Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Bavarian language

2024-09-05T17:35:42Z

Mutichou: /* Orthography */ fixed wikicode (table in table?)

{{Short description|West Germanic language spoken in Bavaria and Austria}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2010}}

{{Infobox language
| name = Bavarian
| nativename = {{lang-bar|Boarisch|label=none}} / {{lang-bar|Boirisch|label=none}}
| altname = Austro-Bavarian
| pronunciation =
| region = [[Bavaria]] (Germany) [[Austria]] [[South Tyrol]] (Italy)
| ethnicity = [[Bavarians]] [[Austrians]] [[South Tyrol]]eans
| speakers = {{Sigfig|14.569000|2}} million
| date = 2012
| ref = e26
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3 = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4 = [[High German languages|High German]]
| fam5 = [[Upper German]]
| dia1 = [[Northern Bavarian|Northern]]
| dia2 = [[Central Bavarian|Central]]
| dia3 = [[Southern Bavarian|Southern]]
| iso3 = bar
| glotto = baye1239
| glottoname = Bairisch
| glotto2 = bava1246
| glottoname2 = Bavarian
| map = Austro Bavarian Languages-01.png
| mapcaption = Extent of Bavarian
| notice = IPA
| image = File:München-Obermenzing Schild 610.jpg
| imagecaption = Parking sign in Munich
| map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Bavarian is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]}}}}
| script = [[Latin alphabet]], [[Runes#"Marcomannic runes" (8th to 9th centuries)|Marcomannic]] (historically)
}}

[[File:Upper German dialects.png|thumb|Upper German language area after 1945: blue: Bavarian-Austrian dialects]]

'''Bavarian''' ({{lang-de|Bairisch}} {{IPA|de|ˈbaɪʁɪʃ||Bairisch.ogg}}; Bavarian: ''Boarisch'' or ''Boirisch''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rowley |first=Anthony R. |title=Boarisch – Boirisch – Bairisch: Eine Sprachgeschichte |publisher=Friedrich Pustet GmbH & Co. KG |year=2023 |isbn=9783791734378 |language=German}}</ref>), alternately '''Austro-Bavarian''', is a major group of [[Upper German]] [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] spoken in the south-east of the [[German language]] area, including the German state of [[Bavaria]], most of [[Austria]] and the Italian region of [[South Tyrol]].{{sfn|Rowley|2011|p=300}} Prior to 1945, Bavarian was also prevalent in parts of the southern [[Sudetenland]] and western [[Hungary]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/bar/|title=Bavarian|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2017-08-31}}</ref> Bavarian is spoken by approximately 12 million people in an area of around {{convert|125000|km2|sqmi}}, making it the largest of all [[German dialects]]. In 2008, 45 percent of Bavarians claimed to use only dialect in everyday communication.{{sfn|Rowley|2011}}

== Language or dialect ==
Bavarian is commonly considered to be a dialect of [[German language|German]],<ref>{{harvnb |Zehetner|1985|p=16}}: "Bairisch ist der oberdeutsche Dialekt, der dem Stamm der Baiern (oder Bajuwaren) eigen ist." [Bavarian is the Upper German dialect that is proper to the tribe of the Bavarians (or Baiuvarii).]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://bwb.badw.de/bairische-mundarten.html |title=Bairisch versus bayerisch |author= |website=Bayerisches Wörterbuch (BWB) |publisher=[[Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities]] |access-date=2023-02-26 |quote=Von der Verbreitung und von der Sprecherzahl her ist das Bairische die am weitesten verbreitete deutsche Mundart. |trans-quote=In terms of distribution and number of speakers, Bavarian is the most widespread German dialect.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Bairische_Dialekte |title=Bairische Dialekte |author=Anthony Rowley |date=2010-04-26| website=[[Historisches Lexikon Bayerns]] |publisher=[[Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities]] |access-date=2023-02-26 |quote=Mit Bairisch wird die südöstliche Gruppe der oberdeutschen Dialekte bezeichnet. |trans-quote=Bairisch refers to the southeastern group of the Upper German dialects.}}</ref> but some sources classify it as a separate [[language]]: the [[International Organization for Standardization]] has assigned a unique [[ISO 639-3]] language code (''bar''),<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=bar {{!}} ISO 639-3 |url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/bar |access-date=2023-02-26 |website=iso639-3.sil.org}}</ref> and the [[UNESCO]] lists Bavarian in the [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]] since 2009; however, the classification of Bavarian as an ''individual language'' has been criticized by some scholars of Bavarian.{{sfn|Rowley|2011|pp=301–302}}{{sfn|Eibl|2014|p=96}}

Reasons why Bavarian can be viewed as a dialect of German include the perception of its speakers, the lack of standardization, the traditional use of Standard German as a [[Dachsprache|roofing language]], the relative closeness to German which does not justify Bavarian to be viewed as an [[abstand language]], or the fact that no country applied for Bavarian to be entered into the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]].{{sfn|Rowley|2011|pp=301–307}}{{sfn|Eibl|2014|pp=90–91, 96}}

The difference between Bavarian and [[Standard German]] is larger than the difference between [[Danish language|Danish]] and some varieties of [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] or between [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]].<ref>{{harvtxt|Hinderling|1984}} quoted in {{harvtxt|Rowley|2011|p=301}}.</ref>

== Origins ==
=== History and etymology ===
{{further|History of Bavaria}}

The word ''Bavarian'' is derived from the name of the people who settled Bavaria along with their tribal dialect. The origin of the word is disputed. The most common theory traces the word to ''Bajowarjōz'', meaning 'inhabitants of Bojer land'. In turn, ''[[Boii|Bojer]]'' ({{lang-la|Boii}}, {{lang-de|Boier}}) originated as the name for former [[Celts|Celtic]] inhabitants of the area, with the name passing to the mixed population of Celts, [[Roman people|Romans]], and successive waves of German arrivals during the early medieval period.<ref name="barbrite">{{cite book |last=Hasenfratz |first=Hans-Peter |author-link= |date=2011 |title=Barbarian Rites: The Spiritual World of the Vikings and the Germanic Tribes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mAoDwAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=Simon and Schuster |page= |isbn=978-1594774218}}</ref>

The local population eventually established the [[Duchy of Bavaria]], forming the south-eastern part of the [[kingdom of Germany]]. The [[Old High German]] documents from the area of Bavaria are identified as {{lang|de|Altbairisch}} (Old Bavarian), even though at this early date there were few distinctive features that would divide it from [[Alemannic German]].

The dialectal separation of Upper German into East Upper German (Bavarian) and West Upper German (Alemannic) became more tangible in the [[Middle High German]] period, from about the 12th century.

==Geographical distribution and dialects==
* In Europe:
** In [[Germany]], the language is spoken in [[Upper Bavaria]], [[Lower Bavaria]], and the [[Upper Palatinate]] districts in [[Bavaria]]. It is also spoken in southern [[Vogtland]], in [[Saxony]];
** In [[Austria]], except [[Vorarlberg]] and [[Reutte District|Reutte]];
** In [[Italy]] in [[South Tyrol]] and a handful of linguistic enclaves of Cimbrian and Carnic people in [[Northern Italy]];
** In [[Switzerland]], it is spoken in the village of [[Samnaun]], in [[Grisons]];
** In [[Sopron]] ([[Hungary]]) and surroundings.
* Outside of Europe:
** In [[Treze Tílias]], Brazil
** In [[Pozuzo|Pozuzo, Peru]]
** In [[Hutterite German|the United States and Canada]] (Hutterite German)

Three main dialects of Bavarian are:
* [[Northern Bavarian]], mainly spoken in [[Upper Palatinate]], but also in adjacent areas (small parts of [[Upper Franconia]] ([[Wunsiedel (district)|Wunsiedel district]] and [[Bayreuth (district)|Bayreuth district]]), [[Saxony]] (southern [[Vogtland]]), [[Middle Franconia]], [[Upper Bavaria]] and [[Lower Bavaria]]).
* [[Central Bavarian]] along the main rivers [[Isar]] and [[Danube]], spoken in [[Upper Bavaria]] (including [[Munich]], which has a standard German-speaking majority), [[Lower Bavaria]], southern [[Upper Palatinate]], the [[Swabia (Bavaria)|Swabian]] district of [[Aichach-Friedberg]], the northern parts of the [[Salzburg (state)|State of Salzburg]], [[Upper Austria]], [[Lower Austria]], [[Vienna]] (''see [[Viennese German]]'') and the Northern [[Burgenland]].
* [[Southern Bavarian]] in [[Samnaun]], [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]], [[South Tyrol]], [[Carinthia]], [[Styria]], and the southern parts of Salzburg and Burgenland.

Differences are clearly noticeable within those three subgroups, which in Austria often coincide with the borders of the particular states. For example, each of the accents of Carinthia, Styria, and Tyrol can be easily recognised. Also, there is a marked difference between eastern and western central Bavarian, roughly coinciding with the border between Austria and Bavaria. In addition, the Viennese dialect has some characteristics distinguishing it from all other dialects. In Vienna, minor, but recognizable, variations are characteristic for distinct districts of the city.

Before the [[expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia]], the linguistic border of Bavarian with Czech was on the farther side of the [[Bohemian Forest]] and its Bohemian foreland was Bavarian-speaking.

Alternatively, there are four main dialects:<ref>Kurt Gustav Goblirsch, ''Consonant Strength in Upper German Dialects'', John Benjamins Publishing Company 2012 as [https://benjamins.com/catalog/nss NOWELE Supplement Series] vol. 10 (originally Odense University Press 1994), p. 23 f.</ref>
* North Bavarian
* Middle Bavarian
* South Middle Bavarian
* South Bavarian

==Use==
{{for|the use of Bavarian and standard German in Austria|Austrian German}}
[[File:Rottach-Egern - Kramer Lad’l - Essen ist ein Bedürfnis.jpg|thumb|Public sign combining Standard German and Bavarian]]
{{citation needed span|Bavarian differs sufficiently from [[Standard German]] to make it difficult for native speakers to adopt standard pronunciation. Educated [[Bavarians]] and [[Austrians]] can almost always read, write and understand Standard German, but they may have very little opportunity to speak it, especially in rural areas. In those regions, Standard German is restricted to use as the language of writing and the media. It is therefore often referred to as {{lang|de|Schriftdeutsch}} ("written German") rather than the usual term {{lang|de|Hochdeutsch}} ("[[High German languages|High German]]" or "Standard German").|date=October 2022}} Given that [[Central German]] and Upper German together comprise the [[High German languages]], out of which the then new, written standard was developed and as opposed to [[Low German]], that is an alternative naming many High German dialect speakers regard justified.

===School===
{{citation needed span|Bavaria and Austria officially use Standard German as the primary medium of education. With the spread of universal education, the exposure of speakers of Bavarian to Standard German has been increasing, and many younger people, especially in the region's cities and larger towns, speak Standard German with only a slight accent. This accent usually only exists in families where Bavarian is spoken regularly. Families that do not use Bavarian at home usually use Standard German instead. In Austria, some parts of grammar and spelling are taught in Standard German lessons.
As reading and writing in Bavarian is generally not taught at schools, almost all literate speakers of the language prefer to use Standard German for writing. Regional authors and literature may play a role in education as well, but by and large, Standard German is the ''[[lingua franca]]''.|date=October 2022}}

===Literature===
{{citation needed span|Although there exist grammars, [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], and a translation of the [[Bible]] in Bavarian, there is no common orthographic standard. Poetry is written in various Bavarian dialects, and many pop songs use the language as well, especially ones belonging to the [[Austropop]] wave of the 1970s and 1980s.|date=October 2022}}

{{citation needed span|Although Bavarian as a spoken language is in daily use in its region, Standard German, often with strong regional influence, is preferred in the [[mass media]].|date=October 2022}}

{{citation needed span|[[Ludwig Thoma]] was a noted German author who wrote works such as {{lang|de|Lausbubengeschichten|italic=yes}} in Bavarian.|date=October 2022}}

===Web===
There is a [[:bar:|Bavarian Wikipedia]]. Also, the official [[FC Bayern Munich]] website was available in Bavarian.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-11|title=Home – FC Bayern München|url=https://fcbayern.com/by/|access-date=2021-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011042607/https://fcbayern.com/by/|archive-date=2021-10-11}}</ref>

==Phonology==

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
!
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Postalveolar consonant|Post- alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! {{left}} [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ŋ}}
|
|-
! {{left}} [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}
| {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}
|
|
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|ɡ}}
| ({{IPA|ʔ}})
|-
! {{left}} [[Affricate]]
| {{IPA|p͡f}}
| {{IPA|t͡s}}
| {{IPA|t͡ʃ}}
|
|
|
|-
! {{left}} [[Fricative]]
| {{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}}
| ({{IPA|ç}})
| {{IPA|x}}
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
! {{left}} [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPA|r}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! {{left}} [[Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA|l}}
|
| {{IPA|j}}
|
|
|}

Notes:

*Aspiration may occur among voiceless plosives in word-initial position.
*The phoneme {{IPA|/h/}} is frequently realised as {{IPAblink|ç}} or {{IPAblink|x}} word-internally and is realised as {{IPAblink|h}} word-initially.
*Intervocalic {{IPA|/s/}} can be voiced to {{IPAblink|z}}, unless it is ''fortis'' (lengthened), such as in {{IPA|/hɔasːn/}} 'to be named', compared to {{IPA|/rɔasn/}} 'to travel', where the sibilant is ''lenis''.
*A trill sound {{IPA|/r/}} may also be realised as a [[Tap and flap consonants|flap]] [{{IPA link|ɾ}}].
*Intervocalic {{IPA|/v/}} can be realised as [{{IPA link|ʋ}}] or [{{IPA link|β}}, {{IPA link|w}}].
*Some dialects, such as the Bavarian dialect in South Tyrol, realise {{IPA|/k/}} as an affricate {{IPAblink|k͡x}} word-initially and before {{IPA|/m, n, l, r/}}, which is an extension of the [[High German consonant shift]] to velar consonants.

===Vowels===
Vowel phonemes in parentheses occur only in certain Bavarian dialects or only appear as allophones or in diphthongs. Nasalization may also be distinguished in some dialects.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|- class="small"
! [[Roundedness|unrounded]]
! [[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA|i}}
|{{IPA|y}}
|
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|u}}
|-
![[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
|{{IPA|ɪ}}
|{{IPA|ʏ}}
|
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|ʊ}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA|e}}
|{{IPA|ø}}
| ({{IPA|ə}})
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA|ɛ}}
|{{IPA|œ}}
|({{IPA|ɐ}})
| colspan="2" |{{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|({{IPA|æ}})
| ({{IPA|ɶ}})
|{{IPA|a}}
|({{IPA|ɑ}})
|{{IPA|ɒ}}
|}

Bavarian has an extensive [[vowel]] inventory, like most Germanic languages. Vowels can be grouped as back rounded, front unrounded and front rounded. They are also traditionally distinguished by [[vowel length|length]] or [[tenseness]].
==Orthography==
{| class="wikitable"
!Spelling
!Short
!Long
|-
|a
|ɐ
|ɐ:
|-
|à
|a
|a:
|-
|aa
| -
|ɐ:
|-
|àà
| -
|a:
|-
|å
|ɑ
|ɑ:
|-
|ä
|ɛ
|ɛ:
|-
|e
|e (ə)
|e:~ɛ: (ə)
|-
|è
|ɛ
|ɛ:
|-
|é
|e
|e:
|-
|i
|ɪ
|i
|-
|o
|ɔ
|o
|-
|ö
|œ
|ø
|-
|u
|ʊ
|u
|-
|ü
|ʏ
|y
|-
|y
|ʏ
|y
|-
|ea
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ɛɐ
|-
|ia
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |iɐ
|-
|oa
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ɔɐ
|-
|ua
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |uɐ
|-
|ei
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ɛɪ
|-
|oi, åi
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ɔɪ
|-
|öi, äi
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ɛʏ
|-
|ui
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |uɪ
|-
|au
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ɐʊ
|-
|ou
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |ɔʊ
|}

== Grammar ==

* Bavarian usually has case inflection only for the article. With very few exceptions, nouns are not inflected for case.
* The [[preterite|simple past]] tense is very rare in Bavarian and has been retained for only a few verbs, including 'to be' and 'to want'. In general, the perfect is used to express past time.
* Bavarian features verbal inflection for several moods such as [[indicative]], [[subjunctive]], [[imperative mood|imperative]] and [[optative]]. See the table below for inflection of the Bavarian verb {{lang|bar|måcha}}, 'make; do':
{| class="wikitable"
! width="40" | {{lang|bar|måcha}}
! width="140" | Indicative
! width="140" | Imperative
! width="140" | Subjunctive
! width="140" | Optative
|-
|1. Sg||{{lang|bar|i måch}}||—||{{lang|bar|i måchad}}||{{lang|bar|måchadi}}
|-
|2. Sg (informal)||{{lang|bar|du måchst}}||{{lang|bar|måch!}}||{{lang|bar|du måchast}}||{{lang|bar|måchast}}
|-
|3. Sg||{{lang|bar|er måcht}}||{{lang|bar|er måch!}}||{{lang|bar|er måchad}}||{{lang|bar|måchada}}
|-
|1. Pl||{{lang|bar|mia måchan*}}||{{lang|bar|måchma!}}||{{lang|bar|mia måchadn}}||{{lang|bar|måchadma}}
|-
|2. Pl||{{lang|bar|eß måchts}}||{{lang|bar|måchts!}}||{{lang|bar|eß måchats}}||{{lang|bar|måchats}}
|-
|3. Pl||{{lang|bar|se måchan(t)}}||—||{{lang|bar|se måchadn}}||{{lang|bar|måchadns}}
|-
|2. Sg (formal)||{{lang|bar|Si måchan}}||{{lang|bar|måchan’S!}}||{{lang|bar|Si måchadn}}||{{lang|bar|måchadn’S}}
|}

===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!||colspan=4|Singular||colspan=3|Plural
|-
!!!1st person !!2nd person informal!!2nd person formal!!3rd person
!1st person!!2nd person!!3rd person
|-
!Nominative
|{{lang|bar|i}}||{{lang|bar|du}}||{{lang|bar|Si}}||{{lang|bar|ea}}, {{lang|bar|se}}/{{lang|bar|de}}, {{lang|bar|des}}||{{lang|bar|mia}}||{{lang|bar|eß}}/{{lang|bar|öß}} / {{lang|bar|ia*}}||{{lang|bar|se}}
|-
|''Unstressed''
|{{lang|bar|i}}||--|| {{lang|bar|-'S}}|| {{lang|bar|-a}}, {{lang|bar|-'s}}, {{lang|bar|-'s}}|| {{lang|bar|-ma}}|| {{lang|bar|-'s}}|| {{lang|bar|-'s}}
|-
!Dative
|{{lang|bar|mia}}||{{lang|bar|dia}}||{{lang|bar|Eana}}||{{lang|bar|eam}}, {{lang|bar|eara}}/{{lang|bar|iara}}, {{lang|bar|dem}}||{{lang|bar|uns}}, {{lang|bar|ins}}||{{lang|bar|enk}} / {{lang|bar|eich*}}||{{lang|bar|ea}}, {{lang|bar|eana}}
|-
|''Unstressed''
| {{lang|bar|-ma}}|| {{lang|bar|-da}}|| || || || ||
|-
!Accusative
| {{lang|bar|-mi}}|| {{lang|bar|-di}}||{{lang|bar|Eana}}||{{lang|bar|eam}}, {{lang|bar|eara}}/{{lang|bar|iara}}, {{lang|bar|des}}||{{lang|bar|uns}}, {{lang|bar|ins}}||{{lang|bar|enk}} / {{lang|bar|eich*}}||{{lang|bar|ea}}, {{lang|bar|eana}}
|-
|''Unstressed''
| || ||{{lang|bar|Si}}|| {{lang|bar|-'n}}, ..., {{lang|bar|-'s}}|| || || {{lang|bar|-'s}}
|}

* These are typically used in the very northern dialects of Bavarian.

====Possessive pronouns====

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! colspan="2" |Masculine singular!! colspan="2" |Feminine singular!! colspan="2" |Neuter singular!!Plural (any gender)
|-
!Nominative
|mei
|meina|| rowspan="2" |mei
| rowspan="2" |meine|| rowspan="2" |mei
| rowspan="2" |mei(n)s|| rowspan="3" |meine
|-
!Accusative
| colspan="2" |mein
|-
!Dative
| colspan="2" |meim|| colspan="2" |meina|| colspan="2" |meim
|}

The possessive pronouns ''Deina'' and ''Seina'' inflect in the same manner. Oftentimes, ''-nige'' is added to the nominative to form the adjective form of the possessive pronoun, like mei(nige), dei(nige), and the like.

====Indefinite pronouns====

Just like the possessive pronouns listed above, the indefinite pronouns ''koana'', "none", and ''oana'', "one" are inflected the same way.

There is also the indefinite pronoun ''ebba(d)'', "someone" with its impersonal form ''ebb(a)s'', "something". It is inflected in the following way:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!!!Personal!!Impersonal
|-
!Nominative
|ebba|| rowspan="2" |ebbs
|-
!Accusative
|ebban
|-
!Dative
| colspan="2" |ebbam
|}

====Interrogative pronouns====
The interrogative pronouns ''wea'', "who", and ''wås'', "what" are inflected the same way the indefinite pronoun ''ebba'' is inflected.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!!!Personal!!Impersonal
|-
!Nominative
|wea|| rowspan="2" |wås
|-
!Accusative
|wen
|-
!Dative
| colspan="2" |wem
|}

== Society ==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
Bavarians produce a variety of [[nicknames]] for those who bear traditional Bavarian or German names like Josef, Theresa or Georg (becoming ''Sepp'l'' or more commonly ''Sepp'', ''Resi'' and ''Schorsch'', respectively). Bavarians often refer to names with the family name coming first (like ''da Stoiber Ede'' instead of [[Edmund Stoiber]]). The use of the article is considered mandatory when using this linguistic variation. In addition, nicknames different from the family name exist for almost all families, especially in small villages. They consist largely of their profession, names or professions of deceased inhabitants of their homes or the site where their homes are located. This nickname is called ''Hausname'' (en: name of the house) and is seldom used to name the person, but more to state where they come from or live or to whom they are related. Examples of this are:
* Mohler (e.g. ''Maler'' – painter)
* Bachbauer (farmer who lives near a brook/creek)
* Moosrees (Theresa (Rees/Resi) who lives near a moss)
* Schreiner (joiner/carpenter)

== Samples of Bavarian dialects ==

[[File:Bavarian (Wikitongues).ogg|thumb|Spoken Bavarian]]

{| class="wikitable"
!
| {{lang|bar|s Bóarische is a Grubbm fő Dialektt im Siin fåm dætschn Shbroochråm.}}
|-
!
| {{lang|bar|s Bóarische is a Grubbm fő Dialektt im Siin fóm daitschn Schproochraum.}}
|-
! Yiddish
| {{lang|yi|בײַעריש איז אַ גרופּע דיאַלעקטן אויפֿן דרום פֿונעם דײַטשישן שפּראַך־קאָנטינוּום.|italic=no}}
{{lang|yi-Latn|Bayerish iz a grupe dyalektn afn dorem funem daytshishn shprakh-kontinuum.}}
|-
! German
| {{lang|de|Das Bairische ist eine Gruppe von Dialekten im Süden des deutschen Sprachraumes.}}
|-
! English
| Bavarian is a group of dialects in the south of the German [[Sprachraum]].
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!
| {{lang|bar|Sérawas*/Zéas/D'Ere/Griass Di/Griass Gód, i bĩ da Beeder und kumm/kimm fõ Minchn/Minicha.}}
|-
!
| {{lang|bar|Sérwus/Habedéare/Griass Di/Griass Gód, i bin/bĩ da Beeder und kimm/kumm fo Minga/Minka.}}
|-
! Yiddish
| {{lang|yi|שלום־עליכם, איך בין פּעטער און איך קום פֿון מינכן.|italic=no}}
{{lang|yi-Latn|Sholem-aleykhem, ikh bin Peter un ikh kum fun Minkhn.}}
|-
! Standard German
| {{lang|de|Hallo/Servus/Grüß dich, ich bin Peter und komme aus München.}}
|-
! English
| Hello, I am Peter and I come from Munich.
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!
| {{lang|bar|D'Lisa/'s-Liasl hod sé an Haxn bróchn/brócha.}}
|-
! Bavarian
| {{lang|bar|D'Lisa/As /Lisl hod sé an Hax brócha.}}
|-
! Yiddish
| {{lang|yi|ליזע/ליזל האָט זיך צעבראָכן דעם פֿוס.|italic=no}}
{{lang|yi-Latn|Lize/Lizl hot zikh (hotsekh) tsebrokhn dem fus.}}
|-
! Standard German
| {{lang|de|Lisa hat sich das Bein gebrochen.}}
|-
! English
| Lisa broke/has broken her leg.
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!
| {{lang|bar|I ho(b)/hã/hoo a Göd/Goid gfundn/gfunna.}}
|-
!
| {{lang|bar|I ho(b) a Gejd/Goid/Göld gfuna.}}
|-
! Yiddish
| {{lang|yi|איך האָב (כ׳האָב) געפֿונען געלט.|italic=no}}
{{lang|yi-Latn|ikh hob (kh'hob) gefunen gelt.}}
|-
! Standard German
| {{lang|de|Ich habe Geld gefunden.}}
|-
! English
| I (have) found money.
|}

The dialects can be seen to share a number of features with [[Yiddish]].<ref>Uriel Weinrich, ''Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems''. New York, 1953. Reprint, [[Mouton de Gruyter|Mouton]], The Hague, 1963, {{ISBN|90-279-2689-1}}.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Austrian German]]
* [[Viennese German]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
;Dictionary
* Schmeller, Johann Andreas; edited by Frommann, Georg Karl (1872 & 1877). ''Bayerisches Wörterbuch''. 2nd ed. in 2 vol., Rudolf Oldenbourg, München
* {{Citation |last=Hietsch |first=Otto |date=2015 |title=Wörterbuch Bairisch-Englisch, Von Apfelbutzen bis Zwickerbusserl |location=Regenstauf |publisher=SüdOst Verlag |isbn=978-3-86646-307-3}}
;Philology
* {{cite journal |last=Eibl |first=Melanie |date=2014 |title=Bairisch nach Maß? |journal=JournaLIPP |volume=3 |pages=87–99 |doi=10.5282/journalipp/189}}
* {{cite book |last=Hinderling |first=Robert |date=1984 |chapter=Bairisch: Sprache oder Dialekt? |editor-last=Harnisch |editor-first=Rüdiger |title=Jahrbuch der Johann-Andreas-Schmeller-Gesellschaft 1983 |publisher=Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaftliche Fakultät |location=Bayreuth |pages=47–64}}
* Kühebacher, Egon (1965–1971). ''Tirolischer Sprachatlas.'' 3 Vol.: ''Vokalismus, Konsonantismus, Sprachatlas.'' (= Deutscher Sprachatlas. Regionale Sprachatlanten. Hg. von Ludwig Erich Schmitt, Karl Kurt Klein, Reiner Hildebrandt, Kurt Rein. Bde. 3/1–3). Marburg: N. G. Elwert Verlag.
* {{cite book |last=Rowley |first=Anthony |date=2011 |chapter=Bavarian: Successful Dialect or Failed Language? |editor-last1=Fishman |editor-first1=Joshua |editor-link1=Joshua Fishman |editor-last2=García |editor-first2=Ofelia |editor-link2=Ofelia García (educator) |title=Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity. Volume 2: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-983799-1 |pages=299–309 |oclc=721195501}}
* {{Citation |last=Schikowski |first=Robert |date=2009 |title=Die Phonologie des Westmittelbairischen |doi=10.5282/ubm/epub.10991}}
* {{Citation |last=Traunmüller |first=Hartmut |year=1982 |title=Der Vokalismus im Ostmittelbairischen |pages=289–333}}
* {{Citation |last=Wiesinger |first=Peter |year=1990 |title=The Dialects of Modern German: A Linguistic Survey |pages=438–519}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zehetner |first=Ludwig |date=1985 |title=Das bairische Dialektbuch |publisher=C. H. Beck |location=München |isbn=3-406-30562-8 |url=https://epub.uni-regensburg.de/25998/1/ubr13032_ocr.pdf}}

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=bar}}
* {{commons category-inline}}
* Bavarian Wikipedia: [[:bar:Wikipedia:Boarische Umschrift#Lauttab.C3.B6lln|Wikipedia:Boarische Umschrift]], [[:bar:Boarische Dialekte im Vagleich|Boarische Dialekte im Vagleich]]

{{Languages of Germany}}
{{Languages of Austria}}
{{Languages of Italy}}
{{Germanic languages}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bavarian Language}}
[[Category:Bavarian language| ]]
[[Category:German dialects]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:Languages of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]]
[[Category:Baiuvarii]]
[[Category:Altbayern]]

Talk:Russian grammar

2024-08-09T16:15:09Z

Mutichou: /* Validity of the caritive case */ new section

{{WikiProject banner shell|class=C|
{{WikiProject Languages|importance=Mid}}
}}
[[Image:Havronina.jpg|right|thumb|Havronina is one greatest Russian grammar workers]]

Well, I'm glad to see the russian grammar page has improved by such a huge degree since I last saw it! Good work, whoever contributed.

Havronina may be ''a great Russian grammar worker'', but her place is definitively not in this article. [[User:Bogdangiusca|Bogdan]] | [[User talk:Bogdangiusca|Talk]] 16:31, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

I'm a bit hesitant to change the article... but... I believe that the term of choice among Russian scholars is "plusquamperfect", not [[pluperfect]]. Such forms as хаживал etc. can be viewed as plusquamperfect. - [[User:i@k5]]

*# ''Pluperfect'' is the standard English term for the Latin "plusquamperfectum", French "plus-que-parfait", and the Russian "плюсквамперфект". The form being described here is the ancient {{IPA|''ходилъ бѣ''}} or ''ходилъ былъ есть'', as in (though some dispute it, I know) the modern ''зачин'' to so many folk tales, ''жили-были дед и баба...''.
*# The form you've quoted is rather imperfective-in-the-past in its meaning ("I was walking" or "I had been walking"). I realize the two-aspect and three-tense description simplifies some of the theoretical considerations. Sokolova (1962, "Очерк по исторической грамматике русского языка") and Meillet (1932, "Le Slave Commun"), if I remember correctly (but I'm going on memory), make a case for approximately ''four'' Slavic aspects, "и(д)ти -- ходить -- пойти -- хаживать", or something of the sort.
*# The grammar article is not excellent, I know. All of the text was originally written to be in the main article and is therefore much overgeneralized. Many objected, and others moved it to the specialized article, but a lot of work is still necessary.
[[User:A. Shetsen|A. Shetsen]] 15:59, 8 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Ah, you're correct on both counts (1 and 2). Shame on me, I'm such a hopeless amateur. - [[User:i@k5]]

== Aorist and "odd" forms ==
: though the aorist sporadically occurs in secular literature as late as the second half of the eighteenth century, and survives as an odd form in direct narration (а он пойди да скажи [ɐ on pɐjˈdʲi də skɐˈʐɨ], etc., exactly equivalent to the English colloquial "so he goes and says"), recategorized as a usage of the imperative
Are you sure? Slavic (at least Russian, as far as I know) imperative inflections stem from Indoeuropean optative forms (Greeks used optative as a polite imperative as well). This way, forms like "знай он это, он бы туда не пошёл" ("know (imp.) he that, he he wouldn't go there") just reflect an old optative usage recategorized as imperative (which has been actually optative from the very beginning). Maybe phrases like "а он пойди да скажи" are actually somehow optatives as well, not aorists? Exctracted and recategorized from conditional phrases I cited above -- because phrases like "а он пойди да скажи" imply that the action was unpredictable, and thus fits optative pretty well. Aorist has been lost in colloquial speech since ages, I don't think it would survive this way, especially in folklore-styled expressions like these. And aorist forms are quite different from imperatives forms, they can't be confused: aorist zva, but imper. zov'''i'''; aorist. pl'''e'''te (not sure about the stress, at least in Bulgarian it's pl'''e'''te), but imper. plet'''i'''. Can you cite someone to support your claims? [[Special:Contributions/77.40.102.207|77.40.102.207]] ([[User talk:77.40.102.207|talk]]) 02:05, 3 April 2012 (UTC)

== Italics ==

Cyrillic italics are notoriously hard for new learners to read.
Why are so many of the examples in Russian written in Italics? It's obviously a different alphabet, so I see no need to further set off the text. [[User:Taksim25|Taksim25]] 16:47, 18 August 2005

:That is not true. There are fonts that use cursive italics and fonts that use so called false italics. You can change the fonts in your browser and/or wikipedia settings. [[de:Bild:Screenshot_Kyrillisch_Kursiv.png|Example Screenshot]]--[[User:Hhielscher|Hhielscher]] 15:25, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

::I believe Cyrillic text should be accompanied by romanizations. See also ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Russian_grammar#Romanizations_should_accompany_Cyrillic Russian grammar:Talk#Romanizations should accompany Cyrillic]'' below.--[[User talk:Petusek|P]][[User:Petusek|ětušek]] 19:53, 10 July 2018 (UTC)

== Marginal Notes Of A Native Speaker ==

I am a native speaker of the Russian language, raised in a literate family and indeed having a good educational background. I have no formal linguistic training; to my defense, I have learned both English and Latin by myself. Obviously not being able to dispose a systematic device of the language science, I, nevertheless, dare bring forth a critique of the article before the language science wise, hoping that rather informal nature of Wikipedia would allow these notes to be treated as marginal only by their location on an imaginary leaf, not my standing in relation to the field of lingistics.

In the order of the article text:

#'''Nouns.''' Verify that the I and II declensions of nouns are not swapped. In all Russian references, designations are reversed; this was true in the early 80s when I was taught, and this is so in Litnevskaya{{ref|litn01}}, a modern reference grammar (with lots of typos). Ostensibly, they may be designated differently in American and British traditions — but please verify that.
#Ibidem, of the III neuter -мя: acc. sing. -мям is apparently a typo, must be -мя (I am changing that). FWIW, Litnevskaya{{Ref label|litn01|1}} does not separate the 10 -мя nouns into a separate declension (there is no neuter III nouns otherwise), treating them as an exception, but I do not know of what theoretical importance is this fact.
#The word путь (path) m. declines as III f. except for inst. sing. путём.
#Covered in the article is only the substantive declension. There are also adjective and mixed declension models — I believe that they deserve at least to be mentioned.
#'''Adjectives.'''. The section looks too simplistic to me. I would at least mention the difference between the qualitative [''may be unterm''] and the possessive adjective, especially given that they undergo a different declension scheme. I understand that an encyclopedic article is not supposed to replace a text book, but this is rather a misleading omission, since declension is detailed the qualitative. The comparative and superlative may also be mentioned, as are the full and reduced forms.
#Ibidem. ''“After a sibilant or velar consonant, и, instead of ы, is written”.'' Even granted that the phonology must be my weakest topic, it is clear to me that this statement cannot be correct. For example, н, a nasal, can be neither velar nor sibilant; cf. летний (summer [e.g. camp]) v. лётный (flying [e.g. school]). The rules, as I know them, are a) that и follows a soft stem, and ы a hard stem (I cannot think of a single word violating this one), and b) жы and шы never happen (this is absolutely forbidden, as are чя and щя).
#'''Pronouns.''' Оба / обе (both) deserves to be mentioned if only for its gender peculiarity (feminine обе if replaces two feminine entities, m. оба in all other cases), which is likely an ancient artefact. I am sure that a linguist would produce a much better comparison to other languages than I could.
#''“The present tense of the verb быть… is today… used… very formally, in the third person plural.”'' This is not so. One shall exercise a great command of the subtlest nuances of a language to use archaic words in such a way that they feel more appropriate that their modern counterparts to better convey the sense or "feel" of the speech, the latter goal being, IMO, the only reason to choose an archaic word or construct. This applies equally to суть and other archaisms, and the line between the fine and the pretentious is extremely thin. The word has been gained some use lately, but practically all instances of its use were indeed wrong. The word does not invoke as strong a reluctance as other archaisms do perhaps because of its cognation to the perfectly valid and existing noun суть (''gist'') and the adverb по сути (''essentially''). But in any case, it is rather unthinkable to find it in "formal" speech, such as that of newscasts or legal documents.
#The '''Present-future.''' It has never occured to me before that the future and present could be regarded as morphologically one tense. While this is true that future perfective is ''morphologically'' the present tense, it is nevertheless ''syntactically'' the future. It would require additional constraints beyond tense agreement when constructing compound clauses: while “Буду ехать домой — прослушаю новости” (''I will have listened to the news while I will be driving home'') или “Приеду домой — буду слушать новости” (''I will be listening to the news upon arriving home'') are perfectly valid, “Буду ехать домой — слушаю новости” is not. All sentences are in ''morphologically'' same tense; the first two are in the ''syntactical'' future tense, which is making them them agree, and the last one is in different syntactical tenses, what makes it nonsensical. Albeit having been taught differently (specifically, that perfective verbs in the future tense and imperfective verbs in the present tense have the same conjugation model), I am not contesting the theory behind the article — and, FWIW, I like this approach better; I am rather pointing that the article does not explain (in)validity of the combinations of tense and aspect in my examples above. I like the classification, because it exposes morphologic parallels to other languages in the IE family, but it needs to be extended — either by referring to “the other”, syntactical tense, if such a concept has the right to exist (it should, unless I was taught in the school ''orthogonally'' to the course of the language science), or, in the end, any other restrictive rule to that same effect.
#Question: what Russian consonants are considered sibilant? Certainly '''Ш''', '''Щ''', '''Ч''', but are a) '''С''' b) '''З''' c) '''Ж''' d) '''Ф''' e) '''В''' f) any other?
#'''Irregular verbs.''' If the verbs listed are irregular, then my estimate that 3/4 of all verbs in common use are, forming pretty much a regular system among themselves :). Again, I am not contesting the statement “these verbs are irregular”; if they are, assuming that ''irregular verb'' a well-defined scientific term, then let them be such, but there is a clear implication in the article language that the list is an exclusive one. Alternating the ultimate consonant of the root is way too common (is ''mutation of consonant'' the term for this?) for me to provide more examples than there is currently. There said to be a rule regulating this mutation, but I admit that I have never needed to know it ;). Such behavior is in no way confined to the verb, and observed in all inflecting parts of speech. On the other hand, there are verbs that behave, if we reserve the word ''irregular'' for a special term, ''quirkish'':
#*Dual declension. Very uncommon, I could find only two such verbs. Conjugated partly as '''I''', and partly as '''II''' (conjugation number is in superscript in the table below):
#**хотеть (to want, ''impf.'') → хочу, хочешь¹, хочет¹, хотим², хотите², хотят²;
#**бежать (to run, ''impf.'') → бегу, бежишь², бежит², бежим², бежите², бегут¹;
#*Interesting that we would find “''Бежат'' Европы ополченья!” in Pushkin{{ref|push01}} and, even more interesting, in Kuprin{{ref|kupr01}}, “Это ''бежат'' сотни и тысячи испуганных рыб, cпасающихся…”, written as recently as 1911! The use of the opposite, ''хочем, хочете, хочут'', has been regarded as extremely illiterate, if not ever then since long ago.
#*Reflexive transitive verbs. Very uncommon, also only 2 examples: бояться (to fear), стесняться (to be shy). Unlike other tr. verbs, which take object in acc., these take object in gen. (бояться грома, ''to fear thunder''; стесняться своего роста, ''to be shy of one's own height''); бояться also rarely takes a person in acc. (бояться жену (to fear wife), but I would rather use gen. in this construct, and certainly gen. with a non-living animate or an inanimate object; it could be formally valid usage, still not looking to me as correct as the one with the gen. :) )
#*Aspect lexical immutability. Not uncommon. Both pf. and impf. have lexically and inflectionally identical forms: казнить (to execute), женить (to marry), крестить (to baptize), обещать (to promise) and all verbs ending in -ировать, again according to Litnevskaya{{Ref label|litn01|1}}; cf. Вчера он наконец женился ''He finally got married yesterday'' v. Он женился несколько раз ''He was married a few times''. There is more to this list, but I must go on to the next item, to keep my note <strike>short</strike> not very long.
#'''Word formation.''' The example given is not the best one possible (by the way, мысление is incorrect, the right form is мышление: welcome the mutation at work again). Besides, Russian can be extremely elaborate in ad hoc word formation, mostly colloquial, especially humorous, sarcastic or plain derogatory, while most of the given examples can be easily followed in other languages too (think, thinker, unthinkable, rethink, thinkinglessly, thought[less[ly]], though[ful[ly]], etc); while English morphology does not prohibit some forms, it seems to me there to be not as extensive a tradition of doing that in English-speaking communities, e.g. to sarcastically refer to someone “still” not coming up with a solution to an intellectual problem as an ''unthinker'', or “This is plain wrong!” — “But I thought...” — “Then ''unthink'' it back!” etc. In Russian, this may work, in the case of a derogatory statement, like “Куда ты пропал? Я ''оборался'' тебя звать!” (“Where the hell 'you been! I [yelled till the end of it] calling you up!”; from орать, to yell), which sounds rather smacky for an allusion of ''обораться'' to ''обосраться'', an indecent and rude reference to ''desurgere sine voluntate''. Personally, I believe that even such an elaborate construct may get composed spontaneously, more likely in anger, mirth or other emotionally excited state, with allusions yet hidden even from the speaker, as unconsciously as most language processes are. I sometime realize only after some deliberate thinking that an expression that I have overheard and perceived as bold and slappy alludes to some other (often bolder and slappier) expression or concept. While we are at this point, I will try to come up with something for the front of the article that euphemizes by allusion a milder insult, still as simply and efficiently as this one, and also find a branchier generative tree of words.
#'''Compound words'''. It is easy indeed to find many compound words in the language beyond a street name in St. Petersburg, starting with the words of advanced age. There are archaisms among them, e.g. греховодник (sinner, ''lit.'' sin-conduct{{ref_label|duco|a|a}}-or), криводушие (duplicity, ''lit''. crooked-soul-ness); words with a long record: прямодушие (single-heartedness, ''lit''. straight-soul-ness), which is not obsolete, unlike its crooked cousin, гостеприимство (hospitality, ''lit''. guest-accept-ity), громовержец (the Thunderer, usually of Zeus/Jupiter, ''lit''. thunder-strik(e){{ref_label|icio|b|b}}-er); a few obligatory curses e.g. осточертеть (to be fed up [with it]), ''lit''. ((till the end of it)-hundred-devils-(verb ending)), more recent formation пароход (steam vessel, ''lit''. steam-navigation, о seems to be only a conector, but verify), тепловоз (diesel locomotive, lit. thermal-carrying{{ref_label|veho|c|c}}; abundance of modern borrowings, literal e.g. криптография (cryptography, ''lit''.) and translated e.g. внутричерепной (intracranial, ''lit. idem''), and, of course, новояз ([[newspeak]]): a body of unnecessary, unprompted and ungrammatical neologisms, formed almost exclusively by abbreviation, ranging from <tt>нарком</tt> (народный комиссар, people's commissar) to <tt>мособлтяжмашснабсбыт</tt> and beyond (''no kidding. Decoding but keeping the order of the comprising words, incorrect for the Russian language anyway,'' Moscow regional industrial equipment logistics and sales). The article currently seems to make not a difference between this imposed word formation and a natural one (bringing up organically grown Каменноостровский as a rebuttal of Ushakov's contempt). As an exercise, imagine, and then try not to frown on everyday usage of <tt>Westchstatlosanpoldep</tt> (Westchester station, Los Angeles Police department) or <tt>scrapometalloadequatelysupplied</tt>. :) Many of these “words” did not survive the government of the ''agglutinators'' by a year or two; some, however, did.

All in all, I would be glad to proofread and edit relevant parts an article, as well as supply examples of language use, but I believe that systematization must be done by a language pro, and thus I am not up to start to write; I think that I can write sections to it (unless the above is a clear indication to the contrary :) ), but only under a guidance from a linguist.

Are these cognates correct?
*{{note_label|duco|a|a}}вод-ить = Lat. ducere.
*{{note_label|icio|b|b}} [requires prefix]-верг-ать = Lat. icere.
*{{note_label|veho|c|c}}воз-ить = Lat. vehere.

====References====

#{{note|litn01}}Е. И. Литневская. [http://learning-russian.gramota.ru/book/litnevskaya.html Русский язык. Краткий теоретический курс для школьников] БСМП «ЭЛЕКС-Альфа», 2000
#{{note|push01}}''Наполеон'' в кн.: А.С.Пушкин. Собр.соч.в 10 тт., ред. С.С.Благой и др., т.1, М., Худ.Л, 1959; [http://lib.ru/LITRA/PUSHKIN/sobr10_01.txt ред. И.Пильщиков,В.Литвинов, РВБ, 2000].
#{{note|kupr01}}[http://lib.ru/LITRA/KUPRIN/listrygo.txt ''Листригоны''] в кн.: А.И.Куприн. Избранные сочинения. М., Худ.Л., 1985.

:[[User:Kkmº|Kkmº]] 09:57, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

::::(1) You are right, I learned some Russian grammar from soviet books, and the first and second declensions were the other way around. If you compare the first three declensions of Latin, they are almost perfectly analogous to the the three Russian declensions the way that I learned them. Unless somebody has a good reason, I think I should correct this sequence.
::::(2) You are completely correct. They are definitely part of the third declension. Not only did I learn them that way in Soviet textbooks, but these are also analogous to the third Latin declension. Perfect example: Compare Latin 'name' ("nomen"- nom. sing.; "nomina"- nom. plur.) to Russian 'name' ("имя"- nom. sing.; "имена"- nom. plur.).
::::(6) The rule you quoted is mostly correct, but it only applies to velar and sibilant (except 'С' and 'З') consonants. The 'Н' is obviously not a velar or a sibilant, therefore it does not follow that rule. The point is that the velars and five of the sibilants can only be followed by 'И' even if their root ending is hard. Examples: друг-други, нож-ножи. This is an orthographic matter. Someone should definitely include the fact that the sibilant letters 'С' and 'З' do not follow this rule.
::::(8) Again, you are correct. That should definitely be changed. I rarely encounter enough new Russian-speakers to use formality, nevertheless, that word is a vital part of my vocabulary (along with every other Russian-speaker I know). How else would you say the very common phrase "I have one/it"? I can only think of "у меня есть" (Literally "at me (it) is").
::::(10) Most phoneticians do not consider \f\ and \v\ to be sibilants. 'С' and 'З' are sibilants, but they do not follow the same grammatical rules as 'Ж', 'Ц', 'Ч', 'Ш', 'Щ' (i.e. 'И' instead of 'Ы').
::::It would definitely be good if you took the time to fix this article. I'd love to help, but this is really distracting me from my preoccupation.--[[User:67.177.36.200|67.177.36.200]] 08:27, 25 October 2005 (UTC)
:::::While you can say "други", this would sound pretentious or old-fashioned. Instead of "други" one would say "друзья". Why? No idea. [[User:Mikus|Mikus]] ([[User talk:Mikus|talk]]) 00:50, 22 February 2013 (UTC)
::::::::(8) I agree. Although it is true that the word есть is important in modern Russian, I (also as a fluent Russian speaker) think that the most appropriate definition of this word is "there is/are". For example, "Есть много людей" = "There are (or there exist) many people." Your example is correct, and it is indeed how we express possession in Russian - however, although many books indeed translate it as "at me is..." I think it makes much more sense to translate it as "To/at me there is...", i.e. there exists something and it is in my possession. However, the article implies that есть is used today mostly in the third person etc. etc., but this is totally wrong, because it's a simple fact - modern Russian normally never uses the verb "to be" in the present tense. We do not use this verb in the third person, nor in any person, to mean "is/are". In fact, it is customary to place a dash (-) in place of the verb to be in written russian. For example, "Он - здесь." = "He (is) here." Since I am not a linguist either, I am not going to make any changes, but I believe that this certainly should be made more clear/accurate.

::::::::Another minor point I'd like to make. The article says that Russian allows multiple negatives. I think that it's more accurate to say that Russian in fact REQUIRES using multiple negatives to negate a sentence. For instance, in the given example, leaving any of the parts in the positive makes the sentence grammatically incorrect (at least, it doesn't sound correct at all).
:::::::: (please excuse the multiple editing, didn't notice the preview option). --[[User:EngineeringCat|EngineeringCat]] 00:35, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

== Replace Hex/Entitly Characters with Real Cyrillic ==

Is the time up for replacing those &#nnnn; character codes (7 unicode characters each!) with plain cyrillic characters? The page is already 40K in size!
:[[User:Kkmº|Kkmº]] 12:59, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

==Vowel Reduction==
I'm fairly certain that the IPA in the article doesn't take into account phonological processes like vowel reduction. I think someone familiar with Russian phonology should go through and incorporate such processes. [[User:Aeusoes1|AEuSoes1]] 12:07, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

== Missing cases for the nouns in Russian Language ==

The table with six cases is oversimplified, although it is exactly what is used in beginner level Russian text books.
Different academic sources list between 9 and 15 cases for Russian language, although the actual count is debatable.

