstacle.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 118.</ref>

==USAAF join the battle (1942)==
===The new enemy===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 121-1339, Köln, Innenstadt nach Luftangriff.jpg|thumb|right|Destruction of Cologne after the 9 June 1942 attack]]

The entry of the United States (U.S.) into World War II on 11 December 1941 after Hitler's declaration of war, was an unwelcome shock for the ''OKL''. For the first year, the expected all-out offensive against German targets did not come.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 49">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 49.</ref> But by the end of 1942, the ''Luftwaffe'' was still stretched thin on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] and its most powerful air command, [[Luftflotte 4|''Luftflotte'' 4]] was engaged in the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]. In [[North Africa]], the ''Luftwaffe'' was losing [[air superiority]], the RAF was increasing its fighter sweeps over [[France]], and its night bombing campaign of German cities was starting to increase in intensity. In May 1942, [[Bombing of Cologne in World War II|the bombing of Cologne]] had given the RAF its first success. Despite this the defence of German air space was given low priority as the ''Reich'' expanded on all fronts.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 46"/> On 16 May, in a conference, Hermann Göring made a rare perceptive observation. He noted that if enemy bomber formations started penetrating the German fighter defence at the Channel coast, there was "nothing left in Germany to oppose them".<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 46"/> This was correct, but at that time the lack of any mass attacks by the USAAF units arriving in [[Europe]] and the failure of RAF bombing in daylight meant few senior commanders were concerned with this development.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 46"/>

The two USAAF Air Forces that bore the burden of the fighting in the European Theatre of Operations (ETO) were the [[Eighth Air Force]] and the [[Fifteenth Air Force]]. The American groups were equipped with [[B-17 Flying Fortress]] and the [[B-24 Liberator]] heavy bombers. The B-24 had a superior speed, range and bomb load to the B-17, but it could not maintain formation in altitudes above {{convert|21000|ft|m|abbr=on}} making it more vulnerable to AAA and fighter attack.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 50">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 50.</ref>

The American command did not see the need for long-range fighters in 1942, and like Bomber Command in the early war period, believed the bomber would always get through. On that understanding, there was no a rush to develop fighter aircraft of this type. The mid-range [[P-38 Lightning]] had been designed as an interceptor and was adequate in the escort role.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 50"/> Production had not yet reached the output needed and losses in the Mediterranean had diverted the P-38 strength there. As an interim solution the Americans were given the British Spitfire, but it lacked the range to reach beyond the coastal areas of western Europe.<ref name= "Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 50" /><ref name="Murray 1983, p. 172">Murray 1983, p. 172.</ref>

===American strategic aims===
{{Main|Operation Pointblank}}

American strategic policy differed from that of the RAF. German civilian morale was not a primary objective for the planners of the USAAF.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 106"/> American air intelligence believed attacks against economic targets, such as electric and industrial power could achieve the results sought by the RAF, without resorting to what it considered "indiscriminate civilian bombing".<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 106"/>

According to American intelligence, by late 1941 the German ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' and its supporting industry was already stretched thin and suggested that certain targets would be particularly sensitive to attack. As a result, [[oil]] and [[petroleum]] and [[synthetic rubber]] were added to the American "[[AWPD-42|Air War Plan 42]]".<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 107">Overy 1980, p. 107.</ref> These targets became the focus of the American effort due to the mistaken belief that the ''Wehrmacht'' was mostly motorised.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 107"/> In 1942 and 1943, [[U-Boat]] bases were added due to the growing threat in the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)|Battle of the Atlantic]] at that time.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 107"/> But the largest difference in American and British was the emphasis the Americans placed on destroying the ''Luftwaffe''.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 107"/> In the British view, this would be achieved by paralysing the German economy.<ref name="Overy 1980, p. 107"/>

The American agenda, sent up in June 1943 planned a strike at the German air industry, which was considered a prerequisite to any aerial and or land offensives on the continent. Its aim was to defeat the ''Luftwaffe'' in the air, on the ground and to destroy its aviation industry to a degree that it could no longer pose a threat to an Allied invasion of the continent.<ref>Frankland and Webster 1961, p. 27.</ref> General [[Ira C. Eaker]] had proposed a combined offensive for this operation, named [[Operation Pointblank]]. Its plan was based upon selection, or precision attack by USAAF forces in daylight, supported by the area bombing methods of Bomber Command at night.<ref>Frankland and Webster 1961, p. 22-24.</ref> Harris, however, was reluctant to divert forces for precision attacks. Instead, he favoured area bombing against industrial cities. Bomber Command's success during the [[Battle of the Ruhr]] and the [[Battle of Hamburg]], and the failures of the USAAF to make an impact in 1943 also seemed vindicated Harris' policy.<ref>Frankland and Webster 1961, p. 30.</ref> Heavy losses among unescorted bombers for little return would ensure a suspension of deep penetration raids in October 1943. It was not until the introduction of a new tactical weapon, the long-range P-51 Mustang fighter, that could escort bombers deep into Germany and back, that a daylight strategy became possible.<ref>Frankaland and Webster 1961, p. 37.</ref>

===German view===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-657-6304-24, Luftwaffe, Modelle eines Bombers und Jägers.jpg|thumb|left|German training material for fighter pilot instructions]]

The German command had little respect for American aviation. Göring assured Hitler that the B-17 was of miserable fighting quality, and the Americans could only build proper refrigerators.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 51">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 51.</ref> ''[[Generaloberst]]'' (General-Colonel) [[Hans Jeschonnek]] stated, while listening to a lecture on Allied offensive potential in July 1942, that "Every four-engine bomber the Western Allies build makes me happy, for we will bring these down just as we brought down the [British] two engine ones".<ref>Cooper 1981, p. 193.</ref>

This was a poor state of affairs considering German intelligence sources in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], prior to hostilities, had picked up detailed reports on the performance and potential performance of American aircraft. It did not take long for Hans Jeschonnek to change his mind. He was impressed by these reports and had sent them to Hitler and Göring to underline the threat posed by the USAAF. As far as he was concerned, mass production and development of new interceptors must be given immediate priority. Hitler ignored them and agreed with Göring.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 51"/> Jeschonnek despaired. He wrote to General Friedrich von Boetticher (who had been part of the German military attaché in Washington):<blockquote>Boetticher, we are lost. For years I have, on the basis of your reports, forwarded demands to Göring and Hitler, but for years my requests for the expansion of the ''Luftwaffe'' have not been answered. We no longer have the air defence I requested and which is needed...we no longer have any time...to provide ourselves with the weapons to fight the dreadful threat which you have predicted and reported to us. Then we will be covered from the air with an enemy screen which will paralyze our power to resist.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 51–52.</ref></blockquote>
Jeschonnek lacked the personality to force the reality of the situation onto his superiors. In the end, unable to assert himself, official optimism won the day.<ref>Cladwell & Muller 2007, p. 52.</ref>

===German procurement problems===
Moreover, the front line units in the West were complaining about the poor numbers and performance of aircraft. Units complained of lack of ''Zerstörer'' (Destroyer) aircraft with all weather capabilities and the "lack of climbing power of the Bf 109".<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 46"/> The ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s technical edge was slipping as the only formidable new aircraft in the German arsenal was the Fw 190. ''[[Generalfeldmarschall]]'' [[Erhard Milch]] was to assist [[Ernst Udet]] with aircraft production increases and introduction of more modern types of fighters. However, they explained at a meeting of the ''Reich Industrial Council'' on 18 September 1941 that the new next generation aircraft had failed to materialise, and obsolescent types had to be continued to keep up with the growing need for replacements.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 46"/>

In 1941, the Fw 190 fighter began to partially replace the Bf 109 as the main ''Luftwaffe'' fighter type. The Fw 190 proved to be more manoeuvrable and better armed, but its performance above {{convert|20000|ft|m|abbr=on}} dropped considerably. The Bf 109 variants could fight well at high altitudes and were a match for Allied fighters in performance. So it was decided by the OKL to keep both the Fw 190 and Bf 109 in production. In later stages of the campaign the Fw 190s were equipped with heavy armament decreasing their performance at high altitude even further. They were to be used primarily as bomber destroyers while the Bf 109, the better of the two at high altitude, would engage any escorting fighters.<ref>Cooper 1981, p. 266</ref>

==German daylight air superiority (1942–1943)==
===German priorities===
[[Image:B-17F Radar Bombing over Germany 1943.jpg|right|thumb|Boeing B-17F bombing through overcast — Bremen, Germany, on 13 November 1943.]]

The American build up in the ETO was slow. Over a year had passed since Adolf Hitler's declaration of war on the U.S. before the first USAAF air attack was carried out over Germany. Small formations of USAAF B-17s had operated over France and the Low Countries in 1942, but like the RAF missions of 1940–1941, achieved little. Their first raid on Germany targeted [[Wilhelmshaven]] on 27 January 1943.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 68.</ref> At this point, only one German fighter wing ([[Jagdgeschwader 1|''Jagdgeschwader'' 1]]) .<ref>Boog 2001, p. 164.</ref>

The German air defences at this time consisted of the ''Lw Bfh Mitte'', protecting the [[Netherlands]] and Germany. ''Luftflotte'' 3 protected [[Belgium]] and France.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 70.</ref> ''Lw Bfh Mitte'' consisted of only 179 fighters.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 71.</ref> Hitler and Göring could not be persuaded to expand the fighter arm at the expense of the bomber arm, and any further reinforcements would have to come from other theatres of war.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 77.</ref>

The ''Luftwaffe'' leadership continued to press for the production of bombers; little attention was paid to new types of fighters. On 22 February 1943, at a conference with his senior staff, including Milch and Jeschonnek, Göring refused to accept the Americans had a decent fighter design. The [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] that was appearing over German air space was considered inferior to the German fighters.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 81">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 81.</ref>

On 18 March 1943, Göring contradicted his earlier assumptions and complained that the designers had failed him. He claimed that the Bf 109 was nearing the end of its useful service life and there was no replacement of the horizon.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 81"/> Milch and [[Albert Speer]], the newly appointed armaments minister, could do little to develop the new aircraft as their energies were directed to increasing production of existing types in response to the growing Allied offensive. Types like the [[Focke-Wulf Ta 152]], [[Dornier Do 335]] and [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] were delayed for various reasons. The air battles of 1943 and 1944 were fought by the old types, the [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]], the Bf 109, Fw 190 and Ju 88.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 81"/>

===Defeat of American day offensive===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-674-7772-13A, Flugzeug Focke-Wulf Fw 190, Bewaffnung.jpg|thumb|right|Arming the underwing ''[[Werfer-Granate 21]]'' rocket mortar of an FW 190A-8/R6 of the [[JG 26]] ''Stabsschwarm''<ref>Caldwell 1994, p. 96.</ref>]]

The efficiency and performance of the German fighter arm reached its peak during 1943. Without an escort fighter with sufficient range, USAAF bombing raids into Germany proper resulted in heavy casualties for the USAAF bombers. The German fighters were becoming increasingly heavily armed to deal with the American "heavies". Some German fighters were fitted with heavy armament upgrades which were devastating to USAAF bombers. [[Dornier Do 217]] and Ju 88s also joined in, firing air-to-air rockets. When successful, it could cause high loss rates to bomber streams.<ref>Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 2), p. 699.</ref>

During this period the ''Luftwaffe'' achieved several victories over the USAAF. The [[Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission]] on 17 August 1943 resulted in 36 of the 230 attacking B-17s being shot down with the loss of 200 men. In addition an earlier raid in the day against [[Regensburg]], a total of 60 B-17s were lost that day. Luftwaffe losses stood at around 27 fighters.<ref name=price>Price (2005), p. 129</ref><ref name=BB>Bowman & Boiten (2001), p. 64</ref><ref name=Jab>Jablonski (1974), p. 186</ref> A second attempt on 14 October 1943, "Mission 115", would later come to be known as "[[Second Raid on Schweinfurt|Black Thursday]]". Of the 291 attacking Fortresses, 77 B-17 were lost. Around 122 bombers were damaged. The German losses amounted to 38 fighters.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 137.</ref>

Raids had an enormous effect on the German distribution of weaponry. In the summer of 1943, 2,132 Flak guns were protecting German industrial targets. In 1940, the number had been 791 guns. These guns could have been better used at the front. Moreover, it took an average of 16,000 shells for any particular 88 mm gun to shoot down an American bomber.<ref>Murray 1983, p. 190.</ref>
The production of fighters should have been considered a priority, but Hitler and Goring forbade a switch to the production of defensive fighters. Yet, attrition was having an impact on production. Production in July 1943 amounted to 1,263; by December, it had fallen to 687. The reduction was due to American efforts against aircraft factories. In October 1943, German intelligence reported Allied fighter aircraft were reaching as far east as [[Hamburg]]. The P-47 and P-38s were fitted with drop tanks to extend their range. Some reached and crashed near [[Aachen]] on Germany's west border. ''General der Jagflieger'' Adolf Galland brought this to the attention of Göring, who dismissed the event as a fluke. He asserted that the fighters must have been damaged and glided eastward from a great height. The danger was ignored.<ref>Murray 1983, pp. 229-231.</ref>

From mid-October 1943 until mid-February 1944, when the [[Big Week]] Allied bomber offensive was launched, the ''Luftwaffe'' had won air superiority over Germany. It was also clear to the USAAF that air superiority could not be regained until sufficient long-range escort became available. The 8AF made no more deep penetrations in clear weather into Germany for the rest of the year. That failure was, prior to December, the result of a command decision based on the lack of escort and the need for recuperating the bomber force after its losses on 14 October.<ref>Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 2), pp. 705-706.</ref>

==Limited British success (1942-1943)==
===Area offensives===
{{Main|Area bombing directive|Pathfinder (RAF)|Battle of the beams}}
[[Image:Attack on Hamburg.jpg|thumb|left|An [[Avro Lancaster]] of [[No. 1 Group RAF|No. 1 Group]] over Hamburg on the night of 30/31 January 1943]]

Bomber Command had a few successes during this time. Introduction of new navigation aids such as [[Oboe (navigation)|Oboe]] allowed for accurate bombing. The [[Bombing of Cologne in World War II|bombing of Cologne]] in May 1942, the five month-long [[Battle of the Ruhr]] and [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|bombing of Hamburg]] were very successful.

During the Battle of the Ruhr, Bomber Command severely disrupted German production. Steel production fell by {{convert|200000|ST|t|abbr=on}}. The armaments industry was facing a steel shortfall of {{convert|400000|ST|t|abbr=on}}. After doubling production in 1942, production of steel increased only by 20% in 1943. Hitler and Speer were forced to cut planned increases in production. This disruption caused resulting in the ''Zulieferungskrise'' (sub-components crisis). The increase of aircraft production for the ''Luftwaffe'' also came to an abrupt halt. Monthly production failed to increase between July 1943 and March 1944. "Bomber Command had stopped Speer's armaments miracle in its tracks".<ref>Tooze 2006, p. 598.</ref> A raid on the city of [[Essen]] on 8 March 1943 destroyed 160 acres of the city centre and caused 75% destruction in a further 450 acres.<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 2) 1961, p. 118.</ref> Further attacks on the industrial city [[Kassel]] dehoused 123,800 people (62% of the population) and killed 6,000. [[Tiger I|Tiger tank]] production at the main plant of [[Henschel & Son|Henschel]] was halted for months<ref>Tooze 2006, p. 601.</ref> and [[8.8 cm FlaK 18/36/37/41|88 mm artillery]] production was halted for four months.<ref>Boog 2001, p. 52.</ref> [[Locomotive]] production, the Henschel firm's main product, ceased in the Ruhr after July 1943 and production was further disrupted by the destruction of 100,000 workers dwellings. Production of ammunition fuses (for artillery) was also stopped. Some 200,000 had been produced prior from September 1939-March 1943.<ref>Cooper 1992, pp. 134-135.</ref> Furthermore, some 7,000 heavy German artillery had been diverted to protect the Ruhr.<ref>Cooper 1992, p. 44.</ref> The success was at a price. Some 640 bombers were lost. British and Commonwealth losses were; 2,122 British, 590 Canadian, 150 Australian, 102 New Zealand and two South African casualties.<ref>Cooper 1992, p. 142.</ref>

The attack on Hamburg in July 1943 was made beyond Oboe range, but the use of [[Chaff (countermeasure)|Window]] countermeasures which confused German radar defences, only 12 aircraft failed to return and 31 were damaged. Some 306 of the 728 bomber cews hit within three marker point.<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol. 2) 1961, p. 152.</ref> Figures given by German sources indicate, 183 large factories were destroyed out of 524 in the city, 4,118 smaller factories out of 9,068 were destroyed. Other losses included 580 industrial concerns and armaments works, 299 of which were important enough to be listed by name, were either destroyed or damaged. Local transport systems were completely disrupted and did not return to normal for some time. Dwellings destroyed amounted to 214,350 destroyed out of 414,500.<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 2) 1961, p. 262.</ref> Window had given Bomber Command the tactical advantage, but it was not to last.<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 2) 1961, p. 200.</ref>

===German reaction===
After experiencing several 'Window attacks', the Luftwaffe started to change its tactics. With radar neutralised by Window, German night fighters found it difficult to intercept the bombers. However, German ground controllers no longer used to radar sets to guide German fighters and track individual enemy bombers in order to intercept. Instead, they gave a running commentary on the stream as a whole. No individual aircraft were tracked unless caught in searchlights. These changes did not produce immediate success, but pointed the way to a method of loosely controlled cat's eye interception.<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 2) 1961, p. 153.</ref> The success of the new tactics were indicated in increasing bomber losses.<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 2) 1961, p. 154.</ref>

Other tactics were tried. A method known as "''[[Wilde Sau]]''" was used, in which single-engine fighters were supported by searchlights, and using [[Naxos radar detector|passive radar detector guidance]] instead of radar, to destroy enemy bombers. Implemented on 26 September 1943<ref>Boog 2001, p. 165.</ref> the tactics had limited success suffered high losses in the winter, 1943–1944. ''Jagddivision 30'' (Fighter Division 30), the specialised unit controlling ''Wilde Sau'' fighter wings such as [[JG 300]], was disbanded,<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 279">National Archives 2000, p. 279.</ref> with the specialized wings later flying regular daytime bomber interceptions instead.

German production was only just keeping pace with night-fighter losses. Some 2,375 aircraft were lost and only 2,613 were built in factories or re-entered the frontlines from repair workshops. The overall numbers fell from 76% of establishment to 63% in 1943. Serviceability fell from 72% to 66%.<ref>Boog 2001, p. 185.</ref> The battles had also taken a toll of the RAF. The Ruhr battle had cost the RAF 923 bombers, another 813 were lost over Hamburg.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 220">Murray 1983, p. 220.</ref>

The contribution of RAF Bomber Command to the Allied war effort during this period remains controversial. By the end of 1943, the Nazi leadership had feared that morale would collapse and [[civil war]] would ensue. [[Joseph Goebbels]] the Third Reich's propaganda minister denounced the air raids as "terror bombing" and sought to rally the people in a bid to improve morale.<ref>Hastings 1979, p. 232.</ref> [[Albert Speer]] recorded in his diary that the people had proved Goebbels fears unfounded. Morale was improving, and the RAF had failed, and was failing to break morale.<ref>Hastings 1979, p. 233.</ref> However, after the war, the United States Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that morale fell. Some 75% of the German population now believed the war was lost owing to the failure of the ''Luftwaffe'' to stop the bombing.<ref>Kershaw 1987, p. 206.</ref>

==Turn of the tide (1944)==
===Reorganising the Luftwaffe===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-668-7168-15A, Reichsgebiet, Leitstand der 4. Flakdivision.jpg|thumb|right|Headquarter of the 4th Flak-Division Duisburg-Wolfsburg]]

The reported appearance of USAAF fighters as far east as [[Bremen]] made for uncomfortable reading for the ''RLV''. The defence of Germany took priority over all the territories. ''Generaloberst'' Wiese met [[Adolf Galland]]'s staff in November 1943 and attempted to create a solution to this problem. As it stood, three air divisions were to defend German air space. ''[[3rd Fighter Division (Germany)|3. Jagddivision]]'' was the first line of defence, protecting Germany's air space at the French border stretching to [[Luxembourg]] and into western Belgium. ''[[1st Fighter Division (Germany)|1. Jagddivision]]'' protected the [[Netherlands]] and north west Germany. ''[[2nd Fighter Division (Germany)|2. Jagddivision]]'' was responsible for the defence of [[Denmark]] and north-central Germany and was based near [[Hamburg]]. ''[[4th Fighter Division (Germany)|4. Jagddivision]]'' was to defend the Berlin area and ''[[5th Fighter Division (Germany)|5. Jagddivision]]'' protected central and southern Germany.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 119.</ref>
''3. Jagddivision's'' C-in-C ''Oberst'' [[Walter Grabmann]] suggested the following:<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 140">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 140.</ref>
*All of the Bf 109 ''Gruppen'' should be assigned to engage the U.S. escorts
*Two ''Gruppen'' should take-off ahead of the main interception force to disperse the escort
*The more heavily armed Fw 190 ''Gruppen'' would be directed to the bomber fleets after the bombers had been "stripped of their escorts".
Wiese issued two further orders:<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 140"/>
*The ''Zerstörer'' Bf 110 and Ju 88 units would only attack if the bombers had been deprived of their escort as described above
*The ''Zerstörer'' were permitted to attack if the bombers penetrated beyond the range of their fighter escort.

At this time, the importance of home defence was recognised and ''Luftwaffenbefehlshaber Mitte'' was renamed ''[[Luftflotte Reich]]'' (Air Fleet ''Reich''). Wiese was removed from command and the more experienced aviator [[Hans-Jürgen Stumpff]] was appointed as its commander.

===The USAAF reorganise===
At the same time, [[Henry H. Arnold]] issued the following order to the USAAF air forces in Europe, the core aim of [[Operation Pointblank]]:<blockquote>My personal message to you – this is a must – is to destroy the enemy air force wherever you find them [it], in the air, on the ground, and in the factories.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 146.</ref></blockquote>

General Eaker was removed from command and Lieutenant General [[Carl Spaatz]] was given command of the USAAF Strategic Air Forces in the ETO. [[James H. Doolittle]] was given command of the 8AF and on 21 January he ordered that the German fighter force was to be destroyed as a prelude to [[D-Day]], the Allied landing in Normandy. To do this Doolittle had stated that the ''Luftwaffe'' could only be destroyed by attrition in the field.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 149–150.</ref>

General Eaker was re-assigned as Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces. Among the considerable forces under his command were the U.S. [[Twelfth Air Force|Twelfth]] and [[Fifteenth Air Force]] (12AF and 15AF) operating from Italy.

===American daylight supremacy===
[[Image:Bott4.jpg|thumb|right|P-51 Mustangs in flight, summer 1944. Unlike the Spitfire the P-51 could escort the USAAF bombers to and from the target. Their presence would break the ''Luftwaffe'' in 1944–45]]

Doolittle began his campaign to destroy the ''Luftwaffe'' during [[Big Week]], from 20-25 February 1944, as part of the [[Strategic bombing during World War II#US bombing in Europe|European strategic bombing campaign]]. The USAAF launched [[Operation Argument]], a series of missions against German targets that became known as "[[Big Week]]". The planners intended to lure the ''Luftwaffe'' into a decisive battle by launching massive attacks on the German aircraft industry. By defeating the ''Luftwaffe'', the Allies would achieve [[air superiority]] and the invasion of [[Europe]] could proceed. The daylight bombing campaign was also supported by [[RAF Bomber Command]], when they operated against the same targets at night.<ref>Hess 1994, p. 73.</ref>

The 15AF lost 90 bombers, the 8AF lost 157 bombers and RAF Bomber Command lost another 131 bombers. The 8AFs strength had dropped from 75% to 54%, and the strength of its fighter units had dropped from 72% to 65%.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 162">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 162.</ref> The ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s ''RLV'' had lost 355 fighters and its operational strength shrank to 50%.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 162"/> The ''RLV'' also lost nearly 100 valuable fighter pilots.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 163">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 163.</ref> While Spaatz claimed it as a victory,<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 163"/> the production of German fighters dropped only briefly. Nevertheless, the attritional battle would only get worse for the ''Luftwaffe''. After Big Week, air superiority had passed irrevocably to the Allies.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 163"/>

One of the most important developments of "Big Week" was the introduction of the P-51 Mustang. It had the range to escort the USAAF bombers to the target and back again. It also had the performance to engage any piston-engine German fighter in service and the firepower of six [[Browning M2 machine gun|Browning {{convert|.50|in|mm|1|abbr=on}} AN/M2 machine gun]]s with which to destroy them. The number of Mustangs increased from February 1944 onwards.<ref>Gerbig 1975, pp. 28–30.</ref>

The ''Luftwaffe'' was put under severe pressure in March–April 1944. According to a report made by Adolf Galland, ''General der Jagdflieger'', on 27 April 1944, 500 aircraft and 400 pilots had been lost in the 10 previous operations.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 189">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 189.</ref> Galland also said that in the previous four months 1,000 pilots had been killed. Galland reported that the enemy outnumbered his fighters between 6:1 and 8:1 and the standard of Allied fighter pilot training was "astonishingly high".<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 188">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 188.</ref> Some 25% of the German fighter pilot force had been lost in May 1944 alone, while 50% of the available fighters were also each month from March–May 1944.<ref>Cox and Grey 2002, p. 103.</ref> Galland recognised the ''Luftwaffe'' was losing the attrition war and pushed for a focus on quality rather than quantity. Galland stated in his 27 April report, "I would at this moment rather have one Me 262 in action than five Bf 109s. I used to say three 109s, but the situation develops and changes."<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 188"/>

The need for technical superiority was evident in the losses in the first half of 1944. In January the ''Luftwaffe'' had on strength some 2,283 pilots. It lost some 2,262 between January and May 1944, a 99% loss rate.<ref>Murray 1983, p. 240.</ref> This helped extend USAAF air superiority over the continent.<ref>Murray 10983, p. 243.</ref> German losses included experienced personnel. The situation was so serious, Galland remarked:
<blockquote>The strained manpower situation in the air defence of the Reich demands urgently the further bringing up of experienced flying personnel from other arms of the service, in particular for the maintenance of fighting power to the air arm, tried pilots of the ground-attack and bomber units, especially officers suitable as formation leaders, will now also have to be drawn upon.<ref>Murray 1983, p. 245.</ref></blockquote>

It was a vicious circle. In order to meet frontline requirements training time was cut. Shorter training hours meant a poorer quality of pilot, which in turn increased the likelihood of a pilot being killed in action. The offensive against Axis oil production was forcing a cut in training time was making things even worse.<ref>Boog 2001, p. 126.</ref>

The position of the ''Luftwaffe'' continued to deteriorate throughout 1944. As German territory contracted the number of AAA guns rose. In November-December 1944, the ''FlaK'' defenses were more effective at shooting down Allied bombers than the ''Luftwaffe''. One such example indicates that during sustained attacks on the synthetic oil targets inside the Ruhr, 59 USAAF bombers were lost to AAA, while just 13 were lost to German fighters. Heavy AAA did reduce the bombing accuracy as well as acting for a guide for German fighters searching for the bomber stream.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 247–248.</ref> Losses reached an all time high on 26 November, when intercepting a raid, the ''RLV'' lost 119 fighters, 60 pilots killed and 32 wounded for just 25 USAAF fighters and six bombers.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 253.</ref>

===Night war: technological battle===
[[Image:ME-110G-2 at RAF Hendon.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Messerschmitt Bf 110|Bf 110 G-4]] the RAF Museum in Hendon, with second generation FuG 220 ''Hirschgeweih'' antennas, without the short-range FuG 202]]

In the first six months of 1944, unlike the USAAF, RAF Bomber Command's offensive was struggling against the renewed German efforts to outsmart the British in the technological war. Bomber Command had introduced [[Chaff (radar countermeasure)|Window]], known to the Germans as ''Düppel'', consisting of small [[aluminium]] strips would be dropped by formations to blanket German radar and make it difficult for the defences to pick out the real position of the raiders. To reduce losses further, Bomber Command shortened its attacks over the target by five minutes to reduce chances of interception. This was followed by spoof routes, used to feint the routes of attacks. Later the use of "Mandrel" airborne jamming screens were used to send the enemy into the wrong area and deny the German fighters the chance of reaching the target area in sufficient strength.<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 279"/>

The German response was to increase the efficiency of overland plotting systems. The German Observer Corps was essential to this move initially until the introduction of the ''Wassermann'' and ''Mammuth'' long-range radar became available in large quantities and plotting became centralised and simplified. The Germans also used intercept stations to listen to and track the IFF devices when they were switched on in British bombers over German-held territory. When Bomber Command issued orders to keep these turned off the Germans tracked "[[Monica tail warning radar|Monica]]" and "[[H2S radar|H2S]]" transmissions from British bombers. H2S was tracked by [[Naxos radar detector]]s while Monica was tracked on [[Flensburg radar detector]]s, both mounted on night fighters.<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 279"/> The British refused to believe tracking H2S transmissions was possible, despite [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]] reports identifying these new radar systems and calculating that they were responsible for 210 of the 494 bombers (42 percent) lost over Germany in January to February 1944.<ref>Hooton 1997, p. 259.</ref>

The ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s introduction of [[Lichtenstein radar|''Lichtenstein'' SN2 airborne radar]] was an attempt to produce a set invulnerable to jamming. It came into wide usage between autumn 1943 and the beginning of 1944. The methods quickly caused trouble for Bomber Command. The plotting system was quickly proven and was a formidable defence with few weaknesses. In spite of spoof raids which continued to divert German fighter units and reducing losses, the new system was capable of inflicting 8–9% losses against each raid.<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 280">National Archives 2000, p. 280.</ref> German night fighter losses amounted to an acceptable 664 aircraft during 1944 operations.<ref>Hooton, 1997, p. 284.</ref>

These technological developments had a considerable impact on operation in the first half of 1944. Harris's new offensive, which culminated in the [[Battle of Berlin (air)|Battle of Berlin]] suffered heavy losses and failed to win the war outright, as he had expected. The plan was to break German morale at a cost of 500 bombers.<ref>Hooton 1997, p. 261.</ref> It failed. Moreover, it cost Bomber Command 1,128 bombers.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 220"/> German losses amounted to just 256 fighters.<ref>Hooton 1997, p. 262.</ref> Harris sought to reduce losses by introducing the [[de Havilland Mosquito]] night fighter to protect the bombers. Instead, the [[Bristol Beaufighter]] was selected. It proved inadequate in that role until replaced by the Mosquito later on. In the air, technology and tactics favoured the fighter.<ref>Frankland and Webster (Vol 2) 1961, pp. 139-141.</ref> Unfortunately for the ''Luftwaffe'', RAF intelligence discovered the uses of ''Monica'', ''Naxos'' and ''Flensburg'' and curtailed their use of H2S. The three German radar methods were now far less effective.<ref>Price 1991, p. 56.</ref>

===Erosion of Kammhuber line===
The Allied liberation of France and most of the [[low countries]] in 1944 greatly enhanced the bomber offensive.<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 279"/> The Allied Armies overran most of the early warning systems of [[Kammhuber line]].<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 279"/> Until then, the night fighters had succeeded in inflicting an overall rate of loss on Bomber Command aircraft attacking targets in Germany — exclusive of bomber support, Mosquito and mine laying operations — amounting to 3.8% in July 1944, and on one night — 28–29 July — 8.4% of the force was lost,<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 279"/> although acceptation may be made on the "unusual lightness of the night". Added to this was the growth of German night fighter forces which grew from 550 aircraft in July 1943 to 775 in July 1944.<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 279"/>

But the ''Luftwaffe'' was also suffering. It was forced to combat the threat although it could not afford the man or material power losses. While their losses were far smaller than those of the British, the crews also suffered through bad weather, low-level skill and a high accident rate due to night flying. In the first three months of 1944, it lost 15% of its crews.<ref>Murray 1983, p. 221.</ref> The introduction of Mosquito night fighter variants caused problems for the ''Nachtjagdgeschwader''.<ref>Gerbig 1975, p. 130.</ref> The Mosquito proved superior in performance to most German night fighters and it is rumoured that German pilots were credited with two kills for shooting one down.<ref>Hastings 1979, p. 240.</ref> Between 1943 and 1945, German night fighters shot down only 50 Mosquito aircraft of all types.<ref>Boog 2006, p. 166.</ref>

Tactical problems were just some of the difficulties facing the German night defences. The campaign against German oil industries in 1944 would cause serious issues for the service. After August 1944, the German night fighter force did not have enough fuel to train new crews or operate effectively. After this date, it ceased to pose a threat to Bomber Command.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 145.</ref>

===Impact on German production===
The campaigns of 1944 and the superiority of USAAF formations over Germany created problems for the German war effort. In response to this development, German industries were forced to disperse their production.<ref>MacIsaac 1976 (Vol II), p. 23.</ref> The official order was given in February 1944, following Big Week. Some 27 main plants were dispersed into 729 smaller ones. When the war ended, the number of small plants aircraft production had been moved to numbered 300. Engine plants were dispersed at 249 locations from the original 51 large plants.<ref>MacIsaac 1976 (Vol II), p. 24.</ref>

The cost and difficulty of spreading production around inrceased. The railways now carried an extra burden moving material around which made production reliant on rail.<ref>MacIsaac 1976 (Vol II), p. 25.</ref> During the communication attacks by Bomber Command in late 1944, this weakness would see German production curtailed. A lack of technical advisors was now experienced. Spreading plants around in multiple locations created a shortage of technical personnel at various locations. More workers, a 20% increase, were need to facilitate transportation, which in turn competed with the demand from the Army and the need for manpower elsewhere. The bombing and dispersal of plants also damaged efficiency of jig building. The additional loads taken on in order to 'tool up' new locations, multiplied many times over, created a bottleneck. It explains, despite the increased overall production, the failure of German factories to meet planned production in 1944.<ref>MacIsaac 1976 (Vol II), p. 26.</ref>

==Oil campaign (May—November 1944)==
{{Main|Oil Campaign of World War II}}

===Spaatz' strategy===
As mounting evidence, from all sorts of intelligence sources and from observation of ground movements, indicated that the Germans were suffering desperate local shortages, the tactical air forces intensified their attacks on oil trains and storage dumps near the front lines. The Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces showed improvement in the use of H2X radar devices, and RAF Bomber Command was employing Gee-H to better advantage as its crews became more experienced. It was discovered that synthetic oil plants lent themselves to successful air attacks more easily than oil refineries, since the former could be put out of action by relatively small damage to critical parts of their complicated machinery. Furthermore, the synthetic plants were much larger than the refineries and were more likely to appear on radar screens because they usually stood some distance outside of cities. The 15AF sharply raised its level of accuracy and developed techniques, such as the use of diamond-shaped formations, which ensured more safety for the bombers as well as greater precision in attack.<ref name="ReferenceA">Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 3), p. 286.</ref>

A further strengthening of the effort came from the ''Joint Oil Targets Committee'' set up in [[London]] to supervise the oil campaign more scientifically. This organisation, which drew membership from [[United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe]](USSTAF), the British [[Air Ministry]], and the [[Ministry of Economic Warfare]], evaluated methods of attack and checked data from the continent concerning German oil difficulties. One of its first decisions was to recommend intensification of attacks on gasoline production, thus giving highest priority to the synthetic oil plants and to crude oil refineries in Romania, Hungary, Poland, and Germany, in that order.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Allied strategic planners recognised German petroleum supplies as the weak link. By 1938, German oil imports accounted for ⅔ of its stocks.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 190">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 190.</ref> As war approached, the Germans resorted to [[synthetic oil]] production. [[IG Farben]]'s coal was converted to oil, in turn this was responsible for all of the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s aviation stocks.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 190"/> On 23 November 1940, the signing of the [[Tripartite Pact]] and the addition of Romania and Hungary to the Axis Alliance gave Germany valuable [[crude oil]] wells.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 190"/>

The USAAF wanted to make oil a priority target. In the late spring 1944, it had the long-range fighters to protect the bombers launching sustained attacks on the oil production centres at [[Ploieşti]]. At this time, the USAAF had conflicting priorities; the combined bomber offensive, operation Pointblank, and the [[military tactics|tactical]] support of Allied armies in Normandy.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 190"/>

Spaatz and Harris once again protested at the use of their services for tactical support, each with their own agendas and targets. Harris wanted to continue his policy of area bombing industrial cities, Spaatz wanted to attack the oil plants. Both believed their strategies would cripple the German war effort. Spaatz threatened to resign if at least one of the strategic bomber forces was not given over to a campaign against oil targets.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 190"/> He argued bombing tactical targets in France was pointless, as rail yards could be easily repaired. Moreover, he wanted to provoke the ''Luftwaffe'' in battle. Spaatz thought that attacking rail targets would not achieve this, but striking at Petroleum would. Eisenhower relented, and Spaatz succeeded in moving the USAAF 15AF to Romanian targets. Up until this point, only sporadic attacks had been made against oil targets.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 190"/>

===The Luftwaffe's position===
[[Image:Me 410 Hornisse with BK 5.jpg|thumb|right|upright|An [[Messerschmitt Me 410|Me 410A-1/U4]] with a [[BK 5 cannon]] finishes its attack on a USAAF B-17]]

The OKL faced two major challenges at this juncture. The first was the reinforcing of ''Luftflotte'' 3 from ''Luftflotte Reich'', to deal with the imminent Allied invasion of France. The second was protecting the ''Reich''{{'}}s airspace from ever deeper penetrations by the USAAF.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 191">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 191.</ref>

The tactical situation offered a glimer of hope. The [[Messerschmitt Me 163]] [[rocket]] powered fighter and the [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] [[jet fighter]] started to enter service in small numbers, with the specialist rocket fighter wing named JG 400, and the ''Erprobungskommando 262'' test unit respectively, with the ''Jagdgruppe''-sized [[Kommando Nowotny]] taking over the deployment of the 262 after summer had ended.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 191"/>

The newly designated ''Sturmgruppen'' consisting of the Fw 190A-8/R2 ''Sturmbock'' was also entering service with ''Jadgeschwader'', which was allocated to defend Romania. The A-8/R2s armament consisted of two [[MK 108 cannon|30 mm MK 108 cannons]], one per gun pod under each wing, which could destroy a B-17 with three hits, and shoot down a B-24 with a single hit.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 191"/> The Fw 190A-8/R2 had been armoured and was largely invulnerable to American defensive fire.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 191"/> However, the same attributes that made them deadly "bomber killers", damaged the Fw 190's already limited performance at high altitude, as the fighter became slower and unwieldy. Like the twin-engine Ju 88s, Bf 110s and Me 410s, they would need escorting by Bf 109-equipped units.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 191"/>

===Battles over the oil fields===
[[Image:Ploiesti 1943 bombardament.jpg|thumb|left|Ploieşti oil storage tanks on fire after being bombed by the [[United States Army Air Forces]] in [[Operation Tidal Wave]], August 1943]]

On 12 May 1944, the first USAAF raid, as part of this deliberate systematic campaign on the oil industry began.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 195">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 195.</ref> Its results were dire for the Germans; "12 May 1944, can fairly be described as the worst single day of the war for Germany. Other days brought dramatic defeats, and terrible casualties, but never without the possibility of a reversal of fortune".<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 198">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 198.</ref> [[Albert Speer]] wrote, "The enemy has struck us at one of our weakest points. If they persist at it this time, then we will soon no longer have any fuel production worth mentioning".<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 198"/>

Following the ruinous attacks on oil in April-May 1944, the Germans began to experiment with a new defensive measure, one which proved very satisfactory to them for some time. Whenever their warning system indicated the approach of air fleets over Yugoslavia toward Romania, the Germans would use the 40 minutes available to them before the attack to light hundreds of smoke pots around the Ploesti fields, with the result that most of the area would be concealed by the time the bombers arrived. Thus precision attack was impossible. In an effort to overcome this obstacle, the 15AF dispatched on 10 June 1944, not bombers, but P-38's, to drop 1,000-pound bombs at low-level while others gave cover. At best this experiment was only an equivocal success.<ref>Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 3), pp. 281-283.</ref> The oil situation remained serious for the German defenders. Göring ordered an immediate economy on the use of fuel and large numbers of AAA units were moved from the cities and sent to guard the oil fields.<ref>Biddle 2002, p. 237.</ref>

RAF Bomber Command played a more important role in the oil campaign than is usually recognised.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 167.</ref> It droped {{convert|93641|ST|t|abbr=on}} on these targets, compared to the combined total (from both the 15AF and 8AF) of {{convert|119420|ST|t|abbr=on}}. It dropped more tonnage than the 8AF ({{convert|48378|ST|t|abbr=on}}) operating from the same area of Britain.<ref name="Hall 1998, p. 157">Hall 1998, p. 157.</ref> The RAF's main target was the synthetic oil targets in the Ruhr.<ref>Price 1973, p. 138.</ref>

The ''Luftwaffe'' was now in an impossible position. The oil industry had to be defended, but doing so was costly. I. ''Jagdkorps'' was losing fighters at a rate of 10% per mission, while the American bomber losses were only at two percent.<ref name="Caldwell 2007, pp. 201–202">Caldwell & Muller 2007, pp. 201–202.</ref><ref>Gerbig 1975, p. 17.</ref> By September 1944, the loss to kill ratio was against the ''Luftwaffe''. With some exceptions, the loss rate for Allied formations remained under one percent, the German losses were lying between 10 and 20%.<ref>Gerbig 1975, p. 18.</ref> The Allied formations were 18 times larger than the Germans by this stage, which meant the respective loss ratios would indicate a higher loss for the German defenders. However during September the actual kill count of the ''RLV'' during September 1944 was 307 shot down for 371 losses. By October 1944, serviceable aircraft amounted to just 347, excluding units on conversion training.<ref>Gerbig 1975, p. 19.</ref>
The 15AF continued to operate on an impressive scale. During the latter part of the summer its twenty daylight missions against Ploesti, with the aid of the four night missions flown by the RAF, would deny the Germans an estimated {{convert|1800000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of crude oil.<ref>Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 3), pp. 295-297.</ref>

The USAAF and RAF Bomber Command flew hundreds of missions against the oil targets until late August. The main refinery, in Romania, was virtually destroyed by the bombing. The final raids made against Ploesti were made by 15AF on 19 August 1944.<ref>Cladwell & Muller 2007, p. 226.</ref> The Romanians, and the [[Romanian Air Force]] which had fought alongside the Luftwaffe thus far, capitulated to the advancing [[Red Army]] on 23 September and declared war on its former ally. The remaining German fighter units retreated into [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Hungary]].<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 229.</ref> The [[Slovak Air Force]] and [[Hungarian Air Force]] continued to support the ''Luftwaffe'' by defending targets in central Europe into 1945.<ref>Caldwell and Muller 2007, pp. 198, 210.</ref>

===Bomber Command and the Ruhr plants===
RAF Bomber Command struck at synthetic targets in the Ruhr districts until November 1944, when the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] concluded that the oil plants had been reduced to the extent that further attacks were wasteful. Harris was ordered to cease attacks and shift to communications target. Air Chief Marshal Portal demanded that the British share the losses the 8AF had been taking by assuming responsibility for two of the largest and most distant targets, [[Pölitz]] and [[Merseburg]]-[[Leuna]].<ref>Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 3), p. 645.</ref>

The crippling of Germany's warning system in the west as a result of the Allied victory in France and the increased efficiency of blind-bombing techniques made such RAF missions possible, and they proved generally successful. Speer subsequently reported to Hitler that the night attacks were more effective than the daylight missions, because heavier bombs were used and greater accuracy had been attained. On the average, British operation against oil targets during the autumn, {{convert|660|ST|t|abbr=on}} fell as compared with {{convert|388|ST|t|abbr=on}} for a USSTAF mission. Germany's oil production for November was estimated at 31% of the monthly average in the preceding spring, with most of the supply coming from the benzol plants, which had not been regarded as worth attacking until the autumn. Pölitz and Merseburg-Leuna were listed as heavily damaged but in partial operation. All of the synthetic plants in western Germany, however, were reported out of action and the crude refineries around Hamburg, Bremen, and Vienna as functioning only on a small scale. In fact, the evidence indicated that only one sizable crude-oil refinery was operating in Germany.<ref name="Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 3), pp. 645-46">Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 3), pp. 645-46.</ref> Since the beginning of the oil offensive the 15AF had dropped {{convert|45000|ST|t|abbr=on}}, the 15th Air Force {{convert|27000|ST|t|abbr=on}}, and Bomber Command {{convert|22000|ST|t|abbr=on}} on oil-producing targets.<ref name="Craven and Cate 1983 (Vol 3), pp. 645-46"/>

===Effect on Luftwaffe training===
{| class="wikitable" border="1" align="left" style="text-align:center; margin: 1em;"
|+ Flight training; total/operational hours.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 314"/>
!Year !! Germany !! United Kingdom !! United States
|-
|'''–42''' || 250/75 || 200/50 || –
|-
|'''42/43''' || 200/50 || 350/60 || 260/60
|-
|'''43/44''' || 200/25 || 330/75 || 320/125
|-
|'''44/45''' || 140/25 || 300/100|| 400/160
|-
|}

The attacks were having a devastating effect on German fighter units. More and more ''Staffeln'' and ''Gruppen'' were pulled off the front line on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] to reinforce the ''Reich''. Göring ordered that more effort be made to train pilots more thoroughly and quickly whilst expanding the ''Jagdflieger'' force. He ordered bomber pilots to be converted to fighter pilots.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 204">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 204.</ref> This failed. Pilot training was shortened to meet the need for pilots. In 1944, the pilot programme had shrunk to eight months and 111 flying hours; just 20 hours on the Fw 190 and Bf 109. This was less than ½ of what the German cadets could receive in 1942.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 204"/>

German fighter pilot schools relied on fuel. They required {{convert|60000|-|80000|ST|t|abbr=on}} per month. With this achieved, they claimed to be able to train 1,200 fighter, 250 ground-attack, 40 bomber, 75 jet-bomber, 64 recce and 40 night fighter pilots a month.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 204"/> The schools demands were never met. Just {{convert|13500|ST|t|abbr=on}} were delivered in July 1944, {{convert|13400|ST|t|abbr=on}} in August and {{convert|6300|ST|t|abbr=on}} in September.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 205">Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 205.</ref> There were plenty of cadets joining, but the primary schools had to be shut down in favour of running the advanced flight schools.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 205"/> The influx of bomber pilots helped keep output high but it was not to last. By the autumn, the ''Luftwaffe'' was seeking anyone who already had basic experience in flying, so they could bypass the primary stages of flight school.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 205"/>

In pre-war establishments, and up until 1942 the German training programs had proven better in terms of training time given to pilots than the Allies. However, German training time reduced through the war, while Allied training improved.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 314">Murray 1983, p. 314.</ref> The decrease in skill and training was caused by the attrition rates of pilots and skilled aircrew. This was perhaps the most important aspect in the decline of the ''Luftwaffe'' and an effective fighting force.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 303">Murray 1983, p. 303.</ref> The rise in attrition caused a steady decline in skills and experience forced the Germans to curtail training programs to fill empty cockpits. Owing to this, new pilots with less skill than their predecessors were lost at a faster rate. The increasing losses, in turn, forced the training establishments to produce pilots even more rapidly. Once this cycle began, it was difficult to escape. One of the key indicators in the decline of German fighter pilot skill after 1940 air battles was the rise of losses owing to non-combat causes. By the first half of 1943 losses sustained in accidents were as many as losses in combat.<ref name="Murray 1983, p. 312">Murray 1983, p. 312.</ref>

===Impact on Axis oil production===
The oil campaign was hugely successful. In June 1944, just {{convert|56000|ST|t|abbr=on}} of oil had been produced against the planned total of {{convert|198000|ST|t|abbr=on}}. Consumption was well above stocks produced since mid-May 1944 so that by the end of June 1944, it had been reduced to a reserve of just {{convert|410000|ST|t|abbr=on}}, a 70% reduction from 30 April 1944.<ref>Cooper 1981, p. 349.</ref> [[ULTRA]] intercepts confirmed cutbacks in non-operational flying as a direct consequence. According to Speer, by 21 July 98% of all Axis fuel plants were out of operation. The monthly production fell from {{convert|180000|ST|t|abbr=on}} in March 1944 to {{convert|20000|ST|t|abbr=on}} in November; inventory dropped from {{convert|575000|ST|t|abbr=on}} to {{convert|175000|ST|t|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 198"/> The campaign caused huge shortfalls in fuel production and contributed to the impotence of the ''Luftwaffe'' in the last 10 months of the war, and the inability of the [[German Army]] to conduct counter offensives.<ref name="Hall 1998, p. 157"/>

==Collapse of German communications (Autumn 1944)==
===Decline of night defences===
The effectiveness of ''Nachtjagdgeschwader'' units was deteriorating. In 1943-1944, it had proved the most efficient branch of the ''Luftwaffe''. Even as late as July 1944, it was scoring successes. But in August, fuel shortages caused a curtailing operations. From that date, the ''Nachtgeschwader'' failed to make a serious impact on the night offensive.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 144-145.</ref>

The lack of fuel was one factor. Another was the Allied advance across western Europe which deprived the Germans of their early warning systems for detecting incoming raids. Supplementing this were the countermeasures introduced by RAF Bomber Command, such as intruder operations in which Mosquito night fighters would attack German fighters as they took off from and returned to base. This compelled the Germans to restrict the use of airfield lighting and assembly beacons. Owing to fuel shortages, training of night crews was not as thorough as before, while the demands of manpower throughout the ''Wehrmacht'' had brought about a decline in quality in the servicing and ground staff. Some of the fighter force had to withdrawn to the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] to counter night attacks by the Soviet [[Red Air Force]]. Nevertheless, its strength increased: from 800 to 1,020 between 1 July and 1 October 1944, of which 685 in July and 830 in October were engaged in operations against RAF Bomber Command.<ref>National Archives 2000, p. 365.</ref>

In late 1944, the German defensive line now only extended from [[Denmark]] to [[Switzerland]]. This enabled British bombers to fly toward German territory without interception on the way. The German strength was thus reduced, with more aircraft diverted to reconnaissance over the [[North Sea]] in an attempt to pick up Allied bomber formations. In spite of the problems, the ''Luftwaffe'' night fighter force was stronger numerically than ever before.<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 368">National Archives 2000, p. 368.</ref> It remained intact and presented a theoretical threat to Bomber Command, particularly when the British made deep penetrations. However, since the first half of 1944, the outlook for the force had changed from increasing efficiency to a probability of declining effectiveness as the cumulative effect of poor training, shortage of fuel, diversion of effort and shortage of manpower became perceptible.<ref name="National Archives 2000, p. 368"/>

===Bomber Command: Transportation plan===
In the last year of the war, the bombing offensive "came of age".<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125">Murray 1995, p. 125.</ref> With German defences strategically defeated, the economy was exposed to enormous bombing attacks.<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/> Most of the tonnage dropped by the American and British bomber fleets was done so in the last year of the war — some {{convert|1180000|ST|t|abbr=on}} from {{convert|1420000|ST|t|abbr=on}} during the entire war.<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/> The attacks did not go entirely unopposed. There were 50,000 heavy and light German anti-aircraft guns concentrated around essential industrial targets. There remained an "exiguous fighter force by day and night".<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/>

The USAAF could throw 7,000 bombers and fighters into the battle while the RAF could field 1,500 heavy bombers which could carry up to {{convert|20000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of bombs.<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/> By the autumn of 1944 Allied fighter-bombers and fighters could staff and engage targets untouched.<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/> This firepower was aimed at the Ruhr industrial heartland and the communication networks in Germany.<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/> The rail lines were mostly destroyed, halving coal and material traffic by December 1944 compared to the previous year.<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/> With the loss of the Romanian oilfields in August 1944, the campaign critically reduced German oil supplies and production left. In the winter of 1944–1945, the German state was carved into isolated economic regions living off accumulated stocks while aircraft production was to be moved under ground into caves, [[salt mines]] and underground factories manned by [[slavery|slave labourers]].<ref name="Overy 1995, p. 125"/> The conditions underground were far from ideal. Poor ventilation and high humidity damaged precision machinery and tools which made the quality of production poorer. In salt mines, the walls absorbed the moisture and eased conditions. The logistical difficulty of locating several thousand workers well over {{convert|1000|ft|m|abbr=on}} below ground level interfered with production.<ref>MacIsaac 1976, PP. 27-28.</ref>

The effectiveness of attacks on rail and communications began in the autumn 1944. The Luftwaffe could not prevent the destruction of the city [[Kassel]]'s electricity supply ending Krupp Gusstahlfabrik (Cast Steel Works) contribution to the war on 23 October 1944. This type of direct attack was unable to stop production altogether. Attacks on communications came closest to achieving this goal. The [[Dortmund]]-[[Ems]] canal was drained by an attack in September 1944. The huge marshalling yard at [[Hamm]] was damaged and its capacity reduced by 75%. Between 14 and 18 October, the rail shipments of coal from the Ruhr ended completely. By early October 1944, only one train in 50 was getting into the Ruhr in the first place. The lack of iron ore caused a drop in steel production of 66%. Some {{convert|102796|ST|t|abbr=on}} had been dropped on these targets. It was enough to bring near total collapse between November 1944 and January 1945.<ref>Tooze 2002, p. 650.</ref>

The statistics point to the gradual strangulation of the German transport system. The daily average of freight car tonnage dropped from 183,000 in June 1944 to 83,000 in December 1944. Waterborne movements of [[coke]] and coal from the Ruhr declined from a daily average of 76,000 tons in July 1944 to 14,200 by January 1945. Stocks of coal, the main source of power for German industry, rose from a low of 186,000 tons kept at the mindheads in July 1944 to 2,767,000 tons in February 1945. The rise in tonnage demonstrates the collapse of the transport network, which meant raw materials could not be transported or moved effectively from the mindheads to the factories.<ref name="Hall 1998, p. 157"/> It is estimated that production fell by 22 percent between May 1944 and January 1945. Of this reduction, some 50-60% of this was due to attacks on transportation.<ref>Hall 1998, p. 160.</ref>

==Defeat (1945)==
===Daylight defence===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 141-2497, Flugzeug Me 262A auf Flugplatz.jpg|thumb|left|Me 262 A, circa 1944/45]]

When 1945 began, the Allies were on the German borders, and in some places had captured German towns such as [[Aachen]]. With the territory under German control contracting and Germany's territory itself in the frontline, the distinction between tactical and strategic attack blurred. Allied air forces and the ''Luftwaffe'' found themselves providing support over the frontline while battling to attack or defend industrial targets.

Hitler attempted to improve Germany's continually worsening military position by launching operation ''Wacht am Rhein'' ([[Battle of the Bulge]]). The RLV handed over some ''Jagdgeschwader'' to support the offensive along with the ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s frontline fighter units. The cost was high, some 400 pilots were killed or missing between 16–31 December 1944.<ref>Caldwell & Muller 2007, p. 261.</ref> On 1 January 1945 the Luftwaffe launched ''[[Operation Bodenplatte]]'' in a bid to win back air superiority and help restart the German offensive, which was now in trouble. The ''Luftwaffe'' committed over 900 fighters to the operation.<ref>Parker 1998, p. 447.</ref> It failed, effectively destroying the remaining core of the ''Luftwaffe''.<ref>Manhro & Putz 2004, pp. 272–273.</ref>

The ''Luftwaffe''{{'}}s senior staff had hoped that projects like the Me 163 rocket fighter or Me 262 jet fighter would be given priority as a bomber interceptor as early as 1942. However, problems with jet engine development and Hitler's insistence the Me 262 be used as a [[strike aircraft]], and problems with its engines, hampered its development and delaying its entry into the ''RLV''.<ref>Price 1993, p. 176.</ref> The operations of the Me 262 and Me 163 did little to offset the problem of Allied air superiority. German losses remained high due to the difference in fighter pilot training. On 7 April 1945, for example, only 15 of 183 Fw 190s and Bf 109s which were covered by a large force of Me 262s, returned to base from an interception sortie. The Germans reported the loss of 133 fighters, claiming 50 of the USAAFs bombers in return. In reality, only eight American bombers were shot down.<ref>Gerbig 1975, p. 138.</ref>

During this period the [[Western Allied invasion of Germany]] had already begun. Airfields and bases that were located in Western Germany were quickly overrun. The ''Luftwaffe'' defended its airspace continually, but suffered heavy losses flying defensive and offensive sorties over the Allied bridgeheads that were established along the [[Rhine River]]. A few successes were scored, and some missions, including forces of up to 40-50 Me 262s were used, but the losses inflicted on the bombers were not decisive. The Allied Air Forces had total air superiority and attacked the Luftwaffe on the ground and in the air. In just two days, 13–15 April, 400 German fighters were lost to Allied ground attack fighters.<ref>Gerbig 1975, p. 139.</ref>

===End of the Area offensives===
The intensifying campaign against German cities did not cease. Among the most controversial raids was the [[Bombing of Dresden in World War II|Bombing of Dresden]] in February 1945. The raids killed a maximum of 25,000 people. The rationale of the raid was to aid the advance of the [[Red Army]] on the Eastern Front. Dresden was a communications hub which, it was believed, was transporting German reinforcements to eastward. It was also thought it harboured significant industries in and around the city. Its value as a military target was and still is questioned due to the cities apparent lack of industrial potential in its centres and the late stage of the war. Soon afterwards, Allied forces conducted [[Operation Clarion]]. The operation sent thousands of bombers and fighters in day and night to target smaller cities and targets of opportunity.<ref>Biddle 2002, pp. 254-257.</ref>

Attacks on other targets took place in March-April 1945. On 19 April, the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] issued a directive that stipulated all further operations by strategic air forces should be diverted to land-support duties. It came into effect on 5 May. On 26-27 April, the USAAF flew their last operations. Bomber Command, by that time, was busy supporting the Army by flying out Allied [[prisoners of war]].<ref>Biddle 2002, p. 260.</ref>

On 8 May, Nazi Germany capitulated, ending the fighting in the [[European Theatre of Operations]].