Here are all the missing cases I could find:

1. Locative (в лесу, в снегу, в кровИ, в слезАх) this case is strictly different from Prepositional (о лесе, о снеге, о крОви, о слЁзах) for some 200-300 words, most of these words are very common monosyllabic nouns.

2. Partitive aka Genitive II (сахару, чаю, воды) This is called "количественно-отделительный" in ref. 2. Used to denote an amount which isn't a number (a spoon of sugar, a bucket of water, some tea)

3. Counting I (шагА, рядА, часА, шарА) - used for amounts two, three, four, twenty-two, twenty-three, etc. Similar to Genitive Singular (шАга, рЯда, чАса, шАра) except for the accented syllable in several common words.

4. Counting II (чулков, сапогов, человек, вольт, грамм, гусаров, байт) - This case is called "счётный" in ref 1 and 2. This is NOT identical to Genitive Plural which it is often confused with (чулок, сапог, человеков, вольтов, граммов, гусар, байтов)

5. Illative (в солдаты, в люди, в зятья) - This case is called "включительный" in ref 1 and 2

6. Awaiting case: (жду мать, жду письма, жду результата) - This debatable case is called "ждательный") in ref 1 and 2, it appears after the verb "wait for" and is usually simular to Genitive and Accusative.

7. Abessive (не читал газеты) this debatable case is called "лишительный" in ref 2.

8. Vocative Church Slavonic (боже, господи, владыко, отче) This is the only nontrivial case mentioned in the article.

9. Vocative Old (деда, доча, сынка) (archaic, but still in use in the country)

10. Vocative New (дядь, мам, Лен, тёть, солнц, ребят, девчат, батянь) (recent development in colloquial Russian. This case applies to all personified nouns ending with -a or -ya) ref 3

References
1: Zaliznyak A. A. "Русское именное словоизменение." Moscow.: Science, 1967.

2: Uspenskij V. A. "К определению падежа по А. Н .Колмогорову // Бюллетень объединения по проблемам машинного перевода." Issue. 5. Moscow., 1957.
(available online at http://www.kolmogorov.pms.ru/uspensky-k_opredeleniyu_padezha_po_kolmogorovu)

3. Klobukov E. V. "Семантика падежных форм в современном русском литературном языке. (Введение
в методику позиционного анализа)" Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1986.

4: Miloslavskij I. G., "Морфология // Современный русский язык / Под ред. В. А. Белошапковой". 2nd ed.. М.: Высшая школа, 1989.

This list is mainly based on a discussion in the newsgroup fido7.ru.linguist from January 2005.

I do not suggest inserting the whole thing into the article on Russian Grammar (although it's an interesting possiblity), but a mention must be made.

== Moods versus Tenses in Verbs ==

This section contains the quote, "Verbal conjugation is subject to three persons in two numbers and two simple tenses (present/future and past), with periphrastic forms for the future and subjunctive, as well as imperative forms ..." This seems to imply that subjunctive and imperative are comparable to tenses, rather than moods. It also soes not discuss moods outside of this sentence (that I could see). I understand that perhaps one needs to use a periphrastic particple for future tense or for particular tenses within an imperative or subjunctive mood, as that is true in a number of languages, but merging the two concepts together is unclear. Are imperative and subjunctive moods always periphrastic, regardless of tense? Is there only one tense available in each of the aforementioned moods? What other moods are there? (ie, indicative obviously, but is there a conditional?) I can't update this, as I have no idea how Russian works (which is why I was looking up the page).--[[User:Frick898|Frick898]] 20:42, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

== Ordinal Numbers ==

I inserted these since they are used quite frequently with dates, etc. The number sections could be combined into a single table if anyone has the time. Hopefully I didn't step on any toes. :-)
--[[User:Elgordon|Elgordon]] 05:51, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

==Ablaut==
Over on the article on [[Indo-European ablaut]] there has been a request for examples from other languages (at present we refer to English, German, Latin and Greek). Any chance of some of you Slavic experts looking over there to see if you have anything to add? Possibly a whole sub-section on ablaut in Slavic languages would be justified? --[[User:Doric Loon|Doric Loon]] 13:59, 3 June 2006 (UTC)
:It's kinda late, but: дохнуть - дух - дышать (abluat from *u : *ou : *ū) [[Special:Contributions/195.113.149.177|195.113.149.177]] ([[User talk:195.113.149.177|talk]]) 23:15, 17 April 2009 (UTC)

== Personal pronoun table? ==

Hi, sorry if I'm being obtuse, but it looks like [[Russian grammar#Personal pronouns|the table of personal pronouns]] is missing a header row or two — the table gives each pronoun's case, but not its [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], or [[grammatical number|number]]. Could someone help? Thanks! [[User:Ruakh|Ruakh]] 00:39, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

:Fixed.[[User:Bridesmill|Bridesmill]] 01:31, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

::Thanks. :-) [[User:Ruakh|Ruakh]] 01:42, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

== Gerund ==

Another thing worth mentioning is gerund and participle formation for adjectives and verbs respectively. These are widely used in literature.
ie (masculine forms): ~вший, ~[у¦ю]щий, (мы form)+ ~ый, ~ен

Passive Past Participle.

Active Past Participle.

(each from imperfective and from perfective verbs).

Gerund (present and past).

I can't think of many examples i'm afraid, but here goes (correct me if i'm wrong):

Писа́тель, написа́вший э́ту кни́гу, – молодо́й поэ́т. (The writer who wrote this book is a young poet.)

Ма́льчику, чита́ющему э́ту кни́гу, четы́ре го́да. (The boy who is reading this book is 4 years old.)

Кни́ги, выпуска́емые в Росси́и, интере́сные. (Books [which are] published in Russia are interesting.)

[need example for: "subject [which has been] verb..."]

Си́дя в ко́мнате, она́ чита́ла кни́гу (sitting in the room, she read [/was reading] a book)

Знав (having known)

I'm really not 100% about these examples, so please correct me. Thanks.

Mattura

:There is no gerund in Russian. What do you mean by Russian gerund? Please, provide examples. Perhaps you mean прича́стие (e.g. зна́ющий) and дееприча́стие (e.g. зна́я)? Both прича́стие and дееприча́стие are rendered by participle into English. --[[User:Andrei Knight|Andrei Knight]] 01:16, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

:Деепричастие is certainly not like gerund in English, but like gérondif in French.[[User:Oudv|Oudv]] ([[User talk:Oudv|talk]]) 03:09, 10 September 2014 (UTC)

== Merge proposal ==

Proposed to merge [[Reduplication in Russian language]] into [[Russian grammar]].
*'''Oppose'''. Two reasons:
** It is wikipedia's tradition to split big articles into small, not vice versa. If you merge all Russian grammar into [[Russian grammar]], you will have an article sized as a book of 500+ pages.
** The article with such a major title must cover major topics of grammar in reasonable detail, leaving more esoteric topics to separate articles.
:In fact, I was thinking to put [[Reduplication in Russian language]] into the [[Reduplication]], article, just as it is done with numerous linguistical topics, such as [[Consonant mutation]], [[Gemination]] and many others. But I changed my mind in the view of the resulting size of the text. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 21:47, 24 August 2006 (UTC)
*''Support'': the [[Reduplication in Russian language|Russian reduplication]] article is so small and has little potential to grow. I think if we're going to split up Russian grammar (which there is little reason to do so now), we shouldn't split it off into a dozen stubs and several moderate sized articles. The largest areas of Russian grammar, such as its case system, its syntax, and its verb inflection, could easily make full articles while the reduplication is practically a sidenote. [[User:Aeusoes1|AEuSoes1]] 22:06, 24 August 2006 (UTC)
**Exactly since it is a sidenote it does not make sense to clutter the main article with it. Only two years ago quite a few wikipedians thought there was no reason to split the whole [[Russian language]] article at all! There are over a hundred of various peculiarities of Russian language I can name right away, and putting them into one article will make it a mess for an average reader. Main article is for main topics. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 23:02, 24 August 2006 (UTC)
*:As for "little potential to grow", I am afraid you are mistaken. There are quite a few murky topics both foreigners and random native speakers are usually unaware. For example, how many [[case (grammar)|case]]s do you think Russian language has? (Try to find the answer using wikipedia). I initially did not intend to write much on this topic, but since your merge proposal I have already expanded this article to twice my original text, even without nice exposition, a mere collection of facts that sit on the surface, without looking into linguistic journals. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 00:12, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
::By "sidenote" I mean that it's too small and insignificant to justify making an article with what should be a section. What happened two years ago is irrelevant to the discussion. Reduplication plays such a small role in Russian (it is just an intensifier) that I really don't see it expanding to that much.
::By the way, the information about reduplication should be in Cyrillic and/or IPA, simply as a matter of consistency. [[User:Aeusoes1|AEuSoes1]] 01:24, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
:::"You don't see" is your personal problem, not a valid argment in discussin. What happened two years ago is a parallel: someone thought he already knows all about russian language and "didn't see" what the heck these 'russkies' want. Now the article has grown '''three times''' its original size. Dare to cut its insignificance in half? `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 01:32, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
::::It's true that the situation is similar but to somehow draw a conclusion of the appropriateness of a split or merger by comparing it to another discussion of a merger or split is oversimplification. It's obvious to us why we should split Russian grammar, phonology, and language apart since that's what is done for many other languages, not because people disagreed with it two years ago.
::::Furthermore, the fact that splitting is appropriate some of the time does not mean that it is appropriate all of the time. It's not obvious why there should be a separate page on a particular grammatical function that, according to the information you've put up, has only ''one single function'': intensification of meaning. If the Russian grammar page is too large then it's much more appropriate to make a separate page on verb conjugation, the case system, or syntax, not something as trivial as reduplication.
::::And finally, the fact that I don't see the article expanding much isn't a "personal problem" and that kind of comment borders on a [[Wikipedia:No personal attacks|personal attack]]. If you disagree with the substance of my criticism (that the article doesn't have potential to grow) then you ought to do so with scholarly sourcing to demonstrate your argument. I give you the burden of proof since 1) it's easier to ask for the proof of presence than proof of absence (in this case being that of potential for greater expansion), and 2) according to Wikipedia [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|policy]]: ''The obligation to provide a reputable source lies with the editors wishing to include the material, not on those seeking to remove it.''
::::Now if you think that in a couple of days' time you can prove me wrong then by all means do so. There's not that much urgency. [[User:Aeusoes1|AEuSoes1]] 03:58, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
::::*Sorry, colleague, your criticism basically amounts to "little potential", "I don't see" etc., which are your personal opinions, and it is not a [[personal attack]], but a fair description of your arguments (or, rather, absence thereof). I have already proved my point by expanding the artile '''three times''' compared to the original text by adding bare bullets only. The text may be still further expanded by adding historical evolution, detailed explanations, etc. And I leave fine wording to real experts in Russian grammar.
::::*Your request for [[reputable sources]] and "burden of proof" is simply ridiculous: I have already included two very scholar references.
::::* "Proof of absence": you are wrong again. the very article contains an example of "proof of absence", by quoting a [[reputable source]]: "There are virtually no productive syllabic or root/stem reduplication in the modern Russian language." And such kinds of "nonexistence claims" you may find in many articles on grammar in wikipedia, see, eg. [[Continuous and progressive aspects]].
::::*"something as trivial as reduplication." People write whole scientific articles on this "trivial" issue. It is yet another example of your disrecpectful attitute to the topic, rather than a valid argument.
::::*So I can nothing but to conclude that you are simply trolling and I have no desire to continue this thread of talk. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikka]] [[user talk:mikkalai|(t)]] 17:31, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
::I apologize if I was unclear. I wasn't asking for reputable sources on the information that's already there. I'm simply pointing out that we disagree on the potential for the article and personal jabs like "that's you're personal problem", "you are simply trolling" and "you have a disrespectful attitude" don't prove anything in regards to that potential but actually expanding the page does. Simply because I have a personal opinion regarding something doesn't mean that your contradictory view isn't personal as well.
::As for reduplication being trivial, I was speaking only as it pertains to Russian. Perhaps trivial isn't the right word. Minor? Something with only one function can't be that major in a particular language. I think that the information should be in Wikipedia, I just happen to disagree with you on it deserving its own article.
::I won't address any more of your dizzying misdirections since, as you have said, the thread is over and I have apparantly lost the vote. While it was close (only by one vote) it was still overwhelming (twice as many people voted against as for). [[User:Aeusoes1|AEuSoes1]] 01:47, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

*'''Oppose'''. My reasons are explained at [[Talk:Reduplication in the Russian language]].—[[User:Ezhiki|Ëzhiki (Igels Hérissonovich Ïzhakoff-Amursky)]] • ([[User talk:Ezhiki|yo?]]); 02:29, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

==First and Second Declensions==
I'd make them into tables as I have done the rest of the article but I don't quite understand them. What does each column represent? Perhaps a scholar or native speaker can fill me in. [[User:Aeusoes1|Æµ§œš¹]] [[User talk:aeusoes1|[aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi]]] 20:32, 31 December 2006 (UTC)
:There is no special significance to each of the columns; All of the columns are equal. They do not have a name, but may be named simmply by their nominative endings.--[[User:King Mir|King Mir]] 05:01, 17 January 2007 (UTC)
::Then what is the distinguishing factor? For example, what dictates when a nominative singular gets an ending of -ий as opposed to -й or -ь? [[User:Aeusoes1|Æµ§œš¹]] [[User talk:aeusoes1|[aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi]]] 10:03, 17 January 2007 (UTC)
:::Nominative singular is the basic form of the noun. It can be found in the dictionary and must be memorized. [[User:H. Kelm|H. Kelm]] 04:24, 19 January 2007 (UTC)
::::Huh?

::::Okay, let me see if I can't be clearer here.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Second declension
!style="background:#FFFF00" align="center"| yellow
!style="background:#00FF00" align="center"| green
!style="background:#00FFFF" align="center"| cyan
|-
|style="background:#C0C0C0" colspan="4" align="center"|'''Singular'''
|-
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -а || -я || -ия
|-
|'''Genitive'''|| -ы|| -и|| -ии
|-
|'''Dative'''|| -е|| -е|| -ии
|-
|'''Accusative'''|| -у|| -ю|| -ию
|-
|'''Instrumental''' || -ой|| -ей|| -ией
|-
|'''Prepositional'''|| -е|| -е|| -ии
|-
|style="background:#C0C0C0 " colspan="4" align="center"|'''Plural'''
|-
| '''Nominative'''||-ы || -и|| -ии
|-
|'''Genitive'''|| -0-|| -ь|| -ий
|-
|'''Dative'''|| -ам|| -ям || -иям
|-
|'''Accusative'''|| -ы/-0-|| -и / ь || -ии / ий
|-
|'''Instrumental''' || -ами || -ями|| -иями
|-
|'''Prepositional'''|| -ах|| -ях || -иях
|}

What words should go in the yellow, green, and cyan cells respectively? I imagine it's not male, female, and neuter since the article states that second declension nouns are mostly feminine. But I could be wrong. I'm all ears. [[User:Aeusoes1|Æµ§œš¹]] [[User talk:aeusoes1|[aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi]]] 05:38, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

:::::Whether a particular word should go in the yellow, green or cyan cell depends on its nominative ending. For example, "машина" (car) goes to the yellow column, "дядя" (uncle) goes to the green column and "конституция" (constitution) goes to the cyan one. There is no hard rule that can explain why a word ends in "-а", "-я" or "-ия". [[User:H. Kelm|H. Kelm]] 08:36, 12 February 2007 (UTC)
:::::I'm Going to go a ahead and add the above table, sans the colors.--[[User:King Mir|King Mir]] 03:24, 22 March 2007 (UTC)
:::::This is *really* unclear to the non-Russian. So you are saying that there are 2-4 sub-declensions within each declension? There should at least be an attempt to explain what is going on. As it stands people have no way of understanding.[[Special:Contributions/131.179.40.44|131.179.40.44]] ([[User talk:131.179.40.44|talk]]) 22:26, 1 April 2015 (UTC)

== Adjective declension ==

Could someone verify note #1 after the table in the [[Russian grammar#Adjectives]] section? I find it very strange to see "-ое/-ого" for neuter accusative singular (since neuter forms are supposed to show nominative-accusative syncretism throughout IE). Perhaps it is more accurate to say that animate neuter nouns can combine with ''masculine'' adjectives via natural gender agreement (therefore, maybe also in the nominative)? I don't actually know any animate neuter nouns, so I can't offer any test data. [[User:CapnPrep|CapnPrep]] 11:10, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

I have [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_grammar&diff=127684960&oldid=127616692 edited] this section based on the information I got from [http://forum.wordreference.com/showthread.php?t=489171 this Slavic languages forum]. But now it looks like the declension table for neuter nouns needs to be modified to reflect the animate/inanimate distinction as well. [[User:CapnPrep|CapnPrep]] 14:14, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

== 2nd noun declension ==

Unless I'm going blind, there don't seem to be any superscript numbers in the table for the 2nd declension of nouns, despite there being numbered notes below it describing exceptions. I'm no expert in russian grammar so I'm not going to edit it, but I would guess that either there are no significant exceptions to the endings given, or the numbers have not been attached to the relevant ending(s). [[User:Mr Poo|Mr Poo]] 16:55, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

The article claims that there are 6 primary nomiative declensions, but 7 are listed. The 7th being the locative case. Following the listing, it speaks of the locative cases as a "maybe". Perhaps the locative should either be removed from the 6, or the article should refelct 7 nomitaive declenisons. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/69.211.143.141|69.211.143.141]] ([[User talk:69.211.143.141|talk]]) 21:30, 17 April 2008 (UTC) 
: Are you referring to the first line in the Nouns section "Nominal declension is subject to six cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and locative or prepositional)" ? It lists six noun cases, giving two alternate names to the 6th case. To be precise, yes, it should just say "prepositional" there, with locative explained in the following sentence. --[[User:Cubbi|Cubbi]] ([[User talk:Cubbi|talk]]) 00:11, 18 April 2008 (UTC)

== Changes ==

I added the Russian grammatical term in many cases, changed the order of cases N, G, D, A, I, P to suit the way cases are taught in Russia. Please discuss here if you have objections. [[User:Atitarev|Anatoli]] ([[User talk:Atitarev|talk]]) 20:21, 22 December 2008 (UTC)

== Russian case ordering ==

''(Atitarev copied StradivariusTV's message)''

Привет! I noticed you changed the ordering of cases to NGDAIL, which I understand is the ordering taught in Russia and in some English coursebooks. But for an encyclopedia it seems more elegant to present the cases in a way that groups identical desinences together. This is not a Wikipedia-only invention; the external link [http://www.alphadictionary.com/rusgrammar/case.html here] uses the ordering NAGDLI, as does the online grammar [http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/stand_alone_russian.pdf here]. Still others use the ordering NAGDIL, like ''A Comprehensive Russian Grammar'' by Wade and ''Essential Russian Grammar'' by Kemple. At any rate it's something that merits discussion. [[User:StradivariusTV|Strad]] ([[User talk:StradivariusTV|talk]]) 20:42, 22 December 2008 (UTC)

:I hope you don't mind moving your message here. :) NGDAI'''P''' (ИРДВТП) is much more common and is my preferred method and I recommend it foreign learners or users, as it makes it easier to use native (Russian) resources later. I don't want to be an authority on this but let some more people decide. Note that German cases (there are only 4) are always presented in the same order: Nominativ, Genitiv, Dativ, Akkusativ). It is the case for other Slavic languages as well (+ Vocative for some languages). [[User:Atitarev|Anatoli]] ([[User talk:Atitarev|talk]]) 22:07, 22 December 2008 (UTC)

:As for me, I also think, that it is better to place cases in their traditional order, rather than in order of similar desinences. This order is maintained not only in Russian and German, but Polish, Greek has the same order.--[[User:Армонд|Армонд]][[User talk:Армонд|@]] 17:33, 28 February 2009 (UTC)
::I'd put my money on traditional/pedagogical order as well. What exactly is the benefit of putting them in order of similar suffixes? — [[User:Aeusoes1|Æµ§œš¹]] [[User talk:aeusoes1|[aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi]]] 00:51, 1 March 2009 (UTC)
:Wikipedia is not a purse, and articles must be in encyclopedic style--[[User:Армонд|Армонд]][[User talk:Армонд|@]] 16:42, 3 March 2009 (UTC)
:::I don't think an encyclopedic style is at stake here. Perhaps you could elaborate. — [[User:Aeusoes1|Æµ§œš¹]] [[User talk:aeusoes1|[aɪm ˈfɻɛ̃ⁿdˡi]]] 07:26, 4 March 2009 (UTC)
:As for me, the article, attached above here is the first example of such ordering of cases in Russian--[[User:Армонд|Армонд]][[User talk:Армонд|@]] 16:19, 6 March 2009 (UTC)

:Hi. I'm a non-native speaker that is in the early stages of learning Russian. I can't cite any external references or examples, I can only speak from my own personal experience. Having the entries in NAGDIP order has been incredibly helpful as the Acc. entries seem to fit "logically" between Nom. and Gen. because of the "variable" declension. I don't know if that counts for anything, but as an end-user, having the switch to NGDAIP has been incredibly confusing. Especially since the books I am currently using (http://www.amazon.com/Essential-Russian-Grammar-Yourself-Language/dp/0071752706/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1374676451&sr=8-2&keywords=essential+russian+grammar) use the previous order. Okay so I guess I did cite something. Anyways, for what it counts, I hope you change it back to NAGDIP. Thanks! [[User:AgentLandline|AgentLandline]] ([[User AgentLandline|talk]]) —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 14:38, 24 July 2013 (UTC) 

== Romanizations should accompany Cyrillic ==

All Russian words and grammatical endings in the article are in Cyrillic. Shouldn't they be accompanied by Roman transliterations for the benefit of those who do not know the Cyrillic alphabet? —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/219.64.64.209|219.64.64.209]] ([[User talk:219.64.64.209|talk]]) 18:52, 22 March 2009 (UTC) 

:To be quite honest, the Cyrillic alphabet can be learned in less than an hour. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/67.212.106.138|67.212.106.138]] ([[User talk:67.212.106.138|talk]]) 03:39, 1 September 2009 (UTC) 

::While I agree with the latter comment (indeed, the Cyrillic alphabet does not belong to the most difficult ones to learn), I also agree with the former one: whoever may happen to be looking merely for quick information on, or examples of, various aspects of the Russian grammar (for comparative, reference or any other purposes), should not be forced to have to delve much deeper in things not directly pertaining to them. If one, for instance, wants to get a quick, albeit cursory, look at the differences between the Russian and German conjugations, why should they have to learn the Cyrillic alphabet in order to be able to read the information? Is that not an excessive requirement? I believe it is. --[[User talk:Petusek|P]][[User:Petusek|ětušek]] 19:48, 10 July 2018 (UTC)

== Comment..? ==

As a reader, I feel that all the translations of grammatical vernacular were pretty unnecessary. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/24.174.176.135|24.174.176.135]] ([[User talk:24.174.176.135|talk]]) 21:19, 16 August 2009 (UTC) 

== unidirectional and multidirectional verbs of motion. ==

I'm learning Russian, and I'm finding it a bit difficult to comprehend the concept of unidirectional and multi-directional verbs of motion. I can find very little discussion of this concept anywhere online. (In Russian, rather than distinguishing between "come" and "go", there are two words: "идти" which means "travel on foot in one direction" and "ехать" which means "travel on foot in multiple directions/ there and back/ etc". Then they have pairs of verbs denoting the same concept except by vehicle, by flight, by swimming/sailing etc) why isn't it discussed in this article and are there any other languages with such a distinction? I think I heard that ancient Greek did. [[User:Hypershock|Hypershock]] ([[User talk:Hypershock|talk]]) 14:48, 8 September 2009 (UTC)

:You mean ходить, not ехать. As you can see, this page is rated as a "C", which means that a lot of basic information is still missing. But your questions go beyond the scope of this talk page. I would recommend going to a language discussion site like [http://forum.wordreference.com Word Reference]. [[User:CapnPrep|CapnPrep]] ([[User talk:CapnPrep|talk]]) 16:30, 8 September 2009 (UTC)

== Vocative case? ==

IAt what time in the history of the Russian/Slavonic languages did the [[Vocative case]] disappear?

Did the Russian language ever have a Vocative case? [[Special:Contributions/216.99.198.244|216.99.198.244]] ([[User talk:216.99.198.244|talk]]) 17:52, 8 October 2009 (UTC)

: As [[Vocative case#Russian]] correctly points out, Russian has a Vocative case in current colloquial use, different from the one that was used in Old Slavonic. It misses out a somewhat outdated form of Vocative which is mentioned in the beginning of this talk page. --[[User:Cubbi|Cubbi]] ([[User talk:Cubbi|talk]]) 01:59, 9 October 2009 (UTC)

== Morphology vs. spelling ==

This whole article is all wrong, as it does not distinguish between spelling and morphology. I mean, is "ь" an ending? How about "я"? These are letters, and should not be confused with morphemes. This kind of approach is okay for elementary school pupils, but in an encyclopedic article, it presents a token of ignorance in terms of morphology...

== "Irregular" verbs ==

First off, the verbs listed as 'irregular' might be irregular as far as first year language teaching materials are concerned, but except for есть и дать, none of the verbs listed are irregular. Yeah, a couple have stress on their infinitive ending (вести, идти), or are otherwise non-suffixed (жить), or are а-suffixed (писать), so they aren't models for forming new verbs from borrowed stems. But they're not irregular. Neither are видеть or ходить; one is -e- suffixed and another is an absolutely regular second conjugation verb. A footnote mentions palatalization, an entirely productive process in Russian; why isn't it discussed in the text instead of left out as an "irregularity"? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Duke Atreides|Duke Atreides]] ([[User talk:Duke Atreides|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Duke Atreides|contribs]]) 00:46, 6 February 2011 (UTC) 

:I agree the verbs section should be expanded and I think that an article [[Russian verbs]] would be a good idea. [[User:Andries|Andries]] ([[User talk:Andries|talk]]) 14:17, 18 June 2011 (UTC)

== Небольшая неточность ==

Возможно, в статью вкралась неточность (я выделил текст). Возможно, вместо множественного числа "books" должно быть единственное: "a book" в первом случае, с неопределённым артиклем и просто "book" во втором (неопределённый артикль заменён словом "any"):
<blockquote style="background-color: #EEEEEE">The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: "Я не вижу книги" ("I don't see <s>books</s> a book" or "I don't see any <s>books</s> book") and "Я не вижу книгу" ("I don't see the book").</blockquote>
--[[User:EightAitches|EightAitches]] ([[User talk:EightAitches|talk]]) 16:31, 18 May 2011 (UTC)

== Negation: Adverbial answers to a negative sentence ==
Answer to a negative sentence
При ответе "нет" неопределенность. Можно сказать Нет (В смысле дождь НЕ идёт), а можно сказать Нет (в смысле - Нет, дождь всё-таки идёт) — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:OlegTar|OlegTar]] ([[User talk:OlegTar|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/OlegTar|contribs]]) 17:41, 11 June 2011 (UTC) 

That's very and very confusing. Did I say very? Answering speaker is talking plain nonsense as if to consider the following table. It’s not raining. answer - no = it’s not raining. It makes no sense because it's NOT a QUESTION. That's why only Russian version makes sense. Дождь не идёт. Answer - нет. Therefore 2 states. With or without rain. If the answer is negative then the state changes to the opposite. OR did I miss something????

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Answer to a negative sentence
|
| rowspan="4" |
! style="background:#C0C0C0" | English
! style="background:#C0C0C0" | Russian

|-
| style="background:#E0E0E0" | '''First speaker'''
| style="background:#E0E0E0" | '''It’s not raining'''
| style="background:#E0E0E0" | '''Дождь не идёт'''

|-
| style="background:#D9D9D9" rowspan="2" | '''Answering speaker'''
| style="background:#D9D9D9" | '''No''' = it’s not raining
| style="background:#D9D9D9" | '''Нет''' = дождь идёт

|-
| style="background:#D9D9D9" | '''Yes''' = it’s raining
| style="background:#D9D9D9" | '''Да''' = дождь не идёт
|}
[[User:Extreemator|Extreemator]] ([[User talk:Extreemator|talk]]) 05:28, 3 March 2012 (UTC)

== Correction ==

<quote>''The use of a direct object in the genitive instead of the accusative in negation signifies that the noun is indefinite, compare: "Я не вижу книги" ("I don't see books" or "I don't see any books") and "Я не вижу книгу" ("I don't see the book").''<end quote>

This is incorrect. I am a native Russian speaker and I thought I would let you know that "Я не вижу книг''и''" means "I don't see the book". "I don't see (any) books" is translated into Russian as "Я не вижу кни'''г'''".

== Doubtful with verbs ==

<Q>There are two voices, active and passive, which is constructed by the addition of a reflexive suffix -ся/сь/- to the active form.</Q>

There are many verbs on -ся which are active, e.g. влюбиться (to fall in love).

<Q>The subjunctive mood in Russian is formed by adding the particle бы after a verb in the past tense.</Q>

The particle бы is often added after first word of the sentence, or after subject:
:Кто бы говорил! - Who ever would say (it)! (i.e. you are wrong man to)
:Чаю бы я выпил охотно, но лучше бы пообедать. - I would have pleasure to have some tea, but it would be better to have dinner.
:Без электричества мы бы смотрели телевизор при свечах! - Without electricity, we had to watch TV in candle light!

<Q>Grammatical conjugation is subject to three persons in two numbers and two simple tenses (present/future and past)...</Q>

After learning in Russian school I believe that there are tree (present, future and past) tences in Russian: past time (inflected by number and gender and produced from infinitive basement), present (exists for [[Grammatical aspect#Slavic languages|imperfective verbs]] only and has number and person) and future (for perfective verbs looks well quiet like present for imperfective ones, for imperfective is formed with forms of auxiliary verb буду, будешь... or стану, станешь... plus infinitive). This is not correct to suppose that present and furure for Russian language is the same. [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]] ([[User talk:Ignatus|talk]]) 11:47, 26 December 2011 (UTC)

== Masculine nouns on -о ==

I can't remember any. The example was given is in fact ends more on -а, than on -о, see [[:ru:Рыбы-прилипалы]]; so does other suspected spoken-language words as кидала, зубрила etc. (ending them on -о seems to be possible but uncommon, maybe deprecated). Masculines on -о are common in [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], but Ukrainian surnames as Наливайко are undeclined in Russian. [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]] ([[User talk:Ignatus|talk]]) 17:10, 24 May 2012 (UTC)

::possibly the masculine noun '''домишко''' (little house) falls into this category?--[[Special:Contributions/216.110.25.2|216.110.25.2]] ([[User talk:216.110.25.2|talk]]) 18:50, 1 November 2012 (UTC)
::: Oh yes. [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]] ([[User talk:Ignatus|talk]]) 18:00, 2 December 2012 (UTC)

== Numbering the declensions ==
The last paragraph above [[Russian_grammar#First_declension|First declension]] is in contradiction with the numbering used below for the first two declensions. It also omits the fact (implicitly mentioned under [[Russian_grammar#Third_declension|Third declension]]) that the single masculine noun ''путь'' is regarded as belonging to the third declension. — [[User:Tonymec|Tonymec]] ([[User talk:Tonymec|talk]]) 22:47, 29 August 2012 (UTC)

== Participles and more detailed information about verb conjugation ==

I came here looking for information about how the participles are formed, but there doesn't seem to be anything. The noun and adjective sections have nice tables with endings and such, but the verb section seems very lacking in that area. Could someone who knows their Russian or has good sources provide more details in the article? It would be much appreciated. [[User:CodeCat|CodeCat]] ([[User talk:CodeCat|talk]]) 22:34, 8 April 2013 (UTC)

== Too much example tables? ==

Thanks to [[user:Seu Eliseu]] and others for supplying examples of paradigms, but don't we now have too much of them? I think, one paradigm per part of speach is usually enough, others can be good on Wikibooks or at least in separate article on this Russian word class (if anybody writes it). [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]] ([[User talk:Ignatus|talk]]) 21:32, 17 May 2013 (UTC)

:: [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]], I think you are right. As soon as it will be possible, I'll create separate articles on some parts of speach and transfer example tables there. [[User:Seu Eliseu|Seu Eliseu]] ([[User talk:Seu Eliseu|talk]]) 23:39, 17 May 2013 (UTC)

== Mistake? ==

I don't know Russian but this might be a mistake.
Second declension, писа'телём.
http://ru.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/109.153.123.157|109.153.123.157]] ([[User talk:109.153.123.157|talk]]) 14:16, 30 May 2013 (UTC) 
:: You are right, thanks! The typo has been corrected. [[User:Seu Eliseu|Seu Eliseu]] ([[User talk:Seu Eliseu|talk]]) 15:11, 4 July 2013 (UTC)

== Possessive adjectives ==
Seems like in English "[[possessive adjectives]]" are often understood as what I would call "possessive pronouns", that's why real possessive [[adjective]]s of Russian like "мамин" (mom's) have fallen out of this article. Can recommend a source for completion: [http://www.sras.org/ch_i_eti_prilagatelnye_russian_possessive_adjectives] (just the first what have found; contains errors as *петрого instead of Петрова<s>, and seemingly author didn't mention the difference in declesion of surnames and adjectives, like that genitive masculine are Путином but мамины</s><ins>shame to me, they are similar, both on -ым 10:34, 7 July 2013 (UTC)</ins>). [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]] ([[User talk:Ignatus|talk]]) 22:03, 6 July 2013 (UTC)
: Adjectives and determines normally modify nouns and take case and gender endings to match the noun. Pronouns are independent and don't modify anything, but may take case endings as needed, and gender endings depending on what they refer to. мамин is a possessive adjective, but so is мой. They both have a full set of case and gender forms like other adjectives, and even have genitive forms of their own. On the other hand, меня is not a possessive adjective but a pronoun, specifically the genitive of the personal pronoun я, in the same way that мамы is the genitive of мама. So the name "possessive pronoun" is really very misleading. [[User:CodeCat|CodeCat]] ([[User talk:CodeCat|talk]]) 22:20, 6 July 2013 (UTC)
:: That's difference in terminology of what is [[pronoun]]. The one common in Russian school is now in [[:ru:Местоимение]]: 'pronoun is anything which has no lexical meaning but has grammatical one and substitute other words' (but about ones substituting adverbs usually "pronominal adverbs" is said, however). For what I can read from English article, мой is determiner. But what I do mean, is definitely neither one nor another, but an open-class adjective; in Russian possessive adjectives w suffixes -ов and -ин have much special in declesion, and this is what should be described. UPD: Ah, that's a RS, describing well this matter in all Slavic languages, also in Russian: http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no24_ses/11_Matasovic.pdf. [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]] ([[User talk:Ignatus|talk]]) 14:57, 7 July 2013 (UTC)
::: As a part of speech, мой and мамин are the same. Both are modifiers, and not pronouns. Adjectives and determiners are both modifiers, I don't know if the difference is always clear. But I don't see much of a difference between "belonging to me" and "belonging to mother" in terms of structure. The definition that Russian Wiktionary gives seems more related to [[Deixis]] rather than to being a pronoun. Specifically, I would say that a pronoun is a "deictic noun": a noun whose referent is determined entirely by the context in which it is used. Seen that way, мой is a "deictic adjective" while мамин is not. [[User:CodeCat|CodeCat]] ([[User talk:CodeCat|talk]]) 16:07, 7 July 2013 (UTC)
:::: But его and мамин are not: его does not change in number or in gender when the noun that it is attached to changes, it only gets substituted with её or их when the possessor becomes a female or many persons respectively. This is the source of the confusion that native Russians have with the Romance possessive ''adjectives'': the Russian possessive ''pronouns'' are different in structure. I think it makes sense to keep the term the way it is kept in the Russian schoolbooks. - [[Special:Contributions/92.100.162.181|92.100.162.181]] ([[User talk:92.100.162.181|talk]]) 12:59, 16 December 2013 (UTC)

==Missing: impersonal active voice==
*For example, "Говорят, чудес на свете нет" without subject. I hear this verbal construction quite often.
This can be translated, I think, (I am not a native speaker of English nor Russian.)
*"''People'' say that miracles do not exist."
In other languages than English, like German and Dutch it is easier to translate correctly e.g.
*German: "''Man'' sagt dass es keine Wunder gibt."
*Dutch: "''Men'' zegt dat wonderen niet bestaan."
May be somebody can add that to the article who is better in Russian than I. [[User:Andries|Andries]] ([[User talk:Andries|talk]]) 12:22, 14 July 2013 (UTC)
: Isn't that just "impersonal they" like English and Dutch also have? [[User:CodeCat|CodeCat]] ([[User talk:CodeCat|talk]]) 18:36, 14 July 2013 (UTC)
::May be, I do not like to use impersonal they ("ze") in Dutch, because I think it is vague. When others use it I often do not understand who is "they". I prefer to use "men" in Dutch.[[User:Andries|Andries]] ([[User talk:Andries|talk]]) 19:29, 14 July 2013 (UTC)

== Adverbial answers ==

В разделе [[Russian grammar#Adverbial answers]] написано, что в русском языке ответ "нет" означает несогласие с предложением с отрицанием, а "да", наоборот, согласие.
: Собственно говоря, это верно. Хотя считается нестандартным. Обратите внимание хотя бы на тот факт, что эти два вопроса были вообще заданы. ;) (Первый вопрос касается совсем другой темы, "конечно" и "да" — это разные слова). - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.2.153|89.110.2.153]] ([[User talk:89.110.2.153|talk]]) 00:57, 10 December 2013 (UTC)
:: Хотя прошу прощения. Действительно, ответ, пожалуй, тот, что вся эта материя слишком сложна для сведения в одну схему. Всё зависит, может быть, от того, насколько отвечающий желает следовать своей собственной мысли, а не мысли спрашивающего: чем сильнее он к этому стремится, тем скорее он склонен отвечать по схеме, обозначенной в статье. Отсюда же, кстати, комментарий насчёт невежливости ответа "да" в значении согласия с отрицанием. - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.2.153|89.110.2.153]] ([[User talk:89.110.2.153|talk]]) 01:20, 10 December 2013 (UTC)

Мне показалось это странным, и я нашёл три ответа Грамоты.ру, что отвечать на вопрос с отрицанием только словами "да" или "нет" нельзя: [http://gramota.ru/spravka/buro/29_423864], [http://gramota.ru/spravka/buro/29_404032], [http://gramota.ru/spravka/buro/29_371245]. [[User:Русские идут!|Русские идут!]] ([[User talk:Русские идут!|talk]]) 20:18, 13 October 2013 (UTC)

I think I should translate the discussion. Without the signatures and links: - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.2.153|89.110.2.153]] ([[User talk:89.110.2.153|talk]]) 05:12, 10 December 2013 (UTC)
<blockquote>
It is written in the section [[Russian grammar#Adverbial answers]] that, in Russian, the answer "нет" expresses disagreement with the negative sentence, while the answer "да" expresses, instead, agreement.
: Well, that's true. Though considered non-standard. Look at the fact, for the very least, that these two questions were at all asked. ;) (The first question dealt with an entirely different topic, since "конечно" and "да" are not the same word).
:: On the second, I beg pardon. Indeed, the answer must be, apparently, that all this matter is too complicated for reducing to one single scheme. It depends, I think, on how much the replier wishes to follow his own line of thought rather than the asker's one: the more he wants that, the more he is inclined to build his answer on the scheme outlined in the article. Here's why, by the way, the source's comment that the use of "да" to express agreement with a suggestion that is formulated using negation may be considered impolite.

It looked strange to me, and I found three answers by gramota.ru that stated one must not reply to a question involving negation simply with "да" or "нет": [ein], [zwei], [drei].
</blockquote>
* Answer "нет" on negative question is a well example of the cases when Russian phrase has a meaning but the opposite too. This famous political anekdote illustrates it:
<blockquote>Вопрос: Вы не против, чтобы [[Vladimir Putin|Путин]] снова стал [[President of Russia|президентом]]?

Варианты ответа:
# Да, не против.
# Нет, не против.
</blockquote>
Although the second variant seems to sound better, the "democratic" version of the first variant should be *"Нет, я против". [[User:Ignatus|Ignatus]] ([[User talk:Ignatus|talk]]) 21:31, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
:: And would sound somewhat not very good. If use such interjections at all, it might be "Что вы, я против!", but in a questionnaire the best fit would be just to omit the interjections. Only an opinion, though. :)

:: I was taught, too, that in the case of negative questions "нет" in the answer carries both meanings, but somehow it is hard to refute a negative question anyway. It requires some effort to answer "Вам не холодно?", for instance, with "Холодно", since no interjection fits well. :) Like so many other school rules and dogmas, this one is either incorrect or easy to understand wrong. - [[Special:Contributions/92.100.165.149|92.100.165.149]] ([[User talk:92.100.165.149|talk]]) 17:05, 13 December 2013 (UTC)

== The Aspects ==

Just to make sure, the imperfective aspect does not mean the action is incomplete ("я ходил в магазин" means a completed action, and this is very often the case with the imperfective verbs), and the perfective aspect does not mean the action is logically complete, i.e. has led to its own result ("и тогда я пошёл на улицу" does not yet mean that he managed to walk out of his house). The distinction between the perfective and the imperfective aspect in Russian has a different character.

Also, "спать" and "поспать" is not a verb pair, since there are other perfective verbs, formed from the verb "спать" by means of a prefix ("переспать", "проспать"); all of them differ in their meanings from "спать", but so does "поспать". The true pairs usually differ in suffixes, not in prefixes: "приглашать" vs. "пригласить" (here the imperfective verb is formed from the perfective one). - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.2.153|89.110.2.153]] ([[User talk:89.110.2.153|talk]]) 00:51, 10 December 2013 (UTC)

== Why three columns? ==

Why do all the paradigms have three columns (ie. "-а -я -ия")? Why are these columns not labelled? What are they supposed to mean? Poorly explained. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/60.242.48.18|60.242.48.18]] ([[User talk:60.242.48.18|talk]]) 08:44, 16 March 2014 (UTC) 

== Word order ==

To me, a native speaker, the explanations of the sentence "I went to the shop" look possible, but a) deeply incomplete b) inter-applicable, i.e. an explanation of one case works as well if not better for another case c) some of them not exactly wrong, but taken out of the blue. They point to to the fact that there is a difference between them, but they don't say correctly what it is. Also, they omit the influence of sentence stress, which is more important for the aspects of meaning considered there than the word order. The word order matters for the meaning, but not in this way. Compare:
* Дома стены помогают (at home, even the walls help[, so no point pointing out anything else that helps at home as well]);
* Дома помогают стены (at home, you can use the help of the [dear] walls). Possible continuations in this case: 1) somewhere else, you can use the help of something else, 2) that's what the home is about.
Also, for "the road to the hell is paved with good intentions":
* Благими намерениями вымощена дорога в ад ("good intentions lead straight to the hell", which sounds weird, but is the accepted form);
* Дорога в ад вымощена благими намерениями (to enter the hell, you ought to have good intentions/those people who enter the hell have good intentions [as well]).
:: As a side note: I have met more than once a claim that the sentences with different word order "have the same meaning". This is strictly wrong and is a myth: there are many cases (these included), where at first you could hardly notice there is anything at all in common between two sentences with the same word stock, but different order; in the second case, I could notice that the things mentioned are the same, in the first case, even this is not guaranteed, as the things under reference are more figurative than real. Just in case. - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.6.166|89.110.6.166]] ([[User talk:89.110.6.166|talk]]) 08:55, 21 May 2014 (UTC)
Also, the same section has a remark that in Russian the word order expresses definiteness, I don't see it. It is English that uses the definite forms when trying to approximate those Russian meanings, with varying success. By the word order alone, you could not say whether a noun is definite or not. Also, by the word order alone, there is no way to say what is "logically" stressed; the sentence stress is a more direct way. So, saying that the word order "expresses" those things is untrue. I suggest changing to "can express" or "could express", whatever is grammatically correct in English. - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.6.166|89.110.6.166]] ([[User talk:89.110.6.166|talk]]) 08:43, 21 May 2014 (UTC)
: Changed to "can express". - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.6.166|89.110.6.166]] ([[User talk:89.110.6.166|talk]]) 08:49, 21 May 2014 (UTC)
Another example: эти построения должны всё объяснить vs. эти построения должны объяснить всё. Both sentences mean that the equations or the logical transitions or some things else of this kind must explain "everything", but the interpretation of this "everything" is different: in the first case, it is everything that I mentioned, in the second case, it is everything that is there to mention for our case. All these differences are subtle to explain, but real for a language user, and it is a real pity that the article does not even hint at such subtleties, instead disseminating myths. I know that manuals for beginners have this habit and are most abundant and most easily accessible, but maybe there are more serious sources that might take a more balanced approach? Or there are not? - [[Special:Contributions/91.122.8.151|91.122.8.151]] ([[User talk:91.122.8.151|talk]]) 11:17, 23 May 2014 (UTC)

I'm a beginner at Russian, but I _think_ I can very easily understand the example (3.) given under "Word order": the difference can actually be mimicked in English as "Into the shop came a boy" and "The boy came into the shop". This is captured by the [[Topic–comment]] distinction. The problem is that there are English speakers who can speak about five languages, but have never met one that didn't have articles (Fr. le, It. il, De. der, Nor. -er, Dut. het; etc), so they assume Definite and Indefinite to be fundamental requirements for a language, which they aren't. Without free word order, English uses articles to make the topic/comment distinction, by marking new things with an indefinite article (so 'a boy' is Comment); while the topic is generally a known thing and thus definite ('the boy'). (I think it would be a very good thing to rewrite this to look less like explaining how the poor Russians manage without articles!) There are some pretty bad bits -- for example what could this possibly mean (or name a language in which it isn't true): "The sense of a noun is determined from the context in which it appears." [[User:Imaginatorium|Imaginatorium]] ([[User talk:Imaginatorium|talk]]) 14:48, 23 May 2014 (UTC)
: In the third example of the section "Syntax", I don't see how it can mean a sudden decision any more than any other example in the list. Anyway, one who composed the list, I think, ignored the fact that these phrases can be pronounced with different intonation, and in different situations; I think that he or she was too quick. Are these examples sourced? If not (they don't seem to be), then they are to be deleted; I don't find in them any concrete value anyway except for the vague idea that changing the word order changes the perception. - [[Special:Contributions/89.110.9.191|89.110.9.191]] ([[User talk:89.110.9.191|talk]]) 21:43, 28 May 2014 (UTC)

== Verbs ==

The current version contains:

: Most verbs come in pairs, one with imperfective (несовершенный вид) or continuous, the other with perfective (совершенный вид) or completed aspect, usually formed with a (prepositional) prefix, but occasionally using a different root. E.g., спать [spatʲ] ('to sleep') is imperfective; поспать [pɐˈspatʲ] ('to take a nap') is perfective.

These is completely wrong. Every imperfective verb correspond to a lot of perfective ones with different prefixes. The verb спать is rather poor in this sense, but there are at least the following verbs:
проспать ('to miss something because of sleep'), доспать ('to finish the sleep after being interrupted'), переспать ('to spend a night with somebody'), заспать ('to kill a baby during the sleep').

I wood replace this statement with the following:

: In modern Russian the perfectness is a property of a verb. The perfective verbs have two tenses: the simple future and the past. The imperfective verbs have three ones: the compound future, the present and the past. The only imperfective verb, which has the simple future, is the verb быть ('to be'), its forms in the future tense are used to produce the future of other imperfect verbs (future of быть + infinitive of the verb).