==See also==
*[[Strategic bombing during World War II]]
*[[Emergency Fighter Program]]

==References==
;Citations
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* {{cite book|last=Cox| first=Sebastian | year=1998| title=The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939-1945: The Official Report of the British Bombing Survey Unit| publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0714647227 }}
* {{cite book | last=Craven | first=Wesley |coauthors= James Cate | year=1983 | title=The Army Air Forces in World War II: Vol. I: Plans & Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942| publisher= Office of Air Force History| isbn= 9780912799032 |url= |ref= | page=}}
* {{cite book | last=Craven | first=Wesley |coauthors= James Cate | year=1983 | title=The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume III: Europe: Argument to V-E Day January 1944 to May 1945. | publisher= Office of Air Force History| isbn= 9780912799032 |url= |ref= | page=}}
* {{cite book | last=Frankland | first=Noble | authorlink= Noble Frankland |year=2006 | title=The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939-1945, Volume III, Part 5: Victory| language= | publisher=Naval and Military Press| isbn=1-845743-49-0}}
* {{cite book | last=Frankland | first=Noble | authorlink= Noble Frankland |year=1961 | title=The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939-1945, Volume II, Part 4: Endeavour| language= | publisher=Her Majesty's Stationary| isbn=}}
* {{cite book|last=Gerbig|first=Werner|title=Six Months to Oblivion: Defeat of the Luftwaffe Fighter Force Over the Western Front, 1944/45|publisher=Schiffer Publishing Ltd|place=|year=2004|isbn=978-0-88740-348-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Hall|first=Cargill|title=Case Studies In Strategic Bombardment|publisher=Air Force History and Museums Program|year=1998|isbn=0-16-049781-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Hastings|first=Max|title=RAF Bomber Command|publisher=Pan Books|year=1979|isbn=0-330-39204-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Hess|first=William|title=B-17 Flying Fortress: Combat and Development History of the Flying Fortress|publisher=Motorbooks international|year=1994|isbn=0-87938-881-1}}
* {{cite book| first=E.R.| last=Hooton| authorlink=E.R.Hooton| title=Eagle in Flames: The Fall of the Luftwaffe| location=London| publisher=Arms & Armour Press| year=1999| isbn=186019995X| origyear=1997}}
* {{cite book| first=E.R.| last=Hooton| authorlink=E.R.Hooton| title=The Luftwaffe: A Study in Air Power, 1933-1945| location=London| publisher=Arms & Armour Press| year=2010| isbn=978-1-906537-18-0}}
* {{cite book| first=Edward | last=Jablonski| title=Double strike: the epic air raids on Regensburg-Schweinfurt, August 17| publisher=Doubleday| year=2010| isbn=0385075405}}
* {{cite journal |first=H. W| last=Koch| authorlink=| title=The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany: The Early Phase, May–September 1940| location=| journal=The Historical Journal| volume=34|number=1|month=March |year=1991|pages=117–141}}
* {{cite book|last=MacIsaac|first=David|title=United States Strategic Bombing Survey Volume II|publisher=Garland|place=New York|year=1976|isbn=0-8240-2027-8}}
* {{cite book|last=MacIsaac|first=David|title=United States Strategic Bombing Survey Volume IV|publisher=Garland|place= New York|year=1976|isbn=0-8240-2029-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Manrho|first=John|last2=Putz|first2=Ron|title=Bodenplatte: The Luftwaffe's Last Hope–The Attack on Allied Airfields, New Year's Day 1945|publisher=Hikoki Publications|place=|year=2004|isbn=1-902109-40-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Murray|first=Williamson|title=Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1933–1945|publisher=United States Government Printing|year=1983 | isbn=978-9997393487}}
* National Archives. (2000) ''The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force, 1933–1945''. ISBN 978-1-905615-30-8
* {{cite book|last=Parker | first=Danny S. | title=To Win The Winter Sky: The Air War Over the Ardennes, 1944–1945 | publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1998 | isbn=978-1853671760}}
* {{cite book | last=Stedman | first=Robert | title=Jagdflieger: Luftwaffe Fighter Pilot, 1939–1945 | publisher=Osprey | year=2008|isbn=978-1-84603-167-0 }}
* {{cite book| last=Overy| first=Richard |authorlink= Richard Overy |title=The Air War, 1939–1945|publisher=Potomac Books, Washington|year=1980 |isbn=978-1-57488-716-7}}
* {{cite journal|last=Overy| first=Richard |authorlink= Richard Overy |title=Hitler and Air Strategy|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=15 | number=3 | date=July 1980| pages=405–421}}.
* {{cite journal|last=Overy| first=Richard |authorlink= Richard Overy |title=The German Pre-War Aircraft Production Plans: November 1936-April 1939|journal=The English Historical Review|volume=90 | number=357 |month=October | year=1975 |pages=778–797}}
* {{cite book|last=Overy| first=Richard |authorlink= Richard Overy |title=Why the Allies Won|publisher=Norton| place=New York|year=1995 |isbn=0-393-31619-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Price|first=Alfred|title=The Last Year of the Luftwaffe: May 1944 to May 1945|publisher=Greenhill Books, London|year=1993|isbn=1-85367-440-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Price|first=Alfred|title=Battle over the Reich: The Strategic Bomber Offensive over Germany|publisher=Ian Allen|place=London|year=1973}}
* {{cite book |last=Thomas|first=Andrew|title=Mosquito Aces of World War Two|publisher=Osprey|place=London|year=2005|isbn=978-1-84176-878-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Tooze|first=Adam|title=The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of Nazi Economy|publisher=Penguin|place=London|year=2006|isbn=0-713-99566}}
* {{cite book | last=Weal | first=John | year=1996 | title=Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Aces of the Western Front | publisher=Osprey Publishing | isbn=1-85532-595-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Weal|first=John|title=Bf109 Defence of the Reich Aces|publisher=Osprey|place=Oxford|year=2006 |isbn=1-84176-879-0}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~rhorta/jgmark2.htm Defense of the Reich (''Reichsverteidigung'') fighter wing color band markings]
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=AnOx0_wamhgC&pg=PA12&dq=%22Erich+von+Selle%22&sig=ACfU3U2YKxWFChdHl4LahceQs5bVKbtpqw#PPA52,M1 Göring's Policy on Lack of aggressive spirit]

{{RAF WWII Strategic Bombing}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Defense Of The Reich}}
[[Category:Aerial operations and battles of World War II]]
[[Category:World War II European theatre]]
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[[es:Defensa del Reich]]
[[fr:Défense du Reich]]
[[tr:Reich Savunması]]

Battle of Westerplatte

2011-06-17T14:31:24Z

Muta112:

{{Infobox Military Conflict
| conflict = Battle of Westerplatte
| image = [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-2008-0513-500, Danzig, Westerplatte, Wald.jpg|300px]]
| caption = German soldiers on Westerplatte after the battle
| partof = [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Invasion of Poland]], [[World War II]]
| date = September 1–7, 1939
| place = [[Westerplatte]], [[Free City of Danzig]]
| result = German victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]
| combatant2 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Henryk Sucharski]] {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Franciszek Dąbrowski]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Friedrich-Georg Eberhardt]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Gustav Kleikamp]]
| strength1 = 209
| strength2 = ~3,400
| casualties1 = 15–20 dead 53 wounded remainder captured
| casualties2 = 200-300 dead or wounded
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Polish September Campaign}}
}}

The '''Battle of Westerplatte''' was the very first battle that took place after Germany [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|invaded Poland]] and [[World War II]] began in Europe. During the first week of September 1939, a Military Transit [[Train station|Depot]] (''Wojskowy Skład Transportowy'', WST) on the [[peninsula]] of [[Westerplatte]], manned by fewer than 200 [[Poland|Polish]] soldiers, held out for seven days in the face of an overwhelming [[Germany|German]] attack. The defense of Westerplatte served as an inspiration for the Polish Army and people as the successful German advances continued elsewhere and today is still regarded as a symbol of resistance to the invasion.

==Background==
In 1925 the Council of the [[League of Nations]] allowed Poland to keep only 88 soldiers on Westerplatte, but secretly the garrison was gradually expanded to 176 men and six officers. The WST was separated from [[Free City of Danzig]] (Gdańsk) city by the [[harbour]] channel, with only a small [[pier]] connecting them to the mainland; the Polish-held part of the Westerplatte was separated from the territory of Danzig by a brick wall. [[Fortification]]s built at Westerplatte were in fact not very impressive: there were no real [[bunker]]s or underground tunnels, there were only five small concrete outposts (guardhouses) hidden in the peninsula's forest and the large [[barracks]] prepared for defense, supported by a network of field fortifications such as [[trench]]es and [[barricade]]s.<ref name="muzeum1939.pl">[http://www.muzeum1939.pl/przetarg/Appendix_8.pdf. (English) Janusz Marszalec, ''Westerplatte,'' p. 4]</ref> In case of war, the defenders were expected to withstand a sustained attack for 12 hours.

==Prelude==
At the end of August 1939, the German [[Pre-dreadnought battleship|battleship]] [[SMS Schleswig-Holstein|''Schleswig-Holstein'']] sailed to Danzig (Gdańsk) under the pretext of a courtesy visit and anchored in the channel 164 yards (150m) from Westerplatte. On board was a [[Shock troops|Shock troop]] (''Stoßtruppen'') assault [[Company (military unit)|company]] with orders to launch an attack against the Westerplatte on the morning of August 26. However, shortly before disembarkation, the order to attack was rescinded. As a result of [[Anglo-Polish military alliance|Britain and Poland]] having signed the ''[[Polish-British Common Defence Pact]]'' on August 25, and also being informed that Italy was hesitant in fulfilling its obligations regarding the [[Pact of Steel]], [[Adolf Hitler]] postponed the opening of hostilities.<ref>[[Janusz Piekałkiewicz|Piekałkiewicz, Janusz]]. ''Sea War: 1939-1945''. Blandford Press, London - New York, 1987, pg. 18, ISBN 0-7137-1665-7</ref>

The Germans had an SS-Heimwehr force of 1500 men led by Police General{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} [[Friedrich-Georg Eberhardt]] and 225 [[marine (military)|Marines]] under [[Lieutenant]] Wilhelm Henningsen to attack the depot. Overall command was handed to Rear-Admiral [[Gustav Kleikamp]] aboard the ''Schleswig-Holstein''. He moved his ship farther upstream on August 26. Major [[Henryk Sucharski]] put his garrison on heightened alert.

==Battle==
[[File:Westerplatte makieta.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Model of the aerial view of Westerplatte and Danzig's New Port on September 1, 1939, with the position of [[SMS Schleswig-Holstein|''Schleswig-Holstein'']]]]
On September 1, 1939, at 0448 local time, Germany began its [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|invasion of Poland]], starting World War II; the ''Schleswig-Holstein'' suddenly opened broadside salvo fire on the Polish garrison held by 182 soldiers and 27 civilian [[reservist]]s. Major Sucharski radioed Hel Peninsula "SOS: I'm under fire".<ref name="Mann, C page 12">Mann, C: ''Great Battles of World War II'', page 12. Parragon Books, 2008.</ref>
Three holes were made in the perimeter wall and oil warehouses were blazing in the southeastern sector. Eight minutes later, Lieutenant Wilhelm Henningsen's crack marines storm unit from the ''Schleswig-Holstein'' advanced in three platoons while the [[Wehrmacht]]'s [[Pioneer (military)|Pioneers]] blew up the railroad gate going on the land-bridge, expecting an easy victory over the surprised Poles.<ref>[http://www.muzeum1939.pl/przetarg/Appendix_8.pdf Janusz Marszalec, ''Westerplatte,'' Gdańsk: Muzeum II Wojny Światowej, 2008, p. 2.]</ref> [[Staff Sergeant]] [[Wojciech Najsarek]], a Polish soldier, was killed by machine-gun fire, the first victim of both the battle and war. However, soon after crossing the artillery-breached brick wall, the attackers suddenly came into a well-prepared [[ambush]]. German soldiers found themselves caught in a kill zone of Polish crossfire from concealed firing points (the Germans believed they were also fired on by [[sniper]]s hidden in the trees, but in reality that was not the case), while [[barbed wire]] entanglements effectively blocked quick movements. The Poles knocked out a machine gun nest at the German [[Schupo]] and Lt. Leon Pajak opened intense howitzer fire on the advancing Germans who faltered and stopped their attack. The Field gun knocked out sniper machine-gun nests on top of the warehouses across the canal and almost knocked out the ''Schleswig-Holstein's'' command post but was destroyed by the ship's guns.<ref name="Mann, C page 12"/><ref name="Wańkowicz">{{pl icon}} Melchior Wańkowicz, ''Westerplatte''. Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy "Pax", 1959.</ref>:

<blockquote>"The tactics of outpost commanders, who lured the Germans into a fire trap, letting them advance into the line of fire, contributed to these heavy losses. The Polish [[Mortar (weapon)|mortar]] fire, guided precisely by observers from protruding positions, added to the destruction. The system of barriers secretly prepared by the WST soldiers in the spring and summer of 1939 made it difficult for the Germans to move around the park that was Westerplatte (once a popular spa)."<ref>[http://www.muzeum1939.pl/przetarg/Appendix_8.pdf. Janusz Marszalec, ''Westerplatte,'' p. 2]</ref></blockquote>

At 0622, the Marines frantically radioed the ship they had heavy losses and were withdrawing, Danzig Police had tried to seize control of the harbor on the other side of Westerplatte but were defeated.<ref name="Mann, C page 13">Mann, C: ''Great Battles of World War II'', page 13. Parragon Books, 2008.</ref> Casualties were 50 Germans and 8 Poles. The Germans tried again at 0855 but met mines, fallen trees, barbed wire and intense fire.<ref name="Mann, C page 13"/> By noon the SS men fled and Henningsen was mortally wounded.<ref name="Mann, C page 13"/><ref>{{pl icon}} Mariusz Borowiak, ''Westerplatte. W obronie prawdy.'', Gdańsk: GDW, 2001</ref> The initial assault was crushed and a second attack that morning (after an artillery [[barrage]] of 90 280 mm shells, 407 170 mm shells and 366 88 mm shells) was repelled as well, the Germans suffering unexpectedly high losses. The Poles eventually retreated from the Wał and Prom outposts (and for a time also from Fort), tightening the ring of defence around the New Barracks in the centre of the peninsula. On the first day of combat, the Polish side lost one man killed and seven wounded (three died later, including two of them who were captured and died in a German hospital). On the other side, the German naval infantry lost 16 killed in action and some 120 wounded (injuries of various gravity), the majority out of the 225 men deployed.<ref>{{pl icon}} The only consolation for the Germans was the massacred defenders of the post office in Danzig city.[http://www.okretywojenne.pl/pefu/westbatterie/images/2008b/kompania_szturmowa.pdf Kompania szturmowa]</ref> The German losses would have been even greater if not for the order by the Polish commander, Major Henryk Sucharski, for the mortar crews to cease fire in order to conserve ammunition, issued after firing just a few salvos (because of this order only 104 out of their 860 shells were spent when the mortars were destroyed on the next day).

[[File:Schleswig Holstein ostrzeliwuje Westerplatte 39 09 01 b.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Schleswig-Holstein'' firing at Westerplatte]]

On the following days, the Germans bombarded the peninsula with [[naval artillery|naval]] and heavy [[field artillery]], including a 210 mm [[howitzer]], turning it into [[World War I]]-style moonscape. Eberhardt convinced General Fedor von Bock a ground attack was not possible. A devastating two-wave air raid by 60 [[Junkers Ju 87]] Stuka dive-bombers on September 2 (the total of 26.5 tons of bombs) took out the Polish mortars, directly hit guardhouse 5 (destroying it completely with a 500 kg bomb) and killed at least eight Polish soldiers; the air raid covered the whole area of Westerplatte in enormous clouds of smoke and destroyed their only radio and all their food supplies;<ref name="Mann, C page 13"/> German observers believed that no one could possibly have survived such bombing.<ref name="Wańkowicz" /> On the night of 3–4 September more German attacks were repelled. On September 4 a German torpedo boat (T-196) made a surprise attack from the seaside.<ref name="Mann, C page 14">Mann, C: ''Great Battles of World War II'', page 14. Parragon Books, 2008.</ref> The "Wal" post had been abandoned and now only "Fort" position prevented an attack from the north side. On September 5, a [[Combat stress reaction|shell-shocked]] Sucharski held a war council which urged Westerplatte to surrender; his deputy, [[Captain (land and air)|Captain]] [[Franciszek Dąbrowski]], briefly took over command. Several cautious probing attacks by the German naval infantry, Danzig SS and police and Wehrmacht were again repulsed by the Poles; at 0300, during one of these attacks, they sent a [[Draisine#Military usage|firetrain]] against the land bridge, but this failed when the terrified driver decoupled too early.<ref name="Mann, C page 14"/> It failed to reach the oil cistern and set ablaze the forest, valuable for cover. The flaming wagons gave a perfect field of fire and the Germans suffered heavy losses.<ref name="Mann, C page 15">Mann, C: ''Great Battles of World War II'', page 15. Parragon Books, 2008.</ref> A second fire-train attack came in the afternoon but it too failed. In the meantime, [[Polskie Radio]] continuously broadcast the message "Westerplatte still fights on" each morning of the battle.<ref>{{pl icon}} Mariusz Borowiak, ''Westerplatte. W obronie prawdy'', Gdańsk: GDW, 2001.</ref> A second war council was held and the Major was set to surrender; the German Army was now outside Warsaw and [[gangrene]] had started to appear among the wounded.<ref name="Mann, C page 15"/> At 0430 September 7, the Germans opened intense fire on Westerplatte which lasted to 0700. Flamethrowers destroyed Guardhouse 2 and damaged 1 and 4.<ref name="Mann, C page 15"/> The besieged garrison lacked sufficient water and medical supplies; Cpt. Mieczysław Słaby, the WST medical officer, was unable to maintain basic care of wounded soldiers.

At 0945 the white flag appeared; the Polish defense had impressed the Germans so much that the German commander, [[General]] Friedrich-Georg Eberhardt, allowed Sucharski to retain his ceremonial [[szabla]] (Polish [[sabre]]) in captivity (it was apparently confiscated later).<ref name="Mann, C page 15"/> At the same time Polish wireless operator Kazimierz Rasiński was murdered by Germans after the capitulation; after brutal interrogation, he had refused to hand over radio codes and was shot.<ref>Robert Jackson, ''Battle of the Baltic: The Wars 1918–1945'' (p. 55)</ref>

Sucharski surrendered the post to Kleikamp and the Germans paraded in full order when the Polish garrison marched out, still proud and erect. In all, approximately 3,400 Germans were tied up by being engaged in the week-long action against the small Polish garrison.

==Aftermath==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1989-516-505, Westerplatte, hissen der Reichskriegsflagge.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Nazi war flag on Westerplatte]]
The exact figures of German losses remain unknown, but are now often estimated to be in range of 200 to 300 killed and wounded or sometimes more. Some of them might be actually hit by [[friendly fire]], in particular from the battleship which was initially anchored too close to its target. Polish casualties were much lower, including 15 to 20 killed and 53 wounded. There is a controversy regarding the burial site discovered in 1940, containing the bodies of five unidentified Polish soldiers who were possibly executed by their comrades for attempted [[desertion]]. Eight of the prisoners of war are also said to have been tortured, and had not survived German captivity.

[[File:Westerplatte Sucharski sabre.jpg|thumb|Major Sucharski (with a sabre) surrendering Westerplatte to General Eberhardt (saluting)]]
Further controversy surrounds the Polish garrison's commanding officer, Major Henryk Sucharski, and the [[executive officer]], Captain Franciszek Dąbrowski. Major Sucharski, who survived the war but died in 1946, was promoted to the rank of [[generał brygady]] and given the highest Polish military award of [[Virtuti Militari]], although he became a very controversial figure more recently as the previously-unknown account about his role in the battle were uncovered in the 1990s (after the death of Captain Dąbrowski, as the other Polish officers vowed among themselves for their [[honor]] to not disclose in their lifetimes that their nominal commander was [[shell-shock]]ed for the most of the battle). The Westerplatte became the subject of a quasi-historical dispute, which Dr. Janusz Marszalec from the [[Institute of National Remembrance]] summarized with the following:

<blockquote>"It (the dispute) centres on the question of who commanded the defence of Westerplatte, Maj. Henryk Sucharski or Cpt. Dąbrowski? Interestingly, this dispute does not involve historians since it is not taking place as an academic debate. It is the domain of disputes of people passionate about history on the internet and in the press, in an atmosphere of gradual and consistent repetition of various unconfirmed sources. They tend to fall into emotional states of elevation and passion, during which it is difficult to apply the principles of [[sine ira et studio]]. This dispute has gone so far beyond its narrow circle of fans of the internet, moving into the mass media as a dispute over a film script and the spending of public money on a film which aims to show the new 'truth' about the defence of Westerplatte. Without a detailed analysis of this project, one can only stress that it has nothing in common with the confirmed state of knowledge about the history of the defence of the WST Westerplatte in September 1939....Regardless of the disputes, Sucharski and the two hundred other defenders of the WST will remain in the circle of good memory, regardless of whether they wanted to defend it to their last bullet, or whether they contemplated putting down arms already after 12 hours of the first shot of the Schleswig-Holstein on 1 September 1939."<ref name="muzeum1939.pl" />
</blockquote>

Already during the war the defense of Westerplatte served as an inspiration for the Polish Army and people as the successful German advances continued elsewhere and rven today is still regarded as a symbol of resistance to the invasion; a Polish [[Thermopylae]].<ref name="Lerski1996">{{cite book|author=Jerzy Jan Lerski|title=Historical dictionary of Poland, 966-1945|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=QTUTqE2difgC&pg=PA646|accessdate=11 April 2011|year=1996|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313260070|page=646}}</ref> The Polish poet [[Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński]] wrote a widely known poem about this battle, ''Pieśń o żołnierzach Westerplatte'' ("A Song of the Soldiers of Westerplatte"). The poem reflected a widespread Polish myth of the [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|later years of the WWII]] that all of defenders died in the battle, fighting to the last man.<ref name="Gałczyńska1998">{{cite book|author=Kira Gałczyńska|title=Gałczyński|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=j1JhAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=11 April 2011|year=1998|publisher=Wydawn. Dolnośląskie|page=99}}</ref> A [[Polish People's Army]] military unit was named in 1943 in memory of the soldiers ([[1st Armoured Brigade (Poland)|Polish 1st Armoured Brigade of the defenders of Westerplatte]]). In the years after war, several dozen schools and several ships in Poland were also named after the "Heroes of Westerplatte" or "Defenders of Westerplatte". The ruins of the peninsula's barracks and guardhouses still survive today. After the war one of the guardhouses, which had actually been moved several hundred yards inland, was converted into a [[museum]]; two shells from the ''Schleswig-Holstein'''s 280 mm guns prop up its entrance.

==Order of battle==
[[File:Westerplatte kapitulacja.jpg|thumb|250px|Polish soldiers being taken into captivity after the capitulation of Westerplatte. Danzig, September 7, 1939]]

===German===
[[Kriegsmarine]] ships:
* Battleship ''Schleswig-Holstein''
* Two [[torpedo boat]]s: T-196 and T-963

Eberhardt group:
* 3. Marine-Stoßtrupp-Kompanie (elite naval infantry company, later renamed Marine-Artillerie-Abteilung 531) and an attached [[Pioneer (military)|Pioneer]] platoon from [[Dessau-Roßlau]]
* An independent howitzer [[battalion]] (Haubitzen-Abt.)
* Küstenschutz der Danziger [[Polizei]] (a [[coast guard]] unit of the Danzig police) and [[Ordnungspolizei]]'s [[Landespolizei]] Regiment
* [[SS Heimwehr Danzig|SS Heimwehr ''Danzig'']] (the local [[SS]] militia force), including SS Wachsturmbann ''Eimann'' (already part of the forming [[3rd SS Division Totenkopf|3rd SS Division ''Totenkopf'']])
* Other forces

[[Luftwaffe]]:
* II & III Gruppe [[Sturzkampfgeschwader 2|StG 2 ''Immelmann'']]
* 4.(St)/TrGr 186

In all, some 40-60 Junkers Ju 87 Stuka bombers and seven other aircraft ([[Heinkel He 51]] and [[Junkers Ju 52]]) were involved in the siege of Westerplatte.

German land forces were armed with several [[ADGZ]] heavy [[Armored car (military)|armoured cars]], about 65 artillery pieces ([[2 cm FlaK 30]] anti-aircraft guns, [[3.7 cm PaK 36]] anti-tank guns, [[10.5 cm leFH 18]] light howitzers and [[21 cm Mörser 18]] heavy howitzers), over 100 [[machine guns]], an unknown number of medium mortars and [[Flammenwerfer 35]] [[flamethrower]]s.

===Polish===
By August 1939, the garrison of Westerplatte had increased to 182 soldiers and 27 civilian [[reservist]]s conscripted into service after the breakout of hostilities.

The WST was armed with one 75 mm [[Canon de 75 modèle 1897|75 mm wz. 02/26]] field gun, two [[Bofors 37 mm|Bofors 37 mm wz. 36]] anti-tank guns, and four [[Stokes Mortar|Stokes 81 mm wz. 31]] medium mortars. The strong side of the garrison was a disproportionately large number of machine guns at their disposal (41 machine guns, including 16 [[heavy machine gun]]s). They had also 160 rifles, 40 pistols and over 1,000 hand grenades.

==See also==
{{commons|Westerplatte}}
* [[Battle of Hel]]
* [[Bombing of Wieluń]]
* [[Defense of the Polish Post Office in Danzig]]
* [[Battle of Wizna]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gdansk-life.com/poland/battle-westerplatte The Battle of Westerplatte]
* [http://www.silentwall.com/WesterplatteI.html Westerplatte ruins today]
* [http://www.concharto.com/search/eventsearch.htm?_tag=westerplatte&_maptype=2 Map of events concerning Battle of Westerplatte]
* {{pl icon}} [http://www.westerplatte.com.pl/glowna/ Vortal Westerplatte]
* {{pl icon}} [http://www.westerplatte.pl/ Westerplatte broni się jeszcze]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Westerplatte, Battle Of}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1939]]
[[Category:1939 in Poland]]
[[Category:Battles of the Polish September Campaign]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Germany]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Poland]]
[[Category:History of Gdańsk]]

[[be-x-old:Бітва за Вэстэрплятэ]]
[[fr:Bataille de Westerplatte]]
[[it:Battaglia della Westerplatte]]
[[la:Defensio Westerplatte]]
[[no:Slaget om Westerplatte]]
[[pl:Oblężenie Westerplatte]]
[[fi:Westerplatten taistelu]]
[[zh:西盤半島戰役]]

Vilnius offensive

2011-06-07T15:06:18Z

Muta112:

{{dablink|This article is about the 1944 battle for [[Vilnius]] between the [[Red Army]] and the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''. For combat between the [[Polish Home Army]] and the ''Wehrmacht'', see [[Operation Ostra Brama]]. For the 1919 battle, see [[Vilna offensive]].}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Vilnius Offensive
|partof= [[Operation Bagration]] / [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]
|image=
|caption=
|date= July 1944
|place= inside modern [[Lithuania]] around [[Vilnius]] ({{lang-pl|Wilno}}), [[Vilnius Region|Wilno Region]]
|result= Soviet victory
|combatant1={{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} {{flagicon|Poland}} Polish [[Home Army]]
|combatant2={{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
|commander1={{flagicon|USSR|1923}} [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky]] {{flagicon|USSR|1923}} [[Pavel Rotmistrov]]
|commander2={{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Walter Model]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Dietrich von Saucken]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Rainer Stahel]]
|strength1=?
|strength2=
|casualties1=?
|casualties2=8,000 killed; 5,000 captured in Vilnius alone (Soviet est)
|notes=
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Leningrad and Baltics 1941-1944}}
{{Campaignbox Poland 1944-1945}}

The '''Vilnius Offensive''' ({{lang-ru|Вильнюсская наступательная операция}}) occurred as part of the third phase of [[Operation Bagration]], the great summer offensive by the [[Red Army]] against the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' in June and July, 1944. The Vilnius Offensive lasted from the 5th to the 13th of July, 1944, and ended with a Soviet victory.

During the offensive, Soviet forces encircled and captured the city of [[Vilnius]]; this phase is sometimes referred to as the '''Battle of Vilnius'''. Some three thousand German soldiers of the encircled garrison managed to break out, including the commander, [[Rainer Stahel]]. After the offensive, the [[Vilnius Region|Vilnius or Wilno Region]] was liberated from Nazi occupation.

==Prelude==
From 23 June 1944, the Red Army conducted a major offensive operation under the code-name [[Operation Bagration]], liberating [[Belarus]], and driving towards the Polish border and the [[Baltic Sea]] coast. By the beginning of July the front line had been torn open at the seam of German [[Army Group Centre]] and [[Army Group North]], roughly on a line from [[Vitebsk]] to Vilnius. While a large part of the Soviet force was employed to reduce the German pocket east of [[Minsk]], following the [[Minsk Offensive Operation]], the [[STAVKA|Soviet high command]] decided to exploit the situation along the breach to the north, by turning mobile formations towards the major traffic centre of Vilnius, in eastern Lithuania. For the [[OKW|German high command]], it became imperative to hold Vilnius, because without it would become almost impossible to re-establish a sustainable connection between the two German army groups, and to hold the Red Army off outside [[East Prussia]] and away from the Baltic Sea shores.

''Stavka'' issued a new order, number 220126, to the troops of the [[3rd Belorussian Front]] on July 4. This required them to develop their offensive towards [[Maladzyechna]] and Vilnius, capturing the latter no later than 10 July, and to force crossings of the [[Neman River]]. The [[33rd Army (Soviet Union)|33rd Army]] was transferred from the [[2nd Belorussian Front]] in order to assist these objectives.<ref name=glantzp154>Glantz, p.154</ref>

The German defenders were still in comparative disarray after the Minsk offensive. Remnants of [[Fourth Army (Germany)|Fourth Army]] that had escaped the encirclement, and units of the [[5th Panzer Division]] (reorganised into an ad-hoc ''[[Kampfgruppe]]'', later redesignated XXXIX Panzer Corps, under General [[Dietrich von Saucken]]) fell back to form a defence before Maladzyechna, an important rail junction; but the 5th Guards Tank Army was able to cut the route between there and Minsk on July 3.<ref name=dunnp158>Dunn, p.158</ref>

==Deployments==
===Wehrmacht===
*Southern flank of [[Third Panzer Army]] (Colonel-General [[Georg-Hans Reinhardt]])
**[[XXVI Corps (Germany)|XXVI Corps]] (General [[Gerhard Matzky]])
**Garrison of Vilnius (Major-General [[Rainer Stahel]])
*Remnants of [[Fourth Army (Germany)|Fourth Army]] (General [[Kurt von Tippelskirch]])
**[[XXXIX Panzer Corps (Germany)|XXXIX Panzer Corps]] (General [[Dietrich von Saucken]])
**''Sperrgruppe'' [[Helmuth Weidling|Weidling]]

===Red Army===
*[[3rd Belorussian Front]] (General [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky]])
**[[11th Guards Army]] (General [[Kuzma Galitsky]])
**[[5th Army (Soviet Union)|5th Army]]
**[[33rd Army (Soviet Union)|33rd Army]] (Lieutenant-General [[Vasily Kryuchenkin]])
**[[39th Army (Soviet Union)|39th Army]]
**[[31st Army (Soviet Union)|31st Army]]
**[[5th Guards Tank Army]] (General [[Pavel Rotmistrov]])
**[[1st Air Army (Soviet Union)|1st Air Army]]

==The offensive==
Chernyakhovsky ordered that his main mobile 'exploitation' forces, the 5th Guards Tank Army and [[3rd Guards Cavalry Corps (Soviet Union)|3rd Guards Cavalry Corps]] continue their advance from Minsk on July 5 in the direction of Vilnius, with the aim of reaching the city by the following day: they were to encircle Vilnius from the south and north respectively. The rifle divisions of 5th Army were ordered to follow and close up to them. To the south, the 39th Army was directed to move on [[Lida]], while the 11th Guards Army would advance in the Front's centre.<ref name=glantzp155>Glantz, p.155</ref>

Soviet reports suggested that units on their northern flank advanced to schedule, noting some resistance from scattered remnants of the destroyed [[VI Corps (Germany)|VI Corps]] of Third Panzer Army, but stated that the 11th Guards Army in particular encountered strong German resistance and several counter-attacks. The 5th Panzer Division was, however, unable to hold Maladzyechna. The Soviet 5th Army was able to advance to the outskirts of Vilnius by July 8, while the 5th Guards Tank Army encircled the city from the south, trapping the garrison.<ref name=glantzp158>Glantz, p.158</ref>

Lida, another rail junction, was taken by the 3rd Guards Cavalry Corps on the evening of July 8, after the German defenders (largely from the notorious [[SS]] units of ''Gruppe'' [[Curt von Gottberg|von Gottberg]] and the [[Kaminski Brigade]]) abandoned their positions in old [[World War I|WWI]] trench lines, despite reinforcement from Weidling's units. The latter gave up their attempt to hold the city on July 9.

==The battle for Vilnius==
During the battle for the city itself, the Soviet 5th Army and 5th Guards Tank Army engaged the German garrison of ''Fester Platz'' Vilnius (consisting of Grenadier Regiment 399 and Artillery Regiment 240 of the [[170th Infantry Division (Germany)|170th Infantry Division]], Grenadier Regiment 1067, a battalion from the 16th Parachute (''[[Fallschirmjäger]]'') Regiment, the anti-tank battalion of the [[256th Infantry Division (Germany)|256th Infantry Division]] and other units) under the command of [[History of the Luftwaffe during World War II|Luftwaffe]] [[Major-General]] [[Rainer Stahel]].

The Soviet 35th Guards Tank Brigade initially took the airport, defended by the battalion of paratroopers; intense street-by-street fighting then commenced as the Soviets attempted to reduce the defence.<ref name=fallschirmjagers>Official Soviet accounts, and later accounts based on them, speak of a very large number of German troops being parachuted into the city several days into the siege before being wiped out as they landed. German orders of battle do not show such troops. It is possible the accounts are in fact referring to the small number of troops from the 16th Parachute Regiment participating in the defence; other elements of the same unit were present in the relief force.</ref>

===The breakout attempt===
On 12 July, the garrison's parent formation, [[Third Panzer Army]], counter-attacked. [[6th Panzer Division (Germany)|6th Panzer Division]], organised into two groups (''Pössl'' and ''Stahl'') attacked eastwards from outside the encirclement (the divisional commander and Colonel-General Reinhardt personally accompanied the advance group). The opposing Soviet forces, taken by surprise and hampered by extended lines of supply, were not able to hold the cordon and 6th Panzer's forces were able to advance some 50km to link up with forward elements from the Vilnius garrison. A fierce battle on the banks of the [[Neris river|Neris]] ensued as men of the Polish [[Home Army]] unsuccessfully attempted to stop the relief troops.

In the city itself, a Soviet attack on the morning of 13 July managed to split the German forces into two pockets centred around the prison and the observatory; around 3,000 Germans escaped through the corridor opened by the 6th Panzer Division before Soviet forces closed the gap. Even so, 12-13,000 German troops were lost in the city, which was finally liberated towards the evening of 13 July.<ref name=glantz>Glantz, p.160</ref>

Despite the Soviet forces' success, Rotmistrov's commitment of a tank corps in costly urban fighting (along with earlier disagreements with his Front commander, [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky]]) led to his replacement as commander of 5th Guards Tank Army.

===Contribution by the Polish Home Army===
The battle was also marked by an uprising under the code-name [[Operation Ostra Brama]] by the Polish Home Army, in expectation of the arrival of the Red Army, as part of [[Operation Tempest]]. The accounts of the battle given by the Home Army differ from the official Soviet account, particularly with regard to the date of Soviet entry into Vilnius.

==Outcome==
While the German aim of holding Vilnius as a ''Fester Platz'' or fortress was not achieved, the tenacious defence made a contribution in stopping the Red Army's drive west for a few precious days: most importantly, it tied down the 5th Guards Tank Army, which had been instrumental in the initial successes of the Red Army during Operation Bagration. This delay gave German forces a chance to re-establish something resembling a continuous defence line further to the west. Hitler recognised this achievement by awarding Stahel the 76th set of Oak Leaves to the [[Ritterkreuz|Knights Cross]] awarded during the war. Nevertheless, the outcome fell far short of what the German command had hoped for, and the continuous frontline that was established only held for a short time. Without the traffic network based on Vilnius, the German position in the southern Baltics was untenable. By the end of July, the [[3rd Belorussian Front]] was ordered to conduct the [[Kaunas Offensive Operation]] to further extend the gains of Operation Bagration.

Most of the few remaining Jewish residents of Vilnius, who had been afforded some measure of protection in the [[HKP 562 forced labor camp]] by the actions of a ''Wehrmacht'' officer, [[Karl Plagge]], were murdered by the [[SS]] as Soviet forces approached the city. Plagge was however able to issue a coded warning which resulted in around 250 lives being saved.

==See also==
*[[Operation Bagration]], the strategic offensive of which this action was a part
*[[Karl Plagge]]
*[[Roza Shanina]], Soviet sniper who fought in the battle for Vilnius
*[[Theodor Tolsdorff]], German officer decorated for his role in the battle

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Dunn, W. ''Soviet Blitzkrieg: The Battle for White Russia, 1944'', Lynne Riener, 2000, ISBN 978-1555878801
* [[David Glantz|Glantz, D.]] (ed.) ''Belorussia 1944 - the Soviet General Staff Study''

==External links==
*[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/media_fi.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005186&MediaId=209 Liberation of Vilna] Soviet footage of the battle at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

{{coord missing|Lithuania}}

[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union|Vilnius]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1944]]
[[Category:Operation Bagration]]
[[Category:1944 in Lithuania]]
[[Category:History of Vilnius]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II]]

[[ru:Вильнюсская фронтовая наступательная операция (1944)]]
[[tr:Vilnüs Taarruzu]]

Belgrade offensive

2011-05-23T19:29:59Z

Muta112: Wilhelm Schneckenburger - KIA

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Belgrade Offensive
|image =
|caption =
|partof = the [[Yugoslav Front|Yugoslav]] and [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern]] fronts of [[World War II]]
|place = [[Belgrade]], [[Yugoslavia]]
|date = 14 September-24 November 1944
|result = Allied victory
|combatant1 = '''[[Allies of World War II|Allies]]''': {{flagicon|Democratic Federal Yugoslavia}} [[Yugoslav Partisans]] {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bulgarian Homeland Front.svg}} [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
|combatant2 = '''[[Axis powers|Axis]]''': {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
|commander1 = {{flagicon|Democratic Federal Yugoslavia}} [[Savo Drljević]] {{flagicon|Democratic Federal Yugoslavia}} [[Peko Dapčević]] {{flagicon|Democratic Federal Yugoslavia}} [[Danilo Lekić]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Fyodor Tolbukhin]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Vladimir Zhdanov]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bulgarian Homeland Front.svg}} [[K. Stanche]]
|commander2 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Maximilian von Weichs]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Wilhelm Schneckenburger]]{{KIA}} {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hans Felber]]
{{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Alexander Löhr]]
|strength1 = 580,000 troops, 3640 shells and mortars, 520 tanks and assault guns, 1420 aircraft, 80 ships
|strength2 = 150,000 troops, 2100 shells and mortars, 125 tanks and assault guns, 350 aircraft, 70 ships
|casualties1 = '''Soviets only:''' 4,350 dead or missing 14,488 wounded or sick 18,838 overall<ref name=glantz>Glantz (1995), p. 299</ref>
|casualties2 = unknown
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Stalin's ten blows}}

The '''Belgrade Offensive''' or the '''Belgrade Strategic Offensive Operation''' ([[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]: ''Beogradska ofenziva/ofanziva''; {{lang-ru|Белградская стратегическая наступательная операция}}) (14 September-24 November 1944)<ref>p.1116, Dupuy; Belgrade itself was taken on 20 October</ref> was an offensive military operation in which Belgrade was liberated from the German [[Wehrmacht]] by the joint efforts of the [[Yugoslav Partisans]] and the Soviet [[Red Army]]. The two forces launched separate but loosely coordinated operations that were sufficient to evict the Germans from the Belgrade area.<ref>p.615, Wilmot "[the Red Army] entered Belgrade ... at the same time as Tito's partisans."; p.152, Seaton; "The Russians had no interest in the German occupation forces in Greece and appear to have had very little interest in those retiring northwards through Yugoslavia...Stalin was content to leave to Tito and the Bulgarians the clearing of Yugoslav territory from the enemy."; [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+yu0031) ''Library of Congress'' Country Studies] citing "information from Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1919-1945, Arlington, Virginia, 1976": "...Soviet troops crossed the border on October 1, and a joint Partisan-Soviet force liberated Belgrade on October 20." See also http://www.vojska.net/eng/world-war-2/operation/belgrade-1944/</ref>

The offensive involved the [[1st Army Group (Yugoslav Partisans)|1st Army Group]] of the [[Yugoslav Partisans]] to the west, the Soviet [[3rd Ukrainian Front]] (including the Bulgarian 2nd Army), and elements of the [[2nd Ukrainian Front]] to the north<ref name="Allies ORBAT">[http://www.vojska.net/eng/world-war-2/operation/beograd-1944/order-of-battle/allies/ Belgrade operation - Allied - Order of Battle]</ref> conducting an offensive against part of Germany's [[Army Group E]] (''Korpsgruppe'' "Schneckenburger" and "Stern") which included the forces of the Serbian [[fifth column]], the [[Chetniks]] and the [[Serbian State Guard]]. The objective was to destroy the forces of the German Army Group E in the [[Suva Planina]] region, and those of [[Army Group F]] east of [[Great Morava|Velika Morava]] river, and ultimately the liberation of [[Belgrade]].

A secondary objective for the offensive was to sever the line of retreat for German [[Army Group E]] from [[Axis occupation of Greece during World War II|Greece]], [[Albania under Nazi Germany|Albania]] and the southern regions of Yugoslavia through Belgrade to [[Kingdom of Hungary (Regency)|Hungary]], including the [[Salonica]]-Belgrade railroad.

==Background==
By early September 1944, two German Army Groups were deployed in the [[Balkans]] ([[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], [[Axis occupation of Greece during World War II|Greece]], and [[Albania under Nazi Germany|Albania]]): Army Group E (southern area of operations), and Army Group F (northern area of operations). In response to the defeat of German forces in the [[Jassy–Kishinev Offensive (August 1944)|Jassy-Kishinev Operation]] (which forced Bulgaria and Romania to switch sides) and the advance the [[Red Army]] troops into the Balkans, Army Group E was ordered to withdraw into Hungary. Another Army Group was created in Hungary called [[Army Group Serbia]] from elements of Army Group F.

As a result of the [[Bulgarian coup d'état of 1944]], the monarchist/fascist regime in Bulgaria was overthrown and replaced with a government of the [[Fatherland Front (Bulgaria)|Fatherland Front]] led by [[Kimon Georgiev]]. Once the new government came to power, Bulgaria declared war on Germany.

By the end of September, the Red Army [[3rd Ukrainian Front]] troops under the command of Marshal [[Fyodor Tolbukhin]] were concentrated at the Bulgarian-Yugoslav border. The Soviet 57th Army was stationed in the [[Vidin]] area, while the Bulgarian 2nd Army<ref>this Army included the Bulgarian Armored Brigade previously equipped and trained by the Wehrmacht</ref> (General K. Stanche commanding under the operational command of the 3rd Ukrainian Front) was stationed to the south on the [[Niš]] rail line at the junction of Bulgarian, Yugoslav, and Greek borders. This further caused the arrival of the Partisans [[1st Army (Yugoslav Partisans)|1st Army]] from Yugoslav territory, in order to provide support to their [[13th Corps (Yugoslav Partisans)|13th]] and [[14th Corps (Yugoslav Partisans)|14th Corps]] collaborating in the liberation of [[Niš]] and supporting the 57th Army’s advance to Belgrade, respectively. The Red Army [[2nd Ukrainian Front]]’s 46th Army was deployed in the area of the [[Teregova River|Teregova river]] (Romania), poised to cut the rail link between Belgrade and Hungary to the north of [[Vršac]].

Pre-operations were coordinated between the Soviets and the commander-in-chief of the Yugoslav Partisans, Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]]. Tito arrived in Soviet-controlled [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] on 21 September, and from there flew to [[Moscow]] where he met with [[Stalin]]. The meeting was a success, in particular because the two allies reached an agreement concerning the participation of Bulgarian troops in the operation that would be conducted on Yugoslav territory.

==The Offensive==
[[File:Belgrade Offensive Map.JPG|thumb|250px|Map of the offensive.]]

Before the start of ground operations the Soviet [[17th Air Army]] ([[3rd Ukrainian Front]]) was ordered to impede the withdrawal of German troops from Greece and southern regions of Yugoslavia. To do so, from , it carried out air attacks on the railroad bridges and other important facilities in the areas of Niš, [[Skopje]], and [[Kruševo]] lasting from 15-21 September.

The operations begun on the far southern flank of the Front with the offensive by the 2nd Bulgarian Army into the Leskovac-Niš area, and almost immediately engaged the 7th SS Mountain Division "Prinz Eugen". Tho days later, having encountered the Yugoslav partisans, the Army with partisan participation defeated a combined force of Chetniks and Serbian Frontier Guards and occupied Vlasotince. Using its Armored Brigade as a spearhead, the Bulgarian Army then engaged German positions on 8 October at Bela Palanka, reaching Vlasotince two days later. On 12 October, the Armored Brigade—supported by the 15th Brigade of the 47th Partisan Division—was able to take Leskovac, with the Bulgarian reconnaissance battalion crossing the Morava and probing toward Niš. The goal of this was to not so much to pursue the remnants of the "Prinz Eugen" Division withdrawing northwest, but to for the Bulgarian 2nd Army to begin the liberation of Kosovo which would have finally cut the route north for the German Army Group E withdrawing from Greece. On 17 October, the leading units of the Bulgarian Army reached Kursumlija, and proceeded to Kuršumlijska Banja. On 5 November, after negotiating the Prepolac Pass with heavy losses, the Brigade occupied Podujevo, but was unable to reach Pristina until the 21st.<ref>pp.215-56, Mitrovski</ref>

The Soviet 57th Army began its attack on September 28 from the region of Vidin in the general direction of Belgrade. Its [[64th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|64th Rifle Corps]] advanced from the area of south of Vidin to secure the crossing of the [[Velika Morava|Morava]] river at [[Paraćin]], while the [[68th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|68th Rifle Corps]] advanced from Vidin toward [[Mladenovac]], encountering elemnts of the Yugoslav [[14th Corps (Yugoslavia)|14th Corps]] south of [[Petrovac (Serbia)|Petrovac]]. The [[75th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|75th Rifle Corps]]—advancing from the area of [[Turnu-Severin]]—covered the Army's northern flank by advancing toward [[Požarevac]]. The Soviet 57th Army enjoyed the support of the Danube Military Flotilla, which operated along the [[Danube]] on the northern flank of the Front, and provided river transport to troops and military equipment. The Yugoslav 14th Corps—supported by the Soviet 17th Air Army—broke through the enemy's border defense in the [[Serbian Carpathians|eastern Serbian mountains]] with heavy fighting. On 8 October, the Yugoslavs advanced to the [[Velika Morava|Morava]] river, capturing two [[bridgehead]]s on the [[Velika Plana]] and [[Palanka]], where on 12 October, the [[4th Guards Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)|4th Guards Mechanised Corps]] was introduced into the penetration after moving here from South-East Bulgaria for the development of the offensive toward Belgrade from the south. Meanwhile, the offensive was continued by the newly arrived Yugoslav [[1st Proletarian Division (Yugoslav Partisans)|1st Proletarian Division]] and the [[12th Slavonian Division]] which secured bridgeheads over the [[Sava]] river west of Belgrade.

On the northern face of the offensive, the Red Army [[2nd Ukrainian Front]]'s supporting [[46th Army (Soviet Union)|46th Army]] advanced in the attempt to outflank the German Belgrade defensive position from the north, by cutting the river and rail supply lines running along the [[Tisa]]. Supported by the [[5th Air Army]], its [[10th Guards Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|10th Guards Rifle Corps]] was able to rapidly perform [[assault crossing]]s of the rivers [[Tamiš]] and [[Tisa]] north of [[Pančevo]] to threaten the [[Belgrade]]-[[Novi Sad]] railroad. Further to the north the Red Army [[31st Guards Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|31st Guards Rifle Corps]] advanced toward [[Petrovgrad]], and the [[37th Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|37th Rifle Corps]] advanced toward, and assault crossed the [[Tisa]] to threaten the stretch of railway between [[Novi Sad]] and [[Subotica]] to prepare for the planned [[Budapest Offensive|Budapest strategic offensive operation]].<ref>p.666, Glantz</ref>

===Assault on Belgrade===
The 4th Guards Mechanized Corps of the Red Army and the Yugoslav [[12th Corps (Yugoslav Partisans)|12th Corps]] broke through the enemy resistance south of Belgrade on 14 October, approaching the city. The Yugoslavs advanced along the roads in the direction of Belgrade south of the Sava River, while the Red Army engaged in fighting on the northern bank outskirts.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} The assault on the city was delayed due to the diversion of forces for the elimination of thousands of enemy troops surrounded between Belgrade and [[Smederevo]] (to the south-east). On 20 October, Belgrade had been completely liberated by joint Yugoslav and Soviet forces.

The Yugoslav 13th Corps, in cooperation with the Bulgarian 2nd Army<ref>The composition of the 2nd Army was: Bulgarian Armored Brigade, 8th Infantry Division, 4th Infantry Division, 6th Infantry Division, 12th Infantry Division, parts of the 24th and 26th Infantry Divisions, and the 1st Assault Gun Detachment, pp.166-208, Grechko</ref>, advanced from the south-east. They were responsible for the area of [[Niš]] and [[Leskovac]]. The forces were also responsible for cutting off the main for the evacuation of [[Army Group E]], along the rivers of South Morava and Morava. Army Group E had, therefore, been forced to retreat through the mountains of [[Montenegro]] and [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] and was unable to strengthen the German forces in Hungary.

The next day, elements of the 3rd Ukrainian Front stormed [[Kraljevo]] and finally cut Thessaloniki highway to Belgrade.

Units of the [[Yugoslav Partisans]]—<ref name="Allies ORBAT"/> together with the Soviet [[10th Guards Rifle Corps (Soviet Union)|10th Guards Rifle Corps]] of the 46th Army ([[2nd Ukrainian Front]]), moving via the Danube—provided more offensive strength from the north-east against the Wehrmacht's position in Belgrade. They cleared the left bank of the [[Tisa]] and [[Danube]] (in Yugoslavia) and liberated the town of [[Pančevo]].

==Allied forces==
Participating in the assault on the capital of Yugoslavia were:<ref>http://www.soldat.ru/spravka/freedom/12-yugoslavia.html Dudarenko, M.L., Perechnev, Yu.G., Yeliseev, V.T., et.el., Reference guide "Liberation of cities": reference for liberation of cities during the period of the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945, Moscow, 1985 (Дударенко, М.Л., Перечнев, Ю.Г., Елисеев, В.Т. и др., сост. Справочник «Освобождение городов: Справочник по освобождению городов в период Великой Отечественной войны 1941-1945»)</ref>

===Yugoslavia===
*1st Army Group (General - Lieutenant Colonel [[Peko Dapčević]])
**1st Proletarian Division (Colonel Vaso Jovanović)
**6th Proletarian Division (Colonel Đoko Jovanić)
**5th Assault Division (Colonel Milutin Morača)
**21st Assault Division (Colonel Miloje Milojević)
*12th Army Corps (General - Lieutenant Colonel Danilo Lekić)
**11th Assault Division (Colonel Miloš Šelegović)
**16th Assault Division (Colonel Marko Peričin)
**28th Assault Division (Lieutenant Colonel Radojica Nenezin)
**36th Assault Division (Lieutenant Colonel Rodoslav Jović)

===Soviet Union===
[[Image:LiberationOfBelgradeMedal.jpg|thumb|100px|The [[Orders, decorations, and medals of the Soviet Union|''Liberation of Belgrade Medal'']] was awarded to c70,000 Soviet and allied service personnel who took part in the liberation of Belgrade.]]
[[File:Medvedev and Tadic with veterans 20 Oct 2009.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Boris Tadić]] and [[Dmitry Medvedev]] during celebrations for 65th anniversary]]

*3rd Ukrainian Front
**4th Guards Mechanised Corps (General Lieutenant T. V. Zhdanov Vladimir Ivanovich)
***13th Guards Mechanised Brigade (Lieutenant Colonel Obaturov Gennadi Ivanovich)
***14th Guards Mechanised Brigade (Colonel Nikitin Nicodemius Alekseyevich)
***15th Guards Mechanised Brigade (Lieutenant Colonel Andrianov Mikhail Alekseyevich)
***36th Guards Tank Brigade (Colonel Zhukov Peter Semenovich)
***292nd Guards Self-propelled Artillery Regiment (Lieutenant Colonel Shakhmetov Semen Kondratevich)
**352nd Guards Heavy Self-propelled Artillery Regiment (Colonel Tiberkov Ivan Markovich);
**5th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade (Colonel Zavyalov Nikolai Ivanovich);
**23rd Howitzer Artillery Brigade (Colonel Karpenko Savva Kirillovich) of the 9th Breakthrough Artillery Division (Major General art. Ratov Andrey Ivanovich)
**42nd Anti-tank destroyer artillery Brigade (Colonel Leonov Constantine Alekseyevich)
**22nd Anti-aircraft Artillery Division (Colonel Danshin Igor Mikhaylovich)
*57th Army
**75th Rifle Corps (Major General Akimenko Andrian Zakharovich)
**223rd Rifle Division (Colonel Sagitov Akhnav Gaynutdinovich)
***236th Rifle Division (Colonel Kulizhskiy Peter Ivanovich)
**68th Rifle Corps (Major General Shkodunovich Nikolai Nikolayevich)
***73rd Guards Rifle Division (Major General Kozak Semen Antonovich)
*Danube Military Flotilla
**Brigade of Armoured Boats (Captain Second Rank Derzhavin Pavel Ivanovich)
***1st Guards Armoured Boats Division (Lieutenant Commander Barbotko Sergey Ignatevich)
***4th Guards Armoured Boats Division (Senior Lieutenant Butvin Kuzma [Iosifovich])
**Coastal escort force (Major Zidr Klementiy Timofeevich)
*17th Air Army
**10th Assault Air Corps (lieutenant general of aviation Tolstyakov Oleg Viktorovich)
***295th Fighter Air Division (Colonel Silvestrov Anatoliy Alexandrovich)
***306th Assault Air Division (Colonel Ivanov Alexander Viktorovich),
***136th Assault Air Division (part, Colonel Tereckov Nikolai Pavlovich)
***10th Guards Assault Air Division (Major General of Aviation [[Andrey Vitruk|Vitruk Andrey Nikiforovich]])
***236th Fighter Air Division (Colonel Kudryashov Vasiliy Yakovlevich)
***288th Fighter Air Division (part, Colonel Smirnov Boris Alexandrovich)

==Aftermath==
Upon completion of the Belgrade operation, the 3rd Ukrainian Front troops were transferred to Hungary to support forces of the [[2nd Ukrainian Front]] and subsequently assisted the Yugoslav Partisans in the liberation of their country, mainly with weapons, equipment, and ammunition.

A Medal "For the Liberation of Belgrade" was established by the [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet]] decree of June 19, 1945.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*Dudarenko, M.L., Perechnev, Yu.G., Yeliseev, V.T., et.el., Reference guide "Liberation of cities": reference for liberation of cities during the period of the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945, Moscow, 1985
*[[David Glantz|Glantz, David]], 1986 Art of War symposium, From the Vistula to the Oder: Soviet Offensive Operations - October 1944 - March 1945, A transcript of Proceedings, Center for Land Warfare, US Army War College, 19-23 May 1986
*Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (1995), ''When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler'', Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, ISBN 0700608990.
*Seaton, Albert, The fall of Fortress Europe 1943-1945, B.T.Batsford Ltd., London, 1981 ISBN 0713419687
*Dupuy, Ernest R., and [[Trevor N. Dupuy|Dupuy, Trevor N.]], ''The encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to the present'' (revised edition), Jane's Publishing Company, London, 1980
*Mitrovski, Boro, Venceslav Glišić and Tomo Ristovski, ''The Bulgarian Army in Yugoslavia 1941-1945'', Belgrade, Medunarodna Politika, 1971
*Wilmot, Chester, ''The Struggle for Europe'', Collins, 1952
*Grechko, A.A., (ed.), ''Liberation Mission of the Soviet Armed Forces in the Second World War'', Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1975

==See also==
{{commons|Belgrade Offensive}}
*[[Yugoslav People's Liberation War]]
*[[Seven anti-Partisan offensives]]
*[[Lothar Rendulic]]
*[[Resistance during World War II]]

{{Campaignbox Yugofront}}
{{World War II}}

{{coord missing|Serbia}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1944]]
[[Category:Yugoslavia in World War II]]
[[Category:World War II Eastern European Theatre]]
[[Category:Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles involving Yugoslavia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles involving Bulgaria]]
[[Category:History of Belgrade]]
[[Category:Urban warfare]]
[[Category:Battles involving Serbia]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Soviet Union – Yugoslavia relations]]

[[bg:Белградска операция]]
[[ca:Ofensiva de Belgrad]]
[[cs:Bělehradská operace]]
[[de:Belgrader Operation]]
[[es:Liberación de Belgrado]]
[[it:Offensiva di Belgrado]]
[[ru:Белградская операция]]
[[sk:Belehradská operácia]]
[[sr:Београдска операција]]
[[tr:Belgrad Taarruzu]]
[[uk:Бєлградська операція]]
[[zh:貝爾格勒攻勢]]

Malayan campaign

2011-05-14T06:26:23Z

Muta112: /* Air war */

{{Fix bunching|beg}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Malayan Campaign
|partof=[[Pacific War]], [[World War II]]
|image=[[Image:Japanese troops mopping up in Kuala Lumpur.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Japanese troops advancing through [[Kuala Lumpur]].
|date=8 December 1941 – 31 January 1942
|place=[[British Malaya]]
|result=Japanese victory
*[[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] army retreat to [[Singapore]]
*[[Japanese occupation of Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak|Japanese occupation of Malaya]]
*Emergence of the [[Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army]]
|combatant1=[[Malaya Command]]: {{flagicon|India|British}} [[Indian III Corps]] {{flagicon|Australia}} [[8th Division (Australia)|8th Division]] {{flagicon|Malaysia|1895}} [[Malay Regiment]] {{flagicon|UK}} [[18th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|53rd Infantry Brigade]] and various Commonwealth air forces<ref name="The Fall of Singapore"/>
|combatant2=[[Twenty-Fifth Army (Japan)|Twenty-Fifth Army]]: {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Japanese Imperial Guards|Imperial Guards]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[5th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|5th Division]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[18th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|18th Division]] {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Twenty-Fifth Army (Japan)|3rd Air Division]] {{flagicon|Japan|naval}} [[Imperial Japanese Navy|22nd Air Flotilla]]
|commander1=[[Arthur Percival]] [[Lewis Heath]] [[Gordon Bennett (general)|Henry Gordon Bennett]] [[Merton Beckwith-Smith]]
|commander2=[[Tomoyuki Yamashita]] [[Takuma Nishimura]] [[List of Japanese government and military commanders of World War II|Takuro Matsui]] [[Renya Mutaguchi]]
|strength1=140,000 men<ref name="The Fall of Singapore">{{cite book| title = The Fall of Singapore | author = Frank Owen | publisher = Penguin Books | date = 2001 | location = England | isbn = 0-14-139133-2}}</ref> 158 aircraft
|strength2=70,000 men 568 aircraft 200 tanks
|casualties1='''60,500''' 5,500 killed 5,000 wounded 40,000 captured<ref>Altogether Allied forces lost 7,500 killed, 10,000 wounded and about 120,000 captured for the entire Malayan Campaign</ref>
|casualties2='''5,171''' 1,793 killed 3,378 wounded<ref>{{cite book|last = Smith|first = Colin|title = ''Singapore Burning''|publisher = [[Penguin Books]]|year = 2006|isbn = 0-141-01036-3
|page = 547 }}</ref>
|}}
{{Fix bunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific 1941}}
{{Fix bunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox South-East Asia}}
{{Fix bunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Malaya}}
{{Fix bunching|end}}

The '''Malayan Campaign''' was a campaign fought by [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] forces in [[British Malaya|Malaya]], from 8 December 1941 – 31 January 1942 during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The campaign was dominated by land battles between [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] army units, and the [[Imperial Japanese Army]]. For the British, Indian, Australian and [[Federated Malay States|Malayan]] forces defending the colony, the campaign was a total disaster.