[[User:Oudv|Oudv]] ([[User talk:Oudv|talk]]) 04:20, 10 September 2014 (UTC)

:: My knowledge of Russian is slight, but I think maybe you miss the point; it's not that there are pairs of verbs with the same ''root'', but that there are pairs that would be ''translated'' essentially alike except for aspect (which, in another language, may not be explicit in context). If I understand the quoted passage correctly, it could be paraphrased: спать = ‘to be asleep’ (without saying anything about how long), поспать = ‘to sleep for a time (and then wake up)’. The other verbs you cite may be perfective or imperfective, but aspect is not their biggest difference from спать or поспать.
:: I like your proposed paragraph, but wouldn't want to remove all mention of aspect pairs. —[[User:Tamfang|Tamfang]] ([[User talk:Tamfang|talk]]) 04:50, 10 September 2014 (UTC)

== Declension Tables ==

All of the tables for noun/adjective endings have numbers on them and notes below stating that some endings change depending on the word because of the spelling rules. Would it not make the tables much easier to understand if these notes for each table were gotten rid of, and it were simply stated at the start of the section that all of the endings comply with the spelling rules? I understand the exception to this being when an ending is either -e or -ё depending on stress, that should be specified as it is not deducible from the spelling rules. [[User:IAmTrainedInGorillaWarfare|IAmTrainedInGorillaWarfare]] ([[User talk:IAmTrainedInGorillaWarfare|talk]]) 00:09, 25 October 2014 (UTC)IAmTrainedInGorillaWarfare

== Usage of Russian Cases ==

I think it would be good to start adding information on the Indo-European language equivalents of Russian noun cases. I've added a brief summation into the "Nouns" section, which I've attempted to craft as a succinct but relevant summation. Please let me know if this isn't up to standards and feel free to add/elaborate. The source I've used is the website Master Russian, a well established and (in my experience) reliable Russian language website; let know if this isn't regarded as a reputable enough source. [[User:U65945|U65945]] ([[User talk:U65945|talk]]) 21:33, 31 March 2015 (UTC)

==Standalone article for declension==

I'm going to create a stand alone article for russian declension. The section on noun, adjective, demonstrative, and pronoun declension is pretty hefty. I think there are two options:

1. Cut off the complete section and link it to the standalone article

or

2. Maintain only the most basic information and only the principle declensions for each paradigm.

I prefer the second option. Any one have any ideas or comments? [[User:Shabidoo|Shabidoo]] | [[User talk:Shabidoo|Talk]] 14:20, 15 May 2015 (UTC)

:I did a heavy update to [[Russian declension#Numerals|Numerals]] section there, so it's now much more detailed than this short version here. [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 00:16, 22 July 2016 (UTC)

== Relative pronouns ==

Hello, while I was reading the article I noticed it doesn't say anything about the relative pronouns. I thought placing it here, since i saw no one has noticed it yet(?). I don't know the declension etc. of those rel. pronouns, so I suggest someone adding it to the artice or atleast refering to it, if it has its own article. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/82.73.9.204|82.73.9.204]] ([[User talk:82.73.9.204|talk]]) 21:01, 24 June 2015 (UTC) 

== Conjugation explanations ==

I am new to Russian, but I believe this to be an error/miscommunication:
{{Quotation|The first conjugation (I) is used in verb stems ending in a consonant, -у, or -о, or in -а when preceded by a sibilant}}
when the stem for чита́ть is чита–. Unless т is pronounced as a sibilant in this case, according to the definition, it should be in second conjugation.
Also:
{{Quotation|The second conjugation (II) involves verb stems ending in -и or -е, and in -а when not preceded by a sibilant}}
when the stem for говори́ть is говор-, meaning it should fall under the first conjugation.
If someone could explain this more clearly I would be grateful.
[[User:Mrmodnar111|Mrmodnar111]] ([[User talk:Mrmodnar111|talk]]) 21:23, 5 September 2015 (UTC)

I've educated in Russian humanities school, yet it's the first time I hear about distinction by a sibilant. It's just a vowel before -ть. This way читать (читаешь, читаем) goes to the first conjugation and говорить (говоришь, говорите) goes to the second. Yet there're lots of [[ru:Спряжение|other exceptions]] to these rules that are not described in the article. [[Special:Contributions/109.110.66.155|109.110.66.155]] ([[User talk:109.110.66.155|talk]]) 00:09, 9 August 2016 (UTC)

== Verbs of Motion - The Ring and the Arrow. ==

Think of the unidirectional verbs as picturing the motion of ''arrows'' (the tip is the indication of direction). One way, having direction. Think of the multidirectional verbs as picturing motion in ''rings'' - no direction, just motion, there and back, repetitive. An arrow can start, be on the way, and arrive. They can forms perfectives. Ring motion is only underway. They can't form perfectives. Arrow verbs can represent the near future, they point to what comes next. And note that a number of common ring verbs have a ring 'o' in the stem - води́ть, вози́ть, гоня́ть, ходи́ть, носи́ть, броди́ть. [[User:Wodorabe|Wodorabe]] ([[User talk:Wodorabe|talk]]) 20:49, 13 January 2016 (UTC)

== Correction of the noun declension types to correspond to standard definitions in English-language grammars. ==

=== Types of noun declensions ===
With all due respect to the author, the section on the three types of noun declension is incorrect. I've corrected the sequence and declension type errors to correspond to the type numbering and sequence found in contemporary English-language grammars and dictionaries, primarily the sequence found in И.М. Пулькина, Е.Б. Захава-Некрасова, Русский Язык: Практическая грамматика с упражнениями, Издание 5-е , Москва, Русский язык, 1992 (I. Pulkina, E. Zakhava-Nekrasova, Russian: A Practical Grammar with Exercises, 5th edition, Russky Yazyk Publishers, Moscow 1992, English translation by V. Korotky). Note: Two published works of the author Е.И. Литневская referenced by the author of this article and which are available from www.amazon.co.uk are about Russian grammar as taught at the secondary (U.S. high school) level in Russia. This might explain why there's a difference between the arrangement of declension table learned in school by the author, and the standard arrangement found elsewhere in more advanced Russian grammar texts. The standard noun declension types and tables can also be found in the following publications:
: James P. Levine, Ph.D, Schaum's outline of Russian Grammar (2nd edition, 2009), p.35ff.
: A. Romanov, Pocket Russian Dictionary Langenscheidt KG, Berlin/Munich (1968), p.571-572.
: (author unknown), Russian-language Wikipedia, ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Грамматика_русского_языка ("Russian Grammar"). This source also mentions in the article text that the declension types and sequence of Types (I) and (II) are reversed in the 'schools' in Russia.
{{outdent | : }} [[User:K. Kellogg-Smith|K. Kellogg-Smith]] ([[User talk:K. Kellogg-Smith|talk]]) 01:58, 21 January 2016 (UTC)

:•!• Correct link is https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Грамматика_русского_языка, but there is a much more detailed one: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Морфология_русского_языка (morphology of Russian). [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 06:45, 23 November 2016 (UTC)

: With all due respect to the editor, this is a category error. There is no "correct" or "incorrect" way to describe noun declensions, there are only traditions. Personally I find the previous one much more natural, because then the 1st declension feminine in -a exactly matches the related Latin declensions. I believe there has been discussion of this before, and I think there should be discussion before changing things like this around.

: I have thought for some time that it would be a big improvement to move both "Declension in Russian" and "Conjugation in Russian" out to separate articles. These could be more like language teaching reference, for which purpose conventions should be chosen (e.g. for numbering declensions) and adhered to. In the main article there should be an overview of noun/adjective grammar, and this should also mention historical practices in numbering declensions and similar topics. (For example, if I understand correctly, the earlier tradition for perfective and imperfective verbs was to describe the same verb form -- you know, the one that looks like the Latin present tense -- as the "Present", whereas now the tradition is to call this form the "present tense" of imperfective verbs and the "future tense" of perfective verbs. This looks to me like the very naive confusion of thinking that "present tense" means "applies to things occurring in the present.) [[User:Imaginatorium|Imaginatorium]] ([[User talk:Imaginatorium|talk]]) 14:56, 21 January 2016 (UTC)

:: Please keep in mind three of the primary Wikipedia Foundation rules for editors: (1) articles and their contents are to be encyclopedic, (2) they must not not be or contain original research, and (3) statements of fact must not be one's personal point of view. Another lesser known principle -- one that I was personally found to be guilty of in my work as and early administrator of the Tok Pisin Wikipedia (tpi.wikipedia) -- is that 'teaching' in a Wikipedia article is contrary to that article 'being encyclopedic'. Citations ('cites') of statements of fact acknowledge the source of those statements. At the same time, cites point out that the statements of fact are not one's own personal point of view. You will note that I have cited my English language sources for changing the errors in the declension table types given in the Noun section and putting them in the generally accepted, conventional, academic order. The corrected arrangement I have inserted, therefore, is not based on my own personal point of view, nor can it be considered my 'original research'. 
::Since the Russian language is a Slavic language (not Latin-based as you seem to believe), you might review the sub-article "The Background of the Common Slavic Languages" found in the article "The Common Slavic Grammar" which you can find in the archives at babaev.tripod.com. [[User:K. Kellogg-Smith|K. Kellogg-Smith]] ([[User talk:K. Kellogg-Smith|talk]]) 18:31, 22 January 2016 (UTC)

::: The Living Language Complete Course and the Assimil Audio Course both use the previous order. What is the exact reason for this change, which appears also to have created some very disorganised tables, particular for adjectives and pronouns?
::: Encyclopaedias exist to spread knowledge; it is therefore just as pertinent to consider the ease with which information can be delivered, as well as striving for consistency when describing different languages. The point of the other editor was not that Russian is Latin based but that the order of declensions has traditionally been the same when learning various languages due to the influence of Latin learning.
::: No one claimed anything to be "original research", but rather that the arrangement itself can never have a "correct" order, it being merely a tradition which may or may not appear in a certain source. The "errors" are not errors but perfectly conventional ordering. The corrections therefore are in fact based on your own preference. The previous order was predominant in history (English-Russian Grammar: Or, Principles of the Russian Language by Ch. Ph Reiff), is still common, and is still predominant amongst other languages. Why should it be different here?
::: I agree that there is too much detail in this article; much needs to be segregated.

== Generic gender ==
There's also a generic gender (as in жадина, бука) for words that can be equally used both for male and female subjects. Could we add this to an article? Have anyone seen a good source for this fact in English? [[Special:Contributions/109.110.66.155|109.110.66.155]] ([[User talk:109.110.66.155|talk]]) 23:57, 8 August 2016 (UTC)
:There are 5 genders (M, F, N, общий - common or general, and обоюдный - mutual or ambivalent), and what you are proposing is a common gender. Difference is in agreement model: it is unified for mutual gender (он/он''а'' настоящ''ая'' собак''а'' - unified as F.) and dual for common (бедн''ый''/бедн''ая'' сирота). That is supposed to be mentioned, but Eng. sources are rare… [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 01:08, 9 August 2016 (UTC)

== Prepositions ==

I am a beginning level adult learning Russian -- not attending a class, but working with a very good tutor. Hence, my question may be naïve. But here it is:

Why is there no section on Russian prepositions? I would find it helpful to have a table of at least the most common prepositions and the case(s) with which they are associated. The information on prepositions is scattered through the article, chiefly (naturally) in the section on nouns.

Thanks!

Andrew H — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/70.26.48.194|70.26.48.194]] ([[User talk:70.26.48.194#top|talk]]) 17:08, 12 May 2017 (UTC) 

:Nouns section have most of them already. Much more troubling in absence of general pro-forms table (pronouns and pro-adjectives). [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 00:56, 13 May 2017 (UTC)

== Plural of nouns with -анин, -янин ==
This aspect of the plural is not mentioned at all. Please add.--[[User:Prandr|Prandr]] ([[User talk:Prandr|talk]]) 14:28, 14 July 2017 (UTC)
:Done. — [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 20:12, 14 July 2017 (UTC)

== The particle "-то" and articles ==

It seems you forgot in the article the particle "-то".

In a colloquial language even in Moscow this "particle" is used as a definite article. [http://www.aftersimple.com/2008/05/articles-russian.html 1]
# «В кино пойдешь?» — Are you going to the cinema? – (This is a new question)
# «В кино-то пойдешь?» — In the movie, will you go? – (Talk about the movie was already before.)
In the dialects:

«In the northeastern and eastern Russian dialects, the development of combinations of names with a particle «то» went in the same direction as in the Bulgarian language - from particle to article, performing the same function: combined with words denoting facts and events already known to the speaker and listener or simply well-known» (Букринская И. А, Кармакова О. Е. и другие. Карта 25. Изменяемая частица -то в русских говорах. Язык русской деревни. Диалектологический атлас. Архивировано 1 февраля 2012 года. (Проверено 24 января 2014))

In frequently used expressions "одна женщина сказала…", "один учёный доказал…" the words "одна" and "один" are used not as numerals, but as indefinite articles. German and Hungarian (not English) translators of Google are aware of this.
# один учёный доказал –to De- ein Wissenschaftler hat bewiesen –to Ru- ученый доказал
# один учёный доказал –to Hu- egy tudós bizonyította –to Ru- ученый продемонстрировал
That is, there is no "article category", but it is used quite often :) [[User:МетаСкептик12|МетаСкептик12]] ([[User talk:МетаСкептик12|talk]]) 17:37, 24 May 2018 (UTC)
:Unfortunately, particle section here is nonexistent yet. So all other particles are missing as well :( Then there are proforms, where «-то» is an uncertainty quantifier: кто-то, некто [joined], где-то, куда-то, etc. These are not «above-mentioned topic» denoters. … «Один учёный» can be translated better as «some scientist», not «a scientist». [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 22:21, 24 May 2018 (UTC)
:: "Joined" «некто» is «не» + «кто» — совсем не то. «Один учёный» out of context should be translated as «one scientist». For «one scientist proved …» this is not a good translation. «Some scientist» can be translated better as «некий учёный, какой-то учёный». In many languages, the indefinite article coincides with the numeral one. In a similar example in this article, the word «один» is translated as an indefinite article. «Почему́ ты так до́лго? – Да так, встре́тил одного́ дру́га, пришло́сь поговори́ть ("Why did it take you so long?" – "Well, I met one [=a] friend and had to talk")». I think that this is correct. [[User:МетаСкептик12|МетаСкептик12]] ([[User talk:МетаСкептик12|talk]]) 11:37, 25 May 2018 (UTC)
:: By the way, the translator Google thinks that "некий учёный доказал" -> "a scientist has proved". [[User:МетаСкептик12|МетаСкептик12]] ([[User talk:МетаСкептик12|talk]]) 12:55, 25 May 2018 (UTC)

== Case order ==

I know I'm bringing up an old debate, but I really see no good reason to use the NAGDIP order. The traditional case order, used in Russian too, is NGDAIP. The only reason I know of other orders being used is because certain cases have merged and therefore are put next to each other. However this doesn't happen in Russian, and using the NAGDIP order is like copying the system sometimes used for convenience in German or Latin, because Nominative and Accusative tend to be similar in those langauges. --[[User:Antondimak|Antondimak]] ([[User talk:Antondimak|talk]]) 15:42, 17 March 2019 (UTC)
: By contrast, I see no good reason to use the NGDAIP order. At all, for any language, actually. [[User:Rua|Rua]] ([[User talk:Rua|mew]]) 16:35, 17 March 2019 (UTC)
:That's a historical issue. See here: [https://lingvoforum.net/index.php?topic=2288.msg42462] . — [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 03:32, 18 March 2019 (UTC)

== Adjectives section... ==

In adjectives section, it says that the word for ‘beige’ doesn’t change, but we actually have a Russian word for ‘beige’ that does, it’s ‘бежевый’. Please somebody note and fix this! The word ‘беж’ is an incorrect and rarely used modern Russian addition, due to the unfortunate stream of English words leaking into it. ‘Бежевый’ ''is'' a word. :) — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Logan Sherwin|Logan Sherwin]] ([[User talk:Logan Sherwin#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Logan Sherwin|contribs]]) 02:40, 29 February 2020 (UTC) 
:Yep, fixed. [[User:Tacit Murky|Tacit Murky]] ([[User talk:Tacit Murky|talk]]) 10:36, 29 February 2020 (UTC)

== Copular constructions ==

There is no section for copular constructions. Also the verb "быть" ("be") is missing from the template for irregular verbs.[[User:Merijn2|Merijn2]] ([[User talk:Merijn2|talk]]) 22:02, 8 January 2022 (UTC)

== Colored text ==

Does anybody else feel like the colored letters in the verbs charts could be replaced with something like an underline? I don't know if it's just cause I'm colorblind but I literally cannot read any of those without squirting a TON😭 [[User:Logan Sherwin|Logan Sherwin]] ([[User talk:Logan Sherwin|talk]]) 05:43, 23 February 2024 (UTC)

== Validity of the caritive case ==

The section [[Russian grammar#Additional cases|Additional cases]] mentions four possible additional cases in Russian. It's the first time I hear about the "[[caritive case]]" in Russian. As far as I know, it is always identical to the genitive. Is there one good reason to include this "case"? Is there any source that supports its validity? [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 16:15, 9 August 2024 (UTC)

Kannada grammar

2024-06-22T09:21:04Z

Mutichou: clarification needed; vocabulary; added some romanizations

{{Short description|Grammar of the Kannada language}}
{{Culture of Karnataka}}
'''Standard Kannada grammar''' ({{lang-kn|ಕನ್ನಡ ವ್ಯಾಕರಣ}}) is primarily based on [[Keshiraja]]'s [[Shabdamanidarpana]] (c. 1260 CE) which provides the fullest systematic exposition of [[Kannada language]].<ref name="GS Gai">''Studies in Indian History, Epigraphy, and Culture'' – By Govind Swamirao Gai, pp. 315</ref><ref name="F. Kittel, 'A Grammar of the Kannada Language'">''A Grammar of the Kannada Language'' F.Kittel (1993), pp. 3</ref> The earlier grammatical works include portions of ''[[Kavirajamarga]]'' (a treatise on ''alańkāra'') of 9th century, ''Kavyavalokana'' and ''Karnatakabhashabhushana'' both authored by [[Nagavarma II]] in first half of the 12th century.<ref name="F. Kittel, 'A Grammar of the Kannada Language'" />

Various grammatical aspects of Kannada include tatsama–tadbhava, vibhakti pratyaya, kāla (tense forms), linga (gender forms), sandhi, samāsa, chandassu, alańkāra; and different [[metre (poetry)|poetrical metres]] such as ''vritta'', ''[[tripadi]]'', ''kanda'' (also called, ''choupadi'' or ''chaturpadi''), ''shatpadi'', sāngatya and others.{{Clarify|reason=What do these words mean?}}

The name given for a pure, true letter is ''akshara'', ''akkara'' or ''varna''. Each letter has its own form (''ākāra'') and sound (''shabda''); providing the visible and audible representations, respectively. Kannada is written from left to right.<ref name="F. Kittel, 'A Grammar of the Kannada Language', pp 5" >''A Grammar of the Kannada Language'' F.Kittel (1993), pp. 5</ref>
[[Kannada alphabet]] (''aksharamale'' or ''varnamale'') now consists of 49 letters.<ref name="urlBhashaIndia.com :: Kannada">{{cite web |url=http://www.bhashaindia.com/Patrons/LanguageTech/Kannada.aspx |title=BhashaIndia.com :: Kannada |access-date=2008-05-01}}</ref>

Each sound has its own distinct letter, and therefore every word is pronounced exactly as it is spelt; so the ear is a sufficient guide. After the exact sounds of the letters have been once gained, every word can be pronounced with perfect accuracy. The [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] falls on the first syllable.<ref name="F. Kittel, 'A Grammar of the Kannada Language', pp 5" />

The first treatise on Kannada grammar in English was written in 1864 by [[Thomas Hodson|Rev. Thomas Hodson]], a Wesleyan missionary, as ''An Elementary Grammar of the Kannada, or Canarese Language''<ref name=Grammar>{{cite book|last1=Hodson|first1=T|title=An Elementary Grammar of Kannada or Canarese Language|date=1864|publisher=Wesleyan Mission Press|location=Bangalore|isbn=9785873933433|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozwLAwAAQBAJ&q=An+Elementary+Grammar+of+the+Kannada%2C+or+Canarese+Language&pg=PP1|access-date=24 November 2015}}</ref>

== Nouns (ನಾಮಪದ)==

=== Gender (ಲಿಂಗ) ===
According to Keshiraja's ''Shabdamanidarpana'', there are nine gender forms in Kannada. However, in [[modern Kannada literature]] only three gender forms are used in practice: masculine, feminine, and neuter.<ref>Ferdinand Kittel, pp. 39</ref>
All Kannada nouns code for [[Grammatical gender|gender]].<ref name=":0">Hodson, Thomas. ''An Elementary Grammar of the Kannada Language''. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1979. Print.</ref>
Biological sex tends to correspond with the grammatical gender category. However, certain concepts personified by deities, such as ''sūrya'', meaning 'the sun', share the grammatical gender of the deity, which in this case is masculine.<ref name=":0" />

;masculine gender (ಪುಲ್ಲಿಂಗ)
*Examples: ''arasa'' ('king'), ''dore'' ('master, lord'), ''vāyu'' ('wind')

;feminine gender (ಸ್ತ್ರೀಲಿಂಗ)
*Examples: [[Parvati]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], ''amma'' ('mother')

;neuter gender (ನಪುಂಸಕಲಿಂಗ)
Nouns that do not belong to either of the above two classes are considered to have neuter gender.
*Examples: love ({{lang|kn|ಪ್ರೀತಿ}} ''prīti''), world ({{lang|kn|ಲೋಕ}} ''lōka''), tree ({{lang|kn|ಮರ}} ''mara''), bear ({{lang|kn|ಕರಡಿ}} ''karaḍi''), river ({{lang|kn|ನದಿ}} ''nadi'')

=== Cases (ವಿಭಕ್ತಿಗಳು) ===
Kannada has eight cases:<ref>Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich. ''A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2003. Print.</ref>

*[[nominative case]] (ಕರ್ತೃವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – kartr̥vibhakti)
*[[accusative case]] (ಕರ್ಮವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – karmavibhakti)
*[[instrumental case]] (ಕರಣವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – karaṇavibhakti)
*[[dative case]] (ಸಂಪ್ರದಾನವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – sampradānavibhakti)
*[[ablative case]] (ಅಪಾದಾನವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – apādānavibhakti)
*[[genitive case]] (ಸಂಬಂಧವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – saṃbandhavibhakti)
*[[locative case]] (ಅಧಿಕರಣವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – adhikaraṇavibhakti)
*[[vocative case]] (ಸಂಬೋಧನಾವಿಭಕ್ತಿ – saṃbōdhanāvibhakti)

Because the study of Kannada grammar is based on Sanskrit grammar, a fifth case (since the dative case is the fourth case and the genitive case is the sixth in the traditional order of the cases) is sometimes considered: the [[ablative case]] (ಅಪಾದಾನವಿಭಕ್ತಿ). This case is formed periphrastically by combining the genitive case of the noun supposedly in the ablative with the instrumental-case form of the noun {{lang|kn|ದೆಸೆ}} ''dese'', meaning 'cause, vicinity, place, point'. Thus the Kannada ablative literally translates to 'from/by the cause/point of the {noun}'. However, this 'ablative' form is not commonly used colloquially, and exists only for propriety—it is not a true case, serving only to provide a parallel to the Sanskrit ablative.<ref name=":1">Ziegler, F. ''A Practical Key to the Kannada Language''. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1984. Print.</ref> In its place, the third case, the instrumental-ablative case, is normally used.

*Example: ''Maradiṃda allige hōdenu.'' (''literally:'' 'From the tree to there I went.'; ''idiomatically:'' 'I went there from the tree.')

Of course, ''Marada deseyiṃda allige hōdenu.'' would also be correct.
Note that the nominative-case and accusative-case forms of a noun are often in the colloquial dialect substituted by the crude base.

=== Number (ವಚನ) ===

There are, as in English, two grammatical [[Grammatical number|numbers]]: the [[singular number]] (ಏಕವಚನ) and the [[plural number]] (ಬಹುವಚನ).<ref name=":2">Schiffman, Harold F. ''A Reference Grammar of Spoken Kannada''. Seattle: U of Washington, 1983. Print.</ref> In declension, the plural form of a masculine or feminine noun is made by suffixing 'ಅರ್' (''ar'') to the crude base, and then the case ending, and the plural form of a neuter noun is made by suffixing {{lang|kn|ಗಳ್}} (''gaḷ'') to the crude base, and then the case ending. However, nouns of relationship, such as 'mother', 'great-grandfather', 'son-in-law', and 'younger brother', which are always masculine or feminine, have the plural number marker {{lang|kn|ಅಂದಿರ್}} (''aṃdir'').<ref name=":0" />

Examples:{{Clarify|reason=What do these examples mean and illustrate?}}

* ತಾಯಿಯಂದಿರು ''tāyiyaṃdiru''
* ಅಕ್ಕಂದಿರು ''akkaṃdiru''
* ತಮ್ಮಂದಿರು ''tammaṃdiru''
* ತಾತಂದಿರು ''tātaṃdiru''

=== Declension (ವಿಭಕ್ತಿ ಪರಿಣಾಮ) ===

Kannada has ''four'' declensions, or groups of case endings.<ref name=":0" /> The first declension includes all masculine and feminine nouns that end in ಅ ''-a''; the second declension includes all neuter nouns that end in ಅ ''-a''; the third declension includes all nouns of all genders that end in ಇ ''-i'', ಈ ''-ī'', ಎ ''-e'', ಏ ''-ē'', or ಐ ''-ai''; the fourth declension includes all nouns of all genders that end in ಉ ''-u'', ಊ ''-ō'', ಋ ''-ṛ'', ಓ ''-ō'', or ಔ ''-au''.<ref name=":3">Kittel, Ferdinand. ''A Grammar of the Kannaḍa Language in English: Comprising the Three Dialects of the Language (ancient, Mediæval and Modern)''. Mangalore: Basel Mission Book and Tract Depository, 1903. Print.</ref>
Below are the 'standard' case endings, which are suffixed to the plural number markers to create the full case ending in the plural. However, in the singular number, all the declensions use variations of the 'standard' case endings as the final case endings.
{| class="wikitable"
| '''Case'''
| '''<nowiki>'Standard' Case ending</nowiki>'''
|-
| '''nominative case'''
| ಉ (-u)
|-
| '''accusative case'''
| ಅನ್ನು/ಅನ್ನ (-annu / -anna)
|-
| '''instrumental case'''
| ಇಂದ (-iṁda)
|-
| '''dative case'''
| ಇಗೆ/ಇಕ್ಕೆ (-ige / -ikke)
|-
| '''ablative case'''
| ದೆಸೆಯಿಂದ (-deseyiṁda)
|-
| '''genitive case'''
| ಅ (-a)
|-
| '''locative case'''
| ಅಲ್ಲಿ (-alli)
|-
| '''vocative case'''
| ಏ (-ē)
|}

==== Declensional sandhi (ವಿಭಕ್ತಿಪರಿಣಾಮದ ಸಂಧಿ) ====

[[Sandhi]] is the mutation of the final or initial letters of a word for euphony. Sandhi occurs very often in declension.

In the first declension and in the second declension, the only sandhi that occurs is the elision (dropping) of the final 'ಅ' ('atva') before a plural marker or case ending that begins with a vowel.

In the third declension, a euphonic 'ಯ್' ('yatva') must be inserted after the noun before a plural marker or case ending that begins with a vowel.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

In the fourth declension, a euphonic 'ವ್' ('vatva') must be inserted after the noun before a plural marker or case ending that begins with a vowel. However, when a Kannada noun ends in a 'ಉ' that was already added for euphony at some original stage, that final vowel is eliminated when the noun is followed by a plural marker or case ending that begins with a vowel.<ref name=":3" /> However, technically true bases have no final vowel (although the base still takes the fourth declension endings), that euphonic ಉ ''u'' is elided during declension. These words that already have a euphonic ಉ ''u'' that is elided during declension attached to their end must be learned, but most native Kannada, or originally Kannada, words have this 'euphonic ಉ ''u''' on their end, because not many Kannada words originally ended in ಉ ''u''.<ref name=":4">McKerrel, John. ''Grammar of the Carnataca Language''. Madras: College, 1820. Print.</ref>

==== First declension (ನಾಮಪ್ರತ್ಯಯಗಳ ಮೊದಲನೇ ವರ್ಗ) ====

{| class="wikitable"
| '''Case'''
| '''Case ending'''
|-
| '''nominative case'''
| ನು (-nu)
|-
| '''accusative case'''
| ನನ್ನು/ನನ್ನ (-nannu/-nanna)
|-
| '''instrumental case'''
| ನಿಂದ (-niṁda)
|-
| '''dative case'''
| ನಿಗೆ/ಗೆ (-nige/-ge)
|-
| '''genitive case'''
| ನ (-na)
|-
| '''locative case'''
| ನಲ್ಲಿ (-nalli)
|-
| '''vocative case'''
| ನೇ (-nē)
|}

==== Second declension (ನಾಮಪ್ರತ್ಯಯಗಳ ಎರಡನೇ ವರ್ಗ) ====

{| class="wikitable"
| '''Case'''
| '''Case ending'''
|-
| '''nominative case'''
| ವು (-vu)
|-
| '''accusative case'''
| ವನ್ನು/ವನ್ನ (-vannu/-vanna)
|-
| '''instrumental case'''
| ದಿಂದ (-diṁda)
|-
| '''dative case'''
| ಕ್ಕೆ (-kke)
|-
| '''genitive case'''
| ದ (-da)
|-
| '''locative case'''
| ದಲ್ಲಿ (-dalli)
|-
| '''vocative case'''
| ವೇ (-vē)
|}

==== Third declension (ನಾಮಪ್ರತ್ಯಯಗಳ ಮೂರನೇ ವರ್ಗ) ====

{| class="wikitable"
| '''Case'''
| '''Case ending'''
|-
| '''nominative case'''
| ಉ (-u)
|-
| '''accusative case'''
| ಅನ್ನು/ಅನ್ನ (-annu/-anna)
|-
| '''instrumental case'''
| ಇಂದ (-iṁda)
|-
| '''dative case'''
| ಗೆ (-ge)
|-
| '''genitive case'''
| ಅ (-a)
|-
| '''locative case'''
| ಅಲ್ಲಿ (-alli)
|-
| '''vocative case'''
| ಏ (-ē)
|}

==== Fourth declension (ನಾಮಪ್ರತ್ಯಯಗಳ ನಾಲ್ಕನೇ ವರ್ಗ) ====

{| class="wikitable"
| '''Case'''
| '''Case ending'''
|-
| '''nominative case'''
| ಉ (-u)
|-
| '''accusative case'''
| ಅನ್ನು/ಅನ್ನ (-annu/-anna)
|-
| '''instrumental case'''
| ಇನಿಂದ/ಇಂದ (-iniṁda/-iṁda)
|-
| '''dative case'''
| ಇಗೆ (-ige)
|-
| '''genitive case'''
| ಇನ/ಅ (-ina/-a)
|-
| '''locative case'''
| ಇನಲ್ಲಿ/ಅಲ್ಲಿ (-inalli/-alli)
|-
| '''vocative case'''
| ಏ (-ē)
|}
Note that for the instrumental case, the genitive case, and the locative case, the case ending first given is generally preferred.

== Modifiers (ಪರಿವರ್ತಕಗಳು) ==

Kannada, as does English, uses adjectives and adverbs as modifiers. Kannada does not have articles. However, the adjectives ಆ ''ā'' ('that') and ಒಂದು ''oṃdu'' ('one') can be used as the definite and the indefinite article, respectively.<ref name=":0" />

Kannada possess few adjectives that are not derived from some noun. Adjectivalizing suffixes include ಆದ ''-ādu'' (''literally:'' 'which/that became') and ಇಕ ''-ika''.

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಸುಂದರವಾದ ಹೆಂಗಸು
|sundaravāda hengasu
|a beautiful woman}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಐತಿಹಾಸಿಕ ದಿನ
|aitihāsika dina
|a historic day}}

Kannada lacks true predicate adjectives. To use an adjective predicatively, suffix the third-person pronoun to the end of the adjective that matches the subject.<ref name=":2" />

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಆ ಹೆಂಗಸು ಸುಂದರವಾದವಳು
|Ā hengasu sundaravādavaļu
|That woman (is) beautiful.}}

Adverbs are formed by the suffix ಆಗಿ ''-āgi''.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Adverbs can be added to adjectives or to nouns,<ref name=":0" /> unlike in English, where '-ly' can only be suffixed to adjectives.
*Example: ''sundaravāgi'' ('beautifully', from '''<nowiki>sundara'</nowiki>'' ["beauty"] + 'ಆಗಿ')

== Verbs (ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳು) ==

=== Sandhi with verb inflection (ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳ ರೂಪನಿಷ್ಪತ್ತಿಯ ಸಂಧಿ) ===

Sandhi is the mutation of the final or initial letters of a word for euphony. Sandhi with verbs applies in any case when the form of a verb is being changed.

When any verb form (ಕ್ರಿಯಾರೂಪ) ends with the vowel 'ಅ' ('atva') or with the vowel 'ಉ' ('utva'), eliminate that final vowel if a suffix that begins with a vowel follows.<ref name=":0" />

''ಬರು (crude verb form; 'come') → ಬರ್ + ಅಲಿ (third person singular imperative suffix) = ಬರಲಿ''

When the ''crude form/root'' of the verb (ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪಕೃತಿ) ends with the vowel 'ಇ' ('itva') or with the vowel 'ಎ' ('etva') or with the vowel 'ಆ' ('ātva'), insert a euphonic 'ಯ್' ('yatva') after the form if a suffix that begins with a vowel follows.<ref name=":0" />

''ಬರೆ (bare) (crude verb form; 'write') → ಬರೆಯ್ (barey)+ ಅಲ್ (-al) (infinitive form suffix) + ಪಟ್ಟಿತು (paṭṭitu) (past passive third person singular neuter suffix) = ಬರೆಯಲ್ಪಟ್ಟಿತು (bareyalpaṭṭitu)(past passive third person neuter form of 'ಬರೆ'; 'it was written')''

When any other form of the verb ends with the vowel 'ಇ' ('itva') or with the vowel 'ಎ' ('etva'), eliminate that final vowel if a suffix that begins with a vowel follows.<ref name=":0" /> No other verb form other than the crude form/root of a verb will end in 'ಆ'.

''ಮಾಡು (crude verb form; 'make') → ಮಾಡಿ (past adverbial participle; 'having made') + ಇತು (past active third person singular imperative suffix) = ಮಾಡಿತು''

=== Finite verb forms (ಆಖ್ಯಾತರೂಪಗಳು) ===

Kannada verbs have several forms: an affirmative form (ನಿಶ್ಚಯರೂಪ), a
contingent-future, or potential, form (ಸಂಭಾವರೂಪ),
an imperative form (ವಿಧಿರೂಪ),
and a negative form (ನಿಷೇಧರೂಪ).<ref name=":5">Spencer, Harold, and W. Perston. ''A Kanarese Grammar: With Graduated Exercises''. Mysore: Printed at the Wesley, 1950. Print.</ref>
The action of a verb in the affirmative form does happen, but the action
of a verb in the negative form does not happen. The contingent-future form
expresses the idea of the possibility of an action's occurrence at the present
or in the future; the imperative form commands, exhorts, or optates.

As in English, the three tenses (ಕಾಲಗಳು)
include the present tense (ವರ್ತಮಾನಕಾಲ),
the past tense (ಭೂತಕಾಲ),
and the future tense (ಭವಿಷ್ಯತ್ತುಕಾಲ).
However, distinct forms for each of these tenses exist only in the
affirmative form.<ref name=":0" /> The imperative form, as in English, lacks tense, and because
of the meaning of the contingent-future form, it also lacks tense distinctions.
The negative form is peculiar, for its forms can possess a present-tense,
past-tense, or future-tense meaning, to be inferred from context; in the modern
dialect, other modes of [[negation (grammar)|negation]] are employed.

There are two grammatical aspects (ಸ್ಥಿತಿಗಳು)
of verbs—the perfect aspect (ಪೂರ್ಣವಾಚಕ
ಸ್ಥಿತಿ), in which the action has already occurred at the time expressed
by the tense of the verb, and the progressive aspect (ಗತಿಸೂಚಕ ಸ್ಥಿತಿ), in which the
action is ongoing at the time expressed by the tense of the verb.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

The expression of voice (ಪ್ರಯೋಗ)
in Kannada is quite different than in English, but the same two voices
exist in both languages—the active voice (ಕರ್ತರೀ ಪ್ರಯೋಗ) and the passive voice (ಕರ್ಮಣಿ ಪ್ರಯೋಗ).<ref name=":5" />

Finite Kannada verbs are conjugated for all these properties as well as
three properties of the subject: person (ಪುರುಷ),
number (ವಚನ), and
gender (ಲಿಂಗ).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> There
are three persons in Kannada as in English—the first person (ಉತ್ತಮ ಪುರುಷ), the second person
(ಮಧ್ಯಮ ಪುರುಷ),
and the third person (ಪ್ರಥಮ
ಪುರುಷ)—as well as a singular number (ಏಕವಚನ) and a plural number (ಬಹುವಚನ). Whether a noun is of
the masculine gender (ಪುಲ್ಲಿಂಗ),
of the feminine gender (ಸ್ತ್ರೀಲಿಂಗ),
or of the neuter gender (ನಪುಂಸಕಲಿಂಗ)
is decided semantically. All nouns denoting male entities, including
entities personified—for example, religiously—as male entities, are masculine,
and all feminine nouns denote female entities or femalely personified entities;
the remaining nouns fall into the neuter gender.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

=== Non-finite verb forms (ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳ ಅವ್ಯಯರೂಪಗಳು) ===

The first non-finite verb form is the infinitive form (ಭಾವರೂಪ). There are three infinitives, which vary in their uses and their endings.
Other than the infinitive, Kannada has two types of participle—an adjectival participle (ಕೃದ್ವಾಚಿ) and an adverbial participle (ಕ್ರಿಯಾನ್ಯೂನ). While the present participle of English can function both adjectivally and adverbially, and the past participle can function only adjectivally, Kannada participles’ functions are quite consistent.
The Kannada adjectival participle is peculiar, for it takes the place of the relative pronoun that introduces a restrictive relative clause, the verb of the relative clause, and if the relative pronoun is a prepositional complement, of the governing preposition. There is a present-future adjectival participle, as well as a past adjectival participle.
The adverbial participle has a present-tense form and a past-tense form, and modifies the verb of the sentence. The adverbial participle may accept its own nominative, as may the adjectival participle in its clause.
Kannada does not have a gerund, but nouns that express the same idea can be formed by suffixing the third-person neuter pronoun to the present adjectival participle.

=== Inflecting verbs for non-finite forms (ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳ ಅವ್ಯಯರೂಪಗಳಿಗೆ ರೂಪನಿಷ್ಪತ್ತಿ) ===

==== Present adverbial participle (ವರ್ತಮಾನಕಾಲದ ಕ್ರಿಯಾನ್ಯೂನ) ====

To form the present adverbial participle of a verb, add the suffix 'ಉತ್ತ' to the crude form of the verb.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> There are no exceptions in the modern dialect, but occasionally the forms 'ಉತ' or 'ಉತ್ತಾ' may appear.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಮಾಡು → ಮಾಡುತ್ತ
|māḍu {} māḍutta
|{“do, make”} {} {“doing, making”}
|}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಬರೆ → ಬರೆಯುತ್ತ
|bare {} bareyutta
|“write” {} “writing”
|}}

==== Past adverbial participle (ಭೂತಕಾಲದ ಕ್ರಿಯಾನ್ಯೂನ) ====

To form the past adverbial participle of a verb that ends in “ಉ,” (-u) add the suffix “ಇ” (-i) to the crude form of the verb.<ref name=":0" /> To form the past adverbial participle of a verb that ends in any vowel but “ಉ,” (-u) add the suffix “ದು” (-du) to the crude form of the verb.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಮಾಡು → ಮಾಡಿ
|māḍu {} māḍi
|{“do, make”} {} {“having done, having made”}
|}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಬರೆ → ಬರೆದು
|bare {} baredu
|“write” {} {“having written”}
|}}

There are many oddly formed past adverbial participles, some of them irregular, and some of them following old formations, and others changed for euphony. They are listed below:

For these verbs, or any modern forms of them:<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />
* ಕವಲು
* ಮಡಲು
* ಬಲಿ
* ಕಲಿ
* ಹೋಲು
* ಸಾಲು
* ಸೋಲು
* ಹೇಲು
* ನೂಲು
* ಕೂರಿ
* ಕೊನರು
* ತಳಿರು
* ಚಿಗುರು
* ಬೆವರು
* ಅಳು
* ಉಳು
* ಕೀಳು
* ಚಳಿ
* ಮೊಳೆ
* ಅರಿ
* ಕುರಿ
* ಬಾ
* ಕೀ
suffix “ತು.”

Certain
final consonants
are replaced with other consonants before the “ದು” or the “ತು”
of the past participle.<ref name=":3" /> Before 'ದು':
ಲ್ →
ದ್; ಳ್ →
ದ್. Before
“ತು”: ಱ್ →
ತ್;
ಱು
(in which the
final “ಉ”
was originally euphonic, as with the euphonic “ಉ”
for nouns) →
ತ್

The
following verbs’ past participles can be formed regularly, but there is also
another, irregular form of those verbs:<ref name=":3" /> ಆಗು
→ ಆಯ್; ಪೋಗು
→ ಪೋಯ್;
ಹೋಗು
→ ಹೋಯ್

==== Present-future adjectival participle (ವರ್ತಮಾನಕಾಲದ ಮತ್ತು ಭವಿಷ್ಯತ್ತುಕಾಲದ ಕೃದ್ವಾಚಿ) ====

To form the present-future adjectival participle, add the suffix “ಉವ” (-uva) to the crude form of the verb. There are not irregulars for this form in the modern dialect.

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಮಾಡು → ಮಾಡುವ
|māḍu {} māḍuva
|{“do, make”} {} {“who/which/that does, who/which/that makes”}
|}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಬರೆ → ಬರೆಯುವ
|bare {} bareyuva
|“write” {} {“who/which/that writes”}
|}}

==== Past adjectival participle (ಭೂತಕಾಲದ ಕೃದ್ವಾಚಿ) ====

The past adjectival participle of the verb is formed from the past adverbial participle. If the past adverbial participle of a verb ends in 'ಉ' (-u), add 'ಅ' (-a) to the end of the past adverbial participle to form the past adjectival participle.<ref name=":0" /> If the past adverbial participle of a verb ends in 'ಇ' (-i), add 'ದ' (-da) to the end of the past adverbial participle.<ref name=":0" />

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಮಾಡು → ಮಾಡಿದ
|māḍu {} māḍida
|{“do, make”} {} {“who/which/that does, who/which/that made”}
|}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=kan|indent=3
|ಬರೆ → ಬರೆದ
|bare {} bareda
|“write” {} {“who/which/that wrote”}
|}}

Irregular past adjectival participles include: 'ಆದ' (āda), from crude verb root 'ಆಗು' (āgu, to be/become); 'ಪೋದ' (pōda), from crude verb root 'ಪೋಗು' (pōgu, to go); and 'ಹೋದ' (hōda), from crude verb root 'ಹೋಗು' (hōgu, to go).<ref name=":3" />

=== Inflecting verbs for finite forms / Conjugation (ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದಗಳ ಆಖ್ಯಾತರೂಪಗಳಿಗೆ ರೂಪನಿಷ್ಪತ್ತಿ / ಆಖ್ಯಾತಮಾರ್ಗ) ===

==== Affirmative form (ನಿಶ್ಚಯರೂಪ) ====

To conjugate verbs in their present-tense affirmative form, attach the following suffixes to the present adverbial participle.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular number
! plural number
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| ಏನೆ (-ēne)
| ಏವೆ (-ēve)
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ಈ/ಈಯೆ (-ī / -īye)
| ಈರಿ (-īri)
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd person
! masculine
| ಆನೆ (-āne)
| ಆರೆ (-āre)
|-
! feminine
| ಆಳೆ (-āḷe)
| ಆರೆ (-āre)
|-
! neuter
| ಅದೆ (-āde)
| ಅವೆ (-āve)
|}

To conjugate verbs in their past-tense affirmative form, attach the following suffixes to the past adjectival participle, except for the third person neuter singular suffix, which is attached to the past adverbial participle.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular number
! plural number
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| ಎನು (-enu)
| ಎವು (-evu)
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ಇ/ಎ (-i / -e)
| ಇರಿ (-iri)
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd person
! masculine
| ಅನು (-anu)
| ಅರು (-aru)
|-
! feminine
| ಅಳು (-aḷu)
| ಅರು (-aru)
|-
! neuter
| ಇತು (-itu)
| ಉವು/ಅವು (-uvu / -avu)
|}

To conjugate verbs in their future-tense affirmative form, attach the following suffixes to the present-future adjectival participle.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular number
! plural number
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| ಎನು
| ಎವು
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ಇ/ಎ
| ಇರಿ
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd person
! masculine
| ಅನು
| ಅರು
|-
! feminine
| ಅಳು
| ಅರು
|-
! neuter
| ಉದು/ಅದು
| ಉವು/ಅವು
|}

==== Negative form (ನಿಷೇಧರೂಪ) ====

The negative form of the verb does not have any tense. Tense must be told from context. However, more commonly used to negate a verb is the negative word 'ಇಲ್ಲ'.

Suffix these terminations (which are the same as the future tense's suffixes) to the verbal infinitive that ends in "ಅ" for the tenseless negative form:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular number
! plural number
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| ಎನು (-enu)
| ಎವು (-evu)
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ಎ (-e)
| ಅರಿ (-ari)
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd person
! masculine
| ಅನು (-anu)
| ಅರು (-aru)
|-
! feminine
| ಅಳು (-aḷu)
| ಅರು (-aru)
|-
! neuter
| ಅದು (-adu)
| ಅವು (-avu)
|}

The negative form has only the irregular formation that 'ಇಲ್ಲ' may be ''alternatively'' used in place of the regular negative forms of 'ಇರು'.

==== Contingent-future form (ಸಂಭಾವರೂಪ/ಸಂಭಾವನಾರೂಪ) ====

The contingent-future form expresses the idea that the action of a verb may perhaps occur in the future. For example, 'ಮಾಡಿಯೇನು', which is conjugated in the contingent-future form, may be translated as 'I ''might'' do (it)'.

These are the suffixes for the contingent-future form, suffixed to the past adverbial participle for verbs ending in 'ಉ' or the past adjectival participle for verbs ending in 'ಎ' or 'ಇ':

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular number
! plural number
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| ಏನು (-ēnu)
| ಏವು (-ēvu)
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| ಈಯೆ (-īye)
| ಈರಿ (-īri)
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd person
! masculine
| ಆನು (-ānu)
| ಆರು (-āru)
|-
! feminine
| ಆಳು (-āḷu)
| ಆರು (-āru)
|-
! neuter
| ಈತು (-ītu)
| ಆವು (-āvu)
|}

The contingent-future form does not have irregular formations.

==== Imperative form (ವಿಧಿರೂಪ) ====

The imperative form of the verb optates, exhorts, or commands. For example, the first-person and the third-person imperative expresses the idea of 'may/let {I/we/he/she/it/they} ___'. However, the second-person imperative is used either to command ('Do something!') or with an optative or jussive sense ('may you ___'), depending on the verb's meaning and the context.