The battle is notable for the Japanese use of [[bicycle infantry]], which allowed troops to carry more equipment and swiftly move through thick jungle terrain. [[Royal Engineers]], equipped with demolition charges, destroyed over a hundred bridges during the retreat, which did little to delay the Japanese. By the time the Japanese had captured Singapore, they had suffered 9,600 casualties.<ref name="Generals At War">{{cite episode |title= Generals At War|episodelink= |url= http://www.ngcasia.com/programmes/generals-at-war/photos/singapore|series= |serieslink= |credits= [[Nicholas Rowe (actor)|Nicholas Rowe]], [[Alistair Irwin]]|network= [[National Geographic Channel]]|station= |city= [[Singapore]]|airdate= 21 September 2009|began= |ended= |season= |seriesno= |number= |minutes= 60|transcript= |transcripturl=}}</ref>

==Background==
Between the wars, [[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s military strategy in the [[Far East]] was undermined by a lack of attention and funding. The British government's plans relied primarily on the stationing of a strong fleet at the [[Singapore Naval Base]] in the event of any enemy hostility, both to defend Britain's Far Eastern possessions and the route to Australia. A strong naval presence was also thought to act as a deterrent against possible aggressors. By 1940, however, the army commander in Malaya, [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Lionel Bond]] conceded that a successful defence of Singapore demanded the defence of the whole peninsula, and that the naval base alone wouldn't be sufficient to deter a Japanese invasion.<ref name="Bayly/Harper, p. 107">Bayly/Harper, p. 107</ref> The defence strategy rested on two basic assumptions: first, that there would be sufficient early warning of an attack to allow for reinforcement of British troops, and second that American help was at hand in case of the attack. By late 1941, it became clear that neither of these assumptions had any real substance.<ref name="Bayly/Harper, p. 107"/>

Once the Second World War commenced, Britain and the Middle East received higher priorities in the allocation of men and material. The desired Malayan [[air force]] strength of 300–500 aircraft was never reached. When the Japanese invaded, they had over 200 [[tank]]s, consisting of the [[Type 95 Ha-Go|Type 95 ''Ha-Go'']], [[Type 97 Chi-Ha|Type 97 ''Chi-Ha'']], [[Type 89 I-Go|Type 89 ''I-Go'']] and [[Type 97 Te-Ke|Type 97 ''Te-Ke'']].<ref>Bayly/Harper, p. 110</ref> Commonwealth troops were equipped with the [[Lanchester 6x4 Armoured Car]], [[Marmon-Herrington Armoured Car]], [[Universal Carrier]] and only a handful of [[Light Tank Mk VI]]s, of which none were sufficiently armed for [[armoured warfare]].<ref>{{cite web| last = Klemen| first = L| title = 100th Indian Indp. Light Tank Squadron, Malaya 1942| url=http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/indian_tank.html| work = The Netherlands East Indies 1941–1942}}</ref>

The British had plans for a pre-emptive invasion of southern Thailand, named [[Operation Matador (1941)|Operation Matador]], to forestall Japanese landings, but decided not to use them.

==Japan invades==
The Battle of Malaya began when the [[Japanese Twenty-Fifth Army|25th Army]] invaded Malaya on 8 December 1941. Japanese troops launched an [[amphibious assault]] on the northern coast of Malaya at [[Kota Bharu]] and started advancing down the eastern coast of Malaya. This was made in conjunction with [[Japanese Invasion of Thailand|landings]] at [[Pattani]] and [[Songkhla]] in [[Thailand]], where they then proceeded south overland across the [[Malaysia–Thailand border|Thailand-Malayan border]] to attack the western portion of Malaya.

The Japanese were allied with the Axis collaborators, the Vichy French, and had been given access to naval facilities and supplies in French Indochina where they massed their forces for the invasion. They then coerced the Thai government into letting them use Thai military bases to launch attacks into Malaya, after having fought Thai troops for eight hours early in the morning. At 04:00, 17 [[Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service|Imperial Japanese Navy]] bombers [[First air raid on Singapore|attacked Singapore]], the first ever air raid aimed at the colony. It became evident Japanese aircraft bombers operating in [[Saigon]] were now in range of Singapore.

The Japanese were initially resisted by [[Indian III Corps|III Corps]] of the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] and several [[British Army]] battalions. The Japanese quickly isolated individual Indian units defending the coastline, before concentrating their forces to surround the defenders and force their surrender.

The Japanese forces held a slight advantage in numbers on the ground in northern Malaya, and were significantly superior in [[close air support]], [[tank|armour]], co-ordination, [[military tactics|tactics]] and experience, with the Japanese units having fought in [[Second Sino-Japanese War|China]]. The Allies had no tanks, which had put them at a severe disadvantage. The Japanese also used [[bicycle infantry]] and [[light tank]]s, which allowed swift movement of their forces overland through the terrain that was covered with thick [[tropical rainforest]], albeit criss-crossed by native paths. Although the Japanese had not brought bicycles with them (in order to speed the disembarkation process), they knew from their intelligence that suitable machines were plentiful in Malaya and quickly confiscated what they needed from civilians and retailers.

A replacement for Operation Matador, named [[Operation Krohcol]], was implemented on 8 December, but the Indian troops were easily defeated by the [[5th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|Japanese 5th Division]], which had already landed in [[Pattani Province]], Thailand.

The naval [[Force Z]]—consisting of the [[battleship]] {{HMS|Prince of Wales|1939|6}}, [[battlecruiser]] {{HMS|Repulse|1916|6}}, and four [[destroyer]]s, under the command of [[Admiral]] [[Thomas Phillips (Naval officer)|Tom Phillips]]—had arrived right before the outbreak of hostilities. However, Japanese air superiority led to [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|the sinking of the capital ship]]s on 10 December, leaving the east coast of Malaya exposed and allowing the Japanese to continue their landings.

<gallery>
Image:Arthur Percival.jpg|Lt Gen Arthur Percival [[General Officer Commanding|GOC]] of Malaya at the time of the Japanese invasion
Image:Yamashita.jpg|Lt Gen Tomoyuki Yamashita, Commander of the Japanese 25th Army.
Image:Pacific War - Malaya 1941-42 - Map.jpg|Map of the Malayan Campaign
File:JapaneseBicycle001.jpg|The Japanese bicycle
</gallery>

==Air war==
[[Image:Bristol Blenheims 62 Squadron Singapore Feb 1941.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bristol Blenheim]] bombers of [[No. 62 Squadron RAF]] lined up at Tengah, Singapore, 8 February 1941.]]
The Allied [[Fighter aircraft|fighter]] squadrons in Malaya—equipped with [[Brewster F2A Buffalo|Brewster Buffalo]]es—were beset with numerous problems, including: poorly-built and ill-equipped planes;<ref name=Harper1>[http://www.warbirdforum.com/secret.htm Squadron Leader W.J. Harper, 1946, "REPORT ON NO. 21 AND NO. 453 RAAF SQUADRONS" (UK Air Ministry)], p.1 (Source: UK Public Records Office, ref. AIR 20/5578; transcribed by Dan Ford for ''Warbird's Forum''.) Access date: 8 September 2007</ref><ref name=Harper2>[http://www.warbirdforum.com/secret2.htm ''Harper report'', p.2]</ref> inadequate supplies of spare parts;<ref name=Harper2/> inadequate numbers of support staff;<ref name=Harper1-2>''Harper report'', p.1-2</ref> airfields that were difficult to defend against air attack;<ref name=Harper1/> lack of a clear and coherent command structure;<ref name=Harper1/> antagonism between RAF and [[Royal Australian Air Force]] squadrons and personnel,<ref name=Harper1-2/> and; inexperienced pilots lacking appropriate training.<ref name= Harper1/>

Further adding to these problems was the [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero]], which outclassed every Allied aircraft in Malaya. Because of this, allied air forces suffered severe losses in the first week of the campaign, resulting in the ongoing merger of squadrons and their gradual evacuation to the [[Dutch East Indies]]. One pilot—Sergeant Malcolm Neville Read of 453 Squadron RAAF—sacrificed himself by ramming his Buffalo into a [[Nakajima Ki-43 Oscar]] of 64th ''Sentai'' over Kuala Lumpur on 22 December.<ref name="Notable Brewster Buffalo pilots in Southeast Asia, 1941-42">{{cite|title= Notable Brewster Buffalo pilots in Southeast Asia, 1941–42| url= http://www.warbirdforum.com/notable.htm}}{{Verify credibility|date=March 2010}}</ref><ref name="Aeroprints">{{cite|title= Aeroprints|url = http://www.aeroprints.co.uk/gallery.htm|publisher = Jon Field|accessdate = 2010-11-23}}</ref>

[[File:453 Buffalo.jpg|thumb|Pilots of [[No. 453 Squadron RAAF]] responding to a scramble order.]]

One squadron of the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force]] (ML-KNIL)—[[Vliegtuiggroep V, 2e Afdeling|2-VLG-V]]—was deployed to Singapore, contributing to the Allied cause before being recalled to [[Java]] on 18 January. Several Dutch pilots—including [[Jacob van Helsdingen]] and [[August Deibel]]—responded to a number of air raids over Singapore while stationed at [[Kallang Airport]]. They claimed a total of six aircraft, particularly the [[Nakajima Ki-27|Nakajima Ki-27 Nate]], which fared poorly in Malaya. Their involvement in Malaya, however, did little to weaken the Japanese air force.

The remaining offensive aircraft—the [[Bristol Blenheim]], [[Lockheed Hudson]] [[light bomber]]s and [[Vickers Vildebeest]] [[torpedo bomber]]s—were obsolete. Most were quickly destroyed by Japanese aircraft and played an insignificant part in the campaign. One Blenheim pilot—Squadron Leader [[Arthur Stewart King Scarf|Arthur Scarf]]—was [[Posthumous recognition|posthumously]] awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for an attack on 9 December.

In addition, the Japanese [[military intelligence]] service had managed to recruit a British officer, Captain [[Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan|Patrick Heenan]], an Air Liaison Officer with the Indian Army.<ref name=Elphick>[http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/specials/noprisoners/viewpoints/elphick.htm Peter Elphick, 2001, "Cover-ups and the Singapore Traitor Affair"] Access date: 5 March 2007.</ref> While the effects of Heenan's actions are disputed, the Japanese were able to destroy almost every Allied aircraft in northern Malaya within three days. Heenan was arrested on 10 December and sent to Singapore. However, the Japanese had already achieved [[air superiority]].

==Advance down the Malayan Peninsula==
[[Image:ATFSDTRBM.png|thumb|left|Allied Troops From Singapore Deploying to Reinforce Malaya.]]
The [[Battle of Jitra|defeat of Allied troops at Jitra]] by Japanese forces, supported by tanks moving south from Thailand on 11 December 1941 and the rapid advance of the Japanese inland from their Kota Bharu beachhead on the north-east coast of Malaya overwhelmed the northern defences. Without any real naval presence, the British were unable to challenge Japanese naval operations off the Malayan coast, operations which proved invaluable to the invading army. With virtually no remaining Allied planes, the Japanese also had mastery of the skies, leaving the Allied ground troops and civilian population exposed to air attack.

The Malayan island of [[Penang]] was bombed daily by the Japanese from 8 December and abandoned on 17 December. Arms, boats, supplies and a working radio station were left in haste to the Japanese. The evacuation of Europeans from Penang, with local inhabitants being left to the mercy of the Japanese, caused much embarrassment for the British and alienated them from the local population. Historians judge that "the moral collapse of British rule in Southeast Asia came not at Singapore, but at Penang" <ref>Bayly/Harper, p. 119</ref>

On 23 December, Major-General [[David Murray-Lyon]] of the [[Indian 11th Infantry Division]] was removed from command to little effect. By the end of the first week in January, the entire northern region of Malaya had been lost to the Japanese. At the same time, Thailand officially signed a Treaty of Friendship with Imperial Japan, which completed the formation of their loose military alliance. Thailand was then allowed by the Japanese to resume sovereignty over several sultanates in northern Malaya, thus consolidating their occupation. It did not take long for the Japanese army's next objective, the city of [[Kuala Lumpur]], to fall. The Japanese entered and occupied the city unopposed on 11 January 1942. Singapore Island was now less than {{convert|200|mi|km|abbr=on}} away for the invading Japanese army.

The [[Indian 11th Infantry Division|11th Indian Division]] managed to delay the Japanese advance at [[Battle of Kampar|Kampar]] for a few days, in which the Japanese suffered severe casualties in terrain that did not allow them to use their tanks or their air superiority to defeat the British. The 11th Indian Division was forced to retreat when the Japanese landed troops by sea south of the Kampar position. The British retreated to prepared positions at [[Slim River]].

At the [[Battle of Slim River|disastrous Slim River battle]], in which two Indian brigades were practically annihilated, the Japanese used surprise and tanks to devastating effect in a risky night attack. The success of this attack forced Percival into replacing the 11th Indian Division with the 8th Australian Division.

==Defence of Johore==
{{Main|Battle of Muar}}
[[Image:Royal Engineers prepare to blow up a bridge in Malaya.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Engineers]] preparing to blow up a bridge near [[Kuala Lumpur]] during the retreat.]]
By mid-January, the Japanese had reached the southern Malayan state of [[Johore]] where, on 14 January, they encountered troops from the [[Australian 8th Division]], commanded by [[Major-General]] [[Henry Gordon Bennett|Gordon Bennett]], for the first time in the campaign. During engagements with the Australians, the Japanese experienced their first major tactical setback, due to the stubborn resistance put up by the Australians at [[Gemas]]. The battle—centred around the [[Gemensah Bridge]]—proved costly for the Japanese, who suffered up to 600 casualties but the bridge itself—which had been demolished during the fighting—was repaired within six hours.<ref name ="The Battle of Muar">{{cite web|url=http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/histories/20/chapters/12.pdf|title=AWM Military Histories|last=Wigmore|first=Lionel|date=1957|publisher=Australian War Memorial|accessdate=17 April 2009}}</ref>

As the Japanese attempted to outflank the Australians to the west of Gemas, one of the bloodiest battles of the campaign began on 15 January on the peninsula's West coast near the [[Muar River]]. Bennett allocated the 45th Indian Brigade—a new and half-trained formation—to defend the river's South bank but the unit was outflanked by Japanese units landing from the sea and the Brigade was effectively destroyed with its commander, [[Brigadier]] [[H. C. Duncan]], and all three of his battalion commanders killed.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> Two Australian infantry battalions—which had been sent to support the 45th Brigade—were also outflanked and their retreat cut off, with one of the Australian battalion commanders killed in the fighting around the town of [[Bakri]], south-east of Muar. During the fighting at Bakri Australian anti-tank gunners had destroyed nine Japanese tanks,<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> slowing the Japanese advance long enough for the surviving elements of the five battalions to attempt an escape from the Muar area.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/>

[[Image:UmpCABKYXM0.jpg|thumb|left|Australian anti-tank gunners firing on Japanese tanks at the Muar-Parit Sulong Road.]]

Led by Australian [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] [[Charles Groves Wright Anderson|Charles Anderson]], the surviving Indian and Australian troops formed the "Muar Force" and fought a desperate four-day withdrawal,<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> allowing remnants of the Commonwealth troops withdrawing from northern Malaya to avoid being cut off and to push past the Japanese to safety. When the Muar Force reached the bridge at [[Parit Sulong]] and found it to be firmly in enemy hands, Anderson, with mounting numbers of dead and wounded, ordered "every man for himself". Those that could took to the jungles, swamps and rubber plantations in search of their division headquarters at [[Yong Peng]]. The wounded were left to the mercy of the Japanese and all but two out of 135 were tortured and killed in the [[Parit Sulong massacre|Parit Sulong Massacre]]. Anderson was awarded a [[Victoria Cross]] for his fighting withdrawal.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/> The Battle of Muar cost the allies an estimated 3,000 casualties including one brigadier and four battalion commanders.<ref name="The Battle of Muar"/>

On 20 January, further Japanese landings took place at [[Endau]], in spite of an air attack by Vildebeest bombers. The final Commonwealth defensive line in Johore of [[Batu Pahat]]-[[Kluang]]-[[Mersing]] was now being attacked along its full length. Unfortunately, Percival had resisted the construction of fixed defences in Johore, as on the North shore of Singapore, dismissing them in the face of repeated requests to start construction from his Chief Engineer, Brigadier [[Ivan Simson]], with the comment "Defences are bad for morale." On 27 January, Percival received permission from the commander of the [[American-British-Dutch-Australian Command]]—General [[Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]]—to order a retreat across the [[Johore Strait]] to the island of [[Singapore]].

==Retreat to Singapore==
{{Main|Battle of Singapore}}
[[Image:Singapore causeway blown up.jpg|thumb|A view of the causeway, blown up after the Allied retreat, with the visible gap in the middle]]
On 31 January, the last organised Allied forces left Malaya, and Allied engineers blew a {{convert|70|ft|m|abbr=on}}-wide hole in the [[Johor Causeway|causeway]] that linked [[Johore]] and Singapore; a few stragglers would wade across over the next few days. Japanese raiders and infiltrators, often disguised as Singaporean civilians, began to cross the [[Straits of Johor]] in inflatable boats soon afterwards.

In less than two months, the Battle for Malaya had ended in comprehensive defeat for the Commonwealth forces and their retreat from the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Nearly 50,000 Commonwealth troops had been captured or killed during the battle. The Japanese Army invaded the island of Singapore on 7 February and completed their conquest of the island on 15 February.

By the end of January, [[Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan|Patrick Heenan]]—[[British Indian Army]] [[Captain (OF-2)|captain]] convicted of [[treason]], after [[espionage|spying]] for [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]—had been court-martialled and sentenced to death.<ref name=Elphick/> On 13 February, five days after the invasion of Singapore Island, and with Japanese forces approaching the city centre, Heenan was taken by military police to the waterside and was hastily executed. His body was thrown into the sea.

==Battles of the campaign==
*[[Japanese Invasion of Malaya|Battle of Kota Bharu (1941)]]
*[[Bombing of Singapore (8 December 1941)|Bombing of Singapore (1941)]]
*[[Operation Krohcol|Operation Krohcol (1941)]]
*[[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse (1941)]]
*[[Battle of Jitra|Battle of Jitra (1941)]]
*[[Battle of Kampar|Battle of Kampar (1941)]]
*[[Battle of Slim River|Battle of Slim River (1942)]]
*[[Battle of Gemas|Battle of Gemas (1942)]]
*[[Battle of Muar|Battle of Muar (1942)]]
*[[Battle off Endau|Battle off Endau (1942)]]

==See also==
*[[Japanese invasion of Thailand]]
*[[Japanese order of battle during the Malayan Campaign]]
*[[Malaya Command]]-Order of Battle

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References/further information==
*Bayly, Christopher / Harper, Tim: ''Forgotten Armies. Britain's Asian Empire and the War with Japan.'' Penguin Books, London, 2005
*Dixon, Norman F, ''On the Psychology of Military Incompetence'', London, 1976
*Bose, Romen, "SECRETS OF THE BATTLEBOX:The Role and history of Britain's Command HQ during the Malayan Campaign", MArshall Cavendish, Singapore, 2005
*{{Cite book|last = Burton|first = John|authorlink =|year = 2006|chapter =|title = Fortnight of Infamy: The Collapse of Allied Airpower West of Pearl Harbor|publisher = US Naval Institute Press
|location =|isbn = 159114096X }}
*{{cite book | last = Cull | first = Brian | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2004 | chapter = | title = Hurricanes Over Singapore: RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action Against the Japanese Over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942 | publisher = Grub Street Publishing | location = | isbn = 978-1904010807}}
*{{cite book | last = Cull | first = Brian | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2008 | chapter = | title = Buffaloes over Singapore: RAF, RAAF, RNZAF and Dutch Brewster Fighters in Action Over Malaya and the East Indies 1941–1942 | publisher = Grub Street Publishing | location = | isbn = 978-1904010326 }}
*{{cite book | last = Kelly | first = Terence | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2008 | chapter = | title = Hurricanes Versus Zeros: Air Battles over Singapore, Sumatra and Java | publisher = Pen and Sword | location = | isbn = 978-1844156221 }}
*{{Cite book|last = Falk|first = Stanley L.|authorlink =|coauthors =|year = 1975|chapter =|title = Seventy days to Singapore: The Malayan Campaign, 1941–1942|publisher = Hale|location =|isbn = 070914928X}}
*Seki, Eiji. (2006). [http://books.google.com/books?id=u5KgAAAACAAJ&dq=Mrs.+Ferguson%27s+Tea-set,+Japan,+and+the+Second+World+War&client=firefox-a ''Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940.''] London: [[Global Oriental]]. 10-ISBN 1-905-24628-5; 13- ISBN 978-1-905-24628-1 (cloth) [reprinted by [[University of Hawaii Press]], Honolulu, 2007 – [http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/cart/shopcore/?db_name=uhpress&page=shop/flypage&product_id=4475&PHPSESSID=75b7d372eb6f6c4d747ec0a150c42ead previously announced as ''Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation''].]
*Shores, Christopher F; Cull, Brian; Izawa, Yasuho. ''Bloody Shambles, The First Comprehensive Account of the Air Operations over South-East Asia December 1941 – April 1942'' Volume One: ''Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore''. London: Grub Street Press. (1992) ISBN 094881750X
*Smyth, John George Smyth, ''Percival and the Tragedy of Singapore'', MacDonald and Company, 1971
*Thompson, Peter, ''The Battle for Singapore'', London, 2005, ISBN 0-7499-5068-4 (HB)

==External links==
*[http://www.cofepow.org.uk/pages/armedforces_m_campaign.html Campaign in Malaya on The Children (& Families) of the Far East Prisoners of War]
*[http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_part16.htm#far Royal Engineers Museum] Royal Engineers and the Second World War – the Far East
*[http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/japadvance/malaya.html Australia's War 1939–1945: Battle of Malaya]
*[http://historyanimated.com/pacificwaranimated/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=22&Itemid=34 Animated History of the Fall of Malaya and Singapore]

{{Coord missing}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Malaya}}
[[Category:1941 in Malaysia]]
[[Category:1942 in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Australia]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1942]]
[[Category:Military history of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Military history of Malaya during World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of India during World War II]]
[[Category:World War II operations and battles of the Southeast Asia Theatre]]

{{Link GA|ru}}

[[cs:Bitva o Malajsii]]
[[da:Slaget om Malaya]]
[[de:Japanische Invasion der Malaiischen Halbinsel]]
[[es:Campaña de Malasia]]
[[fr:Bataille de Malaisie]]
[[id:Pertempuran Malaya]]
[[it:Campagna di Malesia]]
[[he:קרב מלאיה]]
[[ms:Penjajahan Jepun di Tanah Melayu]]
[[ja:マレー作戦]]
[[no:Slaget om Malaya]]
[[pl:Bitwa o Malaje]]
[[ru:Малайская операция]]
[[sv:Slaget om Malackahalvön]]
[[th:ยุทธการมาลายา]]
[[vi:Trận Mã Lai]]
[[zh-yue:馬來亞抗日戰爭]]
[[zh:馬來亞戰役]]

USS Cowpens (CVL-25)

2011-04-27T13:09:41Z

Muta112: /* 1945 */

{{otherships|USS Cowpens}}
{{Lead too short|date=September 2008}}

{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}
{{Infobox Ship Image
|Ship image=[[Image:USS Cowpens.jpg|300px|USS Cowpens]]
|Ship caption=USS ''Cowpens'' underway
}}
{{Infobox Ship Career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=United States
|Ship flag={{USN flag|1947}}
|Ship name=
|Ship namesake=
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|Ship route=
|Ship ordered=
|Ship awarded=
|Ship builder=[[New York Shipbuilding Corporation]]
|Ship original cost=
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|Ship laid down=17 November 1941 (as {{sclass|Fargo|cruiser|0}} [[light cruiser]] USS ''Huntington'' (CL-77))
|Ship launched=17 January 1943
|Ship sponsor=
|Ship christened=
|Ship completed=
|Ship acquired=
|Ship commissioned=28 May 1943
|Ship recommissioned=
|Ship decommissioned=13 January 1947
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|Ship reclassified=15 May 1959 (as AVT-1, while in reserve)
|Ship refit=
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|Ship identification=
|Ship motto=
|Ship nickname=The Mighty Moo
|Ship honours=
|Ship honors=Navy Unit Commendation, 12 Battle Stars
|Ship captured=
|Ship fate=1 November 1959 Stricken from Navy List. Sold for scrap in 1960.
|Ship status=
|Ship notes=Reordered March 1942 (as aircraft carrier USS ''Cowpens'' (CV-25))
|Ship badge=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
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|Ship displacement=11,000 tons
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|Ship length={{convert|622.5|ft|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam={{convert|71.5|ft|m|abbr=on}} (waterline), 109 ft 2 in (33.3 m) (overall)
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|Ship draft={{convert|26|ft|m|abbr=on}}
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|Ship speed=32 [[Knot (speed)|knot]]s
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|Ship complement=1,569 officers and men
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|Ship armament=26 × [[Bofors 40 mm gun]]s
|Ship armor=1.5 in-5 in belt, 3 in main deck, 0.38 in bridge
|Ship aircraft=Grumman [[F6F Hellcat]]
|Ship aircraft facilities=
|Ship notes=
}}
|}

'''USS ''Cowpens'' (CV-25/CVL-25/AVT-1)''', nicknamed ''The Mighty Moo'', was an 11,000-ton {{sclass|Independence|aircraft carrier}} that served the [[United States Navy]] from 1943 to 1947.

''Cowpens'', named for the [[Battle of Cowpens]] of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]], was launched on 17 January 1943 at the [[New York Shipbuilding Corporation]], in [[Camden, New Jersey]], sponsored by Mrs. M. H. Spruance (daughter of [[Fleet Admiral]] [[William F. Halsey, Jr.]]) and commissioned on 28 May 1943 by [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[R. P. McConnell]]. She was reclassified '''CVL-25''' on 15 July 1943.

==Service history==
===World War II===
====1943====
Departing [[Philadelphia]], on 29 August 1943, ''Cowpens'' arrived at [[Pearl Harbor]] on 19 September to begin the active and distinguished war career which was to earn her a [[Navy Unit Commendation]]. She sailed with [[Task Force 14]] for the strike on [[Wake Island]] on 5–6 October, then returned to Pearl Harbor to prepare for strikes on the [[Marshall Islands]] preliminary to invasion. She sortied from Pearl Harbor 10 November to launch air strikes on [[Mili Atoll|Mille]] and [[Makin (islands)|Makin]] atolls from 19 to 24 November, and [[Kwajalein]] and [[Wotje]] on 4 December, returning to her base on 9 December.

====1944====
Joining [[Fast Carrier Task Force|Task Force 58]], ''Cowpens'' sailed from Pearl Harbor on 16 January 1944 for the invasion of the Marshalls. Her planes pounded Kwajalein and [[Eniwetok]] the last 3 days of the month to prepare for the assault landing on the 31 January. Using [[Majuro]] as a base, the force struck at [[Truk]] on 16–17 February and the [[Mariana Islands]] on 21–22 February before putting in to Pearl Harbor on 4 March. Returning to Majuro, Task Force 58 based here for attacks on the western [[Caroline Islands|Carolines]]; ''Cowpens'' supplied air and antisubmarine patrols during the raids on [[Palau]], [[Yap]], [[Ulithi]], and [[Woleai]] from 30 March to 1 April. After operating off New Guinea during the invasion of [[Jayapura|Hollandia]] from 21 to 28 April, ''Cowpens'' took part in the strikes on Truk, [[Satawan]] and [[Pohnpei|Ponape]] from 29 April to 1 May, returning to Majuro on 14 May for training.

From 6 June to 10 July 1944, ''Cowpens'' operated in the Marianas operation. Her planes struck the island of [[Saipan]] to aid the assault troops, and made supporting raids on [[Iwo Jima]], [[Pagan Island]], [[Rota (island)|Rota]], and [[Guam]]. They also took part in the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]] on 19–20 June, accounting for a number of the huge tally of enemy planes downed. After a brief overhaul at Pearl Harbor, ''Cowpens'' rejoined the fast carrier task force at Eniwetok on 17 August. Then, on 29 August, she sailed for the pre-invasion strikes on the Palaus, whose assault was an essential preliminary for the return to the [[Philippines]]. From 13 to 17 September, she was detached from the force to cover the landings on [[Morotai]], then rejoined it for sweep, patrol, and attack missions against [[Luzon]] from 21 to 24 September. ''Cowpens'', with her task group, sent air strikes to neutralize Japanese bases on [[Okinawa]] and [[Taiwan|Formosa]] from 10 to 14 October, and when {{USS|Canberra|CA-70|2}} and {{USS|Houston|CL-81|2}} were hit by torpedoes, ''Cowpens'' provided air cover for their safe withdrawal, rejoining her task group on 20 October. En route to Ulithi, she was recalled when the Japanese Fleet threatened the [[Leyte (island)|Leyte]] invasion, and during the [[Battle of Surigao Strait]] phase of the decisive [[Battle for Leyte Gulf]] on 25–26 October, provided combat air patrol for the ships pursuing the fleeing remnant of the Japanese fleet. Continuing her support of the Philippines advance, ''Cowpens''' planes struck Luzon repeatedly during December. During the disastrous [[Typhoon Cobra (1944)|Typhoon Cobra]] on 18 December, ''Cowpens'' lost a man: ship's air officer [[Lieutenant Commander]] Robert Price, several planes, and some equipment, but skillful work by her crew prevented major damage, and she reached Ulithi safely on 21 December to repair her storm damage.

====1945====
From 30 December 1944 to 26 January 1945, ''Cowpens'' was at sea for the [[Lingayen Gulf]] landings. Her planes struck targets on Formosa, Luzon, the [[Indochina|Indochinese coast]] and the [[Hong Kong]]-[[Guangzhou|Canton]] area and Okinawa during January. On 10 February, ''Cowpens'' sortied from Ulithi for the Iwo Jima operation, striking the [[Tokyo]] area, supporting the initial landings from 19 February to 22 February, and hitting Okinawa on 1 March.

On 13 June, following an overhaul at [[San Francisco]] and training at Pearl Harbor, ''Cowpens'' sailed on for [[San Pedro Bay (Philippines)|San Pedro Bay]], Leyte. Along the way she struck Wake Island on 20 June. Rejoining Task Force 58, ''Cowpens'' sailed from San Pedro Bay on 1 July to join in the final raids on the Japanese mainland. Her planes pounded Tokyo, [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]], and other cities of [[Hokkaidō]] and [[Honshū]] until 15 August. ''Cowpens'' was the first American carrier to enter Tokyo Harbor. Remaining off Tokyo Bay until the occupation landings began on 30 August, ''Cowpens'' launched photographic reconnaissance missions to patrol airfields and shipping movements, and to locate and supply prisoner-of-war camps. Men from ''Cowpens'' were the first Americans to set foot on the Japanese mainland, and were largely responsible for the emergency activation of Yokosuka airfield for Allied use and the liberation of a POW camp near Niigata. From 8 November 1945 to 28 January 1946 ''Cowpens'' made two voyages to Pearl Harbor, Guam, and Okinawa to return veterans on [[Operation Magic Carpet|"Magic Carpet"]] runs.

===Post-War===
On 3 December 1946, she was placed in commission reserve at Mare Island. On 15 May 1959, she was reclassified as an aircraft transport, with a new hull number, '''AVT-1'''. Then, on 1 November, she was stricken from the [[Naval Vessel Register]] and sold for scrap.

==Awards==
In addition to her Navy Unit Commendation, ''Cowpens'' received 12 [[battle star]]s for World War II service.

==Commemoration==
Each year, the town of Cowpens, SC holds a 4-day festival honoring veterans of ''Cowpens''. "The Mighty Moo Festival" was first held in 1977, with one crewmember of CVL-25 attending. Since then, as many as 115 CVL-25 veterans have attended the festival at once. Also, since the launch and commissioning of the {{USS|Cowpens|CG-63}} in 1991, the festival has included actively-serving crewmen or women of CG-63 sent by the ship's commanding officer, as well as previously-serving veterans of CG 63. The festival is held from Wednesday through Saturday preceding Father's Day each June. During the 1980s, the town of Cowpens, SC actively petitioned Congress to name another ship ''Cowpens'', which may have played a direct role in choosing this name for CG-63.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Uss cowpens carrier.jpg|USS ''Cowpens''
Image:USS Cowpens (CVL-25) during Typhoon Cobra.jpg|Deck of the ''Cowpens'' during [[Typhoon Cobra]]
</gallery>

==References==
{{No footnotes|date=September 2008}}
*{{DANFS|http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/c15/cowpens.htm}}

==External links==
{{Commons cat|USS Cowpens (CVL-25)}}
*[http://www.ninesisters.com/cowpens.htm USS ''Cowpens''] at Nine Sisters Light Carrier Historical Documentary Project
*[http://www.cowpensvets.org/ USS ''Cowpens'' Veterans] Veterans web site for CVL-25 and CG-63
*[http://www.cowpensmightymoo.com/ The Mighty Moo Festival] Official web site of The Mighty Moo Festival



{{Independence class aircraft carrier}}

{{Coord|7.250|N|151.250|E|display=title|source:dewiki}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cowpens (Cvl 25)}}
[[Category:Independence class aircraft carriers]]
[[Category:Ships built in New Jersey]]
[[Category:1943 ships]]
[[Category:World War II aircraft carriers of the United States]]
[[Category:Ships at the Japanese Instrument of Surrender]]
[[Category:United States Navy South Carolina-related ships]]

{{Link GA|de}}

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[[zh:科本斯號航空母艦]]

Liberation of Paris

2011-04-27T09:26:48Z

Muta112:

{{Refimprove|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Liberation of Paris
|partof= [[Operation Overlord]]
|image= [[File:Crowds of French patriots line the Champs Elysees-edit2.jpg|300px|]]
|caption= Parisians line the Champs Élysées as the [[2nd Armored Division (France)|French 2e DB]] tanks and [[M2 Half Track Car|half tracks]] pass before the [[Arc de Triomphe]] on 26 August
|date=19–25 August 1944
|place=[[Paris]] and outskirts, [[France]]
|result= Decisive Allied Victory; propaganda boost for the re-established French Republic
|combatant1= {{flagicon|Free French}} [[French Resistance]] {{flag|Free French Forces}} {{flag|United States|1912}}
|combatant2= {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}} {{flagicon image|Bannieremilice.svg}} [[Milice]]
|commander1= {{flagicon|Free French}} [[Philippe Leclerc]] {{flagicon|Free French}} [[Henri Rol-Tanguy]] {{flagicon|Free French}} [[Jacques Chaban-Delmas]] {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Raymond O. Barton]]
|commander2= {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Dietrich von Choltitz]][[File:White flag icon.svg|15px|Surrendered]]
|strength1=[[2nd Armored Division (France)|2nd French Armoured Division]], [[French Forces of the Interior]], [[4th Infantry Division (United States)|4th U.S. Infantry Division]]
|strength2=5,000 Inside Paris, 15,000 At outskirts
|casualties1= '''French Resistance:''' Between 800 and 1,000 dead<ref name="Libération de Paris">[http://gaminsdulux.fr/ce2cm1/histoire/lib-paris.pdf Libération de Paris]</ref> '''Free French Forces:''' 130 dead 319 wounded<ref>History Channel: The Lost evidence-Liberation of Paris</ref> '''United States:''' Unknown <ref>[http://www.liberation-de-paris.gilles-primout.fr/americains.htm Libération de Paris forces américaines]</ref>
|casualties2= 3,200 dead 12,800 prisoners<ref name="Libération de Paris"/>
|}}
{{Campaignbox Normandy}}

The '''Liberation of Paris''' (also known as '''Battle for Paris''') took place during [[World War II]] from 19 August 1944 until the surrender of the occupying German garrison on 25 August 1944, and is accounted as the last battle in the [[Operation Overlord|Campaign for Normandy]] and the transitional conclusion of the Allied invasion breakout in [[Operation Overlord]] into a broad-fronted general offensive. The capital region of France had been administered by [[Nazi Germany]] since the [[Armistice with France (Second Compiègne)|Second Compiègne]] armistice in June 1940 when Germany occupied the north and west of France and when the [[Vichy France|Vichy regime]] was created in city of [[Vichy]] in central France.

The liberation started with an uprising by the [[French Resistance]] against the German [[Paris]] garrison. On 24 August, the [[French Forces of the Interior]] (''Forces françaises de l'intérieur'', FFI) received backup from the [[Free French Forces|Free French Army of Liberation]] and from the [[United States]]' [[4th Infantry Division (United States)|4th Infantry Division]].

This battle marked the end of [[Operation Overlord]], the liberation of France by the [[World War II Allies|Allies]], the restoration of the [[French Republic]] and the exile of the Vichy government to [[Sigmaringen]] in Germany.

==Background==
{{See|Operation Overlord}}

Allied strategy emphasized destroying German forces retreating towards the [[Rhine River|Rhine]], when the [[French Resistance]] ([[French Forces of the Interior|FFI]]) under [[Henri Rol-Tanguy]] staged an uprising in the French capital. [[General]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]], the [[Supreme Allied Commander]] in Europe, did not consider Paris a primary objective; instead, American and British Allies wanted to enter Berlin before the [[Red Army]] and put an end to the conflict.<ref name="radiofrance.fr">[http://www.radiofrance.fr/reportage/cahiers/cahiers.php?rid=235000257 ''Les Cahiers Multimédias: Il y a 60 ans : la Libération de Paris''], Gérard Conreur/Mémorial du Maréchal Leclerc et de la Libération de Paris, Radio France official website, 6 July 2004</ref> Moreover, Eisenhower thought it too early for a battle in Paris; he wanted to prevent another [[battle of Stalingrad]], and knew that [[Hitler]] had given orders to destroy Paris. The city was considered to be of too great a value culturally to risk destruction in a battle. In a siege, it was estimated {{convert|4000|ST|t|lk=on|abbr=on}} of food per day would be needed to supply the Parisians, plus effort to restore vital infrastructure including transport and energy supply. Such a task would require time and entire Allied divisions.<ref name= "radiofrance.fr"/>

However, General [[Charles de Gaulle]] threatened to order the French 2nd Armored Division (''2ème DB'') into Paris.

Paris was the prize in a contest for power within the French Resistance. The city was the hub of national administration and politics, the center of the railroad system, the communication lines and the highways. It was the only place from which the country could be governed. The overall aim of the Resistance, to get rid of the Germans, bound men of conflicting philosophies, interests and political differences together. De Gaulle had organized the Resistance outside France to support his provisional government; but inside France, a large and vociferous contingent of the left contested de Gaulle’s leadership.

On 24 August, delayed by poor decision-making{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}, combat and poor roads, [[Free French]] General Leclerc, commander of the 2nd Armored Division disobeyed his direct superior U.S. field commander General [[Leonard T. Gerow]] and sent a vanguard (the ''colonne Dronne'') to Paris, with the message that the entire division would be there the following day. The 9th Armored Company, composed mainly of Spanish veterans equipped with [[M4 Sherman]] tanks, [[M2 Half Track Car|M2 half-track]] and [[GMC (automobile)|GMC]] trucks was commanded by Captain [[Raymond Dronne]], who became one of the first uniformed Allied liberating officers to enter Paris.

==Events timeline==
As late as 11 August, nine French Jews were arrested by the French police in Paris. On 16 August, collaboration newspapers were still published and, although food was in short supply, sidewalk cafés were crowded.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/26/world/paris-journal-50-years-after-the-liberation-france-toasts-itself.html New York Times]</ref>

In contrast, by 18 August more than half the railroad workers were on strike and the city was at a standstill. Virtually all the policemen had disappeared from the streets. Several anti-German demonstrations took place, and armed Resistance members appeared openly. The German reaction was less than forthright prompting small, local Resistance groups, without central direction or discipline, to take possession the very next day of police stations, town halls, national ministries, newspaper buildings and the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|''Hôtel de Ville'']].{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

There were perhaps 20,000 Resistance members in Paris, but few were armed. Nevertheless, they destroyed road signs, punctured the tires of German vehicles, cut communication lines, bombed gasoline depots and attacked isolated pockets of German soldiers. But being inadequately armed, members of the Resistance feared open warfare. To avoid it, Resistance leaders persuaded [[Raoul Nordling]], the Swedish consul-general in Paris, to negotiate with the German military governor of ''Groß-Paris'' and commander of the Paris garrison, general [[Dietrich von Choltitz]]. On the evening of 19 August, the two men arranged a truce, at first for a few hours, then extended it indefinitely.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

The arrangement was somewhat nebulous. Choltitz agreed to recognize certain parts of Paris as belonging to the Resistance. The Resistance, meanwhile, consented to leave particular areas of Paris free to German troops. But no boundaries were drawn, and neither the Germans nor the French were clear about their respective areas. The armistice expired on the 24th.<ref>[http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-the-liberation-of-paris.htm/2 Historynet.com]</ref>

===General strike (15–18 August 1944)===
[[File:FFI voiture.jpg|thumb|Truck painted with the marks of the [[French Forces of the Interior|FFI]] and [[Free Republic of Vercors]]]]

On 15 August, in [[Pantin]] (the northeastern suburb of Paris from where the Germans had entered the capital in June 1940), 2,200 men and 400 women — all political prisoners — were sent to the [[Buchenwald]] camp on the last convoy to Germany.<ref name="pantin1">[http://www.ville-pantin.fr/fileadmin/MEDIA/Histoire_de_Pantin/histoire.pdf Pantin official website]</ref><ref name="pantin2">[http://www.ville-pantin.fr/fileadmin/MEDIA/Histoire_de_Pantin/Chrono.pdf Pantin official website]</ref>

That same day, the employees of the [[Paris Métro]], the [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] and [[Police in France|Police]] went on strike, followed by postal workers on 16 August. They were joined by workers across the city when a [[general strike]] broke out on 18 August, the day on which all Parisians were ordered to mobilize by the [[French Forces of the Interior]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

On 16 August, 35 young FFI members were betrayed by an agent of the [[Gestapo]]. They went to a rendez-vous in the [[Bois de Boulogne]], near the waterfall, and were executed by the Germans. They were machine-gunned and then finished off by grenades.<ref>[http://www.elysee.fr/elysee/elysee.fr/francais/interventions/2007/mai/allocution_du_president_de_la_republique_lors_de_la_ceremonie_d_hommage_aux_martyrs_du_bois_de_boulogne.76672.html ''Allocution du Président de la République lors de la cérémonie d’hommage aux martyrs du Bois de Boulogne.''], President Nicolas Sarkozy, French Presidency official website, 16 May 2007</ref>

On 17 August, concerned that explosives were being placed at strategic points around Paris by the Germans, [[Pierre Taittinger]], chairman of the municipal council, met Choltitz .<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/dp/B000KU7QIY/ ''... et Paris ne fut pas détruit'' (''... and Paris wasn't destroyed''), Pierre Taittinger, L'Élan, 1946]</ref> On being told that Choltitz intended to slow up as much as possible the Allied advance, Taittinger, along with Nordling, attempted to persuade Choltitz not to destroy Paris.<ref name="arte1">[http://www.arte.tv/de/geschichte-gesellschaft/geschichte-am-mittwoch/NAV-1-cette-semaine/611420,CmC=611430.html ''Will Paris be destroyed?''], documentary by Michael Busse and Maria-Rosa Bobbi, Arte/WDR/France 3/TSR, August 2004</ref>

===FFI uprising (19–23 August 1944)===
{{See|French Forces of the Interior}}
[[File:Battle for paris FFI1.png|thumb|left|FFI uprising on 19 August, one skirmisher wearing an [[Adrian helmet]]]]

On 19 August, columns of German military tanks, half-tracks, trucks dragging a trailer and cars loaded with troops and material moved down the Champs Élysées. The rumor of the Allies' advance toward Paris was growing{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}.

The streets were deserted following the German retreat, when suddenly the first skirmishes between French irregulars and the German occupiers started. Spontaneously, some people went out in the streets and some [[French Forces of the Interior|FFI]] members posted propaganda posters on the walls. These posters focused on a general mobilization order, arguing "the war continues", with a call to the Parisian police, the [[French Republican Guard|Republican Guard]], the [[Gendarmerie]], the [[Gardes Mobiles]], the [[G.M.R.]] (''Groupe Mobile de Réserve'', the police units replacing the army), the gaolkeepers, the patriotic French, "all men from 18 to 50 able to carry a weapon" to join "the struggle against the invader". Other posters were assuring "victory is near" and a "chastisement for the traitors", i.e., the Vichy loyalists. The posters were signed by the "Parisian Committee of the Liberation" in agreement with the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] and under the orders of "Regional Chief Colonel Rol", [[Henri Rol-Tanguy]], commander of the [[French Forces of the Interior]] in the [[Île-de-France (region)|Île de France region]].

As the battle raged, some small mobile units of [[Red Cross]] moved in the city to assist French and German injured. Later that day, three French ''résistants'' were executed by the Germans.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

The same day in Pantin, a barge filled with [[Naval mine|mines]] exploded and destroyed the Great Windmills.<ref name="pantin2"/>
[[File:Battle for paris warfare scene.png|thumb|A captured tank fires against a sniper position]]

On 20 August, [[barricade]]s began to appear and resistants organized themselves to sustain a siege. Trucks were positioned, trees cut and trenches dug in the pavement to free paving stones for consolidating the barricades. These materials were transported by men, women, children and old people using wooden carts. Fuel trucks were attacked and captured, other civilian vehicles like the [[Citroën]] [[Traction Avant]] sedan captured, painted with camouflage and marked with the FFI emblem. The Resistance would use them to transport ammunition and orders from one barricade to another.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

[[Fort de Romainville]], a [[Nazi]] [[Concentration camps in France|prison]] in the outskirts of Paris, was liberated. From October 1940, the Fort held only female prisoners (resistants and hostages), who were jailed, executed or redirected to the [[Nazi concentration camps|camps]]. At liberation in August 1944, many abandoned corpses were found in the [[Fort de Romainville|Fort]]'s yard.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

A temporary ceasefire between General [[Dietrich von Choltitz]], commander of the Paris garrison, and a part of the French Resistance was brokered by [[Raoul Nordling]] (the Swedish [[Consul (representative)|consul-general]] in Paris). Both sides needed time; the Germans wanted to strengthen their weak garrison with front-line troops, and Resistance leaders wanted to strengthen their positions in anticipation of battle (the resistance lacked ammunition for any prolonged fight).{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

The German garrison held most of the main monuments and some strong points, the Resistance most of the city. Germans lacked numbers to go on the offensive, and the Resistance lacked heavy weapons to attack those strong points.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

Skirmishes reached their height of intensity on the 22nd when some Germans units tried to leave their strong points. At 09:00 on 23 August, under von Choltitz' orders, the Germans burned the [[Grand Palais]], an FFI stronghold, and tanks fired against the barricades in the streets. Hitler gave the order to inflict maximum damage on the city.<ref>[http://www.humanite.fr/2004-08-23_Politique_Balises-1944 ''Libération de Paris: Balises 1944'' ,L'Humanité, 23 August 2004]</ref>

It is estimated that between 800 and 1,000 [[French Resistance|resistance]] fighters were killed during the battle for Paris, with another 1,500 wounded.<ref>{{cite book|url= http://books.google.com/books?ei=yfleTMiXEOCJ4gbczLSvBw&ct=result&id=Wld0AAAAIAAJ&dq=liberation+of+paris+1%2C500+resistance+members+killed&q=800+and+1000+killed+#search_anchor|title =The liberation of Paris - Google Books|publisher=books.google.com|accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref>

===Entrance of the 2nd Armored Division and 4th US Infantry division (24–25 August)===
{{See|2nd Armored Division (France)}}

On the following morning, an enormous crowd of joyous Parisians welcomed the arrival of the 2nd French Armored Division, which swept the western part of Paris, including the ''[[Arc de Triomphe]]'' and the ''[[Champs Élysées]]'', while the Americans cleared the eastern part. The German forces had collapsed during the previous night. Two thousand of them remained in the ''[[Bois de Boulogne]]'', and 700 more were in the ''[[Jardin du Luxembourg]]''. But most had fled or simply awaited capture.<ref>[http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-the-liberation-of-paris.htm Historynet.com]/4</ref>

The battle cost the Free French 2nd Armored Division 71 killed, 225 wounded, 35 tanks, six self-propelled guns, and 111 vehicles, "''a rather high ratio of losses for an armoured division''" according to historian Jacques Mordal.<ref name="historylearningsite1">[http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/liberation_of_paris.htm ''La Bataille de France 1944–1945''], Jacques Mordal, Arthaud, 1964]</ref>

Due to American pressure for a white-only liberation force, black French troops were excluded from the triumphal return to Paris on the 25th.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7984436.stm "Paris liberation made 'whites only.'"] BBC News. Retrieved 10 Jan 2010.</ref>

===German surrender (25 August)===
[[File:German officer POWs in Paris HD-SN-99-02952.JPG|thumb|left|High ranking German officers captured by Free French troops are lodged in the ''Hôtel Majestic'', headquarters for the Wehrmacht during the Nazi occupation]]

Despite repeated orders from [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] that the French capital "''must not fall into the enemy's hand except lying in complete debris''" to be accomplished by bombing it and blowing up its bridges,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amazon.de/dp/B0000BH4NK/ |title=''... Brennt Paris?'' |publisher=Amazon.de |accessdate=2008-08-25}}</ref> German General [[Dietrich von Choltitz]], the commander of the Paris garrison and military governor of Paris, surrendered on 25 August at the ''[[Hôtel Meurice]]'', the newly established headquarters of General Leclerc. Von Choltitz was kept prisoner until April 1947. In his memoir ''... Brennt Paris?'' ("Is Paris Burning?"), first published in 1950, von Choltitz describes himself as the saviour of Paris.

There is a controversy about von Choltitz's actual role during the battle, since he is regarded in very different ways in France and Germany. In Germany, he is regarded as a humanist and a hero who saved Paris from urban warfare and destruction. In 1964, Dietrich von Choltitz explained in an interview taped from his [[Baden Baden]] home, why he had refused to obey Hitler: "''If for the first time I had disobeyed, it was because I knew that Hitler was insane''" ("''Si pour la première fois j'ai désobéi, c'est parce que je savais qu'Hitler était fou''")". According to a 2004 interview his son Timo gave to the French public channel [[France 2]], von Choltitz disobeyed Hitler and personally allowed the Allies to take the city back safely and rapidly, preventing the French Resistance from engaging in urban warfare that would have destroyed parts of Paris. He knew the war was lost and decided alone to save the capital.<ref name="ref1">{{cite web|url= http://www.ina.fr/archivespourtous/index.php?vue=notice&from=fulltext&full=la+liberation+de+paris&num_notice=1&total_notices=238|title="Libération" porte parole des gauchistes|publisher=INA archives|accessdate=2008-08-25}}</ref>

However, in France this version is seen as a "[[Historical revisionism (negationism)|falsification of history]]" since von Choltitz is regarded as a Nazi officer faithful to Hitler involved in many controversial actions:
*In 1940 and 1941, he gave the orders to [[Rotterdam Blitz|burn Rotterdam]] and destroy [[Sevastopol]].<ref name="ref1"/>
*During the battle for Paris:
**On 23 August, he ordered the burning of the [[Grand Palais]] occupied by the FFI.<ref name="ref1"/>
**On 19 August, he ordered the destruction of the [[Pantin]] great windmills in order to starve the population.<ref name="ref1"/>
**On 16 August, he ordered the execution of thirty-five members of the ''Résistance'' at the [[Bois de Boulogne]] waterfall.<ref name="ref1"/>

In a 2004 interview, Resistance veteran [[Maurice Kriegel-Valrimont]] described von Choltitz as a man who "for as long as he could, killed French people and, when he ceased to kill them, it was because he was not able to do so any longer". Kriegel-Valrimont argues "not only do we owe him nothing, but this a shameless falsification of History, to award him any merit."<ref name="ref1"/> The ''Libération de Paris'' documentary secretly shot during the battle by the ''Résistance'' brings evidence of bitter urban warfare that contradicts the von Choltitz father and son version. Despite this, the [[Larry Collins (writer)|Larry Collins]] and [[Dominique Lapierre]] novel ''[[Is Paris Burning?]]'' and its 1966 film adaptation emphasize von Choltitz as the saviour of Paris.

A third source, the protocols of telephonic conversations between von Choltitz and his superiors found later in the [[Fribourg]] archives and their analysis by German historians support Kriegel-Valrimont's theory.<ref name="arte1"/>

Also, Pierre Taittinger and Raoul Nordling both claim it was they who convinced von Choltitz not to destroy Paris as ordered by Hitler.<ref name="arte1"/> The first published a book in 1984 describing this episode, ''...et Paris ne fut pas détruit'' (''... and Paris Was Not Destroyed''), which earned him a prize from the ''[[Académie Française]]''.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

German losses are estimated at about 3,200 killed and 12,800 [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

===De Gaulle's speech (25 August)===
[[File:American soldiers Eiffel Tower.gif|thumb|upright|American soldiers look at the [[French tricolour]] flying from the Eiffel Tower]]

On the same day, [[Charles de Gaulle]], president of the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]] moved back into the War Ministry on the rue Saint-Dominique, then, from the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]], made a rousing speech to the crowd.

{{cquote|Why do you desire that we hide the emotion which seizes us all, men and women, who are here, at home, in Paris that stood up to liberate itself and that succeeded in doing this with its own hands?
No! We will not hide this deep and sacred emotion. These are minutes which go beyond each of our poor lives.
Paris! Paris outraged! Paris broken! Paris martyred! But Paris liberated! Liberated by itself, liberated by its people with the help of the French armies, with the support and the help of all France, of the France that fights, of the only France, of the real France, of the eternal France!

Well! Since the enemy which held Paris has capitulated into our hands, France returns to Paris, to her home. She returns bloody, but quite resolute. She returns there enlightened by the immense lesson, but more certain than ever of her duties and of her rights.

I speak of her duties first, and I will sum them all up by saying that for now, it is a matter of the duties of war. The enemy is staggering, but he is not beaten yet. He remains on our soil.

It will not even be enough that we have, with the help of our dear and admirable Allies, chased him from our home for us to consider ourselves satisfied after what has happened. We want to enter his territory as is fitting, as victors.

This is why the French vanguard has entered Paris with guns blazing. This is why the great French army from Italy has landed in the south and is advancing rapidly up the Rhône valley. This is why our brave and dear Forces of the interior are going to arm themselves with modern weapons. It is for this revenge, this vengeance and justice, that we will keep fighting until the last day, until the day of total and complete victory.

This duty of war, all the men who are here and all those who hear us in France know that it demands national unity. We, who have lived the greatest hours of our History, we have nothing else to wish than to show ourselves, up to the end, worthy of France.
Long live France!|}}

===Victory parades (26 & 29 August)===
[[File:American troops march down the Champs Elysees crop.jpg|left|thumb|28th Infantry Division on the [[Champs Élysées]] in the "Victory Day" parade ]]

This was followed on 26 August by a victory parade down the [[Champs-Élysées]], with some German snipers still active. According to a famous anecdote, while de Gaulle was marching down the Champs Élysées and entered the [[Place de la Concorde]], snipers in the [[Hôtel de Crillon]] area shot at the crowd. Someone in the crowd shouted "''this is the [[Fifth Column]]!''" leading to a misunderstanding, as a 2nd Armored Division tank operator shot at the Hôtel's actual fifth column (which, after repairs, has a slightly different color.){{Citation needed|date=August 2007}}

A combined Franco-American military parade was organised on the 29th after the arrival of the U.S. Army's [[U.S. 28th Infantry Division|28th Infantry Division]]. Joyous crowds greeted the ''Armée de la Libération'' and the Americans as liberators, as their vehicles drove down the city streets.

==Aftermath==
===AMGOT exit===
{{See|Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories}}
[[File:Eisenhower and Koenig in Paris, 1944.jpg|thumb|General [[Omar Bradley]], [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], General [[Marie Pierre Kœnig]] and Air Marshal [[Arthur Tedder]]]]

From the French point of view, the liberation of Paris by the French themselves rather than by the Allies saved France from a new constitution imposed by the [[Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories]] (AMGOT) like the contemporary ones established in Germany and [[Japan]] in 1945.<ref name="charles1">[http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23&var_recherche=lib%E9ration ''1944–1946 : La Libération''], Charles de Gaulle foundation official website</ref>

The AMGOT administration for France was planned by the American Chief of Staff, but de Gaulle's opposition to Eisenhower's strategy, namely moving to the East as soon as possible without passing by Paris in order to reach Berlin before [[Stalin]]'s [[Red Army]], led to the 2nd Armored Division breakout toward Paris and the liberation of the French capital.<ref>[http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=23&var_recherche=lib%E9ration ''1944-1946 : La Libération''], Charles de Gaulle foundation official website</ref> A signal of the French AMGOT's high status was the new French currency, called "Flag Money" (''monnaie drapeau''), for it featured the French flag on its back. This had been made in the United States and was distributed as replacement for Vichy currency since June 1944, following the successful Operation Overlord in Normandy. However, after the liberation of Paris, this short-lived currency was forbidden by GPRF President Charles de Gaulle, who claimed these [[US dollar]] standard notes were fakes.

===National Unity===
{{See|French Resistance}}

Another important factor was the popular uprising of Paris, which allowed the Parisians to liberate themselves from the Germans and gave the newly established Free French government and its president Charles de Gaulle enough prestige and authority to establish the [[Provisional Government of the French Republic]]. This replaced the fallen [[Vichy]] [[French State]] (1940–1944) and united the politically divided French Resistance, drawing [[Gaullist]]s, [[nationalist]]s, [[communist]]s and [[anarchist]]s, into a new "national unanimity" government established on 9 September 1944.<ref name="charles1"/>

In his speech, de Gaulle insisted on the role played by the French and on the necessity for the French people to do their "duty of war" in the Allies' last campaigns to complete the liberation of France and to advance into [[Benelux]] and Germany. De Gaulle wanted France to be among "the victors" in order to evade the AMGOT threat. Two days later, on 28 August, the FFI, called "the combatants without uniform", were incorporated in the New French Army (''nouvelle armée française'') which was fully equipped with U.S. equipment (uniform, helmet, weapon and vehicles) until after the [[Algerian War]] in the 1960s.

===World War II victor===
{{See|German Instrument of Surrender}}
[[File:Deutschland Besatzungszonen - 1945 1946.svg|thumb|[[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany]] in 1946 after territorial annexations in the East]]

A point of strong disagreement between de Gaulle and the [[Allies of World War II|Big Three]] was that the President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), established on 3 June 1944, was not recognized as the legitimate representative of France. Even though de Gaulle had been recognized as the leader of [[Free France]] by British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] back in 28 June 1940, his GPRF presidency had not resulted from democratic elections. However, three months after the liberation of Paris and one month after the new "unanimity government", the Big Three recognized the GPRF on 23 October 1944.<ref>[http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=22&page=2 ''1940–1944 : La France Libre et la France Combattante pt.2''], Charles de Gaulle foundation official website</ref><ref>[http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=22&page=1 ''1940–1944 : La France Libre et la France Combattante pt.1''], Charles de Gaulle foundation official website</ref>

In his liberation of Paris speech, de Gaulle argued "It will not be enough that, with the help of our dear and admirable Allies, we have got rid of him from our home for us to be satisfied after what happened. We want to enter his territory as it should be, as victors", clearly showing his ambition that France be considered one of the World War II victors just like the Big Three. This perspective was not shared by the western Allies, as was demonstrated in the German Instrument of Surrender's [[German Instrument of Surrender|First Act]].<ref>[http://crdp.ac-reims.fr/memoire/enseigner/reims7mai/09reims_berlin.htm France excluded from the German capitulation signing by the Western Allies] — Reims Academy</ref> The French [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|occupation zones in Germany]] and in [[West Berlin]] concretized this ambition, leading to some frustration, part of the deeper [[Western betrayal]] sentiment, on the part of similar European Allies, especially [[Poland]], whose proposition that they be part of the occupation of Germany was rejected by the Soviets, the latter taking the view that they had liberated the Poles from the Nazis and thus put them under the influence of the [[USSR]].