These suffixes are attached to the root of the verb:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! singular number
! plural number
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person
| ಅಲಿ/ಉವೆ
| ಓಣ/ಅಲಿ/ಉವಾ
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| Ø
| ಇರಿ
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd person
! masculine
| ಅಲಿ
| ಅಲಿ
|-
! feminine
| ಅಲಿ
| ಅಲಿ
|-
! neuter
| ಅಲಿ
| ಅಲಿ
|}

Below are the irregular imperative forms:<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />
* second-person plural imperative 'ಇರಿ', from crude verb root 'ಇರು'
* second-person singular imperative 'ಕೋ', from crude verb root 'ಕೊಳ್ಳು'
* second-person singular imperative 'ಬೋ', from crude verb root 'ಬೋಲು'
* second-person plural imperative 'ತರಿ', from crude verb root 'ತರು'
* second-person singular imperative 'ತಾ', from crude verb root 'ತರು'
* second-person plural imperative 'ಬನ್ನಿ' or 'ಬನ್ನಿರಿ', from crude verb root 'ಬರು'
* second-person singular imperative 'ಬಾ', from crude verb root 'ಬರು'

==== A Summary of All Verb Forms (ಎಲ್ಲ ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ ರೂಪಗಳ ಸಾರಾಂಶ) ====
Below is a table that shows how a verb ending in 'ಉ' conjugates and how a verb ending in 'ಎ' or 'ಇ' conjugates with the verbs 'ಮಾಡು' (''to do)'' and 'ಕರೆ' (''to call'') respectively. It also shows the conjugation of the irregular verb 'ಇರು' (''to be/exist'') which is also used as an auxiliary verb.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Harold|first1=Spencer|title=A Kanarese Grammar|date=1914|publisher=The Wesleyan Mission Press|location=Mysore}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |'''Present'''
! colspan="3" |'''Past'''
! colspan="3" |Future
! colspan="3" |Negative
! colspan="3" |Contingent-Future
! colspan="3" |Imperative
|-
!ಮಾಡು
!ಕರೆ
!ಇರು
!ಮಾಡು
!ಕರೆ
!ಇರು
!ಮಾಡು
!ಕರೆ
!ಇರು
!ಮಾಡು
!ಕರೆ
!ಇರು
!ಮಾಡು
!ಕರೆ
!ಇರು
!ಮಾಡು
!ಕರೆ
!ಇರು
|-
!ನಾನು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತೇನೆ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತೇನೆ
|ಇದ್ಧೇನೆ
|ಮಾಡಿದೆನು
|ಕರೆದೆನು
|ಇದ್ದೆನು
|ಮಾಡುವೆನು
|ಕರೆಯುವೆನು
|ಇರುವೆನು
|ಮಾಡೆನು
|ಕರೆಯೆನು
|ಇರೆನು
|ಮಾಡಿಯೇನು
|ಕರೆದೇನು
|ಇದ್ದೇನು
|ಮಾಡಲಿ
|ಕರೆಯಲಿ
|ಇರಲಿ
|-
!ನೀನು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತೀ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತೀ
|ಇದ್ಧೀ
|ಮಾಡಿದಿ
|ಕರೆದಿ
|ಇದ್ದಿ
|ಮಾಡುವಿ
|ಕರೆಯುವಿ
|ಇರುವಿ
|ಮಾಡೆ
|ಕರೆಯೆ
|ಇರೆ
|ಮಾಡೀಯೆ
|ಕರೆದೀಯೆ
|ಇದ್ದೀಯೆ
|ಮಾಡು
|ಕರೆ
|ಇರು
|-
!ಅವನು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತಾನೆ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತಾನೆ
|ಇದ್ಧಾನೆ
|ಮಾಡಿದನು
|ಕರೆದನು
|ಇದ್ದನು
|ಮಾಡುವನು
|ಕರೆಯುವನು
|ಇರುವನು
|ಮಾಡನು
|ಕರೆಯನು
|ಇರನು
|ಮಾಡಿಯಾನು
|ಕರೆದಾನು
|ಇದ್ದಾನು
|ಮಾಡಲಿ
|ಕರೆಯಲಿ
|ಇರಲಿ
|-
!ಅವಳು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತಾಳೆ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತಾಳೆ
|ಇದ್ಧಾಳೆ
|ಮಾಡಿದಳು
|ಕರೆದಳು
|ಇದ್ದಳು
|ಮಾಡುವಳು
|ಕರೆಯುವಳು
|ಇರುವಳು
|ಮಾಡಳು
|ಕರೆಯಳು
|ಇರಳು
|ಮಾಡಿಯಾಳು
|ಕರೆದಾಳು
|ಇದ್ದಾಳು
|ಮಾಡಲಿ
|ಕರೆಯಲಿ
|ಇರಲಿ
|-
!ಅದು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತದೆ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತದೆ
|ಇದೆ
|ಮಾಡಿತು
|ಕರೆಯಿತು
|ಇತ್ತು
|ಮಾಡುವುದು
|ಕರೆಯುವುದು
|ಇರುವುದು
|ಮಾಡದು
|ಕರೆಯದು
|ಇರದು
|ಮಾಡೀತು
|ಕರೆದೀತು
|ಇದ್ದೀತು
|ಮಾಡಲಿ
|ಕರೆಯಲಿ
|ಇರಲಿ
|-
!ನಾವು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತೇವೆ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತೇವೆ
|ಇದ್ಧೇವೆ
|ಮಾಡಿದೆವು
|ಕರೆದೆವು
|ಇದ್ದೆವು
|ಮಾಡುವೆವು
|ಕರೆಯುವೆವು
|ಇರುವೆವು
|ಮಾಡೆವು
|ಕರೆಯೆವು
|ಇರೆವು
|ಮಾಡಿಯೇವು
|ಕರೆದೇವು
|ಇದ್ದೇವು
|ಮಾಡೋಣ
|ಕರೆಯೋಣ
|ಇರೋಣ
|-
!ನೀವು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತೀರಿ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತೀರಿ
|ಇದ್ಧೀರಿ
|ಮಾಡಿದಿರಿ
|ಕರೆದಿರಿ
|ಇದ್ದಿರಿ
|ಮಾಡುವಿರಿ
|ಕರೆಯುವಿರಿ
|ಇರುವಿರಿ
|ಮಾಡರಿ
|ಕರೆಯರಿ
|ಇರರಿ
|ಮಾಡೀರಿ
|ಕರೆದೀರಿ
|ಇದ್ದೀರಿ
|ಮಾಡಿರಿ
|ಕರೆಯಿರಿ
|ಇರಿ
|-
!ಅವರು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತಾರೆ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತಾರೆ
|ಇದ್ಧಾರೆ
|ಮಾಡಿದರು
|ಕರೆದರು
|ಇದ್ದರು
|ಮಾಡುವರು
|ಕರೆಯುವರು
|ಇರುವರು
|ಮಾಡರು
|ಕರೆಯರು
|ಇರರು
|ಮಾಡಿಯಾರು
|ಕರೆದಾರು
|ಇದ್ದಾರು
|ಮಾಡಲಿ
|ಕರೆಯಲಿ
|ಇರಲಿ
|-
!ಅವು
|ಮಾಡುತ್ತವೆ
|ಕರೆಯುತ್ತವೆ
|ಇವೆ
|ಮಾಡಿದುವು
|ಕರೆದುವು
|ಇದ್ದುವು
|ಮಾಡುವುವು
|ಕರೆಯುವುವು
|ಇರುವುವು
|ಮಾಡವು
|ಕರೆಯವು
|ಇರವು
|ಮಾಡಿಯಾವು
|ಕರೆದಾವು
|ಇದ್ದಾವು
|ಮಾಡಲಿ
|ಕರೆಯಲಿ
|ಇರಲಿ
|}

=== Word order (ಪದವಿನ್ಯಾಸ) ===

Kannada word order is 'S-O-V', or 'subject-object-verb', as opposed to English, which is a 'S-V-O', or 'subject-verb-object' language. However, in Kannada, due to its highly inflected nature, a sentence's word order may be freely changed for style or emphasis.

=== Sentence constituents (ವಾಕ್ಯದ ಭಾಗಗಳು) ===

Kannada sentences have two basic parts: the subject and the predicate. The subject consists of the central topic of the sentence, declined to the nominative case, while the predicate consists of a verb, often with an object (which formally should be in the accusative case), ''or'' may have no verb and object at all but rather simply have another noun declined in the nominative case, known as the predicate nominative, where an equivalency statement is intended.

''Example: ನಾನು (subject) ಮೇಜನ್ನು (object) ಕಟ್ಟಿದೆನು (verb). ('I built the table.' Here, the subject is 'I' and 'built the table' is the predicate, with 'built' as the verb and 'the table' as the object.''

''<nowiki>Example: ನಾನು (subject) ಕನ್ನಡದ ವಿದ್ಯಾರ್ಥಿಯು (predicate nominative). ('I (am) a student of Kannada.' Note that there is no direct Kannada equivalent for the verb 'to be' as a copula [linking verb], because Kannada is a zero-copula language, although the sentence may be alternatively written 'ನಾನು ಕನ್ನಡದ ವಿದ್ಯಾರ್ಥಿ(ಯನ್ನು) ಆಗಿದ್ಧೇನೆ.' literally meaning 'I am/exist having become a student of Kannada.'</nowiki>''

==== Subject (ಕರ್ತೃ) ====

In Kannada, the subject is declined to the nominative case.<ref name=":0" /> While the subject almost always performs the action in Kannada (use of the passive voice is highly rare), the subject may actually be the patient.

In a sentence with a subject, verb, and object, if the subject has already been made clear or is known from context, the subject may be omitted,<ref name=":0" /> with the predicate standing alone to make the sentence.

''Example: ಮನೆಗೆ ಹೋಗುವೆನು. ('I will go home.' Here, we can omit the subject 'ನಾನು', meaning 'I' because it is clear by the termination of the verb (a first-person singular termination, the same person and number of 'I') that the subject is 'I'.''

''Example: ವಿನಯನು ಇವತ್ತು ವಶಾಲೆಗೆ ಹೋಗಲಿಲ್ಲ. ಮನೆಗೆ ಬಂದನು. ('Vinay did not go to school today. {Vinay/he} came home.' In the second sentence, the subject 'Vinay' is omitted because it is clear from the previous sentence that the subject is 'Vinay'.)''

==== Verb (ಕ್ರಿಯಾಪದ) ====

In Kannada, there cannot be more than one finite, or conjugated, verb in the sentence.<ref name=":2" /> For example, the sentence 'I went to school and came home.' cannot be literally translated into Kannada. The Kannada equivalent of that sentence would be 'Having gone to school, I came home.' In Kannada, adverbial participles must be used.

''Example: ನಾನು ವಿದ್ಯಾಲಯಕ್ಕೆ ಹೋಗಿ ಮನೆಗೆ ಬಂದೆನು. ('I, having gone to school, came home.' / 'I went to school and came home.')''

''Example: ನಾನು ಓಡಿ ಆಡುವೆನು. ('I, having run, will play.' / 'I will run and play.' Note that if the intention is to say that the two actions will happen simultaneously ('I will play as I run.') then the sentence would be written 'ನಾನು ಓಡುತ್ತ ಆಡುವೆನು.')''

==== Object (ಕರ್ಮ) ====

==== Dative construction (ಸಂಪ್ರದಾನಪದ ಕಾರ್ತೃವಾಗಿರುವ ವಾಕ್ಯ) ====

In Kannada, the [[dative construction]] is used often.<ref name=":2" /> The dative construction occurs when the semantic subject is in the dative case and semantic direct object is in the nominative case. For example, in Kannada, one does not say 'I feel cold'; rather, one says the equivalent of 'cold is happening to me' ('ನನಗೆ ಚಳಿಯು ಆಗುತ್ತ ಇದೆ'). Similarly, one says 'dinner is wanted to me' ('ನನಗೆ ಉಟವು ಬೇಕು' or 'ನನಗೆ ಊಟವು ಬೇಕಾಗಿದೆ'; the latter literally is broken apart 'ನನಗೆ ಊಟವು ಬೇಕಾಗಿ ಇದೆ', literally meaning 'to me, dinner has become wanted/needed').

Yet another example is the use with 'ಇಷ್ಟ'. For example, one says 'ನನಗೆ ಸೇಬುಗಳು ಇಷ್ಟ ಆಗುತ್ತವೆ' (idiomatically--'I like apples'; literally--'to me, apples become pleasure').

Dative constructions are used to make the equivalent of English sensory linking verbs and with many modal auxiliary verbs.<ref name=":2" /> For example, 'I see him' is translated as 'he causes me to see (him)', with 'me' in the dative case.

=== Interrogation (ಪ್ರಶ್ನಿಸುವುದು) ===

=== Negation (ನಿಷೇಧ) ===

==== Negative words (ನಿಷೇಧಾರ್ಥಕ ಪದಗಳು) ====

Kannada does ''not'' have any semantically negative words such as 'never', 'no one', and 'nothing'. These words are expressed by negating the verb with the positive equivalent of the negative word. For example, in Kannada, one cannot say 'students never go to school on Sundays'; one must say the equivalent of 'students do not go to school on Sundays ever' ('ಭಾನುವಾರ ವಿದ್ಯಾರ್ಥಿಗಳು ಯಾವತ್ತು ಶಾಲೆಗೆ ಹೋಗರು'). Similarly, for 'no one goes to school on Sundays', one says 'anyone does not go to school on Sundays' ('ಯರೂ ವಿದ್ಯಲಯಕ್ಕೆ ಭಾನವಾರಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ಹೋಗುವದಿಲ್ಲ').

''Example:'' 'ಎಲ್ಲೂ ಆ ಘೋಷಣೆಯನ್ನು ಜನರು ಅಂಗೀಕರಿಸಲಿಕ್ಕಿಲ್ಲ.' ('Nowhere will the people accept that declaration.')

==== Negative finite verbs (ನಿಷೇಧಾರ್ಥಕ ಆಖ್ಯಾತಗಳು) ====

Although there is a negative 'mood' or form of the verb in Kannada, it is not used commonly anymore.<ref name=":0" /> In addition, the negative form does not express time distinctions, so [[Analytic language|analytic]] negative forms are employed.

There is no negative adverb like 'not' in Kannada. Analytic verb negation is very peculiar, and it employs a form of 'ಇರು' ('to be, exist'), which is 'ಇಲ್ಲ'. However, negative Kannada verbs with 'ಇಲ್ಲ' do not have personal terminations—they do not indicate the person, gender, or number of the subject.<ref name=":1" />

To form a past negative verb with 'ಇಲ್ಲ', suffix 'ಇಲ್ಲ' to the infinitive form of the verb ending in 'ಅಲ್'. To form a present negative verb with 'ಇಲ್ಲ', suffix 'ಇಲ್ಲ' to the verbal noun of the verb. To form a future negative verb, either use the present-tense negative form of the verb with 'ಇಲ್ಲ' or suffix 'ಇಲ್ಲ' to the infinitive form of the verb ending in 'ಅಲಿಕ್ಕೆ'.<ref name=":1" />

Aspect is expressed by 'ಇಲ್ಲ' in the normal way—by using a negative form of 'ಇರು' with an adverbial participle. For example, 'I will not have been being hit' is 'ಹೊಡಿಯಲ್ಪಡುತ್ತ ಇದ್ದು ಇರಲಿಕ್ಕಿಲ್ಲ'.

''Example:'' 'ಹೋಗುತ್ತ ಇರುವದಿಲ್ಲ.' ('I am not going.')

''Example:'' 'ಹೋಗಿ ಇರಲಿಲ್ಲ.' ('I had not gone.')

However, in the present tense, one can directly use 'ಇಲ್ಲ' after the participle to express aspect.<ref name=":2" />

''Example:'' 'ಹೋಗುತ್ತ ಇಲ್ಲ.' ('I am not going.')

''Example:'' 'ಹೋಗಿ ಇಲ್ಲ.' ('I have not gone.')

==== Negation of adverbial participles (ಕ್ರಿಯಾನ್ಯೂನಗಳ ನಿಷೇಧ) ====

Adverbial participles have a negative form, created by suffix 'ಅದೆ' to the crude form of the verb. This form is tenseless, and is best translated as 'without ___ing'. For example 'ನೋಡಿ ಹೋದೆನು' means 'I went having seen (it)', 'ನೋಡುತ್ತ ಹೋದೆನು' means 'seeing (it), I went' or 'I went seeing (it)', and 'ನೋಡದೆ ಹೋದೆನು' means 'I went not seeing (it)', "I went not having seen (it)', or 'I went without seeing (it)'.<ref name=":2" />

However, 'ಇಲ್ಲ', derived from 'ಇರು' has an adverbial participle form – 'ಇಲ್ಲದೆ' – and this can be used to keep tense when the adverbial participle must be negated. For example, one can say 'ನೋಡಿ ಇಲ್ಲದೆ' to definitively mean 'not having seen, and 'ನೋಡುತ್ತ ಇಲ್ಲದೆ' to definitively mean 'not seeing'.

== References ==

{{reflist}}
{{InterWiki|code=kn}}

{{Grammars of South Asian languages}}
{{language grammars}}
[[Category:Kannada grammar| ]]
[[Category:Dravidian grammars]]

[[de:Kannada#Grammatik]]

Ukrainian grammar

2024-04-25T15:49:41Z

Mutichou: /* Second declension */ notes 4 and 8 are exactly the same thing

{{Short description|Grammatical rules of Ukrainian}}
'''Ukrainian grammar''' is complex and characterised by a high degree of [[Inflected language|inflection]]; moreover, it has a relatively free [[word order]], although the dominant arrangement is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO). Ukrainian grammar describes its phonological, morphological, and syntactic rules. Ukrainian has seven grammatical cases and two numbers for its nominal declension and two aspects, three tenses, three moods, and two voices for its verbal conjugation. Adjectives agree in number, gender, and case with their nouns.

To understand Ukrainian grammar, it is necessary to understand the various phonological rules that occur due to sequences of two or more sounds. This markedly decreases the number of exceptions and makes understanding the rules simpler. The origin of some of these phonological rules can be traced all the way back to Indo-European gradation ([[Indo-European ablaut|ablaut]]). This is especially common in explaining the differences between the infinitive and present stems of many verbs.

This article presents the grammar of standard Ukrainian, which is followed by most dialects. The main differences in the dialects are vocabulary with occasional differences in phonology and morphology. Further information can be found in the article [[Ukrainian dialects]].

== Grammatical terminology ==
The following is a list of Ukrainian terms for properties and morphological categories, with their English translations or equivalents:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" |Category
! colspan="2" |Language
|-
!Ukrainian
!English
|-
! rowspan="10" |[[Lexical category|Parts of speech]] (части́на мо́ви)
|іме́нник
|[[noun]]
|-
|прикме́тник
|[[adjective]]
|-
|дієсло́во
|[[verb]]
|-
|числі́вник
|[[Numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]
|-
|займе́нник
|[[pronoun]]
|-
|прислі́вник
|[[adverb]]
|-
|ча́стка
|[[Grammatical particle|particle]]
|-
|прийме́нник
|[[preposition]]
|-
|сполу́чник
|[[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]
|-
|ви́гук
|[[interjection]]
|-
! rowspan="7" |Main [[Grammatical case|cases]] (відмі́нок)
|називни́й
|[[Nominative case|nominative]]
|-
|родови́й
|[[Genitive case|genitive]]
|-
|дава́льний
|[[Dative case|dative]]
|-
|знахі́дний
|[[Accusative case|accusative]]
|-
|ору́дний
|[[Instrumental case|instrumental]]
|-
|місце́вий
|[[Locative case|locative]]
|-
|кли́чний
|[[Vocative case|vocative]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Grammatical number|Number]] (число́)
|однина́
|[[Singular (grammatical number)|singular]]
|-
|множина́
|[[Plural (grammar)|plural]]
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Degrees of comparison]] (ступенюва́ння)
|звича́йний
|positive
|-
|ви́щий
|comparative
|-
|найви́щий
|superlative
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Grammatical gender|Genders]] (рід)
|чолові́чий
|[[Grammatical gender|masculine]]
|-
|жіно́чий
|[[Grammatical gender|feminine]]
|-
|сере́дній
|[[Neuter gender|neuter]]
|-
! rowspan="4" |[[Grammatical tense|Tenses]] (час)
|давномину́лий
|[[pluperfect]]
|-
|мину́лий
|[[Past tense|past]]
|-
|тепе́рішній
|[[Present tense|present]]
|-
|майбу́тній
|[[Future tense|future]]
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Grammatical moods|Moods]] (спо́сіб)
|ді́йсний
|[[Indicative mood|indicative]]
|-
|умо́вний
|[[Conditional mood|conditional]]
|-
|наказо́вий
|[[Imperative mood|imperative]]
|}

== Phonology ==
The following points of Ukrainian phonology need to be considered to understand the grammar of the Ukrainian language.

=== Classification of vowels ===
Two different classifications of [[vowel]]s can be made: a historical perspective and a modern perspective. From a historical perspective, the Ukrainian vowels can be divided into two categories:
# Hard vowels (in Cyrillic: а, и (from Common Slavic *ы), о, and у or transliterated as ''a, y'' (from Common Slavic *y), ''o'', and ''u'')
# Soft vowels (in Cyrillic: е, і and и (from Common Slavic *и) or transliterated as ''e, i'' and ''y'' (from Common Slavic *i)). The [[iotated vowel]]s are considered to be soft vowels
From a modern perspective, the Ukrainian vowels can be divided into two categories:
# Hard vowels (in Cyrillic: а, е, и, і, о, and у or transliterated as ''a'', ''e'', ''y'', ''i'', ''o'', and ''u''). This category as can be seen from the table is different from the historical hard category
# Iotated vowels (in Cyrillic: я, є, ї, and ю or transliterated as ''ya'', ''ye'', ''yi'', and ''yu''). To this category can also be added the combination of letters йо/ьо (transliterated as ''yo'')

=== Classification of consonants ===
In Ukrainian, [[consonant]]s can be categorized as follows:
* '''Labials''' (in Cyrillic: б, в, м, п, and ф or transliterated as ''b, v, m, p,'' and ''f'') are almost always hard in Ukrainian (there are orthographic exceptions), can never be doubled or in general be followed by an [[iotated vowel]] (exception: in combinations ''CL'' where ''C'' is a [[dental consonant|dental]] and ''L'' is a [[labial consonant|labial]], a soft vowel can follow, e.g., свято).
* '''Post-alveolar sibilants''' (in Cyrillic: ж, ч, and ш or transliterated as ''zh, ch,'' and ''sh''. The digraph щ (''shch'') should also be included) were in Common Slavic all [[palatal]] (soft). They hardened in Ukrainian, leading to the creation of the mixed [[declension]] of nouns. They can't be followed by a soft sign (in Cyrillic: ь; transliterated as apostrophe (’)) or any iotated vowel. All but the digraph щ can be doubled, in which case they can be followed by a soft vowel, e.g., збі́жжя.
* '''Dentals''' (in Cyrillic: д, з, л, н, с, т and ц or transliterated as ''d, z, l, n, s, t,'' and ''ts'') can be both hard and soft in Ukrainian, as in Common Slavic. These letters can never (unless they are the last letter in a prefix) be followed by an apostrophe. Furthermore, these letters can be doubled.
* '''Alveolar''' (in Cyrillic: р or transliterated as ''r'') can be either hard or soft but is always hard at the end of a syllable. Therefore, ''r'' is always hard at the end of a word and is never followed by a soft sign. ''r'' can never be doubled, except in foreign words (such as сюрреалізм).
* '''Velars''' (in Cyrillic: г, ґ, к, and х or transliterated as ''h, g, k,'' and ''kh'') are always hard in both Ukrainian and Common Slavic. If an iotated or soft vowel are to follow them, they undergo the first and second palatalizations. Hence, these letters can never be doubled or followed by an apostrophe.

=== Historical changes ===
In Ukrainian, the following sound changes have occurred between the [[Proto-Slavic|Common Slavic]] period and current Ukrainian:

# In a newly closed [[syllable]], that is, a syllable that ends in a [[consonant]], Common Slavic ''o'' and ''e'' mutate into ''i'' if the next [[vowel]] in Common Slavic was one of the [[yer]]s (ь/''ĭ'' and ъ/''ŭ'').
# [[Pleophony]]: The Common Slavic combinations, ''ToRT'' and ''TeRT'', where ''T'' is any consonant and ''R'' is either ''r'' or ''l'' become in Ukrainian.
## ''TorT'' gives ''ToroT'' (Common Slavic ''*borda'' gives Ukrainian ''borodá'')
## ''TolT'' gives ''ToloT'' (Common Slavic ''*bolto'' gives Ukrainian ''bolóto'')
## ''TerT'' gives ''TereT'' (Common Slavic ''*berza'' gives Ukrainian ''beréza'')
## ''TelT'' gives ''ToloT'' (Common Slavic ''*melko'' gives Ukrainian ''molokó'')
# The Common Slavic nasal vowel ''ę,'' derived from an Indo-European *-en, *-em, or one of the [[sonorant]]s n and m, is reflected as я except after a single [[labial consonant|labial]] where it is reflected as 'я, or after a [[post-alveolar]] sibilant where it is reflected as ''a''. For example,
## Common Slavic ''*pętь'' gives in Ukrainian п'ять;
## Common Slavic ''*telę'' gives in Ukrainian теля́;
## Common Slavic ''kurčę'' gives in Ukrainian курча́''.''
#The Common Slavic letter, ''ě'' (ѣ), is reflected in Ukrainian generally as ''i'' except:
## word-initially, where it is reflected as ''yi'': Common Slavic ''*ěsti'' gives the Ukrainian ї́сти
## after the post-alveolar sibilants where it is reflected as ''a'': Common Slavic ''*ležěti'' gives the Ukrainian лежа́ти
# Common Slavic ''i'' and ''y'' are both reflected in Ukrainian as ''y''
# The Common Slavic combination ''-CьjV'', where ''C'' is any consonant and ''V'' is any vowel, becomes in Ukrainian the following combination ''-CCjV'', except
## if ''C'' is labial or 'r' where it becomes ''-C"jV''
## if ''V'' is the Common Slavic ''e'', then the vowel in Ukrainian mutates to ''a'', e.g., Common Slavic ''*žitьje'' gives the Ukrainian життя́
## if ''V'' is the Common Slavic ''ь'', then the combination becomes ''ei'', e.g., genitive plural in Common Slavic ''*myšьjь'' gives the Ukrainian мише́й
## if one or more consonants precede the ''C'' then there is no doubling of the consonants in Ukrainian
# Common Slavic combinations ''dl'' and ''tl'' are simplified to ''l'', for example, Common Slavic ''*mydlo'' gives Ukrainian ми́ло
# Common Slavic ''ъl'' and ''ьl'' became ''ov'', while word final ''lъ'' became ''v''. For example, Common Slavic ''*vьlkъ'' becomes вовк in Ukrainian

=== Current changes ===
# The first [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]] concerns the [[velars]] and the following vowels: ''e,'' ''y'' from Common Slavic ''i'', ''a/i'' from Common Slavic ''ě'', derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] ''ē''. Before these vowels,
## г/ґ mutates into ж.
## к mutates into ч.
## х mutates into ш.
# The second palatalization concerns the velars and the following vowels: ''y'' from Common Slavic ''i'' that is derived from an Indo-European diphthong and ''a/i'' from Common Slavic ''ě'', derived from an Indo-European diphthong. Before these vowels,
## г/ґ mutates into з.
## к mutates into ц.
## х mutates into с.
# The [[iotation]] concerns all consonants and the semi-vowel й. The following changes occur:
## The [[labial consonant|labials]] insert an ''l'' between the labial and the [[semivowel]]: Common Slavic ''*zemja'' give Ukrainian земля́.
## The velars followed by a semivowel mutate as in the first palatalization. The semivowel is dropped. This change can be traced back to Common Slavic.
## кть, ть becomes ч
## дь becomes ж, except in verbs where it becomes дж
## шь becomes ш
## шть, шкь become щ
## ждь, жь become ждж
## жкь becomes жч
## л, н, р becomes ль, нь, рь
# In Ukrainian, when two or more consonants occur word-finally, then a float vowel is inserted under the following conditions.<ref>{{cite book|title = A Guide to the Declension of Nouns in Ukrainian |first= T. R. |last=Carlton
|publisher = University of Alberta Press|location= Edmonton, Alberta, Canada |year = 1972}}</ref> Given a consonantal grouping ''C1(ь)C2(ь)'', where ''C'' is any Ukrainian consonant. The fill vowel is inserted between the two consonants and after the ь. A fill vowel is only inserted if ''C2'' is one of the following consonants: к, в, л, м, р, н and ц. In this case:
## If ''C1'' is one of the following г, к, х, then the fill vowel is always o
## If ''C2'' is к or в, then the fill vowel is o. No fill vowel is inserted if the ''v'' is derived from a [[voiced]] ''l'', for example, вовк
## If ''C2'' is л, м, р or ц, then the fill vowel is e
## The only known exception is відьом, which should take ''e'' as the fill vowel, but instead adds an o
## The combinations, -ств and -ськ are not broken up
## If the ''C1'' is й, then the above rules can apply. However, both forms (with and without the fill vowel) often exist

=== Assimilation ===
The following [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilations]] occur:
*Before the с of a suffix (-ський or -ство)
**If the root ends in г (ґ), ж, or з, then it mutates to з and the с of the suffix is lost.
**If the root ends in к, ч, or ц, then it mutates to ц and the с of the suffix is lost.
**If the root ends in х, с, or ш, then it mutates to с and the с of the suffix is lost (or the last letter of the root drops out).
*The following combinations of letters change:
**{ж, з} + дн is contracted to {ж, з} + н.
**ст + {л, н} is contracted to с + {л, н}.
**{п, р} + тн is contracted to {п, р} + н.
**{с, к} + кн is contracted to {с, к} + н.

=== Dissimilation ===
The most common [[dissimilation]] (dating back to [[Proto-Slavic]]) is encountered in the infinitive of verbs, where {д, т} + т dissimilates to ст, for example, крад + ти gives красти and плет + ти gives плести.

== Morphology ==

=== Nominal ===

==== Nouns ====
The nominal [[declension]] has seven [[declension|cases]] ([[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[Dative case|dative]], [[Accusative case|accusative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]], [[locative case|locative]], and [[vocative]]), in two numbers ([[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]), and absolutely obeying [[grammatical gender]] (masculine, feminine and neuter). Adjectives, pronouns, and the first two cardinal numbers have gender specific forms.

===== Number =====
In Ukrainian, all the words in a specific context must agree in number (just like case and gender), i.e. when the noun is written in the plural number, the adjective must also be written in the plural number. Examples:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="4" |Grammatical number
|-
!Singular
!English translation
! Plural
!English translation
|-
! colspan="4" |Masculine
|-
|Гарний (adj.) пагорб (noun)
|A beautiful hill
|Гарні (adj.) пагорби (noun)
|Beautiful hills
|-
! colspan="4" |Feminine
|-
|Біла (adj.) тварина (noun)
|A white animal
|Білі (adj.) тварини (noun)
|White animals
|-
! colspan="4" |Neuter
|-
| Великe (adj.) дерево (noun)
|A big tree|| Великі (adj.) дерева (noun)
|Big trees
|}
A third number, the [[Dual grammatical number|dual]], also existed in [[Old Ruthenian|Old East Slavic]], but except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two, three and four, e.g. дві гривні vs. двоє гривень (recategorized today as a nominative plural), it has been lost. Other traces of the dual can be found when referring to objects of which are commonly in pairs: eyes, shoulders, ears, e.g. плечима (from плечі). Occasionally, dual forms can distinguish between meanings.

===== Cases =====
The Ukrainian language has seven different grammatical cases, of which every case has its own function.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|-
!Case
!Example
! Approximate translation (function)
|-
| '''Nominative'''
|мова|| the language (subject)
|-
| '''Genitive'''
|мови|| of the language
|-
| '''Dative'''
|мові|| to the language
|-
|'''Accusative'''
|мову
|the language (object)
|-
|'''Instrumental'''
|мовою
|with (through) the language
|-
|'''Locative'''
|мовій
|on the language (location)
|-
|'''Vocative'''
|мово
|language (addressing someone)
|}

===== Genders =====
Like Latin and other Slavic languages, Ukrainian does not have articles, so the gender is mainly determined with the ending. Although there are always exceptions, you can mostly determine the gender by knowing some of the typical endings.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="5" |Typical Ukrainian endings (nominative)
|-
!Gender
! Singular
!Example
! Plural
!Example
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''Masculine''' || rowspan="2" | ∅ (no ending) (1)
|вітер, парк|| -и
|вітри, парки
|-
|хлопець, камінь
| -і (2)
|хлопці, камені
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''Feminine''' || -а
|кава, церква|| -и
|кави, церкви
|-
| -я
|воля, земля
| -і (3)
|волі, землі
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''Neuter''' || -о
|дерево, село|| -а
|дерева, села
|-
| -е
|море, серце
| -я
|моря, серця
|}

Notes:

* (1) Words ending on a consonant (вітер) or soft sign (камінь).
* (2) The plural ending -і is used for words that end on a soft letter, in this case the soft sign (sg. хлопець, pl. хлопці).
* (3) The plural ending -і is used for words that end on a soft letter, in this case -я (sg. земля, pl. землі). Additionally, the ending -ї is used when the letter before the soft letter is a vowel (sg. поліція, pl. поліції).

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="4" |Further (exceptional) Ukrainian endings (nominative)
|-
!Gender
! Singular
!Example
!Reason
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''Masculine''' || -а
|Микола, Микита (male names)
| rowspan="2" |Specifically refers to the male gender (e.g. professions, male names, animals), i.e. the ending is not important in this case
|-
| -о
|батько, тато
|-
| '''Feminine''' || -ість
|радість, ніжність, гідність, бідність
|Abstract nouns (conceptual things that cannot be sensed)
|-
| '''Neuter''' || Doubled consonants + я
|кохання, налаштування, завдання, життя, насилля, весілля
|Nominalization (verbs converted into nouns), e.g. кохання (noun, "love") from кохати (verb, "to love")
|}

===== Declensions =====
In Ukrainian, there are 4 declension types. The first declension is used for most feminine nouns. The second declension is used for most masculine and neuter nouns. The third declension is used for feminine nouns ending in ь or a post-alveolar sibilant. The fourth declension is used for neuter nouns ending in -а/-я (Common Slavic ''*ę'').

Most of the types consist of 3 different subgroups: hard, mixed, and soft. The soft subgroup consists of nouns whose roots end in a soft letter (followed by iotated vowel or soft vowel). The mixed subgroup consists of the nouns whose roots end in a post-alveolar sibilant or occasionally ''r''. The hard group consists of all other nouns.

If the hard group endings are taken as the basis, then the following rules can be used to derive the corresponding mixed and soft endings:
*Mixed subgroup: Following a post-alveolar sibilant,
*# All о change to е
*# All и change to і
*Soft subgroup: Whenever a soft sign or the semi-vowel encounters the vowel of the ending, the following changes occur (These are mainly orthographic changes, but same can be traced to similar changes in Common Slavic):
*# ьа or йа gives я
*# ьо gives е
*# йе gives є
*# ьи gives і
*# йи gives ї
*# ьу or йу gives ю
*# ьі gives і
*# йі gives ї

Nouns ending in a consonant are marked in the following tables with ∅ (no ending).

===== First declension =====

This declension consists of nouns that end in -а or -я. It consists primarily of feminine nouns, but a few nouns with these ending referring to professions can be either masculine or feminine. In these cases, the genitive plural is often formed by adding -ів. Nouns referring to people can also take this ending.

{| class="wikitable" align=center
|+ '''First declension: Feminine nouns'''
! colspan="5" |Singular
|-
!
! Hard
! Mixed
! Soft (ь)
! Soft (й)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -а || -а || -я || -я
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -и || -і || -і || -ї
|-
| '''Dative''' (1) || -і || -і || -і || -ї
|-
| '''Accusative''' || -у || -у || -ю || -ю
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ою || -ею || -ею || -єю
|-
| '''Locative''' (1) || -і || -і || -і || -ї
|-
| '''Vocative''' || -о || -е || -е || -є
|-
! colspan="5" |Plural
|-
!
! Hard
! Mixed
! Soft (ь)
! Soft (й)
|-
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -и || -і || -і || -ї
|-
| '''Genitive''' (2) || ∅ || ∅ || -ь || -й
|-
| '''Dative''' || -ам || -ам || -ям ||-ям
|-
| '''Accusative''' (3) || -и / ∅ || -і / ∅ || -і / -ь || -ї / -й
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ами || -ами || -ями || -ями
|-
| '''Locative''' || -ах || -ах || -ях || -ях
|-
| '''Vocative''' || -и || -і || -і || -ї
|}

*(1) A velar consonant undergoes the appropriate second palatalization changes.
*(2) If two or more consonants are left at the end of the word, then a fill vowel may be inserted.
*(3) The genitive form is used for all animate nouns, while inanimate nouns take the nominative form.


===== Second declension =====
The second declension consists of masculine and neuter nouns.

'''Masculine nouns''': This group consists primarily of nouns ending in a consonant, a soft sign -ь, or -й. In this declension, nouns ending in р can belong to any of the three declension subgroups: hard, mixed, and soft. There is no way of knowing from the nominative form alone to which group the noun belongs.

{| align=center class="wikitable"
|+ '''Second declension: Masculine nouns'''
! colspan="5" |Singular
|-
!
! Hard
! Mixed
! Soft (ь)
! Soft (й)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ∅ || ∅ || -ь / ∅ (1) || -й
|-
| '''Genitive''' (2) || -а / -у || -а / -у || -я / -ю || -я / -ю
|-
| '''Dative''' (3) || -ові / -у || -еві / -у || -еві / -ю || -єві / -ю
|-
| '''Accusative''' (4) || ∅ / -а || ∅ / -а || -ь / -я || -й / -я
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ом || -ем || -ем || -єм
|-
| '''Locative''' (5) || -ові / -і / -у || -еві / -і || -еві / -і || -єві / -ї
|-
| '''Vocative''' (6) || -у / -е || -е / -у || -ю || -ю
|-
! colspan="5" |Plural
|-
!
! Hard
! Mixed
! Soft (ь)
! Soft (й)
|-
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -и || -і || -і || -ї
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -ів || -ів || -ів / -ей (7) || -їв
|-
| '''Dative''' || -ам || -ам || -ям ||-ям
|-
| '''Accusative''' (4) || -и / -ів || -і / -ів || -і / -ів || -ї / -їв
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ами || -ами || -ями || -ями
|-
| '''Locative''' || -ах || -ах || -ях || -ях
|-
| '''Vocative''' || -и || -і || -і || -ї
|}

Notes:
*(1) Only with soft nouns ending in -р.
*(2) The ending to be used depends on the nature of the noun. The following rules are given in the Ukrainian orthography:<ref name=orthography>{{cite book|title = Український правопис
|edition = 4th|publisher = Наукова думка (Naukova dumka)|location= Kiev, Ukraine|year = 1993}}</ref>
**Use the ending -а with
**# Names of professions, people's names (first and last)
**# Names of plants and animals
**# Names of objects
**# Names of settlements and geographic places
**# Names of measuring units
**# Names of machines
**# Words of foreign origin, which describe geometric parts, concrete objects.
**Use the ending -у with
**# Chemical elements, materials (note a few exceptions)
**# Collective nouns
**# Names of buildings and their parts
**# Names of organizations and their places
**# Natural phenomena
**# Feelings
**# Names of processes, states, phenomena of social life (both concrete and abstract)
**# Names of foreign origin that denote physical or chemical processes
**# Names of games and dances
*(3) The ending in -ові is preferred.
*(4) The accusative case for animate nouns is identical to the genitive case; for inanimate nouns, it is identical to the nominative.
*(5) Velar-root nouns generally take the -у ending, thus avoiding the second palatalization. For non-velar roots, both -і and -ові types are acceptable. As usual, the -і ending triggers the second palatalization.
*(6) If the ending -е is used, then the first palatalization occurs. However, it can be avoided by using the -у form.
*(7) The second ending occurs in a small group of nouns.

'''Neuter nouns''': This category consists of neuter nouns ending in -о, -е, and substantives ending in я, preceded by either a double consonant, apostrophe, or two consonants, which primarily are derived from verbs. This last category once did end in ''*ĭjе'', but due to the sound change given above developed an -я ending.

{| class="wikitable" align=center
|+ '''Second declension: Neuter nouns'''
! colspan="5" |Singular
|-
!
! Hard
! Mixed
! Soft
! Soft (''*ĭjе'')
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -о || -е || -е || -я
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -а || -а || -я || -я
|-
| '''Dative''' || -у || -у || -ю || -ю
|-
| '''Accusative''' || -о || -е || -е || -я
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ом || -ем || -ем || -ям
|-
| '''Locative''' (1) || -і || -і || -і || -і
|-
| '''Vocative''' || -о || -е || -е ||-я
|-
! colspan="5" |Plural
|-
!
! Hard
! Mixed
! Soft
! Soft (''*ĭjе'')
|-
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -а || -а || -я || -я
|-
| '''Genitive''' || ∅ || ∅ || -ь || -ь / ∅ (2)
|-
| '''Dative''' || -ам || -ам || -ям|| -ям
|-
| '''Accusative''' || -а || -а || -я || -я
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ами || -ами || -ями || -ями
|-
| '''Locative''' || -ах || -ах || -ях || -ях
|-
| '''Vocative''' || -а || -а || -я || -я
|}

*(1) As necessary, the second palatalization occurs, except for the ''*ĭjе'' nouns.
*(2) The double consonant is made single if the ь is used. However, if a post-alveolar sibilant is the last consonant, then no ь is used, but a single consonant is also written. For a labial final consonant, the ending is -'їв. Finally, monosyllabic nouns take the ending -ів. If two or more consonants appear word finally, then it is possible that a fill vowel must be inserted.

===== Third declension =====
This declension consists solely of feminine nouns that end in a consonant, as well as the noun ма́ти ("mother"). This declension has only 2 subgroups: a mixed and a soft group.

{| align=center class="wikitable"
|+ '''Third declension'''
! colspan="3" |Singular
|-
!
! Soft
! Mixed
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -ь || ∅
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -і || -і
|-
| '''Dative''' || -і || -і
|-
| '''Accusative''' || -ь || ∅
|-
| '''Instrumental''' (1) || -ю || -ю
|-
| '''Locative''' || -і || -і
|-
| '''Vocative''' || -e || -e
|-
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!
! Soft
! Mixed
|-
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -і || -і
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -ей || -ей
|-
| '''Dative''' || -ям|| -ам
|-
| '''Accusative''' || -і || -і
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ями || -ами
|-
| '''Locative''' || -ях || -ах
|-
| '''Vocative''' || -і || -і
|}

*(1) Since this ending is derived from the Common Slavic ending ''*-ĭjǫ'', doubling of the consonant occurs as per the rules outlined above. Furthermore, if in the nominative form the noun has an -і for an -о, then so will the instrumental form, for example, ніччю (instrumental singular) and ніч (nominative singular).

===== Fourth declension =====
This declension consists of solely neuter nouns that are derived from Common Slavic ''*ę''. There are two subgroups: those with an н insert, and those with a т insert.

{| align=center class="wikitable"
|+ '''Fourth declension'''
! colspan="3" |Singular
|-
!
! (н)
! (т)
|-
| '''Nominative''' || ім'я́ || теля́
|-
| '''Genitive''' || і́мені, ім'я́ || теля́ти
|-
| '''Dative''' || і́мені, ім'ю́ || теля́ті
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ім'я́ || теля́
|-
| '''Instrumental''' (1) || і́менем, ім'я́м || теля́м
|-
| '''Locative''' || і́мені, ім'ю́ || теля́ті
|-
| '''Vocative''' || ім'я́ || теля́
|-
! colspan="3" |Plural
|-
!
! (н)
! (т)
|-
|-
| '''Nominative''' || імена́ || теля́та
|-
| '''Genitive''' || іме́н || теля́т
|-
| '''Dative''' || імена́м || теля́там
|-
| '''Accusative''' || імена́ || теля́та, теля́т
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || імена́ми || теля́тами
|-
| '''Locative''' || імена́х || теля́тах
|-
| '''Vocative''' || імена́ || теля́та
|}

===== Indeclinable nouns =====
Several nouns, mostly borrowings from other languages (especially from different language groups) and abbreviations, are not modified when they change number and case. This occurs especially when the ending appears not to match any declension pattern in the appropriate gender. Some of the most common indeclinable nouns are:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="3" |Indeclinable nouns
|-
!Ukrainian
!Romanization
! English
|-
| відео
|video|| video
|-
| радіо
|radio|| radio
|-
| казино
|kazyno|| casino
|-
| какао
|kakao|| cacao
|-
| бюро
|biuro|| bureau
|-
| кіно
|kino|| cinema
|-
|ТОВ
|TOV
|[[Private limited company]]
|}
However, there are some exceptions. Some nouns may sound like they are a part of the indeclinable declension, but in reality they should be declined normally. Examples are the words пальто ("coat") and вино ("wine"), which belong to the neuter gender.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Незмінювані іменники — урок. Українська мова, 6 клас НУШ. |url=https://www.miyklas.com.ua/p/ukrainska-mova/6-klas/imennik-43064/rid-imennikiv-42978/re-08f335a8-3546-494e-9a6c-cfe4e2fd66c6 |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=www.miyklas.com.ua |language=uk}}</ref>

==== Adjectives ====
Ukrainian adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case.

In Ukrainian, there exist a small number of adjectives, primarily possessives, which exist in the masculine in the so-called ''short'' form. This "short" form is a relic of the indefinite declension of adjectives in Common Slavic. Common examples of this anomalous declension are бабин (masculine) compared to бабина (feminine); братів (masculine) compared to братова (feminine); and повинен (masculine) compared to повинна. This ''short'' form only exists in the masculine nominative form. All other forms are regular.

===== Declension =====
In Ukrainian, for adjectives there are 2 different declension types: hard and soft. The soft type can be further subdivided into two types. Unlike for the nouns, the post-alveolar sibilants are counted as hard. There also exists a special mixed declension for adjectives ending in -лиций. These adjectives are derived from the noun лице, describing types of faces, for example, білолиций.

{| align=center class="wikitable"
|+ '''Hard declension (-ий) of adjectives'''
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="3" align="center" |Singular!! rowspan="2" align="center" |Plural
|-
! Masculine
! Neuter
! Feminine
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -ий || -е || -а || -і
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -ого || -ого ||-ої || -их
|-
| '''Dative''' || -ому || -ому || -ій || -им
|-
| '''Accusative''' (1) || -ий / -ого || -е || -у || -і / -их
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -им || -им || -ою || -ими
|-
| '''Locative''' (2) || -ім / -ому || -ім / -ому || -ій || -их
|}

{| align=center class="wikitable"
|+ '''Soft declension (-ій) of adjectives'''
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="3" align="center" |Singular!! rowspan="2" align="center" |Plural
|-
! Masculine
! Neuter
! Feminine
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -ій || -є || -я || -і
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -ього || -ього || -ьої || -іх
|-
| '''Dative''' || -ьому || -ьому || -ій || -ім
|-
| '''Accusative''' (1) || -ій / -ього || -є || -ю || -і / -іх
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -ім || -ім || -ьою || -іми
|-
| '''Locative''' (2) || -ім / -ьому || -ім / -ьому || -ій || -іх
|}

{| align=center class="wikitable"
|+ '''Soft declension (-їй) of adjectives'''
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="3" align="center" |Singular!! rowspan="2" align="center" |Plural
|-
! Masculine
! Neuter
! Feminine
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -їй || -є || -я || -ї
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -його || -його || -йої || -їх
|-
| '''Dative''' || -йому || -йому || -їй || -їм
|-
| '''Accusative''' (1) || -їй / -його || -є || -ю || -ї / -їх
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -їм || -їм || -йою || -їми
|-
| '''Locative''' (2) || -їм / -йому || -їм / -йому || -їй || -їх
|}

{| align=center class="wikitable"
|+ '''Mixed declension (-лиций) of Adjectives'''
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="3" align="center" |Singular!! rowspan="2" align="center" |Plural
|-
! Masculine
! Neuter
! Feminine
|-
| '''Nominative''' || -лиций || -лице || -лиця || -лиці
|-
| '''Genitive''' || -лицього || -лицього || -лицьої || -лицих
|-
| '''Dative''' || -лицьому || -лицьому || -лицій || -лицим
|-
| '''Accusative''' (1) || -лицій / -лицього || -лице || -лицю || -лиці / -лицих
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || -лицим || -лицим || -лицьою || -лицими
|-
| '''Locative''' (2) || -лицім / -лицьому || -лицим / -лицьому || -лицій || -лицих
|}

Note about the declensions:

*(1) In the accusative case (except the feminine singular), a difference is made between animate (genitive) and inanimate (nominative) adjectives.
*(2) The ending in -ому is more often encountered. The other form is a relic of the indefinite declension of adjectives in Common Slavic.

===== Other forms of the adjective (comparative and superlative) =====
In Ukrainian adjectives also have comparative and superlative forms.

The [[Comparison (grammar)|comparative]] form is created by dropping ий and adding the ending -(і)ший (less frequently -жчий and -щий). The resulting form is declined like a regular hard stem adjective.

The [[superlative]] form is created by prefixing най- to the comparative form. Words associated with religion often add the prefix пре''-'' (very) to the comparative form.

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
!Positive
! Comparative
!Superlative
|-
|довгий
|дов'''ший'''
|'''най'''дов'''ший'''
|-
|грубий
|груб'''ший'''
|'''най'''груб'''ший'''
|-
|гарний
| гарн'''іший'''
|'''най'''гарн'''іший'''
|-
|низький
|ни'''жчий'''
|'''най'''ни'''жчий'''
|}

====== Irregular forms ======
Some adjectives, although also many of the important ones, have irregular forms.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
!Positive
! Comparative
!Superlative
|-
|великий
|більший
|найбільший
|-
|малий
|менший
|найменший
|-
|поганий
| гірший
|найгірший
|-
|добрий
|кращий
|найкращий
|}

==== Adverbs ====
In Ukrainian, [[adverbs]] are formed by taking the stem of the adjective (that is dropping the -а from the feminine nominative singular form; forms ending in -я are replaced by -ьа (after consonants) or -йа (after vowels), before dropping the -а) and adding the ending
* -о, is the general ending,
* -е, can be used for some stems that are hard (no ь or й at the end), for example, добре from добрий. This is very common for the comparative form of the adjective.

For example, гарний gives гарно. The comparative and superlative forms of an adverb are formed by taking the corresponding form of the adjective and replacing -ий by -е, for example, гарніше from гарніший.

Adverbs can also be derived from the locative or instrumental singular of a noun, for example, ввечері (from в plus the locative of вечера), нагорі (from на plus the locative of гора).

==== Pronouns ====

===== Personal pronouns =====
The personal pronouns are declined as follows.

{| class="wikitable" align=center
!
! 1st sg.
! 2nd sg.
! 3rd sg. m.
! 3rd sg. f.
! 3rd sg. n.
! 1st pl.
! 2nd pl.
! 3rd pl.
! reflexive
|-
| '''Nominative''' || я || ти || він || вона || воно || ми || ви || вони || /
|-
| '''Genitive''' || мене || тeбе || його / нього || її / неї || його / нього || нас || вас || їх / них || себе
|-
| '''Dative''' || мені || тобі || йому || їй || йому || нам || вам || їм || собі
|-
| '''Accusative''' || мене || тебе || його || її || його || нас || вас || їх / них || себе
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || мною || тобою || ним || нею || ним || нами || вами || ними || собою
|-
| '''Locative''' || мені|| тобі || ньому / нім || ній || ньому / нім || наc || вас || них || собі
|}

===== Demonstrative pronouns =====
The demonstrative pronouns '''той''' (that) and '''цей''' (this) are declined as follows (''N or G'' refers to respectively ''nominative'' or ''genitive''. Usually, animate subjects take the genitive form, while inanimate subjects take the nominative form).