===Legal purge===
{{See|Épuration légale}}

Several Vichy loyalists involved in the [[Milice|Vichy Milice]]—which was established by [[Sturmbannführer]] [[Joseph Darnand]] and hunted the Resistance with the [[Gestapo]]—were made prisoners in a post-liberation [[purge]] known as the ''[[Épuration légale]]'' (Legal purge). However, some were executed without a trial, and the women accused of "horizontal [[collaboration]]" were arrested, shaved, exhibited and sometimes mauled by the crowds, because of their sexual relationships with Germans, both officers and enlisted men, during the occupation.

On 17 August, [[Pierre Laval]] was taken to [[Belfort]] by the Germans. On 20 August, under German military escort, [[Philippe Pétain|Marshal Philippe Pétain]] was forcibly moved to Belfort, and on 7 September to [[Sigmaringen]], a French [[enclave]] in Germany, where 1,000 of his followers (including [[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]]) joined him. There they established the [[Sigmaringen|government of Sigmaringen]] [[Sigmaringen#Vichy French enclave (1944-1945)]] challenging the legitimacy of de Gaulle's Provisional Government of the French Republic. As a sign of protest of his forced move, Pétain refused to take office, and was eventually replaced by [[Fernand de Brinon]]. The Vichy [[government in exile]] ended in April 1945.

==="''Yesterday Strasbourg, tomorrow Saigon...''"===
{{See|Japanese Instrument of Surrender}}
[[File:Insigne-2edb-origine-p-ghemard.jpg|left|thumb|Leclerc's [[French 2nd Division (World War II)|2nd Armored Division]] arms featuring the [[cross of Lorraine]].]]

Leclerc, whose 2nd Armored Division was held by the French in high regard, led the [[CEFEO|Expeditionary Forces FEFEO]] that sailed to [[French Indochina]] then [[Second French Indochina Campaign|occupied by the Japanese]] in 1945.

FEFEO recruiting posters depicted a Sherman tank painted with the [[cross of Lorraine]] with the caption "''Yesterday [[Strasbourg]], tomorrow [[Saigon]], join in!''" as a reference to the 1944 liberation of Paris by Leclerc's armored division and the role this unit played later in the liberation of Strasbourg. The war effort for the liberation of French Indochina through the FEFEO was presented in propaganda as the continuation of the liberation of France and part of the same "duty of war".

While Vichy France collaborated with Japan in French Indochina after the [[Invasion of French Indochina|1940 invasion]] and later established a Japan embassy in Sigmaringen,<ref name="arte2">[http://www.arte.tv/de/woche/244,CmC=1549148,broadcastingNum=677100,day=7,week=20,year=2007.html ''Die Finsternis (The Darkness)'', Thomas Tielsch, Filmtank Hamburg/ZDF, 2005]</ref> de Gaulle had declared war on Japan on 8 December 1941 following the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] and created local anti-Japanese resistance units called [[Corps Léger d'Intervention]] (CLI) in 1943. On 2 September 1945 General Leclerc signed the armistice with Japan on behalf of the Provisional Government of the French Republic onboard the battleship {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}}.

===1944–2004===
The 60th anniversary in 2004 was notable for the two military parades reminiscent of the 26 August and 29 August 1944 parades and featuring armoured vehicles from the era. One parade represented the French, one the Americans, while people danced in the streets to live music outside the ''Hôtel de Ville''.

===Homage to the liberation martyrs===
[[File:Battle for paris homagewall.png|thumb|The wall of the 35 martyrs, [[Bois de Boulogne]]]]

On May 16, 2007, following his election as President of the [[Fifth French Republic]], [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] organized an homage to the 35 French Resistance [[martyr]]s executed by the Germans on 16 August 1944 during the liberation of Paris. French historian [[Max Gallo]] narrated the events that occurred in the Bois de Boulogne woods, and a Parisian schoolgirl read young French resistant [[Guy Môquet]]'s (17) final letter. During his speech, President Sarkozy announced this letter would be now read in all French schools to remember the resistance spirit.<ref>[http://www.elysee.fr/elysee/elysee.fr/anglais/speeches_and_documents/2007/speech_by_nicolas_sarkozy_president_of_the_republic_at_the_memorial_ceremony_for_the_bois_de_boulogne_martyrs.76687.html President Nicolas Sarkozy's speech (English)], French Presidency official website, 16 May 2007</ref><ref>[http://viphttp.yacast.net/elysee/2007/07-05-16-0002b.mov Max Gallo's ceremony (video)], French Presidency official website, 16 May 2007</ref> Following the speech, the chorale of the [[French Republican Guard]] closed the homage ceremony by singing the French Resistance's anthem ''[[Chant des Partisans|Le Chant des Partisans]]'' ("the partisans' song"). Shortly following this occasion, the new President traveled to Berlin to meet German chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] as a symbol of the [[Franco-German cooperation|Franco-German reconciliation]].

==''La Libération de Paris''==
''[[La Libération de Paris]]'' ("the liberation of Paris"), whose original title was ''l'insurrection Nationale inséparable de la Libération Nationale'' ("the national insurrection inseparable from the national liberation"), was a short documentary secretly shot from 16–27 August by the French Resistance propaganda. It was released in French theatres on 1 September.

==Filmography==
*''[[La Libération de Paris]]'' (1944)
*''[[Is Paris Burning?]]'' (1966)

==Liberation of Paris notables==
{{Prose|section|date=August 2010}} {{Unreferenced section|date=August 2010}}

===Resistants===
*[[Georges Bidault]] — CNR
*[[Jacques Chaban-Delmas]]
*[[Marguerite Duras]]
*[[Léo Hamon]] — CPL
*[[Marie-Hélène Lefaucheux]] — CPL
*[[Henri Rol-Tanguy]] — FFI (FTP)
*[[Alexandre Parodi]] — CNR
*[[Edgar Pisani]] — CNR
*[[Pierre Villon]] — FFI (COMAC)

===2nd Armored Division===
*[[Pierre Billotte]]
*[[Claude Dauphin]]
*[[Louis Dio]]
*[[Raymond Dronne]]
*[[Jean Gabin]]
*[[Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque]]
*[[Jean Marais]]
*[[Jean Nohain]]

===Free French===
*[[Charles de Gaulle]]
*[[Pierre-Marie Koenig]]

===Paris garrison===
*[[Dietrich von Choltitz]] — governor of Paris

===Others===
*[[Josephine Baker]] — Red Cross
*[[Ernest Hemingway]] — war correspondent
*[[Raoul Nordling]] — French-German mediator
*[[Pierre Taittinger]] — French-German mediator

==See also==
{{Portal|World War II}}

*[[Anthony Faramus]]
*[[Camp Gurs]]
*[[Camp de Rivesaltes]]
*[[Concentration camps in France]]
*[[Drancy internment camp]]
*[[Fort de Romainville]]
*[[Mémorial du maréchal Leclerc de Hauteclocque et de la Libération de Paris]]
*[[Military history of France during World War II]]
*[[Warsaw Uprising]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.archive.org/details/LaLiberationdeParis1944 ''Battle for Paris: August 16–26''], Documentary shot by the French Resistance propaganda, 1 September 1944
*[http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article.php3?id_article=514 De Gaulle's speech from the Hôtel de Ville] - Charles de Gaulle foundation
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3595434.stm De Gaulle's speech in retrospect] - BBC News
*[http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/47301/paris-liberated-rare-unpublished Paris Liberated: Rare, Unpublished] - slideshow by ''[[Life magazine]]''
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.liberation-de-paris.gilles-primout.fr/index.htm La Libération de Paris (archive documents and detailed timeline) ,Gilles Primout]

{{World War II}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Liberation Of Paris}}
[[Category:Operation Overlord|Paris]]
[[Category:Battles involving France|Paris]]
[[Category:Military battles of Vichy France|Paris]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1944|Paris]]
[[Category:1944 in France|Paris]]
[[Category:Uprisings during World War II|Paris]]
[[Category:Urban warfare|Paris]]
[[Category:Guerrilla warfare|Paris]]
[[Category:Sniper warfare|Paris]]
[[Category:20th century in Paris]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Germany|Paris]]
[[Category:Military history of France during World War II]]

{{Link GA|es}}
[[ar:تحرير باريس]]
[[ca:Alliberament de París]]
[[cs:Pařížské povstání]]
[[da:Befrielsen af Paris]]
[[de:Schlacht um Paris]]
[[es:Liberación de París]]
[[fr:Libération de Paris]]
[[it:Liberazione di Parigi]]
[[he:שחרור פריז]]
[[nl:Bevrijding van Parijs]]
[[ja:パリの解放]]
[[pt:Liberação de Paris]]
[[ro:Eliberarea Parisului]]
[[sk:Oslobodenie Paríža]]
[[ta:பாரிசின் விடுவிப்பு]]
[[tr:Paris'in Kurtuluşu]]
[[vi:Giải phóng Paris]]
[[zh:解放巴黎]]

Axis naval activity in Australian waters

2011-04-27T09:20:32Z

Muta112: /* The German submarine offensive (September 1944 – January 1945) */

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2011}}
[[Image:Centaur (ARTV09088).png|thumb|305px|A [[propaganda]] poster calling on Australians to avenge the sinking of the Australian [[hospital ship]] [[AHS Centaur|''Centaur'']] by the Japanese submarine {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-177||2}} in May 1943.]]
{{Campaignbox Battle for Australia}}
{{Axis naval attacks on Australia}}

Although [[Australia]] was remote from the main battlefronts, there was considerable '''[[Axis powers|Axis]] naval activity in Australian waters''' during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. A total of 54 [[Kriegsmarine|German]] and [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese]] [[warship]]s and [[submarine]]s entered Australian waters between 1940 and 1945 and attacked ships, ports and other targets. Among the best-known attacks are the [[Battle between HMAS Sydney and HSK Kormoran|sinking of HMAS ''Sydney'']] by a German raider in November 1941, the [[Bombing of Darwin (February 1942)|bombing of Darwin by Japanese naval aircraft]] in February 1942, and the Japanese [[attack on Sydney Harbour|midget submarine attack on Sydney Harbour]] in May 1942. In addition, many [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] merchant ships were [[List of ships sunk by Axis warships in Australian waters|damaged or sunk off the Australian coast]] by submarines and [[naval mine|mine]]s. Japanese submarines also [[naval artillery|shelled]] several Australian ports and submarine-based aircraft flew over several [[List of Australian capital cities|Australian capital cities]].

The Axis threat to Australia developed gradually and until 1942 was limited to sporadic attacks by German [[armed merchantmen]]. The level of Axis naval activity peaked in the first half of 1942 when [[Imperial Japanese Navy submarines|Japanese submarine]]s conducted anti-shipping patrols off Australia's coast, and Japanese naval aviation attacked several towns in [[northern Australia]]. The Japanese submarine offensive against Australia was renewed in the first half of 1943 but was broken off as the Allies pushed the Japanese onto the defensive. Few Axis naval vessels operated in Australian waters in 1944 and 1945, and those that did had only a limited impact.

Due to the episodic nature of the Axis attacks and the relatively small number of ships and submarines committed, Germany and Japan were not successful in disrupting Australian shipping. While the Allies were forced to deploy substantial assets to defend shipping in Australian waters, this did not have a significant impact on the [[Military history of Australia during World War II|Australian war effort]] or [[United States|American]]-led operations in the [[South West Pacific theatre of World War II|South West Pacific Area]].

==Australia Station and Australian defences==
[[Image:Latrobe (AWM 044738).jpg|thumb|A [[Bathurst class corvette|''Bathurst''-class]] [[Corvette#World War II|corvette]]. This class of ship was commonly used to escort convoys in Australian waters.]]

The definition of "Australian waters" used throughout this article is, broadly speaking, the area which was designated the [[Australia Station]] prior to the outbreak of war. This vast area consisted of the waters around Australia and eastern [[New Guinea]], and stretching south to [[Antarctica]]. From east to west, it stretched from [[170th meridian east|170° east]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]] to [[80th meridian east|80° east]] in the [[Indian Ocean]], and from north to south it stretched from the [[Equator]] to the Antarctic.<ref>G. Herman Gill (1957). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=24 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 2 – Navy. Volume I – Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942'']. [[Australian War Memorial]], Canberra. Pages 52–53.</ref> While the eastern half of New Guinea was an Australian colonial possession during the Second World War and fell within the Australia Station, the Japanese operations in these waters formed part of the [[New Guinea Campaign|New Guinea]] and [[Solomon Islands Campaign]]s and were not directed at Australia.
[[Image:Minesweepers (AWM 041269).jpg|thumb|left|Four minesweepers off [[Wilson's Promontory]] in late 1940]]

The defence of the Australia Station was the [[Royal Australian Navy]]'s main concern throughout the war.<ref>Gill (1957). Page 51.</ref> While RAN ships frequently served outside Australian waters, escort vessels and [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]]s were available to protect shipping in the Australia Station at all times. These escorts were supported by a small number of larger warships, such as [[cruiser]]s and [[armed merchant cruiser]]s, for protection against surface raiders.<ref>Alastair Cooper (2001). ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2001/cooper.htm Raiders and the Defence of Trade: The Royal Australian Navy in 1941]''. Paper delivered to the Australian War Memorial conference [http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2001/index.htm Remembering 1941].</ref> While important military shipping movements were escorted from the start of the war, [[convoy]]s were not instituted in Australian waters until June 1942. The Australian naval authorities did, however, close ports to shipping at various times following real or suspected sightings of enemy warships or mines prior to June 1942.
[[Image:Troop convoy (AWM 302820).jpg|thumb|A troop convoy escorted by a RAAF [[Lockheed Hudson]] aircraft]]

The [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) was also responsible for the protection of shipping within the Australia Station.<ref>Douglas Gillison (1962) [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=26 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 3 - Air. Volume I – Royal Australian Air Force, 1939–1942''.] Australian War Memorial, Canberra. Pages 93–94.</ref> Throughout the war, RAAF aircraft escorted convoys and conducted reconnaissance and anti-submarine patrols from bases around Australia. The main types of aircraft used for [[maritime patrol]] were [[Avro Anson]]s, [[Bristol Beaufort]]s, [[Consolidated PBY Catalina]]s and [[Lockheed Hudson]]s. Following the outbreak of the [[Pacific War]], RAAF fighter squadrons were also stationed to protect key Australian ports and escorted shipping in areas where air attack was feared.

The Allied naval forces assigned to the Australia Station were considerably increased following Japan's entry into the war and the beginning of the [[United States military]] build-up in Australia. These naval forces were supported by a large increase in the RAAF's [[maritime patrol]] force and the arrival of [[United States Navy]] patrol aircraft. Following the initial Japanese submarine attacks, a convoy system was instituted between Australian ports, and by the end of the war the RAAF and RAN had escorted over 1,100 convoys along the Australian coastline.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navy.gov.au/RAN_in_the_Second_World_War |title=RAN in the Second World War| first=J.H. |last=Straczek |publisher=Royal Australian Navy |accessdate=19 September 2008}}</ref> As the battlefront moved to the north and attacks in Australian waters became less frequent, the number of ships and aircraft assigned to shipping protection duties within the Australia Station was considerably reduced.<ref>George Odgers (1968) [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=27 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 3 - Air. Volume II – Air War Against Japan, 1943–1945''.] Australian War Memorial, Canberra. Page 349.</ref>
[[Image:Drummond Bty (AWM 081440).jpg|thumb|left|[[Drummond Battery]] coastal defence gun emplacement near [[Port Kembla]] in 1944]]

In addition to the air and naval forces assigned to protect shipping in Australian waters, fixed defences were constructed to protect the major Australian ports. The [[Australian Army]] was responsible for developing and manning [[Coastal defences of Australia during World War II|coastal defences]] to protect ports from attacks by enemy surface raiders. These defences commonly consisted of a number of fixed guns defended by anti-aircraft guns and infantry.<ref>Albert Palazzo (2001). ''The Australian Army : A History of its Organisation 1901–2001''. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2001. Page 136.</ref> The Army's coastal defences were considerably expanded as the threat to Australia increased between 1940 and 1942, and reached their peak strength in 1944.<ref>Palazzo (2001). Pages 155–157.</ref> The Royal Australian Navy was responsible for developing and manning harbour defences in Australia's main ports.<ref>David Stevens (2005), [http://www.navy.gov.au/Publication:Papers_in_Australian_Maritime_Affairs_No._15 RAN Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs No. 15 ''A Critical Vulnerability: The impact of the submarine threat on Australia's maritime defence 1915 - 1954'']. Seapower Centre - Australia, Canberra. Pages 95–97.</ref> These defences consisted of fixed anti-submarine booms and mines supported by small patrol craft, and were also greatly expanded as the threat to Australia increased.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 173.</ref> The RAN also laid defensive minefields in Australian waters from August 1941.<ref>Gill (1957). Page 420.</ref>

While the naval and air forces available for the protection of shipping in Australian waters were never adequate to defeat a heavy or coordinated attack, they proved sufficient to mount defensive patrols against the sporadic and generally cautious attacks mounted by the Axis navies during the war.<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 330–332.</ref>

==1939–1941==
===German surface raiders in 1940===
[[Image:Romolo (AWM 044621).jpg|thumb|The Italian liner ''Romolo'' being scuttled following her interception by {{HMAS|Manoora|1935|6}}.]]

While German [[armed merchantmen|surface raiders]] operated in the western [[Indian Ocean]] in 1939 and early 1940, they did not enter Australian waters until the second half of 1940. The first [[Axis powers|Axis]] ships in Australian waters were the unarmed [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italian]] [[ocean liner]]s ''Remo'' and ''Romolo'', which were in Australian waters when [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]] entered the war on 11 June 1940, [[Time in Australia|Eastern Australian Time]]. While ''Remo'' was docked at [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] and was easily captured, ''Romolo'' proved harder to catch, as she had left [[Brisbane]] on 5 June bound for Italy. Following an air and sea search, ''Romolo'' was intercepted by {{HMAS|Manoora|1935|6}} near [[Nauru]] on 12 June and was [[scuttling|scuttled]] by her captain to avoid capture.<ref>Gill (1957). Pages 118–124.</ref>

The German surface raider {{Ship|German auxiliary cruiser|Orion||2}} was the first Axis warship to operate in Australian waters during World War II. [[Axis naval activity in New Zealand waters|After operating off the northern tip]] of [[New Zealand]] and the South Pacific, ''Orion'' entered Australian waters in the [[Coral Sea]] in August 1940 and closed to within {{convert|120|nmi|mi km|lk=on|abbr=on}} north-east of Brisbane on 11 August.<ref>Gill (1957). Page 261.</ref> Following this, ''Orion'' headed east and operated off [[New Caledonia]] before proceeding south into the [[Tasman Sea]], sinking the merchant ship ''Notou'' south-west of [[Noumea]] on 16 August and the British merchant ship ''Turakina'' in the Tasman Sea four days later. ''Orion'' sailed south-west after sinking ''Turakina'', passing south of [[Tasmania]], and operated without success in the [[Great Australian Bight]] in early September. While ''Orion'' laid four dummy [[naval mine|mines]] off [[Albany, Western Australia]] on 2 September, she departed to the south-west after being spotted by an Australian aircraft the next day. After unsuccessfully patrolling in the [[Southern Ocean]], ''Orion'' sailed for the [[Marshall Islands]] to refuel, arriving there on 10 October.<ref>Gill (1957). Page 262.</ref>
[[File:German WWII on West Pacific Ocean map-en.svg|thumb|left|[[German attacks on Nauru|German attacks in Western Pacific]], 12/1940 - 01/1941]]

{{Ship|German auxiliary cruiser|Pinguin||2}} was the next raider to enter Australian waters. ''Pinguin'' entered the [[Indian Ocean]] from the [[South Atlantic]] in August 1940 and arrived off [[Western Australia]] in October. ''Pinguin'' captured the {{convert|8998|LT|t|lk=on|abbr=on}} Norwegian tanker ''Storstad''<ref>Warsailors.com: [http://www.warsailors.com/raidervictims/pinguin.html#storstad M/T ''Storstad'']</ref> off [[North West Cape]] on 7 October and proceeded east with the captured ship. ''Pinguin'' laid mines between [[Sydney]] and [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]] on 28 October, and ''Storstad'' laid mines off the [[Victoria (Australia)|Victorian]] coast on the nights of 29–31 October. ''Pinguin'' also laid further mines off [[Adelaide]] in early November. The two ships then sailed west for the Indian Ocean. ''Pinguin'' and ''Storstad'' were not detected during their operations off Australia's eastern and southern coasts, and succeeded in sinking three ships. Mines laid by ''Storstad'' sank two ships off [[Wilsons Promontory]] in early November, and the mines laid off Sydney by ''Pinguin'' sank one ship and a further merchant ship was damaged after striking a mine off Adelaide. ''Pinguin'' added to her tally of successes in Australian waters by sinking three merchant ships in the Indian Ocean during November.<ref>Gill (1957). Pages 270–275.</ref>

On 7 December 1940, the German raiders ''Orion'' and {{Ship|German auxiliary cruiser|Komet||2}} arrived off the Australian protectorate of [[Nauru]]. During the next 48 hours, the two ships [[German attacks on Nauru|sank four merchant ships off the undefended island]].<ref>Gill (1957). Pages 276–279.</ref> Heavily loaded with survivors from their victims, the raiders departed for [[Emirau Island]] where they unloaded their prisoners. After an unsuccessful attempt to lay mines off [[Rabaul]] on 24 December, ''Komet'' made a second attack on Nauru on 27 December and shelled the island's [[phosphate]] plant and dock facilities.<ref>Gill (1957). Page 281.</ref> This attack was the last Axis naval attack in Australian waters until November 1941.<ref name=Gill410>Gill (1957). Page 410.</ref>

===German surface raiders in 1941===
Following the raids on Nauru, ''Komet'' and ''Orion'' sailed for the Indian Ocean, passing through the Southern Ocean well to the south of Australia in February and March 1941 respectively. ''Komet'' re-entered the Australia station in April ''en route'' to New Zealand, and {{Ship|German auxiliary cruiser|Atlantis||2}} sailed east through the southern extreme of the Australia Station in August.<ref>Gill (1957). Pages 446–447.</ref> Until November, the only casualties from Axis ships on the Australia Station were caused by mines laid by ''Pinguin'' in 1940. The small trawler ''Millimumul'' was sunk with the loss of seven lives after striking a mine off the [[New South Wales]] coast on 26 March 1941, and two ratings from a [[Bomb disposal|Rendering Mines Safe]] party were killed while attempting to defuse a mine which had washed ashore in [[South Australia]] on 14 July.<ref name=Gill410/>

On 19 November 1941, the Australian [[light cruiser]] {{HMAS|Sydney|1934|6}}—which had been highly successful in the [[Battle of the Mediterranean]]— encountered the disguised German raider {{Ship|German auxiliary cruiser|Kormoran||2}}, approximately {{convert|150|mi|nmi km|abbr=on}} south west of [[Carnarvon, Western Australia]]. ''Sydney'' intercepted ''Kormoran'' and demanded that she prove her assumed identity as the Dutch freighter ''Straat Malakka''. During the interception, ''Sydney''{{'}}s captain brought his ship dangerously close to ''Kormoran''. As a result, when ''Kormoran'' was unable to prove her identity and avoid a battle she had little hope of surviving, the raider was able to use all her weaponry against ''Sydney''. [[Battle between HMAS Sydney and HSK Kormoran|In the resulting battle]], ''Kormoran'' and ''Sydney'' were both crippled, with ''Sydney'' sinking with the loss of all her 645 crew and 78 of ''Kormoran''{{'}}s crew being either killed in the battle or dying before they could be rescued by passing ships.<ref>''[http://www.awm.gov.au/Encyclopedia/hmas_sydney/action.htm The action between HMAS Sydney and the auxiliary cruiser Kormoran, 19 November 1941]'', [[Australian War Memorial]], accessed 12 June 2006</ref>

''Kormoran'' was the only Axis ship to conduct attacks in Australian waters during 1941 and the last Axis surface raider to enter Australian waters until 1943. There is no evidence to support claims that a [[Imperial Japanese Navy submarines|Japanese submarine]] participated in the sinking of HMAS ''Sydney''.<ref>Tom Frame (1993). ''HMAS Sydney. Loss and Controversy''. Hodder & Stoughton, Sydney. Page 177.</ref> The only German ship to enter the Australia Station during 1942 was the [[blockade runner]] and supply ship ''Ramses'', which was sunk by {{HMAS|Adelaide|1918|6}} and [[HNLMS Jacob van Heemskerk|HNLMS ''Jacob van Heemskerk'']] on 26 November, shortly after ''Ramses'' left [[Jakarta|Batavia]] bound for [[France]]. All of ''Ramses''{{'}} crew survived the sinking and were taken prisoner.<ref>Gill (1968). Pages 197–198.</ref>

==1942==
[[Image:SoPacStratSit.gif|thumb|The Allied shipping lines between the U.S. and Australia and New Zealand in July 1942. The Australian end of these shipping lines was targeted by Japanese submarines between May and August 1942.]]

The naval threat to Australia increased dramatically following the outbreak of [[Pacific War|war in the Pacific]]. During the first half of 1942, the Japanese mounted a sustained campaign in Australian waters, with [[Imperial Japanese Navy submarines|Japanese submarines]] attacking shipping and [[aircraft carrier]]s conducting a devastating attack on the strategic port of [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]. In response to these attacks the Allies increased the resources allocated to protecting shipping in Australian waters.<ref name=Stevens330>Stevens (2005). Page 330.</ref>

===Early Japanese submarine patrols (January – March 1942)===
The first Japanese submarines to enter Australian waters were {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-121||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-122||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-123||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-124||2}}, from the Imperial Japanese Navy's (IJN's) Submarine Squadron 6. Acting in support of the Japanese offensive in the [[Netherlands East Indies]] these boats laid minefields in the approaches to [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] and the [[Torres Strait]] between 12 and 18 January 1942. These mines did not sink or damage any Allied ships.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 183.</ref>

After completing their mine laying missions the four Japanese boats took station off Darwin to provide the Japanese fleet with warning of Allied naval movements. On 20 January 1942 the Australian [[Bathurst class corvette|''Bathurst''-class]] [[Corvette##World War II|corvette]]s {{HMAS|Deloraine||6}}, {{HMAS|Katoomba||2}} and {{HMAS|Lithgow||2}} sank ''I-124'' near Darwin. This was the only full-sized submarine sunk by the [[Royal Australian Navy]] in Australian waters during World War II.<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 183–184. The only other Axis submarines sunk in Australian waters were two of the three midget submarines which entered Sydney Harbour in May 1942.</ref> Being the first accessible ocean-going IJN submarine lost after [[Pearl Harbor]], USN divers attempted to enter ''I-124'' in order to obtain its code books, but were unsuccessful.<ref>McCarthy, M., (1990) HIJMS Submarine I 124. (1990) Report_ Department of Maritime Archaeology Western Australian Maritime Museum, No 43</ref>
[[Image:I-25.jpg|thumb|left|The Japanese submarine {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-25||2}}.]]

Following the conquest of the western Pacific the Japanese mounted a number of reconnaissance patrols into Australian waters. Three submarines ({{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-1||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-2||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-3||2}}) operated off [[Western Australia]] in March 1942, sinking the merchant ships ''Parigi'' and ''Siantar'' on 1 and 3 March respectively. In addition, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-25||2}} conducted a reconnaissance patrol down the Australian east coast in February and March. During this patrol [[Nobuo Fujita]] from the ''I-25'' flew a [[Yokosuka E14Y]]1 [[floatplane]] over [[Sydney]] (17 February), [[Melbourne]] (26 February) and [[Hobart]] (1 March).<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 185–186.</ref> Following these reconnaissances, ''I-25'' sailed for New Zealand and conducted overflights of [[Wellington]] and [[Auckland]] on 8 March and 13 March respectively.<ref>Sydney David Waters (1956), [http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Navy.html ''The Royal New Zealand Navy'']. Historical Publications Branch, Wellington. Pages 214–215.</ref>

===Japanese naval aviation attacks (February 1942 – November 1943)===
[[Image:Darwin Harbour (AWM 027334).jpg|thumb|A sunken ship and burnt-out wharf in Darwin Harbour following the first Japanese air raid.]]
{{Details|Air raids on Australia, 1942–43}}

[[Air raids on Darwin, 19 February 1942|The bombing of Darwin]] on 19 February 1942, was the heaviest single attack mounted by the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] against mainland Australia. On 19 February, four Japanese aircraft carriers ({{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Akagi||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Kaga||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Hiryū||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Sōryū||2}}) launched a total of 188 aircraft from a position in the [[Timor Sea]]. The four carriers were escorted by four cruisers and nine destroyers.<ref>Tom Lewis (2003). ''A War at Home. A Comprehensive guide to the first Japanese attacks on Darwin''. Tall Stories, Darwin. Page 16.</ref> These 188 naval aircraft inflicted heavy damage on Darwin and sank nine ships. A raid conducted by 54 land-based bombers later the same day resulted in further damage to the town and [[RAAF Base Darwin]] and the destruction of 20 Allied military aircraft. Allied casualties were 251 killed and between 300 and 400 wounded, the majority of whom were non-Australian Allied sailors. Only four Japanese aircraft were confirmed to have been destroyed by Darwin's defenders.<ref>David Jenkins (1992), ''Battle Surface! Japan's Submarine War Against Australia 1942–44''. Random House Australia, Sydney. Pages 118–120 and Lewis (2003). Pages 63–71.</ref>

The bombing of Darwin was the first of many [[Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service|Japanese naval aviation]] attacks against targets in Australia. The carriers {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Shōhō||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Shōkaku||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Zuikaku||2}}—which escorted the invasion force dispatched against [[Port Moresby]] in May 1942—had the secondary role of attacking Allied bases in northern Queensland once Port Moresby was secured.<ref>[[Samuel Eliot Morison]] (1949 (2001 reprint)). ''Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions, May 1942–August 1942'', Volume 4 of [[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]]. University of Illinois Press, Champaign. Pages 12–13.</ref> These attacks did not occur, however, as the landings at Port Moresby were cancelled when the Japanese carrier force was mauled in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]].

Japanese aircraft made almost 100 raids, most of them small, against [[northern Australia]] during 1942 and 1943. Land-based IJN aircraft took part in many of the 63 raids on Darwin which took place after the initial attack. The town of [[Broome, Western Australia]] [[Attack on Broome|experienced a devastating attack]] by IJN fighter planes on 3 March 1942, in which at least 88 people were killed. Long-range [[seaplanes]] operating from bases in the [[Solomon Islands]] made a number of small attacks on towns in [[Queensland]].<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 261–262.</ref>

Japanese naval aircraft operating from land bases also harassed coastal shipping in Australia's northern waters during 1942 and 1943. On 15 December 1942, four sailors were killed when the merchant ship ''Period'' was attacked off [[Cape Wessel]]. The small general purpose vessel {{HMAS|Patricia Cam||6}} was sunk by a Japanese floatplane near the [[Wessel Islands]] on 22 January 1943 with the loss of nine sailors and civilians. Another civilian sailor was killed when the merchant ship ''Islander'' was attacked by a floatplane during May 1943.<ref>Gill (1968). Pages 264–266.</ref>

===Attacks on Sydney and Newcastle (May – June 1942)===
[[Image:Kuttabul (AWM 042975).jpg|thumb|HMAS ''Kuttabul'' following the attack on Sydney.]]
{{details|Attack on Sydney Harbour}}

In March 1942, the Japanese military adopted a strategy of isolating Australia from the [[United States]] by capturing [[Port Moresby]] in New Guinea, the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Fiji]], [[Samoa]] and [[New Caledonia]].<ref>David Horner (1993). 'Defending Australia in 1942' in ''War and Society'', Volume 11, Number 1, May 1993. Pages 4–5.</ref> This plan was frustrated by the Japanese defeat in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] and was postponed indefinitely after the [[Battle of Midway]].<ref>Horner (1993). Page 10.</ref> Following the defeat of the Japanese surface fleet, the IJN submarines were deployed to disrupt Allied supply lines by attacking shipping off the Australian east coast.

On 27 April 1942, the submarines {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-21||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-29||2}} left the major Japanese naval base at [[Chuuk|Truk Lagoon]] in the Japanese territory of the [[Caroline Islands]] to conduct reconnaissance patrols of Allied ports in the [[Oceania|South Pacific]]. The goal of these patrols was to find a suitable target for the force of [[midget submarine]]s, designated the Eastern Detachment of the Second Special Attack Flotilla, which was available in the Pacific.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Page 163.</ref> ''I-29'' entered Australian waters in May and made an unsuccessful attack on the neutral [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] freighter ''Wellen'' off [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]] on 16 May. ''I-29''{{'}}s floatplane overflew Sydney on 23 May 1942, finding a large number of major Allied warships in [[Sydney Harbour]].<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 191–192.</ref> ''I-21'' reconnoitred [[Suva]], [[Fiji]] and [[Auckland]], New Zealand in late May but did not find worthwhile concentrations of shipping in either port.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Page 165.</ref>

On 18 May, the Eastern Detachment of the Second Special Attack Flotilla left Truk Lagoon under the command of [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] Hankyu Sasaki. Sasaki's force comprised {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-22||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-24||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-27||2}}. Each submarine was carrying a midget submarine.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 163–164.</ref> After the intelligence gathered by ''I-21'' and ''I-29'' was assessed, the three submarines were ordered on 24 May to attack Sydney.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Page 171.</ref> The three submarines of the Eastern Detachment rendezvoused with ''I-21'' and ''I-29'' {{convert|35|mi|nmi km|abbr=on}} off Sydney on 29 May.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 174–175.</ref> In the early hours of 30 May, ''I-21''{{'}}s floatplane conducted a reconnaissance flight over Sydney Harbour that confirmed the concentration of Allied shipping sighted by ''I-29''{{'}}s floatplane was still present and was a worthwhile target for a midget submarine raid.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 185–193.</ref>
[[Image:Ko-hyoteki Sydney.jpg|thumb|left|A Japanese midget submarine being raised from Sydney Harbour]]

On the night of 31 May, three midget submarines were launched from the Japanese force outside the [[Sydney Heads]]. Although two of the submarines (Midget No. 22 and Midget A, also known as Midget 24) successfully penetrated the incomplete [[Sydney Harbour defences]], only Midget A actually attacked Allied shipping in the harbour, firing two torpedoes at the Aermican [[heavy cruiser]] {{USS|Chicago|CA-29|6}}. These torpedoes missed ''Chicago'' but sank the [[depot ship]] {{HMAS|Kuttabul|ship|6}}, killing 21 seamen on board, and seriously damaged the Dutch submarine {{Ship|Netherlands submarine|K-IX||2}}. All of the Japanese midget submarines were lost during this operation (Midget No. 22 and Midget No. 27 were destroyed by the Australian defenders and Midget A was scuttled by her crew after leaving the Harbour).<ref>Robert Nichols 'The Night the War Came to Sydney' in [http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/index.asp ''Wartime''] Issue 33, 2006. Pages 26–29</ref>

Following this raid, the Japanese submarine force operated off Sydney and Newcastle, sinking the coaster ''Iron Chieftain'' off Sydney on 3 June. On the night of 8 June, ''I-24'' conducted a bombardment of the eastern suburbs of Sydney and ''I-21'' [[Shelling of Newcastle|bombarded Newcastle]]. [[Fort Scratchley]] at Newcastle returned fire, but did not hit ''I-21''. While these bombardments did not cause any casualties or serious damage, the bombardments generated concern over further attacks against the east coast.<ref name=Stevens195>Stevens (2005). Page 195.</ref> Following the attacks on shipping in the Sydney region, the Royal Australian Navy instituted convoys between Brisbane and Adelaide. All ships of over {{convert|1200|LT|t|abbr=on}} and with speeds of less than {{convert|12|kn|mph km/h|lk=on|abbr=on}} were required to sail in convoy when travelling between cities on the east coast.<ref name=Stevens195/> The Japanese submarine force left Australian waters in late June 1942 having sunk a further two merchant ships.<ref>G. Herman Gill (1968). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=25 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 2 – Navy. Volume II – Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945'']. [[Australian War Memorial]], Canberra. Pages 77–78.</ref> The small number of sinkings achieved by the five Japanese submarines sent against the Australian east coast in May and June did not justify the commitment of so many submarines.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Page 291.</ref>

===Further Japanese submarine patrols (July – August 1942)===
[[Image:Allara (AWM 150424).jpg|thumb|Damage to the merchant ship SS ''Allara'' after she was torpedoed off Newcastle in July 1942.]]

The Australian authorities enjoyed only a brief break in the submarine threat. In July 1942, a division of three submarines ({{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-11||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-174||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-175||2}}) from Japanese Submarine Squadron 3 commenced operations off the East Coast. These three submarines sank five ships (including a small fishing trawler) and damaged several others during July and August. In addition, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-32||2}} conducted a patrol off the southern coast of Australia while ''en route'' from [[New Caledonia]] to [[Penang]], though the submarine was not successful in sinking any ships in this area. Following the withdrawal of this force in August, no further submarine attacks were mounted against Australia until January 1943.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 201.</ref>

While Japanese submarines sank 17 ships in Australian waters in 1942 (14 of which were near the Australian coast) the submarine offensive did not have a serious impact on the Allied war effort in the [[South West Pacific Area|South West Pacific]] or the Australian economy. Nevertheless, by forcing ships sailing along the east coast to travel in convoy the Japanese submarines were successful in reducing the efficiency of Australian coastal shipping. This lower efficiency translated into between 7.5% and 22% less tonnage being transported between Australian ports each month (no accurate figures are available and the estimated figure varied between months).<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 206–207.</ref> These convoys were effective, however, with no ship travelling as part of a convoy being sunk in Australian waters during 1942.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 205.</ref>

==1943==
[[Image:Starr King (AWM 128144).jpg|thumb|The [[United States of America|U.S.]]-registered [[liberty ship]] ''Starr King'' sinking after being attacked near [[Port Macquarie, New South Wales|Port Macquarie]] on 10 February 1943.]]

Japanese submarines returned to Australian waters in January 1943 and conducted a campaign against Australian shipping during the first half of the year. The IJN also conducted a diversionary bombardment of Port Gregory, a small [[West Australia]]n town.

===East coast submarine patrols (January-June 1943)===
Japanese submarine operations against Australia in 1943 began when {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-10||2}} and ''I-21'' sailed from Rabaul on 7 January to reconnoitre Allied forces around Nouméa and Sydney respectively. ''I-21'' arrived off the coast of New South Wales just over a week later. ''I-21'' operated off the east coast until late February and sank six ships during this period, making it the most successful submarine patrol conducted in Australian waters during the Second World War.<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 218–220.</ref> In addition to these sinkings, ''I-21''{{'}}s floatplane conducted a successful reconnaissance of Sydney Harbour on 19 February 1943.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 268–272.</ref>

In March, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-6||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-26||2}} entered Australian waters. While ''I-6'' laid nine German-supplied acoustic mines in the approaches to Brisbane this minefield was discovered by {{HMAS|Swan|U-74|6}} and neutralised before any ships were sunk.<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 223–224.</ref> Although ''I-6'' returned to Rabaul after laying her mines, the Japanese submarine force in Australian waters was expanded in April when the four submarines of Submarine Squadron 3 (''I-11'', {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-177||2}}, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-178||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-180||2}}) arrived off the east coast and joined ''I-26''. This force had the goal of attacking reinforcement and supply convoys travelling between Australia and New Guinea.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 272–273.</ref>

As the Japanese force was too small to cut off all traffic between Australia and New Guinea, the Squadron commander widely dispersed his submarines between the Torres Strait and Wilson's Promontory with the goal of tying down as many Allied ships and aircraft as possible. This offensive continued until June and the five Japanese submarines sank nine ships and damaged several others.<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 230–231.</ref> In contrast to 1942, five of the ships sunk off the Australian east coast were travelling in escorted convoys at the time they were attacked. The convoy escorts were not successful in detecting any submarines before they launched their attacks or counter-attacking these submarines.<ref>Gill (1968). Pages 253–262.</ref> The last attack by a Japanese submarine off the east coast of Australia was made by [[Japanese submarine I-174|''I-174'']] on 16 June 1943 when she sank the merchant ship ''Portmar'' and damaged U.S. [[Landing Ship Tank]] ''LST 469'' as they were travelling in [[Convoy GP55]] off the New South Wales north coast.<ref>Gill (1968). Pages 261–262.</ref>
[[Image:Centaur (AWM 043235).jpg|thumb|left|[[AHS Centaur|AHS ''Centaur'']].]]

The single greatest loss of life resulting from a submarine attack in Australian waters occurred in the early hours of 14 May 1943 when {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-177||2}} torpedoed and sank the Australian [[hospital ship]] [[AHS Centaur|''Centaur'']] off [[Point Lookout, Queensland]]. After being hit by a single torpedo, ''Centaur'' sank in less than three minutes with the loss of 268 lives. While hospital ships—such as ''Centaur''—were legally protected against attack under the terms of the [[Geneva Conventions]], it is unclear whether [[Commander]] Hajime Nakagawa of ''I-177'' was aware that ''Centaur'' was a hospital ship. While she was clearly marked with a [[Emblems of the Red Cross|red cross]] and was fully illuminated, the light conditions at the time may have resulted in Nakagawa not being aware of '' Centaur''{{'}}s status, making her sinking a tragic accident. However, as Nakagawa had a poor record as a submarine captain and was later convicted of machine gunning the survivors of a British merchant ship in the Indian Ocean, it is probable that the sinking of ''Centaur'' was due to either Nakagawa's incompetence or indifference to the laws of warfare.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 277–285.</ref> The attack on ''Centaur'' sparked widespread public outrage in Australia.<ref>Tom Frame (2004), ''No Pleasure Cruise: The Story of the Royal Australian Navy''. Allen & Unwin, Sydney. Pages 186–187.</ref>

The Japanese submarine offensive against Australia was broken off in July 1943 when the submarines were redeployed to counter Allied offensives [[Pacific Theater of Operations|elsewhere in the Pacific]]. The last two Japanese submarines to be dispatched against the Australian east coast, ''I-177'' and ''I-180'', were redirected to the central Solomon Islands shortly before they would have arrived off Australia in July.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 246.</ref> The Australian Naval authorities were concerned about a resumption of attacks, however, and maintained the coastal convoy system until late 1943 when it was clear that the threat had passed. Coastal convoys in waters south of Newcastle ceased on 7 December and convoys off the north-east coast and between Australia and New Guinea were abolished in February and March 1944 respectively.<ref>Stevens (2005). Pages 246–248.</ref>

===Bombardment of Port Gregory (January 1943)===
In contrast to the large number of submarines which operated off the east coast, only a single Japanese submarine was dispatched against the Australian west coast. On 21 January 1943, {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-165||2}} left her base at [[Surabaya]], [[East Java]], destined for [[Western Australia]]. The submarine—under [[Lieutenant Commander|Lt. Cdr.]] Kennosuke Torisu—was tasked with creating a diversion to assist [[Operation Ke|the evacuation of Japanese forces]] from [[Guadalcanal]] following their defeat there. Another submarine—{{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-166||2}}—had undertaken a diversionary bombardment of the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] on 25 December 1942.<ref>David Stevens, 'Forgotten assault' in [http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/index.asp ''Wartime''] Issue 18, 2002.</ref> It appears that Torisu's original objective was to bombard the port of [[Geraldton, Western Australia]].

After a six-day voyage southward, ''I-165'' reached Geraldton on 27 January. However, Torisu believed that he had sighted lights of aircraft or a [[destroyer]] near the town and broke off his attack. ''I-165'' instead headed north for [[Port Gregory, Western Australia|Port Gregory]] a former whaling, lead and salt port. At around midnight on 28 January, the submarine's crew fired 10 rounds from her {{convert|100|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} [[deck gun]] at the town. The shells appear to have completely missed Port Gregory and did not result in any damage or casualties for the town was not occupied and the raid initially went unnoticed.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 266–267.</ref> While gunfire was sighted by nearby [[coastwatchers]], Allied naval authorities only learned of the attack when Lt. Cdr. Torisu's battle report radio signal was intercepted and decoded a week later. As a result, the attack was not successful in diverting attention away from Guadalcanal.<ref>Stevens (2002)</ref>

''I-165'' returned twice to Australian waters. In September 1943, she made an uneventful reconnaissance of the north west coast. ''I-165'' conducted another reconnaissance patrol off north western Australian between 31 May and 5 July 1944. This was the last time a Japanese submarine entered Australian waters.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Page 286.</ref>

===German raider ''Michel'' (June 1943)===
[[Image:Ferncastle (303286).jpg|thumb|Norwegian tanker ''Ferncastle'' docked at Fremantle]]

{{Ship|German auxiliary cruiser|Michel||2}} was the final German surface raider to enter Australian waters. ''Michel'' departed from [[Yokohama, Japan]] on her second raiding cruise on 21 May 1943 and entered the Indian Ocean in June. On 14 June she sank the {{convert|7715|LT|t|abbr=on}} Norwegian tanker ''Høegh Silverdawn''<ref>Warsailors.com: [http://www.warsailors.com/raidervictims/michel2.html M/T ''Høegh Silverdawn'']</ref> about {{convert|1800|mi|nmi km}} north-west of Fremantle. ''Michel'' followed up this success two days later by sinking a second Norwegian tanker, the {{convert|9940|LT|t|abbr=on}} ''Ferncastle'',<ref>Warsailors.com: [http://www.warsailors.com/singleships/ferncastle.html M/T ''Ferncastle'']</ref> in the same area. Both tankers were sailing from Western Australia to the [[Middle East]] and 47 Allied sailors and passengers were killed as a result of the attacks. Following these sinkings ''Michel'' sailed well to the south of Australia and New Zealand and operated in the eastern Pacific. On 3 September, she sank the {{convert|9977|LT|t|abbr=on}} Norwegian tanker ''India''<ref>Warsailors.com: [http://www.warsailors.com/raidervictims/michel2.html#india M/T ''India]</ref> west of [[Easter Island]] while the tanker was sailing from [[Peru]] to Australia.<ref>Gill (1968). Page 297 and Bismarck-class.dk [http://www.bismarck-class.dk/hilfskreuzer/michel.html Hilfskreuzer (Auxiliary Cruiser) Michel]. Accessed 3 June 2007.</ref>

==1944–1945==
The Axis naval threat to Australia declined in line with the Allied successes in the Pacific Theatre in 1944, and only three ships were sunk by Axis naval vessels on the Australia Station during 1944 and 1945. While the Japanese conducted their only landing on the Australian mainland during 1944, this was a small reconnaissance operation. As the threat from Axis attacks declined the Allies further reduced the forces assigned to protecting shipping in Australian waters. These forces were not completely disbanded until the end of the war, however.

===The Japanese landing in Australia (January 1944)===
While the Japanese government never adopted [[Proposed Japanese invasion of Australia during World War II|proposals to invade Australia]],<ref>Dr. Peter Stanley (2002). ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2002/stanley_paper.pdf He's (Not) Coming South: The Invasion That Wasn't]''</ref> a single reconnaissance landing was made on the Australian mainland. Between 17 and 20 January 1944, members of a Japanese intelligence unit named ''Matsu Kikan'' ("Pine Tree") made a reconnaissance mission to a sparsely populated part of the [[Kimberley region of Western Australia]].<ref name="Dunn_japsland">Peter Dunn [http://home.st.net.au/~dunn/japsland/land09.htm Japanese Army reconnaissance party landed in Western Australia near Cartier and Brows Islands]. Accessed 29 June 2006.</ref> The unit, operating from [[Kupang]], [[West Timor]], used a converted {{convert|25|LT|t|abbr=on}} civilian vessel called ''Hiyoshi Maru'' and posed as a fishing crew. The mission was led by Lt. Susuhiko Mizuno of the [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]] and included another three Japanese army personnel, six Japanese naval personnel and 15 West Timorese sailors. Their orders, from the [[Japanese 19th Army]] headquarters at [[Ambon, Maluku|Ambon]], were to verify reports that the U.S. Navy was building a base in the area. In addition, the ''Matsu Kikan'' personnel were ordered to collect information which would assist any [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] attacks against the Australian mainland.<ref name=Frei173>Henry P. Frei (1991), ''Japan's Southward Advance and Australia. From the Sixteenth Century to World War II''. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Page 173.</ref>

''Hiyoshi Maru'' left Kupang on 16 January and was given air cover for the outward leg by an [[Aichi D3A]]2 "Val" [[dive bomber]] which reportedly attacked an Allied submarine ''en route''. On 17 January, ''Hiyoshi Maru'' visited the [[Ashmore Reef]] area. The following day the crew landed on the tiny and uninhabited [[Browse Island]], about {{convert|100|mi|nmi km|abbr=on}} north west of the mainland. On the morning of 19 January, ''Hiyoshi Maru'' entered [[York Sound]] on the mainland. Although the crew saw smoke emanating from hills to the east of their location, they anchored the ship and camouflaged it with tree branches. Local historians state that ''Matsu Kikan'' landing parties went ashore near the [[Roe River (Western Australia)|Roe]] and [[Moran River]]s.<ref>[http://kimberleysociety.org/past95.html Daphne Choules Edinger, 1995, "Exploring the Kimberley Coast" and; Cathie Clement, 1995, "World War II and the Kimberley"] (The Kimberley Society)</ref> They reportedly explored the area for about two hours, and some members of the mission filmed the area using an [[8 mm film|8 mm camera]]. The ''Matsu Kikan'' personnel spent the night on the boat and reconnoitred the shore area again the following day, before returning to Kupang. The Japanese did not sight any people or signs of recent human activity and little of military significance was learnt from the mission.<ref name=Frei173/>

===Japanese operations in the Indian Ocean (March 1944)===
[[Image:HIJMS Chikuma.jpg|thumb|The Japanese heavy cruiser {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Chikuma|1938|2}}.]]

In February 1944, the [[Japanese Combined Fleet]] withdrew from its base at [[Chuuk|Truk]] and was divided between [[Palau]] and [[Singapore]]. The appearance of a powerful Japanese squadron at Singapore concerned the Allies, as it was feared that this force could potentially conduct raids in the [[Indian Ocean]] and against [[Western Australia]].<ref>Odgers (1968). Pages 134–135.</ref>

On 1 March, a Japanese squadron consisting of the heavy cruisers {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Aoba||2}} ([[flagship]]), {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Tone|1937|2}} and {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Chikuma|1938|2}}—under [[Vice admiral|Vice Admiral]] [[Naomasa Sakonju]]—sortied from [[Sunda Strait]] to [[Japanese Indian Ocean raid (1944)|attack Allied shipping]] sailing on the main route between [[Aden]] and [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]]. The only Allied ship this squadron encountered was the British steamer ''Behar'', which was sunk midway between [[Ceylon]] and Fremantle on 9 March. Following this attack the squadron broke off its mission and returned to [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] as it was feared that Allied ships responding to ''Behar's'' distress signal posed an unacceptable risk. While 102 survivors from ''Behar'' were rescued by ''Tone'', 82 of these prisoners were murdered after the cruiser arrived in Batavia on 16 March. Following the war Vice Adm. Sakonju was executed for [[war crime]]s which included the killing of these prisoners, while the former commander of ''Tone'', [[Captain (naval)|Capt.]] Haruo Mayazumi, was sentenced to seven years imprisonment.<ref>Children & Families of Far East Prisoners of War. [http://www.cofepow.org.uk/pages/ships_behar.htm The ''Behar'']. Accessed 16 September 2006.</ref> The sortie mounted by ''Aoba'', ''Tone'' and ''Chikuma'' was the last raid mounted by Axis surface ships against the Allied lines of communication in the Indian Ocean, or elsewhere, during World War II.<ref>Gill (1968). Page 390</ref>

While the Japanese raid into the Indian Ocean was not successful, associated Japanese shipping movements [[Western Australian emergency of March 1944|provoked a major Allied response]]. In early March 1944, Allied intelligence reported that two [[battleship]]s escorted by destroyers had left Singapore in the direction of [[Surabaya]] and a U.S. submarine made radar contact with two large Japanese ships in the [[Lombok Strait]]. The Australian Chiefs of Staff Committee reported to the Government on 8 March that there was a possibility that these ships could have entered the Indian Ocean to attack Fremantle. In response to this report, all ground and naval defences at Fremantle were fully manned, all shipping was ordered to leave Fremantle and several RAAF squadrons were redeployed to bases in [[Western Australia]].<ref>Odgers (1968). Pages 136–139.</ref>

This alert proved to be a false alarm, however. The Japanese ships detected in the [[Lombok Strait]] were actually the light cruisers {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Kinu||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese cruiser|Oi||2}} which were covering the return of the surface raiding force from the central Indian Ocean. The alert was lifted at Fremantle on 13 March and the RAAF squadrons began returning to their bases in eastern and northern Australia on 20 March.<ref>Gill (1968). Pages 390–391.</ref>

===The German submarine offensive (September 1944 – January 1945)===
On 14 September 1944, the commander of the ''Kriegsmarine''—[[Grand Admiral|''Großadmiral'']] (Grand Admiral) [[Karl Dönitz]]—approved a proposal to send two [[German Type IX submarine|Type IXD]] [[U-boat|U-Boats]] into Australian waters with the objective of tying down Allied anti-submarine assets in a secondary theatre. The U-Boats involved was drawn from the ''[[Monsun Gruppe]]'' ("Monsoon Group"), and the two selected for this operation were {{GS|U-168|2}} and {{GS|U-862||''U-862''}}.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 262.</ref> An additional submarine—{{GS|U-537||2}}—was added to this force at the end of September.<ref>David Stevens (1997), ''U-Boat Far from Home''. Allen & Unwin, Sydney. Page 119.</ref>
[[Image:U-505chicago.jpg|thumb|left|A Type IX submarine similar to the submarines dispatched to operate against Australia]]

Due to the difficulty of maintaining German submarines in Japanese bases, the German force was not ready to depart from its bases in [[Penang]] and [[Jakarta|Batavia]] (Jakarta) until early October. By this time, the Allies had intercepted and decoded German and Japanese messages describing the operation and were able to vector Allied submarines onto the German boats. The [[HNLMS Zwaardvisch (P322)|Dutch submarine ''Zwaardvisch'']] sank ''U-168'' on 6 October near [[Surabaya]]<ref>Paul Kemp (1997), ''U-Boats Destroyed. German Submarine Losses in the World Wars''. Arms and Armour, London. Page 221.</ref> and the American submarine {{USS|Flounder|SS-251|6}} sank ''U-537'' on 10 November near the northern end of the Lombok Strait.<ref>Kemp (1997). Page 224.</ref> Due to the priority accorded to the Australian operation, {{GS|U-196||2}} was ordered to replace ''U-168''.<ref>Stevens (1997). Page 124.</ref> However, ''U-196'' disappeared in the [[Sunda Strait]] some time after departing from Penang on 30 November. The cause of ''U-196''{{'}}s loss is unknown, though it was probably due to an accident or mechanical fault.<ref>Kemp (1997). Page 225. Kemp suggests that ''U-196'' may have been lost in a diving accident or due to a fault in the boat's locally constructed [[Submarine snorkel|snorkel]].</ref>

The only surviving submarine of the force assigned to attack Australia—{{GS|U-862||2}}, under ''[[Korvettenkapitän]]'' [[Heinrich Timm]]—departed Batavia on 18 November 1944, and arrived off the south west tip of [[Western Australia]] on 26 November. The submarine had great difficulty finding targets as the Australian naval authorities, warned of ''U-862''{{'}}s approach, had directed shipping away from the routes normally used. ''U-862'' unsuccessfully attacked the Greek freighter ''Ilissos'' off the South Australian coast on 9 December, with bad weather spoiling both the attack and subsequent Australian efforts to locate the submarine.<ref>Stevens (1997). Pages 147–151.</ref>

Following her attack on ''Ilissos'', ''U-862'' continued east along the Australian coastline, becoming the only German submarine to operate in the Pacific Ocean during the Second World War.<ref>Uboat.net [http://www.uboat.net/ops/monsun3.htm ''The Monsun boats'']. Accessed 5 August 2006.</ref> After entering the Pacific ''U-862'' scored her first success on this patrol when she attacked the U.S.-registered [[liberty ship]] ''Robert J. Walker'' off the south coast of [[New South Wales]] on 24 December 1944. The ship sank the following day. Following this attack, ''U-862'' evaded an intensive search by Australian aircraft and warships and departed for [[New Zealand]].<ref>Stevens (1997). Pages 159–173.</ref>

As ''U-862'' did not find any worthwhile targets off New Zealand, the submarine's commander planned to return to Australian waters in January 1945 and operate to the north of Sydney. ''U-862'' was ordered to break off her mission in mid-January, however, and return to [[Jakarta]].<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 278.</ref> On her return voyage, the submarine sank another U.S. liberty ship—''Peter Silvester''—approximately {{convert|820|nmi|mi km|abbr=on}} southwest of Fremantle on 6 February 1945. ''Peter Silvester'' was the last Allied ship to be sunk by the Axis in the [[Indian Ocean]] during the war.<ref>Gill (1968). Page 557.</ref> ''U-862'' arrived in [[Jakarta]] in mid February 1945 and is the only Axis ship known to have operated in Australian waters during 1945. Following [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany's surrender]], ''U-862'' became the Japanese submarine {{Ship|Japanese submarine|I-502||2}} but was not used operationally.<ref>Stevens (1997). Page 222.</ref>

While Allied naval authorities were aware of the approach of the German strike force and were successful in sinking two of the four submarines dispatched, efforts to locate and sink ''U-862'' once she reached Australian waters were continually hampered by a lack of suitable ships and aircraft and a lack of personnel trained and experienced in anti-submarine warfare.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 258.</ref> As the southern coast of Australia was thousands of kilometres behind the active combat front in South-East Asia and had not been raided for several years, it should not be considered surprising that few anti-submarine assets were available in this area in late 1944 and early 1945.<ref>Stevens (1997). Pages 164–165.</ref>

==Conclusions==
[[Image:Ringed with menace (AWM ARTV09061).jpg|thumb|An Australian propaganda poster from 1942. The caption and design deliberately exaggerate the threat Japanese submarines posed to Australia.<ref>Caption to the copy of this poster on display in the Second World War gallery of the [[Australian War Memorial]]</ref>]]

===Casualties===
A total of six German surface raiders, four Japanese aircraft carriers, seven Japanese cruisers, nine Japanese destroyers and twenty eight Japanese and German submarines operated in Australian waters between 1940 and 1945. These 54 warships sank [[List of ships sunk by Axis warships in Australian waters|53 merchant ships and three warships within the Australia Station]], resulting in the deaths of over 1,751 Allied military personnel, sailors and civilians. Over 88 people were also killed by IJN air attacks on towns in northern Australia. In exchange, the Allies sank one German surface raider, one full-sized Japanese submarine and two midget submarines within Australian waters, resulting in the deaths of 157 Axis sailors. A further two German submarines were sunk while en-route to Australian waters with the loss of 81 sailors.<ref>Uboat.net [http://uboat.net/boats/u168.htm U-168] and [http://uboat.net/boats/u537.htm U-537]. Accessed 7 October 2006.</ref>
*The six German and three Japanese surface raiders that operated within Australian waters sank 18 ships and killed over 826 sailors (including the 82 prisoners murdered on board ''Tone'' in 1944). ''Kormoran'' was the only Axis surface ship to be sunk within the Australia Station, and 78 of her crew were killed.<ref>Figures compiled from Gill (1957).</ref>
*The 17 ships in the Japanese carrier force that raided Darwin in 1942 sank nine ships and killed 251 people for the loss of four aircraft.<ref>Lewis (2003).</ref> A further 14 sailors and civilians were killed in the sinking of HMAS ''Patricia Cam'' and the attacks on ''Period'' and ''Islander'' in 1943 and 88 people were killed during the raid on Broome in 1942.
*The 28 Japanese and German submarines that operated in Australian waters between 1942 and 1945 sank a total of 30 ships with a combined tonnage of {{convert|151000|LT|t|abbr=on}}; 654 people, including 200 Australian merchant seamen, were killed onboard the ships attacked by submarines.<ref>Jenkins (1992). Pages 286–287.</ref> It has also been estimated that the RAAF lost at least 23 aircraft and 104 airmen to flying accidents during anti-submarine patrols off the Australian coast.<ref>David Joseph Wilson (2003) [http://www.library.unsw.edu.au/~thesis/adt-ADFA/public/adt-ADFA20031029.102545/index.html ''The Eagle and the Albatross : Australian Aerial Maritime Operations 1921–1971'']. PhD thesis. Page 120.</ref> In exchange, the Allies sank only a single full-sized Japanese submarine in Australian waters (''I-124'') and two of the three midgets that entered Sydney Harbour. A total of 79 Japanese sailors died in these sinkings, and a further two sailors died onboard the third midget, which was scuttled after leaving Sydney Harbour.<ref>Figures compiled from Jenkins (1992).</ref>

===Assessment===
While the scale of the Axis naval offensive directed against Australia was small compared to other naval campaigns of the war such as the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939-1945)|Battle of the Atlantic]], they were still "the most comprehensive and widespread series of offensive operations ever conducted by an enemy against Australia".<ref>David Stevens. ''[http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/AJRP2.nsf/437f72f8ac2c07238525661a00063aa6/225b90b97196e29bca256a1d00130203?OpenDocument Japanese submarine operations against Australia 1942–1944]''. Accessed 1 September 2006.</ref> Due to the limited size of the Australian shipping industry and the importance of sea transport to the Australian economy and Allied military in the South West Pacific, even modest shipping losses had the potential to seriously damage the Allied war effort in the [[South West Pacific theatre of World War II|South West Pacific]].<ref name=Stevens330/>

Despite the vulnerability of the Australian shipping industry, the Axis attacks did not seriously affect the Australian or Allied war effort. While the German surface raiders which operated against Australia caused considerable disruption to merchant shipping and tied down Allied naval vessels, they did not sink many ships and only operated in Australian waters for a few short periods.<ref>Alastair Cooper (2001).</ref> The effectiveness of the Japanese submarine campaign against Australia was limited by the inadequate numbers of submarines committed and flaws in Japan's submarine doctrine. The submarines were, however, successful in forcing the Allies to devote considerable resources to protecting shipping in Australian waters between 1942 and late 1943.<ref>Stevens. ''[http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/AJRP2.nsf/437f72f8ac2c07238525661a00063aa6/225b90b97196e29bca256a1d00130203?OpenDocument Japanese submarine operations against Australia 1942–1944]''. Accessed 1 September 2006.</ref> The institution of coastal convoys between 1942 and 1943 may have also significantly reduced the efficiency of the Australian shipping industry during this period.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 334.</ref>

The performance of the Australian and Allied forces committed to the defence of shipping on the Australia station was mixed. While the threat to Australia from Axis raiders was "anticipated and addressed",<ref>Seapower Centre - Australia (2005). [http://www.navy.gov.au/Publication:Navy_Contribution_to_Australian_Maritime_Operations ''The Navy Contribution to Australian Maritime Operations'']. Defence Publishing Service, Canberra. Page 179.</ref> only a small proportion of the Axis ships and submarines which attacked Australia were successfully located or engaged. Several German raiders operated undetected within Australian waters in 1940 as the number of Allied warships and aircraft available were not sufficient to patrol these waters<ref>Gavin Long (1973), ''The Six Years War. A Concise History of Australia in the 1939–45 War''. Australian War Memorial and Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Page 33.</ref> and the loss of HMAS ''Sydney'' was a high price to pay for sinking ''Kormoran'' in 1941. While the Australian authorities were quick to implement convoys in 1942 and no convoyed ship was sunk during that year, the escorts of the convoys that were attacked in 1943 were not successful in either detecting any submarines before they launched their attack or successfully counter-attacking these submarines.<ref>Stevens (2005). Page 331.</ref> Factors explaining the relatively poor performance of Australian anti-submarine forces include their typically low levels of experience and training, shortages of [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] assets, problems with co-ordinating searches and the poor [[sonar]] conditions in the waters surrounding Australia.<ref name= Stevens281>Stevens (2005). Page 281.</ref> Nevertheless, "success in anti-submarine warfare cannot be measured simply by the total of sinkings achieved" and the Australian defenders may have successfully reduced the threat to shipping in Australian waters by making it harder for Japanese submarines to carry out attacks.<ref name=Stevens281/><ref>Odgers (1968). Page 153.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Military of Australia}}
*[[Axis naval activity in New Zealand waters]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
===Books and printed material===
*[[Australia in the War of 1939–1945]]
**G. Herman Gill (1957), [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=24 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 2 – Navy. Volume I 1939–1942'']. [[Australian War Memorial]], Canberra.
**G. Herman Gill (1968), [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=25 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 2 – Navy. Volume II – Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945'']. [[Australian War Memorial]], Canberra.
**Douglas Gillison (1962), [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=26 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 3 - Air. Volume I – Royal Australian Air Force, 1939–1942''.] Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
**George Odgers (1968), [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/chapter.asp?volume=27 ''Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Series 3 - Air. Volume II – Air War Against Japan, 1943–1945''.] Australian War Memorial, Canberra.
**Gavin Long (1973), ''The Six Years War. A Concise History of Australia in the 1939–45 War''. Australian War Memorial and Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. ISBN 0-642-99375-0
*Steven L Carruthers (1982), ''Australia Under Siege: Japanese Submarine Raiders, 1942''. Solus Books. ISBN 0-9593614-0-5
*John Coates (2001), ''An Atlas of Australia's Wars''. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. ISBN 0-19-554119-7
*[[Tom Frame (bishop)|Tom Frame]] (1993), ''HMAS Sydney. Loss and Controversy''. Hodder & Stoughton, Sydney. ISBN 0-340-58468-8
*Tom Frame (2004), ''No Pleasure Cruise: The Story of the Royal Australian Navy''. Allen & Unwin, Sydney. ISBN 1-74114-233-4
*Henry P. Frei (1991), ''Japan's Southward Advance and Australia. From the Sixteenth Century to World War II''. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. ISBN 0-522-84392-1
*David Horner (1993). 'Defending Australia in 1942' in ''War and Society'', Volume 11, Number 1, May 1993.
*David Jenkins (1992), ''Battle Surface! Japan's Submarine War Against Australia 1942–44''. Random House Australia, Sydney. ISBN 0-09-182638-1
*Paul Kemp (1997), ''U-Boats Destroyed. German Submarine Losses in the World Wars''. Arms and Armour, London. ISBN 1-85409-321-5
*[[Tom Lewis (author)|Tom Lewis]] (2003). ''A War at Home. A Comprehensive guide to the first Japanese attacks on Darwin''. Tall Stories, Darwin. ISBN 0-9577351-0-3
*[[Samuel Eliot Morison]] (1949 (2001 reprint)). ''Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions, May 1942–August 1942'', Volume 4 of [[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]]. University of Illinois Press, Champaign. ISBN 0-252-06995-1
*Robert Nichols 'The Night the War Came to Sydney' in [http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/index.asp ''Wartime''] Issue 33, 2006.
*Albert Palazzo (2001). ''The Australian Army : A History of its Organisation 1901–2001''. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2001. ISBN 0-19-551506-4
*Seapower Centre - Australia (2005). [http://www.navy.gov.au/Publication:Navy_Contribution_to_Australian_Maritime_Operations ''The Navy Contribution to Australian Maritime Operations'']. Defence Publishing Service, Canberra. ISBN 0-642-29615-4
*David Stevens, 'The War Cruise of ''I-6'', March 1943' in ''Australian Defence Force Journal'' No. 102 September/October 1993. Pages 39–46.
*David Stevens (1997), ''U-Boat Far from Home''. Allen & Unwin, Sydney. ISBN 1-86448-267-2
*David Stevens, 'Forgotten assault' in [http://www.awm.gov.au/wartime/index.asp ''Wartime''] Issue 18, 2002.
*David Stevens (2005), [http://www.navy.gov.au/Publication:Papers_in_Australian_Maritime_Affairs_No._15 RAN Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs No. 15 ''A Critical Vulnerability: The impact of the submarine threat on Australia's maritime defence 1915–1954'']. Seapower Centre - Australia, Canberra. ISBN 0-642-29625-1
*Sydney David Waters (1956), [http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Navy.html ''The Royal New Zealand Navy'']. Historical Publications Branch, Wellington.

===External links and articles===
{{Commons category|Axis naval activity in Australian waters}}
*[http://www.awm.gov.au/ Australian War Memorial website]
*Alastair Cooper (2001). ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2001/cooper.htm Raiders and the Defence of Trade: The Royal Australian Navy in 1941]''. Paper delivered to the Australian War Memorial conference [http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2001/index.htm Remembering 1941].
*Bob Hackett and Sander Kingsepp (2006). [http://www.combinedfleet.com/sensuikan.htm combinedfleet.com - Japanese Submarines]
*Tanaka Hiromi [http://www.awm.gov.au/journal/j30/tanaka.htm 'The Japanese Navy's operations against Australia in the Second World War, with a commentary on Japanese sources'] in ''The Journal of the Australian War Memorial''. Issue 30 - April 1997.
*Dr. Peter Stanley (2002). ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2002/stanley_paper.pdf He's (Not) Coming South: The Invasion That Wasn't]''. Paper delivered to the Australian War Memorial conference [http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2002/index.htm Remembering 1942].
*Dr. Peter Stanley (2006). ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/events/talks/oration2006.asp Was there a Battle for Australia?]'' Australian War Memorial Anniversary Oration, 10 November 2006.
*David Stevens ''[http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/AJRP/AJRP2.nsf/437f72f8ac2c07238525661a00063aa6/225b90b97196e29bca256a1d00130203?OpenDocument Japanese submarine operations against Australia 1942–1944]''.
*U-Boat.net [http://www.uboat.net/ops/monsun.htm Monsun boats U-boats in the Indian Ocean and the Far East]
*David Joseph Wilson (2003) [http://www.library.unsw.edu.au/~thesis/adt-ADFA/public/adt-ADFA20031029.102545/index.html ''The Eagle and the Albatross: Australian Aerial Maritime Operations 1921–1971'']. PhD thesis.

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[[id:Aktivitas angkatan laut Blok Poros di perairan Australia]]
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USS Langley (CVL-27)

2011-04-25T11:59:04Z

Muta112: /* Later career */

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|Ship launched=22 May 1943
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|Ship class={{Sclass|Independence|aircraft carrier}}
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|Ship displacement=11,000 tons
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|Ship length={{convert|622.5|ft|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam={{convert|71.5|ft|m|abbr=on}} (waterline) 109 ft 2 in (33.3 m) (overall)
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'''USS ''Langley'' (CVL-27)''' was an 11,000-ton {{Sclass|Independence|aircraft carrier}} that served the [[United States Navy]] from 1943 to 1947, and [[French Navy]] as the [[La Fayette (R96)|''La Fayette'']] from 1951 to 1963. Named for [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]], American scientist and aviation pioneer, ''Langley'' received nine battle stars for World War II service. CVL-27 carried on the name and tradition of {{USS|Langley|CV-1}}, the first US Navy aircraft carrier, which had been sunk on 27 Feb 1942. She later served in the [[French Navy]] as [[La Fayette (R96)|''La Fayette'']].

== Career ==
[[Image:USS Langley (CVL-27) and others in Ulithi.jpg|thumb|left|The ''Langley'' leads [[Task Group 38.3]] into [[Ulithi]] anchorage.]]

''Langley'' was built at [[Camden, New Jersey]]. She was originally ordered as the light cruiser {{USS|Fargo|CL-85}}, but by the time her [[keel]] was laid in April 1942, she had been redesigned as an [[aircraft carrier]], using the original cruiser hull and machinery. Commissioned in August 1943, ''Langley'' went to the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] late in the year and entered combat in [[World War II]] during the [[Operation Flintlock|Marshall Islands operation]] in January-February 1944. During the next four months, her planes attacked [[Japan]]ese positions in the central Pacific and western [[New Guinea]]. In June 1944, she took part in the assault on the Marianas and in the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]].

''Langley'' continued her war role through the rest of 1944, participating in the [[Battle of Peleliu|Palaus Operation]], raids on the [[Philippines]], [[Taiwan|Formosa]] and the [[Ryukyu]]s, and the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]. In January-February 1945, she was part of the [[Third Fleet]]'s foray into the [[South China Sea]], the first massed carrier attacks on the Japanese Home Islands and the invasion of [[Iwo Jima]]. More combat activity followed in March-May, as Langley's planes again hit targets in Japan and supported the [[Okinawa]] operation. Overhauled in the U.S. in June and July, she was en route back to the Pacific war zone when the war ended in August.

Following service transporting Pacific veterans home, ''Langley'' went to the [[Atlantic Ocean]], where she carried out similar missions in November 1945 - January 1946. Inactive at [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], during the remainder of 1946, the carrier was decommissioned there in February 1947.

== Later career ==
{{main|French aircraft carrier La Fayette (R96)}}
''Langley'' was taken out of "mothballs" early in 1951, refurbished and transferred to [[France]] under the [[Mutual Defense Assistance Act|Mutual Defense Assistance Program]]. After more than a decade of [[French Navy]] service as [[La Fayette (R96)|''La Fayette'']], she was returned to the [[United States]] in March 1963 and was sold for scrap a year later.<ref>[http://www.netmarine.net/bat/porteavi/lafayett/index.htm Porte-avions La Fayette]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-l/cvl27.htm The original version of this article based on US Navy public domain text.]
* {{DANFS|http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/l3/langley-ii.htm}}

==External links==
{{Commons cat|USS Langley (CVL-27)}}
* [http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/27.htm navsource.org: USS ''Langley'']
* [http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/carriers/cvl27.htm hazegray.org: USS ''Langley'']
* [http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/books/ships/monsarrat/index.htm ''Angel on the Yardarm: The Beginnings of Fleet Radar Defense and the Kamikaze Threat''] - Review of book by John Monsarrat, who served aboard ''Langley'' during major battles of the Pacific War from January 1944 to May 1945.
* [http://www.ninesisters.com/langley.htm USS Langley] at Nine Sisters Light Carrier Historical Documentary Project



{{Independence class aircraft carrier}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Langley (CVL-27)}}
[[Category:Independence class aircraft carriers]]
[[Category:Ships built in New Jersey]]
[[Category:1943 ships]]
[[Category:World War II aircraft carriers of the United States]]
[[Category:United States Navy Virginia-related ships]]
[[Category:Independence class aircraft carriers of the French Navy]]

[[de:USS Langley (CVL-27)]]
[[fr:La Fayette (porte-avions)]]
[[ja:ラングレー (CVL-27)]]
[[pt:USS Langley (CVL-27)]]
[[vi:USS Langley (CVL-27)]]
[[zh:蘭利號航空母艦 (CVL-27)]]

Treaty of Versailles

2011-04-13T15:45:09Z

Muta112:

{{About|the Treaty of Versailles of 28 June 1919, at the end of World War I|other uses|Treaty of Versailles (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Infobox Treaty
| name = Treaty of Versailles
| long_name = Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany
| image = Treaty of Versailles, English version.jpg
| image_width = 180px
| caption = Cover of the English version
| type =
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = 28 June 1919
| location_signed = [[Versailles]], France
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = 10 January 1920
| condition_effective = [[Ratification]] by Germany and three Principal Allied Powers.
| date_expiration =
| signatories = Central Powers 
{{flag|Weimar Republic|name=German Reich}}<hr />
Allied Powers 
{{flag|British Empire}} 
{{flagicon|France}} [[French Third Republic|France]] 
{{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}} 
{{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}} 
{{flag|United States|1912}} 
{{Collapsible list | title = Others
| {{flag|Belgium}}
| {{flag|Bolivia}}
| {{flag|Brazil|1889}}
| {{flag|Republic of China|1912|name=China}}
| {{flag|Cuba}}
| {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)|Czechoslovakia]]
| {{flag|Ecuador}}
| {{flagicon|Greece|old}} [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]]
| {{flag|Guatemala}}
| {{flag|Haiti|civil}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Hejaz|1917}}
| {{flag|Honduras}}
| {{flag|Liberia}}
| {{flag|Nicaragua}}
| {{flag|Panama}}
| {{flag|Peru|1825}}
| {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}
| {{flag|Thailand|name=Siam}}
| {{flag|Uruguay}}
| {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Yugoslavia}}
| As part of the British Empire:
| {{flag|Australia}}
| {{flag|Canada|1868}}
| {{flagcountry|Union of South Africa|1912}}
| {{flagcountry|British Raj}}
| {{flag|New Zealand}}}}<hr />
| parties =
| depositor = French Government
| languages = [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]]
| website =
| wikisource = Treaty of Versailles}}
The '''Treaty of Versailles''' was one of the [[peace treaty|peace treaties]] at the end of [[World War I]]. It ended the [[declaration of war|state of war]] between [[German Empire|Germany]] and [[Allies of World War I|the Allied Powers]]. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the [[assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand]]. The other [[Central Powers]] on the German side of World War I were dealt with in separate treaties.<ref>[[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)]] with Austria; [[Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine]] with Bulgaria; [[Treaty of Trianon]] with Hungary; [[Treaty of Sèvres]] with the Ottoman Empire; {{cite book
|editor1-last = Davis
|editor1-first = Robert T.
|title = U.S. Foreign Policy and National Security: Chronology and Index for the 20th Century
|publisher = Praeger Security International
|location = Santa Barbara, California
|volume = 1
|year = 2010
|page = [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gsM1JiXAMJEC&pg=PA49 49]
|isbn = 978-0-313-38385-4
}}</ref> Although the [[armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|armistice]] signed on 11 November 1918 ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the [[League of Nations]] on October 21, 1919, and was printed in ''The League of Nations [[Treaty Series]].''

Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war and, under the terms of articles 231–248 (later known as the War Guilt clauses), to disarm, make substantial territorial [[concession (territory)|concessions]] and pay heavy [[World War I reparations|reparations]] to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. The total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion Marks (then $31.4 billion, £6,600 million) in 1921 which is roughly equivalent to US$ {{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|31.4|1921|r=0}}}} billion in {{CURRENTYEAR}}, a sum that many economists at the time, notably [[John Maynard Keynes]], deemed to be excessive and counterproductive and would have taken Germany until 1988 to pay.<ref>The West Encounters and Transformations. Atlas Ed. Vol. II. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007. p. 806</ref><ref name="guinnane">
{{cite web |url = http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp880.pdf |title = Vergangenheitsbewältigung: the 1953 London Debt Agreement |accessdate = 2008-12-06 |author = Timothy W. Guinnane| authorlink = |year = 2004 |month = January |format = PDF |work = Center Discussion Paper no. 880 |publisher = Economic Growth Center, Yale University |quote=At the pre-World War I parities, $1 gold = 4.2 gold Marks. One Mark was worth one shilling sterling. }}</ref> The final payments ended up being made on 4 October 2010,<ref>{{cite web| url = http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1010/03/fzgps.01.html| title = Transcript of interview| author = Fareed Zakaria | date = 2010-10-02 | publisher = CNN| accessdate = 2011-03-15}}</ref> the twentieth anniversary of [[German reunification]], and some ninety-two years after the end of the war for which they were exacted.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11442892| title = Why has Germany taken so long to pay off its WWI debt?| author = Olivia Lang| date = 2010-10-03 | publisher = BBC| accessdate = 2011-03-15}}</ref> The Treaty was undermined by subsequent events starting as early as 1932 and was widely flouted by the mid-1930s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Schaum's Outline of Modern European History|author=Viault, Birdsall S.|page=471|year=1990|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|url=http://books.google.com/?id=hXaJLfcIBuoC|isbn=9780070674530}}</ref>

The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was compromise that left none contented: Germany was not [[pacified]] or [[conciliation|conciliated]], nor permanently weakened. This would prove to be a factor leading to later conflicts, notably and directly the [[World War II|Second World War]].<ref name="consequences1">{{gutenberg|no=15776|name=The Economic Consequences of the Peace ''by [[John Maynard Keynes]]'}}</ref>

==Negotiations==
Negotiations between the Allied powers started on 18 January in the Salle de l'Horloge at the [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (France)|French Foreign Ministry]], on the [[Quai d'Orsay]] in Paris. Initially, 70 delegates of 27 nations participated in the negotiations.<ref>{{cite book|last = Lentin|first = Antony|title = Guilt at Versailles: Lloyd George and the Pre-history of Appeasement|year = 1985| publisher = Routledge|location =|language =|isbn = 9780416411300|page=84|origyear = 1984}}</ref> Having been defeated, Germany, [[Austria]], and [[Hungary]] were excluded from the negotiations. [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]] was also excluded because it had negotiated a [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk|separate peace]] with Germany in 1918, in which Germany gained a large fraction of Russia's land and [[resources]]. The treaty's terms were extremely harsh, as the negotiators at Versailles later pointed out.

[[File:William Orpen - The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles.jpg|thumb|upright|Signing in the [[Hall of Mirrors (Palace of Versailles)|Hall of Mirrors]] at the [[Palace of Versailles]]]]
Until March 1919, the most important role for negotiating the extremely complex and difficult terms of the peace fell to the regular meetings of the "Council of Ten," which comprised the heads of government and foreign ministers of the five major victors (the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], the [[United States]], [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]], and [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]). As this unusual body proved too unwieldy and formal for effective decision-making, Japan and—for most of the remaining conference—the foreign ministers left the main meetings, so that only the "Big Four" remained.<ref>Alan Sharp, "The Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking in Paris, 1919", 1991.</ref> After his territorial claims to Fiume (today [[Rijeka]]) were rejected, [[Prime Minister of Italy|Italian Prime Minister]], [[Vittorio Orlando]] left the negotiations (only to return to sign in June), and the final conditions were determined by the leaders of the "Big Three" nations: British Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]], French Prime Minister [[Georges Clemenceau]], and American President [[Woodrow Wilson]].

At Versailles, it was difficult to decide on a common position because their aims conflicted with one another. The result has been called the "unhappy compromise".<ref>[[Harold Nicolson]], ''Diaries and Letters'', 1930–39, 250; quoted in Derek Drinkwater: [http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-927385-5.pdf Sir Harold Nicolson and International Relations: The Practitioner as Theorist], p. 139.</ref>

===Britain's aims===
{{See|Heavenly Twins (Sumner and Cunliffe)}}
Britain had suffered little land devastation during the war and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[David Lloyd George]] supported reparations to a lesser extent than the French. Britain began to look on a restored Germany as an important trading partner and worried about the effect of reparations on the British economy.<ref name="David Thomson 1970, p. 605">David Thomson, ''Europe Since Napoleon''. Penguin Books. 1970, p. 605.</ref>
Lloyd George was also worried by [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s proposal for "[[self-determination]]" and, like the French, wanted to preserve his own nation's empire. Like the French, Lloyd George supported secret treaties and naval blockades. {{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
Lloyd George managed to increase the overall reparations payment and Britain's share by demanding compensation for the huge number of widows, orphans, and men left unable to work as a result of war injuries. {{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

===United States' aims===
{{Main|Fourteen Points}}
There had been strong non-interventionist sentiment before and after the United States entered the war in April 1917, and many Americans were eager to extricate themselves from European affairs as rapidly as possible.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} The United States took a more conciliatory view toward the issue of German reparations. Before the end of the war, [[President of the United States|President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]], along with other American officials including [[Edward M. House]], put forward his [[Fourteen Points]], which he presented in a speech at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]]. The United States also wished to continue trading with Germany, so in turn did not want to treat them too harshly for these economic reasons.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

==Content==
===Impositions on Germany===
====Legal restrictions====
* Article 227 charges former German Emperor, [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] with supreme offense against international morality. He is to be tried as a [[War crime|war criminal]].
* Articles 228–230 tried many other Germans as war criminals.
* [[Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles|Article 231]] (the "War Guilt Clause") lays sole responsibility for the war on Germany and her allies, which is to be accountable for all damage to civilian populations of the Allies.

====Occupation of the Rhineland====
As a guarantee of compliance by Germany, Part XIV of the Treaty provided that the [[Occupation of the Rhineland|Rhineland]] would be occupied by Allied troops for a period of fifteen years.<ref>[[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles|Treaty of Versailles]], [[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles/Part XIV|Part XIV]] at Wikisource.</ref>

====Military restrictions====
Part V of the treaty begins with the preamble,
"In order to render possible the initiation of a general limitation of the armaments of all nations, Germany undertakes strictly to observe the military, naval and air clauses which follow."<ref>[[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles|Treaty of Versailles]], [[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles/Part V|Part V]] at Wikisource.</ref>
* German armed forces will number no more than 100,000 troops, and conscription will be abolished.
* [[Enlisted rank|Enlisted]] men will be retained for at least 12 years; [[Officer (armed forces)|officer]]s to be retained for at least 25 years.
* German naval forces will be limited to 15,000 men, 6 [[battleship]]s (no more than 10,000 tons displacement each), 6 [[cruiser]]s (no more than 6,000 tons displacement each), 12 [[destroyer]]s (no more than 800 tons displacement each) and 12 [[torpedo boat]]s (no more than 200 tons displacement each). No [[submarine]]s are to be included.
* The import and export of weapons is prohibited.
* Poison gas, armed aircraft, tanks and armoured cars are prohibited.
* Blockades on ships are prohibited.
* Restrictions on the manufacture of machine guns (e.g. the [[Maxim gun|Maxim machine gun]]) and rifles (e.g. [[Gewehr 98]] rifles).

====Territorial changes====
[[File:German losses after WWI.svg|thumb|Germany after Versailles:
{{legend|#ddefd0|Administered by the [[League of Nations]]}}
{{legend|#ffffcf|Annexed by neighbouring countries}}
{{legend|#f6d3a9|[[Weimar Republic|Weimar Germany]]}}]]
[[File:Map of Europe in 1920, after the Treaty of Versailles.jpg|thumb|right|Borders of Europe after the Treaty of Versailles]]
Germany's borders in 1919 had been established nearly a half-century earlier, at the country's official establishment in 1871. Territory and cities in the region had changed hands repeatedly for centuries, including at various times being owned by the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[Kingdom of Sweden]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Kingdom of Poland]], and [[Kingdom of Lithuania]]. However, Germany laid claim to lands and cities that it viewed as historically "Germanic" centuries before Germany's establishment as a country in 1871. Other countries disputed Germany's claim to this territory. In the peace treaty, Germany agreed to return disputed lands and cities to various countries.

Germany was compelled to yield control of [[German colonial empire|its colonies]], and would also lose a number of European territories. The province of [[West Prussia]] would be ceded to the restored [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], thereby granting it access to the [[Baltic Sea]] via the "[[Polish Corridor]]" which Prussia had [[annexed]] in the [[Partitions of Poland]]. This turned [[East Prussia]] into an [[exclave]], separated from mainland Germany.

*[[Alsace]] and much of [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]], both originally [[Germany|German]]-speaking territories, were part of [[France]], having been annexed by France's King [[Louis XIV]] who desired the [[Rhine]] as a ''natural border''. After approximately two centuries of [[France|French]] rule, Alsace and the German-speaking part of Lorraine were ceded to Germany in 1871 under the [[Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)|Treaty of Frankfurt]]. In 1919 both regions were returned to France.
*[[Northern Schleswig]] was returned to [[Denmark]] following a [[Schleswig Plebiscite|plebiscite]] on 14 February 1920 (area 3,984 km², 163,600 inhabitants (1920)). [[Central Schleswig]], including the city of [[Flensburg]], opted to remain German in a separate referendum on 14 March 1920.
*Most of the Prussian provinces of [[Province of Posen]] (now Poznan) and of [[West Prussia]] which [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] had annexed in the [[Partitions of Poland]] (1772–1795) were ceded to Poland (area 53,800 km², 4,224,000 inhabitants (1931)) without a [[plebiscite]]. Most of the Province of Posen had already come under Polish control during the [[Greater Polish Uprising (1918–1919)|Greater Poland Uprising]] of 1918–1919.
*The [[Hlučín Region|Hultschin area]] of [[Upper Silesia]] was transferred to [[Czechoslovakia]] (area 316 or 333 km², 49,000 inhabitants) without a plebiscite.
*The eastern part of Upper Silesia was assigned to Poland, as in the [[Upper Silesia plebiscite]] inhabitants of about 45% of communities voted for this (with general results of 717,122 votes being cast for Germany and 483,514 for Poland).
*The area of [[Eupen-Malmedy]] was given to [[Belgium]]. An opportunity was given to the population to "protest" against the transfer by signing a register, which gathered few signatures. The [[Vennbahn]] railway was also transferred to Belgium.
*The area of [[Działdowo|Soldau]] in East Prussia, an important railway junction on the [[Warsaw]]–[[Danzig]] route, was transferred to Poland without a plebiscite (area 492 km²).<ref>[http://www.dzialdowo.pl/?miasto.historia.1701_1871 Nasze miasto: Historia: Lata 1701–1871—dzialdowo.pl].</ref>
*The northern part of [[East Prussia]] known as the ''Memelland'' or [[Memel Territory]] was placed under the control of France and was later annexed by [[Lithuania]].
*From the eastern part of [[West Prussia]] and the southern part of East Prussia, after the [[East Prussian plebiscite]] a small area was ceded to Poland.
*The [[Saar (League of Nations)|Territory of the Saar Basin]] was to be [[League of Nations mandate|under the control of the League of Nations]] for 15 years, after which a plebiscite between France and Germany, was to decide to which country it would belong. During this time, coal would be sent to France. The region was then called the ''Saargebiet'' (German: ''Saar Area'') and was formed from southern parts of the German [[Rhine Province]] and western parts of the [[Bavaria]]n [[Palatinate (region)|Palatinate]] under the ''Saar statute'' of the Versailles Treaty of 28. 6. 1919 (Article 45–50).
*The strategically important port of [[Gdańsk|Danzig]] with the delta of the Vistula River on the Baltic Sea was separated from Germany as the [[Freie Stadt Danzig]] (Free City of Danzig).
*Austria was forbidden from merging with Germany.
*In article 22, '''German colonies''' were divided between Belgium, the United Kingdom, and certain British Dominions, France, and Japan with the determination not to see any of them returned to Germany — a guarantee secured by Article 119.<ref>Louis (1967), p. 9</ref>
*:In Africa, Britain and France divided [[German Kamerun]] (Cameroons) and [[Togoland]]. Belgium gained [[Ruanda-Urundi]] in northwestern [[German East Africa]], the United Kingdom obtained by far the greater landmass of this colony, thus gaining the ‘missing link’ in the chain of British possessions stretching from South Africa to Egypt (Cape to Cairo), Portugal received the [[Kionga Triangle]], a sliver of German East Africa. [[German South West Africa]] was mandated to the Union of South Africa.<ref>German South West Africa was the only African colony designated as a Class C mandate, meaning that the indigenous population was judged incapable of even limited self-government and the colony to be administered under the laws of the mandatory as an integral portion of its territory</ref>
*:In the Pacific, Japan gained Germany’s islands north of the equator (the [[Marshall Islands]], the [[Carolines]], the [[Marianas]], the [[Palau|Palau Islands]]) and [[Jiaozhou Bay|Kiautschou]] in China. [[German Samoa]] was assigned to New Zealand; [[German New Guinea]], the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and [[Nauru]]<ref>Australia in effective control, formally together with United Kingdom and New Zealand</ref> to Australia as mandatory.<ref>Louis (1967), p. 117-130</ref>

====Shandong problem====
{{Main|Shandong Problem}}
[[File:Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference 1919.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference 1919.]]
Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in [[Shandong]], China, to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to [[Republic of China|China]]. Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations and a cultural movement known as the [[May Fourth Movement]] and influenced China not to sign the treaty. China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921.

====Reparations====
{{Main|World War I reparations}}

Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles assigned blame for the war to Germany; much of the rest of the Treaty set out the reparations that Germany would pay to the Allies.

The total sum of war reparations demanded from Germany—around 226 billion Reichsmarks—was decided by an Inter-Allied Reparations Commission. In 1921, it was reduced to 132 billion Reichsmarks at that time then $31.4 billion (US$ {{formatnum:{{Inflation|US|36|1921|r=0}}}} billion in {{CURRENTYEAR}}), or £6.6 billion (UK£ {{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|6.6|1921|r=0}}}} billion in {{CURRENTYEAR}}).<ref name="guinnane"/>

It could be seen that the Versailles reparation impositions were partly a reply to the reparations placed upon France by Germany through the 1871 [[Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)|Treaty of Frankfurt]] signed after the [[Franco-Prussian War]]; critics {{Who|date=July 2009}} of the Treaty argued that France had been able to pay the reparations (5,000,000,000 francs) within 3 years while the [[Young Plan]] of 1929 estimated that German reparations would be paid for a further 59 years, until 1988.<ref>{{cite book|title= The German Economy in the Twentieth Century|last= Braun|first= Hans-Joachim |authorlink=|coauthors=|year= 1990|publisher= [[Routledge]]|location=|isbn= 0415021014 |page= 46|quote=The final annuity of RM 898 million was due in 1988.}}</ref> Indemnities of the Treaty of Frankfurt were in turn calculated, on the basis of population, as the precise equivalent of the indemnities imposed by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] on [[Prussia]] in 1807.<ref>A.J.P. Taylor, ''Bismarck The Man and the Statesman''. New York: Vintage Books. 1967, p. 133.</ref>

The Versailles Reparations came in a variety of forms, including coal, steel, intellectual property (e.g. the trademark for [[Aspirin]]) and agricultural products, in no small part because currency reparations of that order of magnitude would lead to [[hyperinflation]], as actually occurred in post-war Germany (see [[1920s German inflation]]), thus decreasing the benefits to France and the United Kingdom.

Reparations due in the form of coal played a big part in punishing Germany. The Treaty of Versailles declared that Germany was responsible for the destruction of coal mines in Northern France, parts of Belgium, and parts of Italy. Therefore, France was awarded full possession of Germany's coal-bearing Saar basin for a period. Also, Germany was forced to provide France, Belgium, and Italy with millions of tons of coal for ten years. However, under the control of Adolf Hitler, Germany stopped outstanding deliveries of coal within a few years, thus violating the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

Germany finally finished paying its reparations of GBP 59.5 million in 2010.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news|last=Hall|first=Allen|title=First World War officially ends|url=First World War officially ends|accessdate=2 October 2010|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=28 September 2010|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/8029948/First-World-War-officially-ends.html}}</ref>

===The creation of international organizations===
Part I of the treaty was the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]] which provided for the creation of the [[League of Nations]], an organization intended to arbitrate international disputes and thereby avoid future wars.<ref>[[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles|Treaty of Versailles]], [[wikisource:Covenant of the League of Nations|Part I: Covenant of the League of Nations]] at Wikisource.</ref> Part XIII organized the establishment of the [[International Labour Organization]], to promote "the regulation of the hours of work, including the establishment of a maximum working day and week; the regulation of the labour supply; the prevention of unemployment; the provision of an adequate living wage; the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment; the protection of children, young persons and women; provision for old age and injury; protection of the interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own; recognition of the principle of freedom of association; the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures"<ref>[[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles|Treaty of Versailles]], [[wikisource:Constitution of the International Labour Office|Part XIII: Constitution of the International Labour Office]] at Wikisource.</ref> Further international commissions were to be set up, according to Part XII, to administer control over the [[Elbe]], the [[Oder]], the [[Niemen]] (Russstrom-Memel-Niemen) and the [[Danube]] rivers.<ref>[[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles|Treaty of Versailles]], [[wikisource:Treaty of Versailles/Part XII|Part XII]] at Wikisource.</ref>

===Other===

The Treaty contained many other provisions (economic issues, transportation, etc.). One of the provisions was the following:

:ARTICLE 246. Within six months from the coming into force of the present Treaty, ... Germany will hand over to His Britannic Majesty's Government the skull of the [[Chief Mkwawa|Sultan Mkwawa]] which was removed from the Protectorate of [[German East Africa]] and taken to Germany.

==Reactions==
===Among the allies===
====France====
France signed the Treaty and was active in the League. Clemenceau had failed to achieve all of the demands of the French people, and he was voted out of office in the elections of January 1920. French Field Marshal [[Ferdinand Foch]], who felt the restrictions on Germany were too lenient, declared (quite accurately), "This is not Peace. It is an [[World War II|Armistice for twenty years]]."<ref>R. Henig, Versailles and After: 1919–1933 (London: Routledge, 1995) p. 52.</ref>

====United States rejects Treaty====
The Republican Party, led by [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] controlled the United States Senate after the election of 1918, but the Senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build a two thirds coalition that was needed to pass a treaty.<ref>Thomas A. Bailey, ''Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1945)</ref>

An angry bloc of 12-18 "[[Irreconcilables]]", mostly Republicans but also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats, fiercely opposed the Treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second group of Democrats supported the Treaty but followed Wilson in opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator Lodge,<ref>William C. Widenor, ''Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy'' (1980)</ref> comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article X, which involved the power of the League Nations to make war without a vote by the United States Congress.<ref>Ralph A. Stone, ''The Irreconcilables: The Fight Against the League of Nations'' (1970)</ref> All of the Irreconcilables were bitter enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However, Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively ruined his leadership skills.<ref>John Milton Cooper, Jr. ''Woodrow Wilson: A Biography'' (2009) ch 22-23</ref>

The closest the Treaty came to passage, came on November 19, 1919, as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two thirds majority for a Treaty with reservations, but Wilson rejected this compromise and enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the chances for ratification.

Among the American public as a whole, the Irish Catholics and the [[German Americans]] were intensely opposed to the Treaty, saying it favored the British.<ref>John B. Duff, "The Versailles Treaty and the Irish-Americans," ''Journal of American History'' Vol. 55, No. 3 (Dec., 1968), pp. 582-598 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1891015 in JSTOR]</ref>

After Wilson's successor [[Warren G. Harding]] continued American opposition to the League of Nations, Congress passed the [[Knox-Porter Resolution]] bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the [[Central Powers]]. It was signed into law by Harding on 21 July 1921.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1017/S0034670500023706 | last=Wimer | first=Kurt | last2=Wimer | first2=Sarah | title=The Harding Administration, the League of Nations, and the Separate Peace Treaty | journal=The Review of Politics | volume=29 | issue=1 | year=1967 | pages=13–24 | jstor=1405810 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | postscript=}}</ref>

====House's views====
Wilson's former friend [[Edward Mandell House]], present at the negotiations, wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919:
<blockquote>I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires cannot be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris.<ref>[http://www.library.yale.edu/un/house/biblio.htm Bibliographical Introduction to "Diary, Reminiscences and Memories of Colonel Edward M. House"].</ref></blockquote>

===In Germany===
{{See also|Stab-in-the-back legend}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R01213, Versailles, deutsche Verhandlungdelegation.jpg|thumb|German delegates in Versailles: Professor Dr. [[Walther Schücking]], Reichspostminister [[Johannes Giesberts]], Justice Minister Dr. [[Otto Landsberg]], Foreign Minister [[Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau]], Prussian State President [[Robert Leinert]], and financial advisor Dr. [[Carl Melchior]].]]

On 29 April the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister [[Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau]] arrived in Versailles. On 7 May when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, including the so-called "[[War Guilt Clause]]", von Brockdorff-Rantzau replied to Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George: "We know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie."<ref>Foreign Minister Brockdorff-Ranzau when faced with the conditions on 7 May: "Wir kennen die Wucht des Hasses, die uns hier entgegentritt. Es wird von uns verlangt, daß wir uns als die allein Schuldigen am Krieg bekennen; ein solches Bekenntnis wäre in meinem Munde eine Lüge". 2008 School Projekt Heinrich-Heine-Gesamtschule, Düsseldorf http://www.fkoester.de/kursbuch/unterrichtsmaterial/13_2_74.html</ref> Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour"<ref>2008 School Projekt Heinrich-Heine-Gesamtschule, Düsseldorf http://www.fkoester.de/kursbuch/unterrichtsmaterial/13_2_74.html</ref> and soon afterwards, withdrew from the proceedings of peace conference.

Germans of all political shades denounced the treaty—particularly the provision that blamed Germany for starting the war—as an insult to the nation's honour. They referred to the treaty as "the ''Diktat''" since its terms were presented to Germany on a take-it-or-leave-it basis. Germany's first democratically elected [[Chancellor of Germany (German Reich)|Chancellor]], [[Philipp Scheidemann]], refused to sign the treaty and resigned. In a passionate speech before the National Assembly on 12 March 1919, he called the treaty a "murderous plan" and exclaimed,

{{quote|Which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.<ref>Lauteinann, Geschichten in Quellen Bd. 6, S. 129.</ref>}}

After Scheidemann's resignation, a new coalition government was formed under [[Gustav Bauer]]. [[President of Germany|President]] [[Friedrich Ebert]] then asked army commander [[Paul von Hindenburg]] if the army was capable of any meaningful resistance in the event the Allies decided to renew hostilities. If there was even the slightest chance that the army could hold out, Ebert intended to recommend against ratifying the treaty. Hindenburg, under prodding from his chief of staff, [[Wilhelm Groener]], concluded the army's position was untenable. However, rather than inform Ebert himself, he had Groener cable the army's recommendation to the government. Upon receiving this, the new government recommended signing the treaty. The [[Weimar National Assembly|National Assembly]] voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with 5 abstentions. Foreign minister [[Hermann Müller (politician)|Hermann Müller]] and colonial minister [[Johannes Bell]] traveled to Versailles to sign the treaty on behalf of Germany. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919 and ratified by the National Assembly on 9 July 1919 by a vote of 209 to 116.<ref>{{cite book | author = Koppel S. Pinson | title = Modern Germany: Its History and Civilization| edition = 13th printing| year = 1964| publisher = Macmillan | location = New York| page = 397 f | isbn = 0881334340 }}</ref>

[[File:Mass demonstration in front of the Reichstag against the Treaty of Versailles.jpg|thumb|left|Demonstration against the Treaty in front of the [[Reichstag building]]]]
Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders condemned the peace and democratic Weimar politicians, socialists, [[communists]], and [[Jews]] were viewed by them with suspicion, due to their supposed extra-national loyalties.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} It was rumoured that the Jews had not supported the war and had played a role in selling out Germany to its enemies. Those who seemed to benefit from a weakened Germany, and the newly formed Weimar Republic, were regarded as having "stabbed Germany in the back" on the [[home front]], by either opposing German [[nationalism]], instigating unrest and strikes in the critical military industries or profiteering.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still on French and Belgian territory. Furthermore, on the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]], Germany had already won the war against Russia and concluded the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. In the West, Germany had seemed to have come close to winning the war with the [[Spring Offensive]] earlier in 1918.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of [[materiel]]. The strikes were regarded by nationalists as having been instigated by traitors, with the Jews taking most of the blame.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}

==Violations==
The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion gold [[German Reichsmark|Reichsmark]]s) still placed a significant burden on the German economy. Although the causes of the devastating [[Inflation in the Weimar Republic|post-war hyperinflation]] are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near-collapse of their economy on the Treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one third of the hyper-inflation.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}

In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles. In January 1923 French and Belgian forces occupied the rest of the Ruhr area as a reprisal after Germany failed to fulfill reparation payments demanded by the Versailles Treaty. The German government answered with "passive resistance," which meant that coal miners and railway workers refused to obey any instructions by the occupation forces. Production and transportation came to a standstill, but the financial consequences contributed to German hyperinflation and completely ruined public finances in Germany. Consequently, passive resistance was called off in late 1923. The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr allowed Germany to undertake a currency reform and to negotiate the [[Dawes Plan]], which led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr Area in 1925.

Some significant violations (or avoidances) of the provisions of the Treaty were:
* In 1919, the dissolution of the General Staff appeared to happen; however, the core of the General Staff was hidden within another organization, the [[Truppenamt]], where it rewrote all Heer (Army) and [[Luftstreitkräfte]] (Air Force) doctrinal and training materials based on the experience of World War I.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}
* On 16 April 1922, representatives of the governments of Germany and the Soviet Union signed the [[Rapallo Treaty]] at a [[World Economic Conference]] at [[Genoa]] in Italy. The treaty re-established diplomatic relations, renounced financial claims on each other and pledged future cooperation.
* In 1932, the German government announced it would no longer adhere to the treaty's military limitations, citing the Allies' violation of the treaty by failing to initiate military limitations on themselves as called for in the preamble of Part V of the Treaty of Versailles.
* In March 1935, [[Adolf Hitler]] violated the Treaty of Versailles by introducing compulsory military conscription in Germany and rebuilding the armed forces. This included a new Navy ([[Kriegsmarine]]), the first full armoured divisions ([[Panzerwaffe]]), and an Air Force ([[Luftwaffe]]).
* In June 1935, the United Kingdom effectively withdrew from the treaty with the signing of the [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement]].
* In March 1936, Hitler violated the treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized zone in the [[Rhineland]].
* In March 1938, Hitler violated the treaty by annexing Austria in the [[Anschluss]].
* In September 1938, Hitler, with the [[Munich Agreement|approval]] of France, Britain, and Italy, violated the Treaty by annexing the [[Sudetenland]] from Czechoslovakia.
* In March 1939, Hitler violated the treaty by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia.
* On 1 September 1939, Hitler violated the treaty by invading [[Poland]], thus initiating [[World War II]] in Europe.

Another significant circumvention of the treaty was that with heavy artillery being banned, the Nazis pursued development of the [[V-2]] long-range rocket.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3634212.stm |title=V-2: Hitler's last weapon of terror |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2010-12-26}}</ref> So in this sense, the Treaty of Versailles was influential in ushering in the era of [[spaceflight]].

==Historical assessments==
In his book ''[[The Economic Consequences of the Peace]]'', [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]] referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a "[[Carthaginian peace]]", a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French [[revanchism]], rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. He stated: "I believe that the
campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the war was
one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our
statesmen have ever been responsible."<ref name="consequences1"/> Keynes had been the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Paris Peace Conference, and used in his passionate book arguments that he and others (including some US officials) had used at Paris.<ref>Markwell, Donald, ''John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace'', Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref> He believed the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability.<ref>Keynes, ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace'', 1919 Ch VI. quote: The Treaty includes no provisions for the economic rehabilitation of Europe—nothing to make the defeated Central Empires into good neighbors, nothing to stabilize the new States of Europe, nothing to reclaim Russia; nor does it promote in any way a compact of economic solidarity amongst the Allies themselves; no arrangement was reached at Paris for restoring the disordered finances of France and Italy, or to adjust the systems of the Old World and the New. The Council of Four paid no attention to these issues, being preoccupied with others—Clemenceau to crush the economic life of his enemy, Lloyd George to do a deal and bring home something which would pass muster for a week, the President to do nothing that was not just and right. It is an extraordinary fact that the fundamental economic problems of a Europe starving and disintegrating before their eyes, was the one question in which it was impossible to arouse the interest of the Four. Reparation was their main excursion into the economic field, and they settled it as a problem of theology, of polities, of electoral chicane, from every point of view except that of the economic future of the States whose destiny they were handling.</ref>

[[Free French Forces|French Resistance]] economist [[Étienne Mantoux]] disputed that analysis. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a book titled, "The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes" in an attempt to rebut Keynes' claims; it was published after his death.

More recently it has been argued (for instance by historian [[Gerhard Weinberg]] in his book "A World At Arms"<ref>Reynolds, David. (February 20, 1994). [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9903EED81438F933A15751C0A962958260 "Over There, and There, and There."] Review of: "A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II," by Gerhard L. Weinberg. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref>) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II.) In a 1995 essay, Weinberg noted that with the disappearance of Austria-Hungary and with Russia withdrawn from Europe, that Germany was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe<ref>Weinberg, Gerhard ''Germany, Hitler and World War II'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 page 16.</ref>.. Weinberg wrote that given that a mere 21 years after Versailles, Germany had conquered more land than she had in 1914, it is very questionable whatever Versailles was as anything harsh and crippling as Germans at the time and since claimed it was.<ref name="Weinberg, Gerhard page 11">Weinberg, Gerhard ''Germany, Hitler and World War II'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 page 11.</ref> Writing in 1995, Weinberg further added against the idea that territorial losses Germany suffered in 1919 brought about the Third Reich in 1933, commenting if that was the case, then the even greater territorial losses Germany suffered after 1945 should brought about a Fourth Reich.<ref name="Weinberg, Gerhard page 11"/> Weinberg sarcastically commented that those who claimed that territorial losses Germany suffered in 1919 caused National Socialism, have never explained why - with even greater territorial losses Germany suffered in 1945, did not bring about a return of the Nazis as logic would dictate if it was true.<ref name="Weinberg, Gerhard page 11"/>

The British military historian [[Correlli Barnett]] claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies". Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist" when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia's population (albeit of non-Russian ethnicity), one half of Russia's industrial undertakings and nine-tenths of Russia's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion Marks.<ref>Correlli Barnett, ''The Collapse of British Power'' (London: Pan, 2002), p. 392.</ref> Eventually, even under the "cruel" terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany's economy had been restored to its pre-war status.

Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Germany's eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. But Barnett asserts that, because the Austrian empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states and Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war, the newly restored Poland was no match for even a defeated Germany. In the West, Germany was balanced only by France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the Treaty "much enhanced" German power.<ref>Barnett, p. 316.</ref> Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened" Germany by undoing Bismarck's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never disrupt the peace of Europe again.<ref>Barnett, p. 318.</ref> By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War".<ref>Barnett, p. 319.</ref>

The British historian of modern Germany, [[Richard J. Evans]] wrote that the German right was committed to an annexationist program of Germany annexing most of Europe and Africa during the war and in some cases before 1914 would found any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror unacceptable to them.<ref name="Evans, Richard page 107">Evans, Richard ''In Hitler's Shadow'', New York: Panatheon 1989 page 107.</ref> Short of allowing Germany to keep of all the conquests of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]], Evans argued that there was nothing that could had been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles.<ref name="Evans, Richard page 107"/> Evans further noted that parties of the "Weimar coalition", namely the SPD, the DDP and the Catholic Center were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar republic.<ref name="Evans, Richard page 107"/> Finally, Evans argued that it is untrue that Versailles caused the end of Weimar, instead contending that it was the Great Depression of the early 1930s that put an end to German democracy, and that Versailles was not the "main cause" of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations".<ref name="Evans, Richard page 107"/>

Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi party. The German historian [[Detlev Peukert]] wrote that Versailles was far from the impossible peace that most Germans claimed it was during the interwar period, and was through not without flaws was actually quite reasonable to Germany.<ref name="Peukert, Detlev page 278">Peukert, Detlev ''The Weimar Republic'', New York: Hill & Wang, 1992 page 278.</ref> Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this ''perception'' rather the ''reality'' of Versailles treaty that mattered<ref name="Peukert, Detlev page 278"/> Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes" created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies imposed on the defeated ''Reich'' were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could had done to avoid that backlash.<ref name="Peukert, Detlev page 278"/> Having noted that much, Peukert commented that the policy of rapprochement with the Western powers that [[Gustav Stresemann]] carried out between 1923-29 were constructive policies that might had allowed Germany to play a more positive role in Europe, and that it was not true that German democracy was doomed to die in 1919 because of Versailles<ref name="Peukert, Detlev page 278"/> Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles<ref name="Peukert, Detlev page 278"/> Indeed, on [[Nazi Germany]]'s rise to power, Adolf Hitler resolved to overturn the remaining military and territorial provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. Military buildup began almost immediately in direct defiance of the Treaty, which, by then, had been destroyed by Hitler in front of a cheering crowd. "It was this treaty which caused a chain reaction leading to World War II," claimed historian Dan Rowling (1951). Various references to the treaty are found in many of Hitler's speeches and in pre-war [[Nazi propaganda]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}

French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the [[Sudetenland]] and in [[Posen-West Prussia]] were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented.<ref name="Cartier">La Seconde Guerre mondiale, Raymond Cartier, Paris, Larousse Paris Match, 1965, quoted in: {{cite news | author = Pater Lothar Groppe| title = Die "Jagd auf Deutsche" im Osten: Die Verfolgung begann nicht erst mit dem "Bromberger Blutsonntag" vor 50 Jahren | url = http://www.webarchiv-server.de/pin/archiv04/3504paz38.htm| work = Preußische Allgemeine Zeitung / 28. August 2004| date = 2004-08-28 | accessdate = 2010-09-22 | language = German | quote = 'Von 1.058.000 Deutschen, die noch 1921 in Posen und Westpreußen lebten', ist bei Cartier zu lesen, 'waren bis 1926 unter polnischem Druck 758.867 abgewandert. Nach weiterer Drangsal wurde das volksdeutsche Bevölkerungselement vom Warschauer Innenministerium am 15. Juli 1939 auf weniger als 300.000 Menschen geschätzt.' }}</ref> Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen-West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment.<ref name="Cartier" /> In 1926, the Polish Ministry of the Interior estimated the remaining number of Germans at less than 300,000.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands of reattaching the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for [[Hitler]]'s annexations of [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakia]] and parts of [[History of Poland (1939–1945)|Poland]].<ref name="Cartier" />

==See also==
{{portal|World War I}}
{{wikisource|Treaty of Versailles 1919}}
* [[Aftermath of World War I]]
* [[Causes of World War II]], for other related causes of the war
* [[International Opium Convention]], incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles
* [[Little Treaty of Versailles]]
* [[Minority Treaties]]
* [[Morgenthau Plan]]
* [[Neutrality Acts of 1930s]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
*{{cite book | last = Andelman | first = David A.| title = A Shattered Peace: Versailles 1919 and the Price We Pay Today | publisher = J. Wiley | location = New York/London | year = 2008 | isbn = 9780471788980 }}
*{{cite book | last = Demarco | first = Neil | title = The World This Century | publisher = Collins Educational | location = London | year = 1987 | isbn = 0003222179 }}
*{{cite book | last = Macmillan | first = Margaret | title = Peacemakers | publisher = John Murray | location = London | year = 2001 | isbn = 0719559391 }}
*{{cite book | last = Markwell | first = Donald | title = John Maynard Keynes and International Relations | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2006 | isbn = 0198292368 }}
*{{cite book | last = Nicolson | first = Harold | title = Peacemaking, 1919 | publisher = Simon Publications | location = London | year = 2001 | isbn = 193154154X }}
*{{cite book |title=The Wreck of Reparations, being the political background of the Lausanne Agreement, 1932 |last=Wheeler-Bennett |first=Sir John |authorlink=John Wheeler-Bennett |coauthors= |year=1972 |publisher=H. Fertig |location=New York |isbn= }}

==Further reading==
* ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years'', Boemeke, Manfred F., Gerald D. Feldman, and Elisabeth Gläser, editors. Washington, DC: German Historical Institute, 1998.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=23 Photographs of the document]
* [http://www.ashatteredpeace.com The consequences of the Treaty of Versailles for today's world]
* [http://www.exulanten.com/cr2.html Text of Protest by Germany and Acceptance of Fair Peace Treaty]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0441912/ ''My 1919''—A film from the Chinese point of view, the only country that did not sign the treaty]
* [http://www.polisci.ucla.edu/faculty/trachtenberg/cv/Ver(ss).doc "Versailles Revisted"] (Review of Manfred Boemeke, Gerald Feldman and Elisabeth Glaser, The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years. Cambridge, UK: German History Institute, Washington, and Cambridge University Press, 1998), ''Strategic Studies'' 9:2 (Spring 2000), 191–205
{{First World War treaties}}
{{World War I}}
{{Treaties of Japan}}

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[[Category:Treaties entered into force in 1920]]
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[[fr:Traité de Versailles]]
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[[la:Foedus Versaliis sancitum (1919)]]
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[[pnb:ورسائی دی ٹریٹی]]
[[pl:Traktat wersalski]]
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[[simple:Treaty of Versailles]]
[[sk:Versaillská zmluva (1919)]]
[[sl:Versajska mirovna pogodba]]
[[ckb:پەیمانی ڤێرسای]]
[[sr:Версајски споразум]]
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[[fi:Versailles’n rauha]]
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[[ta:வெர்சாய் ஒப்பந்தம்]]
[[th:สนธิสัญญาแวร์ซายส์ (1919)]]
[[tr:Versailles Barış Antlaşması]]
[[uk:Версальський договір 1919]]
[[ur:معاہدۂ ورسائے]]
[[vi:Hòa ước Versailles]]
[[fiu-vro:Versailles' rahulepüng]]
[[war:Kasabutan han Versailles]]
[[yi:ווערסיי אפמאך]]
[[yo:Àdéhùn Versailles]]
[[zh-yue:梵爾賽條約]]
[[bat-smg:Versale sosėtarėms]]
[[zh:凡尔赛条约]]

Japanese cruiser Tenryū

2011-04-06T05:28:11Z

Muta112: polish

{{nofootnotes|date=April 2008}}
{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}
{{Infobox Ship Image
|Ship image= [[Image:IJN Tenru in Yokosuka 1925.jpg|300px|''Tenryū'' in Yokosuka, 1925]]
|Ship caption= ''Tenryū'' in Yokosuka, 1925
}}
{{Infobox Ship Career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=
|Ship flag=[[Image:Naval Ensign of Japan.svg|50px|Japanese Navy Ensign]]
|Ship name=''Tenryū''
|Ship namesake=
|Ship ordered= 1915 Fiscal Year
|Ship builder= [[Yokosuka Naval Arsenal]], [[Japan]]
|Ship laid down= 7 May 1917
|Ship launched= 11 March 1918
|Ship completed=
|Ship acquired=
|Ship commissioned= 20 November 1919
|Ship decommissioned=
|Ship in service=
|Ship out of service=
|Ship struck= 20 January 1943
|Ship homeport=
|Ship honours=
|Ship fate=Sunk by {{USS|Albacore|SS-218}} off [[Madang]], [[New Guinea]], 18 December 1942
|Ship status=
|Ship notes=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=
|Ship class= {{sclass|Tenryū|cruiser}}
|Ship displacement= {{convert|3948|LT|t|0|lk=on|abbr=on}} standard {{convert|4350|LT|t|0|abbr=on}} full load
|Ship length={{convert|142.9|m|ftin|abbr=on}} [[Length overall|o/a]]
|Ship beam={{convert|12.3|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|Ship draught={{convert|4|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|Ship propulsion=3 shaft geared turbine engines 10 Kampon boilers {{convert|51000|shp|abbr=on}} 920 tons oil, 150 tons coal
|Ship speed={{convert|33|kn|mph km/h|lk=on}}
|Ship range= {{convert|5000|nmi|km|abbr=on}} at {{convert|14|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}}
|Ship complement=327
|Ship armament=
• 4 × {{convert|140|mm|in|abbr=on}} guns 
• 3 × {{convert|80|mm|in|abbr=on}} guns 
• 2 × {{convert|13|mm|in|abbr=on}} [[machine gun]]s 
• 6 × {{convert|550|mm|in|abbr=on}} [[torpedo tube]]s
|Ship armour=
Belt: {{convert|50|mm|in|abbr=on}} 
Deck: {{convert|25|mm|in|abbr=on}}
|Ship notes=
}}
|}

{{nihongo|'''''Tenryū'''''|天龍}} was the [[lead ship]] in the two-ship {{sclass|Tenryū|cruiser|0}} of [[light cruiser]]s of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]. ''Tenryū'' was named after the [[Tenryū River]] in [[Nagano prefecture|Nagano]] and [[Shizuoka prefecture|Shizuoka]] prefectures.