{| class="wikitable" align=center
!
! masculine
! neuter
! feminine
! plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || той || те || та || ті
|-
| '''Genitive''' || того || того || тієї || тих
|-
| '''Dative''' || тому || тому || тій || тим
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ''N or G'' || те || ту || ''N or G''
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || тим || тим || тією || тими
|-
| '''Locative''' || тому / тім || тому / тім || тій || тих
|}

{| class="wikitable" align=center
!
! masculine
! neuter
! feminine
! plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || цей || це || ця || ці
|-
| '''Genitive''' || цього || цього || цієї || цих
|-
| '''Dative''' || цьому || цьому || цій || цим
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ''N or G'' || це || цю || ''N or G''
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || цим || цим || цією || цими
|-
| '''Locative''' || цьому / цім || цьому / цім || цій || цих
|}

===== Possessive pronouns =====
The first ('''мій''') and second person ('''твій''') singular possessive pronouns are declined similarly as can be seen from the table below.

{| class="wikitable" align=center
! colspan="2" | Case
! masculine
! neuter
! feminine
! plural
| rowspan="8" width="32px" |
! masculine
! neuter
! feminine
! plural
|-
! colspan="2" | Nominative
|| мій || моє || моя || мої || твій || твоє || твоя || твої
|-
! colspan="2" | Genitive
| colspan="2" | мого || моєї || моїх
| colspan="2" | твого || твоєї || твоїх
|-
! colspan="2" | Dative
| colspan="2" | моєму || моїй || моїм
| colspan="2" | твоєму || твоїй || твоїм
|-
! rowspan="2" | Accusative || Animate
|| мого
| rowspan="2" | моє
| rowspan="2" | мою || моїх || твого
| rowspan="2" | твоє
| rowspan="2" | твою || твоїх
|-
! Inanimate
|| мій || мої || твій || твої
|-
! colspan="2" | Instrumental
| colspan="2" | моїм || моєю || моїми
| colspan="2" | твоїм || твоєю || твоїми
|-
! colspan="2" | Locative
| colspan="2" | моєму || моїй || моїх
| colspan="2" | твоєму || твоїй || твоїх
|}

The first ('''наш''') and second ('''ваш''') person plural possessive pronouns are declined as below. The masculine nominative forms are the ''short'' forms.

{| class="wikitable" align=center
! colspan="2" | Case
! masculine
! neuter
! feminine
! plural
| rowspan="8" width="32px" |
! masculine
! neuter
! feminine
! plural
|-
! colspan="2" | Nominative
|| наш || наше || наша || наші || ваш || ваше || ваша || ваші
|-
! colspan="2" | Genitive
| colspan="2" | нашого || нашої || наших
| colspan="2" | вашого || вашої || ваших
|-
! colspan="2" | Dative
| colspan="2" | нашому || нашій || нашим
| colspan="2" | вашому || вашій || вашим
|-
! rowspan="2" | Accusative || Animate
|| нашого
| rowspan="2" | наше
| rowspan="2" | нашу || наших || вашого
| rowspan="2" | ваше
| rowspan="2" | вашу || ваших
|-
! Inanimate
|| наш || наші || ваш || ваші
|-
! colspan="2" | Instrumental
| colspan="2" | нашим || нашою || нашими
| colspan="2" | вашим || вашою || вашими
|-
! colspan="2" | Locative
| colspan="2" | нашому || нашій || наших
| colspan="2" | вашому || вашій || ваших
|}

The third person plural possessive pronoun, '''їхній''', is declined as a normal soft adjective.

===== Interrogative pronouns =====
The interrogative pronouns, '''хто''' and '''що''', are declined as follows.

{| class="wikitable" align=center
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
! Inst.
! Loc.
|-
| хто || кого || кому || кого || ким || кому
|-
| що || чого || чому || що || чим || чому
|}

The interrogative pronoun, '''чий''', is declined as given in the table below.

{| class="wikitable" align=center
!
! masculine
! neuter
! feminine
! plural
|-
| '''Nominative''' || чий || чиє || чия || чиї
|-
| '''Genitive''' || colspan="2" | чийого || чиєї || чиїх
|-
| '''Dative''' || colspan="2" | чиєму || чиїй || чиїм
|-
| '''Accusative''' || ''N or G'' || чиє || чию || ''N or G''
|-
| '''Instrumental''' || colspan="2" | чиїм || чиєю || чиїми
|-
| '''Locative''' || colspan="2" | чийому || чиїй || чиїх
|}

==== Numbers ====
(The "Adverbial" column corresponds to English once, twice, thrice, four times, etc.)
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! Symbol
! Cardinal
! Ordinal
! Adverbial
|-
| 0 || нуль || нульовий || ні разу
|-
| 1 || один, одна, одне || перший || раз
|-
| 2 || два, дві || другий || двічі
|-
| 3 || три || третій || тричі
|-
| 4|| чотири || четвертий || чотири рази
|-
| 5 || п'ять || п'ятий || п'ять разів
|-
| 6 || шість || шостий || шість разів
|-
| 7 || сім || сьомий || сім разів
|-
| 8 || вісім ||восьмий|| вісім разів
|-
| 9 || дев'ять ||дев'ятий || дев'ять разів
|-
| 10 || десять || десятий || десять разів
|-
| teens (1) || cardinal+надцять || cardinal+надцятий || cardinal+надцять разів
|-
| 20 || двадцять || двадцятий || двадцять разів
|-
| 21 || двадцять один || двадцять перший || двадцять один раз
|-
| 30 || тридцять || тридцятий || тридцять разів
|-
| 40 ||сорок || сороковий || сорок разів
|-
| 50 || п'ятдесят || п'ятдесятий || п'ятдесят разів
|-
| 60 || шістдесят || шістдесятий || шістдесят разів
|-
| 70 || сімдесят || сімдесятий || сімдесят разів
|-
| 80 || вісімдесят || вісімдесятий || вісімдесят разів
|-
| 90 || дев'яносто || дев'яностий || дев'яносто разів
|-
| 100 || сто || сотий || сто разів
|-
| 200 || двісті || двохсотий || двісті разів
|-
| 300 || триста || трьохсотий || триста разів
|-
| 400 || чотириста || чотирьохсотий || чотириста разів
|-
| 500 || п'ятсот || п'ятисотий || п'ятсот разів
|-
| 600 || шістсот || шестисотий || шістсот разів
|-
| 700 || сімсот || семисотий || сімсот разів
|-
| 800 || вісімсот || восьмисотий || вісімсот разів
|-
| 900 || дев'ятсот || дев'ятисотий || дев'ятсот разів
|-
| 1000 || тисяча || тисячний || тисяча разів
|}

Comments:
*(1) Any soft signs are dropped if they occur word finally in the original cardinal number.
*(2) This is a dual construction.
*(3) This is a plural nominative construction.
*(4) This is the genitive plural construction (all hundreds after 500 are created so).

In general, the following rules are used to determine agreement between the cardinal number and a noun. In the nominative case, the nouns agree with the last number in any compound number. Nouns that must agree with a number ending in 2, 3, or 4 are in the nominative plural, but retain the stress of the dual, that is the genitive singular. Nouns, which must agree with a number ending in 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, and all the teens are in the genitive plural. In any other case, the nouns and numbers are in the same case.

=== Verbs ===
[[Grammatical conjugation]] is subject to three [[Grammatical person|persons]] in two numbers and three simple [[Grammatical tense|tenses]] (present/future, future, and past), with [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] forms for the future and [[Conditional mood|Conditional]], as well as [[Imperative mood|imperative]] forms and present/past [[participle]]s, distinguished by [[adjective|adjectival]] and [[adverb]]ial usage. There are two [[grammatical voice|voices]], [[active voice|active]] and [[middle voice|middle]]/[[passive voice|passive]], which is constructed by the addition of a reflexive [[suffix]] '''-ся/-сь''' to the active form. An interesting feature is that the past tense is actually made to agree in gender with the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]], for it is the [[participle]] in an originally periphrastic [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] formed with the present of '''быти''' (modern: '''бути''') {{IPA|/bɨtɪ~bɯtɪ/}}, "to be". Verbal inflection today is considerably simpler than in Common Slavic. The ancient [[aorist]], [[imperfect]], and (periphrastic) [[pluperfect]] have been lost. The loss of three of the former six tenses has been offset by the reliance, as in other Slavic languages, on verbal [[grammatical aspect|aspect]]. Most verbs come in pairs, one with [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] or continuous connotation, the other with [[perfective aspect|perfective]] or completed, usually formed with a (prepositional) prefix, but occasionally using a different root.

The present tense of the verb '''бути''', "[[copula (linguistics)|to be]]", today normally has the form, ''є'' used for all persons and numbers. Previously (before 1500) and occasionally in liturgical settings, aspects of the full conjugation, can be found. The paradigm shows as well as anything else the Indo-European affinity of Ukrainian:

{| class="wikitable"
!English
!Ukrainian
!IPA
!Latin
![[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]]
|-
|"I am"||я (є)сми*, єм/-м*||{{IPA|/(je)smɪ/, /jem/, /m/}}||ego sum||''éǵh₂om H₁ésmi''
|-
|"you are" (sing.)||ти єси, єсь/-сь* ||{{IPA|/jesɪ/, /jesʲ/, /sʲ/}}||tu es||''túh₂ H₁ési''
|-
|"he, she, it is"||він, вона, воно єсть*, є||{{IPA|/jestʲ, je/}}||is, ea, id est||''khī H₁ésti''
|-
|"we are"||ми (є)смо*||{{IPA|/(je)smо/}}||nos sumus||''wéy H₁smés''
|-
|"you are" (plur.)||ви (є)сте*||{{IPA|/(je)ste/}}||vos estis||''ju H₁ste''
|-
|"they are"||вони суть* ||{{IPA|/sutʲ/}}||ii, eae, ea sunt||''tō H₁sónti''
|}

Note: Ukrainian forms followed by * are considered archaic in Standard Ukrainian (albeit those are still used in dialects) and are replaced by є. In the present tense, the verb '''бути''' is often omitted (or replaced by a dash "—" in writing), for example, "Мій брат — вчитель" ("My brother is a teacher"). "—" is not used when the subject is a pronoun, "Я студент" ("I am a student").

==== Classification of verbs ====
There exist two different classifications of verbs: traditional and historical/linguistic.

The traditional classification of verbs subdivides the verbs into two categories based on the form of the 3rd person singular present indicative form of the verb.
# The е stems, which have the ending -е or -є in the 3rd person singular.
# The и stems, which have the ending -ить in the 3rd person singular.

The historical/linguistic classification of verbs subdivides the verbs into 5 categories. Classes 1, 2 and 3 correspond to the ''е'' stems of the traditional classification, while class 4 corresponds to the ''и'' stems. Class 5 consists of the athematic verbs.<ref>{{cite book|title = Introduction to Slavonic Languages |first=R. G. A. |last= De Bray |location= London|year = 1951}}</ref>

# Class 1: Stems in ''-е''
#* The same stem in the present and the infinitive
#** The same consonantal stem (the last three examples do not quite resemble the first example or the classification name due to various sound changes (palatalization) in Ukrainian):
#***нести / несе
#***пекти / пече
#***умерти / умре
#***почати / почне
#** The same vowel stem
#***плисти / пливе
#* Infinitive in -ати
#** Consonantal stem
#*** брати / бере
#** Vowel stems
#*** рвати / рве
# Class 2: "n" verbs (mostly perfective verbs)
#* двигнути / двигне
# Class 3: Presents in є (undergo changes associated with iotation)
#* Primary verbs
#** Same stem in the Present and Infinitive
#*** Same vowel stem
#**** знати / знає
#*** Same consonantal stem (these stem often have a pleophonic form for the infinitive)
#**** молоти (Common Slavic ''*melti'') / меле (мелю)
#**** полоти (Common Slavic ''*polti'') / поле (полю)
#** Infinitive in -ати
#*** Same vowel stem (-я)
#**** сіяти / сіє
#*** Same consonantal stem
#**** орати / оре (орю)
#*** Stems that undergo the changes associated with the doubling of the consonants (the result is slightly regularized in that ''-ĭje'' does not mutate into -я as would be expected)
#**** бити: б'ю, б'єш ... (Common Slavic: ''*biti: bĭjǫ, bĭješĭ ...'')
#**** пити
#**** лити: ллю, ллєш ...
#* Derived Verbs (all vowel stems)
#** ''a''-stems
#*** думати / думає
#** ''ě''-stems
#*** жовтіти / жовтіє
#** ''uva''-stems
#*** купувати / купує
# Class 4: ''i''-stems in the Present (undergo changes associated with iotation)
#*''i''-stems in both the Present and Infinitive
#** хвалити / хвалить
#* ''ě''-stems
#**вертіти / вертить
#**лежати / лежить
# Class 5: Athematic Verbs (''-m'' presents)
#* їсти
#* дати
#* -вісти
#* бути

==== Voice ====
Ukrainian has 2 voices: (1) [[active voice]] and (2) [[passive voice]]. The active voice is the only voice with a complete set of conjugations. The active voice, in general, shows a direct effect of the verb on its subject.

==== Indicative active mood ====
The [[indicative mood]] is used to describe events, which have occurred, are occurring, or will occur. In Ukrainian, the indicative mood contains the present, future, and past tenses.

===== Present tense =====
Historically, this is derived from the Indo-European present tense. In Common Slavic and later Ukrainian, it retained its present meaning only for imperfective verbs and developed a future meaning for perfective verbs.

For the ''е'' stems (Classes 1, 2, and 3), the endings are:

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''е stem endings'''
!
! singular
! plural
|-
| '''First person''' || -у / -ю || -емо / -ємо
|-
| '''Second person''' || -еш / -єш ||-ете / -єте
|-
| '''Third person''' || -е / -є || -уть / -ють
|}

All verbs whose roots end in a velar undergo the first palatalization in all forms of the present (even though historically speaking the first person singular should not). The endings in є are used for roots whose stem ends in a vowel. All verbs in Class 3 and those that end in a vowel use -ю and -ють. Furthermore, Class 3 verbs undergo iotation in those forms that use -ю-. For reflexive verbs, in the third person singular, the ending has its historical -ть restored before the participle -ся/-сь is affixed. Thus, the ending becomes -еться.

For the ''и'' stems (Class 4), the endings are:

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''и stem endings'''
!
! singular
! plural
|-
| '''First person''' || -ю / (-у) || -имо / -їмо
|-
| '''Second person''' || -иш / -їш ||-ите / -їте
|-
| '''Third person''' || -ить / -їть || -ать / -ять
|}

All Class 4 verbs undergo iotation in the first person singular. Thus, there is really only one ending, which due to orthographic reasons is given 2 different forms. Verbs ending in a vowel take the endings in the second column. In the third person plural, verbs ending in a labial insert an л before the ending, -ять. The ending -ать is used after the sibilants ж, ш, щ, or ч.

====== Examples ======
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''нести – (stem: нес-) (Class 1 verb)'''
!
! colspan="2" |singular
! colspan="2" |plural
|-
| || Ukrainian || English || Ukrainian || English
|-
| '''First person''' || несу || I am carrying || несемо || We are carrying
|-
| '''Second person''' || несеш || You (sing.) are carrying || несете || You (pl.) are carrying
|-
| '''Third person''' || несе || He/She/It is carrying || несуть || They are carrying
|}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''вернути – (stem: верн-) (Class 2 verb)'''
!
! colspan="2" |singular
! colspan="2" |plural
|-
| || Ukrainian || English || Ukrainian || English
|-
| '''First person''' || верну || I will return || вернемо || We will return
|-
| '''Second person''' || вернеш || You (sing.) will return || вернете || You (pl.) will return
|-
| '''Third person''' || верне || He/She/It will return || вернуть || They will return
|}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''читати – (stem: чита-) (Class 3 verb)'''
!
! colspan="2" |singular
! colspan="2" |plural
|-
| || Ukrainian || English || Ukrainian || English
|-
| '''First person''' || читаю || I read || читаємо || We read
|-
| '''Second person''' || читаєш || You (sing.) read || читаєте || You (pl.) read
|-
| '''Third person''' || читає || He/She/It reads || читають || They read
|}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''говорити – (stem: говор-) (Class 4 verb)'''
!
! colspan="2" |singular
! colspan="2" |plural
|-
| || Ukrainian || English || Ukrainian || English
|-
| '''First person''' || говорю || I talk || говоримо || We talk
|-
| '''Second person''' || говориш || You (sing.) talk || говорите || You (pl.) talk
|-
| '''Third person''' || говорить || He/She/It talks || говорять || They talk
|}

====== Athematic verbs ======
Ukrainian inherited from Indo-European through Common Slavic, the following three [[athematic verbs]]. These verbs have their own conjugation in the present. Everywhere else they are regular.

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''дати – to give (perfective)'''
!
! singular
! plural
|-
| '''First person''' || дам || дамо
|-
| '''Second person''' || даси ||дасте
|-
| '''Third person''' || дасть || дадуть
|}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''їсти – to eat (imperfective)'''
!
! singular
! plural
|-
| '''First person''' || їм || їмо
|-
| '''Second person''' || їси ||їсте
|-
| '''Third person''' || їсть || їдять
|}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''Compounds ending in -вісти'''
!
! singular
! plural
|-
| '''First person''' || -вім || -вімо
|-
| '''Second person''' || -віси ||-вісте
|-
| '''Third person''' || -вість || -відять
|}

===== Past active tense =====
The past tense in Ukrainian has the peculiarity of being originally an adjective, since it derives from the original compound perfect (corresponding to, for example, the [[Latin grammar|Latin]] first conjugation participle ending ''-atus''). Thus, the past tense agrees in number and gender (but not person) with the subject of the verb. The following endings are added to the infinitive with the ending -ти removed (most root final д and т are dropped):

*masculine singular: -в
**Note: It is lost after с, з, к, г, б, р.
**Note 2: Stems ending in е or о plus a consonant convert them to і, for example, ніс but несла and міг but могла. Stems in я plus a consonant can also undergo this change.
*feminine singular: -ла
*neuter singular: -ло
*plural: -ли

Class 2 verbs can have forms without the -ну, for example, заслабнути has the forms заслаб, заслабла, заслабло, and заслабли. Not all Class 2 verbs undergo this change.

These forms are often called the active past participle I. The masculine singular evolved from an earlier *-лъ that [[l-vocalization|vocalized]].

===== Future active tense =====
In Ukrainian, there are 2 different future tenses for imperfective verbs. The first form, called ''simple'' (проста форма), formed by adding to the infinitive of the verb the following endings, which are derived from the Common Slavic verb ''*jęti'' (Present stem: jĭm-) which in turn derives from the iotacization of ''*ęti'', 'to take':

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ ''' Future tense: first form'''
!
! colspan="2" |singular
! colspan="2" |plural
|-
| || Ending || Example || Ending || Example
|-
| '''First person''' || -му ||їстиму|| -мемо || їстимемо
|-
| '''Second person''' || -меш || їстимеш ||-мете || їстимете
|-
| '''Third person''' || -ме || їстиме || -муть || їстимуть
|}

The second form, called ''compound'' (складена форма), is to take the present tense conjugation of the verb бути and use it with the infinitive of the verb.

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''Future tense: second form'''
!
! singular
! plural
|-
| '''First person''' || буду їсти|| будемо їсти
|-
| '''Second person''' || будеш їсти || будете їсти
|-
| '''Third person''' || буде їсти || будуть їсти
|}

This will translate as ''will eat'' with the appropriate personal pronoun.

The two forms do not differ in function or semantics. However, the ''compound'' form tends to be used more often.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ukrainian: A Comprehensive Grammar|first1=Stefan M.|last1=Pugh|first2=Ian|last2=Press
|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|chapter=Imperfective future: analytic and synthetic|page=229}}</ref>

==== Imperative active mood ====
The [[imperative mood]] is used to give commands. It exists in only the present tense in Ukrainian. There are no forms for the 1st person singular.
In Ukrainian, the imperative mood is formed from the present stem of the verb plus the following endings (The example is based on Ukrainian ''пити''):

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''Imperative mood in Ukrainian'''
!
! singular
! plural
|-
| '''First person''' || ''none'' || -ьмо / -ймо / -мо / -імо (пиймо)
|-
| '''Second person''' || -ь / -й / ∅ / -и (пий) ||-ьте / -йте / -те / -іть (пийте)
|-
| '''Third person''' || хай or нехай + 3rd person present singular (хай п'є or нехай п'є) ||хай or нехай + 3rd person present plural (хай п'ють or нехай п'ють)
|}

The first set of endings is to be used for stems that end in a dentals (з, д, т, с, н, and л). The second set of ending is used for stems that end in a vowel. The third set of endings is used for stems that end in labials or post-alveolar sibilants (б, в, м, п, ф, ш, щ, ч, ж, and р). The fourth set of endings is used with verbs whose unaffixed form (no prefixes or suffixes) have the stress on the ending in the first person singular of the present tense. As well, most Class 2 verbs and those verb roots ending in a consonant plus ''л'' or ''р'' take these endings. Thus for example, бери and вибери. Class 5 verbs take the first set of endings, but undergo an archaic form of iotation, so that дь becomes ж (rather than дж), for example, їжте < їд+ьте. This does not apply to дати, which is treated as a regular verb with a stem in да-.

Finally note that all verbs with stems that end in к and г undergo the first palatalization. Class 3 verbs with stems in к, г, and с undergo iotation (as do their present conjugation).

==== Conditional active mood ====
The [[conditional mood]] is used to state hypothetical states, wishes, and desires. It has 2 tenses in Ukrainian: a present and a past.

===== Present tense =====
The present conditional is formed in Ukrainian from the participle би or the short form б, which is derived from the archaic aorist conjugation of the verb, бути, and the active past participle I, which is the same as the past indicative participle. Thus, there is agreement between the subject and the participle. An example of this construction would be я би хотів ... (I would like ...).

===== Past tense =====
The past conditional is formed in Ukrainian from the participle би or the short form б followed by the active past participle I form of the verb бути (був, була, було, були) and then the active past participle I of the verb. Both participles must agree with the subject. An example of this construction would be як я би був знав... (had I known...). Alternatively, the past conditional can be formed by using the form якби and the active past participle I form of the verb, for example, якби я знав.

==== Passive voice ====
The [[passive voice]] has 2 different functions. It shows either that the subject has had something done to itself or that something indeterminate has occurred to the subject.
In Ukrainian, the passive voice is formed as follows:
# Use of a reflexive verb: митися (to wash oneself or in French ''se laver'')
# Use of the verb ''to be'' and the past passive participle: Він був вбитий (He was killed).
# An impersonal use of the third person plural past active participle I: Його вбили (He was killed).
# The following construction: Було + neuter singular of past passive participle, the "-но/-то" form: Місто було захоплене ("The town was captured").

==== Participles and verbal nouns ====

In Ukrainian, traces of all five Common Slavic participles exist.

===== Present active participle =====

This participle is formed by taking the third person plural form, dropping the -ть, and adding -чи(й). Most commonly this participle is used as gerund with the form -чи with a meaning approaching the equivalent English construction with -ing. Occasionally, it is used as an adjective. In this case its form is -чий. Examples of this participle are несучи (third person plural: несуть), знаючи (third person plural: знають) and хвалячи (third person plural: хвалять).
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="3" |Present active participle
|-
! Participle
! 3rd pl.
!Infinitive
|-
| бачачи || бачать
|бачити
|-
| розмовляючи || розмовляють
|розмовляти
|-
| пишучи || пишуть
|писати
|-
|оцінюючи
|оцінюють
|оцінювати
|-
|дивлячись
|дивляться
|дивитися
|-
|боячись
|бояться
|боятися
|}
===== Present passive participle =====

This participle does not exist in modern Ukrainian as a separate form. However, it is commonly encountered as an adjective in -мий (m.), -ма (f.), -ме (n.). Common examples of this participle are:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="2" |Present passive participle
|-
! Participle (adjective)
!English translation
|-
| знайомий
|known, familiar
|-
| рухомий
|movable
|-
| питомий
|specific
|-
|відомий
|famous
|-
|видимий
|visible
|}

===== Past active participle I =====

This participle is encountered in forming the past tense in Ukrainian. Occasionally, it is found as an adjective for intransitive verbs. It is formed by taking the infinitive stem and adding the ending -в, -ла, -ло, and -ли to form the past tense participle (in reality the indefinite form of the adjective) and the ending -лий (m.), -ла (f.), -ле (n.). to form the regular adjective. The most common adjectives with this ending include:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="2" |Past active participle I
|-
! Participle (adjective)
!English translation
|-
| почорнілий
|blackened
|-
|застарілий
|outdated
|-
| зблідлий
|grown pale
|-
| позеленілий
|greenish
|}

===== Past active participle II =====

This participle is most commonly encountered as a gerund, while it is also used occasionally as an adjective. It is formed by taking the third person singular masculine form and adding the ending -ши (-ший (m.), -ша (f.), -ше (n.) if it's used as an adjective). An example of the gerund is знавши, while a common (dialectical) adjective would be the word бувший (third person singular masculine: був).
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="3" |Present active participle
|-
! Participle (gerund)
!3rd sg. m.
!Infinitive
|-
| знавши
|знав
|знати
|-
| робивши
|робив
|робити
|-
| віддавши
|віддав
|віддати
|-
|помивши
|помив
|помити
|-
|писавши
|писав
|писати
|-
|мившись
|мився
|митися
|}
===== Past passive participle =====

The past passive participle is the only participle used commonly as an adjective. There are two parallel forms with no difference in meaning: in -тий or in -ний. This participle is formed from the infinitive stem for most verbs. Class 2 verbs can as for other participles drop the suffix -ну or only the -у, for example, движений from двигнути. Verbs in -ува́ти or -юва́ти (those whose ending is stressed) will replace the у by о and ю by ь/йо (ь if a consonant precedes or й if a vowel), for example, мальо́ваний from малюва́ти. Finally, Class 3 stems with full voicing have two possible stems: the first is simply obtained by dropping the -ти from the infinitive, while the second is obtained by dropping the last three letters (which in effect means using the present form). The first form will take the -тий ending, while the second form will take the -ний ending, for example полоти has полотий and полений. Note that the verb молоти has the second form мелений, since it derives from *melti in Common Slavonic. The ending is determined as follows:
*If the stem ends in a vowel or ер or ор (derived from a sonant r in Common Slavonic), then
**If the vowel is и, у, я a sibilant plus а, ер, or ор then add -тий, for example, розп'ятий, тертий, or жатий.
**For class 3 verbs with full voicing ending in о, then add -тий, for example, поротий.
**For all Class 4 verbs, the ending is -єний, for example, гоєний.
**Otherwise, the ending is -ний.
*If the stem ends in a consonant, then add -ений. Class 1 verbs undergo the first palatalization, while Class 2, 4, and 5 verbs undergo iotation, for example, печений, тиснений, ораний, лишений, люблений, and їджений.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="2" |Past passive participle
|-
! Participle
!Infinitive
|-
! colspan="2" |Most 1st conjugation verbs
|-
| співаний
|співати
|-
| порізаний
|порізати
|-
! colspan="2" |Verbs in -'''увати'''/-'''ювати''' where the stress in the infinitive comes on the '''ва'''
|-
|механізований
|механізувати
|-
|сформульований
|сформулювати
|-
! colspan="2" |Verbs in -'''увати'''/-'''ювати''' where the stress in the infinitive comes before the -увати/-ювати
|-
|очікуваний
|очікувати
|-
|повторюваний
|повторювати
|-
! colspan="2" |Most short verbs
|-
|митий
|мити
|-
|битий
|бити
|-
|грітий
|гріти
|}
Most 2nd conjugation verbs (especially irregular verbs) are formed from the first person singular:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="3" |Most 2nd conjugation verbs
|-
!Participle
!1st sg.
!Infinitive
|-
|зроблений
|зроблю
|зробити
|-
|чищений
|чищу
|чистити
|-
|ношений
|ношу
|носити
|}
Some verbs also have two variants, e.g. одягнутий and одягнений (infinitive: одягнути), замкнутий and замкнений (infinitive: замкнути).

===== Verbal noun =====

The verbal noun is created by taking the past passive participle, dropping ий, doubling the consonant if permitted by the rules under ''-ĭjV'', and adding a я. This will be a neuter noun declined like all neuter nouns in ''*ĭjе''. If the -е- of the past passive participle is stressed then the ''е'' will mutate into an і. Examples include питання from питати and носіння from носити. Note that any Class 3 verbs in -увати or -ювати will restore the у or ю малювання from мальований (from малювати).

The verbal noun in Ukrainian is derived from the Common Slavic verbal noun, where it was formed by adding ''*-ĭjе'' to the past passive participle without the ''*ŭ'' ending. Thus, in Ukrainian, the consonant is doubled if possible.

=== Word formation ===
Ukrainian has a rich set of [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]], both [[preposition]]al and [[adverb]]ial in nature, as well as [[diminutive]], [[augmentative]], and [[frequentative]] [[suffix]]es. All of these can be stacked one upon the other, to produce multiple derivatives of a given word. Participles and other inflectional forms may also have a special [[connotation]]. For example, the word '''напіввідкритий''' can be split into the following prefixes and suffixes:
{{center|на + пів + від + кри (root) + тий. }}

==== Prefixes ====
In Ukrainian, prefixes can be added to a root and stacked on top of each as in the above example. The most common prefixes are given in the table below. Although the prefixes have the given meaning, when attached to a root, it is possible that the resulting new word will have a unique meaning that is distantly related to the original meaning of the prefix. If possible the example is given using the verbal root '''ходити''' or the nominal root '''хід'''.

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''Common Ukrainian Prefixes'''
! Prefix
! English translation
! Example
!English translation
!Original word
!English translation
|-
| пере- || again, re- || '''пере'''ходити
|to pass
|ходити
|to walk, to go
|-
| в-/у-, во- || into, in, en- || '''в'''ходити
'''в'''хід
|to enter
entrance
|ходити
хід
|to walk, to go
walk, move
|-
| ви- || out, ex- || '''ви'''хід
'''ви'''ходити
|exit
to exit, to go out
|хід
ходити
|walk, move
to walk, to go
|-
| з-, с-, (зі-, зу-, со-, су-, із-, іс-) (1) || together (with), con- || '''с'''ходи
|stairs
|ходи (plural of хід)
|walks, moves
|-
| за- || beyond, trans- || '''за'''ходити
'''за'''хід

'''За'''карпаття
|to enter, to come in
sunset (in this context)

Zakarpattia (region)
|ходити
хід
|to walk, to go
walk, move
|-
| спів- || co- || '''спів'''робітник
|employee, colleague
|робітник
|worker
|-
| пів- || half, mid- || '''пів'''день
|south
|день
|day
|-
| під- || under-, sub- || '''під'''ходити
|to approach, to fit
|ходити
|to walk, to go
|-
| від-/од- || away from || '''від'''ходити
|to depart, to withdraw, to digress
|ходити
|to walk, to go
|-
| проти- || against, contra- || '''проти'''лежний
|opposite, contrary, reverse
|from лежати
|to lie (on)
|-
| не- || not, un-, non-, in- || '''не'''ходжений
|not walking (negation)
|ходжений (from ходити)
|walking
|-
| об-, обо- || circum-, around ||'''об'''ходити
'''обо'''в'язковий
|to bypass, to evade
mandatory
|ходити
from в'язати
|to walk, to go
to bind, to knit
|-
| про- || through|| '''про'''ходити
'''про'''дати
|to pass
to sell
|ходити
дати
|to walk, to go
to give
|-
| при- || closer, near, cis- || '''при'''ходити
|to come, to arrive
|ходити
|to walk, to go
|-
| пре- || more than || '''пре'''красний
|beautiful, wonderful
|красний (archaic)
|nice, fine
|-
| без- || without || '''без'''робітний
|workless, unemployed
|робітний (archaic)
|hardworking, plodding, laborious
|-
| до- || to, ad- || '''до'''ходити
'''до'''дати
|to reach
to add
|ходити
дати
|to walk, to go
to give
|-
| на- || on || '''на'''дати (common usage: '''на'''дати допомогу)
|to provide (to provide help)
|дати
|to give
|-
| роз- || across || '''роз'''дати
'''роз'''ходити
|to give away
to diverge
|дати
ходити
|to give
to walk, to go
|-
| перво-, першо- || first- || '''перво'''народжений
'''першо'''черговий
|first born
urgent
|народжений
черговий
|born
regular
|-
| пра- || before, pre-, fore- || '''пра'''дід
|great grandfather
|дід (дідо, дідусь, дідуньо)
|grandfather
|-
| над- || on, above, extra- ||'''над'''звичайний
|extraordinary, extreme, unusual
|звичайний
|usual
|-
| між- || between, inter- || '''між'''народний
|international
|народний
|national, public
|}

(1) The multitude of forms in Ukrainian for the Common Slavic *sŭ(n) (*съ(н)) and *jǐz- is a result of the fact that their ''s'' and ''z'' could assimilate (or dissimilate) with the root's initial consonants. As well, since a ь followed, there was the potential for further sound changes. Finally, words entered Ukrainian from different Slavic languages with their own peculiarities or that the origin of the word was lost. The following are examples of all the given possibilities:<ref name=Panejko>{{cite book|title = Граматика української мови |first = Олександер | last = Панейко|location= Augsburg|year = 1950}}</ref>
*збирати < *събирати
*спекти for *съпечи
*зіпріти for *съпрѣти
*ізнов
*іспит < jьсъпытъ
*зошит for *съшитъ = bound/sown together<ref name="Panejko" />
*зустріч for *съсрѣчь<ref name="Panejko" />
*сусід < *сѫсѣдъ < *сън- + *сѣдъ = sit together
*союз for [[Old Church Slavonic|OCS]] *съѭзь = yoke together

In Ukrainian, the normal form is з (роздивлятись, розмова, бездіяти) except before к, п, т, ф and х where the normal form is с (спати, стояти; exception: без-, e.g. безпека).<ref name="orthography" />

The following rules are followed when adding a prefix to the root:
# If the prefix ends in a consonant and the root starts with an iotated vowel, then an apostrophe is added between the prefix and the root, for example, з'їсти.
# If a prefix ends in a consonant and the root starts with two or more consonants, then the vowel і is inserted between the prefix and the root, for example, розібрати. This does not apply to the prefix в, for example, вбрати.

==== Suffixes ====
In Ukrainian, suffixes can be added to a root and stacked on top of each to produce a family of words. The most common suffixes are given in the table below. The curly brackets {} denote the various possible different suffixes with a similar meaning.

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ '''Common Ukrainian suffixes'''
! Root type + suffix = resulting word type
! English translation
! Example
|-
| Noun + {-ар(ь), -ач, -ць, -ак, -ик, -аль, -ист (from Latin -ist), -ух} = noun || one who does, -er, often male || школяр, ткач, коваль, бандурист, пастух
|-
| Noun + {-иця, -иня, -(а)ха, -аля, -ка} = noun || female version of a noun || княгиня
|-
| Adjective + {-ець, -ак, -ик, -ко, -ун} = noun || a male with the given attribute of the adjective || грішник
|-
| Noun of a city/nation + {-ин(я), -як(а), -ець/-ця} = noun || citizen/inhabitant of the city/nation (male/female) || українець
|-
| Noun + {-енко, -ич, -юк, -чук, -івна} = noun || descendant of, son/daughter of || Шевченко (from швець), Ткачук (from ткач)
|-
| Noun + -иха || often a negative female noun (female pejoratives) || сторожиха
|-
| Noun + -ня || place where noun can be done/found || читальня, книгарня
|-
| Adjective + -ота || being in the state described by the noun || біднота
|-
| Noun/verb stem + -ство || abstract form of the noun, -dom, -ship, -edness || королівство, товариство, жіноцтво
|-
| Adjective + -ість || possessing the qualities expressed by the adjective, -ness || радість, старість
|-
| Any word + {-ок/-ка/-ко, -енько, -ць/-ця/-це, -ятко (< Common Slavic *-ętko/*-ятко)} = noun || diminutive, of various shades of positive meaning (masculine/feminine/neuter forms given) || млиночок, телятко, вітерець
|-
| Any word + {-ака, -сько, -ище, -ура, -уга, -ука} = noun || augmentative with a negative connotation || хлопчисько, дідище
|-
| Masculine noun + -ів = possessive Adjective || Possessive adjective || братів
|-
| Feminine noun + -ин = possessive Adjective || Possessive adjective || бабин
|-
| Nouns + {-овий/-ський} = adjective || belonging to, containing the noun || дубовий, сільський
|-
| Nouns + -ячий (< Common Slavic *-ętjĭ) = adjective || belonging to || курячий, риб'ячий
|-
| Nouns + -яний (< Common Slavic *-ęnjĭ/-) = adjective || made of, consisting of || дерев'яний, гречаний
|-
| Nouns + -ний = adjective || made of || молочний
|-
| Adjective + -ісіньк-/-есеньк- = adjective || 'absolutely, most highly, extremely' || чистесенький/чистісінький
|-
| Adjective + -нький = adjectival noun || diminutive || чорненький
|-
| Adjective in -ський + -щина (drop -ський) = noun || The noun refers to the region || Київщина
|-
| (Foreign) word + -увати = verb || creates a verb from any other word || купувати
|}

==== Adjectives ====
Two or more adjectives can be combined into a single word using an '''о''' as the linking vowel, for example, сільськогосподарський, which consists of the adjectives сільський and господарський. If the second adjective starts with a vowel, then a dash can be used to separate the linking vowel and the second adjective, for example, середньо-європейський.

==== Verbs ====
In addition to the suffixes and prefixes that can be added to verbs, Ukrainian verbs have inherited occasional traces of the Indo-European [[ablaut]]. The primary ablaut is the difference between long and short Indo-European vowels. In Ukrainian, due to the fact that the long and short vowels experienced different reflexes, this ablaut is reflected as a change in vowels. The resulting verbs are often imperfect-perfect pairs. For example, we have скочити and скакати (simplified Indo-European *skoki- and *skōka-).

=== Fundamental sentence structure ===

==== Coordination ====

===== Separative coordinations =====
The separative coordinations are formed with the assistance of separative [[Conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]].
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="3" |Separative coordinations
|-
! Ukrainian
!Romanization
! English translation
|-
| або
|abo|| either
|-
| хоч
|khoch|| though, albeit
|-
| чи
|chy|| or
|-
| або ... або
|abo ... abo|| either ... or
|-
| чи ... чи
|chy ... chy|| whether ... whether
|-
|хоч ... хоч
|khoch ... khoch
|though ... though
|-
|то ... то
|to ... to
|then ... then
|-
|не то ... не то
|ne to ... ne to
|not that ... not that
|-
|чи то ... чи то
|chy to ... chy to
|either ... or that
|}

===== Conjoining coordinations =====
The conjoining coordinations are formed with the assistance of the conjunctions і (й, та) ("and"; usage of the three words depends on the sentence), (a)ні ... (a)ні ("not ... not"), теж ("too"), також ("also"), etc.

===== Oppositional coordinations =====
The oppositional coordinations are formed with the assistance of oppositional conjunctions.
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="3" |Oppositional coordinations
|-
! Ukrainian
!Romanization
! English translation
|-
| а
|a|| and~but
|-
|та
|ta
|and~but
|-
|ж(е)
|zh(e)
|and~but
|-
| але
|ale|| but
|-
| проте
|prote|| on the other hand
|-
| зате
|zate|| on the other hand
|-
| однак
|odnak|| however
|}

==== Subordination ====
Common Ukrainian [[complementizer|subordinations]] (complementizers) are:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="3" |Complementizers
|-
! Ukrainian
!Romanization
! English translation
|-
| як
|yak|| how, if
|-
|коли
|koly
|when
|-
|якщо
|yakshcho
|if
|-
| тому що
|tomu shcho|| because
|-
| бо
|bo|| because
|-
| хоча
|khocha|| although
|-
| щоб(и)
|shchob(y)|| so that
|}

== Syntax ==
The basic [[word order]], both in conversation and the written language, is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO). However, because the relations are marked by [[inflexion]], considerable latitude in word order is allowed, and all the permutations can be used. The word order expresses the [[logical stress]], and the degree of [[definiteness]].

=== Negation ===
Unlike English, Latin, and various other languages, Ukrainian allows [[double negative|multiple negatives]], as in ніхто ніколи нікому нічого не прощає 'no-one ever forgives anyone anything', literally 'no-one never to no-one nothing does not forgive'. Single negatives are often grammatically incorrect because when negation is used in complex sentences every part that could be grammatically negated should be negative.

Objects of a negated verb are placed in the genitive case, where they would be accusative if the verb were not negated.

=== Inflectional usage ===

==== Case ====
The use of [[Grammatical case|cases]] in Ukrainian can be very complicated. In general, the [[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[accusative]], and [[vocative]] cases can be used without a [[preposition]]. On the other hand, the [[locative]] and [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] cases are used primarily with a preposition. Furthermore, and much like in [[Latin]], different prepositions can be followed by nouns in different cases, resulting in different meanings.

==== Aspect ====
Ukrainian verbs can have one of two [[Grammatical aspect|aspects]]: [[imperfective]] and [[perfective]]. The imperfective form denotes an action that is taking place in the present, is ongoing, is repetitive, or is habitual. The perfective form indicates an action that is completed, is the result of an action, is the beginning of an action, or is shorter or longer than usual. As a result, the perfective verbs have no present tense.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-16 |title=Ukrainian language lessons to study ᐈ Learn Ukrainian ONLINE {{!}} «Speak Ukrainian» |url=https://www.speakua.com/ |access-date=2024-02-12 |language=en-US}}</ref> For example, спати is imperfective, while '''по'''спати is perfective. Instead of the prefix, the [[infix]] can also be changed, like in кидати (imperfective) and ки'''ну'''ти (perfective). Further examples:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="2" |Imperfective and perfective
|-
! Imperfective verb
! Perfective verb
|-
| пити || '''ви'''пити
|-
|робити
|'''з'''робити
|-
| розуміти || '''з'''розуміти
|-
| малювати || '''на'''малювати
|-
| читати || '''про'''читати
|-
|кидати
|ки'''ну'''ти
|}
Some common prefixes have a specific function and meaning:
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
! colspan="4" |Common prefixes
|-
! Prefix
!Type of action
! Imperfective verb
!Perfective verb
|-
|по-
|action limited by a period, completion
|читати
|'''про'''читати
|-
|при-
|joining, bringing together
|готувати
|'''при'''готувати
|-
| на-
|completion, exhaustive or intensive action, a movement to or onto || писати
|'''на'''писати
|-
| ви-
|emission|| пити
|'''ви'''пити
|-
|з- (с-)
|emission
|робити
|'''з'''робити
|}

== See also ==
* [[Ukrainian language]]
* [[Ukrainian alphabet]]
* [[Ukrainian orthography]]
* [[Ukrainian name]]
* [[Ukrainian surnames|Ukrainian surname]]
* [[Ukrainian phonology]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* Ukrainian Grammar: http://ukrainiangrammar.com/
* Rules of Ukrainian grammar (with friendly search-engine): http://www.pravopys.net
* Guide to Ukrainian orthography: http://rozum.org.ua/index.php?a=srch&d=21&id_srch=4370e04265734957b6001b0b7608d9cd&il=ru&p=1
* Verb Conjugator: http://www.verbix.com/languages/ukrainian.shtml
* Ukrainian Grammar (1946) by P. Kovaliv: https://web.archive.org/web/20150616053924/http://www.mova.club/ukrainian/

{{Ukrainian language}}
{{Slavic grammars}}
{{Language grammars}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ukrainian grammar| ]]
[[Category:Ukrainian language]]

Pauna language

2024-02-19T07:43:20Z

Mutichou: +reference; it is now hardly "almost unknown"

{{Short description|Endangered Arawakan language spoken in Bolivia}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2011}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Pauna
| altname = Paunaka
| nativename = ''Paunaka''
| states = [[Bolivia]]
| speakers = 10 speakers and semi-speakers, all older than 50
| date = 2011
| ref = <ref>[http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~paunakadocu/ The Paunaka documentation project]</ref>
| familycolor = American
| fam1 = [[Maipurean languages|Arawakan]]
| fam2 = Southern
| fam3 = Bolivia–Parana
| fam4 = Moxos
| dia1 = Paiconeca
| iso3 = pnk
| glotto = paun1241
| glottorefname = Paunaka
| region = [[Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)]]: [[Chiquitanía]]
}}

The '''Pauna language''', ''Paunaka'', is an [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan language]] in South America. It is an extremely endangered language, which belongs to the southern branch of the Arawakan language family and it is spoken in the Bolivian area of the [[Chiquitanía]], near [[Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)|Santa Cruz]] and north of the [[Gran Chaco|Chaco region]]. The suffix -ka is a plural morpheme of the Chiquitano language, but has been assimilated into Pauna.

There could be a relationship to the extinct Paiconeca language, which is also part of the Arawakan family. Aikhenvald (1999) lists Paiconeca as a separate language, but Kaufman (1994) subsumed it as a dialect of Pauna.

The Spanish colonisation changed a whole continent. [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] languages were displaced and replaced and younger generations did not keep in touch with their linguistic roots anymore. Spanish and [[Chiquitano language|Chiquitano]] became the main languages in this Bolivian area, and especially Spanish is the medium of teaching in schools. Due to this fact children are focusing on Spanish instead of their original languages.
Currently there remain approximately ten speakers and semi-speakers, who live in the eastern part of Bolivia among the Chiquitano people. However, 150 people feel to be part of the ethnic group, of which some can still understand Paunaka. The Paunaka language and culture is currently under investigation.

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130420050927/http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~paunakadocu/ Paunaka-Project, University of Leipzig]
* [http://www.native-languages.org/paunaca.htm Native languages-Paunaka]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. 1999. “The Arawak language family”. In: Dixon & Aikhenvald (eds.), ''The Amazonian Languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 65–106. {{ISBN|0-521-57021-2}}
* {{Cite book |title=A grammar of Paunaka |last=Terhart |first=Lena |publisher=Language Science Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-3-96110-435-2 |location=Berlin |language=en |url=https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/400 |series=Comprehensive Grammar Library |doi=10.5281/zenodo.10517532}}

{{Languages of Bolivia}}
{{Arawakan languages}}

[[Category:Arawakan languages]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the South American Northwest]]
[[Category:Languages of Bolivia]]
[[Category:Mamoré–Guaporé linguistic area]]

Polish grammar

2024-01-24T11:02:58Z

Mutichou: /* Pronouns */ the full declension is already given here; improved formatting of notes; added note about mię

{{Short description|Grammar of the Polish language}}
The [[grammar]] of the [[Polish language]] is complex and characterized by a high degree of [[inflected language|inflection]], and has relatively free [[word order]], although the dominant arrangement is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO). There commonly are no [[article (grammar)|articles]] (although this has been a subject of academic debate), and there is frequent [[Pro-drop language|dropping of subject pronouns]]. Distinctive features include the different treatment of [[masculine personal]] nouns in the plural, and the complex grammar of [[numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s and [[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantifiers]].<ref name="tomaszewicz" />

==Regular morphological alternation==
{{main|Polish morphology#Regular alternation}}
Certain regular or common [[alternation (linguistics)|alternation]]s apply across the Polish inflectional system, affecting the morphology of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech. Some of these result from the [[Polish phonology#Distribution|restricted distribution]] of the vowels ''i'' and ''y'', and from the [[Polish phonology#Voicing and devoicing|voicing rules]] for consonants in clusters and at the end of words. Otherwise, the main changes are the following:
*vowel alternations, arising from the [[Polish phonology#Historical development|historical development]] of certain vowels, which cause vowel changes in some words depending on whether the syllable is closed or open, or whether the following consonant is soft or hard;
*consonant changes caused by certain endings (such as the ''-ie'' of the [[locative]] case, and the ''-i'' of the masculine personal plural), which historically entailed [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]] of the preceding consonant, and now produce a number of different changes depending on which consonant is involved.

==Nouns==

{{main|Polish morphology#Nouns}}
Polish retains the Old [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] system of [[grammatical case|case]]s for [[noun]]s, [[pronoun]]s, and [[adjective]]s. There are seven cases: [[Nominative case|nominative]] {{lang|pl|(mianownik)}}, [[Genitive case|genitive]] {{lang|pl|(dopełniacz)}}, [[Dative case|dative]] {{lang|pl|(celownik)}}, [[Accusative case|accusative]] {{lang|pl|(biernik)}}, [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] {{lang|pl|(narzędnik)}}, [[Locative case|locative]] {{lang|pl|(miejscownik)}}, and [[Vocative case|vocative]] {{lang|pl|(wołacz)}}.

=== Number ===
Polish has two [[Grammatical number|number classes]]: singular and plural.