==Background==
The ''Tenryū''-class light cruisers were essentially enlarged [[destroyer]]s, inspired by and designed with a similar concept to the [[Royal Navy]] [[Arethusa class cruiser (1913)|''Arethusa''-class]] and {{sclass2|C|cruiser}}s. These ships were designed to act as flagships for destroyer flotillas.

With improvements in oil-fired turbine-engine technology, the ''Tenryū'' class had more than twice the power of the previous {{sclass|Chikuma|cruiser|0}} and were capable of reaching the high speed of {{convert|33|kn|km/h|0}}.

==Service career==
===Early career===
''Tenryū'' was completed on 20 November 1919, at the [[Yokosuka Naval Arsenal]]. The following year, it was assigned to the Japanese [[IJN 2nd Fleet|2nd Fleet]] and patrolled the coast of [[Russia]], providing support to Japanese troops in the [[Siberian Intervention]] against the [[Bolshevik]] [[Red Army]].

The ship was refitted between March 1927 and March 1930, when it was given a tripod foremast. From 1931 to 1933, ''Tenryū'' was assigned to patrols of the [[Yangtze River]] in [[China]] and was thus in combat during the [[January 28 Incident]] at [[Shanghai]] in 1932.

From 1937 to 1938, ''Tenryū'' was assigned to patrols of the [[China]] coast, as the situation between Japan and China deteriorated into the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. During a refit in 1939, it gained two additional 13 mm AA machine guns. From 1939 to 1941, the ship served primarily as a training vessel.

===Early Pacific War===
In late 1940, ''Tenryū'' was based out of [[Truk]], in the [[Caroline Islands]], together with its [[sister ship]] ''Tatsuta'' in CruDiv 18 of the [[IJN 4th Fleet|Fourth Fleet]] under [[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Marumo Kunimori]]. At the time of the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], CruDiv 18 was part of the [[Wake Island]] invasion force. ''Tenryū'' was strafed with machine-gun fire by a [[United States Marine Corps|USMC]] [[Grumman]] [[F4F Wildcat]] that damaged three torpedoes on its deck on December 11, 1941, but otherwise suffered no damage during the first [[Battle of Wake Island]]. The cruiser also participated in the second (successful) invasion attempt on Wake Island on December 21.

On 20 January 1942, ''Tatsuta'' and ''Tenryū'' were assigned to cover troop transports during the invasion of [[Kavieng]], [[New Ireland (island)|New Ireland]], in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]]. During a refit at Truk on 23 February, two [[Type 96 25 mm AT/AA Gun|Type 96 twin-mount 25 mm AA guns]] were installed aft as part of the heightened awareness of the threat posed by American aircraft.

From March through May, CruDiv 18 and ''Tenryū'' covered numerous troop landings throughout the [[Solomon Islands]] and [[New Guinea]], including [[Lae]] and [[Salamaua]], [[Buka, Papua New Guinea|Buka]], [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]], [[Rabaul]], [[Shortland Island|Shortland]], [[Kieta]], [[Manus Island]], the [[Admiralty Islands]], [[Tulagi]], and [[Santa Isabel Island]].

''Tenryū'' returned to Japan for repairs on 23 May, remaining for a month.

On July 14, 1942, in a major reorganization of the Japanese navy, CruDiv 18 under [[Rear admiral (United States)|Rear Admiral]] [[Mitsuharu Matsuyama]] came under the newly created [[IJN 8th Fleet|Eighth Fleet]], commanded by Vice Admiral [[Gunichi Mikawa]]. On July 20, ''Tenryū'' was assigned to cover Japanese troop landings in the invasion of [[Buna, Papua New Guinea|Buna]], New Guinea. The invasion force was attacked by [[USAAF]] [[B-17 Flying Fortress]]s and [[B-26 Marauder]] bombers, but ''Tenryū'' was unharmed.

===Battle of Savo Island===
On 9 August 1942, ''Tenryū'' was in the [[Battle of Savo Island]], together with the cruisers {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Yūbari||2}}, {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Aoba||2}}, {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Kako||2}}, {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Kinugasa||2}}, {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Furutaka||2}}, and {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Chōkai||2}}, and the destroyer {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Yūnagi|1924|2}}, which attacked US Task Group 62.6 that was screening transports with Allied invasion forces for Guadalcanal. During nighttime gun and torpedo action, ''Tenryu'' sank the {{USS|Quincy|CA-39|6}} with two torpedoes. She also contributed to sinking the {{USS|Astoria|CA-34|6}}, {{USS|Vincennes|CA-44|6}}, and {{HMAS|Canberra|D33|6}}. In addition, the {{USS|Chicago|CA-29|6}}, {{USS|Ralph Talbot|DD-390|6}}, and {{USS|Patterson|DD-392|6}} were damaged. ''Tenryū'' was hit by the ''Chicago'', with 23 crewmen killed. ''Tenryū'' remained based out of Rabaul through the end of August, escorting convoys of troops and supplies.

On 25 August, ''Tenryū'' was again bombed by B-17s during its coverage of the landing of 1200 troops of the Kure No. 5 [[Special Naval Landing Force]] at [[Milne Bay]], New Guinea, but again escaped without damage. On 6 September, ''Tenryū'' was part of the force assigned to evacuate the surviving troops after their defeat and in the process sank the 3,199-ton British freighter [[MV Anshun (1930)]].

On 1 October, the cruiser was hit by a bomb dropped by a B-17 of the [[19th Airlift Wing|19th Bomb Group]], [[Fifth Air Force]] while at Rabaul. The bomb killed 30 crewmen, but the ship was not severely damaged. ''Tenryū'' was then tasked with "[[Tokyo Express]]" transport runs from Rabaul to [[Battle of Tassafaronga|Tassafaronga]], Guadalcanal, through early November.

On 8 November, the ''Tenryū'' convoy was attacked by [[PT boat]]s (PT-37, P-39, and PT-61), but escaped without damage.

===Naval Battles of Guadalcanal===
On 13 November 1942, ''Tenryū'' departed Shortland for Guadalcanal as part of the Japanese task force for the bombardment of [[Honiara International Airport|Henderson Field]]. The task force was attacked the next day by {{USS|Flying Fish|SS-229|6}} and torpedo-bombers from {{USS|Enterprise |CV-6|6}} and Marine Grumman [[TBF Avenger]] torpedo-bombers from Guadalcanal. During the subsequent battle, ''Kinugasa'' was sunk and ''Chōkai'' was slightly damaged. A [[Douglas Aircraft|Douglas]] [[SBD Dauntless]] dive-bomber crashed into the cruiser {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Maya||2}}. ''Tenryū'' was undamaged and returned to Shortland.

On 16 December 1942, ''Tenryū'' departed for [[Madang]], New Guinea, in an attack force with the destroyers {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Isonami||2}}, {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Inazuma||2}}, {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Suzukaze||2}}, and {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Arashio||2}} and the [[armed merchant cruiser]]s ''Aikoku Maru'' and ''Gokoku Maru'', successfully landing its forces on 18 December.

The following day, as ''Tenryū'' was departing, it was attacked by {{USS|Albacore|SS-218}}, which fired three torpedoes each at a transport and what it identified as a destroyer. The torpedoes missed the transport, but one hit ''Tenryū'' in the stern. ''Tenryū'' sank at 11:20 p.m. on 19 December 1942, at {{coord|05|12|S|145|56|E}}. Twenty-three crewmen were lost, but ''Suzukaze'' rescued the survivors, including Captain Ueda.

''Tenryū'' was struck from the Navy list on 20 January 1943.

==References==
===Books===
*{{cite book
| last = Brown
| first = David
| authorlink =
| year = 1990
| title = Warship Losses of World War Two
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location =
| id = ISBN 155750914X
}}
*{{cite book
| last = D'Albas
| first = Andrieu
| authorlink =
| year = 1965
| title = Death of a Navy: Japanese Naval Action in World War II
| publisher = Devin-Adair Pub
| location =
| id = ISBN 081595302X
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Dull
| first = Paul S.
| authorlink =
| year = 1978
| chapter =
| title = A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941-1945
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location =
| isbn = 0-87021-097-1
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Lacroix
| first = Eric
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Linton Wells
| year = 1997
| chapter =
| title = Japanese Cruisers of the Pacific War
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location =
| isbn = 0870213113
}}

===External links===
*{{cite web
| last = Parshall
| first = Jon
| coauthors = Bob Hackett, Sander Kingsepp, & Allyn Nevitt
| year =
| url = http://www.combinedfleet.com/tenryu_t.htm
| title = Imperial Japanese Navy Page (Combinedfleet.com)
| work =
| accessdate = 2006-06-14
}}
*Gallery: [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-fornv/japan/japsh-t/tenryu2.htm US Navy Historical Center]

===Notes===
{{reflist}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image: IJN Tenryu in 1919 under construction.jpg|<center>In 1919, under construction</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in 1919 under trials.jpg|<center>In 1919, under trials</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in Yokosuka 1919.jpg|<center>At Yokosuka, 1919</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in 1921.jpg|<center>In 1921</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in 1920s.jpg|<center>In the 1920s</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in 1926 postcard.jpg|<center>In a 1926 postcard</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in 1930.jpg|<center>In 1930</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in Inland Sea 1930-32.jpg|<center>In the Inland Sea, 1930–1932</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu 1930-31.jpg|<center>In 1930–1931</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in Shanghai 1932.jpg|<center>At Shanghai, 1932</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in Shanghai Feb 1934.jpg|<center>At Shanghai, February 1934</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu docked at Shanghai Feb 1934.jpg|<center>Docked at Shanghai, February 1934</center>
Image: IJN Tenryu in 1936.jpg|<center>In 1936</center>
</gallery>

{{Tenryū class cruiser}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tenryu}}
[[Category:Tenryū class cruisers]]
[[Category:Ships built in Japan]]
[[Category:1918 ships]]
[[Category:World War II cruisers of Japan]]
[[Category:Ships sunk by American submarines]]
[[Category:World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean]]

[[ja:天龍 (軽巡洋艦)]]
[[pl:Tenryū]]
[[sr:Јапанска лака крстарица Тенрју]]

Dnieper–Carpathian offensive

2011-03-30T16:19:47Z

Muta112: polish

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive
| partof = The [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| image = [[Image:Eastern Front 1943-08 to 1944-12.png|300px|Eastern_Front_1943-08_to_1944-12|]]
| caption = Soviet advances in 1943 and 1944.
| date = December 24, 1943 to April 14, 1944
| place = South-western [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]]
| result = Decisive Soviet victory
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}} {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}} {{flag|Czechoslovakia}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erich von Manstein]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hans-Valentin Hube]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Walther Model]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Karl-Adolf Hollidt]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Maximilian de Angelis]]<ref name="Pimlot332"/> {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erhard Raus]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Otto Wöhler]] {{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} [[Petre Dumitrescu]] {{flagicon|Kingdom of Romania}} [[Ioan Mihail Racoviţă]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Nikolai Vatutin]]{{KIA}} {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Georgi Zhukov]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Rodion Malinovsky]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Feodor Tolbukhin]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]]<ref name="Pimlot332"/> {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Lev Vladimirsky]]
| strength1 = ?
| strength2 = 2,406,100 initially<ref name = Glantz298>Glantz, p. 298</ref>
| casualties1 = 18 divisions were destroyed, 68 divisions lost more than 50% troops{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}
|casualties2 = 270,198 killed or missing, 839,330 wounded<ref name="Glantz298"/> 7532 guns and mortars 4,666 tanks and sp guns, 676 aircraft <ref name=Glantz298/>}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive}}

The '''Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive''', also known in Soviet historical sources as the '''liberation of [[right-bank Ukraine]]''', fought from 24 December 1943–14 April 1944, was a [[strategic offensive]] executed by the [[1st Ukrainian Front|1st]], [[2nd Ukrainian Front|2nd]], [[3rd Ukrainian Front|3rd]], and [[4th Ukrainian Front]]s, along with the [[1st Belorussian Front]], against the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[Army Group South]], intended to retake all of the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian]] and [[Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic|Moldovian]] territories occupied by [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis forces]]. The operation brought the Red Army forces into [[Poland]] and [[Romania]], completely destroyed 18 ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' and Romanian divisions, and reduced another 68 to below half of their establishment strength.<ref name="Willmott374">Willmott, p. 374</ref>

==Background==
As part of the [[Lower Dnieper Offensive]] in autumn 1943, which secured the [[Left-bank Ukraine|Left-bank]], or Eastern, Ukraine and cut off the German [[17th Army (Germany)|17th Army]] in the [[Crimea]], several Soviet bridgeheads were established across the [[Dnieper River]], which were then expanded throughout November and December to become the platforms from which the Dnieper—Carpathian Offensive was launched.<ref>Pimlott, p. 251</ref> This offensive and its follow-ups, which continued into December, left several large German salients along the Dnieper, including one south of [[Kiev]] centered on the city of [[Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi|Korsun]], between the areas of the 1st and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts, and another to the south, around [[Kryvyi Rih|Krivoy Rog]] and [[Nikopol, Ukraine|Nikopol]]. [[Adolf Hitler]]'s "No retreat" policy forced German troops to hold the tenuous positions, despite opposition from [[Erich von Manstein]], commander of [[Army Group South]].<ref name="Pimlot332">Pimlott, p. 332</ref>

The German forces were also disadvantaged because of Hitler's [[Fuhrer Directive 51]], which, while implying that he would allow his generals in the East to conduct a dynamic defense, in reality hurt them by directing all future reinforcements to the West, to counter the expected [[Normandy Landings|Anglo-American Invasion of Northwest Europe]].<ref name ="Keegan476">Keegan, p. 476.</ref> Hitler's insistence that his troops "fight where they stand" was especially strong in the Ukrainian sector, where he wished to maintain German positions near Krivoy Rog and Nikopol for the mining operations there, and to maintain strong hold on the Crimea due to his fears that it could become a base for attacks on the [[oil refineries]] at [[Ploieşti]] and that its loss would convince [[Turkey]] to join the [[Allied powers of World War II|Allies]].<ref name="Keegan476"/>

===Correlation of forces===
====Axis====
The Soviet goal was the destruction of the "East Wall" held by Erich von Manstein's Army Group South with (from north to south) [[4th Panzer Army (Germany)|4th Panzer Army]] in the [[Zhitomir]] region commanded by [[Erhard Raus]], [[Hans-Valentin Hube]]'s [[1st Panzer Army (Germany)|1st Panzer Army]] south of it as far as [[Cherkassy]], the newly formed [[8th Army (Germany)|8th Army]] commanded by [[Otto Wöhler]] in the region of [[Kirovograd]], the 6th Army (recreated after [[Battle of Stalingrad|its destruction at Stalingrad]]) under [[Maximilian de Angelis]] in the Krivoi Rog-Nikopol salient, and the [[Third Army (Romania)|Third Romanian Army]], also rebuilt after Stalingrad, under command of [[Petre Dumitrescu]] in the [[Taurida Governorate|Tavridia]] area, just north of [[Crimea]]. In reserve, to the north, Manstein had the [[First Army (Hungary)|1st Hungarian Army]] in the north-western Ukraine, and the 4th Romanian Army hastily assembled under command of [[Ioan Mihail Racoviţă]] in the area of Soviet Moldavian Republic. Air support was provided by the [[Luftwaffe]]'s [[Luftflotte 4]].

====Soviet====
The Stavka committed four Fronts to the operation, with the Belorussian Front providing a strategic flank security to the north in the [[Gomel]]-[[Mogilev]] area, but taking little part in the actual operation. It included the [[13th Army (Soviet Union)|13th]] and [[65th Army (Soviet Union)|65th]] Armies. Vatutin's 1st Ukrainian Front had only the [[60th Army (Soviet Union)|60th]], [[1st Guards Army (Soviet Union)|1st Guards]], [[6th Guards Tank Army|6th Guards Tank]]<ref name="Pimlot332"/> and [[40th Army (Soviet Union)|40th Armies]], but possessed massive armored reserves in the [[3rd Guards Army (Soviet Union)|3rd Guards Army]] and the [[1st Guards Tank Army (Soviet Union)|1st]] and [[20th Guards Army (Russia)|4th Tank Armies]], backed up by the [[18th Army (Soviet Union)|18th]] and [[38th Army (Soviet Union)|38th Armies]] and the [[2nd Air Army]]. Konev's 2nd Ukrainian Front to the south led with the [[27th Army (Soviet Union)|27th]], [[7th Guards Army|7th Guards]] and [[53nd Army (Soviet Union)|53nd Armies]], with reserves including the [[5th Guards Tank Army (Soviet Union)|5th Guards Tank]] and [[2nd Guards Tank Army (Soviet Union)|2nd Guards Tank]] armies, and the [[4th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|4th Guards Army]], all supported by the [[5th Air Army]]. Malinovsky had the [[57th Army (Soviet Union)|57th]], [[46th Army (Soviet Union)|46th]], [[8th Guards Army (Soviet Union)|8th Guards]] and [[37th Army (Soviet Union)|37th]] armies leading his 3rd Ukrainian Front, with the [[6th Army (Soviet Union)|6th Army]] in reserve, and the [[17th Air Army]] providing [[air support]]. [[Fyodor Tolbukhin]]'s 4th Ukrainian Front would have the most difficult job in conducting [[combined operations]] of his [[Separate Coastal Army]] and the [[Black Sea Fleet]] while the [[5th Army (Soviet Union)|5th]] and [[2nd Guards Army (Soviet Union)|2nd Guards]] armies would cut off escape routes over land for the German 17th Army with air support from the [[8th Air Army]] and the Black Sea Fleet naval aviation.

==The battle==
=== First phase===
The initial phase of the offensive, it lasted from 24 December 1943, to 29 February 1944. It included the following operations:

*Zhitomir–Berdichev Offensive (24 December 1943 - 14 January 1944)<ref name="Bellamymap"/>
*Kirovograd Offensive (5 January 1944 - 16 January 1944)
*Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive (24 January 1944 - 17 February 1944)<ref name="Bellamymap">Bellamy, p. 604–605</ref>
*Rovno–Lutsk Offensive (27 January 1944 - 11 February 1944)
*Nikopol–Krivoi Rog Offensive (30 January 1944 - 29 February 1944)

====Zhitomir–Berdichev Offensive====
{{Main|Zhitomir–Berdichev Offensive}}
The offensive was launched on December 24, 1943, by General [[Nikolai Vatutin]]'s 1st Ukrainian Front, with attacks against the German 4th Panzer Army, to the west and south-west of Kiev, in the [[Zhitomir–Berdichev Offensive]].<ref name="Pimlot332"/><ref name="Willmott371">Willmott, p. 371.</ref> On December 27, Manstein asked Hitler to pull back his troops, but he was ordered to hold. Nevertheless, [[Korosten]] fell on December 29, and Zhitomir followed on December 31.<ref name="Pimlot332"/>

According to soviet information Germany lost in this battle between 24 December 1943 and 13 January 1944 100.000 dead soldiers, 7.000 captured and 2.520 tanks where as the Russians are estimated to have lost 300,000 killed, wounded, or captured .<ref>[http://9may.ru/31.01.1944/inform/m4527 Наша Победа. День за днем - проект РИА Новости]</ref>

====Kirovograd Offensive====
General [[Ivan Konev]]'s 2nd Ukrainian Front next joined the fray by launching the [[Kirovograd Offensive]] on January 5, 1944, with an attack on [[Kirovograd]], which it quickly took.<ref name="Pimlot332"/> At this point, Manstein flew to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia to ask permission to withdraw, but was again refused.<ref name="Pimlot332"/>

====Rovno–Lutsk Offensive====
Vatutin's forces continued attacking on the right flank, coming near to the important supply centers of [[Lviv|Lvov]] and [[Ternopil|Ternopol]] in the [[Rovno–Lutsk Offensive]],<ref name="Willmott371"/> which opened a 110 mile gap between Army Group South and [[Army Group Center]], which was stationed to the north.<ref name="Willmott371"/>

====Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive====
{{Main|Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive}}
[[File:Sovietgunners.jpg|thumb|alt=A large gun trapped in mud. Several men in long, heavy coats are pushing on it trying to get it free.|A thaw created very muddy conditions which encumbered both armies.]]
The main effort, however, was to the south, where the [[Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive]] was launched on January 24. After a massive bombardment,<ref name="Pimlot332"/> 2nd Ukrainian Front's 4th Guards and 53rd Armies attacked to the south of the Korsun bulge, and were joined the next day by the 5th Guards Tank Army. They broke through and easily repelled a German counter-attack.<ref name="Pimlot332"/> On January 26, 1st Ukrainian Front dispatched 6th Guards Tank Army from the north, which met up with the forces advancing from the south on January 28, encircling about 60,000 Germans in [[XI Panzer Corps (Germany)|XI]] and [[XXXXII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XXXXII Panzer Corps]] around Korsun, in a pocket named "Little Stalingrad" due to the ferocity of the fighting in it.<ref name="Pimlot332"/><ref name="Willmott372">Willmott, p. 372.</ref> In total, twenty-seven Soviet divisions were assigned to destroy the pocket.<ref name="Bellamy606">Bellamy, p. 606</ref> Soviet efforts, however, were hindered by the onset of an early thaw, which made the ground muddy.<ref name="Bellamy606"/> On February 4 Manstein dispatched [[Hans Hube]], commanding the [[1st Panzer Army (Germany)|1st Panzer Army]],<ref name="Bellamy606"/> including [[XLVII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLVII]] and [[III Panzer Corps (Germany)|III Panzer Corps]] to assist in a breakout attempt. XLVII Panzer Corps attacked from the south-east, while III Panzer Corps attacked the west, but they were both bogged down by the mud.<ref name="Pimlot332"/> Zhukov issued a surrender demand to the forces trapped in the pocket on February 8, but was turned down.<ref name="Bellamy606"/> III Panzer Corps was eventually, after a hard battle of attrition, able to reach [[Lysyanka]], close to the trapped forces,<ref name="Pimlot332"/> and, during a blizzard, German forces in the pocket attempted to break out, but the majority failed.<ref name="Bellamy606"/> Running out of supplies and harried by airstrikes and advancing ground forces, [[Wilhelm Stemmermann]], commander of the trapped forces, decided to attempt a final break-out on the night of February 16–17.<ref name="Pimlot332"/> This failed badly, and most of the soldiers—including Stemmermann—were killed, with few reaching safety. Soviet forces captured 18,000 of the estimated 73,000 troops in the pocket, killing most of the rest.<ref name="Bellamy606"/>
[[File:Wreckedtruckserickson.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Many destroyed or damaged trucks scattered around a field. Snow and dirt cover everything.|Some of the destroyed German equipment following the attempt to break out from Korsun.]]

====Nikopol–Krivoi Rog Offensive====
The Nikopol–Krivoi Rog Offensive was meanwhile launched by 3rd Ukrainian Front to the south against forces in [[Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist]]'s [[Army Group A]], and proceeded slowly at first.<ref name=Keegan476/> However, it eventually destroyed the salient projecting around Krivoi Rog and Nikopol, costing the Germans the important mining operations there as well as nearly encircling the defenders.<ref name="Keegan476"/>

While the offensive appeared to slow down in late February, the Soviets were preparing for the second phase of the offensive, soon to be launched on an even larger scale.<ref name="Willmott372"/>

The Red Army smashed 12 German divisions.<ref>[http://militarymaps.narod.ru/oper_1944.html#7 Основные операции Советских Вооруженных Сил в ВОВ, начавшиеся в 1944 году]</ref>

===Second phase===
These operations were included in the second phase by Soviet planners:

*Proskurov–Chernovtsy Offensive (4 March 1944 - 17 April 1944)<ref name="Bellamymap"/>
*[[Uman–Botoşani Offensive]] (5 March 1944 - 17 April 1944)
*Bereznegovatoye-Snigirevka Offensive (6 March 1944 - 18 March 1944)
*Polesskoe Offensive (15 March 1944 - 5 April 1944)
*Odessa Offensive (26 March 1944 - 14 April 1944)

====Proskurov–Chernovtsy Offensive====
After the slackening of the Soviet effort at the end of February, the [[Oberkommando des Heeres|OKH]], the headquarters for the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] believed any further offensive effort in that sector unlikely.<ref name="Willmott372"/> However, the Soviets were secretly preparing an even greater offensive, bringing in all six tank armies stationed in Ukraine.<ref name="Willmott374" /> The Soviet deception measures were successful and most Germans were surprised when, on March 4, the 1st Ukrainian Front–commanded by Marshal [[Georgy Zhukov]] after Vatutin's death–launched the [[Proskurov–Chernovtsy Offensive]], with a fierce artillery barrage.<ref name="Pimlot332"/> Due to the extremely muddy conditions, it was hard for the defending Germans to remain mobile, but the Soviet forces had adequate supplies of tracked tanks and trucks, giving them another advantage.<ref name="Pimlot332"/>

According to Soviet data Germany and Romania lost between 4 and 31 March 1944 here 183.310 dead soldiers, 24.950 captured German soldiers, 2.187 tanks and 53.987 cars. Soviet losses are estimated around 220,000 killed, 180,000 wounded, and 71,000 missing in action <ref>[http://9may.ru/17.04.1944/inform/m4453 Наша Победа. День за днем - проект РИА Новости]</ref>

====Uman–Botoshany Offensive====
{{Main|Uman–Botoşani Offensive}}
On March 5 Koniev launched the [[Uman–Botoshany Offensive]],<ref name="Pimlot332"/> advancing rapidly and soon cutting off the supply line for First Panzer Army by capturing [[Chortkiv|Chortkov]] on March 23.<ref name="Pimlot332"/> On March 10, the 2nd Ukrainian Front destroyed two Panzer Corps by capturing them at the fall of [[Uman]].<ref name="Willmott373"/>

====Bereznegovatoye–Snigirevka Offensive====
Malinovsky joined with the [[Bereznegovatoye–Snigirevka Offensive]] the next day,<ref name="Pimlot332"/> while Tolbukin was detached to begin preparations for the [[Crimean Offensive (1944)|Crimean Offensive]].<ref>Pimlott, p. 334</ref> These Fronts advanced rapidly, while Konev moved to cut off the withdrawal of the First Panzer Army. The First Panzer Army, now commanded by [[Hans Hube]], was entirely encircled by March 28.<ref name="Pimlot332"/> During the encirclement, Eric von Manstein flew to Hitler's headquarters and asked him to revoke his directive that required all encircled formations to form "fortresses" where they were.<ref name="Pimlott333">Pimlott, p. 333</ref> He was successful, and received [[II Panzer Corps]] as reinforcements, the first transfer of forces to the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] at the expense of the [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Front]] since Hitler's Führer Directive 51.<ref name="Willmott374"/> On March 30, Hube's forces struck out of the pocket, and, because Soviet [[military intelligence]] was unaware of the arrival of II Panzer Corps<ref name="Willmott374"/> and he moved west, instead of south as Soviet commanders were expecting,<ref name="Pimlott333"/> he was successful, and, by April 10, Hube's forces had met up with the Fourth Panzer Army.<ref name="Pimlott333"/> Despite this small success, Hitler blamed his generals for the overall strategic success of Soviet forces, fired the commanders of Army Group South and Army Group A (von Manstein and von Kleist, respectively), replaced them with [[Walter Model]] and [[Ferdinand Schörner]], and renamed them Army Groups [[Army Group North Ukraine|North]] and [[Army Group South Ukraine|South Ukraine]], indicating his plans to recapture this territory.<ref name="Hart148">Liddell Hart, p. 148</ref>

According to Soviet data Germany lost here between 6 and 16 March 1944 36.800 dead soldiers, 13.859 captured and 275 tanks.<ref>[http://9may.ru/20.03.1944/inform/m4672 Наша Победа. День за днем - проект РИА Новости]</ref>

====Polesskoe Offensive====
Meanwhile, towards the south, the 3rd Ukrainian Front was advancing on Odessa and into the Romanian-administered [[Transnistria (World War II)|Transnistria]].<ref name="Pimlott333"/> After three days of heavy fighting, his spearheading Eight Guards Army had advanced only {{convert|5|mi|km}}, but it had broken the crust of Karl-Adolf Hollidt's Sixth Army, and quickly advanced {{convert|25|mi|km}} towards [[Novy Bug]], nearly encircling the defenders.<ref name="Pimlott333"/> Despite Hitler's orders forbidding retreat, German forces fell back to the [[Southern Bug|Bug River]] by March 11. The same day, Hollidt managed to break out from his encirclement — primarily because Malinovsky had divided his forces at [[Nikolayev (Ukraine)|Nikolaev]]<ref name="Pimlott333"/> — and was able to improvise a defensive line on the Bug by March 21. However, he had lost Hitler's confidence, and was sacked, to be replaced with Maximilian de Angelis.<ref name="Pimlott333"/> On March 28, pressed hard all over the line, German troops began to fall back from the Bug.<ref name="Pimlott333"/>

====Odessa Offensive====
[[File:Sov Odessa 44.jpg|thumb|250px|Soviet tanks near Odessa]]
By March 25, the Prut had fallen and the 3rd Ukrainian Front was dispatched to secure [[Odessa]].<ref name="Willmott373">Willmott, p. 373</ref> On April 2, [[Vasili Chuikov]]'s Eighth Guards Army and Forty-Sixty Army attacked through a blizzard<ref name="Pimlott333"/> and, by April 6, had driven the defenders past the [[Dniester|Dniester River]] and isolated [[Odessa]].<ref name="Pimlott333"/> Odessa capitulated on April 10, and Soviet troops began entering [[Romania]] proper.<ref name="Pimlott333"/>

According to Soviet information Germany and Romania lost between 25 March and 12 April 1944 26.800 dead soldiers, 10.680 captured German soldiers and 443 tanks.<ref>[http://9may.ru/17.04.1944/inform/m4464 Наша Победа. День за днем - проект РИА Новости]</ref>

==Aftermath==
The operation, along with the [[Crimean Offensive (1944)|Crimean Offensive]] resulted in very heavy casualties for the Romanian troops stationed in Ukraine.<ref name="Pimlott333"/> The heavy casualties and the proximity of Soviet forces to the Romanian border were the primary motivations for Romanian leaders when they began secret peace talks in Moscow soon after the completion of the offensive.<ref name="Pimlott333"/>

===Territory recaptured===
In the course of the operation the [[Vinnytsia Oblast|Vinnitskaya]], [[Volyn Oblast|Volynskaya]], [[Zhytomyr Oblast|Zhitomirskaya]], [[Kiev Oblast|Kievskaya]], [[Kirovohrad Oblast|Kirovogradskaya]], [[Rivne Oblast|Rovnenskaya]], [[Khmelnytskyi Oblast|Khmelnytskaya]] and parts of [[Poltava Oblast|Poltavskaya oblasts]], and the [[Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic]] were taken by the Red Army, an area of some 204,000 km².

===Modern view===
Currently, the operation is not very widely recognized for the great victory that it is in Western history.<ref name="Willmott374"/> After the end of the war, some of the commanders involved were disgraced, and Stalin widely eliminated most references of the operation. Also, many Western historians, at least until the end of the [[Cold War]], focused on the small German successes in the extrication of the ''1st Panzer Army''.<ref name="Willmott374"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |title= Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War|last= Bellamy|first= Chris |year= 2007 |publisher= Alfred A. Knopf |isbn= 9780375410864 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=_dAWAQAAIAAJ |chapter= Destroying the Wehrmacht}}
*{{cite book |title= Barbarossa: The Russian–German Conflict, 1941–1945 |last = Clark |first = Alan |authorlink = Alan Clark |year = 1965 |publisher = HarperCollins |isbn = 9780688042684 |url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Biy-5FvnEUAC |chapter = "The Floodgates are Creaking"}}
*{{cite book |title= Road to Berlin: Continuing the History of Stalin's War with Germany|last= Erickson|first= John R.|authorlink= John Erickson (historian)|year= 1983|publisher= Westview Press|location= Boulder, Colorado|isbn= 0300078137 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=6UaU6ZLqK4UC&dq=Road+to+Berlin&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 |chapter= The Drive to the Western Frontiers: October 1943-March 1944}}
*{{cite book |title= When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler| last = Glantz | first = David | authorlink = David Glantz |last2 = House | first2 = Jonathan |year= 1998|publisher= University Press of Kansas|location= Lawrence, Kansas|isbn= 0700608990 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=O2zpAAAACAAJ&dq=When+Titans+Clashed&ei=Bk_-SJH9GYbQMo2mqbIO |chapter= Third Winter of the War}}
*{{cite book |title= The Second World War | last = Keegan | first = John | authorlink = John Keegan | year = 1989 | publisher = Penguin Books, Ltd. | location = Harmondsworth, Middlesex | isbn = 014011341X | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=X49RqlegjboC&ei=hQBcSb3tIZPqyQT_oNiICg&pgis=1 | chapter = Kursk and the Recapture of Western Russia}}
*{{cite book|last=Liddell Hart|first=Basil|authorlink =Basil Liddell Hart|title=History of the Second World War|publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons|location=New York|year=1970|chapter=The Liberation of Russia|isbn=0306809125|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KSld2jCQpwkC}}
*{{cite book |author= Pimlott, John et al. |title= The World at Arms: The Reader's Digest Illustrated History of World War II|year= 1989|publisher= The Reader's Digest Association Limited|location= London|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=DX5rHgAACAAJ&dq=reader%27s+digest+illustrated+history+of+World+War+II&ei=dIT_SLKfN5OGM-6V2MML|chapter= Russian Ring of Steel at Korsun |isbn=0895773333}}
*{{cite book |title= Russia at War, 1941 - 1945|last= Werth|first= Alexander|authorlink= Alexander Werth|year= 1964|publisher= E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc|location= New York|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=QQgbAAAAIAAJ&q=russia+at+war&dq=russia+at+war&ei=7oL_SMb8A4qoMvmtlc8L&pgis=1 |chapter= Close-Up I: Ukrainian Microcosm}}
*{{cite book |title= The Great Crusade: A New Complete History of the Second World War|last= Willmott|first= H.P.|year= 1989|publisher= The Free Press|location= New York|isbn= 0029347157 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=l_xpAQAACAAJ&dq=The+Great+Crusade&ei=NIX_SMXVBJCoMoDG6KUD |chapter= Western Ukraine Offensive}}
*{{cite book |title= Stalingrad to Berlin: The German Defeat in the East|last= Ziemke|first= Earl F.|year= 1968|publisher= The U.S. Army Center of Military History|location= Washington, DC|isbn= 1410204146 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=JBQOAAAACAAJ&dq=Stalingrad+to+Berlin&ei=u4X_SJf0KoqoMvmtlc8L |chapter= Offensives on Both Flanks–The South Flank}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1944]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Military history of Ukraine]]
[[Category:Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II]]
[[Category:1943 in Ukraine]]
[[Category:1944 in Ukraine]]

[[de:Dnepr-Karpaten-Operation]]
[[pl:Operacja dnieprowsko-karpacka]]
[[ru:Днепровско-Карпатская операция]]
[[sk:Dnepersko-karpatská útočná operácia]]
[[tr:Dinyeper-Karpatlar Taarruzu]]
[[uk:Дніпровсько-Карпатська операція]]
[[vi:Chiến dịch tấn công Dnepr-Carpath]]
[[zh:第聶伯河-喀爾巴阡山脈攻勢]]

USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37)

2011-03-12T07:20:35Z

Muta112: /* September 1939 -- June 6th 1944 */

{{otherships|USS Tuscaloosa}}
{{Inappropriate tone|date=August 2008}}
{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}
{{Infobox Ship Image
|Ship image=[[Image:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37) off Iwo Jima, 16 February 1945.jpg|300px|USS ''Tuscaloosa'']]
|Ship caption=USS ''Tuscaloosa'' off [[Iwo Jima]] on 16 February 1945
}}
{{Infobox Ship Career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=United States of America
|Ship flag={{USN flag|1946}}
|Ship name=USS ''Tuscaloosa''
|Ship namesake=[[Tuscaloosa, Alabama]]
|Ship ordered=
|Ship awarded=
|Ship builder=[[New York Shipbuilding|New York Shipbuilding Co.]]
|Ship original cost=$US 11-12,000,000
|Ship yard number=
|Ship way number=
|Ship laid down=3 September 1931
|Ship launched=15 November 1933
|Ship sponsor=
|Ship christened=
|Ship completed=
|Ship commissioned=17 August 1934
|Ship decommissioned=13 February 1946
|Ship struck=1 March 1959
|Ship identification=
|Ship motto=
|Ship nickname=
|Ship honors=
|Ship fate=Scrapped in 1959
|Ship notes=
|Ship badge=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=
|Ship class=[[New Orleans class cruiser|''New Orleans''-class]] [[heavy cruiser]]
|Ship displacement=9,975 tons
|Ship length={{convert|574|ft|m|abbr=on}} (waterline); {{convert|588|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on}} (overall)
|Ship beam={{convert|61|ft|9|in|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship draft={{convert|19|ft|5|in|m|abbr=on}} (mean); {{convert|23|ft|6|in|mm|abbr=on}} (maximum)
|Ship power={{convert|107000|shp|kW|abbr=on}}
|Ship propulsion=4 × Parsons geared turbines, 8 × Babcock and Wilcox boilers, 4 × shafts
|Ship speed={{convert|32.7|kn|mph km/h|abbr=on}}
|Ship range=
|Ship capacity=1,650 tons of fuel oil
|Ship complement=708 officers and enlisted men
|Ship sensors=
|Ship armament=9 × [[8"/55 caliber gun|{{convert|8|in|mm|abbr=on}}/55 cal guns]] (3x3) 8 × [[5"/25 caliber gun|{{convert|5|in|mm|abbr=on}}/25 cal]] [[Anti-aircraft warfare|AA]] guns<ref name="Fahey">Fahey 1941 p. 9</ref> 8 × {{convert|0.50|in|mm|1|abbr=on}} [[machine gun]]s, early on — machine guns later replaced with 16 × [[Bofors 40 mm|40 mm gun]]s, 19 × [[Oerlikon 20 mm cannon|20 mm cannon]]s
|Ship armor=*[[Belt armor|Belt]]: {{convert|5|in|mm|abbr=on}} (amidships); {{convert|1.5|in|mm|abbr=on}} (fore and aft)
*[[Deck (ship)|Deck]]: {{convert|3|in|mm|abbr=on}} + {{convert|2|in|mm|abbr=on}}
*[[Gun turret|Turret]]s: {{convert|5|to|6|in|mm|abbr=on}} (face); {{convert|3|in|mm|abbr=on}} (sides, back)
*[[Conning tower|Conning Tower]]: {{convert|8|in|mm|abbr=on}}
|Ship aircraft=4 × [[floatplane]]s
|Ship aircraft facilities=2 × [[Aircraft catapult]]s
|Ship notes=
}}
|}

'''USS ''Tuscaloosa'' (CA-37)''' was a [[United States Navy]] [[New Orleans class cruiser|''New Orleans''-class]] [[heavy cruiser]].

She was laid down on 3 September 1931 at [[Camden, New Jersey]], by the [[New York Shipbuilding|New York Shipbuilding Co.]], launched on 15 November 1933, sponsored by Mrs. Thomas Lee McCann, the wife of [[Lieutenant]] Thomas L. McCann and the niece of [[William Bacon Oliver]], the Representative of the [[Alabama's 6th congressional district]]). She was commissioned on 17 August 1934, [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] John N. Ferguson in command.

==Inter-war period==
''Tuscaloosa'' devoted the autumn to a shakedown cruise which took her to [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Buenos Aires]], and [[Montevideo]], before she returned to the [[New York Navy Yard]] shortly before Christmas. She then underwent post-shakedown repairs which kept her in the yard into March 1935.

The heavy cruiser soon shaped a course for the west coast. After a stop at [[Guantánamo Bay]], [[Cuba]], she transited the [[Panama Canal]] on 7-8 April and then steamed north to [[San Diego]], where she joined [[Cruiser Division 6]] (CruDiv 6) in time to participate in [[Fleet Problem XVI]] staged in May in the northern Pacific off the coast of [[Alaska]] and in waters surrounding the [[Hawaiian Islands]]. This operation was divided into five distinct phases which might be aspects of some real naval campaign of the future in which the United States would take the strategic offensive.

[[Image:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37) underway, 1934.jpg|thumb|right|''Tuscaloosa'' underway in 1934.]]

''Tuscaloosa'' subsequently was based at [[San Pedro, California]], whence she conducted routine exercises and local operations with CruDiv 6. In the spring of 1936, the heavy cruiser participated in [[Fleet Problem XVII]], taking place off the west coast of the United States, Central America, and the [[Panama Canal Zone]]. The five phase exercise was devoted to preparing the fleet for antisubmarine operations, testing communications systems, and training of aircraft patrol squadrons for extended fleet operations.

In May 1937, the Fleet [[Fleet Problem XVIII|again exercised]] in Alaskan waters and in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands and [[Midway Island|Midway]], practicing the tactics of seizing advanced base sites - a technique later to be polished to a high degree into close support and amphibious warfare doctrines. ''Tuscaloosa'', as part of the "augmented" [[Scouting Force]], "battled" the [[Battle Force]] that spring.

In April and May 1938, the heavy cruiser participated in [[Fleet Problem XIX]], which was conducted in the vicinity of Hawaii.

''Tuscaloosa'' departed San Diego on 3 January 1939 and proceeded, via the Panama Canal, to the [[Caribbean]]. She took part in [[Fleet Problem XX]], in the Atlantic to the east of the Lesser Antilles, before undergoing a brief refit at the Norfolk Navy Yard. She then joined {{USS|San Francisco|CA-38|2}} and {{USS|Quincy|CA-39|2}} for a goodwill tour of South American ports. From 8 April-10 May, the division — under the command of [[Rear admiral (United States)|Rear Admiral]] [[Husband E. Kimmel]] — visited [[Caracas]], Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Buenos Aires before transiting the storm-tossed [[Strait of Magellan]]. The three cruisers drove their bows deep into heavy seas and battled gale-force winds as they made the difficult passage on 14-15 May. The division then sailed up the west coast of South America, visiting [[Valparaíso]], [[Chile]], and [[Callao]], [[Peru]], before transiting the Panama Canal and returning to Norfolk, where she arrived on 6 June.

''Tuscaloosa'' remained off the east coast into the summer of 1939. In August, she carried President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] to [[Campobello Island]], [[New Brunswick]]. ''En route'', off [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire]], the Commander in Chief witnessed salvage operations in progress on the sunken {{USS|Squalus|SS-192|2}} which had stayed down after a test dive on 24 May. On 24 August, following visits to Campobello and several ports in [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], President Roosevelt disembarked at [[Sandy Hook (New Jersey)|Sandy Hook]] on the coast of [[New Jersey]].

==World War II==
===September 1939 -- June 6th 1944 ===
The outbreak of [[World War II]] a week later (1 September 1939) found ''Tuscaloosa'' at [[NOB Norfolk]]. On the 5th, President Roosevelt established the [[Neutrality Patrol]]; and, the next day, the cruiser departed for her first patrol which kept her at sea until she returned to her home port on the 11th. Three days later, the heavy cruiser departed Norfolk and spent the remainder of September and most of October engaged in gunnery training and conducting exercises out of Guantanamo Bay and [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]]. She departed the Caribbean on 27 October, bound for Hampton Roads, and arrived at Norfolk on 5 November and, but for gunnery exercises off the [[Virginia Capes]] from the 13th-the 15th, remained in the Hampton Roads areas until mid-December.

Meanwhile, the Neutrality Patrol found itself keeping track of German merchantmen in waters of the western hemisphere. At the outbreak of hostilities, there had been some 85 German ships near the Americas. One of those, the North German (''Norddeutsche'') Lloyd (NDL) liner {{SS|Columbus|1924|2}} — the 13th largest steamship in the world — had been on a tourist cruise when war caught her in the [[West Indies]]. She put into [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], [[Mexico]], where she fueled and prepared to make a break for home.

The liner departed Vera Cruz on 14 December 1939 but soon thereafter was picked up and shadowed by the destroyer {{USS|Benham|DD-397|2}}. In ensuing days, a succession of US warships — totaling seven in all — trailed the liner. Captain [[Wilhelm Daehne]], the master of the '''''Columbus''''', was careful to keep his ship within the {{convert|300|mi|km|abbr=on}} neutrality zone until she was abreast of the [[Delaware]] capes. He then headed east.

The '''''Tuscaloosa''''', meanwhile, had been ordered out to participate in the chase. On 16 December, two days after ''Columbus'' departed Vera Cruz, ''Tuscaloosa'' stood out of Norfolk, bound for her patrol station. She soon relieved {{USS|Cole|DD-155|2}} and {{USS|Ellis|DD-154|2}} — two flushdeckers — and at 1450 on 19 December, spotted the British destroyer {{HMS|Hyperion|H97|6}}, guns trained out and battle ensigns streaming, standing toward ''Columbus''. ''Hyperion'' radioed ''Tuscaloosa'': "What ship are you escorting?" ''Tuscaloosa'' remained silent, but the ''Hyperion'' was soon radioing the ''Columbus'' to heave to and not use her radio. Two shots whistled across the German ocean liner's bow.

For Captain Daehne, there remained only one alternative. After having carefully planned for that eventuality, he scuttled his ship. All but two of his crew — a complement that included nine women stewardesses — succeeded in going over the side and manning the lifeboats. Since the ''Hyperion'' clearly had no room for the 577 Germans who had abandoned the liner, she radioed the ''Tuscaloosa'', asking if the cruiser could handle the survivors.

From his motor launch, Captain Daehne kept the lifeboats together while the ''Tuscaloosa'' embarked the 567 men and nine women. He then followed them to safety on board the cruiser which provided hospitality for the shipwrecked mariners who were glad to be on board an American cruiser as rescued seamen and not in a British warship as prisoners-of-war. The bulk of the survivors were put up in the cruiser's [[seaplane]] hangar that had been cleared out to facilitate its use as a large berthing area; and the women were berthed in sick bay.

''Tuscaloosa'' took the survivors to New York — the only port equipped to handle such a large and sudden influx of aliens — and disembarked them at Ellis Island between 1610 and 1730 on 20 December for officials to process. Ultimately, most of ''Columbus'' officers and men returned, via the Pacific, to their native land. Meanwhile, ''Tuscaloosa'' departed New York on the 21st and arrived at Norfolk the following day.

The heavy cruiser remained at Norfolk into the New Year, 1940, and departed her home port on 11 January bound for the West Indies. On the voyage to the Caribbean, she was accompanied by her sister ship ''San Francisco''; Battleship Division 5 — less {{USS|Wyoming|BB-32|2}} and {{USS|Manley|DD-74|2}}, the prototype high-speed transport. ''Tuscaloosa'' and her consorts arrived at [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]] on the 16th, and two days later shifted to Guantánamo Bay. There, she participated in fleet exercises from the 18th-the 27th. Departing Guantánamo on the latter day, the ''Tuscaloosa'' returned to Norfolk on 29 January and entered the navy yard there for special alterations to fit her out for service as Presidential flagship.

The '''''Tuscaloosa''''' departed from the [[Norfolk Navy Yard]] on 2 February, and then she moored at NOB Norfolk. Two days later, she got underway for Cuba, arriving at Guantánamo on the 7th, only to steam out three days later for [[Pensacola, Florida]], in company with {{USS|Lang|DD-399|2}}. The two ships exercised en route and arrived at Pensacola on the 14th.

On the next day, ''Tuscaloosa'' embarked President Roosevelt and his guests and departed in company with {{USS|Jouett|DD-396|2}} and ''Lang'' for a cruise to Panama and the west coast of Central America. The voyage gave the President an opportunity to discuss Pan American defense with leaders of Latin American nations. Steaming to the Pacific coast of Central America, Roosevelt inspected the Pacific defenses of the Panama Canal. In addition, he fished regularly at a variety of locations but, as he later recounted, caught "damned few fish." On the return passage through the canal, on 27 February, Roosevelt conferred with United States Navy, Army, and Air Corps officers to discuss the defense of the vital passage.

After disembarking the President at Pensacola, ''Tuscaloosa'' proceeded north to Norfolk and from thence to the New York Navy Yard for a three-month overhaul. During her sojourn at Brooklyn, Hitler's legions conquered France in June 1940 and won mastery of continental Europe. Soon thereafter, ''Tuscaloosa'' returned to the neutrality patrol and conducted monotonous but intensive patrols in the Caribbean and [[Bermuda]] areas through the summer and fall months of 1940.

On 3 December 1940 at [[Miami]], President Roosevelt embarked in ''Tuscaloosa'' for the third time for a cruise to inspect the base sites obtained from [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in the recently negotiated "destroyers for bases" deal. In that transaction, the United States had traded 50 old flush-deck destroyers for 99-year leases on bases in the western hemisphere. Ports of call included [[Kingston, Jamaica]]; [[Santa Lucia]], [[Antigua]]; and the [[Bahamas]]. Roosevelt fished and entertained British colonial officials—including the [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Duke]] and [[Wallis Simpson|Duchess]] of Windsor—on board the cruiser.

While the President cruised in the '''''Tuscaloosa''''', American officials in Washington wrestled with the problem of extending aid to Britain. Having barely weathered the disastrous campaign in France in the spring and the Battle of Britain in the summer, the United Kingdom desperately needed [[materiel]]. American production could meet Britain's need, but American neutrality law limiting the purchase of arms by belligerents to "cash-and-carry" transactions was about to become a major obstacle, for British coffers were almost empty. While pondering Britain's plight as he luxuriated in ''Tuscaloosa'', the President hit upon the idea of the "lend-lease" program to aid the embattled British.

On 16 December, Roosevelt left the ship at [[Charleston, South Carolina]], to head for Washington to implement his "lend-lease" idea — one more step in United States' progress towards full involvement in the war. Soon thereafter, ''Tuscaloosa'' sailed for Norfolk and, on 22 December, embarked [[Admiral]] [[William D. Leahy]], the newly designated Ambassador to [[Vichy France]], and his wife, for passage to [[Portugal]]. With the "stars and stripes" painted large on the roofs of [[Gun turret|Turret]]s II and III, and her largest colors flying, ''Tuscaloosa'' sailed for the European war zone, initially escorted by {{USS|Upshur|DD-144|2}} and {{USS|Madison|DD-425|2}}.

After disembarking the Ambassador to Vichy France at [[Lisbon]] and returning to Norfolk on 11 January 1941, the cruiser went to sea on maneuvers that kept her at sea until 2 March. She subsequently arrived at the newly opened American naval facility at Bermuda, on 8 April, the day after the base's commissioning. Her consorts included {{USS|Ranger|CV-4|2}}, {{USS|Wichita|CA-45|2}}, {{USS|Kearny|DD-432|2}}, and {{USS|Livermore|DD-429|2}}. Based at Bermuda, ''Tuscaloosa'' continued patrolling shipping lanes in the [[North Atlantic]], enforcing the neutrality of the United States.

Elsewhere in the Atlantic, the war between the British and the Germans took an anxious turn late in May when the German battleship '''{{Ship|German battleship|Bismarck||2}}''' and the cruiser '''{{Ship|German cruiser|Prinz Eugen||2}};;; broke out into the Atlantic. On 24 May, the ''Bismarck'' had sunk the vaunted {{HMS|Hood|51|6}} in the [[Denmark Strait]] and had temporarily eluded pursuit.

The ''Bismarck''{{'}}s escape into the swirling mists of the Atlantic prompted orders which sent ''Tuscaloosa'' to sea immediately. Most of the crew on liberty at the time could not be rounded up in time, so the ship set out for the hunt with personnel "shanghaied" from the {{USS|Vincennes|CA-44|2}} and the USS ''Quincy'' and a group of reserve ensigns who happened to be on board for a reserve cruise. However, before the cruiser reached waters where she hoped to find the '''''Bismarck''''', British warships — directed under legally questionable circumstances by an American naval reserve ensign piloting a British PBY—succeeded in attacking ''Bismarck'' which had to be scuttled by own own crew after rudder jam and loss of her main guns.

The '''''Tuscaloosa''''' soon returned to the tedium of neutrality patrolling. As the United States continued in a slow but deliberate fashion to become involved, however, the tenor of events soon changed for the heavy cruiser. On 8 August, she departed Bermuda for Newfoundland and soon embarked General [[Henry H. Arnold]], head of the [[United States Army Air Corps|Army Air Corps]]; Rear Admiral [[Richmond K. Turner]], Director of the War Plans Division of the Navy; and Capt. [[Forrest Sherman]]. She joined '''{{USS|Augusta|CA-31|2}}''' off [[New York City]]; and, together, the two ships, escorted by a screen of three destroyers proceeded to [[Naval Station Argentia|NS Argentia]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]].

The '''''Augusta''''', bearing President Roosevelt, and her consorts soon arrived in the barren anchorage where the British battleship {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|6}} — with Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] embarked — awaited her. The ensuing discussions between the two heads of state hammered out the "[[Atlantic Charter]]".

Returning from Argentina upon the conclusion of the Anglo-American talks, the '''''Tuscaloosa''''' conveyed Under Secretary of State [[Sumner Welles]] to [[Portland, Maine]]. Three weeks later, in September, the cruiser overtook the first American troop convoy to Iceland, as American marines relieved British troops guarding that strategic island.

The '''''Tuscaloosa''''' soon received new orders which assigned her to a task group built around battleships '''{{USS|Idaho|BB-42|2}}''', '''{{USS|Mississippi|BB-41|2}}''', and '''{{USS|New Mexico|BB-40|2}}'''. The '''''Wichita''''' and two divisions of [[destroyer]]s joined the ''Tuscaloosa'' in the screen of the men of-war. Under the two-starred flag of Rear Admiral [[Robert C. Ike Giffen]], the Denmark Strait patrol worked out of wind-swept, cold [[Hvalfjörður]], Iceland - nicknamed by the American sailors and Marines as ''"[[Valley Forge]]"''.

The similarities between the Continental Army's historic winter campground and the Icelandic region were not just confined to a homonymous relation of their names. The bitter cold, wind, and snow and the wartime operations seemed similar — the latter in the form of daily patrols, unceasingly vigilant for any signs of the "enemy". The ''Tuscaloosa'' and the ''Wichita'' "stripped ship" for war, removing accumulated coats of paint, interior and exterior, floor tiling, and other inflammable and nonessential items before they set out for sea on 5 November. As the task force steamed toward Iceland, its warships were constantly alert to the possibility of an imminent [[sortie]] by the German battleship '''{{Ship|German battleship|Tirpitz||2}}''', the sister ship of the sunken '''''Bismarck'''''.

While the '''''Tirpitz''''' refused to show herself, the American ships continued to conduct "short of war" operations which became increasingly warlike as time went on. The attempted torpedoing of the destroyers '''{{USS|Greer|DD-145|2}}''', the damaging of the USS '''''Kearny''''' in October; the sinking of the '''{{USS|Reuben James|DD-245|2}}''' by a German U-boat; and the torpedoing of the oiler '''{{USS|Salinas|AO-19|2}}''' all pointed to the fact that American ships were becoming involved in the war.

===The Bombing of Pearl Harbor and War for the United States===

The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|sneak attack at Pearl Harbor]] on [[December 7, 1941]], plunged the United States into a real war at last, in both oceans, because both [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist]] [[Italy]] declared war on the United States on 11 December.

On 6 January 1942, the '''''Tuscaloosa''''' steamed out of Hvalfjörður along with the USS '''''Wichita''''' and two American [[destroyer]]s — the '''{{USS|Grayson|DD-435|2}}''' and the '''{{USS|Meredith|DD-434|2}}'''' — for a training mission theough the [[Denmark Strait]]. After returning to port three days later, the heavy cruiser moved on to Boston for a navy yard overhaul from 8-20 February. She conducted refresher training out of [[Casco Bay]] and then underwent another brief refit at New York Harbor before joining Task Group 39.1 (TG 39.1), under the command of [[Rear Admiral]] [[John W. Wilcox, Jr.]], whose flag flew from the new [[battleship]] '''{{USS|Washington|BB-56|2}}'''.

[[Image:USS Tuscaloosa Scapa Flow.jpg|thumb|The ''Tuscaloosa'' (foreground) anchored at Scapa Flow in April 1942.]]

TG 39.1 sortied from Casco Bay and then it struggled through the gale-whipped seas of the [[North Atlantic Ocean]], bound for [[Scapa Flow]], [[Scotland]], in the [[Orkney Islands]] — the main base for the [[British Home Fleet]]. On 27 March, [[Rear Admiral]] Wilcox apparently suffered a [[coronary]] and then was washed overboard from the ''Washington''. (Some have speculated that the admiral might have jumped overboard to commit suicide, but there was no prior evidence at all that this might happen.) The heavy seas ruled out rescue attempts, and the task group's commanding officer soon disappeared in the stormy Atlantic. With Admiral Wilcox's death, [[Rear Admiral]] Giffen, whose two-starred flag flew from the '''''Wichita''''', assumed command of TG 39.1.

The '''''Tuscaloosa''''' arrived at Scapa Flow on 4 April and she immediately took on board a British signals and liaison team. She was initially employed with the British Home Fleet on training duties and later took part in covering runs for convoys to northern [[Russia]].

At that period, Anglo-American naval operations frequently were mounted in an attempt to lure the '''''Tirpitz''''' out of her snowy Norwegian lair. One such attempt, [[Convoy PQ-17]], resulted in disaster in June 1942. The following two months found the ''Tuscaloosa'' still active in convoy covering and escorting assignments.

In mid-August, the '''''Tuscaloosa''''' received orders to carry supplies — including aircraft [[torpedo]]es, army [[ammunition]], and medical equipment — to Northern [[Russia]], via the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Soon after she and two destroyers set out on the mission, a member of the cruiser's crew developed symptoms of spinal meningitis. The sick man was quickly put ashore at [[Seyðisfjörður]], Iceland, and the group got underway again on 19 August, bound for [[Kola Inlet]].

On the next day, the '''''Tuscaloosa''''' and her screening [[warship]]s — which by that time consisted of three destroyers (two American and one British) — were spotted by a snooping German reconnaissance plane. The task force changed course and, assisted by the worsening visibility in the northern latitudes, managed to shake the intruder. On the evening of 22 August, two more British destroyers joined ''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s screen; and, the following day, a Russian escort guided them to Kola Inlet.

All hands turned-to and unloaded the valuable cargo. The cruiser then took on fuel; prepared to get underway; and, just before departure, embarked 243 passengers, most of whom were survivors of ships which had been sunk while serving in earlier convoys to Russia. Many of them had endured the special tribulation and agony of the PQ-17. With her human cargo thus on board, the ''Tuscaloosa'' cleared Kola Inlet on 24 August and then she reached Seidisfjord on the 28th.