It used to also have the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] number, but it vanished around the 15th century. It survived only in a few [[relicts]]:

* body parts that naturally come in pairs have synchronically irregular plural and other forms
** ''oko'' ("eye") – pl. ''oczy'', genitive plural ''oczu'', instrumental plural regular ''oczami'' or irregular ''oczyma''; but not in the sense of "drop of fat on a liquid", which is declined regularly
** ''ręka'' ("hand, arm") – pl. ''ręce'', locative singular regular ''ręce'' or irregular ''ręku'', instrumental plural regular ''rękami'' or irregular ''rękoma''
** ''ucho'' ("ear") – pl. ''uszy,'' genitive plural ''uszu'', instrumental plural regular ''uszami'' or irregular ''uszyma''; but not in the sense of "a handle (of a jug or a kettle, etc.)", which is declined regularly
* certain proverbs, e.g. ''Mądrej głowie dość dwie słowie'' (lit. "two words are enough for a wise head"), with dual ''dwie słowie'' (modern ''dwa słowa'')

=== Gender ===

Note that for true nouns (not for adjectives), there are three cases that always have the same ending in the plural, regardless of gender or declension class: dative plural in ''-om'', instrumental plural in ''-ami'' or ''-mi,'' and locative plural in ''-ach'' ; the only apparent exception being nouns that are in fact inflected as previously ''dual nouns'', ex. ''rękoma'' instrumental plural of ''ręka'' "hand".

==== Inflection ====
There are three main [[Grammatical gender|gender]]s (''rodzaje''): masculine (''męski''), feminine (''żeński'') and neuter (''nijaki''). Masculine nouns are further divided into personal (''męskoosobowy''), animate (''męskożywotny''), and inanimate (''męskorzeczowy'') categories. Personal and animate nouns are distinguished from inanimate nouns in the accusative singular; for the latter the accusative is identical to the nominative. In the plural, the masculine personal nouns are distinguished from all others, which collapse into one non-masculine personal gender (''niemęskoosobowy'').

The following tables show this distinction using as examples the nouns ''mężczyzna'' 'man' (masc. personal), ''pies'' 'dog' (masc. animate), ''stół'' 'table' (masc. inanimate), ''kobieta'' 'woman' (feminine), ''okno'' 'window' (neuter). The following table presents examples of how a determiner ''ten/ta/to'' ("this") agrees with nouns of different genders in the nominative and the accusative, both singular and plural. Adjectives inflect similarly to this determiner.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |'''singular'''
! colspan="2" |'''plural'''
|-
!nom.
!acc.
!nom.
!acc.
|-
! rowspan="3" |'''masculine'''
!personal
| rowspan="3" |'''ten''' mężczyzna
'''ten''' pies

'''ten''' stół
| rowspan="2" |'''tego''' mężczyznę
'''tego''' psa
|'''ci''' mężczyźni
|'''tych''' mężczyzn
|-
!animate
| colspan="2" rowspan="4" |'''te''' psy
'''te''' stoły

'''te''' kobiety

'''te''' okna
|-
!inanimate
|'''ten''' stół
|-
! colspan="2" |'''feminine'''
|'''ta''' kobieta
|'''tę''' kobietę
|-
! colspan="2" |'''neuter'''
| colspan="2" |'''to''' okno
|}
For verbs, the distinction is only important for past forms in the plural, as in the table below:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |
!'''singular'''
!'''plural'''
|-
! rowspan="3" |'''masculine'''
!personal
| rowspan="3" |mężczyzna '''biegał'''
pies '''biegał'''

stół '''biegał'''
|mężczyźni '''biegali'''
|-
!animate
| rowspan="4" |psy '''biegały'''
stoły '''biegały'''

kobiety '''biegały'''

okna '''biegały'''
|-
!inanimate
|-
! colspan="2" |'''feminine'''
|kobieta '''biegała'''
|-
! colspan="2" |'''neuter'''
|okno '''biegało'''
|}
The numeral ''dwa'' ("two"), on the other hand, behaves differently, merging masculine non-personal with neuter, but not with feminine:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |plural
|-
!nom.
!acc.
|-
! rowspan="3" |'''masculine'''
!personal
|'''dwaj''' mężczyźni
|'''dwóch''' mężczyzn
|-
!animate
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" |'''dwa''' psy
'''dwa''' stoły

'''dwa''' okna
|-
!inanimate
|-
! colspan="2" |'''neuter'''
|-
! colspan="2" |'''feminine'''
| colspan="2" |'''dwie''' kobiety
|}

==== Morphological endings ====
Gender can usually be inferred from the ending of a noun.

Masculine:
* masculine nouns typically end in a consonant
* some nouns, describing people, end in ''-a'', specifically:
** all nouns ending in ''-sta'', equivalent to English "-ist", e.g. ''artysta'' ("artist")'', kapitalista'' ("capitalist")'', konserwatysta'' ("conservative"), ''socjalista'' ("socialist")
** all nouns ending in ''-nauta'', equivalent to English "-naut", e.g. ''argonauta'' ("[[Argonauts|argonaut]]"), ''astronauta'' ("astronaut")'', kosmonauta'' ("cosmonaut")
** last names
** first names ''Barnaba, Bonawentura'', also ''Kuba'' (diminutive of ''Jakub'')
** emotionally charged nicknames, e.g. ''beksa'' ("crybaby")'', łamaga, niezdara, oferma'' (all three of which mean "a clumsy person")
** some other nouns, e.g. ''satelita'' ("satellite"), ''wojewoda'' ("voivode"); ''hrabia'' ("count") and ''sędzia'' ("judge") – both partially declined like adjectives
* some personal names end in ''-o'', e.g. ''Horeszko, Kościuszko''; those decline in singular like feminine nouns ending in ''-a''
* some nouns, which were originally adjectives, end in ''-i'' and ''-y''; those decline in singular like adjectives
Feminine:
* feminine nouns typically end in ''-a''
* some nouns end in a [[Polish phonology#Hard and soft consonants|soft or hardened]] consonant:
** all abstract nouns ending in ''-ść'', e.g. ''miłość'' ("love"), ''nieśmiałość'' ("shyness"), ''zawiść'' ("envy"), etc.
** some concrete nouns ending in ''-ść'': ''kiść'' ("bunch"), ''kość'' ("bone"), ''maść'' ("ointment"), ''ość'' ("fishbone"), ''przepaść'' ("chasm"), ''wieść'' ("news")
**''-b:'' ''głąb'' ("depth")
**''-c:'' ''moc'' ("power"), ''noc'' ("night"), ''pomoc'' ("help"), ''przemoc'' ("violence"), ''równonoc'' ("equinox"), ''Wielkanoc'' ("Easter"), ''wszechmoc'' ("omnipotence")
**''-cz: [[Bydgoszcz]], ciecz'' ("liquid"), ''dzicz'' ("wilderness"), ''klacz'' ("mare"), ''kokorycz'' ("[[corydalis]]"), ''rzecz'' ("thing"), ''smycz'' ("leash")
**''-ć'': ''brać'' ("company"), ''chuć'' ("lust"), ''jać'' ("[[yat]]"), ''mać'' (archaic for "mother"), ''płeć'' ("sex, gender"), ''sieć'' ("net")
**''-dź: czeladź'' (a collective term for servants of one master during the Middle Ages[[:pl:Czeladź (służba)|(pl)]]"), ''gołoledź'' ("[[black ice]]"), ''krawędź'' ("edge"), ''łódź'' ("boat"), ''miedź'' ("copper"), ''odpowiedź'' ("answer"), ''powódź'' ("flood"), ''spowiedź'' ("confession"), ''wypowiedź'' ("utterance"), ''zapowiedź'' ("announcement")
**''-j:'' ''kolej'' ("railway")
**''-l:'' ''kąpiel'' ("bath"), ''myśl'' ("thought"), ''sól'' ("salt")
**''-ń: baśń'' ("fable"), ''czerń'' ("the colour black, blackness"), ''czerwień'' ("the colour red, redness"), ''dłoń'' ("palm"), ''goleń'' ("shin"), ''jaźń'' ("self, ego"), ''jesień'' ("autumn"), ''kieszeń'' ("pocket"), ''krtań'' ("larynx"), ''otchłań'' ("abyss"), ''pieczeń'' ("roasted meat"), ''pieśń'' ("song"), ''pleśń'' ("mould"), ''przestrzeń'' ("space"), ''przyjaźń'' ("friendship"), ''przystań'' ("haven"), ''skroń'' ("temple"), ''waśń'' ("feud"), ''woń'' ("odour"), ''zieleń'' ("the colour green, greenness")
**''-p:'' ''[[Gołdap]]''
**''-rz'': ''macierz'' ("matrix"), ''twarz'' ("face")
**''-sz'': ''mysz'' ("mouse"), ''wesz'' ("louse")
**''-ś'': ''Białoruś'' ("[[Belarus]]"), ''gęś'' ("goose"), ''oś'' ("axis"), ''pierś'' ("breast"), ''Ruś'' ("[[Ruthenia]]"), ''wieś'' ("village")
**''-ź'': ''gałąź'' ("branch"), ''rzeź'' ("slaughter")
**''-ż'': ''grabież'' ("pillage"), ''młodzież'' ("youth"), ''odzież'' ("clothing"), ''podaż'' ("supply"), ''sprzedaż'' ("sale"), ''straż'' ("guard"), ''uprząż'' ("harness")
**''-w'': ''brew'' ("eyebrow"), ''brukiew'' ("[[rutabaga]]"), ''marchew'' ("carrot"), ''konew'' ("jug"), ''krew'' ("blood"), ''rukiew'' ("[[watercress]]"), ''rzodkiew'' ("radish"), ''żagiew'' ("torch")
*words ending in ''-ini'' are feminine, e.g. ''bogini'' ("goddess"); also ''pani'' ("Mrs")
*feminine last names ending in a consonant are invariable
Neuter:
*neuter nouns typically end in ''-o''
*verbal nouns, which are always neuter, end in ''-e'', e.g. ''jedzenie, śpiewanie,'' etc.
*diminutives ending in ''-ę'' are always neuter, e.g. ''źrebię'' ("foal"), ''dziecię'' ("child")
*Latin loanwords ending in ''-um'' : invariable in the singular, declinable in the plural by removing the ''-um'' ending and replacing it by neuter plural endings ; the genitive plural is in ''-ów'' contrary to other neuters that have no ending → ''muzeum'', ''muzea'' (N. pl.), ''muzeów'' (G. pl.)
*loanwords ending in ''-i'' are neuter and invariable, e.g. ''kiwi, Brunei, Burundi''
*acronyms ending in a vowel (in pronunciation), e.g. ''BMW'' {{IPAc-pl|bɛɛmˈvu}}; if an acronym is native, its gender may also be equal to the gender of the noun in the full version of the acronym

==== Semantic membership ====
The distinction between personal, animate and inanimate nouns within masculine nouns is largely semantic, although not always.

Personal nouns are comprised by human nouns such as ''mężczyzna'' 'man' or ''sędzia'' 'male judge', personal names of men, as well as the noun ''bóg'' 'male god' and proper names of male gods (e.g. ''Rod'' "[[Rod (god)|Rod]]", ''Jowisz'' "[[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]").

Animate nouns are largely comprised by animals such as ''pies'' ("dog") or ''pawian'' ("baboon"), many members from other [[Domain (biology)|life domains]], as well as a number of objects associated with human activity. On the morphological level however, such nouns are only partially similar to animate nouns, having their accusative identical to their genitive only in the singular. 
Some examples :

*names of fruit, e.g. ''ananas'' ("pineapple"), ''banan'' ("banana")
*names of [[fungi]], bacteria, viruses, e.g. ''borowik'' ("[[Boletus edulis|cep]]"), ''grzyb'' ("mushroom"), ''wirus'' ("virus"), ''gronkowiec'' ("[[staphylococcus]]")
*names of consumer goods and brands, e.g. ''mercedes'' ("Mercedes car"), ''Nikon'' (as in ''Mam Nikona'' – "I have a Nikon"), ''papieros'' ("cigarette")
*names of currency, e.g. ''dolar'' ("dollar"), ''funt'' ("pound")
*names of dances, e.g. ''polonez'' ("[[polonaise (dance)|polonaise]]")
*some loanwords related to information technology, e.g. ''blog, komputer'' ("computer")
*nouns related to human or human-like referents, e.g. ''nieboszczyk, trup'' (both of which mean "corpse"), ''robot'' ("robot"), ''wisielec'' ("the body of a hanged person"), ''duch'' ("ghost")

Contrary to fungi and bacteria, most plant names of masculine gender are inanimate, e.g. ''żonkil'' ("[[daffodil]]"), ''hiacynt'' ("[[Hyacinth (plant)|hyacinth]]"), ''dąb'' ("oak"), ''cis'' ("[[yew]] tree"), which are all inanimate. The noun ''goździk'' ("[[carnation]]") is an exception as a masculine animate. Not all technological loanwords are animate either, e.g. inanimate ''modem'', ''telefon'' ("telephone, cellphone"), and ''tranzystor'' ("[[transistor]]"). ''Robot'' can be treated as animate or inanimate.

It is common for personal masculine nouns to change gender to inanimate to create semantic neologisms, for example ''edytor'' ("editor", pl. ''ci edytorzy'') and ''edytor (tekstu)'' ("word processor software", pl. ''te edytory'').

For non-living objects that represent humans (e.g. in games), personal masculine nouns usually change gender to animate; for example, the word ''król'' ("king"), which is masculine-personal when referring to [[King|a monarch]] (pl. ''ci królowie''), becomes masculine-animate when referring to [[King (playing card)|the playing card]] or [[King (chess)|the chess piece]] (pl. ''te króle'').

There are also a few pairs of homographs that completely change their meaning depending on their gender. Examples are:
{{columns-list|colwidth=35em|
* ''biel:''
** masculine: "[[sapwood (wood)|sapwood]]"
** feminine: "whiteness, the colour white"
* ''głąb:''
** masculine: "moron"
** feminine: "depth"
* ''Niemcy:''
** plural masculine-personal: "Germans"
** non-personal ''[[plurale tantum]]'': "Germany"
* ''twardziel:''
** masculine: "tough guy"
** feminine: "[[heartwood]]"
* ''włóczęga:''
** masculine: "wanderer"
** feminine: "(the act of) roaming"
* ''żołądź:''
** masculine: "acorn"
** feminine: "[[glans penis]]"
}}

Homographs that differ only by their gender can also occur in some Polish place names; for example, the town of [[Ostrów Wielkopolski|Ostrów (Wielkopolski)]] is masculine, while the town of [[Ostrów Mazowiecka|Ostrów (Mazowiecka)]] is feminine.

=== Declension ===
Typical declension patterns are as follows:

* {{lang|pl|klub}} ("club"; an inanimate masculine noun) – N/A {{lang|pl|klub}}, G {{lang|pl|klubu}}, D {{lang|pl|klubowi}}, I {{lang|pl|klubem}}, L/V {{lang|pl|klubie}}. Plural: N/A/V {{lang|pl|kluby}}, G {{lang|pl|klubów}}, D {{lang|pl|klubom}}, I {{lang|pl|klubami}}, L {{lang|pl|klubach}}.
* {{lang|pl|mapa}} ("map"; a feminine noun) – N {{lang|pl|mapa}}, G {{lang|pl|mapy}}, D/L {{lang|pl|mapie}}, A {{lang|pl|mapę}}, I {{lang|pl|mapą}}, V {{lang|pl|mapo}}. Plural: N/A/V {{lang|pl|mapy}}, G {{lang|pl|map}}, D {{lang|pl|mapom}}, I {{lang|pl|mapami}}, L {{lang|pl|mapach}}.
* {{lang|pl|mięso}} ("meat'; a neuter noun) – N/A/V {{lang|pl|mięso}}, G {{lang|pl|mięsa}}, D {{lang|pl|mięsu}}, I {{lang|pl|mięsem}}, L {{lang|pl|mięsie}}. Plural: N/A/V {{lang|pl|mięsa}}, G {{lang|pl|mięs}}, D {{lang|pl|mięsom}}, I {{lang|pl|mięsami}}, L {{lang|pl|mięsach}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="2" |''klub'' (club) masculine inanimate ''męski nieożywiony''
! colspan="2" |''mapa'' (map) feminine ''żeński''
! colspan="2" |''mięso'' (meat) neuter ''nijaki''
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Nominative (''mianownik'')
| rowspan="2" |klub
| rowspan="3" |kluby
|mapa
| rowspan="3" |mapy
| rowspan="3" |mięso
| rowspan="3" |mięsa
|-
!Accusative (''biernik'')
|mapę
|-
!Vocative (''wołacz'')
| rowspan="2" |klubie
|mapo
|-
!Locative (''miejscownik'')
|klubach
| rowspan="2" |mapie
|mapach
|mięsie
|mięsach
|-
!Dative (''celownik'')
|klubowi
|klubom
|mapom
|mięsu
|mięsom
|-
!Genitive (''dopełniacz'')
|klubu
|klubów
|mapy
|map
|mięsa
|mięs
|-
!Instrumental (''narzędnik'')
|klubem
|klubami
|mapą
|mapami
|mięsem
|mięsami
|}

A common deviation from the above patterns is that many masculine nouns have genitive singular in ''-a'' rather than ''-u''. This includes all personal and animate masculines (ending in a consonant). Also masculine animate nouns have accusative singular equal to the genitive singular (in ''-a''). Masculine personal nouns also have accusative plural equal to genitive plural, and often have nominative plural in ''-i''.

==Adjectives==
{{main|Polish morphology#Adjectives}}
Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in terms of gender, number and case. They are declined according to the following pattern (''dumny'' means "proud"):
*masculine singular: N/V {{lang|pl|dumny}}, G {{lang|pl|dumnego}}, D {{lang|pl|dumnemu}}, A {{lang|pl|dumny}} (for inanimate nouns)/''dumnego'' (animate), I/L {{lang|pl|dumnym}}
*feminine singular: N/V {{lang|pl|dumna}}, G/D/L {{lang|pl|dumnej}}, A/I {{lang|pl|dumną}}
*neuter singular: N/V/A {{lang|pl|dumne}}, G/D/I/L as masculine
*plural: N/V/A {{lang|pl|dumne}} (but for masculine personal nouns N/V {{lang|pl|dumni}} A {{lang|pl|dumnych}}), G/L {{lang|pl|dumnych}}, D {{lang|pl|dumnym}}, I {{lang|pl|dumnymi}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Case
! colspan="4" |Singular number
! colspan="2" |Plural number
|-
!Masculine animate {{lang|pl|męski ożywiony}}
!Masculine inanimate {{lang|pl|męski nieożywiony}}
!Neuter {{lang|pl|nijaki}}
!Feminine {{lang|pl|żeński}}
!Masculine personal {{lang|pl|męskoosobowy}}
!Not masculine personal {{lang|pl|niemęskoosobowy}}, i.e. masculine impersonal, feminine, and neutral
|-
!Nominative (''mianownik'')
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |dumny
| rowspan="3" |dumne
| rowspan="2" |dumna
| rowspan="2" |dumni
| rowspan="3" |dumne
|-
!Vocative (''wołacz'')
|-
!Accusative (''biernik'')
|dumnego
|dumny
| rowspan="2" |dumną
|dumnych
|-
!Instrumental (''narzędnik'')
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" |dumnym
| colspan="2" |dumnymi
|-
!Locative (''miejscownik'')
| rowspan="3" |dumnej
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |dumnych
|-
!Genitive (''dopełniacz'')
| colspan="3" |dumnego
|-
!Dative (''celownik'')
| colspan="3" |dumnemu
| colspan="2" |dumnym
|}

For a table showing the declension of Polish adjectival surnames, ending in ''-ski/-ska'' or ''-cki/-cka'', see [[Polish name#Declension of adjectival surnames|Declension of adjectival surnames]].

Most short adjectives have a comparative form in ''-szy'' or ''-iejszy'', and a superlative obtained by prefixing ''naj-'' to the comparative.
For adjectives that do not have these forms, the words {{lang|pl|bardziej}} ("more") and {{lang|pl|najbardziej}} ("most") are used before the adjective to make comparative and superlative phrases.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the ending ''ie'', or in some cases ''-o''. Comparatives of adverbs are formed (where they exist) with the ending ''-iej''. Superlatives have the prefix ''naj-'' as for adjectives.

==Pronouns==
The [[personal pronoun]]s of Polish (nominative forms) are ''ja'' ("I"), ''ty'' ("you", singular, [[T–V distinction|familiar]]), {{lang|pl|on}} ("he", or "it" corresponding to masculine nouns), {{lang|pl|ona}} ("she", or "it" corresponding to feminine nouns), {{lang|pl|ono}} ("it" corresponding to neuter nouns), {{lang|pl|my}} ("we"), {{lang|pl|wy}} ("you", plural, familiar), {{lang|pl|oni}} ("they", corresponding to a masculine personal group – see [[#Noun syntax|Noun syntax]] below), {{lang|pl|one}} ("they" in other cases; group where there are only girls/women).

The [[T–V distinction|polite second-person]] pronouns are the same as the nouns {{lang|pl|pan}} ("gentleman, Mr"), {{lang|pl|pani}} ("lady, Mrs") and their plurals {{lang|pl|panowie, panie}}. The mixed-sex plural is {{lang|pl|państwo}}. All second-person pronouns are often capitalized for politeness, in letters etc.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="4" |Case
! colspan="7" |Singular
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" |1st
! colspan="3" |2nd
! colspan="3" |3rd
! rowspan="3" |1st
! colspan="4" |2nd
! colspan="2" |3rd
|-
! rowspan="2" |fam.
! colspan="2" |polite
! rowspan="2" |masc.
! rowspan="2" |neut.
! rowspan="2" |fem.
! rowspan="2" |fam.
! colspan="3" |polite
! rowspan="2" |masc.
pers.
! rowspan="2" |non-
masc.
|-
!masc.
!fem.
!masc.
!mixed
!fem.
|-
!Nominative (''mianownik'')
|ja
| rowspan="2" |ty
|pan
| rowspan="2" |pani
|on
|ono
|ona
|my
| rowspan="2" |wy
| rowspan="2" |panowie
| rowspan="2" |państwo
| rowspan="3" |panie
|oni
|one
|-
!Vocative (''wołacz'')
|
|panie
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!Accusative (''biernik'')
| rowspan="2" |mnie{{efn|name=long|Long form used in stressed situations.}} mię{{efn|name=short|Short clitic form used in unstressed situations.}}{{efn|''Mię'' is archaic and ''mnie'' is normally used in all situations.}}
| rowspan="2" |ciebie{{efn|name=long}} cię{{efn|name=short}}
| rowspan="2" |pana
|panią
|jego{{efn|name=long}} go{{efn|name=short}} niego{{efn|name=prepositions|Form used after prepositions.}}
|je nie{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|ją nią{{efn|name=prepositions}}
| rowspan="3" |nas
| rowspan="3" |was
| rowspan="2" |panów
| rowspan="2" |państwa
| rowspan="2" |ich nich{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|je
nie{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|-
!Genitive (''dopełniacz'')
| rowspan="3" |pani
| colspan="2" |jego{{efn|name=long}} go{{efn|name=short}} niego{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|jej
niej{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|pań
|ich nich{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|-
!Locative (''miejscownik'')
|mnie
|tobie
| rowspan="2" |panu
| colspan="2" |nim
|niej
|panach
| rowspan="2" |państwu
|paniach
| colspan="2" |nich
|-
!Dative (''celownik'')
|mnie{{efn|name=long}} mi{{efn|name=short}}
|tobie{{efn|name=long}} ci{{efn|name=short}}
| colspan="2" | jemu{{efn|name=long}} mu{{efn|name=short}} niemu{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|jej
niej{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|nam
|wam
|panom
|paniom
| colspan="2" |im nim{{efn|name=prepositions}}
|-
!Instrumental (''narzędnik'')
|mną
|tobą
|panem
|panią
| colspan="2" |nim
|nią
|nami
|wami
|panami
|państwem
|paniami
| colspan="2" |nimi
|}

{{notelist}}

{{efn|name=prepositions}} Form used after prepositions.

Subject pronouns can be [[pro-drop|dropped]] if the meaning is clear and they are not emphasized. Sometimes there are alternative forms available for a given personal pronoun in a given case:
*there may be a form beginning with ''n-'', used after prepositions (for example, the accusative of {{lang|pl|ona}} is {{lang|pl|nią}} after a preposition rather than {{lang|pl|ją}});
*there may be a [[clitic]] form, used when unstressed, but not after prepositions (such as {{lang|pl|mi}} as the dative of {{lang|pl|ja}}, an alternative to {{lang|pl|mnie}}).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] for all persons and numbers is {{lang|pl|się}}.

The [[possessive adjective]]s (also used as possessive pronouns) derived from the personal pronouns are {{lang|pl|mój}}, {{lang|pl|twój}}, {{lang|pl|jego}} (m., n.)/''jej'' (f.); {{lang|pl|nasz}}, {{lang|pl|wasz}}, {{lang|pl|ich}}. There is also a reflexive possessive {{lang|pl|swój}}. The polite second-person pronouns have possessives identical to the genitives of the corresponding nouns, although there is a possessive adjective {{lang|pl|pański}} corresponding to {{lang|pl|pan}}.

The [[demonstrative pronoun]], also used as a demonstrative adjective, is {{lang|pl|ten}} (feminine {{lang|pl|ta}}, neuter {{lang|pl|to}}, masculine personal plural {{lang|pl|ci}}, other plural {{lang|pl|te}}). The prefix ''tam-'' can be added to emphasize a more distant referent ("that" as opposed to "this").

[[Interrogative word|Interrogative]] pronouns are {{lang|pl|kto}} ("who") and {{lang|pl|co}} ("what"); these also provide the pronouns {{lang|pl|ktoś/coś}} ("someone/something"), {{lang|pl|ktokolwiek/cokolwiek}} ("anyone/anything"), {{lang|pl|nikt/nic}} ("no one/nothing").

The usual [[relative pronoun]] is {{lang|pl|który}} (declined like an adjective). However, when the antecedent is also a pronoun, the relative pronoun used is {{lang|pl|kto}} or {{lang|pl|co}} (as in {{lang|pl|ten kto}} "he who" and {{lang|pl|to co}} "that which"). The word {{lang|pl|który}} also means "which" as an interrogative pronoun and adjective.

The pronoun and adjective {{lang|pl|wszystek}} means "all". It is used most commonly in the plural (''wszyscy'' means "everyone"), and in the neuter singular {{lang|pl|(wszystko)}} to mean "everything". The pronoun and adjective {{lang|pl|każdy}} means "each, every", while {{lang|pl|żaden}} means "no, none".

For full information on the declension of the above pronouns, see [[Polish morphology#Pronouns|''Pronouns'']] in the article on Polish morphology.

When the referent of a pronoun is a person of unspecified sex, the masculine form of the pronoun is generally used. When the referent is a thing or idea that does not correspond to any specific noun, it is treated as neuter.

==Numbers and quantifiers==
Polish has a complex system of [[numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s and related [[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantifiers]], with special rules for their inflection, for the case of the governed noun, and for verb [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] with the resulting noun phrase.

The basic numerals are 0 {{lang|pl|zero}}, 1 {{lang|pl|jeden}}, 2 {{lang|pl|dwa}}, 3 {{lang|pl|trzy}}, 4 {{lang|pl|cztery}}, 5 {{lang|pl|pięć}}, 6 {{lang|pl|sześć}}, 7 {{lang|pl|siedem}}, 8 {{lang|pl|osiem}}, 9 {{lang|pl|dziewięć}}, 10 {{lang|pl|dziesięć}}, 11 {{lang|pl|jedenaście}}, 12 {{lang|pl|dwanaście}}, 13 {{lang|pl|trzynaście}}, 14 {{lang|pl|czternaście}}, 15 {{lang|pl|piętnaście}}, 16 {{lang|pl|szesnaście}}, 17 {{lang|pl|siedemnaście}}, 18 {{lang|pl|osiemnaście}}, 19 {{lang|pl|dziewiętnaście}}, 20 {{lang|pl|dwadzieścia}}, 30 {{lang|pl|trzydzieści}}, 40 {{lang|pl|czterdzieści}}, 50 {{lang|pl|pięćdziesiąt}}, 60 {{lang|pl|sześćdziesiąt}}, 70 {{lang|pl|siedemdziesiąt}}, 80 {{lang|pl|osiemdziesiąt}}, 90 {{lang|pl|dziewięćdziesiąt}}, 100 {{lang|pl|sto}}, 200 {{lang|pl|dwieście}}, 300 {{lang|pl|trzysta}}, 400 {{lang|pl|czterysta}}, 500 {{lang|pl|pięćset}}, 600 {{lang|pl|sześćset}}, 700 {{lang|pl|siedemset}}, 800 {{lang|pl|osiemset}}, 900 {{lang|pl|dziewięćset}}.

These numerals are inflected for case, and also to some extent for gender. For details of their inflection, see [[Polish morphology#Numbers and quantifiers|''Numbers and quantifiers'']] in the article on Polish morphology.

Thousand is {{lang|pl|tysiąc}}, treated as a noun (so 2000 is {{lang|pl|dwa tysiące}}, etc.). Million is {{lang|pl|milion}}, billion (meaning a thousand million) is {{lang|pl|miliard}}, a million million is {{lang|pl|bilion}}, a thousand million million is {{lang|pl|biliard}}, and so on (''i.e.'', the [[long scale]] is used).

Compound numbers are constructed similarly as in English (for example, 91,234 is {{lang|pl|dziewięćdziesiąt jeden tysięcy dwieście trzydzieści cztery}}).

When a numeral modifies a noun, the numeral takes the expected case, but the noun may not; also the gender and number of the resulting [[noun phrase]] may not correspond to that of the noun. The following rules apply:
*The numeral {{lang|pl|jeden}} (1) behaves as an ordinary adjective, and no special rules apply. It can even be used in the plural, for example to mean "some" (and not others), or to mean "one" with [[pluralia tantum]], e.g. {{lang|pl|jedne drzwi}} "one door" (''drzwi'' has no singular).
*After the numerals {{lang|pl|dwa}}, {{lang|pl|trzy}}, {{lang|pl|cztery}} (2, 3, 4), and compound numbers ending with them (22, 23, 24, etc. but not 12, 13, or 14, which take ''-naście'' as a suffix and are thus not compound numbers in the first place), the noun is plural and takes the same case as the numeral, and the resulting noun phrase is plural (e.g. {{lang|pl|4 koty stały}}, "4 cats stood").
*With other numbers (5, 6, etc., 20, 21, 25, etc.), if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun takes the genitive plural form, and the resulting noun phrase is neuter singular (e.g. {{lang|pl|5 kotów stało}}, "5 cats stood").
*With the masculine personal plural forms of numbers (as given in the [[Polish morphology#Numbers and quantifiers|morphology]] article section), the rule given above – that if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun is genitive plural '''and''' the resulting phrase is neuter singular – applies to ''all'' numbers other than 1 (as in {{lang|pl|trzech mężczyzn przyszło}}, "three men came"), unless the alternative nominative forms {{lang|pl|dwaj}}, {{lang|pl|trzej}}, {{lang|pl|czterej}} (for 2, 3, 4) are used (these take nominative nouns and form a masculine plural phrase).
*If the numeral is in the genitive, dative, instrumental or locative, the noun takes the same case as the numeral (except sometimes in the case of numbers that end with the nouns for 1000 and higher quantities, which often take a genitive noun regardless since they are treated as normal nouns).

Polish also has a series of numerals called '''collective numerals''' {{lang|pl|(liczebniki zbiorowe)}}, namely {{lang|pl|dwoje}} (for 2), {{lang|pl|troje}} (for 3), {{lang|pl|czworo}} (for 4), {{lang|pl|pięcioro}} (for 5), and so on. These are used with the following types of nouns:
*Personal and animate neuter nouns (e.g. {{lang|pl|dziecko}} ("child"), {{lang|pl|kocię}} ("kitten"))
*Non-masculine personal [[plurale tantum|pluralia tantum]], i.e. nouns that do not exist in the grammatical singular (such as {{lang|pl|drzwi}} ("door(s)"), {{lang|pl|urodziny}} ("birthday(s)"))
*Plural nouns referring to a group containing both sexes (for example, {{lang|pl|czworo studentów}} refers to a group of four students of mixed sex)
For the declension of collective numerals by case, see the [[Polish morphology#Numbers and quantifiers|morphology]] article section. They all follow the rule that when the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun becomes genitive plural, and the resulting noun phrase is neuter singular. In this case the genitive noun is also used after the instrumental of the numeral.

Certain [[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantifiers]] behave similarly to numerals. These include {{lang|pl|kilka}} ("several"), {{lang|pl|parę}} ("a few") and {{lang|pl|wiele}} ("much, many"), which behave like numbers above 5 in terms of the noun cases and verb forms taken. There are also indefinite numerals {{lang|pl|kilkanaście, kilkadziesiąt, kilkaset}} (and similar forms with ''parę-''), meaning "several-teen", several tens and several hundred.

Quantifiers that always take the genitive of nouns include {{lang|pl|dużo}} ("much, many"), {{lang|pl|mało}} ("few, little"), {{lang|pl|więcej}} ("more"), {{lang|pl|mniej}} ("less") (also {{lang|pl|najwięcej/najmniej}} "most/least"), {{lang|pl|trochę}} ("a bit"), {{lang|pl|pełno}} ("plenty, a lot").

The words {{lang|pl|oba}} and {{lang|pl|obydwa}} (meaning "both"), and their derived forms behave like {{lang|pl|dwa}}. However the collective forms {{lang|pl|oboje, obydwoje}} (in the nominative/vocative), when referring to a married couple or similar, take the nominative form of the noun rather than the genitive, and form a masculine plural noun phrase (''oboje rodzice byli'', "both parents were", cf. {{lang|pl|dwoje rodziców było}}).

For the declension of all the above quantifiers, see the [[Polish morphology#Numbers and quantifiers|morphology]] article section.

==Verbs ==
{{main|Polish morphology#Verbs}}

Polish [[verb]]s have the grammatical category of [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]]. Each verb is either ''imperfective'', meaning that it denotes continuous or habitual events, or ''perfective'', meaning that it denotes single completed events (in particular, perfective verbs have no present tense). Verbs often occur in imperfective and perfective pairs – for example, {{lang|pl|jeść}} and {{lang|pl|zjeść}} both mean "to eat", but the first has imperfective aspect, the second perfective.

Imperfective verbs have three [[verb tense|tenses]]: [[present tense|present]], [[past tense|past]] and [[future tense|future]], the last being a compound tense (except in the case of {{lang|pl|być}} "to be"). Perfective verbs have a past tense and a simple future tense, the latter formed on the same pattern as the present tense of imperfective verbs. Both types also have [[imperative mood|imperative]] and [[conditional mood|conditional]] forms. The dictionary form of a verb is the [[infinitive]], which usually ends with ''-ć'' (occasionally with ''-c''). The present-day past tense derives from the old [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] "perfect" tense; several other old tenses (the [[aorist]], [[imperfect]]) have been dropped.

The present tense of imperfective verbs (and future tense of perfective verbs) has six forms, for the three [[grammatical person|persons]] and two [[grammatical number|numbers]]. For example, the present tense of {{lang|pl|jeść}} is {{lang|pl|jem}}, {{lang|pl|jesz}}, {{lang|pl|je}}; {{lang|pl|jemy}}, {{lang|pl|jecie}}, {{lang|pl|jedzą}} (meaning "(I) eat" etc. – subject pronouns may be dropped), while the future tense of the corresponding perfective verb {{lang|pl|zjeść}} is {{lang|pl|zjem}}, {{lang|pl|zjesz}} etc. (meaning "(I) shall eat" etc.)

The verb {{lang|pl|być}} has the irregular present tense {{lang|pl|jestem, jesteś, jest, jesteśmy, jesteście, są}}. It also has a simple future tense (see below).

The past tense agrees with the subject in gender as well as person and number. The basic past stem is in ''-ł''; to this are added endings for gender and number, and then personal endings are further added for the first and second person forms. Thus, on the example of {{lang|pl|być}}, the past tense forms are {{lang|pl|byłem/byłam}} ("I was", masc/fem.), {{lang|pl|byłeś/byłaś}}, {{lang|pl|był/była/było}}; {{lang|pl|byliśmy/byłyśmy}} ("we were" all gender mixes (except:)/a group of all fem.), {{lang|pl|byliście/byłyście}}, {{lang|pl|byli/były}}.

The [[conditional tense|conditional]] is formed from the past tense, {{lang|pl|by}}, and the personal ending (if any). For example: {{lang|pl|byłbym/byłabym}} ("I would be", masc/fem.), {{lang|pl|byłbyś/byłabyś}}, {{lang|pl|byłby/byłaby/byłoby}}; {{lang|pl|bylibyśmy/byłybyśmy}}, {{lang|pl|bylibyście/byłybyście}}, {{lang|pl|byliby/byłyby}}.

The personal past tense suffixes, which are reduced forms of the present tense of {{lang|pl|być}}, are [[clitic]]s and can be detached from the verb to attach to another accented word earlier in the sentence, such as a question word (as in {{lang|pl|kogoście zobaczyli}} as an alternative to {{lang|pl|kogo zobaczyliście}} "whom did you see"), or (mostly in informal speech) an emphatic particle {{lang|pl|że}} (''co żeście zrobili?'' "what did you do"). The same applies to the conditional endings (''kiedy byście przyszli'' as an alternative to {{lang|pl|kiedy przyszlibyście}} "when would you come").

If {{lang|pl|by}} introduces the clause, either alone or forming one of the conjunctions {{lang|pl|żeby}}, {{lang|pl|iżby}}, {{lang|pl|ażeby}}, {{lang|pl|aby}}, {{lang|pl|coby}}, it forms the [[Subjunctive mood#Polish|subjunctive mood]]<ref name = "migdalski">Migdalski K. ''The Syntax of Compound Tenses in Slavic'', Utrecht 2006</ref>
and is not to be confused with the conditional clitic {{lang|pl|by}}.<ref name="tomaszewicz">Anastasia Smirnova, Vedrana Mihaliček, Lauren Ressue, ''Formal Studies in Slavic Linguistics'', Cambridge Scholar Publishing, Newcastle upon Type, Wielka Brytania, 2010: Barbara Tomaszewicz, Subjunctive Mood in Polish and the Clause Typing Hypothesis</ref> For example, "He wants me to sing" might be {{lang|pl|chce, aby(m) śpiewał}}, {{lang|pl|chce, żeby(m) śpiewał}} or {{lang|pl|chce, by(m) śpiewał}}. Such clauses may express "in order that", or be used with verbs meaning "want", "expect", etc.

The future tense of {{lang|pl|być}} ("be") follows the pattern of a typical present tense: {{lang|pl|będę, będziesz, będzie, będziemy, będziecie, będą}}.
The future tense of other imperfective verbs is formed using the future of {{lang|pl|być}} together with the infinitive, or the past form (inflected for gender and number, but without any personal suffixes), of the verb in question. For example, the future of {{lang|pl|robić}} ("do, make") has such forms as {{lang|pl|będę robić/robił/robiła}}, {{lang|pl|będziecie robić/robili/robiły}}. The choice between infinitive and past form is usually a free one, but with modals governing another infinitive, the past form is used: {{lang|pl|będzie musiał odejść}} (not {{lang|pl|będzie musieć...}}) "he will have to leave".

The second personal singular [[imperative mood|imperative]] is formed from the present tense by dropping the ending (e.g. {{lang|pl|brać}}: 2/3S present {{lang|pl|bierze(sz)}}, imperative {{lang|pl|bierz}}), sometimes adding ''-ij'' or ''-aj''. Add ''-my'' and ''-cie'' for the 1P and 2P forms. To make third-person imperative sentences (including with the polite second-person pronouns {{lang|pl|pan}} etc.) the particle {{lang|pl|niech}} is used at the start of the sentence (or at least before the verb), with the verb in the future tense (if {{lang|pl|być}} or perfective) or present tense (otherwise). There is a tendency to prefer imperfective verbs in imperative sentences for politeness; negative imperatives quite rarely use perfectives.

Other forms of the verb are:
*present [[adverbial participle]] (imperfective verbs only), as {{lang|pl|śpiewając}} (meaning "(when) singing", "by singing", etc.)
*present [[adjectival participle]] (imperfective verbs only), formed from the present adverbial participle by adding adjectival endings, as {{lang|pl|śpiewający}} etc., meaning "singing" (as an [[attributive adjective]]), although such participles can be used to form extended adjectival phrases, which (usually unlike in English) can precede the noun.
*[[passive participle]] (all transitive verbs), in ''-ny'' or ''-ty'' (conjugated as an adjective). This often corresponds to the English [[past participle]], both in fully adjectival use and in [[passive voice]].
*subjectless past tense, formed as the past participle but with the ending ''-o'' (e.g. {{lang|pl|śpiewano}} "there was sung").
*past [[active participle]] (perfective verbs only), like {{lang|pl|zabiwszy}} "having killed" (from {{lang|pl|zabić}} "kill"); this form is invariant.
*[[verbal noun]], also called [[gerund]], formed from the past participle with the ending ''-ie'', e.g. {{lang|pl|śpiewanie}}. This is a neuter noun.

==Prepositions==
Polish uses [[preposition]]s, which form phrases by preceding a noun or noun phrase. Different prepositions take different cases (all cases are possible except nominative and vocative); some prepositions can take different cases depending on meaning.

The prepositions ''z'' and ''w'' are pronounced together with the following word, obeying the usual rules for consonant cluster voicing (so {{lang|pl|z tobą}} "with you" is pronounced {{lang|pl|stobą}}). Before some consonant clusters, particularly clusters beginning with a sibilant (in the case of ''z'') or with ''f/w'' (in the case of ''w''), the prepositions take the form {{lang|pl|ze}} and {{lang|pl|we}} (e.g. {{lang|pl|we Wrocławiu}} "in [[Wrocław]]"). These forms are also used before the first-person singular pronouns in ''mn-''; several other prepositions also have longer forms before these pronouns (''przeze mnie, pode mną'' etc.), and these phrases are pronounced as single words, with the stress on the penultimate syllable (the ''-e'').

Common prepositions include:
*''na'', with the locative with basic meaning "on", and with the accusative with basic meaning "onto" (also metaphorical meanings)
*''w'', with the locative with basic meaning "in", and with the accusative with basic meaning "into" (also metaphorical meanings)
*''z'', with the instrumental [[Comitative case|comitative]] meaning "with" (''in accompaniment of''); with the genitive meaning "from, out of"
*''do/od'', with genitive, meaning "to, into/from"
*''dla'', with genitive, meaning "for"
*''o'', with locative meaning "about", also with the accusative in some constructions
*''przed/za/nad/pod'' with instrumental meaning "before, in front of/behind/over/under", also with the accusative in some meanings (and genitive in the case of {{lang|pl|za}}); there are also compound prepositions {{lang|pl|sprzed/zza/znad/spod}} ("from in front of" etc.) taking the genitive
*''przez'' with the accusative, meaning "through" etc.
*''przeciw(ko)'' with dative, meaning "against" (but {{lang|pl|naprzeciw(ko)}} "opposite" takes genitive)
*''po'', with locative meaning "after", also with the accusative in some meanings
*''przy'', with locative, meaning "next to" etc.
*''bez'', with genitive, meaning "without"

==Conjunctions==
Common Polish [[Conjunction (grammar)|conjunction]]s include {{lang|pl|i}} (and less commonly {{lang|pl|oraz}}) meaning "and", {{lang|pl|lub}} and {{lang|pl|albo}} meaning "or", {{lang|pl|ale}} meaning "but", {{lang|pl|lecz}} meaning "but" chiefly in phrases of the type "not ''x'' but ''y''", {{lang|pl|że}} (or more formally sometimes {{lang|pl|iż}}) meaning "that", {{lang|pl|jeśli}} meaning "if" (also {{lang|pl|gdyby}}, where {{lang|pl|by}} is the conditional particle), {{lang|pl|czy}} meaning "whether" (also an interrogative particle), {{lang|pl|kiedy}} or {{lang|pl|gdy}} meaning "when", {{lang|pl|więc}}, {{lang|pl|dlatego}} and {{lang|pl|zatem}} meaning "so, therefore", {{lang|pl|ponieważ}} meaning "because", {{lang|pl|choć/chociaż}} meaning "although", and {{lang|pl|aby/żeby}} meaning "in order to/that" (can be followed by an infinitive phrase, or by a sentence in the past tense; in the latter case the {{lang|pl|by}} of the conjunction is in fact the conditional particle and takes personal endings as appropriate).

In written Polish, [[subordinate clause]]s are normally set off with commas. Commas are not normally used before conjunctions meaning "and" or "or".

==Syntax==

===Word order===
Basic word order in Polish is [[subject–verb–object|SVO]]; however, as it is a [[synthetic language]], it is possible to move words around in the sentence. For example, {{lang|pl|Alicja ma kota}} ("Alice has a cat") is the standard order, but it is also possible to use other orders to give a different emphasis (for example, {{lang|pl|Alicja kota '''ma'''}}, with emphasis on {{lang|pl|ma}} ("has"), used as a response to an assertion of the opposite); general word order controls [[topic and comment|theme and rheme]] [[information structure]] with theme coming first.

Certain words, however, behave as [[clitic]]s: they rarely or never begin a clause, but are used after another stressed word, and tend to appear early in the clause. Examples of these are the weak pronouns {{lang|pl|mi}}, {{lang|pl|go}} etc., the reflexive pronoun {{lang|pl|się}}, and the personal past tense endings and conditional endings described under [[#Verbs|Verbs]] above.

Polish is a [[pro-drop language]]; subject pronouns are frequently dropped. For example: {{lang|pl|ma kota}} (literally "has a cat") may mean "he/she/it has a cat". It is also possible to drop the object or even sometimes verb, if they are obvious from context. For example, {{lang|pl|ma}} ("has") or {{lang|pl|nie ma}} ("has not") may be used as an affirmative or negative answer to a question "does... have...?".

Note the interrogative particle {{lang|pl|czy}}, which is used to start a [[yes–no question]], much like the French "est-ce que". The particle is not obligatory, and sometimes rising intonation is the only signal of the interrogative character of the sentence.

Negation is achieved by placing {{lang|pl|nie}} directly before the verb, or other word or phrase being negated (in some cases ''nie-'' is prefixed to the negated word, equivalent to English ''un-'' or ''non-''). If a sentence contains a negative element such as {{lang|pl|nigdy}} ("never"), {{lang|pl|nikt}} ("no-one"), etc., the verb is negated with {{lang|pl|nie}} as well (and several such negative elements can be combined, as in {{lang|pl|nikt nigdy nie robi nic}}, "no-one ever does anything", literally "no-one never doesn't do nothing").

The equivalent of the English "there is" etc. is the appropriate part of the verb {{lang|pl|być}} ("to be"), e.g. {{lang|pl|jest...}} ("there is..."), {{lang|pl|są...}} ("there are..."), {{lang|pl|był(a/o)...}} ("there was..."), etc., with a noun phrase in the nominative. The negative form is always singular (and neuter where applicable), takes the noun phrase in the genitive, and uses {{lang|pl|ma}} rather than {{lang|pl|jest}} in the present tense: {{lang|pl|nie ma kota}} ("there isn't a cat", also "the cat isn't there"), {{lang|pl|nie było kota}} etc. (as usual, the word order is not fixed).

Where two concepts are equated, the particle {{lang|pl|to}} is often used instead of a part of {{lang|pl|być}}, with the nouns expressing the concepts in the nominative case (although verb infinitives can also be used here: {{lang|pl|istnieć to cierpieć}} "to exist is to suffer"). There are also sentences where {{lang|pl|to}} appears to be the subject of {{lang|pl|być}}, but the complement is in the nominative and the verb agrees with the complement: {{lang|pl|to jest...}} ("this/it is..."), {{lang|pl|to są...}}, {{lang|pl|to był(a/o)...}}, etc.

===Subjectless sentences===
There are various types of sentence in Polish that do not have subjects:
*Sentences where the subject pronoun is dropped (see above), but is still understood.
*Sentences formed from certain verbs that can appear (in third-person singular neuter form) without a subject, corresponding to an English impersonal "it", as in {{lang|pl|padało}} ("it was raining/snowing").
*Sentences with verbs in second-person singular (or sometimes third-person personal plural) form, but no subject, corresponding to English "you" with general meaning, as in {{lang|pl|robisz to}} ("you do this", ''i.e.'', "one does this").
*Sentences with the reflexive particle {{lang|pl|się}} but no subject, the verb being third-person singular, as in {{lang|pl|tutaj pije się wódkę}} ("here one drinks vodka/vodka is drunk") – note that the logical direct object is in the accusative, not the nominative as in analogous constructions in other languages such as Russian.
*Sentences with the subjectless past tense form of the verb (see [[#Verbs|Verbs]] above).
*Sentences with impersonal particles such as {{lang|pl|można}} ("it is possible"), {{lang|pl|wolno}} ("it is permitted").

===Noun syntax===
The use of the cases of nouns is as follows:
# The nominative (the [[dictionary form]] of a noun) is used for sentence [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and for certain complements (as in sentences of the form ''X to Y'' "X is Y", ''to jest Y'' "this is Y").
# The accusative is used for the direct object of verbs that are not negated, as the object of some prepositions, and in some time expressions.
# The genitive is used for possessor and similar (equivalent to English "of X" or "X's"), for the [[direct object]] of [[negation (linguistics)|negated]] verbs, as the object of some verbs and prepositions, as an object with [[partitive]] meaning and in some fixed expressions, and for nouns governed by certain numbers and expressions of quantity (see [[#Numbers and quantifiers|Numbers and quantifiers]] above).
# The locative is used only as the object of certain prepositions (particularly {{lang|pl|w}} "in" and {{lang|pl|na}} "on", when they have static meaning).
# The dative is used for [[indirect object]]s, to denote the party for whom something is done or the "party concerned" in certain expressions (such as {{lang|pl|wolno mu}}, "he is allowed", lit. "it is allowed to him"), and as the object of some verbs and prepositions.
# The instrumental is used for the means (instrument) by which something is done, for example {{lang|pl|pociągiem}} (instrumental of {{lang|pl|pociąg}} "train") means "by train". It is also used for a noun complement of {{lang|pl|być}} ("to be"), and for the complements and objects of some other verbs and some prepositions.
# The vocative is used to indicate who or what is being addressed. However, with personal names, in colloquial speech, the nominative is usually used instead.

Like most [[Slavic languages]], with the exception of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], Polish classically uses no definite or indefinite articles, though certain words or grammatical features may substitute this, with a shift currently taking place in the language. A noun such as {{lang|pl|kot}} may mean either "the cat" or "a cat", while saying ''ten kot'' (lit. "that cat") can function similarly to a definite article in other languages. Recent academic research has shown a grammatical shift (not unlike the one which took place in other Indo-European languages, Bulgarian and Macedonian included), where the numeral ''jeden'' ("one") or pronoun ''jakiś'' ("of sorts"; different forms depending on the grammatical context) have begun to take characteristics of an indefinite article - an example here could be saying ''jeden kot'' ("one cat"), which by an increasing number of speakers can be interpreted in a way similar to saying "a cat" in English.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hwaszcz |first=Krzysztof |last2=Kędzierska |first2=Hanna |date=2018 |title=The Rise of an Indefinite Article in Polish: An Appraisal of Its Grammaticalisation Stage (Part 1) |url=https://www.ejournals.eu/SPL/2018/Issue-2/ |journal=Studies in Polish Linguistics |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=93–121 |via=ejournals.eu}}</ref>

Polish does not regularly place nouns together to form [[compound noun]] expressions. Equivalents to such expressions are formed using noun-derived adjectives (as in {{lang|pl|sok pomarańczowy}}, "orange juice", where {{lang|pl|pomarańczowy}} is an adjective derived from {{lang|pl|pomarańcza}} "orange"), or using prepositional phrases or (equivalently) a noun in the genitive or other case.

A group of nouns connected by a word for "and" is treated as plural. It is masculine personal plural if it contains any male person (in fact, if it contains any person and any masculine noun).

===Adjective syntax===
Adjectives generally precede the noun they modify, although in some fixed expressions and official names and phrases they can follow the noun (as in {{lang|pl|język polski}} "Polish language"; also {{lang|pl|dzień dobry}} "good day, hello").

[[Attributive adjective]]s agree in gender, number and case with the noun they modify. [[Predicate adjective]]s agree with the relevant noun in gender and number, and are in the nominative case, unless the subject is unspecified (as in some infinitive phrases), in which case the adjective takes the (masculine/neuter) instrumental form (for example, {{lang|pl|być mądrym}}, "to be wise", although the nominative is used if the logical subject is specified){{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}. The instrumental is also used for adjectival complements of some other verbs, as in {{lang|pl|czynić go mądrym}} ("make him wise").

With pronouns such as {{lang|pl|coś}} ("something") (but not {{lang|pl|ktoś}} "someone"), if the pronoun is nominative or accusative, the adjective takes the genitive form (''coś dobrego'' "something good").

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns; for example, {{lang|pl|zielony}} ("green") may mean "the/a green one" etc.

Compound adjectives can be formed by replacing the ending of the first adjective with ''-o'', as in {{lang|pl|formalno-prawny}} ("formal (and) legal").

{{InterWiki|code=pl}}
{{Wikibooks|Polish}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{WikisourceWiki|code=pl}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite book|last=Soerensen|first=Asmus|title=Polnische Grammatik mit grammatisch-alphabetischem Verbalverzeichnis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=59BtQwAACAAJ|year=1900|publisher=E. Haberland}}
* {{cite book| last=Sadowska| first=Iwona| title= Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar| year=2012| publisher=[[Routledge]]| location=[[Oxford]]; [[New York City]]| isbn=978-0-415-47541-9}}
* [http://www.polish-translators.com/grammar.html Polish Pronunciation Audio and Grammar Charts]

{{Polish language}}
{{Slavic grammars}}
{{Language grammars}}

[[Category:Polish grammar| ]]
[[Category:Polish language|Grammar]]

Bulgarian phonology

2024-01-06T13:22:33Z

Mutichou: /* Bulgarian consonantism according to IPA (22-consonant model) */ fixed symbol

{{WikiIPA|Bulgarian}}
{{IPA notice}}
This article discusses the [[phonology|phonological]] system of the [[Bulgarian language]].

The [[phonemic inventory]] of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian (CSB) has been a contested and controversial matter for decades, with two major currents, or schools of thought, forming at national and international level:<ref>{{cite book|last=Mihaylov|first=Miroslav |script-title=bg:Фонетика на съвременния български книжовен език|trans-title=Phonetics and Phonology of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian|year=2021|pages=48–54}}</ref>{{sfnp|van Campen|Ornstein|1959|pp=266–270}}{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2008|pp=7–12}}{{sfnp|Choi|1994|pp=10–14}}{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 1: [In other accounts of the Bulgarian sound system a set of the so-called "soft" (i.e. palatal or palatalised) consonants is also included: /pʲ/, /bʲ/, /tʲ/, /dʲ/, /c/ (=kʲ ), /ɟ/ (=gʲ ), /tsʲ/, /dzʲ/, /mʲ/, /ɲ/ (=nʲ ), /rʲ/, /fʲ/, /vʲ/, /sʲ/, /zʲ/, /ç/ (=xʲ ), /ʎ/ (=lʲ )]. [dzʲ] and [ç] do not occur in native words, though they do in foreign names: Дзян [dzʲan] 'Jian', Хюс/Хюз [çus] 'Hughes'. However, the '''phonemic status of the "soft" consonants is questionable'''. Before front vowels they should be regarded as allophones of the corresponding "hard" (i.e. non-palatal or non-palatalised) consonant phonemes, since the palatalisation here is occurs naturally, to facilitate articulation. Before non-front vowels these can be interpreted as combinations of C + /j/.]}}

The first one considers that there are only 28 phonemes in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian: 21 consonants, 1 semivowel and 6 vowels and that only one of them, the semivowel <code>j</code>, is palatal.{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 1}}{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=56}} This was the general consensus reached by all major Bulgarian linguists prior to the [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union#Bulgaria (1944–1947)|Soviet occupation of Bulgaria]] in 1944, and still continues to be the view held by multiple modern Bulgarian and probably a majority of Western phonologists.{{sfnp|Teodorov-Balan|1940|p=84}}{{sfnp|Mangold|1988|pp=102}}{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2008|pp=7–12}}{{sfnp|Danchev|2001|pp=132–134}}

The second school of thought is based on a sketch of Eastern Bulgarian consonantism made by Russian linguist [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]] in his 1939 book ''Principles of Phonology'', where he introduced [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]] as additional [[phonemic distinction]] in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], much like in his native language, [[Russian language|Russian]].{{sfnp|Trubetzkoy|1971|pp=239–240}} In Bulgaria, the concept was launched in the late 1940s by two younger linguists, [[Stoyko Stoykov]] and [[Lyubomir Andreychin]], who proclaimed the existence of 17 new palatalized phonemes, rounding Standard Bulgarian's [[phonemic inventory]] to 45 phonemes, 18 of which are palatal.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stoykov|first=Stoyko |script-title=bg:Увод във фонетиката на българския език|trans-title=Introduction to Bulgarian Phonetics|publisher=Издателство „Наука и изкуство”|location=Sofia|year=1961}}</ref>{{sfnp|Andreychin|1950|pp=492}}

Both Stoykov and Andreychin had rejected Trubetzkoy's ideas in the early 1940s, before Bulgaria's occupation by the Red Army.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stoykov|first=Stoyko |script-title=bg:Български книжовен изговор: Опитно изследване|trans-title=Bulgarian Literary Pronunciation: Field Study| year=1942|location=Sofia|publisher=State Printing House|pages=11|quote=''Едни от езиковедите, излизайки предимно от слуховия им характер (акустичния ефект), ги смятат за отделни самостойни звукове наред с останалите меки и твърди съгласни, а други, излизайки предимно от учленителните им особености, ги смятат за съчетание (комбинация) от твърда съгласна и [ й ], образувано от две едновременни, но отделни и независими едно от друго учленителни движения – едно движение на устните или на предния език за съответната твърда лабиална или алвеолна съгласна, а друго движение на средния език върху твърдото небце за съгласната [й]. Трябва да се подчертае, че между меките (палаталните) и смекчените (палатализуваните) съгласни няма резки учленителни и слухови граници, та затова понякога е доста трудно да се определи точно една съгласна дали е мека или е смекчена''|trans-quote=Judging primarily by their auditory nature (acoustic effect), some linguists regard them as standalone sounds, right next to the other hard and soft consonants, while others, starting primarily from their articulatory properties, consider them to be a combination of a hard consonant and [j] formed by two simultaneous, yet separate and full independent articulatory movements—one of the lips or the tip of the tongue to form the corresponding hard labial or alveolar consonant and the other one by the middle part of tongue raising itself towards the palate to form the consonant [j]. It needs to be emphasised that soft (palatal) and softened (palatalised) consonants are not divided by strict articulatory or auditory lines, which sometimes makes it difficult to determine whether a specific consonant is soft or just softened}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Andreychin|first=Lyubomir |script-title=bg:Основна българска граматика|trans-title=Basic Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hemus|location=Sofia|year=1942|pages=26, 33|quote=''Когато мястото на образуване на една съгласна се премести или разшири малко към средата на небцето и на езика (при запазване на другите учленителни особености), нейният изговор получава особен оттенък, който наричаме мек: л – ль, н – нь, т – ть, к – кь и пр.''|trans-quote=When a consonant's place of articulation moves or somewhat widens towards the middle of the palate and tongue (while all other articulation characteristics remain unchanged, this articulation is given a particular nuance that we refer to as 'soft': l – lʲ, n – nʲ, т – тʲ, к – кʲ and so on }}</ref> The concept got quick approval from the [[Bulgarian Communist Party]] and [[Bulgarian Academy of Sciences]]. The 17 palatals became a staple of all published standard Bulgarian grammars and phonologies during the totalitarian era.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tilkov|first1=Dimitar|last2=Boyadzhiev|first2=Todor |script-title=bg:Българска фонетика|trans-title=Bulgarian Phonetics|year=1977|pages=126}}</ref> The consonant model has not fared well abroad, routinely being called into question or outright rejected, including in the 1999 Handbook of the [[International Phonetic Association]], which sided with the traditional interpretation.{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55–56}}{{sfnp|Townsend|Janda|1996|pp=286–287}}

== Vowels ==
[[File:Bulgarian vowel chart2.svg|right|250px|thumb|upright=1.13|Standard Bulgarian vowels (Stressed). From .{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55–56}}]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Stressed vowels in Bulgarian
!
! style="width:60pt;" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! style="width:60pt;" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! style="width:60pt;" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! style="text-align:center; width:60pt;" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
| style="text-align:center" |{{font color|Black|'''и'''}} {{IPAslink|i}}
|
| style="text-align:center" | {{font color|Black|'''у'''}} {{IPAslink|u}}
|-
! style="width:60pt;" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| style="text-align:center" | {{font color|Black|'''е'''}} {{IPAslink|ɛ}}
| style="text-align:center" | {{font color|Black|'''ъ'''}} {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}}{{ref|1a|1}}
|style="text-align:center" | {{font color|Black|'''о'''}} {{IPAslink|ɔ}}
|-
! style="width:60pt;" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| style="text-align:center" | {{font color|Black|'''а'''}} {{IPAslink|a}}
|
|}
{{smalldiv|{{note|1a|1}} {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}} is actually a mid-back and somewhat centralized vowel, usually pronounced midway between ⟨ɤ̞⟩ and ⟨ə⟩. Thus, it is sometimes transcribed as {{IPA|/ə/}},{{sfnp|Dokovova|Sabev|Scobbie|Lickley|2019|pp=2720}} or even {{IPA|/ɜ/}},{{sfnp|Andreeva|Barry|Koreman|2013|pp=2}} but its usual notation is [ɤ].}}

According to their [[place of articulation]], Bulgarian vowels can be grouped in three pairs—[[front vowel]]s: {{font color|Black|⟨'''е'''⟩}} ('''{{IPAslink|ɛ}}''') and {{font color|Black|⟨'''и'''⟩}} ('''{{IPAslink|i}}'''); [[central vowels]]: {{font color|Black|⟨'''а'''⟩}} ('''{{IPAslink|a}}''') and {{font color|Black|⟨'''ъ'''⟩}} ('''{{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}}'''); and [[back vowel]]s: {{font color|Black|⟨'''о'''⟩}} ('''{{IPAslink|ɔ}}''') and {{font color|Black|⟨'''у'''⟩}} ('''{{IPAslink|u}}''').

Here {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPAslink|ɔ}} are "low", and {{IPAslink|i}}, {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}} and {{IPAslink|u}} are "high".

The dominant theory of Bulgarian vowel reduction posits that Bulgarian vowels have a phonemic value only in '''stressed''' position, while when [[unstressed vowel|unstressed]], they neutralize in an intermediate [[centralization (phonetics)|centralized position]], where lower vowels are raised and higher vowels are lowered.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tilkov|first1=Dimitar |last2=Boyadzhiev|first2=Todor |script-title=bg:Българска фонетика|trans-title=Bulgarian Phonetics|language=bg|location=Sofia|publisher=Наука и Изкуство|year=1977|pages=201}}</ref>{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55–56}} This concerns only the central vowels '''{{IPAslink|a}}''' and '''{{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}}''', which neutralize into ['''{{IPA|ɐ}}'''], and the back vowels '''{{IPAslink|ɔ}}''' and '''{{IPAslink|u}}''', which neutralize into ['''{{IPA|o}}'''].

The merger of {{IPAslink|ɛ}} and {{IPAslink|i}} is not allowed in formal speech and is regarded as a provincial (East Bulgarian) dialectal feature; instead, unstressed {{IPA link|ɛ}} is both raised and [[centralization (phonetics)|centralized]], approaching the [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Zhobov|2004|pp=44–45}}</ref> The Bulgarian {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}} vowel does not exist as a [[phoneme]] in other Slavic languages, though a similar reduced vowel transcribed as {{IPA|[ə]}} does occur. The theory further posits that such neutralization may nevertheless not always happen: vowels tend to be distinguished in emphatic or deliberately distinct pronunciation, while reduction is strongest in colloquial speech.

{{multiple image
| background color = #000000
| width = 310
| height = 310
| direction = horizontal
| align = right
| image1 = Maximum tongue positions when pronouncing stressed and unstressed Bulgarian vowels.jpg
| alt1 = Maximum tongue positions when pronouncing stressed and unstressed Bulgarian vowels
| caption1 = {{font color|white|Maximum tongue positions when pronouncing stressed and unstressed Bulgarian vowels}}
| image2 = Frequency (F1) distinctions between Bulgarian vowels in stressed and unstressed position.jpg
| alt2 = Frequency (F1) distinctions between Bulgarian vowels in stressed and unstressed position
| caption2 = {{font color|white|Frequency (F1) distinctions between Bulgarian vowels in stressed and unstressed position}}
| footer_background = #000000
}}
Nevertheless, the hypothesis that high and low vowels neutralize into a common centralized vowel has never been properly studied or proven in a practical setting. Several recent studies by both Bulgarian and foreign researchers, involving volunteers speaking Contemporary Standard Bulgarian, have established—on the contrary—that while unstressed low vowels {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPAslink|ɔ}} are indeed raised as expected, unstressed high {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}} and {{IPAslink|u}} are also raised somewhat, rather than lowered, while {{IPAslink|i}} remains in the same position.{{sfnp|Andreeva|Barry|Koreman|2013}}{{sfnp|Dokovova|Sabev|Scobbie|Lickley|2019}}<ref name=Sabev>{{cite conference |last=Sabev|first=Mitko|title=Reduction of unstressed central and back vowels in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian | conference= 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences |location=Glasgow |year=2015 |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332472400}}</ref>

All three studies indicate that a clear distinction is kept between unstressed {{IPAslink|ɛ}} and both stressed and unstressed {{IPAslink|i}}. The situation with unstressed {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPAslink|ɔ}} is more complex, but all studies indicate that they both approach unstressed {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}} and {{IPAslink|u}} very closely, yet do not completely coalesce. One of the studies finds that unstressed {{IPAslink|a}} to be practically undistinguishable from stressed {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}},{{sfnp|Andreeva|Barry|Koreman|2013|pp=3}} but this is not confirmed by the other studies.

While the difference between all [[stressed vowel]]s and between [[unstressed vowel|unstressed]] {{IPAslink|i}} and {{IPAslink|ɛ}} can be heard in almost 100% of cases, native Bulgarian speakers experience difficulties in identifying unstressed back and central vowels in minimum pairs, with only 62% identifying unstressed {{IPAslink|u}}, 59% unstressed {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPAslink|ɔ}} and a mere 57% unstressed {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}}.<ref name=Sabev/>

== Semivowels ==
The Bulgarian language officially has only one [[semivowel]]: {{IPAslink|j}}. It is traditionally regarded as a semivowel, but in recent years, it has largely been treated as a "glide" or [[approximant]], thus making it part of the consonant system. Orthographically, it is represented by the Cyrillic letter {{font color|MediumVioletRed|[й]}} ({{font color|MediumVioletRed|и}} with a [[breve]]) as in {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''най''}}- {{IPA|[naj]}} (prefix 'most') and ({{font color|MediumVioletRed|''тролей''}} {{IPA|[troˈlɛj]}} ('trolleybus'), except when it precedes {{IPAslink|a}} or {{IPAslink|u}} (and their reduced counterparts {{IPA|[ɐ]}} and {{IPA|[o]}}), in which case both phonemes are represented by a single letter, {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨я⟩}} or {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ю⟩}}, respectively: e.g., {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''ютия''}} {{IPA|[juˈtijɐ]}} ('flat iron'), but {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''Йордан''}} {{IPA|[jorˈdan]}} ('Jordan').

As a result of [[lenition]] of velarized {{IPAslink|l}} ([{{IPA link|ɫ}}]), ongoing since the 1970s, [{{IPA link|w}}] appears to be an emerging allophone of velarized [{{IPA link|ɫ}}] among younger speakers, especially in preconsonantal position: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''вълк''}} {{IPA|[ˈvɤwk]}} ('wolf') instead of {{IPA|[ˈvɤɫk]}}. While certain [[Western Bulgarian dialects]] (in particular, those around [[Pernik]]), have had a long-standing tradition of pronouncing [ɫ] as [w], the use of the glide in the literary language was first noted by a radio operator in 1974.{{sfnp|Padareva-Ilieva|Mitsova|2014|pp=47–48}} A Ukrainian researcher found in 2012 that Bulgarians split into three age-specific groups in terms of [{{IPA link|ɫ}}] pronunciation: 1) people in their 40s or older who have standard pronunciation; 2) people in their 30s, who can articulate [ɫ] but unconsciously say [w]; and 3) younger people who are unable to differentiate between the two sounds and generally say [w].{{sfnp|Padareva-Ilieva|Mitsova|2014|pp=48}}

A study of 30 graduate students was therefore conducted in 2014 to quantify the trend. The study testified to an extremely wide proliferation of the phenomenon, with 9 out of 30 participants unable to produce [{{IPA link|ɫ}}] in any given word, and only 2 participants able to produce [{{IPA link|ɫ}}] correctly, but in no more than half the words in the study.{{sfnp|Padareva-Ilieva|Mitsova|2014|pp=54}} Remarkably, not a single participant was able to enunciate [{{IPA link|ɫ}}] between a [[bilabial consonant]] and a [[rounded vowel]], e.g., in {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''аплодирани''}} {{IPA|[ɐpwo'dirɐni]}} ('applauded'), or between a [[rounded vowel]] and a [[velar consonant]], e.g. in {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''толкова''}} {{IPA|['tɔwkovɐ]}} ('so').{{sfnp|Padareva-Ilieva|Mitsova|2014|pp=55}} Another discovery of the study was that in particular positions, certain participants enunciated neither [ɫ] nor [w], but the [[high back unrounded vowel]] {{IPAblink|ɯ}} (or its corresponding glide {{IPAblink|ɰ}}).

The glide [{{IPA link|w}}] can also be found in English loan words such as {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''уиски''}} ['wiski] ('Whiskey') or {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''Уикипедия''}} ['wiki'pɛdiɐ] ('Wikipedia').
The [[semivowel]] {{IPAslink|j}} forms a number of diphthongs, which are summarized below:{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2019|pp=54–55}}{{sfnp|Tilkov|1982|pp=124–125}}
<div style="text-align: center;"></div>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Falling j diphthongs
|-
! colspan="4" | Word start
|-
|{{IPA|[aj]}}|| ай || '''ай'''ран ||'buttermilk'
|-
| colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|{{IPA|[uj]}}|| уй || '''уй'''дисвам ||'indulge', 'be suitable for'
|-
! colspan="4" | Mid-word
|-
|{{IPA|[aj]}}|| ай || к'''ай'''ма||'minced meat'
|-
| colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|{{IPA|[ɛj]}}|| ей|| в'''ей'''ка||'twig'
|-
|{{IPA|[ij]}}|| ий ||парт'''ий'''на||'of a party'
|-
|{{IPA|[ɔj]}}|| ой || в'''ой'''на||'war'
|-
|{{IPA|[uj]}}||уй ||в'''уй'''чо||'uncle'
|-
! colspan="4" | Word end
|-
|{{IPA|[aj]}}|| ай || случ'''ай'''||'case'
|-
|{{IPA|[ɤj]}} || ъй || т'''ъй'''||'thus, so'
|-
|{{IPA|[ɛj]}}|| ей|| гвозд'''ей'''||'nail'
|-
|{{IPA|[ij]}}|| ий ||кал'''ий'''||'sodium'
|-
|{{IPA|[ɔj]}}|| ой || зав'''ой'''||'road bend'
|-
|{{IPA|[uj]}}||уй ||т'''уй'''||'this'
|-
|}
</div>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Rising j diphthongs
|-
! colspan="4" | Word start
|-
|{{IPA|[ja]}}|| йа || '''я'''м||'I eat'
|-
| colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|{{IPA|[jɛ]}}|| йе|| '''йе'''рархия ||'hierarchy'
|-
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|{{IPA|[jɔ]}}|| йо|| '''йо'''д||'iodine'
|-
|{{IPA|[ju]}}|| йу || '''ю'''г||'south'
|-
! colspan="4" | Mid-word
|-
|{{IPA|[ja]}}|| йа || при'''я'''тел||'friend'
|-
| colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|{{IPA|[jɛ]}}|| йе|| фо'''йе'''рверк ||'fireworks'
|-
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|{{IPA|[jɔ]}}|| йо|| ра'''йо'''н||'area'
|-
|{{IPA|[ju]}}|| йу || съ'''ю'''з||'union'
|-
! colspan="4" | Word end
|-
|{{IPA|[ja]}}|| йа || стату'''я'''||'statue'
|-
|{{IPA|[jɤ]}} || йъ || пи'''я'''||'I drink'
|-
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|{{IPA|[jɔ]}}|| йо|| Мари'''йо'''||'You, Maria!' (vocative case)
|-
| colspan=4 style="text-align:center" | -
|-
|}
</div>

== Consonants ==

===Two schools of thought on Bulgarian consonantism===

The main point of contention between the two schools of thought on Bulgarian consonantism has been whether [[palatalised consonants|palatalized consonants]] should be defined as separate phonemes or simply as allophones of their respective [[hard consonants|hard counterparts]].

The first or the "traditionalist" school of thought developed gradually by consensus over the course of many decades, crystallized in the late 1930s and early 1940s and was reinvigorated after the fall of the totalitarian regime. It posits that Bulgarian has no palatal or palatalized consonants other than {{IPAslink|j}}, that Trubetzkoy’s 17 palatalized consonants are merely (positional) [[allophones]] of hard consonants and that the [[Bulgarian language]] therefore has only 28 phonemes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Popov|first=Dimitar |script-title=bg:Българска граматика|trans-title=Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hristo G. Danov|location=Plovdiv|year=1942|page=33}}</ref>{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|Baeva|2009|pp=21}}{{sfnp|Mangold|1988|pp=102}}{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55–56}} It has proposed alternative notation of palatalized consonants in the form of '''C-j-V''' (consonant-glide-vowel) clusters and has made a tentative hypothesis about the decomposition of Bulgarian palatals into consonants + glide using the following arguments:{{sfnp|Choi|1994|pp=10–14}}{{sfnp|Danchev|2001|pp=133}}{{sfnp|van Campen|Ornstein|1959|pp=266–270}}

* Unlike the [[palatal consonants]] in other Slavic languages, which can usually be found in all positions, palatalized consonants in Bulgarian have very limited distribution: only before central or back vowels, and then only if there is a /j/ before the vowel, noted graphically with the letters {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨я⟩}} [ja]/[jɤ], {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ю⟩}} [ju] or {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ьо⟩}} [jɔ].{{sfnp|Danchev|2001|pp=132–134}}{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|Baeva|2009|pp=19–21}}
* The enormous number of palatal or palatalized consonants claimed contradicts the historical development of Bulgarian and the [[South Slavic languages]] in general towards [[Palatalization (sound change)|depalatalization]], especially considering that there were only 9 or 10 palatal consonants in Old and Middle Bulgarian and that four of them have since hardened or are no longer used.{{sfnp|Mirchev|1963|pp=133}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Mladenov|first=Stefan| title=История на българския език. Превод и редакция от проф. д-р Иван Дуриданов от оригиналното немско издание от 1929 г.|trans-title=History of the Bulgarian language. Translation and Editing of the 1929 Original German Edition by Professor Ivan Duridanov|language=bg|year=1979|pages=139}}</ref>
* The reanalysis would make it possible to make sense of sequences like {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''ям''}} {{IPA|[ˈjam]}} ('(I) eat') ↔ {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''изям''}} {{IPA|[iˈzʲam]}} ('(I) eat till the last crumb') ↔ {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''доям''}} {{IPA|[doˈjam]}} ('(I) finish eating something') ↔ {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''отям''}} {{IPA|[oˈtʲam]}} ('(I) eat to my heart's content'), where a root is considered to be iotated in some cases and to palatalize the previous consonant in others.{{sfnp|Choi|1999}}
* [[Stoyko Stoykov|Stoykov]], [[Lyubomir Andreychin|Andreychin]] and Tilkov have all provided eyewitness accounts that the pronunciation of so-called [[palatalised consonants|palatalized consonants]] as consonant + /j/ is common among Bulgarian speakers and predominates in Western Bulgaria.{{sfnp|van Campen|Ornstein|1959|pp=265, Quote: [(Stoyko Stoykov:[sic) I observed the same thing in the speech of my informants SS, GS, VV, PB. In their pronunciation there exists a hesitation (lack of a fixed norm) in the articulation of t', d', n' in words such as letja, bdja, njama and the like; '''by listening attentively, one can note several pronunciations: [le'təjə], ['bdəjə], ['nəjamə]; le'tjə], ['bdjə], ['njamə]; [le'tʲə], ['bdʲə], ['nʲamə]'''. I also established this fact in my work with artificial palates.]}}{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2019|pp=30}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Tilkov|first=Dimitar |script-title=bg:Диференциалният признак палаталност на съгласните – Изследвания върху българския език|trans-title=The Distinctive Feature of Consonant Palatalisation – Studies of the Bulgarian Language|publisher=Наука и изкуство|location=Sofia|year=1983|pages=142|quote=''Общата основа, създадена от преходните процеси при реализация на палаталните съгласни и на [й], е предпоставка за откъсване на признака палаталност от сбора на признаците на палаталната фонема и да се включи в сбора на диференциалните признаци на фонемата [й]. Това често се случва в речта на говорител, за когото палаталните фонеми не са познати във фонологичната система на езика или на диалекта, който той практикува. В такъв случай съчетанията от диференциални признаци на една фонема се разкъсват и се обособяват в две различни фонеми, т.е. говорителят обособява като фонема това, което за фонемата в непознатата нему система не е нищо друго освен един от диференциалните признаци. Така например говорителите от Западна България, които не познават палаталните съгласни, имат тенденция да откъсват признака палаталност от консонантните фонеми и да го обособяват в по-голяма или в по-малка степен като самостоятелен йотов изговор: б*ал, н*ама, с*анка и др.''|trans-quote=The common basis created by the transitional processes of articulation of palatal consonants and /j/ may detach the palatalisation feature from the sum total of features of the palatal phoneme and instead add it to the sum total of the distinctive properties of the phoneme /j/. This often happens in speakers whose language or dialect lacks palatal phonemes. In this case, the distinctive features of the phoneme break down, splitting into two separate phonemes, i.e., the speakers create a new phoneme based on one of the differential features of the phoneme in that unfamiliar system. Thus, for example, speakers in Western Bulgaria, who are not familiar with palatal consonants, tend to disconnect the palatalisation feature from the consonant phonemes, resulting, to a greater or smaller extent, in iotated speech: ['bjat], ['njamɐ], ['sjaŋkɐ].}}</ref>
* The swift adoption of an approach that looks tailored to [[Russian language|Russian]] but has proven a remarkably poor fit for [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] at a time when Bulgaria was governed by a [[People's Republic of Bulgaria#Early years and Chervenkov era|totalitarian regime]] completely subservient to the Soviet Union is suspicious and is most likely the result of Soviet duress and/or influence.{{sfnp|Danchev|2001|pp=133–134}}{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2018|pp=11}}

The second school of thought came to being rather unexpectedly in the late 1940s, as a refinement of Trubetzkoy's rough draft a decade before. It quickly gained currency in the state apparatus as the ''only'' theory, most likely because it used the same approach as in [[Russian language|Russian]], which was vital for a government so tied to Moscow. It posits that apart from {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨й⟩}} ({{IPAslink|j}}), there are 17 separate palatal phonemes that are in minimal pairs with their hard counterparts, including {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨дз'⟩}} ({{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨х'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ç}}), which are not found in any native Bulgarian words and were excluded from Trubetzkoy's draft.{{sfnp|Trubetzkoy|1971|pp=240}} Thus, only 5 consonants are not in minimal pairs, {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ч⟩}} ({{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨дж⟩}} ({{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ш⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ʃ}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ж⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ʒ}}), which are only hard, and the glide {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨й⟩}} ({{IPAslink|j}}), which is only soft. They argue that Bulgarian [[phonemic inventory]] consists of a total of 45 phonemes, whereof 6 vowels, 1 semivowel and 38 consonants, and present the following arguments:{{sfnp|Tilkov|1982|pp=110}}

* Even though the distribution of palatalized consonants is limited, there is still a large number of Bulgarian words can be distinguished only by the difference in palatalization, e.g. {{font color|MediumVioletRed|гол}} [gɔɫ] ('nude/naked') vs. ''{{font color|MediumVioletRed|гьол}}'' [ˈgʲɔɫ] ('puddle'); ''{{font color|MediumVioletRed|лук}}'' [ˈɫuk] ('onion') vs. ''{{font color|MediumVioletRed|люк}}'' [ˈʎuk] ('hatch'); ''{{font color|MediumVioletRed|дал}}'' [daɫ] ('to have given') vs/ ''{{font color|MediumVioletRed|дял}}'' [ˈdʲaɫ] ('share');
* Palatal consonants cannot be considered to be formed by their hard counterparts by adding ({{IPAslink|j}}), as there is a clear auditory difference between pronouncing a soft consonant (as in Russian) and pronouncing a consonant and a glide (as in English). A 2012 comparative study of palatal phonemes in Russian, palatalized phonemes in Bulgarian and CjV clusters in English has deduced that the phonetic and auditory properties of Bulgarian palatals are similar to those in Russian and deviate substantially from the English consonant + glide sequences and that Bulgarian and Russian listeners did not need to wait for formant transitions to identify a consonant as palatal/palatalized unlike English listeners.{{sfnp|Pritchard|2012|pp=2–6}}

===Historical development of Bulgarian consonantism===

[[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]] underwent three separate rounds of [[Slavic first palatalisation|palatalization]] and one of [[iotation]], but the resulting palatal consonants eventually hardened in Western and South Slavic.

By the [[Old Bulgarian language|Old Bulgarian]] period, there were only four consonants left forming contrastive pairs: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨р⟩}} ({{IPA|/r/}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨р'⟩}} ({{IPA|/rʲ/}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨н⟩}} ({{IPAslink|n}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨н'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ɳ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨л⟩}} ({{IPAslink|l}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨л'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ʎ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨с⟩}} ({{IPAslink|s}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨с'⟩}} ({{IPA|/sʲ/}}). Three consonants were only hard: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨к⟩}} ({{IPAslink|k}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨г⟩}} ({{IPAslink|g}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨х⟩}} ({{IPAslink|x}}), four were only soft: {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}, {{IPAslink|ʃ}} and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ꙃ'⟩}} ({{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}}), while the remaining eight consonants were generally hard, but could be semi-palatalized: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨б⟩}} ({{IPAslink|b}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨в⟩}} ({{IPAslink|β}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨д⟩}} ({{IPAslink|d}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ꙁ⟩}} ({{IPAslink|z}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨м⟩}} ({{IPAslink|m}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨п⟩}} ({{IPAslink|p}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨т⟩}} ({{IPAslink|t}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ф⟩}} ({{IPAslink|f}}).{{sfnp|Haralampiev|2001|pp=79}}

Historical phonetician Anna-Maria Totomanova has expressed a slightly divergent opinion: the four hard/palatal contrastive pairs were again {{IPAslink|r}} and {{IPA|/rʲ/}}, {{IPAslink|n}} and {{IPAslink|ɳ}}, {{IPAslink|l}} and {{IPAslink|ʎ}}, {{IPAslink|s}} and {{IPA|/sʲ/}}, 11 consonants, {{IPAslink|p}}, {{IPAslink|b}}, {{IPAslink|m}}, ({{IPAslink|f}}, {{IPAslink|β}}), {{IPAslink|d}}, {{IPAslink|t}}, {{IPAslink|z}}, {{IPAslink|k}}, {{IPAslink|g}} and {{IPAslink|x}}, were only hard, and six consonants, {{IPAslink|ʃ}}, {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}, {{IPA|/t͡sʲ/}}, {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}} and [[iota]] ({{IPAslink|j}}), along with the typically Bulgarian consonant combinations {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨щ⟩}} [ʃt] & {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨жд⟩}} [ʒd], were only soft.{{sfnp|Totomanova|2014|pp=8}} Finally, Huntley mentions 9 palatal consonants: {{IPAslink|ʃ}}, {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}, {{IPA|/t͡sʲ/}}, {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}} and {{IPAslink|j}}, which were only soft, and {{IPAslink|ɳ}}, {{IPAslink|ʎ}} and {{IPA|/rʲ/}}, which could also be hard.{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=127}} Both Haralampiev and Totomanova have noted a marked trend towards consonant hardening.{{sfnp|Haralampiev|2001|pp=79}}

Eventually, {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPAslink|ʒ}} and {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} hardened permanently, {{IPAslink|d͡z}} disappeared from the phonemic inventory, and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨дж⟩}} ({{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}}) was borrowed from [[Ottoman Turkish]] as only hard. But before that, two phenomena led to the palatalization of more consonants: a second [[iotation]] and the dissolution of the [[yat]] vowel. As a result of the contraction and closure of the syllable in the [[Middle Bulgarian]] period, unstressed {{IPAslink|i}} in many cases turned into the semivowel {{IPAslink|j}} or attached to a consonant, palatalising it. Thus, Old Bulgarian {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''свиниꙗ''}} [sviˈnija] ('swine') contracted into {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''свиня''}} [sviˈɲa] and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''братиꙗ''}} [ˈbratija] ('brothers') into {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''братя''}} [ˈbratʲɐ].{{sfnp|Totomanova|2014|pp=67}}

In many dialects, the resulting palatalised {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨т'⟩}} ({{IPA|/tʲ/}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨д'⟩}} ({{IPA|/dʲ/}}) turned into palatalised {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨к'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|c}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨г'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ɟ}}).{{sfnp|Totomanova|2014|pp=68–69}} These were subsequently eliminated from CSB as dialecticisms, e.g., {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''цвет'e''}} [ˈt͡svɛtʲɛ] ('flower')→ {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''цвек'е''}} ['t͡svɛkʲɛ] → Ø. The form accepted in the literary language was instead the unpalatalised {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''цвете''}} [ˈt͡svɛtɛ] based on the Old Bulgarian form.

The dissolution of the [[yat]] happened somewhat later, towards the end of the [[Middle Bulgarian]] period and had different effects on the various dialects. In most of the East, [[yat]] in a stressed syllable softened the preceding consonant and turned into {{IPAslink|a}}. In the West, however, it led to {{IPAslink|ɛ}} in both stressed and unstressed syllables producing no palatalisation anywhere.{{sfnp|Totomanova|2014|pp=76–92}} This was one of the main factors that led to the markedly different patterns of palatalisation in Western and Eastern Bulgarian dialects, i.e., strong palatalisation of only 5 consonants in the West vs. moderate palatalisation of almost all consonants in the East.

===Development of phonological theory before 1945===

The first Bulgarian grammar to mention phonetics is [[Ivan Bogorov]]'s ''First Bulgarian Grammar'', where he identified 22 consonants, however, including among them {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨щ⟩}} ({{IPA|ʃt}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ъ⟩}} and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ь⟩}} (no phonemic status at word end).{{sfnp|Bogorov|1848|pp=4}} The first Bulgarian man of letters to correctly identify the 21 consonants in Bulgarian was Ivan Momchilov, in 1868.{{sfnp|Momchilov|1868|pp=6}} According to Momchilov, Bulgarian consonants could sound hard or soft, entirely depending on the vowel accompanying them.{{sfnp|Momchilov|1868|pp=145}}

Phonetics only started developing seriously after [[World War I]], and towards the 1930s, all major Bulgarian linguists had reached consensus that Bulgarian [[phonemic inventory]] consisted of 28 phonemes. Out of the six major Bulgarian grammars published in the [[Interwar period]], five explicitly mention the existence of 22 consonants (including the semivowel {{IPAslink|j}}) and 6 vowels: Petar Kalkandzhiev,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kalkandzhiev|first=Petar |script-title=bg:Българска граматика|trans-title=Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hristo G. Danov|location=Plovdiv|year=1936|page=31|quote=''Меки съгласки са – ж, ш, й, ч, дж; твърди – всички останали; тази делитба обаче в днешния български език е излишна, защото всяка съгласка може да бъде повече или по-малко смекчена, ако се следва от някоя мека самогласка''|trans-quote=Our palatal consonants are ⟨ж⟩ (/ʒ/), ⟨ш⟩ (/ʃ/), ⟨й⟩ (/j/), ⟨ч⟩ (/t͡ʃ/) & ⟨дж⟩ (/d͡ʒ/), while the rest of consonants are hard. Nevertheless, such a division in Contemporary Bulgarian is unnecessary, since every consonant may be palatalised to a greater or smaller extent, if followed by a soft vowel}}</ref> [[Aleksandar Teodorov-Balan]], who suggested 26 certain phonemes + 2 conditional ones (for the non-native and infrequent {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨дж⟩}} (/d͡ʒ/) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨дз⟩}} (/d͡z/)),{{sfnp|Teodorov-Balan|1940|p=84}} Dimitar Popov, who posited that the only soft or [[palatal consonant|palatal phoneme]] in Bulgarian was {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨й⟩}} (/j/),<ref>{{cite book|last=Popov|first=Dimitar |script-title=bg:Българска граматика|trans-title=Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hristo G. Danov|location=Plovdiv|year=1942|page=33|quote=''В новобългарски звуковете са по-твърди, отколкото в старобългарски. Гласните звукове затвърдели повече в западните говори, а съгласните - в източните. Книжовният език държи среднина''|trans-quote=Sounds in New Bulgarian are harder than those in Old Bulgarian. Vowels have hardened more in the Western dialects, while consonants in the Eastern ones. The literary language balances in the middle.}}</ref> as well as [[Lyubomir Andreychin]], who considered that even though [[palatalised consonants]] had distinctive articulation, they did not deserve phonemic status.<ref>{{cite book|last=Andreychin|first=Lyubomir |script-title=bg:Основна българска граматика|trans-title=Basic Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hemus|location=Sofia|year=1942|pages=26, 33|quote=Когато мястото на образуване на една съгласна се премести или разшири малко към средата на небцето и на езика (при запазване на другите учленителни особености), нейният изговор получава особен оттенък, който наричаме мек: л – ль, н – нь, т – ть, к – кь и пр.|trans-quote=When a consonant's place of articulation moves or somewhat widens towards the middle of the palate and tongue (while all other articulation characteristics remain unchanged, this articulation is given a particular nuance that we refer to as 'soft': l – lʲ, n – nʲ, т – тʲ, к – кʲ and so on }}</ref> All phoneticians referenced [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalisation]] extensively, but without ascribing phonemic value to the resulting sounds. Moreover, according to [[Stefan Mladenov]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Mladenov|first=Stefan| title=История на българския език. Превод и редакция от проф. д-р Иван Дуриданов от оригиналното немско издание от 1929 г.|trans-title=History of the Bulgarian language. Translation and Editing of the 1929 Original German Edition by Professor Ivan Duridanov|language=bg|year=1979|pages=139|quote=''Без да се гледа на единичните случаи със стара, по-силна палатализация, която може да се срещне както в източни, така и в западни български говори, в новобългарски се е развила една твърде характерна “полупалатализация”, която често бива занемарявана.''}}</ref><blockquote>"If we disregard individual cases of old, stronger palatalization, which may be found in Eastern and Western dialects alike, Contemporary Standard Bulgarian has developed a very distinctive "semi-palatalization", which is often neglected."</blockquote>This was a result of the attempts to unify the extremely divergent patterns of Eastern and Western palatalization into a common standard in the 1800s and early 1900s, which eventually led to its general elimination from the standard language. Examples include the complete elimination of end-word palatals in a number of words ending in {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨р'⟩}} ({{IPA|/rʲ/}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨н'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ɲ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨л'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ʎ}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨т'⟩}} ({{IPA|/tʲ/}}), e.g., writing and saying {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''кон''}} [ˈkɔn] ('horse') instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|{{strikethrough|''конь''}}}} ['kɔɲ], {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''път''}} ['pɤt] ('road') instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|{{strikethrough|''пъть''}}}} [pɤtʲ]), etc.; the adoption of the hard suffix {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''-не''}} instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''-нье''}} for verbal nouns, i.e., {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''писане''}} [pisɐˈnɛ] instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|{{strikethrough|''писанье''}}}} [pisɐ'ɲɛ] ('writing'); labelling palatalization before front vowels as dialectal: ({{font color|MediumVioletRed|''поле''}} [poˈlɛ] instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|{{strikethrough|''полье''}}}} [pо'ʎɛ] ('field'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''тиква''}} [tikˈvɐ] instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|{{strikethrough|''тьиква''}}}} [tʲikˈvɐ] ('pumpkin')), etc.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kalkandziev|first1=Vasil|last2=Kalkanzdziev|first2=Kalkandzieva |date=22 June 2018 |script-title=bg: Българският университет и науката|trans-title=The Bulgarian University and Science|volume=I The College in Sofia|pages=189–190|url=https://voinaimir.info/2018/06/pravopis-reforma-1899/}}</ref> Thus, the only sanctioned palatalisation in CSB is in syllable-initial position before central and back vowels, i.e., in front of {{IPAslink|a}}, {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}}, {{IPAslink|ɔ}} and {{IPAslink|u}}.