She remained there but briefly before steaming to the mouth of the River Clyde, where she disembarked her passengers. Detached from the Home Fleet shortly thereafter, the ''Tuscaloosa'' headed back to Hvalfjord and then proceeded thence to the [[East Coast of the United States]] for a many-weeks-long-overhaul.

[[File:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37) in October 1942.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Tuscaloosa'' in October 1942]]

===The United States Strikes Back in [[North Africa]]===

On 8 November 1942, [[Operation Torch]] — the code name of the Anglo-American effort to conquer [[North Africa|Northwestern Africa]] from the [[Vichy French]] and [[Nazi Germany]], and thence to expel the [[Axis Powers]] from [[Africa]] — got underway.

Off [[Casablanca]], [[French Morocco]], the [[heavy cruiser]]s '''''USS Tuscaloosa''''' and the '''''USS Wichita''''' joined the new American [[battleship]] '''{{USS|Massachusetts|BB-59|2}}''', the [[aircraft carrier]] '''''USS Ranger''''' and numerous [[light cruiser]]s and destroyuers as the "big guns" for the segment of Operation Torch in Morocco. (Other forces invaded [[Algeria]] via the [[Mediterranean Sea]].) As American troops waded ashore, the ''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s powerful 8-inch, 55 calibre guns, aided by accurate spotting from the cruiser's scout planes, thundered loudlu and sent [[high explosive]] shells flying shorewards into the [[French Army]]'s defensive positions. In the harbor, [[French Navy]] [[warship]]s scurried about as they prepared to sortie against the attackers.

The unfinished and immobile French Navy battleship '''{{Ship|French battleship|Jean Bart|1940|2}}''', could still throw a powerful punch from her few completed {{convert|15|in|mm|abbr=on}} [[naval gun]]s, and she fired several relatively-accurate salvoes, straddling the American warships several times with shell splashes. (The French did not have any [[fire control]] [[radar]]s at that time, or for years later. The French Army's shore batteries at Table d'Aukasha and El Hank also proved to betroublesome. However, the combined might of the American warships and [[naval aviation|naval air power]] silenced both the shore batteries and the big guns of the ''Jean Bart'', plus demolishing several [[French Air Force]] [[airfield]]s.

After being narrowly missed by several torpedoes from a Vichy French [[submarine]] and shells from the '''''Jean Bart'''''{{'}}s heavy artillery, the '''''Tuscaloosa''''' retired from the battle scene to refuel at sea and to replenish her ammunition in deeper waters farther offshore. After these laborious operations, she remained offshore in support of the invasion and then she headed back to the East Coast of the United States for a major [[shipyard]] [[overhaul]] and replenishment at a large [[naval base]].

Following this ovehaul, the USS '''''Tuscaloosa''''' rejoined the mission covering convoys bound for North Africa via the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, while American, British, [[Free French]] troops and [[airmen]] pushed the Axis Armies and the Vichy French foreces out of Morocco and [[Algeria]], and following that, cornering them in northern [[Tunisia]] around the city of [[Tunis]]. At that point, all of the Axis troops in Tunisia surrendered to the Allies in early May 1943, and thus the Axis powers were expelled from Africa.

Meanwhile, from March through May of 1943, the '''''Tuscaloosa'''''' steamed in a task force on training exercises off the east coast of the United States.

Besides honing its fighting edge, this group formed a fast, mobile, and ready striking force, should German surface ships slip through the Allied blockade to terrorize Allied shipping in the Atlantic. In late May, she escorted {{RMS|Queen Mary}}, which bore British Prime Minister Churchill to New York City. After rejoining the task force for a brief time, ''Tuscaloosa'' joined ''Augusta'' at the [[Boston Navy Yard]] for a 10-day work period.

After leaving Boston, she escorted {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth}} to [[City of Halifax|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]], before rendezvousing with ''Ranger'' and proceeding to Scapa Flow to resume operations with the British Home Fleet. ''Tuscaloosa'' conducted sorties into the [[North Sea]], in company with British and American units, in attempts to once again entice German heavy units to sea. However, the hope of drawing the Germans into a decisive sea fight diminished each passing day as the enemy apparently sought to stay in his protected waters.

On 2 October 1943, the ''Tuscaloosa'' formed part of the covering force for the '''''USS Ranger''''' while the carrier launched air strikes against port installations and German shipping at the [[seaport]] town if [[Bodo, Norway]], in [[Operation Leader]].

These were the first-ever [[U.S. Navy]] [[naval aviation]] [[air raid]]s against any European targets, and they lasted from second though the sixth of October, 1943. These raids reportedly devastated shore facilities and [[Wehrmacht]] forces in the Bodo area. [[Nazi German]] [[Luftwaffe]]
shore-based [[warplane]]s attempted to attack the strike forces from the '''''Ranger''''', but they were down by covering American fighters.

Shortly afterward, the Germans did elect to come out to sea, conducting a foray against the important Allied weather station on Spitsbergen Island. ''Tirpitz'' and other heavy units subjected the installation and its garrison to a severe shelling before retiring, unscathed, to their Norwegian lair.

''Tuscaloosa'' took part in the relief expedition to reestablish the station before the onset of winter. Assigned to Force One, the cruiser loaded two LCV(P) and cargo and departed Seidisfjord in company with four destroyers — three British and one American — on 17 October. Force Two, covering Force One, consisted of the battleship {{HMS|Anson|79|6}}, the heavy cruiser {{HMS|Norfolk|78|6}}, the carrier ''Ranger'', and six destroyers.

On the morning of the 19th, ''Tuscaloosa's'' group arrived at devastated [[Spitsbergen]] and immediately commenced unloading operations. While ice "growlers" and pinnacles hampered antisubmarine screening by the destroyers' sound gear, ''Tuscaloosa'' fielded a party of 160 men on shore to unload supplies and equipment to reestablish the weather station. By nightfall, the cargo had been safely unloaded, and the force left the area. After fueling at Seidisfjord, the cruiser proceeded to the Clyde to disembark the survivors of the original Spitsbergen garrison.

''Tuscaloosa'' conducted one more sweep of the Norwegian coast in an attempt to draw German fleet units to sea, but the enemy chose not to give battle. Upon the cruiser's return to Iceland, she was detached from the Home Fleet and proceeded to New York where she began major overhaul on 3 December 1943.

Upon completion of the refit in February 1944, ''Tuscaloosa'' engaged in Fleet exercises and shore bombardment practice out of Casco Bay until April and then entered the Boston Navy Yard for installation of radio intelligence and electronic countermeasures gear. Later that month, she embarked Rear Admiral [[Morton L. Deyo]], Commander, CruDiv 7, and task force commander, and set out for the Clyde to join the Allied Forces massing for the assault on the European continent.

During the interim period prior to [[D-Day]], ''Tuscaloosa'' conducted further shore bombardment practice and engaged in further exercises. Her aviation unit exchanged their venerable Curtiss [[SOC Seagull]]s for British [[Supermarine Spitfire]]s and checked out in them for spotting purposes. Yet, they remained shore-based for the remainder of their time operating in support of the invasion.

On 3 June, ''Tuscaloosa'' steamed in company with the rest of [[Task Force 125]] (TF 125) bound for the [[Normandy]] beaches. At 0550, 6 June, she opened fire with her {{convert|8|in|mm|abbr=on}} battery, and three minutes later her {{convert|5|in|mm|abbr=on}} guns engaged [[Tatihou|Fort Ile de Tatihou]], [[Baie de la Seine]]. For the remainder of D-Day, coast defense batteries, artillery positions, troop concentrations, and motor transport all came under the fire of ''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s guns, which were aided by her air spotters and by fire control parties attached to Army units on shore. VCS-7, a US Navy Spotter Squadron flying Supermarine Spitfire VBs and [[Supermarine Seafire|Seafire IIIs]], was one of the units which provided targeting coordinates and fire control.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spitfiresite.com/history/articles/2008/01/spitfires-in-us-navy.htm|title=VCS-7}}</ref> Initial enemy return fire was inaccurate, but it improved enough by the middle of the day to force the cruiser to take evasive action.

On the afternoon of 9 June, ''Tuscaloosa'' returned to [[Plymouth]] to replenish her depleted ammunition. Back in the vicinity of the [[Îles Saint-Marcouf]] on the evening of the 11th, she remained on station in the fire-support area until 21 June, providing gunfire support on call from her shore fire control party operating with [[Army]] units. She then returned to Britain.

Five days later, on 26 June, the Army's [[US VII Corps|VII Corps]] mounted a landward assault against [[Cherbourg]], supported by ships of the covering force from the seaward side. For four hours, ''Tuscaloosa'' and her consorts [[Bombardment of Cherbourg|dueled with the accurate German shore batteries]]. During the action, the enemy frequently straddled the British and American ships and forced them to take evasive action. Great clouds of smoke and dust, kicked up by the intense bombardment conducted from sea and land, initially hampered Allied fire. By noontime, however, visibility improved and greatly aided the accuracy of the bombardment.

In July, with the beachhead secured in Normandy and Allied forces pushing into occupied France, ''Tuscaloosa'' steamed from [[Belfast]] to the Mediterranean to join British, French, and American forces assembling for [[Operation Anvil/Dragoon]], the invasion of southern France.

Following preliminary bombardment exercises off [[Oran]], [[French North Africa]], ''Tuscaloosa'' was based at [[Palermo]], [[Italy]], and got underway on 13 August. Two days later, ''Tuscaloosa'' commenced fire at 0635 and continued to pound targets ashore until the combined Allied forces stormed onto the beaches at [[D-Day|H-Hour]], 0800. Then, moving off the 100 fathom (180 m) curve, ''Tuscaloosa'' leisurely cruised the shoreline, visually inspecting it for targets of opportunity. A troublesome pillbox at the [[St. Raphel]] breakwater provoked ''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s attention, and the cruiser's {{convert|8|in|mm|abbr=on}} shells soon destroyed it. Air spotters located a field battery, and ''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s gunners promptly knocked it out of action with three direct hits.

For the next 11 days, the cruiser delivered fire support for the right flank of the Army's advance to the Italian frontier. She engaged German shore batteries and fought off air attacks. The raids — conducted by [[Junkers Ju 88]]s and [[Dornier Do 217]]s singly, or in small groups — usually occurred during the covering force's nightly retirement from the beachheads. Of the high altitude variety, these aerial assaults included the use of radar-controlled glider bombs. However, radar counter-measures and jamming devices, as well as effective evasive action and gunfire, thwarted these twilight and nocturnal attacks.

In September, when Allied forces had secured footholds in both western and southern France, ''Tuscaloosa'' returned to the United States for refitting at the [[Philadelphia Navy Yard]]. After a short exercise period in [[Chesapeake Bay]], she steamed via the Panama Canal to the west coast and reported to the Commander in Chief, [[United States Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]]. After stopping briefly at San Diego, she proceeded on westward to [[Pearl Harbor]], where she conducted various exercises before steaming to [[Ulithi]] to join Commander, [[United States Third Fleet|3rd Fleet]] in January 1945.

Following her sortie from Ulithi, she joined the bombardment group off [[Iwo Jima]] at dawn on 16 February. Three days later, as waves of landing craft bore marines shoreward to invade the island, ''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s guns pounded Japanese positions inland. Then, after the Americans had reached land, her batteries supported their advances with incessant fire and illumination. This continued from 19 February-14 March, throughout all phases of the bitterly fought campaign to wrest the island from the Japanese.

Returning to Ulithi after the Iwo Jima operation, she spent four hectic days replenishing stores, ammunition, and fuel in preparation for the next operation: [[Okinawa]], at the end of the chain of the Japanese home islands. On [[Palm Sunday]], 25 March, ''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s main and secondary batteries opened fire on shore targets pinpointed by aerial reconnaissance. Time considerations only allowed a six-day respite in the middle of the arduous campaign for replenishment purposes, ''Tuscaloosa'' stood on duty for the entire operation.

''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s charmed life in the face of everything the Axis could throw at her still held through the maelstrom of the ''[[kamikaze]]s'' which came at the invasion ships and their escorts from all quarters. The "[[Divine Wind]]" came down from the Japanese home islands, in the form of planes piloted by pilots so loyal to their Emperor that they unhesitatingly gave their lives to defend their home soil.

''Tuscaloosa''{{'}}s gunners splashed two of the intruders. One, headed for the fantail of {{USS|Texas|BB-35|2}}, flew apart as the cruiser's shells splashed her in the old battleship's wake. The other headed for an escorting destroyer in the screen only to be splashed after hitting a curtain of fire from the cruiser's guns.

Only the mop-up of determined resistance ashore remained when ''Tuscaloosa'' departed from Okinawa on 28 June. Two days later, she arrived in [[Leyte Gulf]], [[Philippine Islands]]; there reporting to Commander, [[United States Seventh Fleet|7th Fleet]], for duty. Six weeks later, with Allied warships bombarding her shores with near impunity and Allied planes sweeping her skies clear of rapidly dwindling numbers of her defending aircraft, Japan surrendered.

On 27 August, ''Tuscaloosa'', in company with other units of the 7th Fleet, departed [[U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay|Subic Bay]] in the Philippines, bound for [[Korea]]n and [[Manchuria]]n waters.

==Post-war==
She touched at [[Qingdao|Tsingtao]], [[China]], ''en route'', and proceeded to cruise off the newly liberated ports of [[Dairen]] and [[Lushun|Port Arthur]], Manchuria; [[Chefoo]], [[Taku Forts|Taku]], [[Weihaiwei]] and [[Chinwangtao]], China, before finally anchoring off [[Jinsen]] (now [[Incheon]]), Korea on 8 September to support the landings of Marines nearby.

After a stay of 22 days, ''Tuscaloosa'' put to sea once more on 30 September, bound for Taku, China, to support Marines landing there. She next sailed for Chefoo on 6 October but, ''en route'', received orders changing her destination to Jinsen to take on provisions.

As Chinese [[Kuomintang|Nationalist]] and [[Chinese Communist Party|communist forces]] jockeyed for position to control formerly Japanese-held territory, American forces stood by in the uneasy role of observers. ''Tuscaloosa'' arrived off Chefoo, then held by the communists, on 13 October. Remaining until 3 November, she lay at anchor off the port, keeping well informed on the situation ashore through daily conferences with officials of the communist [[Eighth Route Army]]. During this period, collaborationist troops who had been loyal to the Japanese during the war, clashed with communist forces near Chefoo.

On 3 November, she put to sea, bound for Tsingtao, where the cruiser spent one evening before proceeding down the Chinese coast to call at [[Shanghai]]. There, she took on board 214 army and 118 navy passengers for [[Operation Magic Carpet (World War II)|"Magic Carpet"]] transportation home for demobilization.

She arrived in Hawaii on 26 November, where additional passenger facilities were installed, and took on board 206 more men before departing Hawaiian waters on the 28th and arriving at San Francisco on 4 December. After voyage repairs, the ship sailed for the [[Oceania|South Pacific]] on 14 December, via the [[Solomon Islands]], and proceeded to [[Nouméa]], [[New Caledonia]].

''Tuscaloosa'' embarked troops at [[Guadalcanal]], moved to the [[Russell Islands]] where she took on more passengers, and arrived at Nouméa on New Year's Day 1946. By that afternoon, the ship got underway for the west coast with more than 500 passengers.

She arrived at Pearl Harbor nine days into the new year, fueled, and picked up additional demobilized servicemen to transport home. She sailed for San Francisco on 10 January and arrived five days later. On 29 January, the men delivered, ''Tuscaloosa'' stood out of San Francisco bound for the east coast on her last cruise as an active member of the fleet.

Placed out of commission at Philadelphia on 13 February 1946, ''Tuscaloosa'' remained in reserve there until she was struck from the [[Naval Vessel Register]] on 1 March 1959. Her hulk was sold on 25 June to the [[Boston Metals Company]] of [[Baltimore, Maryland]], for scrapping.

==Awards==
''Tuscaloosa'' received seven [[battle star]]s for her World War II service.

==References==
* {{cite book|title=Jane's Fighting Ships of World War II |author= |publisher=Studio |year=1989 |isbn=0-851-70494-9}}
* {{cite book| title=The Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet, Two-Ocean Fleet Edition |author=Fahey, James C. |publisher=Ships and Aircraft |year=1941}}
{{DANFS}}

===Notes===
{{reflist|}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/usstuscaloosa/vetassoc.htm&date=2009-10-25+23:49:22 USS ''Wichita''/USS ''Tuscaloosa'' Veteran's Association]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-t/ca37.htm Navy photographs of ''Tuscaloosa'' (CA-37)]

{{New Orleans class cruiser}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tuscaloosa (CA-37)}}
[[Category:New Orleans class cruisers (1931)]]
[[Category:Ships built in New Jersey]]
[[Category:1933 ships]]
[[Category:World War II cruisers of the United States]]
[[Category:United States Navy Alabama-related ships]]

[[cs:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37)]]
[[de:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37)]]
[[ja:タスカルーサ (重巡洋艦)]]
[[fi:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37)]]
[[uk:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37)]]
[[vi:USS Tuscaloosa (CA-37)]]

Battle of Kiev (1941)

2011-03-08T16:03:24Z

Muta112: /* After the Battle */

{{Fix bunching|beg}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict = Battle of Kiev
|partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
|image = [[Image:Eastern Front 1941-06 to 1941-09.png|300px]]
|caption = The eastern front at the time of the Battle of Kiev. (click to enlarge)
|date = 23 August - 26 September 1941
|place = East and South of [[Kiev]], [[Ukrainian SSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
|result = Decisive German victory
|combatant1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]
|combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
|commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Gerd von Rundstedt]]
|commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Semyon Budyonny]] (Removed from duty on Sept. 13. {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Mikhail Kirponos]] (Killed in action on Sept. 20. No commander after this. )
|strength1 = 500,000
|strength2 = 627,000<ref name=glantz>Glantz (1995), p. 293</ref>
|casualties1 = unknown
|casualties2 = 616,304 dead or captured 84,240 wounded 700,544 overall<ref name=glantz/>
}}
{{Fix bunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Fix bunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Barbarossa}}
{{Fix bunching|end}}

The '''Battle of Kiev''' was the German name for the operation that resulted in a very large [[encirclement]] of Soviet troops in the vicinity of [[Kiev]] during [[World War II]]. It is considered the largest encirclement of troops in history. The operation ran from 23 August to 26 September 1941 as part of [[Operation Barbarossa]].<ref>''The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle'', Anthony Read, p. 731</ref> In Soviet military history it is referred to as the '''Kiev Defensive Operation''' (Киевская оборонительная операция), with somewhat different dating of 7 July to 26 September 1941.

Nearly the entire [[Southwestern Front (Soviet Union)|Southwestern Front]] of the [[Red Army]] was encircled with the Germans claiming 665,000 captured. However, the Kiev encirclement was not complete, and small groups of Red Army troops managed to escape the [[Salients, re-entrants and pockets#Pocket|cauldron]] days after the German pincers met east of the city, including head quarters of Marshall [[Semyon Budyonny]], Marshall [[Semyon Timoshenko]] and [[Political commissar|Commissar]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. The commander of the Southwestern Front, [[Mikhail Kirponos]], was trapped behind enemy lines and killed while trying to break through.<ref>http://gpw.tellur.ru/page.html?r=commanders&s=kirponos</ref> The Kiev disaster was an unprecedented defeat for the Red Army, exceeding even the Minsk [[Tragedy (event)|tragedy]] of June–July 1941. On 1 September, the Southwestern Front numbered 752-760,000 troops (850,000 including reserves and rear service organs), 3,923 guns & mortars, 114 tanks and 167 combat aircraft.

The encirclement trapped 452,700 troops, 2,642 guns & mortars and 64 tanks, of which scarcely 15,000 escaped from the encirclement by 2 October. Overall, the Southwestern Front suffered 700,544 casualties, including 616,304 killed, captured, or missing during the month-long Battle for Kiev. As a result, four Soviet field armies ([[5th Army (Soviet Union)|5th]], [[37th Army (Soviet Union)|37th]], [[26th Army (Soviet Union)|26th]], & [[21th Army (Soviet Union)|21st]]) consisting of 43 divisions virtually ceased to exist. The [[40th Army (Soviet Union)|40th Army]] was badly affected as well. Like the Western Front before it, the Southwestern Front had to be recreated almost from scratch.<ref>Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad, 1975</ref>

==Prelude==
After the quick initial success of the Wehrmacht, especially in the Northern and Central sector of the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern front]], a huge bulge in the south remained, where a substantial Soviet force, consisting of nearly the entire Southwestern Front was located. In the [[Battle of Uman]] a significant victory over the Soviet forces was achieved, but the bulk of forces under Semyon Budyonny's command were still concentrated in and around [[Kiev]]. While lacking mobility and armor, due to the loss of the majority of their armoured forces at the [[Battle of Uman]], they nonetheless posed a significant threat to the German advance and were the largest single concentration of Soviet troops on the Eastern Front at that time.

At the end of August, the German Army [[OKH|High Command]] (''Oberkommando des Heeres'', or [[OKH]]) had the option of either continuing the advance on Moscow, or destroying the Soviet forces in the south. Because the German [[Army Group South]] (''Heeresgruppe Süd'') lacked sufficient strength to encircle and destroy the forces, a significant contribution from [[Army Group Center]] (''Heeresgruppe Mitte'') was needed to accomplish the task. After a dispute within the German High Command, the bulk of [[2nd Panzer Group (Germany)|''Panzergruppe'' 2]] and the [[2nd Army (Germany)|2nd Army]] were detached from Army Group Center and sent due south to encircle the Soviet army and meet the advancing Army Group South east of Kiev.

==The battle==
The Panzer armies progressed rapidly to conclude the encirclement, a move that caught Budyonny by surprise. He was therefore relieved by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]'s order of 13 September. No successor was named, leaving the troops to their individual corps and division commanders. The encirclement of Soviet forces in Kiev was achieved on 16 September, when Kleist's 1st Panzer Army and Guderian's 24th Corps met at Lokhvitsa, {{convert|120|mi|km|abbr=on}} behind Kiev.

After that, the fate of the encircled armies was sealed. For the Soviets, a disaster of staggering dimensions now unfolded. With no mobile forces or supreme commander left, there was no possibility to break out from the encirclement. The German [[17th Army (Germany)|17th Army]] and [[6th Army (Germany)|6th Army]] of Army Group South, as well as the 2nd Army of Army Group Center subsequently reduced the pocket, aided by the two Panzer armies. The encircled Soviet armies at Kiev did not give up easily. A savage battle in which the Soviets were bombarded by artillery, tanks and aircraft had to be fought before the pocket was reduced. By 19 September, Kiev had fallen, but the encirclement battle continued. In the end, after 10 days of heavy fighting the last remnants of troops east of Kiev surrendered on 26 September. The Germans claimed 600,000 Red Army soldiers captured, although these claims have included a large number of civilians suspected of evading capture. Hitler called it the greatest battle in history.

Another factor in the Battle for Kiev was Stalin's refusal to listen to the advice of Commander of the SW Front Kirponos and
Army General Zhukov to withdraw the exposed Armies in and around Kiev. Stalin did heed Kirposnos and Zhukhov's
warning about German General Guderian's 2 PanzerGroup driving South behind the SW Fronts Armies, that were deployed in single forward echelons that could then be easily surrounded, as evidenced by preceding German
Pockets at Minsk, Belostok, and Uman Pockets, in accordance with Hitlers directive 33 and 34 to eliminate the
Russian Field Armies, Stalins primary concern was to protect Kiev, an order that would pin the SW Front Armies in place, restricting their mobility against the manifold German movements, that worked to keep the Russian Armies
in a vise. These German operations of encirclement were conducted as Russian Forces were ordered to defend where they stood. German Infantry Divisions would then keep steady pressure at the frontline while German mobile groups
moved around the flanks and behind, cutting all retreat and supply routes, severely handicapping Russian combat effectiveness.

==After the Battle==
[[Image:DefenceOfKievMedal.jpg|110px|right|thumb|107,540 Soviet personnel were awarded the medal for the defence of Kiev from 21st June 1941.]]

By virtue of Guderian’s southward turn, the Wehrmacht destroyed the entire Southwestern Front east
of Kiev during September, inflicting 600,000 losses on the Red Army, while Soviet forces
west of Moscow conducted a futile and costly offensive against German forces around
Smolensk. After this Kiev diversion, Hitler launched [[Battle of Moscow|Operation Typhoon]] in October,
only to see his offensive falter at the gates of Moscow in early December. Some claim
that had Hitler launched Operation Typhoon in September rather than October, the
Wehrmacht would have avoided the terrible weather conditions and reached and captured
Moscow before the onset of winter.

This argument does not hold up to close scrutiny. {{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Had Hitler launched
Operation Typhoon in September, Army Group Center would have had to penetrate
deep Soviet defenses manned by a force that had not squandered its strength in fruitless
offensives against German positions east of Smolensk. Furthermore, Army Group Center
would have launched its offensive with a force of more than 600,000 men threatening its
ever-extending right flank and, in the best reckoning, would have reached the gates of
Moscow after mid-October just as the fall rainy season was beginning.

Finally, the Stavka saved Moscow by raising and fielding 10 reserve armies that
took part in the final defense of the city, the December 1941 counterstrokes, and the
January 1942 counteroffensive. These armies would have gone into action regardless of
when Hitler launched Operation Typhoon. While they effectively halted and drove back
the German offensive short of Moscow as the operation actually developed, they would
also have been available to do so had the Germans attacked Moscow a month earlier.
Furthermore, if the latter were the case, they would have been able to operate in
conjunction with the 600,000 plus force of Army Group Center’s overextended right
flank.
<ref>Glantz, David M., Forgotten Battles of the German-Soviet War (1941–1945), volume I:
The Summer-Fall Campaign (22 June-4 December 1941). Carlisle, PA: Selfpublished,
1999.</ref>
<ref>Glantz, David M., Forgotten Battles of the German-Soviet War (1941–1945), volume II:
The Winter Campaign (5 December 1941-April 1942). Carlisle, PA: Selfpublished,
1999.</ref>

==References==
<references/>
*[[John Erickson (historian)|John Erickson]], The Road to Stalingrad
*Glantz, David M. & House, Jonathan (1995), ''When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler'', Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, ISBN 0-7006-0899-0

==See also==
*[[Battle of Uman]]
*[[Battle of Bialystok-Minsk]]
*[[Battle of Kiev (1943)]]

{{World War II}}

{{coord missing|Ukraine}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kiev, Battle Of (1941)}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:History of Kiev|Battle of Kiev]]
[[Category:Encirclements in World War II]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]

[[ar:معركة كييف (1941)]]
[[bg:Битка при Киев (1941)]]
[[ca:Batalla de Kíev (1941)]]
[[cs:Bitva o Kyjevský kotel]]
[[da:Slaget om Kiev (1941)]]
[[de:Schlacht um Kiew]]
[[et:Kiievi lahing]]
[[el:Μάχη του Κιέβου]]
[[es:Batalla de Kiev (1941)]]
[[fa:نبرد کیف]]
[[fr:Bataille de Kiev (1941)]]
[[ko:키예프 전투 (1941년)]]
[[it:Battaglia di Kiev (1941)]]
[[hu:Kijevi csata (1941)]]
[[ja:キエフの戦い (1941年)]]
[[ro:Bătălia de la Kiev (1941)]]
[[ru:Киевская операция (1941)]]
[[sk:Bitka o Kyjev (1941)]]
[[sr:Битка за Кијев 1941.]]
[[tr:Kiev Muharebesi (1941)]]
[[uk:Битва за Київ (1941)]]
[[vi:Trận Kiev (1941)]]
[[zh:基輔戰役 (1941年)]]

Admiralty Islands campaign

2011-03-06T14:59:11Z

Muta112: link GA

{{FixBunching|beg}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Admiralty Islands
|partof=[[World War II]], [[Pacific War]]
|image=[[File:First Wave at Los Negros.jpg|300px|The first wave lands on Los Negros, Admiralty Islands, 29 February 1944.|alt=Soldiers walk through long grass. Other soldiers are arriving in landing craft in the lagoon behind them. In the background is a coconut plantation. The sky is overcast.]]
|caption=The first wave of US troops lands on Los Negros, Admiralty Islands, 29 February 1944.
|date=29 February – 18 May 1944
|place= [[Admiralty Islands]] {{coord|2|2|S|147|16.5|E |region:PG-MRL_type:event |display=title}}
|result=Decisive Allied victory
|combatant1={{flag|United States|1912}} {{flag|Australia}}
|combatant2={{flag|Empire of Japan}}
|commander1=[[Douglas MacArthur]] [[William C. Chase]]
|commander2=[[Hitoshi Imamura]] Yoshio Ezaki {{KIA}}
|strength1=35,000
|strength2=4,000
|casualties1=326 killed 1,189 wounded 4 missing
|casualties2=3,280 killed 75 captured
}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox New Guinea}}
{{FixBunching|end}}

The '''Admiralty Islands campaign''' (Operation Brewer) was a series of battles in the [[New Guinea campaign]] of [[World War II]] in which the [[United States Army]]'s [[1st Cavalry Division (United States)|1st Cavalry Division]] occupied the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]]-held [[Admiralty Islands]].

Acting on reports from airmen that there were no signs of enemy activity and the islands may have been evacuated, [[General (United States)|General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] accelerated his timetable for capturing the islands and ordered an immediate [[reconnaissance in force]]. The campaign began on 29 February 1944 when a force landed on [[Los Negros Island|Los Negros]], the third largest island in the group. By using a small, isolated beach where the Japanese had not anticipated an assault, the force achieved tactical surprise, but the islands proved to be far from unoccupied. A furious battle developed for control of the Admiralties.

In the end, [[air superiority]] and [[command of the sea]] allowed the Allies to heavily reinforce their position on Los Negros. The 1st Cavalry Division was then able to overrun the islands. The campaign officially ended on 18 May 1944. The Allied victory completed the isolation of the major Japanese base at [[Rabaul]] that was the ultimate objective of the Allied campaigns of 1942 and 1943. A major air and naval base was developed in the Admiralty Islands that became an important launching point for the campaigns of 1944 in the Pacific.

==Background==
===Geography===
[[File:Elkton Plan.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Elkton III Plan, March 1943. The Admiralty Islands are in the centre, towards the top of the map.|alt=Topographic map of Papua New Guinea with arrows indicating an Allied advance along the northern coast towards the Admiralty Islands.]]
The Admiralty Islands lie {{convert|200|mi|km}} north east of the mainland of New Guinea and {{convert|360|mi|km}} west of Rabaul, only two degrees south of the [[equator]]. The climate is tropical, with constant high temperatures and high humidity and an annual rainfall of {{convert|154|in|mm}}. Thunderstorms are common. December to May is the north west [[monsoon]] season, with prevailing winds form that direction.<ref name="Frierson, pp. 6–7">Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp.6–7.</ref>

The largest island in the group is [[Manus Island]], which is about {{convert|49|mi|km}} across from east to west and {{convert|16|mi|km}} wide from north to south.<ref name="Morison, p. 432" /> The interior was mountainous, with peaks rising to {{convert|3000|ft|m}} and largely covered with thick [[tropical rainforest]]. The largely uncharted coastline had numerous reefs and the shoreline consisted of [[mangrove swamp]]. Los Negros is separated from Manus by the narrow Loniu Passage. The island contains two important harbours of its own, Papitai on the west coast, which connects with [[Seeadler Harbour]], and Hyane on the east coast. The two are separated by a {{convert|50|yd|m|adj=on}} wide sandy spit. Here, the natives had built a skidway over which they could drag canoes between the two harbours.<ref name="Frierson, pp. 6–7" /> Los Negros curves horseshoe-like, forming a natural breakwater for Seeadler harbour, the remainder of which is enclosed by Manus and a series of smaller islands. The main entrance was through a {{convert|1.5|mi|km|adj=on}} wide passage between Hauwei and Ndrilo Islands. Seeadler Harbour was about {{convert|20|mi|km}} across from east to west and {{convert|6|mi|km}} wide from north to south, and up to {{convert|120|ft|m}} deep.<ref name="Frierson, pp. 4–5">Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 4–5.</ref>

===Allied plans===
[[File:MacArthur and Kinkaid.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid (left center) with General Douglas MacArthur (center) on the flag bridge of {{USS|Phoenix|CL-46|6}} during the pre-invasion bombardment of Los Negros Island.|alt=Sailors wearing steel helmets stand by an anti-aircraft gun on a quadruple mount. Two officers lean on the railing, staring off into the distance.]]
In July 1942, the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] approved a series of operations against the Japanese bastion at Rabaul, which blocked any Allied advance along the northern coast of [[New Guinea]] towards the [[Philippines]] or northward towards the main Japanese naval base at [[Truk]]. In keeping with the overall Allied [[grand strategy]] of [[Europe first]], the immediate aim of these operations was not the defeat of Japan but merely the reduction of the threat posed by Japanese aircraft and warships based at Rabaul to air and sea communications between the [[United States]] and [[Australia]]. By agreement among the Allied nations, in March 1942 the [[Pacific Theater of Operations|Pacific theatre]] was divided into the [[South West Pacific Area (command)|South West Pacific Area]], under General Douglas MacArthur, and the [[Pacific Ocean Areas (command)|Pacific Ocean Areas]], under [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Chester W. Nimitz]]. Rabaul fell within MacArthur's area but the initial operations in the southern [[Solomon Islands]] came under Nimitz.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', pp. 1–2.</ref> The Japanese reaction was more violent than anticipated and some months passed before the [[Guadalcanal Campaign]] was brought to a successful conclusion. Meanwhile, General MacArthur's forces—primarily Australian—fought off a series of Japanese offensives in [[Territory of Papua|Papua]] in the [[Kokoda Track Campaign]], [[Battle of Milne Bay]], [[Battle of Buna-Gona]], and the [[Battle of Wau]].<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', pp. 5–6.</ref>

At the Pacific Military Conference in March 1943, the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved the latest version of General MacArthur's Elkton plan for an advance on Rabaul. Owing to a shortage of resources, particularly [[heavy bomber]] aircraft, the final stage of the plan, the capture of Rabaul itself, was postponed until 1944.<ref>Hayes, ''The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War Against Japan'', pp. 312–334.</ref> By July 1943, the Joint Chiefs were considering the possibility of neutralising and bypassing Rabaul, but the navy would still need a forward fleet base.<ref>Hayes, ''The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War Against Japan'', pp. 425–430.</ref> The Admiralty Islands, already a part of the Elkton plan, could serve this purpose, as they contained flat areas for airstrips, space for military installations, and Seeadler Harbour, which was large enough to accommodate a naval task force.<ref name="Morison, p. 432">Morison, ''Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier'', p. 432.</ref> On 6 August 1943, the Joint Chiefs of Staff adopted a plan that called for the neutralisation rather than the capture of Rabaul, and scheduled the invasion of the Admiralty Islands for 1 June 1944.<ref>Hayes, ''The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War Against Japan'', pp. 427–430.</ref>

{{quote box
| style = width: 30em; max-width: 40%; font-size: 85%
| align = left
| quote =
'''Task Force Brewer Assault Echelon Units''' <ref name="Krueger">Krueger, Walter, ''Report on Brewer Operation'', 2 August 1944, AWM54 519/1/12</ref>
 Brigadier General William C. Chase
* 2nd Squadron, 5th Cavalry Regiment
* Battery B, 99th Field Artillery Battalion
* 673rd Anti-Aircraft Machine Gun Battery (Airborne)
* Reconnaissance Platoon, HQ Troop, 1st Cavalry Brigade
* Communications Platoon, HQ Troop, 1st Cavalry Brigade
* 1st Platoon, Troop B (Clearing), 1st Medical Squadron
* 30th Portable Surgical Hospital
* ANGAU Detachment
* Air Force Detachment
* Naval Gunfire Support Party
* Air Liaison Party
}}

Throughout January 1944, [[AirSols]] aircraft based in the [[Solomon Islands (archipelago)|Solomon Islands]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) aircraft based on [[Kiriwina]] kept up a sustained air offensive against Rabaul. Under steady and relentless pressure, the Japanese air defence began to weaken, allowing a landing to be made on 15 February in the [[Green Islands (Papua New Guinea)|Green Islands]], which lie little more than {{convert|100|mi|km}} from Rabaul. On 16 and 17 February, the [[US Pacific Fleet]]'s [[Task Force 58]] [[Operation Hailstone|attacked the main Japanese base at Truk]]. Most Japanese aircraft were recalled to defend Truk and 19 February saw the last significant interception of Allied aircraft over Rabaul.<ref>Mortensen, "Rabaul and Cape Gloucester", in Craven and Cate (eds), ''Guadalcanal to Saipan'', pp. 350–356.</ref> Meanwhile, on 13 February, General MacArthur had issued orders for the invasion of the Admiralty Islands, codenamed Operation Brewer, which was now scheduled for 1 April. Forces assigned included the 1st Cavalry Division; [[No. 73 Wing RAAF]], providing [[close air support]]; the 592nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment (EBSR); the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]]' 1st Amphibious Tractor Battalion; and US [[Naval Construction Battalions]] ("Seabees") to build the naval base—a total of 45,000 personnel.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', pp. 316–317. Due to changes in plans, not all of the assigned units would actually be deployed.</ref> However, on 23 February 1944 three [[Fifth Air Force]] [[B-25 Mitchell]] bombers flew low over Los Negros. The airmen reported that there were no signs of enemy activity and the islands had been evacuated.<ref>''Reports of General MacArthur'', Volume I, p. 137.</ref> [[Lieutenant General]] [[George Kenney]], the commander of Allied Air Forces in the South West Pacific Area, went to MacArthur and proposed that the unoccupied islands be quickly taken by a small force. According to Kenney: "The General listened for a while, paced back and forth as I kept talking, nodded occasionally, then suddenly stopped and said: That will put the cork in the bottle."<ref>Kenney, ''General Kenney Reports'', p. 360.</ref>

Orders went out on 24 February 1944 for a reinforced squadron of the 1st Cavalry Division to carry out a reconnaissance in force in just five days time. If the Admiralty Islands were indeed evacuated, they would be occupied and a base developed. If the enemy was unexpectedly strong, then the force could be withdrawn. General MacArthur and [[Vice Admiral]] [[Thomas C. Kinkaid]], the commander of Allied Naval Forces in the South West Pacific Area, would be on hand to make the decision but otherwise they delegated command to [[Rear Admiral]] [[William Fechteler]], the commander of Amphibious Group 8 of Rear Admiral [[Daniel E. Barbey]]'s [[VII Amphibious Force]]. To accommodate them, the [[light cruiser]] {{USS|Phoenix|CL-46|6}} was ordered to sea. At the time, she was in [[Brisbane]], with over 300 of her crew on shore leave. Trucks with [[bull horn]]s broadcast the code word recalling the crew.<ref>Morison, ''Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier'', p. 435.</ref> In order to achieve surprise, and to reach the Admiralty Islands in just five days, [[high speed transport]]s (APDs) were required; [[Landing Ship, Tank|Landing Ships, Tank]] (LSTs) were too slow to make the required distance in the time.<ref>Barbey, ''MacArthur's Amphibious Navy'', pp.145–151.</ref> Only three APDs were available: {{USS|Brooks|DD-232|6}}, {{USS|Humphreys|DD-236|2}} and {{USS|Sands|DD-243|2}}. Each could accommodate 170 men. The remaining troops were carried on nine [[destroyer]]s: {{USS|Bush|DD-529|6}}, {{USS|Drayton|DD-366|2}}, {{USS|Flusser|DD-368|2}}, {{USS|Mahan|DD-364|2}}, {{USS|Reid|DD-369|2}}, {{USS|Smith|DD-378|2}}, {{USS|Stevenson|DD-645|2}}, {{USS|Stockton|DD-646|2}} and {{USS|Welles|DD-628|2}}. Between them, the destroyers and APDs carried 1,026 troops.<ref>Morison, ''Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier'', pp. 436–437.</ref>

{{quote box
| style = width: 30em; max-width: 40%; font-size: 85%
| align = left
| quote =
'''Task Force Brewer Supporting Echelon Units''' <ref name="Krueger"/>
 Colonel Hugh Hoffman
* 5th Cavalry Regiment (less 2nd Squadron)
* 99th Field Artillery Battalion (less Battery B)
* 1st Platoon, Troop A, 8th Engineer Squadron
* 1st Collecting Troop, 1st Medical Squadron
* Signal Detachment, 1st Signal Troop
* 40th Naval Construction Battalion
* Battery C, 168th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion (Gun)
* Battery A, 211th Coast Artillery Battalion (Anti-Aircraft) (Automatic Weapons)
* Company E, Shore Battalion, 592nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment
}}

This force was commanded by [[Brigadier General]] William C. Chase, commander of the 1st Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division.<ref>Hirrel, ''Bismarck Archipelago'', p. 14.</ref> It included the three rifle troops and the heavy weapons troop of the 2nd Squadron, [[5th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|5th Cavalry]]; a platoon from Battery B, 99th Field Artillery Battalion with two [[M116 howitzer|75 mm pack howitzer]]s; the 673rd Anti-Aircraft Machine Gun Battery (Airborne);<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 18–19.</ref> and 29 Australians of the [[Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit]] (ANGAU), who were to assist in gathering intelligence and dealing with the native population, some 13,000 of whom lived in the islands.<ref>Powell, ''The Third Force:ANGAU's New Guinea War 1942–46'', p. 82.</ref> Once the decision to remain was known, a follow-up force with the rest of the 5th Cavalry and 99th Field Artillery Battalion, 40th Naval Construction Battalion, and 2,500 measurement [[ton]]s of stores would depart from Finschhafen in six [[Landing Ship, Tank|Landing Ships, Tank]] (LSTs), each towing an [[Landing Craft Mechanized|LCM]] of Company E, 592nd EBSR.<ref>Barbey, ''MacArthur's Amphibious Navy'', p. 152.</ref> When an aide expressed concern over assigning such a hazardous mission to a unit without combat experience, General MacArthur recalled how the 5th Cavalry had fought alongside his [[Arthur MacArthur, Jr.|father]]'s troops in the campaign against [[Geronimo]]. "They'd fight then," he said, "and they'll fight now."<ref>Taafe, ''MacArthur's Jungle War'', p. 61.</ref>

[[Major General]] [[Charles A. Willoughby]]'s G-2 ([[Military intelligence|intelligence]]) section did not agree with the airmen's assessment the islands were unoccupied. Drawing on [[Ultra]] and [[Allied Intelligence Bureau]] reports from interrogating local civilians, it reported on 15 February that there were 3,000 Japanese troops in the Admiralty Islands. On 24 February, it revised the estimate to 4,000. G-2 attributed the lack of anti-aircraft fire to the Japanese logistical situation, believing it was a measure to conserve ammunition.<ref>''Reports of General MacArthur'', Volume I, pp. 137–138.</ref> Lieutenant General [[Walter Krueger]], the commander of [[Sixth United States Army|U.S. Sixth Army]] later recalled no one at his headquarters believed the islands unoccupied. In the original plan, a team of [[Alamo Scouts]] was to have thoroughly reconnoitred the island before the landing. Krueger had a six-man party of Alamo Scouts inserted on the southern coast of Los Negros by [[PBY Catalina|PBY]] under cover of a bombing raid on 27 February. The scouts reported the south coast was "lousy with Japs".<ref>Krueger, ''From Down Under to Nippon'', pp. 48–49.</ref>

===Japanese defences===
The Japanese defence of the Admiralties fell under the [[Japanese Eighth Area Army|Eighth Area Army]], based at Rabaul and commanded by General [[Hitoshi Imamura]]. In September 1943, as a result of the failure to stop Allied advances in New Guinea and the [[Solomon Islands Campaign|Solomons]], the [[Imperial General Headquarters]] (IGHQ) had decided to constrict Japan's defensive perimeter in the south and central Pacific to a new line stretching from the [[Banda Sea]] to the [[Caroline Islands]]. The IGHQ charged Imamura with holding his portion of the new line, which included the Admiralties, as long as possible to allow the Japanese navy and army time to prepare "decisive" counterattacks against Allied forces. Maintaining control of the Admiralties was crucial to the Japanese defensive plans, as possession of the islands by the Allies would place the key Japanese stronghold at [[Chuuk|Truk]] within range of heavy bombers. Apparently not expecting the Allies to move on the Admiralties so quickly, IGHQ gave Imamura until the middle of 1944 to complete the defensive preparations for his command.<ref>Hayashi, '' Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War'', pp. 72–73.</ref> At this time the largest Japanese unit in the islands was the 51st Transport Regiment, which had arrived on Los Negros in April.<ref name="Drea_99">Drea, '' MacArthur's Ultra'', p. 99</ref>

Imamura sought reinforcements for the Admiralties in late 1943 and early 1944. In October 1943 he requested an infantry division for the islands, but none was available. A subsequent proposal to transfer the 66th Regiment from the Palaus, where it was being rebuilt after suffering heavy losses, to the Admiralties was also unsuccessful as IGHQ believed that the [[Eighteenth Army (Japan)|Eighteenth Army]] had greater need for this unit. The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) also rejected Imamura's suggestion that a [[Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces|special naval landing force]] unit be dispatched to the islands.<ref name="Drea_99" /> IGHQ agreed to deploy the 66th Regiment to the Admiralties in January 1944 to bolster the region's defenses following the Allied landings at [[Battle of Arawe|Arawe]] and [[Landing at Saidor|Saidor]] in mid-December and early January respectively, but this movement was cancelled after a ship carrying reinforcements for the regiment was sunk by {{USS|Whale|SS-239|6}} with heavy loss of life on the 16th of the month.<ref>Drea, '' MacArthur's Ultra'', p. 100</ref> Following this disaster Imamura directed the [[38th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|38th Division]] to dispatch a battalion to the islands, and 750 men of the 2nd Battalion, 1st Independent Mixed Regiment arrived there on the night of 24/25 January. A subsequent attempt to ship an infantry and an artillery battalion to the Admiralties was frustrated by Allied air and submarine attacks, but 530 soldiers of the 38th Division's 1st Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment arrived there on the night of 2 February. Most of these troop movements were detected by Allied intelligence.<ref>Drea, '' MacArthur's Ultra'', p. 101</ref>

At the time of the Allied landing, [[Imperial Japanese Army]] forces in the Admiralties consisted of the 51st Transport Regiment under Colonel Yoshio Ezaki, who was also the overall garrison commander; 2nd Battalion, 1st Independent Mixed Regiment; 1st Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment; and elements of the IJN's 14th Naval Base Force.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', p. 319.</ref><ref>Jersey, ''Hell's Islands'', pp. 360–361, 366–367. The 1st Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment, consisting mainly of soldiers from [[Gifu Prefecture]], Japan, had served on Guadalcanal beginning in November 1942 before [[Operation Ke|being evacuated]] to Rabaul in February 1943. On Guadalcanal, the battalion was commanded by Major Tsuguto Tomoda but it is not clear whether he was still with the battalion in the Admiralties.</ref> Allied G-2 had identified the presence of all these units in the Admiralties, though their designation was not known in all instances. While the 1st Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment was a veteran of several campaigns, it was short of equipment and lacked its battalion artillery guns. The 2nd Battalion, 1st Independent Mixed Regiment was led by reserve officers who had seen action in China, but most of its enlisted men were recalled reservists who had not previously been in battle.<ref>Drea, '' MacArthur's Ultra'', pp. 102–103</ref>

The 51st Transport Regiment had constructed an airstrip on Lorengau and commenced another, known as Momote Airstrip, at the Momote Plantation on Los Negros. Lorengau was used as a staging point for aircraft moving between Rabaul and airstrips in North East New Guinea. The importance of the Admiralty Islands to the Japanese increased as the result of Allied advances in New Guinea and [[New Britain]] which blocked off other air routes. Reinforcements were sent from [[Palau]] in December 1943 but they were attacked by [[submarine]]s and forced to turn back. Two infantry battalions were sent from Rabaul in January 1943. Although attacked en route by Allied aircraft, they made it safely.<ref>''Reports of General MacArthur'', Volume II, part I, pp. 244–245.</ref> By February, both airstrips were unserviceable and the antiaircraft guns were silent in order to conserve ammunition and conceal their positions. Ezaki had ordered his men to neither move nor fire in daylight.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', p. 320.</ref>

==Battle of Los Negros==
===Landing===
[[File:WW2 Admiralty Islands ops.jpg|thumb|300px|Admiralty Islands operations, 29 February – 30 May 1944|alt=Topographic map of the islands surrounding Seeadler Harbour. There are four small islands to the north, while the much larger Los Negros is to the east and southeast and Manus lies to the southwest.]]
The chosen landing site was a small beach on the south shore of Hyane Harbour near the Momote airstrip. The airstrip could be seized quickly; but the surrounding area was [[mangrove]] swamp, and the harbour entrance was only about {{convert|750|yd|m|-2}} wide. "Since the whole operation was a gamble anyway," [[Samuel Eliot Morison]] noted, "one might as well be consistent."<ref>Morison, ''Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier'', p. 436.</ref> The gamble paid off. The Japanese had not anticipated a landing at this point and the bulk of their forces were concentrated to defend the beaches of [[Seeadler Harbour]], on the other side of the island.<ref>Hirrel, ''Bismarck Archipelago'', pp. 14–15.</ref> The weather on 29 February 1944 was overcast with a low cloud ceiling that prevented most of the planned air strike. Only three [[B-24 Liberator|B-24]]s and nine B-25s found the target. The naval bombardment was therefore extended for another 15 minutes.<ref name=f23>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 23.</ref> Each APD lowered four [[Landing craft|LCPR]]s (Landing Craft, Personnel, Ramped). Each LCPR carried its maximum load of 37 men, who boarded by climbing over the APDs' sides and down cargo nets.<ref name=f23/> The unarmoured LCPRs were still used because [[davit]]s had not been strengthened to carry the heavier, armoured [[LCVP]] (Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel).<ref>Friedman, ''US Amphibious ships and craft'', p. 207.</ref>

[[File:MacArthur and Henshaw.jpg|thumb|left|Admiralty Islands, 29 February 1944. General Douglas MacArthur decorates the first man ashore, 2nd Lieutenant Marvin J. Henshaw, with the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguished Service Cross]].|alt=Officer in raincoat shakes hand of soldier wearing steel helmet and waterproof poncho while other similarly attired soldiers look on.]]

The first wave landed without casualties at 08:17, but once the bombardment lifted the Japanese emerged from their dugouts and machine guns and shore batteries began firing. The landing craft, on returning, came under [[crossfire]] from enemy machine guns on both sides of the harbour. The fire became so heavy the second wave was forced to reverse course until the enemy fire was suppressed by destroyers. The third and fourth waves also came under fire.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 23–27.</ref> A correspondent from ''[[Yank, the Army Weekly]]'' described the scene:
{{quote|As we neared the channel, the Navy men in the bow hollered to us to keep our heads down or we'd get them blown off. We crouched lower, swearing, and waited. It came with a crack; machine-gun fire over our heads. Our light landing craft shuddered as the Navy gunners hammered back and answered with the [[M1919 Browning machine gun|.30 caliber]]s mounted on both sides of the barge. As we made the turn for the beach, something solid plugged into us. "They got one of our guns or something," one GI said. There was a splinter the size of a half dollar on the pack of the man in front of me. Up front a hole gaped in the middle of the landing ramp and there were no men where there had been four. Our barge headed back toward the destroyer that had carried us to the Admiralties. White splashes of water were plunging through the six-inch gap in the wooden gate. William Siebieda, [[Seaman|S 1/c]], of [[Wheeling, West Virginia]], ducked from his position at the starboard gun and slammed his hip against the hole to plug it. He was firing a tommy gun at the shore as fast as wounded soldiers could pass him loaded clips. The water sloshed around him, running down his legs and washing the blood of the wounded into a pink frappe.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 28.</ref> }}

Four of the twelve LCPRs had been damaged. Three were soon repaired, but they could not be risked further, for without them, the reconnaissance force could not be evacuated. The emergency plan provided for an APD to enter the harbour and take troops off from a jetty but this would clearly be a desperate measure indeed. Over the next four hours, the boats continued to make trips to the beach, but only when it was believed destroyers had suppressed enemy fire. Heavy rain made it safer by reducing visibility. The last destroyer was unloaded at 12:50. By this time, the navy had lost two men dead and three wounded.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 29.</ref>

For the moment it was safer ashore. The cavalrymen overran the airstrip. Sporadic opposition allowed them to set up the antiaircraft machine guns on the beach, unload supplies, and patrol inland. Two soldiers were killed and three wounded. At 16:00, General MacArthur and Admiral Kinkaid came ashore. The general inspected the position.<ref name=f31/> A lieutenant warned him a Japanese sniper had been killed in the vicinity just a few minutes before. "That's the best thing to do with them," the General replied.<ref>Manchester, ''American Caesar'', p. 341.</ref> He decided to stay, ordering Chase to hold his position until the follow-up force arrived, then returned to ''Phoenix''. Fechteler's force departed at 17:29, the transports having unloaded and most of the bombardment force having exhausted its ammunition. ''Bush'' and ''Stockton'' remained to provide on-call naval fire support.<ref name=f31>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 31.</ref>

===Battle for the beachhead===
[[File:Admiralties-day01.JPG|thumb|Situation on Los Negros on the night of 29 February 1944|alt=Map showing a tiny perimeter nestled next to an airstrip.]]

Chase pulled his troops back into a tight perimeter. There was no barbed wire, so the whole area had to be covered. The ground was hard [[coral]], which was good for airbase construction but made it difficult to dig foxholes. The twelve .50 calibre (12.7mm) machine guns were positioned in the front line.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 31–32.</ref> There was fighting throughout the night as small groups of Japanese attempted to infiltrate the position.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 35.</ref> An airdrop of ammunition was requested. A break in the weather allowed three B-25s of the 38th U.S. Bomb Group to drop supplies at 08:30. Four B-17s of the [[375th Airlift Wing|375th Troop Carrier Group]] each dropped three tons of supplies, including blood plasma, ammunition, hand grenades, and barbed wire.<ref>Futrell and Mortensen, "The Admiralties", in Craven and Cate (eds), ''Guadalcanal to Saipan'', p. 565.</ref> Some of the ammunition fell beyond the perimeter but for some reason men who moved out to retrieve it were not fired upon.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 36.</ref>

The Japanese were not expected to make another effort until dark but at around 16:00 a Japanese patrol was discovered that had somehow managed to infiltrate the perimeter in broad daylight and penetrate to within {{convert|35|yd|m|abbr=on}} of General Chase's command post. A sniper fired on the command post, and fire was directed at the patrol. [[Major]] [[Julio Chiaramonte]], [[Staff officer|S-2]] (intelligence officer) of the task force, set out with four men to silence the sniper. As his party closed in, there were a series of explosions. Three Japanese had committed suicide with hand grenades, while another had committed ''[[seppuku]]'' with his sword. Fifteen dead officers and sergeants were counted, including Captain Baba, the commander of the Japanese battalion which made the attack the preceding night. The Japanese launched another attack on the perimeter at 17:00 but could make little progress in the face of American firepower.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 37–38.</ref>

[[File:Admiralties-day03.JPG|thumb|Situation on Los Negros on the night of 2 March 1944.|alt=Map showing an expanded perimeter that now includes the airstrip.]]
The next morning saw the arrival of the follow-up force, six LSTs, each towing an LCM, escorted by the destroyers {{USS|Mullany|DD-528|6}} and {{USS|Ammen|DD-527|2}} and {{HMAS|Warramunga|I44|6}} and [[destroyer minesweeper]]s {{USS|Hamilton|DD-141|6}} and {{USS|Long|DD-209|2}}. They entered Hyane Harbour and beached, coming under mortar fire as they did so. [[USS LST-202|''LST-202'']], manned by a [[United States Coast Guard]] crew, replied with [[3"/50 caliber gun|3 in]] (76mm) and [[Bofors 40 mm gun]]s.<ref>Morison, ''Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier'', p. 440.</ref> The LSTs were unloaded over the next seven hours. In the process, ammunition, construction equipment, and stores piled up. To accommodate a proper dispersal of stores, General Chase ordered an attack to expand the perimeter.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 39, 42.</ref> An air strike was requested. B-25s of the 345th U.S. Bomb Group were intercepted by an estimated fifteen Japanese fighters. These were driven off by eight escorting [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] fighters, which claimed eight Japanese aircraft shot down. Two [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17s]] of the 69th U.S. Troop Carrier Squadron on a supply dropping run were also attacked, and claimed to have shot one of their attackers down. Regrettably, two of the four B-25 squadrons dropped bombs in areas occupied by American troops, two of whom were killed and four wounded before the 12th U.S. Air Liaison Party could correct the error.<ref>Futrell and Mortensen, "The Admiralties", in Craven and Cate (eds), ''Guadalcanal to Saipan'', p. 566.</ref> Both squadrons of the 5th Cavalry attacked at 15:00. All objectives were taken and a new, larger defensive perimeter was prepared.<ref name=f3941>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 39–41.</ref> The 40th Naval Construction Battalion had landed expecting to work on Momote airstrip. Instead, they were ordered to use their equipment to clear fields of fire and construct fortifications, and were given a section of the perimeter to defend.<ref>Barbey, ''MacArthur's Amphibious Navy'', p. 156.</ref> Six trenches were dug out by a bulldozer and ten men stationed in each. Their [[Excavator|ditch digger]] scooped out {{convert|300|yd|m}} trench which formed a secondary line of defence. The airstrip's revetments were transformed into heavy machine gun posts.<ref name=f3941/>

The two destroyer minesweepers were supposed to sweep the entrance to [[Seeadler Harbour]] between Hauwei and Ndrilo Islands but fire from at least one Japanese {{convert|4|in|mm|sing=on|0}} gun on Hauwei Island prevented them from entering the harbour. [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] [[Emile Dechaineux]], commanding the destroyers supporting the forces ashore, brought ''Ammen'', ''Bush'', ''Mullany'' and ''Warramunga'' around and bombarded the island. The Japanese guns ceased fire but came alive again when another attempt was made to sweep the channel. Dechaineux then called off the effort, ordering the DMSs to join him. The destroyers bombarded Japanese guns covering the entrance to Hyane Harbour to allow the LSTs to leave unmolested.<ref name=g374>Gill, ''Royal Australian Navy 1942–1945'', p. 374.</ref> One LST left with between 20 and 30 truckloads of stores still aboard. The LSTs did not wish to remain after dark as a Japanese attack was expected.<ref>Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', p. 232.</ref> Dechaineux escorted them part of the way until he received an order from Admiral Barbey for ''Ammen'', ''Mullany'', ''Warramunga'', and ''Welles'' to remain off Los Negros. ''Ammen'' and ''Mullany'' bombarded Hauwei Island again in the morning, setting off a couple of ammunition dumps, but still came under accurate fire from four or five guns, and Dechaineux was forced to inform Barbey that he was unable to overcome the island's guns.<ref name=g374/>

General Krueger was gravely concerned about the seriousness of the situation on Los Negros. In response to urgent request from General Chase, Krueger arranged with Admiral Barbey for the movement of the rest of the 1st Cavalry Division to be expedited. At Krueger's request, the 2nd Squadron, [[7th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|7th Cavalry]] would travel in the three APDs. Other units would arrive on 6 and 9 March instead of 9 and 16 March. Krueger realised that Hyane harbour was too small to support the entire division, but there were good beaches around Salami Plantation on the western shore of Los Negros. In order to use them, and to permit a shore-to-shore operation against Manus from Los Negros, Seeadler Harbour would have to be opened up.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', p. 336.</ref>

From the Japanese perspective, the battle was not going too well either. The Japanese had expected a landing on Seeadler Harbour, this being the logical American objective, and had concentrated their forces around the Lorengau airfield. The defence of the Momote airstrip and Hyane harbour was the responsibility of Baba Force, built around Captain Baba's 1st Battalion, 229th Infantry Regiment. Colonel Ezaki ordered Baba to attack the beachhead but a suspicion the Hyane Harbour landing was a diversion, coupled with false reports of enemy activity at Salami had him retain the 2nd (Iwakami) Battalion of the 1st Independent Infantry Regiment there instead of sending it to assist Baba Force. By 2 March, Ezaki had resolved to attack the Hyane beachhead with his whole force. The difficulties imposed by the terrain, and disruption by American artillery and Allied naval gunfire, forced a postponement of the attack to the night of 3 March.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 52–57.</ref>

At 21:00, a lone Japanese plane dropped eight bombs, cutting telephone wires. Once it had departed, yellow flares went up and a Japanese infantry attack was launched, supported by mortar fire.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 45.</ref> Offshore, Dechaineux' destroyers came under attack from four [[Mitsubishi G4M|''Betty'']] bombers.<ref>Gill, ''Royal Australian Navy 1942–1945'', p. 375.</ref> 1st Squadron, 5th Cavalry, was attacked by about two reinforced platoons, which were met by heavy automatic weapons and mortar fire. The heavy jungle in this sector permitted some infiltration but the Japanese force was not strong enough to overrun the position.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 45–46.</ref> The main Japanese attack was delivered by 2nd Battalion, 1st Independent Mixed Regiment, from the direction of the native skidway, together with detachments from the Porlaka area, and fell on 2nd Squadron, 5th Cavalry. The troopers noticed a change in Japanese tactics. Instead of infiltrating silently, they advanced across the open, talking and in some cases singing. Their advance took them straight into anti-personnel mines and booby traps, which duly exploded, and then into the fields of fire of the Americans' automatic weapons, including several .30 [[M1917 Browning machine gun|water-cooled Browning]] machineguns, but the advance continued.<ref name="dunlap">Dunlap, Roy F., ''Ordnance Went Up Front'', p. 310.</ref> The guns of the 211th Coast Artillery (AA) Battalion and 99th Field Artillery Battalion fired through the night, attempting to break up the Japanese attack from Porlaka. Shortly after midnight, Japanese barges attempted to cross Hyane harbour but were engaged by anti-aircraft guns and did not reach the American positions. A Bofors 40 mm gun position was captured by the Japanese, who in turn were driven off by the Seabees.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 46–49.</ref> Manning the .30s, the 5th Cavalry's gunners piled up the Japanese dead until the guns had to be moved to get clear fields of fire. One of the Browning guns that held the position was later left in its place, as a monument.<ref name="dunlap" /> [[Sergeant]] [[Troy McGill]] occupied a revetment with his squad of eight men. All were killed or wounded except McGill and another man, whom he ordered to fall back to the next revetment. McGill fired his rifle until it jammed, then clubbed the Japanese with it until he was killed. He was posthumously awarded the [[Medal of Honor]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/wwII-m-s.html| title = World War II Medal of Honor Citations| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]}} McGill's citation referred to the Japanese as "drinkcrazed" but postmortems indicated this was not the case.</ref>

By dawn, the Japanese attack had subsided. Over 750 Japanese dead were counted in and around the American positions. No prisoners were taken. American casualties were 61 dead, and 244 wounded, including nine dead and 38 wounded Seabees.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 50.</ref> The 2nd Squadron, 5th Cavalry and the 40th Naval Construction Battalion received [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citations]].<ref name="brewer">Krueger, Walter, ''Report on Brewer Operation'', 2 August 1944, AWM54 519/1/12.</ref> General Chase called for an airdrop of ammunition, prodigious quantities of which had been expended during the night, and had ''Warramunga'' fire on the native skidway.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 50–51.</ref>

===Securing Seeadler Harbour===
[[File:Admiralties-day08.JPG|thumb|Operations on Los Negros, 5–7 March 1944|alt=Larger scale map shows all of Los Negros.]]
The morning of 4 March saw the arrival of the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry, which relieved the 2nd Squadron, 5th Cavalry. The next day Major General [[Innis P. Swift]], the commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, arrived aboard ''Bush'' and assumed command. He ordered the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry to attack across the native skidway. The 2nd Squadron, 5th Cavalry therefore went back into the line to relieve them. While the relief was taking place, the Japanese launched a daylight attack. This was repulsed by the cavalrymen, with the help of artillery and mortar fire, but the American attack was delayed until late afternoon. It then ran into a Japanese minefield and by dawn the advance had only advanced as far as the skidway.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 58–60.</ref>

On the morning of 6 March, another convoy arrived at Hyane Harbour: five LSTs, each towing an LCM, with the [[12th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|12th Cavalry]] and other units and equipment including five [[Landing Vehicle Tracked|Landing Vehicles Tracked]] (LVTs) of the 592nd EBSR, three [[M3 Stuart|M3 light tank]]s of the 603rd Tank Company, and twelve [[M101 howitzer|105mm howitzers]] of the 271st Field Artillery Battalion.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', p. 338.</ref> The 12th Cavalry was ordered to the follow the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry in its advance to the north, and to capture the Salami Plantation. The road to Salami was little more than a muddy track in which vehicles soon became bogged. The Japanese also obstructed the route with ditches, felled trees, snipers, and booby traps.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 61–63.</ref> [[Warrant Officer|WO2]] R. J. Booker of ANGAU used his local knowledge to guide the 12th Cavalry and the three tanks to Salami.<ref name="p84"/> Here the Japanese put up a fierce fight that lasted over an hour. The tanks fired [[canister shot]] shells into buildings and high explosive shells into the slits of Japanese bunkers.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 63–64.</ref>

The inhabitants of the area informed the ANGAU detachment the Japanese had retreated across Seeadler Harbour to Papitalai Mission. This, therefore, became the next objective. The 5th Cavalry would attack Papitalai Palantation from the east while the 2nd Squadron, 12th Cavalry would attack Papitalai Mission. The 5th Cavalry captured Porlaka without opposition and crossed Lemondrol Creek in canvas and rubber boats.<ref>Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', p. 238.</ref> A patrol under Captain William C. Cornelius fought an estimated 50 Japanese, who ultimately withdrew. Captain Cornelius, who was credited with killing four, was severely wounded and died the next day. He was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 65.</ref>

[[File:Krueger Chase and Swift.jpg|thumb|left|Senior American commanders on Los Negros: Lieutenant General Walter Krueger,
Brigadier General William C. Chase and Major General Innis P. Swift|alt=Four officers in a jeep, with a steel helmeted driver. The one on the left is wearing a garrison cap with three stars, the one in the centre a cloth peaked cap with one star, while the one on the right had a steel helmet with two stars.]]

Because of the coral reef, conventional landing craft could not be used for the landing at Papitalai Mission. The five LVTs, one a combat type and the other four cargo-carrying, set out from Hyane Harbour to Salami Plantation but the road was so bad that only the combat and one cargo LVT were available in time. The attack went ahead anyway, preceded by an airstrike and artillery bombardment by the 271st Field Artillery Battalion. The combat LVT fired 24 [[M8 4.5 inch Rocket]]s. Return fire was received from Japanese mortars and machine guns, and a 75mm howitzer.<ref>Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', pp. 236–237.</ref> The first wave had to hold alone in the face of fire from Japanese bunkers for 45 minutes until the LVTs returned with the next wave. later, they fought off a counterattack by about 30 Japanese.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 66.</ref> Joined by a third LVT which had eventually managed to make it to Salami, the LVTs made 16 trips across the harbour before nightfall curtailed operations, transporting part of the 2nd Squadron, 12th Cavalry, along with rations, water and ammunition, and evacuating the dead and wounded.<ref name=c237>Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', p. 237.</ref>

Colonel Ezaki reported the American attack on Papitalai Mission to the Eighth Area Army in Rabaul, promising a night counterattack on the position; but no attack was delivered. The Japanese withdrew, and no further messages were ever received from Colonel Ezaki.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 67.</ref>

The task of silencing the Japanese guns guarding Seeadler Harbour fell to Rear Admiral [[Victor Crutchley]]'s Task Force 74 (TF74), consisting of the [[heavy cruiser]] {{HMAS|Shropshire|73|6}}, light cruisers {{USS|Phoenix|CL-46|6}} and {{USS|Nashville|CL-43|2}}, and destroyers {{USS|Bache|DD-470|6}}, {{USS|Beale|DD-471|2}}, {{USS|Daly|DD-519|2}}, and {{USS|Hutchins|DD-476|2}}. They bombarded Hauwei Island for an hour on 4 March but on 6 March {{USS|Nicholson|DD-442|6}} was struck by a Japanese shell fired from Hauwei. With minesweepers scheduled to attempt to enter Seeadler Harbour again on 8 March, Admiral Kinkaid ordered Crutchley to try again. On the afternoon of 7 March, TF74 bombarded Hauwei, Ndrilo, Koruniat, Pityilu and northern Los Negros. ''Shropshire'' fired 64 {{convert|8|in|mm|sing=on|0}} and 92 {{convert|4|in|mm|sing=on|0}} shells, while the American cruisers and destroyers expended 1,144 {{convert|5|in|mm|sing=on|0}} and {{convert|6|in|mm|sing=on|0}} shells.<ref>Gill, ''Royal Australian Navy 1942–1945'', pp. 375–377.</ref> The next day, two destroyers, two minesweepers, an LCM (flak) and six LCMs carrying trucks and supplies entered the Seeadler Harbour without being fired upon.<ref name="c237"/> This cleared the way for the 2nd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division to land at Salmi on 9 March.

[[File:Kittyhawk on Momote.jpg|thumb|right|RAAF Kittyhawks on Momote Airstrip, 8 March 1944|alt=Two propeller aircraft parked on a crushed coral surface. In the background is a coconut plantation]]
By 7 March, the Seabees had the Momote airfield ready. Artillery spotting aircraft began operating from the strip on 6 March and a B-25 made an emergency landing the next day.<ref>Futrell and Mortensen, "The Admiralties", in Craven and Cate (eds), ''Guadalcanal to Saipan'', p. 568.</ref> Guided by a B-25, twelve [[Curtiss P-40|P-40 Kittyhawk]]s of [[No. 76 Squadron RAAF]] arrived from Kiriwina via Finschhafen on 9 March, the remaining twelve aircraft of the squadron following the next day. They were joined by the ground crew of [[No. 77 Squadron RAAF]], which had arrived by LST on 6 March. The rest of No. 73 Wing RAAF arrived over the next two weeks, including the Kittyhawks of No. 77 Squadron RAAF and [[Supermarine Spitfire]]s of [[No. 79 Squadron RAAF]]. Operations began on 10 March and henceforth ships and ground units in the Admiralties had air support just minutes away.<ref>Odgers, ''Air War Against Japan'', pp. 175–177.</ref>

The ANGAU Detachment reached the town of Mokerang on 9 March and found fifty inhabitants. The Detachment was relieved to find islanders had not been deliberately ill-treated by the Japanese. The retreating Japanese had stripped their gardens of food, leaving the civilian population hungry, so ANGAU arranged for them to be provisioned by the Americans.<ref name=p84>Powell, ''The Third Force'', p. 84.</ref>

==Battle of Manus==
===Hauwei===
Operations on Los Negros had now reached the mopping-up stage, but an estimated 2,700 Japanese troops remained on Manus. General Swift decided to land Brigadier General Verne D. Mudge's 2nd Brigade at Lugos Mission, west of Lorengau. Lorengau, known to be heavily fortified, was an important objective. It had an airfield, and four roads converged there. As a preliminary, the 302nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop was ordered to locate sites from which the artillery could cover landings on Manus.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 76–79.</ref> Three patrols were sent out by LCVP on 11 March. The first found Bear Point on Manus free of Japanese but lacking sites for artillery emplacements. The second scouted the Butjo Luo Islands. They found the islands apparently unoccupied, with good sites on the northern island. The third patrol, 25 officers and men of the 302nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop, two officers from the 99th Field Artillery Battalion,<ref name="Casey, p. 240">Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', p. 240.</ref> with WO2 A. L. Robinson of ANGAU and Kiahu, a native of Mokerang, as guides, set out for Hauwei in an LCVP,<ref name="p84"/> escorted by PT 329,<ref>Bulkley, ''At Close Quarters'', p. 228.</ref> one of the [[PT boat]]s now operating from the [[Motor torpedo boat tender|tender]] {{USS|Oyster Bay|AGP-6|6}} in Seeadler Harbour.<ref>Morison, ''Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier'', p. 446.</ref>

As the patrol moved ashore, Major Carter S. Vaden spotted a well camouflaged [[bunker]] and threw two [[hand grenade]]s into it. When they exploded, concealed Japanese mortars and machine guns commenced firing on the patrol and the craft offshore. The PT was hit, her commander wounded, and she withdrew. The LCVP headed toward the shore where it picked up five men, including Robinson and Kaihu. The LCVP retracted and headed out to sea but then sighted another group on the beach. She headed back in to pick them up, despite her commander being wounded, and succeeded. As she backed off the beach again, she was holed by a mortar round and began taking on water. Meanwhile the damaged PT had reported what had happened and a bomber was sent to investigate. Flying low, it spotted the men in the water, and another PT boat was sent to the rescue, covered by the destroyer {{HMAS|Arunta|I30|6}}. After three hours in the water, the LCVP's survivors were picked up by the PT boat. Eight Americans, including Major Vaden, had been killed and fifteen wounded, including the entire LCVP crew.<ref name=c2401>Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', pp. 240–241.</ref> Kaihu was missing and Robinson was contemplating how he would break the news to his family when Kaihu walked in, having swam back to Los Negros.<ref name="powell">Powell, ''The Third Force'', p. 85.</ref>

General Swift postponed the landing on Lugos and ordered the 2nd Squadron, 7th Cavalry to capture Hauwei.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 80.</ref> Once again, Robinson acted as guide, not withstanding severe sunburn from his time in the water the previous day.<ref name="powell" /> The landing was covered by the destroyers ''Arunta'', ''Bush'', ''Stockton'' and {{USS|Thorn|DD-647|2}};<ref name="Gill, p. 378">Gill, ''Royal Australian Navy 1942–1945'', p. 378.</ref> a pair of rocket-firing LCVPs and the LCM (flak), which fired 168 {{convert|4.5|in|mm|sing=on|0}} rockets; the guns of the 61st Field Artillery Battalion on Los Negros;<ref name="Casey, p. 240"/> and six Kittyhawks of No. 76 Squadron dropped {{convert|500|lb|kg|sing=on}} bombs.<ref>Odgers, ''Air War Against Japan 1943–1945'', pp. 174–175.</ref> The assault was made from three cargo-carrying LVTs. To save wear and tear, they were towed across Seeadler Harbour by LCMs and cut loose for the final run in to shore.<ref name="c2401"/> The cavalrymen found well constructed and sited bunkers with interlocking fields of fire covering all approaches, and deadly accurate snipers. The next morning an LCM brought over a medium tank, for which the Japanese had no answer, and the cavalrymen were able to overcome the defenders at a cost of eight killed and 46 wounded; 43 dead Japanese naval personnel were counted. The 61st and 271st Field Artillery Battalions moved to Hauwei, while the 99th established itself on Butjo Luto.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 81–82.</ref>

===Lorengau===
[[File:Admiralties-map11.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Attack on Manus|alt=Larger scale map indicating that Los Negros is now in Allied hands. An arrow indicates an attack across the harbour, on Manus.]]
The attack on Manus got underway on 15 March. Before dawn, two troops of the [[8th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|8th Cavalry]], six cargo carrying LVTs and the combat LVT were loaded on board an LST for the {{convert|18|km|mi}} trip across Seeadler Harbour from Salami. Beaches at Lugos, about {{convert|4|km|mi}} west of Lorengau were chosen in preference to those nearer Lorengau, which were known to be heavily defended.<ref name="casey243">Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', p. 243.</ref> The destroyers [[USS Gillespie (DD-609)|''Gillespie'']], [[USS Hobby (DD-610)|''Hobby'']], [[USS Kalk (DD-611)|''Kalk'']] and [[USS Reid (DD-369)|''Reid'']] bombarded the area with their [[5"/38 caliber gun|5 inch guns]];<ref name="Gill, p. 378"/> the two rocket LCVPs, the LCM (flak) and the combat LVT raked the shoreline with rockets; the artillery on Hauwei and Butjo Luo engaged targets;<ref name="casey243" /> and 18 B-25s of the 499th and 500th Bombardment Squadrons dropped 81 {{convert|500|lb|kg|sing=on|0}} bombs and strafed the area.<ref>Futrell and Mortensen, "The Admiralties", in Craven and Cate (eds), ''Guadalcanal to Saipan'', p. 569.</ref>

The Japanese had evidently not expected a landing at Lugos and their positions there were quickly overrun. The 1st Squadron, 8th Cavalry then advanced eastward until it was stopped by a Japanese bunker complex on the edge of the Lorengau airstrip. An artillery barrage was brought down, followed by an airstrike by Kittyhawks with 500 pound bombs. The cavalry resumed their advance and occupied a ridge overlooking the airstrip without opposition. In the meantime, the 7th Cavalry had been landed at Lugos from the LST on its second trip and took over the defense of the area, freeing the 2nd Squadron, 8th Cavalry to join the attack on Lorengau. The first attempt to capture the airstrip was checked by an enemy bunker complex. A second attempt on 17 March, reinforced by the 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry and tanks, made good progress. The advance then resumed, with Lorengau itself falling on 18 March.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 82–103.</ref>

Although there had been plenty of fighting, the main Japanese force on Manus had not been located. Advancing inland towards Rossum, the 7th Cavalry found it on 20 March. Six days of fighting around Rossum were required before the 7th and 8th Cavalry reduced the entrenched Japanese positions there. The Japanese bunkers, actually log and earth pillboxes, proved resistant to artillery fire.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 103–116.</ref>

===Outlying islands===
As the Japanese on Los Negros ran out of food and ammunition, the fight became increasingly unequal. A last stand by fifty Japanese in the Papitalai Hills on 24 March marked the end of organised Japanese resistance on Los Negros.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 132–133.</ref> The end of organised resistance on Los Negros and Manus still left a number of islands in Japanese hands. To minimise civilian casualties, ANGAU quietly evacuated these islands in advance of the American operations.<ref>Powell, ''The Third Force'', p. 86.</ref> Pityilu was believed occupied by about 60 Japanese. On 30 March the 1st Squadron, 7th Cavalry was transported there from Lorengau by 10 LCMs towing seven LVTs.<ref>Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', p. 246.</ref> With the lessons of Hauwei in mind, the landing was covered by bombardment by destroyers, artillery, and two [[Landing Craft Support]], plus an air strike by Kittyhawks and Spitfires. The landing was unopposed, but a strong Japanese position was encountered which was overcome with the aid of artillery and tanks. Some 59 Japanese were killed compared with eight Americans killed and six wounded.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 137–138.</ref>

The same treatment was given to Ndrilo and Koruniat on 1 April but the 1st Squadron, 12th Cavalry found them unoccupied. This was notable for being the only amphibious operation of the war carried out in dugout canoes.<ref name="casey247">Casey, ''Amphibian Engineer Operations'', p. 247.</ref> The final landing was on Rambutyo on 3 April by the 2nd Squadron, 12th Cavalry. This time, six LCMs and six LCVPs were used instead of the LVTs. As a result, the first waves grounded on a reef and troopers had to wade ashore through the surf. Fortunately, there was no opposition.<ref name="casey247" /> The Japanese, hiding in the interior, were eventually located by ANGAU and 30 Japanese were killed and five captured.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 140.</ref> Patrols continued hunting for Japanese throughout the islands. Increasingly, the cavalry followed up sightings reported by the natives. On Los Negros, the 302nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop killed 48 and captured 15 Japanese during May. On Manus, some 586 Japanese dead were counted and 47 prisoners taken.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', pp. 143–144.</ref> General Krueger officially declared the campaign over on 18 May.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul'', p. 348.</ref>

===Japanese perspective===
A diary found on a dead Japanese soldier recounted his last days:
{{quote|'''28 March'''. Last night's duty was rather quiet except for the occasional mortar and rifle fire that could be heard. According to the conference of the various unit leaders, it has been decided to abandon the present position and withdraw. The preparation for this has been made. However, it seems as though this has been cancelled and we will firmly hold this position. Ah! This is honorable defeat and I suppose we must be proud of the way we have handled ourselves. Only our names will remain, and this is something I don't altogether like. Yes, the lives of those remaining, 300 of us, are now limited to a few days. 
'''30 March'''. This is the eighth day since we began the withdrawal. We have been wandering around and around the mountain roads because of the enemy. We have not yet arrived at our destination but we have completely exhausted our rations. Our bodies are becoming weaker and weaker, and this hunger is getting unbearable. 
'''31 March'''. Although we are completely out of rations, the march continues. When will we reach Lorengau? Or will this unit be annihilated in the mountains? As we go along, we throw away our equipment and weapons one by one. 
'''1 April'''. Arrived at native shack. According to a communication, friendly troops in Lorengau cannot help but withdraw. Hereafter there is no choice but to live as the natives do.<ref>Frierson, ''The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division'', p. 133.</ref>}}

==Base development==
===Conflict over command===
Discussions concerning the scope and nature of base development in the Admiralty Islands were held in early February between representatives of SWPA and Admiral [[William Halsey, Jr.]]'s neighbouring [[Pacific Ocean Areas (command)|South Pacific Area (SOPAC)]]. The original intention was forces from SWPA would capture the islands and construct the airbase, while SOPAC would be responsible for the development of the naval base. The SOPAC representatives indicated they would not be able to supply troops or materials in the early stages, so it was resolved SWPA would also undertake the initial stages of naval base development.<ref>Casey, ''Airfield and Base Development'', pp. 209–210.</ref>

Admiral Nimitz recommended to the Joint Chiefs of Staff that development and control of the base facilities be placed under SOPAC by extending its border westward to include the Admiralties.<ref>James, ''The Years of MacArthur'', Volume II, pp. 388–389.</ref> MacArthur was furious; the borders of SWPA could not be changed without the consent of the Australian government.<ref>Hayes, ''The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War Against Japan'', p. 564.</ref> Nimitz' proposal was eventually turned down by the Joint Chiefs but not before MacArthur restricted access to the facilities to ships of the [[United States Seventh Fleet]] and [[British Pacific Fleet]]. Halsey was summoned to MacArthur's headquarters in Brisbane on 3 March 1944, and the two agreed to a compromise.<ref>Miller, ''Cartwheel: The Reduction of Rabaul</ref> Responsibility for the development of the base passed from Krueger's Alamo Force to Kinkaid's Allied Naval Forces on 18 May 1944. It was proposed control would ultimately pass to SOPAC but it never did.<ref>Casey, ''Airfield and Base Development'', p. 212.</ref>

===Airbase development===
Momote airfield was found to have been constructed on a coral subbase with an overburden of coconut palm [[humus]], over which the Japanese had laid a thin layer of coral and coral sand. This would not withstand heavy use, so 40th Naval Construction Battalion, 8th Engineer Squadron, and Shore Battalion of the 592nd EBSR had to strip away the humus and lay a new coral surface. Just {{convert|3600|ft}} of runway was sufficient for the Kittyhawks and Spitfires but the runway was increased to {{convert|7800|ft}} by late April.<ref>Casey, ''Airfield and Base Development'', p. 213.</ref> B-24s of [[5th Bomb Wing|5th Bombardment Group]] moved in on 18 April 1944 and flew their first mission, against [[Woleai]] two days later.<ref>Futrell, "Hollandia", in Craven and Cate (eds), ''Guadalcanal to Saipan'', p. 604.</ref>

Plans called for a second airfield at Salami Plantation, but surveys revealed that the site was unsuitable and a new site was found in a coconut plantation near [[Mokerang Airfield|Mokerang]]. While the 46th Naval Construction Battalion cleared an access road, the 836th Engineer Aviation Battalion constructed the runway, and the 104th and 46th Naval Construction Battalions built the taxiways and dispersal areas. As at Momote, the humus had to be removed to reach the coral subgrade, which was then graded and compacted. In places the coral was so hard explosives had to be used. The work required the clearing of {{convert|1100|acre|km2}} and the removal of 18,000 coconut trees.<ref name="casey216">Casey, ''Airfield and Base Development'', p. 216.</ref> B-24s of [[307th Bombardment Wing|307th Bombardment Group]] (the "Long Rangers") arrived on 21 April 1944,<ref>''Building the Navies Bases in World War II'', p. 296.</ref> They participated in raids on [[Biak]] and supported the [[Battle of Biak]] in May.<ref name="casey216" />

A fighter base to provide repair and overhaul facilities for [[aircraft carrier|carrier]] aircraft was constructed by the 78th Naval Construction Battalion on Ponam Island. As half of the work area was swamp, coral was blasted and dredged from the ocean bed and used as landfill. Another facility for carrier aircraft was built on Pityilu by the 71st Naval Construction Battalion in May and June 1944, along with accommodation for 2,500 men. The eastern end of Pityilu was cleared and a fleet recreation centre was built that could accommodate up to 10,000 at a time.<ref>''Building the Navies Bases in World War II'', pp. 301–302.</ref>

===Naval base development===
[[File:Seeadler USN drydock 1945.jpg|thumb|right|
US Navy floating Dry Dock Number 4 in Seeadler Harbor in 1945.|alt=A floating drydock containing ships. It is surrounded by floating barges with workshops and a tugboat.]]
Construction of the naval base on Los Negros was the responsibility of the 2nd Naval Construction Regiment, with the 11th, 58th and 71st Naval Construction Battalions. Work included a bulk storage at Papitalai for {{bbl to t|500000|lk=on}} of [[fuel oil]], {{bbl to t|100000}} of [[Diesel fuel|distillate]], {{bbl to t|76000}} of [[avgas]] and {{bbl to t|30000}} of [[gasoline|mogas]];<ref>Casey, ''Airfield and Base Development'', p. 220.</ref> a 500 bed evacuation hospital; two [[Liberty ship]] wharves; 24 warehouses and 83 administration buildings in [[Quonset hut]]s. At Lombrum Point, the Seabees built three installations: a [[seaplane]] repair base, a ship repair base, and a landing craft repair base. A {{convert|250|LT|t|adj=on}} pontoon drydock was provided for servicing the landing craft.<ref>''Building the Navies Bases in World War II'', pp. 296–299.</ref>

Development of facilities on Manus was taken in hand by the 5th Naval Construction Regiment, with the 35th, 44th and 57th Naval Construction Battalions, which arrived in mid-April. They erected 128 storage buildings and 50 refrigerators, each of {{convert|680|cuft}} capacity. A water supply system was developed to supply {{convert|4000000|USgal|l}} per day. Two systems were developed, one using streams in the Lombrum area that supplied {{convert|2700000|USgal|l}} per day, and another for outlying areas that used wells to produce {{convert|850000|USgal|l}} per day. The system included water treatment plants, reservoirs, and pipes.<ref>''Building the Navies Bases in World War II'', pp. 296–301.</ref> All construction work was completed by April 1945, with the base remaining in use until the end of the war.<ref>Casey, ''Airfield and Base Development'', p. 222.</ref>

==Casualties==
In his final report on the campaign, General Krueger reported 3,280 Japanese dead had been counted and 75 had been captured. Perhaps 1,100 more were missing, and were never seen again. American casualties were 326 killed, 1,189 wounded, and four missing. Some 1,625 Americans had been evacuated for all causes, including wounds and illness.<ref name="brewer" /> One Australian was wounded. ANGAU reported one native had been killed and one wounded in action, three were killed by the Japanese, and 20 accidentally killed and 34 wounded by air, artillery, and naval bombardment.<ref>ANGAU ''History of Admiralty Islands Campaign'', AWM54 80/6/6.</ref>

==Analysis==
The value of the Admiralty Islands was enormous. In the grim arithmetic of war, their capture saved more lives than they cost by obviating the need to capture Truk, Kavieng, Rabaul, and [[Hansa Bay]] and thereby speeding up the Allied advance by several months. As an airbase, the Admiralties' value was great, for aircraft based there ranged over Truk, Wewak, and beyond. As a naval base, their value was greater still, as they combined a fleet anchorage with major facilities.<ref>Miller, ''MacArthur and the Admiralties'', pp. 301–302.</ref>

A well-known rule of thumb is that an attacking force needs a 3:1 superiority to ensure success. In the opening stages of the battle of Los Negros, the ratio was more like 1:4. In the end the Allies won, "simply because," wrote Morison, "the United States and Australia dominated that stretch of ocean and the air over it."<ref>Morison, ''Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier'', p. 448.</ref> When queried about the naval support, General Chase replied, "they didn't support us; they saved our necks".<ref name="barbey">Barbey, ''MacArthur's Amphibious Navy'', p. 157.</ref> Chase's own defensive tactics were also a vital factor. He was awarded the [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] for his part, as was MacArthur.<ref>Chase, ''Front Line General'', p. 59.</ref>

Allied commanders, and later historians, debated whether the Admiralty Islands Campaign was the bold action of a great commander or a reckless endeavour that courted disaster. Admiral Fechteler felt, "we're damn lucky we didn't get run off the island,"<ref>James, ''The Years of MacArthur'', Volume II, p. 387.</ref> and Admiral Barbey, for one, believed the original plan would have resulted in overrunning the islands in short order with fewer casualties.<ref name="barbey" /> It would certainly have been much less risky, but it is doubtful whether an assault on the well-defended beaches of Seeadler Harbour would have resulted in fewer casualties. Whereas, in accelerating both MacArthur and Nimitz' campaigns, it shortened the war by at least a month. Thus, in the final analysis, the campaign "had the great virtue of hastening victory while reducing the number of dead and wounded".<ref>Miller, ''MacArthur and the Admiralties'', p. 302.</ref>

For the Japanese, the loss of the Admiralties meant the loss of their outpost line in the South Eastern Area. Imperial Headquarters now ordered the preparation of a new line in [[Western New Guinea]]. The Admiralties operation also indicated the Allies were becoming more ambitious and might bypass Hansa Bay. Accordingly, the [[Eighteenth Army (Japan)|Eighteenth Army]] in New Guinea was ordered to prepare to defend [[Aitape]] and [[Wewak]] as well.<ref>''Reports of General MacArthur'', Volume II, part I, pp. 248–249.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Admiralty Islands campaign order of battle]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
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}}
* {{cite book
| last = Miller
| first = John, Jr.
| chapterurl = http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_11.htm
| chapter = 11. MacArthur and the Admiralties
| title = Command Decisions
| location = Washington, D.C.
| year = 1990
| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
| id = CMH Pub 70-7
| url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_0.htm
| accessdate = 5 March 2009
| oclc = 23472235
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Morison
| first = Samuel Eliot
| authorlink = Samuel Eliot Morison
| year = 1950
| title = Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier: 22 July 1942–1 May 1944
| publisher = [[Little, Brown and Company]]
| work = [[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]]
| location = Boston
| isbn = 0-7858-1307-1
| oclc = 10310299
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Odgers
| first = George
| authorlink =George Odgers
| year = 1968
| url = http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/second_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67913
| title = Air War Against Japan 1943–1945
| work = [[Australia in the War of 1939–1945]]
| publisher = Australian War Memorial
| location = Canberra
| accessdate = 21 November 2009
| oclc = 1990609
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Powell
| first = Alan
| year = 2003
| title = The Third Force:ANGAU's New Guinea War
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| work = Australian Army History Series
| location = [[South Melbourne, Victoria]]
| isbn = 0-19-551639-7
| oclc = 53173145
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Taafe
| first = Stephen R.
| title = MacArthur's Jungle War: The 1944 New Guinea Campaign
| publisher = [[University Press of Kansas]]
| year = 1998
| location = Lawrence, Kansas
| isbn= 0-7006-0870-2
| oclc = 37107216
}}
* {{cite book
| last = U.S. Navy Department
| title = Building the Navy's Bases in World War II, Volume II
| work = History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps 1940–1946
| publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office
| location = Washington, D.C.
| year = 1947
| oclc = 1023942
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Willoughby
| first = Charles Andrew
| authorlink = Charles A. Willoughby
| url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/index.htm
| title = The Campaigns of MacArthur in the Pacific, Volume I
| work = Reports of General MacArthur
| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
| location = Washington, D.C.
| year = 1966
| accessdate = 7 October 2007
| oclc = 187071996
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Willoughby
| first = Charles Andrew
| authorlink = Charles A. Willoughby
| url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/macarthurv2.htm#contents
| title = Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area, Volume II – Part I
| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
| work = Reports of General MacArthur
| year = 1966
| accessdate = 8 December 2008
| oclc = 187072014
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [http://media.nara.gov/google/ARC_39001.mp4 General MacArthur Leads Attack on Admiralty Islands 1944]

{{featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Admiralty Islands campaign}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1944]]
[[Category:1944 in Papua New Guinea]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving the United States]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Australia]]
[[Category:South West Pacific theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:Operation Cartwheel]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Papua New Guinea]]

{{link GA|pl}}

[[ja:アドミラルティ諸島の戦い]]
[[pl:Walki o Wyspy Admiralicji]]
[[ro:Campania din Insulele Amiralității]]
[[ru:Сражения за острова Адмиралтейства]]

Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū

2011-02-17T17:38:55Z

Muta112:

{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}
{{Infobox Ship Image
|Ship image=[[Image:Japanese aircraft carrier Soryu 1938.jpg|300px]]
|Ship caption=The Sōryū in January 1938
}}
{{Infobox Ship Career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=Japan
|Ship flag={{shipboxflag|Empire of Japan|naval}}
|Ship name=''Soryu''
|Ship namesake={{lang-ja|蒼龍}}, meaning "Blue (or Green) Dragon")
|Ship ordered=
|Ship builder=
|Ship laid down=20 November 1934
|Ship launched=23 December 1935
|Ship acquired=
|Ship commissioned=29 December 1937
|Ship decommissioned=
|Ship in service=
|Ship out of service=
|Ship struck=10 August 1942
|Ship reinstated=
|Ship honours=
|Ship fate=Sunk by air attack at the [[battle of Midway]], 4 June 1942
|Ship status=
|Ship notes=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=
|Ship class=Sōryū class aircraft carrier
|Ship displacement= 15,900 tons (standard), 19,500 tons (full load)
|Ship length=222 m (728 ft 5 in)
|Ship beam=21 m (70 ft)
|Ship draught= 7.44 m (24 ft 5 in)
|Ship draft=
|Ship propulsion= Geared steam turbines, 113 MW (152,000 hp), 4 screws
|Ship speed=63.9 km/h (34.5 knots)
|Ship range=
|Ship complement=1,103
|Ship sensors=
|Ship EW=
|Ship armament=12 × 127 mm (5 in) DP guns (dual-purpose) 26 × 25 mm [[anti-aircraft]] guns 15 × 13.2 mm [[machine gun]]s
|Ship armour=
|Ship armor=
|Ship aircraft=57(+16) 18 [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero|Zeros]], 18 [[Aichi D3A|Vals]], 18 [[Nakajima B5N|Kates]] (Dec. 1941)
|Ship aircraft facilities=
|Ship notes=
}}
|}
{{coord|30|38|N|179|13|W|display=title}}

{{nihongo|'''Soryu'''|蒼龍|Sōryū|meaning "[[Distinguishing blue from green in language|Blue (or Green)]] Dragon"}} was an [[aircraft carrier]] of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]. During the Second World War, she took part in the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], Wake Island, Port Darwin and raids in the Indian Ocean before being sunk at the [[Battle of Midway]].<ref name = soryu1>[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-fornv/japan/japsh-s/soryu.htm Soryu]</ref>

==Design==
''Sōryū'' was one of two large carriers approved for construction under the 1931-32 Supplementary Programme (the other being her sister-ship ''[[Hiryū]]''). She was laid down at Kaigun Kosho, [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]], [[Japan]] on 20 November 1934, launched on 21 December 1935 and finally commissioned on 29 December 1937<ref name = soryu1/>. As opposed to some earlier Japanese carriers, which were conversions of battlecruiser ([[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|''Akagi'']]) or battleship ([[Japanese aircraft carrier Kaga|''Kaga'']]) hulls, ''Sōryū'' was designed from the keel up as an aircraft carrier and incorporated lessons learned from the light carrier ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Ryūjō|Ryujo]]''.<ref name=Chesneau165>Chesneau, p.165</ref>

===Hull===
''Sōryū'' featured a slim cruiser-type hull with a length-to-beam ratio of 10:1. Primary protection from horizontal fire came from a {{convert|46|mm|in|abbr=on}} waterline armor belt of Ducol Steel plate along with a separate internal anti-splinter bulkhead. Vertical protection consisted of {{convert|25|mm|in|abbr=on}} of armor over the ship's machinery and {{convert|55|mm|in|abbr=on}} over the fore and aft magazines and aviation fuel tanks. There were no bulges on the hull for anti-torpedo defense.<ref name=Brown18>Brown, p.18</ref>

===Machinery===
''Sōryū'''s machinery was similar to that of the ''Mogami''-class heavy cruisers and consisted of four sets of geared turbines, developing {{convert|200000|shp|lk=in|abbr=on}}, connected to four propeller shafts. Steam power was generated from eight oil-fired Kampon boilers. With a maximum bunkerage capacity of 3670 tons of fuel oil, ''Sōryū'' could cruise {{convert|7750|nmi}} at {{convert|18|kn}}.

Corrosive exhaust gases were trunked upward through the ship and vented out a pair of downward-curving horizontal funnels located amidships on the starboard side, just abaft the carrier's island. This arrangement prevented smoke from interfering with flight operations in most wind conditions.<ref name=Brown19>Brown, p.19</ref>

The carrier's slender hull and powerful machinery resulted in a high maximum speed. Reaching close to 65 km/h (35 kts)<ref name = soryu1/> during initial sea trials, ''Sōryū'' was the fastest carrier in the world at the time of her commissioning.

===Flight Deck & Hangars===
The carrier's {{convert|217|m|ft|abbr=on}} long flight deck overhung both ends of the hangar box but stopped short of the bow and stern. It was supported fore and aft by steel girders. ''Sōryū'''s diminuitive island sat atop a starboard-side extension jutting beyond the side of the hull and therefore did not encroach on the width of the flight deck.

Nine Type 4 electrically operated arrester wires were capable of stopping a {{convert|6000|kg|lbs|abbr=on}} aircraft at speeds of 60-78 knots.<ref name=Brown18>Brown, p.18</ref>

To facilitate rapid transfer of aircraft from hangar to flight deck and back, ''Sōryū'' was designed with three elevators. The largest of these was located along the ship's center line abreast the island. Two somewhat smaller elevators were offset to starboard, one just abaft the ship's funnels and one located further aft. They were capable of transferring aircraft weighing up to {{convert|5000|kg|lbs|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Brown18>Brown, p.18</ref>

''Sōryū'' had two fully enclosed aircraft hangars, arranged one atop the other, with the {{convert|160|m|ft|abbr=on}} upper hangar being approximately {{convert|30.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} longer than the lower. Overhead clearance was limited to {{convert|4.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the upper hangar (where the wings of a Nakajima B5N ''Kate'' torpedo bomber could therefore not be spread for maintenance purposes) and less than {{convert|4.25|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the lower one where the top of the engine cowling of a Mitsubishi A6M ''Zero'' fighter came within {{convert|1.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} of the deck-head.<ref name=Brown19>Brown, p.19</ref>
<ref name=Chesneau166>Chesneau, p.166</ref>

===AA Armament===
Heavy AA armament consisted of six twin batteries of {{convert|127|mm|abbr=on}} dual-purpose guns mounted below flight deck level on either side of the ship (three sited forward and three aft). Each was controlled by a Type 94 fire-control director. A seventh director was mounted atop the island and could control all six batteries if necessary though at a reduced rate of fire.<ref name=Brown19>Brown, p.19</ref>

Close-in AA armament consisted of fourteen twin {{convert|25|mm|abbr=on}} AA guns distributed along the sides of the ship, again below flight deck level. Three of them were sited on a platform just below the bow end of the flight deck.<ref name=Brown19>Brown, p.19</ref>
<ref name=Chesneau166>Chesneau, p.166</ref>

==Combat history==
===Pearl Harbor===
At the outbreak of the [[Pacific War]], commanded by Captain [[Ryusaku Yanagimoto]], ''Sōryū'', in [[Carrier Division 2]], was one of six carriers comprising the ''[[Kido Butai]]'' (Striking Force) that [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked Pearl Harbor]] on 7 December 1941. She launched two waves of air strikes against the U.S. naval base. Her first wave targeted [[USS Nevada (BB-36)|''Nevada'']], [[USS Tennessee (BB-43)|''Tennessee'']], and [[USS West Virginia (BB-48)|''West Virginia'']] with armour-piercing bombs and [[USS Utah (BB-31)|''Utah'']], [[USS Helena (CL-50)|''Helena'']], [[USS California (BB-44)|''California'']], and [[USS Raleigh (CL-7)|''Raleigh'']] with torpedoes, and also attacked parked aircraft at [[Kalaeloa Airport|Barbers Point]]. Her second wave targeted ''California'', ''Raleigh'', [[Kaneohe]] and Navy Yard installations.

===Wake Island / Port Darwin===
From 21 December to 23 December 1941 ''Sōryū'' launched air strikes against [[Wake Island]]. In January 1942 she supported the invasion of the [[Palau Islands]] and the [[Battle of Ambon]]. On 19 February 1942 ''Sōryū'' launched [[Bombing of Darwin (February 1942)‎|air strikes]] against [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin, Australia]]. In March 1942 she took part in the [[Battle of the Java Sea]], helping sink the US tanker [[USS Pecos (AO-6)|''Pecos'']].

===Indian Ocean===
In April 1942 ''Sōryū'' took part in the [[Indian Ocean raid]], launching air strikes against the [[Royal Navy]] base at [[Ceylon]] on 5 April 1942, and helping to sink the Royal Navy cruisers [[HMS Cornwall (56)|''Cornwall'']] and [[HMS Dorsetshire (40)|''Dorsetshire'']]. On 9 April she helped sink the British carrier [[HMS Hermes (D95)|''Hermes'']] and the escorting Australian destroyer [[HMAS Vampire (D68)|HMAS ''Vampire'']].

On 19 April 1942 she pursued the American carriers [[USS Hornet (CV-8)|''Hornet'']] and [[USS Enterprise (CV-6)|''Enterprise'']] after they launched the [[Doolittle Raid]], but without success.

===Midway===
In June 1942 ''Sōryū'' was one of four carriers with Vice Admiral [[Chuichi Nagumo]]'s First Carrier Striking Force in the [[battle of Midway]]. Her aircraft complement consisted of 21 [[Mitsubishi A6M]] "Zero" fighters, 21 [[Aichi D3A]] "Val" dive bombers, and 21 [[Nakajima B5N]] "Kate" torpedo bombers. [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq81-6.htm] On 4 June 1942 she launched her first wave of planes against the American base on [[Midway Atoll|Midway Island]]. At 10:25 AM while preparing to launch a second strike against an American carrier group, she was attacked by thirteen [[SBD Dauntless]] dive bombers from the American carrier [[USS Yorktown (CV-5)|''Yorktown'']]. ''Sōryū'' received three direct hits from 454 kg (1000 lb) bombs: one penetrated to the lower hangar deck, and the other two exploded in the upper hangar deck. The hangars contained armed and fueled aircraft preparing for the upcoming strike, resulting in secondary explosions. Within a very short time the fires on the ship were out of control. At 10:40 AM she stopped and her crew were taken off by the destroyers [[Japanese destroyer Isokaze|''Isokaze'']] and [[Japanese destroyer Hamakaze|''Hamakaze'']]. ''Sōryū'' sank at 7:13 PM at position {{coord|30|38|N|179|13|W}}
. Losses were 711 crew of her nominal complement of 1103, including Captain Yanagimoto, who chose to remain on board. This was the highest mortality percentage of all the Japanese carriers lost at Midway, due largely to the devastation in both hangar decks.<ref name = soryu1/>

The official record (the Nagumo Report) implies that ''Sōryū'' sank of her own accord. Later research has revealed she was [[scuttling|scuttled]] with torpedoes by ''[[Japanese destroyer Isokaze|Isokaze]]''.

[[Image:Japanese aircraft carrier Soryu 1937.jpg|250px|thumb|right|''Sōryū'' under construction at [[Kure Naval Arsenal]], 1937.]]

[[Image:Fantail Soryu.jpg|250px|thumb|right|''Sōryū'' making 35 knots on speed trials, November 1937.]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last=Brown |first=David |title=WWII Fact Files: Aircraft Carriers |publisher=Arco Publishing |year=1977}}
*{{cite book|last=Chesneau |first=Roger |title=Aircraft Carriers of the World, 1914 to the Present |publisher=Brockhampton Press |year=1998}}
*{{cite book|last=Dull |first=Paul S. |title=A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy (1941-1945) |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=1978}}
*{{cite book|last=Parshall |first=Jonathan |first2=Anthony |last2=Tully | year=2005| title=Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway | publisher=Potomac Books | location=Dulles, Virginia |year=2005 |isbn=1-57488-923-0 }}
*{{cite book|last=Peattie |first=Mark |authorlink=Mark Peattie |title=Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power 1909–1941 |publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis, Maryland |year=2001 |isbn=1-55750-432-6}}

==External links==
{{Portalbox|Japan|World War II|Nautical}}
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20091027110106/http://geocities.com/jwarship/Soryu.html Japanese warships — Sōryū]
* [http://ww2db.com/ship_spec.php?ship_id=11 World War II DataBase: Sōryū]
* [http://www.combinedfleet.com/soryu.htm Tabular record of movement] from [http://www.combinedfleet.com/ combinedfleet.com]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-fornv/japan/japsh-s/soryu.htm US Navy photos of ''Sōryū'']

{|align="right"
|{{Commons|HIJMS Soryu}}
|}



{{Soryu class aircraft carrier}}
{{WWIIJapaneseShips}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Soryu}}
[[Category:Sōryū class aircraft carriers]]
[[Category:Ships built in Japan]]
[[Category:1935 ships]]
[[Category:World War II aircraft carriers of Japan]]
[[Category:Attack on Pearl Harbor]]
[[Category:Battle of Midway]]
[[Category:World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean]]

[[ca:Portaavions Sōryū]]
[[cs:Sórjú]]
[[de:Sōryū]]
[[es:Portaaviones Sōryū]]
[[eu:Soryu]]
[[fr:Soryu]]
[[ko:일본 항공모함 소류]]
[[id:Kapal induk Jepang Sōryū]]
[[it:Sōryū (portaerei)]]
[[hu:Szórjú]]
[[ms:Kapal induk Jepun Soryu]]
[[nl:Soryu]]
[[ja:蒼龍 (空母)]]
[[pl:Sōryū]]
[[pt:Porta-aviões japonês Soryu]]
[[ru:Сорю (авианосец)]]
[[szl:Soryu]]
[[sr:Јапански носач авиона Сорју]]
[[tr:Sōryū (uçak gemisi)]]
[[vi:Sōryū (tàu sân bay Nhật)]]
[[zh:蒼龍號航空母艦]]

Brewster SB2A Buccaneer

2011-02-16T14:32:15Z

Muta112:

{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin
|name= SB2A Buccaneer
|image= File:Brewster SB2A-4 Buccaneer in flight 1942.jpg
|caption= An SB2A-4 near Vero Beach, Florida, 1942-43
}}{{Infobox Aircraft Type
|type= Scout bomber
|national origin = [[United States]]
|manufacturer= [[Brewster Aeronautical Corporation]]
|designer=
|first flight=17 June 1941
|introduced=
|retired=
|produced=
|primary user= [[United States Navy]]
|more users= [[United States Army Air Corps]] [[Royal Air Force]] [[Royal Navy]]
|number built= 771
|status= Retired
|unit cost=
|developed from=
|variants with their own articles=
}}
|}

The '''[[Brewster Aeronautical Corporation|Brewster]] SB2A Buccaneer''' was a single-engined mid-wing [[monoplane]] scout/bomber aircraft built for the [[United States Navy]] during the early 1940s. It was also supplied to the [[United States Army Air Corps]].

==Design and development==
The SB2A was a development of Brewster's earlier [[Brewster SBA|SBA]] scout-bomber, sharing the single engined, mid-winged monoplane layout of the earlier aircraft, but was larger and had a more powerful engine. It carried up to 1,000 lb (454 kg) of bombs in an internal bomb-bay and for defensive purposes was fitted with a power operated turret armed with two .30 in machine guns supplementing a further four forward firing guns.

The US Navy ordered a prototype XSB2A on 4 April 1939, which first flew on 17 June 1941.<ref name="Swan Navyp73"> Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p.73.</ref> Large scale orders had already been placed by this time, however, with the [[United Kingdom]] ordering 750 aircraft as the '''Brewster Bermuda''' and the [[Netherlands]] ordering a further 162 to equip the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force]]. The first US Navy production order, for 140 aircraft, was placed on 24 December 1940.<ref name="Swan Navyp73"/>

==Operational history==
The [[Royal Air Force]] took delivery of some SB2A-1s under the terms of [[Lend-Lease]] where they were known as the '''Bermuda'''. They were used for training and target towing. Five of the Cyclone powered aircraft under the model number '340' were supplied to the [[Fleet Air Arm]] of the [[Royal Navy]] for assessment.

==Variants==
;XSB2A-1 Buccaneer
:Prototype. One built.
;SB2A-2
:Initial production, revised armament - non-folding wings. 80 built.
;SB2A-3
:Fitted with folding wings and arrestor hook for carrier operations. 60 built.
;SB2A-4
:Requisitioned aircraft built for Netherlands. 162 built.
;A-34 Bermuda/Bermuda Mk.1
:[[Lend Lease]] production for United Kingdom. Turret replaced by flexible gun mounting. They were designated A-34 Bermuda by the USAAF.<ref name="factsheet"/> Originally 750 ordered, but only 468 were delivered.<ref name="March British p38"> March 1998, p.38.</ref><ref name="factsheet"> [http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=3173 Factsheet: Brewster A-34]. National Museum of the USAF. Retrieved 24 July 2008</ref>

==Operators==
[[Image:051122-F-1234P-036.jpg|thumb|right|Fleet Air Arm Brewster A-34 (Model B-340E "Bermuda")]]

;{{UK}}
*[[Royal Air Force]]
*[[Fleet Air Arm]]
;{{flag|United States|1912}}
*[[United States Army Air Corps]]
*[[United States Navy]]
*[[United States Marine Corps]]

==Survivors==
[[File:SB2A Naval Aviation Museum.jpg|thumb|The SB2A of the [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]].]]
At least one Buccaneer survives:

A-34 Bermuda (s/n 462-860) has been restored by the [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]] at [[Naval Air Station Pensacola]], [[Florida]]. It is displayed as a US Navy SB2A Buccaneer.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.warbirdforum.com/brewbuc.htm |title = Brewster Buccaneer under restoration |work = Warbird Forum |accessdate = 2007-11-13 }}</ref>

==Specifications (SB2A-2)==
{{Aircraft specifications
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop
|ref=United States Navy Aircraft since 1911 <ref name="Swanborough Navy p74"> Swanborough and Bowers 1976, p.74.</ref>

|crew=2: pilot and gunner
|length main=39 ft 2 in
|length alt=11.94 m
|span main=47 ft 0 in
|span alt=14.33 m
|height main=15 ft 5 in
|height alt=4.70 m
|area main=379 ft²
|area alt=35.2 m²
|empty weight main=9,924 lb
|empty weight alt=4,501 kg
|loaded weight main=
|loaded weight alt=
|max takeoff weight main=14,289 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=6,495 kg
|more general=
|engine (prop)=[[Wright R-2600]]-8
|type of prop=[[radial engine]]
|number of props=1
|power main=1,700 hp
|power alt=1,268 kW

|max speed main=274 mph
|max speed alt=238 kn, 441 km/h
|range main=1,675 mi
|range alt=1,455 nmi, 2,696 km
|ceiling main=24,900 ft
|ceiling alt=7,590 m
|climb rate main=
|climb rate alt=
|loading main=
|loading alt=
|power/mass main=
|power/mass alt=
|more performance=

|guns= 
** 2 × .50 in (12.7 mm) [[M2 Browning machine gun]]s in fuselage
** 2 × .30 in (7.62 mm) [[M1919 Browning machine gun]]s in wings
** 2 × .30 in (7.62 mm) flexible rear-mounted .30 machine guns
|bombs=1,000 lb (450 kg)
}}

==See also==
{{Aircontent
|related=
|similar aircraft=
* [[SB2C Helldiver]]
|lists=
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* Donald, David (editor). ''American Warplanes of World War II''. London: Aerospace,1995. ISBN 1 874023 72 7.
* March, Daniel J.(editor). ''British Warplanes of World War II''. London: Aerospace,1998. ISBN 1 874023 92 1.
* Swanborough, Gordon and Bowers, Peter M. ''United States Navy Aircraft since 1911''. London:Putnam, Second edition 1976. ISBN 0 370 10054 9.
{{refend}}

{{USAF attack aircraft}}
{{USN scout aircraft}}
{{Brewster aircraft}}
{{aviation lists}}

[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:United States attack aircraft 1940-1949|SBA2 Buccaneer]]
[[Category:United States bomber aircraft 1940-1949|SBA2 Buccaneer]]
[[Category:World War II ground attack aircraft of the United States]]
[[Category:Brewster aircraft|SB2A]]

{{bomber-stub}}
{{Navy-stub}}

[[cs:Brewster SB2A Buccaneer]]
[[de:Brewster SB2A]]
[[fr:Brewster SB2A Buccaneer]]
[[ja:SB2A (航空機)]]
[[pl:Brewster SB2A Buccaneer]]

USS Langley (CVL-27)

2011-02-13T13:38:17Z

Muta112:

{{Otherships|USS Langley}}
{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}
{{Infobox Ship Image
|Ship image= [[Image:USS Langley CVL-27.jpg|300px]]
|Ship caption=USS ''Langley''
}}
{{Infobox Ship Career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=United States
|Ship flag={{USN flag|1947}}
|Ship name=
|Ship namesake=
|Ship owner=
|Ship operator=
|Ship registry=
|Ship route=
|Ship ordered=
|Ship awarded=
|Ship builder=[[New York Shipbuilding Corporation]]
|Ship original cost=
|Ship yard number=
|Ship way number=
|Ship laid down=11 April 1942
|Ship launched=22 May 1943
|Ship sponsor=
|Ship christened=
|Ship completed=
|Ship acquired=
|Ship commissioned=31 August 1943
|Ship recommissioned=
|Ship decommissioned=11 February 1947
|Ship maiden voyage=
|Ship in service=
|Ship out of service=
|Ship renamed=
|Ship reclassified=
|Ship refit=
|Ship struck=
|Ship reinstated=
|Ship homeport=
|Ship identification=
|Ship motto=
|Ship nickname=
|Ship honours=
|Ship honors=
|Ship captured=
|Ship fate=Sold for scrapping
|Ship status=
|Ship notes=
|Ship badge=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=
|Ship class={{Sclass|Independence|aircraft carrier}}
|Ship type=
|Ship tonnage=
|Ship displacement=11,000 tons
|Ship tons burthen=
|Ship length={{convert|622.5|ft|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam={{convert|71.5|ft|m|abbr=on}} (waterline) 109 ft 2 in (33.3 m) (overall)
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|Ship speed=31 knots
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|Ship complement=1,569 officers and men
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|Ship armament=26 × 40 mm guns
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'''USS ''Langley'' (CVL-27)''' was an 11,000-ton {{Sclass|Independence|aircraft carrier}} that served the [[United States Navy]] from 1943 to 1947, and [[French Navy]] as the [[La Fayette (R96)|''La Fayette'']] from 1951 to 1963. Named for [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]], American scientist and aviation pioneer, ''Langley'' received nine battle stars for World War II service. CVL-27 carried on the name and tradition of {{USS|Langley|CV-1}}, the first US Navy aircraft carrier, which had been sunk on 27 Feb 1942. She later served in the [[French Navy]] as [[La Fayette (R96)|''La Fayette'']].

== Career ==
[[Image:USS Langley (CVL-27) and others in Ulithi.jpg|thumb|left|The ''Langley'' leads [[Task Group 38.3]] into [[Ulithi]] anchorage.]]

''Langley'' was built at [[Camden, New Jersey]]. She was originally ordered as the light cruiser {{USS|Fargo|CL-85}}, but by the time her [[keel]] was laid in April 1942, she had been redesigned as an [[aircraft carrier]], using the original cruiser hull and machinery. Commissioned in August 1943, ''Langley'' went to the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] late in the year and entered combat in [[World War II]] during the [[Operation Flintlock|Marshall Islands operation]] in January-February 1944. During the next four months, her planes attacked [[Japan]]ese positions in the central Pacific and western [[New Guinea]]. In June 1944, she took part in the assault on the Marianas and in the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]].

''Langley'' continued her war role through the rest of 1944, participating in the [[Battle of Peleliu|Palaus Operation]], raids on the [[Philippines]], [[Taiwan|Formosa]] and the [[Ryukyu]]s, and the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]. In January-February 1945, she was part of the [[Third Fleet]]'s foray into the [[South China Sea]], the first massed carrier attacks on the Japanese Home Islands and the invasion of [[Iwo Jima]]. More combat activity followed in March-May, as Langley's planes again hit targets in Japan and supported the [[Okinawa]] operation. Overhauled in the U.S. in June and July, she was en route back to the Pacific war zone when the war ended in August.

Following service transporting Pacific veterans home, ''Langley'' went to the [[Atlantic Ocean]], where she carried out similar missions in November 1945 - January 1946. Inactive at [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], during the remainder of 1946, the carrier was decommissioned there in February 1947.

== Later career ==
{{main|French aircraft carrier La Fayette (R96)}}
''Langley'' was taken out of "mothballs" early in 1951, refurbished and transferred to [[France]] under the [[Mutual Defense Assistance Program]]. After more than a decade of [[French Navy]] service as [[La Fayette (R96)|''La Fayette'']], she was returned to the [[United States]] in March 1963 and was sold for scrap a year later.<ref>[http://www.netmarine.net/bat/porteavi/lafayett/index.htm Porte-avions La Fayette]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-l/cvl27.htm The original version of this article based on US Navy public domain text.]
* {{DANFS|http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/l3/langley-ii.htm}}

==External links==
{{Commons cat|USS Langley (CVL-27)}}
* [http://www.navsource.org/archives/02/27.htm navsource.org: USS ''Langley'']
* [http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/carriers/cvl27.htm hazegray.org: USS ''Langley'']
* [http://wgordon.web.wesleyan.edu/kamikaze/books/ships/monsarrat/index.htm ''Angel on the Yardarm: The Beginnings of Fleet Radar Defense and the Kamikaze Threat''] - Review of book by John Monsarrat, who served aboard ''Langley'' during major battles of the Pacific War from January 1944 to May 1945.
* [http://www.ninesisters.com/langley.htm USS Langley] at Nine Sisters Light Carrier Historical Documentary Project



{{Independence class aircraft carrier}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Langley (CVL-27)}}
[[Category:Independence class aircraft carriers]]
[[Category:Ships built in New Jersey]]
[[Category:1943 ships]]
[[Category:World War II aircraft carriers of the United States]]
[[Category:United States Navy Virginia-related ships]]
[[Category:Independence class aircraft carriers of the French Navy]]

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[[zh:蘭利號航空母艦 (CVL-27)]]