The opinions of Bulgarian linguistics were also shared by a number of foreign Slavicists. French linguist Léon Beaulieux has stated that Bulgarian is characterised by its tendency to eliminate all palatal consonants.<ref>{{cite book|last=Beaulieux|first=Léon|title=Quelques caracteristiques de l'évolution du bulgare moderne|trans-title=Certain Characteristics of the Evolution of Modern Bulgarian |language=fr  |year=1934}}</ref> Czech linguist Horalek claimed as early as the 1940s that palatalisation in standard Bulgarian was on its way to disappear through decomposition and the development of a specific {{IPAslink|j}} glide and that words such as {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''бял''}} (white) & {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''дядо''}} (grandfather) were pronounced {{IPA|[bjaɫ]}} & {{IPA|[ˈdjado]}} (i.e., '''CjV''') or even {{IPA|[biaɫ]}} & {{IPA|[ˈdiado]}} just as often as they were pronounced {{IPA|[bʲaɫ]}} and {{IPA|[ˈdʲado]}}.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Slavia|issue=XX|last=Horalek|first=K.|title=K otazce palatalnich suhlas v bulharstine|trans-title=On the Question of Palatal Consonants in Bulgarian|language=cs|year=1950|pages=57–60}}</ref>

===Bulgarian consonantism according to IPA (22-consonant model)===
A graphic representation of the Bulgarian consonant systems according to the [[International Phonetic Association]] (22 consonants) follows below:{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55–56}}
{| class="wikitable" style="border: 2px solid black;"
|+Consonants in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian
|-
! rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width 120pt; background:#DCDCDC;" {{Diagonal split header|Type of consonant|Place of articulation}}
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] / [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
|- class="static-row-header"
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#FFFFF0;"|Voiced
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#000000;"|{{font color | white| Voiceless}}
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#FFFFF0;"|Voiced
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#000000;"|{{font color | white| Voiceless}}
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#FFFFF0;"|Voiced
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#000000;"|{{font color | white| Voiceless}}
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#FFFFF0;"|Voiced
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#000000;"|{{font color | white| Voiceless}}
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"| {{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|m}}  {{font color|red|[ɱ]}}{{ref|2a|2}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|n}}{{ref|3a|3}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|{{font|size=110%|{{font color|red|[ŋ]}}{{ref|4a|4}}}}
|style="background:#FFF8DC;"|
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Stop consonant|Stop]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|b}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|p}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|d}}}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|t}}}}
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
| style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|ɡ}}}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" | {{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|k}}}}
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]'''
| style="background:#F5FFFA; |
| style="background:#F5FFFA; |
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|{{font|size=110%|({{IPA link|d͡z}}){{ref|5a|5}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|t͡s}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F8F8FF;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F8F8FF;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}}}
|style="background:#FFF8DC;"|
|style="background:#FFF8DC;"|
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|v}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|f}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|z}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|s}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F8F8FF;"| {{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|ʒ}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F8F8FF;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|ʃ}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|{{font|size=110%|{{font color|red|[ɣ]}}{{ref|6a|6}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" |{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|x}}{{ref|7a|7}}}}
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"| {{font|size=110%|({{IPA link|w}}){{ref|8a|8}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|
|style="background:#F0FFFF;"|
|style="background:#F0FFFF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|j}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Trill consonant|Trill]]'''
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
| style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|r}}}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;"| '''[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]'''
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |{{font|size=110%|{{IPA link|ɫ}}{{ref|9a|9}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|}
{{smalldiv|{{note|2a|2}} [ɱ] only appears as an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}}. For example, {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''инфлация''}} {{IPA|[iɱˈflat͡sijɐ]}} ('inflation'). In other words, /m/ and /n/ always neutralize into [{{IPA link|ɱ}}] before /f/ and /v/.{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 6}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|3a|3}} {{IPA|/n/}} is usually elided before fricatives but nasalizes and usually lengthens the preceding vowel (V + [n] + CFricative → VNasalised + Ø + CFricative). Examples: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''бранш''}} ['brã:ʃ] ('line of business'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|конски}} ['kɔ̃ski] ('of a horse').{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 7}}}}{{smalldiv| {{note|4a|4}} [ŋ] only exists as an allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}. Examples: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''тънко''}} {{IPA|[ˈtɤŋko]}} ('thin' neut.), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''танго''}} {{IPA|[tɐŋˈɡɔ]}} ('tango').{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 8}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|5a|5}} /d͡z/ is only used in a handful of native words, and its use in dialects or foreign proper names is not wider. Thus, some phonologists include the phoneme into the [[phonemic inventory]] on a provisional basis only or not at all.{{sfnp|Teodorov-Balan|1940|p=84}}{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=191 ''Quote:'' [Besides foreign proper names, /ʒ/ occurs in a small number of non-literary, dialectal words, which, if used in the literary language, regularly replace /ʒ/ with /z/: ''дзифт''/dzift ~ ''зифт''/zift ('tar')]}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|6a|6}} [ɣ] only exists as an [[allophone]] of /x/, and its distribution is rather restricted. It appears only before [[voiced]] [[obstruents]] other than /v/ (i.e., only across word boundaries. Example: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|видях го}} {{IPA|[viˈdʲaɣɡo]}} ('I saw him').}}{{smalldiv|{{note|7a|7}} {{IPA|/x/}} is described as having "only slight friction".{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|8a|8}} [w] is not a [[Indigenous peoples|native]] [[phoneme]]. It appears in borrowings from English, where it is often vocalised as {{IPAslink|u}} (or as the fricative {{IPAslink|v}} in a handful of very old borrowings adopted through German or Russian), e.g. {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''уиски''}} {{IPA|[ˈwiski]}} ('[[whiskey]]'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''Уилям''}} {{IPA|[ˈwiʎɐm]}} ('[[William]]'). Always marked with the Cyrillic letter ⟨{{font color|MediumVioletRed|у}}⟩ {{IPAslink|u}} in [[Bulgarian orthography]].{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 9}} Allophone of /ɫ/ among younger speakers,<ref name="Zhobov 2004 65–66">{{Harvcoltxt|Zhobov|2004|pp=65–66}}</ref> apparently causing an ongoing [[sound change]], cf. Semivowels above.}}{{smalldiv|{{note|9a|9}} {{IPA|/l/}} as a phoneme in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] has three allophones in [[complementary distribution]]; "clear" [l], occurring before [[front vowel]]s, "dark" or velarized [ɫ] occurring before [[central vowels|central]] and [[back vowel]]s, in between vowels and before consonants, and palatalized [ʎ], occurring before /j/ and a central or back vowel.}}

As [[palatalised consonants|palatalized consonants]] have very limited distribution in Standard Bulgarian and are only possible in syllable-initial position before central/back vowels, [[International Phonetics Association|IPA]]'s consonant table above treats them as [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] [[allophone]]s of their respective "[[hard consonant|hard]]" counterparts + [j] rather than as palatal phonemes and suggests that they can unambiguously be interpreted as '''CjV''' (consonant-glide-vowel) clusters.{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=56}}<{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 1}} Thus, for example, {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''някой''}} {{IPA|[nʲakoj]}} ('somebody') can easily be reanalysed as {{IPA|[njakoj]}}. According to Ternes and Vladimirova-Buhtz:{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=57}}<blockquote>"The phonemic analysis underlying the present transcription does not assume the existence of palatalized consonants. An alternative postulates the following palatalized consonants /pʲ, bʲ, tʲ, dʲ, kʲ, gʲ, tsʲ, dzʲ, mʲ, nʲ, rʲ, fʲ, vʲ, sʲ, zʲ, xʲ, lʲ/. The nature of palatalization in Bulgarian is different from that in Russian. Its occurrence is very restricted. Before front vowels and [j], palatalization does not go beyond the degree that is conditioned by the inevitable play of coarticulation. Before back vowels, palatalization may unambiguously be interpreted as C plus [j]. In syllable and word final position, it does not occur."</blockquote>Among modern Bulgarian phoneticians, strong opinions about the existence of 22 consonants only are held by, e.g., [[Blagoy Shklifov]], [[Mitko Sabev]], [[Andrey Danchev]] and especially by [[Dimitrina Ignatova-Tzoneva]], who has consistently argued that [[palatal consonants]], though present in a number of dialects and in earlier stages of the development of the Bulgarian language, have largely been eliminated from Contemporary Standard Bulgarian.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mihaylov|first=Miroslav |script-title=bg:Фонетика на съвременния български книжовен език|trans-title=Phonetics and Phonology of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian|year=2021|pages=53|quote=''Според Бл. Шклифов наличието на лабиални меки съгласни е антропофонетичен абсурд. Не е възможно човек да учленява едновременно един звук с устните си, и същевременно на палатума, с цел да го превърне в мек. Това означава, че не е възможно да има меки ⟨б’⟩, ⟨п’⟩, ⟨в’⟩, ⟨ф’⟩ и ⟨м’⟩''|trans-quote=According to Blagoy Shklifov. the existence of soft labial consonants is anthrophonetic nonsense. It is impossible to simultaneously articulate a sound using both your lips and then your palate in order to make it palatal. This precludes any, even potential existence of palatal ⟨bʲ⟩, ⟨pʲ⟩, ⟨vʲ⟩, ⟨fʲ⟩ and ⟨mʲ⟩}}</ref>{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2018|pp=1–10}} All of them have advocated for a CjV reanalysis of palatalization. A large number of other Bulgarian linguists have come out in support of a more traditional view of Bulgarian consonantism, e.g., [[Kiril Mirchev]],{{sfnp|Mirchev|1963|pp=133, ''Quote:'' [''В системата на съгласните в българския език (19 of them) не са настанали някакви промени в количествено отношение. Всички съгласни, които се срещат в старобългарския език, остават характерни и за съвременния език'' [Bulgarian consonantism has not undergone any changes in relation to the number of consonants. All consonants found in Old Bulgarian are also found in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian]}} Petar Pashov,<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Български език и литература|year=1964|issue=6|last=Pashov|first=Petar |script-title=bg:Означаване на мекостта на съгласните в българския език и някои свързани с това правописни въпроси |trans-title=Palatalisation Marking of Bulgarian Consonants and Certain Related Ortography Issues|language=bg|pages=6–10}}</ref> [[Bozhil Nikolov]],<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Годишник на Софийския университет, Факултет по западни филологии|volume=LXІV|issue=2|title=Etude de phonétique et dе phonologie contrastive (Domaines franсais et bulgare|trans-title=Обучение по контрастивна фонетика и фонология|last=Nikolov|first=Bozhil|pages=3–72|quote=... меките срички се състоят от непалатализирана съгласна + й + задна гласна|trans-quote=... soft syllables consist of a non-palatalised consonant + j + back vowel}}</ref> [[Todor Boyadzhiev]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sawicka|first1=Irena|last2=Boyadzhiev |first2=Todor |script-title=bg:Българо-полска съпоставителна граматика|trans-title=Contrastive Grammar of Polish and Bulgaria|volume=1|location=Sofia|publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences|year=1988}}</ref> {{interlanguage link|Борис Симеонов|bg}}, who has argued that there was no logic that could explain why a consonant affected by [[yat]] mutation (e.g., {{IPAslink|b}} in бял-бели ['bʲaɫ]-['bɛli]) would be palatal in some of its forms and hard in others, and so on.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Съвременна България. Доклади от III--та комплексна международна конференция по славистика|volume=5|last=Simeonov|first=Boris |script-title=bg:Към въпроса за броя на фонемите и техния състав в съвременния български език|trans-title=On the Issue of the Number of Phonemes in and the Phonetic Inventory of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian|year=1984|location=Sofia|pages=52, 55}}</ref>

A number of foreign linguists have rejected the 39-consonant model based on an analysis of the distribution and degree of "softening" of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] "palatals" and the number of speakers pronouncing ⟨bj⟩, ⟨dj⟩ or ⟨fj⟩ instead of ⟨bʲ⟩, ⟨dʲ⟩ or ⟨fʲ⟩. These have included Austrian researcher Merlingen (1957),{{sfnp|Merlingen|1957|pp=494–500}} Americans Carleton Hodge (1957){{sfnp|van Campen|Ornstein|1959|pp=267, Quote: [Hodge writes that while the speech of his informants shows "some palatalization of the C", the sequences in question are 'phonetically /Cy/ clusters]}} and Joseph van Campen and Jacob Ornstein (1959),{{sfnp|van Campen|Ornstein|1959|pp=264–270}} Romanian linguist [[Alexandru Rosetti]], who qualified the degree of palatalization of Bulgarian consonants as "a softening" (1967),<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Phonologie der Gegenwart|location=Graz - Vienna - Cologne|year=1967|last=Rosetti|first=Alexandru|title=A propos des consonnes palatales, palatalisées et mouillées et de leur statut phonologique en roumain|trans-title=On Palatal, Palatalized and Wet Consonants and Their Phonological Status in Romanian|pages=59–67}}</ref> Swiss [[Max Mangold]] (1988),{{sfnp|Mangold|1988|pp=102, Quote: [According to our inventory, the Bulgarian language has 6 vowels and 22 semivowels, for a total of 28 phonemes]}} Korean Slavist Gwon-Jin Choi, who has argued about the decomposition of Bulgarian palatalism (into C + j) (1994),{{sfnp|Choi|1994|pp=10–14}}{{sfnp|Choi|1999}} as well as phoneticians Ternes and Vladimirova-Buhtz, who have most recently suggested C-j-V notation of palatals, as their limited distribution proved they were allophones rather than phonemes (1999).{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55–56}}

A comparison of the distribution of palatalized consonants in Bulgarian and other Slavic languages and of the number of palatals in each major Slavic languages is of key importance for understanding the issue:

<div style="text-align: center;">'''Comparison of the distribution of {{IPA link|ʎ}}{{IPA|/lʲ}} (palatal l) in Standard Bulgarian, Croatian and Russian'''{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|Baeva|2009|pp=18–19}}</div>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
| colspan="3" | '''{{align|center|Bulgarian}}'''
|-
| {{align|center|Position}} || {{align|center|Distribution}} || {{align|center|Example}}
|-
|Before back vowels ||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|''лют'' [lʲu̟t] (spicy)
|-
|Before front vowels || style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center |{{cross}} || style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center|–
|-
| Before sonorants || style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center |{{cross}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center |–
|-
|Before other consonants ||style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center |{{cross}} || style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center |–
|-
|At word end ||style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center |{{cross}} || style="background:#FFE4E1; text-align:center|–
|-
|}
</div>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | '''{{align|center|Serbo-Croatian}}'''
|-
| {{align|center|Position}} || {{align|center|Distribution}} || {{align|center|Example}}
|-
|Before back vowels ||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|''ljut'' [ʎûːt] (angry)
|-
|Before front vowels || style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"| ''polje'' [pôʎe] (field)
|-
|Before sonorants ||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|''daljnji'' [dâːʎɲiː] (far)
|-
|Before other consonants||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|''biljka'' [bîːʎka] (plant)
|-
|At word end||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|''kralj'' [krâːʎ] (king)
|-
|}
</div>
<div style=display:inline-table>
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
| colspan="3" | '''{{align|center|Russian}}'''
|-
| {{align|center|Position}} || {{align|center|Distribution}} || {{align|center|Example}}
|-
|Before back vowels||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"| ''люк'' [lʲuk] (hatch)
|-
|Before front vowels || style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"| ''поле'' [ˈpolʲe] (field)
|-
|Before sonorants||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|''сильно'' [ˈsʲilʲnə] (strongly)
|-
|Before other consonants||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"| ''полька'' [ˈpolʲkə] (polka)
|-
|At word end ||style="background:#F0FFF0; text-align:center |{{tick|23}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|''печаль'' [pʲɪˈt͡ɕælʲ] (grief)
|-
|}
</div>

All other palatalized consonants in Bulgarian have the same distribution:

{| class="wikitable"
|+Distribution of consonants in Standard Bulgarian{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2019|pp=57–58}}
|-
! rowspan="2"|Position || colspan="39"|Consonant
|- class="static-row-header"
! style="background:#ADD8E6;"|p ||style="background:#EE82EE;"|pʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|b||style="background:#EE82EE;"|bʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|m||style="background:#EE82EE;"|mʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|f||style="background:#EE82EE;"|fʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|v||style="background:#EE82EE;"|vʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|t||style="background:#EE82EE;"|tʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|d||style="background:#EE82EE;"|dʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|s||style="background:#EE82EE;"|sʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"| z ||style="background:#EE82EE;"|zʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|t͡s||style="background:#EE82EE;"|t͡sʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|d͡z || style="background:#EE82EE;"|d͡zʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|n||style="background:#EE82EE;"|ɲ|| style="background:#ADD8E6;" |r||style="background:#EE82EE;"|rʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|ʃ ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|ʒ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|t͡ʃ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|d͡ʒ||style="background:#EE82EE;"|j||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|l/ɫ||style="background:#EE82EE;"|ʎ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|k||style="background:#EE82EE;"|kʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|g||style="background:#EE82EE;"|gʲ||style="background:#ADD8E6;"|x||style="background:#EE82EE;"|xʲ
|-
|Before back vowels || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}
|-
|Before front vowels || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}
|-
| Before sonorants || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}
|-
|Before other consonants || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}
|-
|At word end || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Comparison of the distribution of palatal (palatalised) consonants in all major Slavic languages{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2019|pp=45-46}}<ref>{{citation|last1=Hanulíková|first1=Adriana|last2=Hamann|first2=Silke|year=2010|title=Slovak|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=40|issue=3|pages=373–378|doi=10.1017/S0025100310000162|url=http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/silke/articles/Hanulikova&Hamann_2010.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=457–458, 829–830, 891, 687–688}}
|-
! rowspan="2"|Language|| colspan="23"|Consonant
|- class="static-row-header"
!pʲ||bʲ||mʲ||fʲ||vʲ||tʲ||dʲ||sʲ||zʲ||t͡sʲ||d͡zʲ||{{IPA link|ɲ}}||rʲ||{{IPA link|ɕ}}||{{IPA link|ʑ}}||{{IPA link|t͡ɕ}}||{{IPA link|d͡ʑ}}||{{IPA link|j}}||{{IPA link|ʎ}}||{{IPA link|c}}||{{IPA link|ɟ}}||{{IPA link|ç}}||ɣʲ
|-
|[[Russian language|Russian]] ||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Belarussian language|Belarussian]] ||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}|| style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}
|-
|[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Polish language|Polish]] || style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Czech language|Czech]] || style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Slovak language|Slovak]] || style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]|| style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] ||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] (22-consonant model) || style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] (39-consonant model) ||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFFACD;"|{{Question mark|12}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|17}}||style=background:#FFFACD;"|{{Question mark|12}}||style=background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|17}}
|-
|}

It is argued that it is highly unlikely for modern Bulgarian to have developed 18 palatalized consonants (incl. /j/) from the 9 or 10 that existed in Old Bulgarian ({{IPAslink|ʃ}}, {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}, {{IPA|/t͡sʲ/}}, {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}}, {{IPAslink|j}}, {{IPAslink|ɳ}}, {{IPAslink|ʎ}}, {{IPA|/rʲ/}} and {{IPA|/sʲ/}}), considering that four of those had already hardened or disappeared ({{IPAslink|ʃ}}, {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}, {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}}).{{sfnp|Shklifov|1995|pp=12}} Townsend and Janda have argued that such a development is at odds with the general development in all South Slavic languages, which had suppressed the development of palatals very early.{{sfnp|Townsend|Janda|1996|pp=287}} If Bulgarian indeed had 18 palatal phonemes, it would be as palatal a language as Russian and Belarussian, which runs counter to auditory experience.

===Bulgarian consonantism according to Trubetzkoy (39-consonant model)===

A graphic representation of the Bulgarian consonant system according to the [[Bulgarian Academy of Sciences]] and based on Trubetzkoy's ideas follows below (39 consonants):{{sfnp|Tilkov|1982|pp=110}}
{| class="wikitable" style="border: 2px solid black;"
|+Consonants in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian
|-
! rowspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width 120pt; background:#DCDCDC;" {{Diagonal split header|Type of consonant|Place of articulation}}
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] / [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]{{ref|10a|10}}
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" style="border: 2px solid black; width:90pt; background:#DCDCDC;" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|- class="static-row-header"
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#ADD8E6;"|Hard
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#EE82EE;"|Soft
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#ADD8E6;"|Hard
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#EE82EE;"|Soft
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#ADD8E6;"|Hard
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#EE82EE;"|Soft
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#ADD8E6;"|Hard
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#EE82EE;"|Soft
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#ADD8E6;"|Hard
! style="border: 2px solid black; width:45pt; background:#EE82EE;"| Soft
|-
|style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|m}}  {{font color|red|[ɱ]}}}}{{ref|2a|2}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA|mʲ}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|n}}}}{{ref|3a|3}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA|ɳ̩}}}}
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|{{font|size=110%| {{font color|red|[ŋ]}}{{ref|4a|4}}}}
|style="background:#FFF8DC;"|
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Stop consonant|Stop]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|p}}    {{IPA link|b}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA|pʲ}}  {{IPA|bʲ}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|t}}  {{IPA link|d}}}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA|tʲ}}  {{IPA|dʲ}}}}
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF0F5;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|c}}  {{IPA link|ɟ}}}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|k}}  {{IPA link|ɡ}}}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]'''
| style="background:#F5FFFA; |
| style="background:#F5FFFA; |
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|t͡s}}  ({{IPA link|d͡z}})}}{{ref|5a|5}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA|t͡sʲ}} {{font color|red|(d͡zʲ)}}}}{{ref|11a|11}}
|colspan = 2 style="text-align:center; background:#F8F8FF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}  {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}}}
|style="background:#FFF0F5;|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|
|style="background:#FFF8DC;"|
|style="background:#FFF8DC;"|
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|f}}  {{IPA link|v}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA|fʲ}}  {{IPA|vʲ}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|s}}  {{IPA link|z}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA|sʲ}}  {{IPA|zʲ}}}}
|colspan = 2 style="text-align:center; background:#F8F8FF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|ʃ}}  {{IPA link|ʒ}}}}
|style="background:#FFF0F5;|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|x}}{{ref|7a|7}}   {{font color|red|[ɣ]}}}}{{ref|6a|6}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" |{{font|size=110%| {{font color|red|(xʲ)}}}}{{ref|11a|11}}
|-
|style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]'''
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"| {{font|size=110%| ({{IPA link|w}})}}{{ref|8a|8}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F5FFFA;"|
|style="background:#F0FFFF";|
|style="background:#F0FFFF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF0F5;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|j}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" |
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | '''[[Trill consonant|Trill]]'''
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
| style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|r}}}}
| style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#F8F8FF;"| {{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|rʲ}}}}
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|-
| style="text-align:left; border: 2px solid black; background:#DCDCDC; font-size:100%; line-height: 2.5em;" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]'''
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
| style="background:#F5FFFA;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|ɫ}}}}{{ref|9a|9}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#F0FFFF;" |
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#F8F8FF;"|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|
|style="background:#FFF0F5;"|{{font|size=110%| {{IPA link|ʎ}}}}
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"|
|}
{{smalldiv|{{note|2a|2}} [ɱ] only appears as an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}}. For example, {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''инфлация''}} {{IPA|[iɱˈflat͡sijɐ]}} ('inflation'). In other words, /m/ and /n/ always neutralize into [{{IPA link|ɱ}}] before /f/ and /v/.{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 6}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|3a|3}} {{IPA|/n/}} is usually elided before fricatives but nasalizes and usually lengthens the preceding vowel (V + [n] + CFricative → VNasalized + Ø + CFricative). Examples: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''бранш''}} ['brã:ʃ] ('line of business'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|конски}} ['kɔ̃ski] ('of a horse').{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 7}}}}{{smalldiv| {{note|4a|4}} [ŋ] only exists as an allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}. Examples: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''тънко''}} {{IPA|[ˈtɤŋko]}} ('thin' neut.), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''танго''}} {{IPA|[tɐŋˈɡɔ]}} ('tango').{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 8}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|5a|5}} /d͡z/ is only used in a handful of native words, and its use in dialects or foreign proper names is not wider. Thus, some phonologists include the phoneme into the [[phonemic inventory]] on a provisional basis only or not at all.{{sfnp|Teodorov-Balan|1940|p=84}}{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=191, ''Quote:'' [Besides foreign proper names, /ʒ/ occurs in a small number of non-literary, dialectal words, which, if used in the literary language, regularly replace /ʒ/ with /z/: ''дзифт''/dzift ~ ''зифт''/zift ('tar')]}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|6a|6}} [ɣ] only exists as an [[allophone]] of /x/, and its distribution is rather restricted. It appears only before a [[voiced]] [[obstruent]] other than /v/ (i.e., only across word boundaries. Example: {{font color|MediumVioletRed|видях го}} {{IPA|[viˈdʲaɣɡo]}} ('I saw him').{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 3}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|7a|7}} {{IPA|/x/}} is described as having "only slight friction".{{sfnp|Ternes|Vladimirova-Buhtz|1999|pp=55}}}}{{smalldiv|{{note|8a|8}} [w] is not a [[Indigenous peoples|native]] [[phoneme]]. It appears in borrowings from English, where it is often vocalised as {{IPAslink|u}} (or as the fricative {{IPAslink|v}} in a handful of very old borrowings adopted through German or Russian), e.g. {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''уиски''}} {{IPA|[ˈwiski]}} ('[[whiskey]]'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''Уилям''}} {{IPA|[ˈwiʎɐm]}} ('[[William]]'). Always marked with the Cyrillic letter ⟨{{font color|MediumVioletRed|у}}⟩ {{IPAslink|u}} in [[Bulgarian orthography]].{{sfnp|Sabev|2013|loc=Note 9}} Allophone of /ɫ/ among younger speakers,<ref name="Zhobov 2004 65–66">{{Harvcoltxt|Zhobov|2004|pp=65–66}}</ref> apparently causing an ongoing [[sound change]], cf. Semivowels above.}}{{smalldiv|{{note|9a|9}} {{IPA|/l/}} as a phoneme in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] has three allophones in [[complementary distribution]]; "clear" [l], occurring before [[front vowel]]s, "dark" or velarized [ɫ] occurring before [[central vowels|central]] and [[back vowel]]s, in between vowels and before consonants, and palatalized [ʎ], occurring before /j/ and a central or back vowel.}}{{smalldiv|{{note|10a|10}} According to {{Harvcoltxt|Klagstad Jr.|1958|pp=46–48}}, {{IPA|/t tʲ d dʲ s sʲ z zʲ n/}} are dental. He also analyzes {{IPA|/ɲ/}} as palatalized dental nasal, and provides no information about the place of articulation of {{IPA|/t͡s t͡sʲ r rʲ l ɫ/}}.}}{{smalldiv|{{note|11a|11}} [d͡zʲ] and [xʲ] do not exist in any native words, which has caused even phonologists who accept Trubetzkoy/BAN's model to remove them from the phonemic inventory.{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=191}}}}

The 39-consonant model is inextricably linked to Russian linguist [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]]. A refugee from the [[Bolshevik Revolution]], he settled in [[Sofia]] in 1920, where he was granted tenure at [[Sofia University]].{{sfnp|Trubetzkoy|1971|pp=324}} Eventually, he moved to Vienna and became one of the founders of the immensely influential [[Prague linguistic circle|Prague Linguistic Circle]].<ref>Roman Jakobson: ''My Futurist Years'', New York 1992, p. 86</ref> In his magnum opus, ''Principles of Phonology'', published posthumously in 1939, he referenced extensively [[Eastern Bulgarian dialects|Eastern Bulgarian]], even offering a model phonemic inventory it.{{sfnp|Trubetzkoy|1971|pp=239–240}} There he argued in favor of the existence of the distinctive feature of palatalization in Bulgarian, establishing 14 contrastive pairs of hard and palatalized consonants. The consonant inventory suggested by Trubetzkoy consisted of 36 consonants, including {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨й⟩}} ({{IPAslink|j}}), but not {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨дз⟩}} ({{IPAslink|d͡z}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨дз'⟩}} ({{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨х'⟩}} ({{IPAslink|ç}}).

Both [[Stoyko Stoykov]] and [[Lyubomir Andreychin]], had rejected Trubetzkoy's idea in the early 1940s. It took them nearly 10 years to rediscover it. In the meantime, the country was [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union#Bulgaria (1944–1947)|occupied by the Soviet Union]]. The new regime [[Reforms of Bulgarian orthography#20th Century|reformed the orthography]], throwing out all letters not present in Russian "''as a manifestation of Great Bulgarian chauvinism''"<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Bulgaria-Macedonia|issue=2|year=2017|last=Stoyanov|first=Rumen |script-title=bg:Езиковедски посегателства|trans-title=Linguistic Violations|issn=1312-0875|url=http://www.bulgariamakedonia.net/index.php?br=71&stat=969}}</ref> and introduced many Russian loanwords as part of a propaganda campaign. The atmosphere of pervasive [[sovietisation]] and [[russification]] of the period 1944–1954 proved far more conducive to the realization of Trubetskoy's ideas. By the turn of the decade, Stoykov had changed heart and consequently published Trubetzkoy's consonant model, adding 15 palatalized consonants to his analysis of the Bulgarian [[phonemic inventory]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stoykov|first=Stoyko |script-title=bg:Палаталните съгласни в българския книжовен език.|trans-title=Palatal Consonants in Literary Bulgarian|journal=Известия на Института за български език|volume=I|year=1951|pages=5–63}}</ref> The other major postwar Bulgarian linguist, [[Lyubomir Andreychin]], then quickly suggested another two, {{IPAslink|d͡z}} and {{IPAslink|ç}}, arguing that even though they only existed in foreign proper names like {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''Хюстън''}} {{IPA|/xʲustɤn/}} ('Houston') and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''Ядзя''}} {{IPA|[jad͡zʲa]}} ('Jadzia') and had no contrastive function, they could have one, if need be.

Stoykov eventually conceded, and after the most distinguished Bulgarian phonetician of the totalitarian period, {{interlanguage link|Димитър Тилков|bg}}, also agreed to the inclusion ("''as they were envisaged by the system''"), the 39-consonant system was set in stone.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Български език|edition=1–2|year=1976|location=Sofia|last=Tilkov|first=Dimitar |script-title=bg:Фонологичната стойност на х' и дз' в книжовния български език|trans-title=The Phonological value of {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}} and {{IPAslink|ç}} in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian|pages=112}}</ref> Tilkov designated {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}} and {{IPAslink|ç}} as "potential phonemes", adding {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨ф'⟩}} ({{IPA|/fʲ/}}) to them in 1982, as it existed in only a handful of words, all of them borrowings (e.g., {{font color|MediumVioletRed|''фюрер''}} [ˈfʲurɛr] ('Führer')).{{sfnp|Tilkov|1982|pp=120}} The “potential phoneme”approach has not enjoyed much support abroad, where most authors generally omit not only {{IPA|/d͡zʲ/}} and {{IPAslink|ç}}, but also {{IPAslink|d͡z}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Scatton|1984|p=17}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Klagstad Jr.|1958}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Joshi|Aaron|2006|p=275}}</ref>

While the consonant model was lauded in the Soviet Union by the likes of, e.g., Yuriy Maslov, acceptance in the West, except for Klagstad, has been lukewarm. Most of those who have opted to go with it rather than with the alternative model routinely call into question parts of it or make caveats. The most prolific Bulgarian phonologist and grammarian in the English-speaking world, Ernest Scatton, notes (1993):{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=190}}<blockquote>Alveo-palatal obstruents are weakly palatalized. '''Palatalized labials''' are pronounced by many Bulgarians as '''sequences of [Cj]'''.</blockquote>In the compilation ''Common and Comparative Slavic'' (1996), American Slavist [[Charles E. Townsend (linguist)|Charles E. Townsend]] states:{{sfnp|Townsend|Janda|1996|pp=286–287}}<blockquote>Palatalization is marked by following vowels as in R[ussian]. '''Extent of distinctive palatalization is debated; most agree on n/n', l/l', k/k', g/g'. Our inventory lists B[ulgarian] as having some 37 consonants, but this is an idealized number.''' The real number obviously depends on how many palatalized consonants one recognizes as independent morphophonemes. A great deal of controversy surrounds this question, though, in spite of the large number of phonetic contrasts, phonemic palatalization is more circumscribed than in R. For one thing, phonemic palatalization in B is clearly secondary; we recall that SSL [[South Slavic Languages]] in general suppressed the development of palatalization quite early, and not only in SC [Serbo-Croatian], but also Sln [Slovenian] and Mac [Macedonian] (close as the latter is to B) do not show any phonemic contrasts. For another thing, palatalization in B consonants is distinctive only before non-front vowels, and palatalized consonants never occur in final position or before other consonants.</blockquote>According to Voegelin (1965):{{sfnp|Voegelin|Voegelin|1965|pp=141}}<blockquote>Hodge and Bidwell treat the palatalized consonants not as separate unit phonemes (as given in the inventory above) but as clusters of consonants + /j/, which occur only before non-front vowels. There is '''more agreement''' among the sources in the treatment of '''/l', n', k', g'/ as palatalized phonemes''' than in the treatment of the other palatalized phonemes.</blockquote>

===Palatalization===
Palatalization refers to a type of consonant articulation, where a secondary palatal movement similar to that for {{IPAslink|i}} is superimposed on the primary movement associated with the consonant's plain counterpart.{{sfnp|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|pp=363–365}} During the palatalization of most hard consonants ([[bilabial]], [[labiodental]] and [[denti-alveolar consonants]]), the middle part of the [[tongue]] is raised toward the [[hard palate]] and the [[alveolar ridge]], which leads to the formation of a second articulatory centre whereby the specific palatal "clang" of the soft consonants is achieved. The articulation of palatalised alveolars {{IPAslink|l}}, {{IPAslink|n}} and {{IPAslink|r}} normally does not follow that rule. The palatal clang is instead achieved by moving the place of articulation further back towards the palate so that {{IPAslink|ʎ}}, {{IPAslink|ɲ}} and {{IPAslink|rʲ/}} actually become alveopalatal (postalveolar) consonants. In turn, the articulation of soft {{IPAslink|ɡ}} and {{IPAslink|k}} (transcribed as {{IPAslink|ɡʲ/}} and {{IPAslink|kʲ/}} or {{IPAslink|ɟ}} and {{IPAslink|c}}) moves from the velum towards the palate, and they are therefore considered palatal consonants.
{{multiple image
| background color = #000000
| width = 310
| height = 310
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| image1 = Articulation of t and tʲ in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian.jpg
| alt1 = Articulation of t and tʲ in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian
| caption1 = {{font color|white|Articulation of t and tʲ in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian}}
| image2 = Articulation of t and tʲ in Russian.jpg
| alt2 = Articulation of t and tʲ in Russian
| caption2 = {{font color|white|Articulation of t and tʲ in Russian}}
| footer_background = #000000
}}
However, the only articulatory study of palatalized consonants in Bulgarian, conducted by [[Stoyko Stoykov]] via X-ray tracings of vocal tract configurations of hard/palatalised consonant pairs, indicates that the secondary palatal movement is missing (or severely weakened) during the articulation of a number of palatalized consonants.{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=92–132}} Only the articulation of [[bilabial consonants|bilabial]] and [[labiodental consonants]] (/pʲ/, /bʲ/, /mʲ/, /fʲ/, /vʲ/) is accompanied by a noticeable raising of the body of the tongue towards the palate, but only to a moderate extent.{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=97, 111}} The articulation of soft {{IPAslink|k}}, {{IPAslink|ɡ}} and {{IPAslink|x}} ({{IPAslink|c}}, {{IPAslink|ɟ}} and {{IPAslink|ç}}) also shows distinctive palatalization, as the place of articulation moves onto the palate.{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=108, 127}}

However, in [[denti-alveolar consonants|denti-alveolars]] (/tʲ/, /dʲ/, /tsʲ/, /dzʲ/, /sʲ/, /zʲ/), the place of articulation neither shifts towards the palate, nor is the tongue raised. Instead, they are articulated with the blade of the tongue ([[laminal consonant|laminally]]) rather than the tip ([[coronal consonant|apically]]), which results in greater surface contact of the tongue front and a modification of the primary articulatory gesture.{{sfnp|Pritchard|2012|pp=14–15}}{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=96–100, 128–131, 111–113}} Stoykov defines them as “weakly palatalized”, while Scatton notes that the position of the mid-tongue in palatalized stops is not much higher than that in their plain counterparts.{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=98, 113}}{{sfnp|Scatton|1984|pp=34}} A comparison with the articulation of the same consonants in a language where [[palatal consonants]] indisputably exist, such as Russian, reveals drastically different articulation, with Bulgarian being completely non-conformant with the definition of palatalization.{{sfnp|Pritchard|2012|pp=15–16, 210–211}} A comparison of the articulation of bilabials and labiodentals (/pʲ/, /bʲ/, /mʲ/, /fʲ/, /vʲ/) in Bulgarian also reveals much less pronounced secondary palatal gesture than in Russian.

The articulation of {{IPAslink|ʎ}}, {{IPAslink|ɲ}} and {{IPA|/rʲ/}} is very similar to that of the [[denti-alveolar consonants|denti-alveolars]], but with a slight shift of the place of articulation towards the palate and some raising of the mid-tongue towards the palate.{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=104–105, 117–119, 122–125}} According to Stoykov, {{IPAslink|ʎ}} and {{IPAslink|ɲ}} are harder than their counterparts in the other Slavic languages, while {{IPA|/rʲ/}} is just as palatal.{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=104–105, 117–119, 122–125}} Based on Stoykov’s study, several foreign and Bulgarian phonologists have noted that distinctive palatalization in Bulgarian can be only claimed in the cases of {{IPAslink|c}}, {{IPAslink|ɟ}}, {{IPAslink|ʎ}} and {{IPAslink|ɲ}},{{sfnp|Townsend|Janda|1996|pp=286}}<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Съвременна България. Доклади от III--та комплексна международна конференция по славистика|volume=5|last=Simeonov|first=Boris |script-title=bg:Към въпроса за броя на фонемите и техния състав в съвременния български език|trans-title=On the Issue of the Number of Phonemes in and the Phonetic Inventory of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian|year=1984|location=Sofia|pages=55}}</ref>{{sfnp|Voegelin|Voegelin|1965|pp=141}} or {{IPAslink|c}}, {{IPAslink|ɟ}}, {{IPAslink|ç}} and {{IPAslink|ʎ}}.{{sfnp|Danchev|2001|pp=133}}

Moreover, a study of the perception of hard and palatlized consonants conducted by Tilkov in 1983 has indicated that with the exception of palatalized velars ({{IPAslink|c}}, {{IPAslink|ɟ}}, {{IPAslink|ç}}), Bulgarian listeners needed to hear the transition to the vowel to correctly identify a consonant as soft.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tilkov|first=Dimitar |script-title=bg:Акустичен състав и дистрибуция на палаталните съгласни в книжовния български език – Изследвания върху българския език|trans-title=Acoustic Composition and Distribution of Palatal Consonants in Contemporary Standard Bulgarian – Studies of the Bulgarian Language|publisher=Наука и изкуство|location=Sofia|year=1983|pages=94–99}}</ref> All this has raised the question whether Bulgarian palatals have indeed lost their secondary articulatory gesture and have decomposed into CjV sequences, as claimed by Danchev, Ignatova-Tzoneva, Choi, etc.

A 2012 perception study of palatalized consonants in Bulgarian compared with a language where [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]] is indisputed (Russian) and a language where such consonants are undoubtedly articulated as CjV clusters (English) concluded that unlike English listeners, Russian and Bulgarian listeners could identify a palatal(ized) consonant without waiting for the transition to the following vowel.{{sfnp|Pritchard|2012|pp=2–3}} The study also found similarities in the phonetic shape of palatal(ized) consonants in Bulgarian and Russian and marked differences between those in the two languages and English, disproving the hypothesis for the decomposition of palatalization put forward by Horalek, Ignatova-Tzoneva, Choi, etc.{{sfnp|Pritchard|2012|pp=2–3}} Nevertheless, based on the phonological distribution of Bulgarian palatals, which was similar to that in English and completely different from that in Russian, the author argued in favour of '''CjV''' notation.{{sfnp|Pritchard|2012|pp=2–3}}

==== Palatalization of *tj/*gt/*kt and *dj in Bulgarian ====
While the results of the three Slavic palatalizations are generally the same across all or most [[Slavic languages]], the palatalization of *tj (and the related *gti and *kti) and *dj in Late Common Slavic led to vastly divergent result in each individual Slavic language.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Reflexes of Proto-Slavic *dj and *tj/*gti/*kti in [[Old Church Slavonic]] (OCS) and modern Slavic languages{{sfnp|Townsend|Janda|1996|pp=89–90}}
|- class="static-row-header"
! style="width:80pt;"|[[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]
! style="width:140pt;"|[[Old Church Slavonic]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Serbo-Croatian]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Czech language|Czech]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Polish language|Polish]]
! style="width:100pt;"|[[Russian language|Russian]]
|- class="static-row-header"
|rowspan="2" style="height:50pt;"| {{IPA|*dʲ}} ''me'''dj'''a'' ('boundary') || {{align|center|жд   (['''{{IPA|ʒd}}'''])}} || {{align|center|жд   (['''{{IPA|ʒd}}'''])}}||{{align|center|ѓ   ('''{{IPAslink|ɟ}}''')}}||{{align|center|ђ   ('''{{IPAslink|d͡ʑ}}''')}}||{{align|center|j   ('''{{IPAslink|j}}''')}} ||{{align|center|dz   ('''{{IPAslink|d͡z}}''')}}||{{align|center|z  ('''{{IPAslink|z}}''')}}||{{align|center|dz  ('''{{IPAslink|d͡z}}''')}}||{{align|center|ж   ('''{{IPAslink|ʐ}}''')}}
|- class="static-row-header"
|{{align|center|''ме{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''жд'''}}а'' }}|| {{align|center|''ме{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''жд'''}}а'' }}||{{align|center|''ме{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ѓ'''}}а''}} ||{{align|center|''ме{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ђ'''}}а''}} ||{{align|center|''me{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''j'''}}a''}} ||{{align|center|''me{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''dz'''}}a''}} ||{{align|center|''me{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''z'''}}a''}} ||{{align|center|''mie{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''dz'''}}a''}} || {{align|center|''ме{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ж'''}}а'' }}
|- class="static-row-header"
|rowspan="2" style="height:50pt;"| {{IPA|*tʲ}} ''svě'''tj'''a'' ('candle') || {{align|center|щ   (['''{{IPA|ʃt}}'''])}} || {{align|center|щ   (['''{{IPA|ʃt}}'''])}} || {{align|center|ќ   ('''{{IPAslink|c}}''')}}|| {{align|center|ћ  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}''')}}||{{align|center|č   ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}''')}}|| {{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} || {{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} ||{{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} || {{align|center|ч  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}''')}}
|- class="static-row-header"
|{{align|center|''свѣ{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''щ'''}}а'' }}|| {{align|center|''све{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''щ'''}}'' }}||{{align|center|''све{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ќ'''}}а''}} ||{{align|center|''све{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ћ'''}}а''}} ||{{align|center|''sve{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''č'''}}a''}} ||{{align|center|''svie{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}a''}} ||{{align|center|''sví{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}e''}} ||{{align|center|''śvie{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}a''}} || {{align|center|''све{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ч'''}}а'' }}
|- class="static-row-header"
|rowspan="2" style="height:50pt;"| {{IPA|*gti}} ''mo'''gti''''' ('might') || {{align|center|щ   (['''{{IPA|ʃt}}'''])}} || {{align|center|щ   (['''{{IPA|ʃt}}'''])}} || {{align|center|ќ   ('''{{IPAslink|c}}''')}}|| {{align|center|ћ  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}''')}}||{{align|center|č   ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}''')}}|| {{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} || {{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} ||{{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} || {{align|center|ч  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}''')}}
|- class="static-row-header"
|{{align|center|''мо{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''щ'''}}ъ'' }}|| {{align|center|''мо{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''щ'''}}'' }}||{{align|center|''мо{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ќ'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''мо{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ћ'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''mo{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''č'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''mo{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''mo{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''mo{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}''}} || {{align|center|''мо{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ч'''}}'' }}
|- class="static-row-header"
|rowspan="2" style="height:50pt;"| {{IPA|*kti}} ''no'''kti''''' ('night') || {{align|center|щ   (['''{{IPA|ʃt}}'''])}} || {{align|center|щ   (['''{{IPA|ʃt}}'''])}} || {{align|center|ќ   ('''{{IPAslink|c}}''')}}|| {{align|center|ћ  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}''')}}||{{align|center|č   ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}''')}}|| {{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} || {{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} ||{{align|center|c  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡s}}''')}} || {{align|center|ч  ('''{{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}''')}}
|- class="static-row-header"
|{{align|center|''но{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''щ'''}}ъ'' }}|| {{align|center|''но{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''щ'''}}''}}||{{align|center|''но{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ќ'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''но{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ћ'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''no{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''č'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''no{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''no{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}''}} ||{{align|center|''no{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''c'''}}''}} || {{align|center|''но{{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''ч'''}}'' }}
|-
|}

Bulgarian *tj/*kti/*gti and *dj reflexes {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨щ⟩}} (['''{{IPA|ʃt}}''']) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|⟨жд⟩}} (['''{{IPA|ʒd}}''']), which are exactly the same as in Old Church Slavonic, and the near-open articulation {{IPA|[æ]}} of the [[Yat]] vowel (ě), which is still widely preserved in a number of Bulgarian dialects in the [[Rhodopes]], Pirin Macedonia ([[Razlog dialect]]) and northeastern Bulgaria ([[Shumen dialect]]), etc., are the strongest evidence that [[Old Church Slavonic]] was codified on the basis of a Bulgarian dialect and that Bulgarian is its closest direct descendant.{{sfnp|Duridanov|1991|pp=37, 64}} Though the ⟨{{IPA|ʃt}}⟩/⟨{{IPA|ʒd}}⟩ speaking area currently covers only the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria and the eastern half of the wider region of [[Macedonia (region)|geographical Macedonia]], toponomy containing ⟨{{IPA|ʃt}}⟩ and ⟨{{IPA|ʒd}}⟩ that goes back to the Early Middle Ages is widely preserved across Northern and Central Greece, Southern Albania, the [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Kosovo]] and the [[Torlak]]-speaking regions in Serbia.{{sfnp|Duridanov|1991|pp=37, 64}}{{sfnp|Nikolov|2020|pp=18–19}}
{{multiple image
| total_width =
| align = right
| image1 = LinguisticdivideinMacedonian1.png
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = LinguisticdivideinMacedonian2.png
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer =Reflexes of Proto-Slavic *tʲ/kt and *dʲ in the wider Macedonian region
}}
For example, in the [[Struga municipality]], the names of 13 out of 43 villages contain either ⟨{{IPA|ʃt}}⟩ ([[Kališta]], [[Korošišta]], [[Labuništa]], [[Moroišta]], [[Piskupština]], [[Radolišta]], [[Tašmaruništa]], [[Velešta]] and [[Vraništa]]) or ⟨{{IPA|ʒd}}⟩ ([[Delogoždi]], [[Mislodežda]], [[Radožda]] and [[Zbaždi]]).{{sfnp|Duridanov|1991|pp=37, 64}} The same applies to [[Kosovo]], where Russian Slavist Afanasiy Selishchev found а number of place names around the city of [[Prizren]] featuring the Bulgarian clusters ⟨{{IPA|ʃt}}⟩/⟨{{IPA|ʒd}}⟩ in a Serbian official document from the 1300s (''Небрѣго'''шт'''а, Добрѹ'''шт'''а, Сѣноже'''шт'''ани, Гра'''жд'''еникь, Обра'''жд'''а, Люби'''жд'''а'', etc.).{{sfnp|Selishchev|1933|pp=40}} At present, a total of 8 villages out of 76 villages in the [[Prizren municipality]] stilll feature the Bulgarian consonant clusters ⟨{{IPA|ʃt}}⟩/⟨{{IPA|ʒd}}⟩, even though the region has not been ruled by Bulgaria in eight centuries: [[Lubizhdë]], [[Lubizhdë e Hasit]], [[Poslishtë]], Skorobi'''sht'''ë, Gra'''zhd'''anik, Nebrego'''sht'''ë, Dobru'''sht'''ë, Ku'''sht'''endil. There are also numerous toponyms with the two clusters in the districts of [[Vranje]], [[Pirot]], [[Knjaževac]], etc. in [[Serbia]] proper.{{sfnp|Duridanov|1991|pp=65}}

The development of ⟨{{IPA|ʃt}}⟩ > '''{{IPAslink|c}}''' and ⟨{{IPA|ʒd}}⟩ > '''{{IPAslink|ɟ}}''' in certain dialects in the geographic region of Macedonia is a late and partial phenomenon dating back to the [[Late Middle Ages]], probably caused by the influence of Serbian '''{{IPAslink|t͡ɕ}}''' and '''{{IPAslink|d͡ʑ}}''', and possibly aided by the Late Middle Bulgarian's trend to palatalise {{IPAslink|t}} and {{IPAslink|d}} and then transform them into soft k and g > {{IPAslink|c}} & {{IPAslink|ɟ}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Selishchev|first=Afanasii |script-title=ru:Очерки по македонской диалектологии|trans-title=Essays on Macedonian dialectology|location=Kazan|pages=127–146}}</ref>{{sfnp|Mirchev|1963|pp=155}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Georgiev|first=Vladimir |script-title=bg:Възникването на палаталните съгласни кʼ и гʼ от шт и жд в югозападните български говори, Проблеми на българския език|trans-title=Emergence of Palatal /k'/ and /g'/ from [sht] and [zhd] in the Southwestern Bulgarian Dialects. Issues Relating to the Bulgarian Language|year=1985|pages=43}}</ref>

===Phonation===
Phonation is a primary distinctive feature for [[obstruents]] in Bulgarian, dividing them into [[voiced consonants|voiced]] and [[voiceless consonants|voiceless]] consonants. Obstruents form 8 [[minimal pairs]]: {{IPAslink|p}}↔{{IPAslink|b}}, {{IPAslink|f}}↔{{IPAslink|v}}, {{IPAslink|t}}↔{{IPAslink|d}}, {{IPAslink|t͡s}}↔{{IPAslink|d͡z}}, {{IPAslink|s}}↔{{IPAslink|z}}, {{IPAslink|ʃ}}↔{{IPAslink|ʒ}}, {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}↔{{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}}, {{IPAslink|k}}↔{{IPAslink|g}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mihaylov|first=Miroslav |script-title=bg:Фонетика на съвременния български книжовен език|trans-title=Phonetics and Phonology of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian|year=2021|pages=47}}</ref> The only obstruent without a counterpart is the voiceless fricative {{IPAslink|x}}, whose voiced counterpart {{IPAslink|ɣ}} does not exist as a separate phoneme in Bulgarian. The sonorants {{IPAslink|m}}, {{IPAslink|n}}, {{IPAslink|l}} and {{IPAslink|r}} and the approximant {{IPAslink|j}} are always voiced.

If the existence of separate palatalised consonant phonemes (39-consonant model) is accepted, 6 more contrastive obstruent pairs are added: /pʲ/↔/bʲ/, /fʲ/↔/vʲ/, /tʲ/↔/dʲ/, /sʲ/↔/zʲ/, /tsʲ/↔/dzʲ/,{{IPAslink|ɟ}}↔{{IPAslink|c}}, for a total of 14.

====Voicing, devoicing, assimilation, sandhi, ellision====
Like all other Slavic languages apart from [[Serbo-Croatian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], Bulgarian features [[Final-obstruent devoicing|word-final devoicing]] of [[obstruents]], unless the following word begins with a voiced consonant.{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=196}} Thus, {{font color|MediumVioletRed|гра'''д'''}} is pronounced ['gra'''t'''] ('city'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|жи'''в'''}} is pronounced ['ʒi'''f'''] ('alive'). While obstruents devoice before enclitics ({{font color|MediumVioletRed|гра'''д''' ли}} ['gra'''t'''li] ('а city?')), they do not devoice at the end of prepositions followed by a voiced consonant ({{font color|MediumVioletRed|по'''д''' липите}} [po'''d'''li'pitɛ] ('under the lindens')).

CSB also features regressive [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]] in consonant clusters. Thus, voiced obstruents devoice if they are followed by a voiceless obstruent (e.g., {{font color|MediumVioletRed|и'''з'''ток}} is pronounced ['i'''s'''tok]) ('East')), and voiceless obstruents voice if they are followed by a voiced obstruent (e.g., {{font color|MediumVioletRed|'''с'''града}} is pronounced [''''z'''gradɐ] ('building')).{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=165–166}}

Assimilation also occurs across word boundaries (in the form of [[sandhi]]), for example, {{font color|MediumVioletRed|о'''т''' гората}} is pronounced [o'''d'''go'ratɐ] ('from the forest'), while {{font color|MediumVioletRed|на'''д''' полето}} becomes [na'''t'''po'lɛto] ('above the field').{{sfnp|Stoykov|1966|pp=167}}

The consonants {{IPAslink|t}} and {{IPAslink|d}} in consonant clusters such as {{font color|MediumVioletRed|стн}} [stn] and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|здн}} [zdn] are usually not pronounced, unless the articulation is very careful, i.e., {{font color|MediumVioletRed|вес'''т'''ник}} tends to pronounced as ['vɛsnik] (‘newspaper’), while {{font color|MediumVioletRed|без'''д'''на}} tends to pronounced as ['beznɐ]) (‘abyss’).{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2019|pp=90}}

====Distribution of voiced and voiceless consonants in Bulgarian====
{| class="wikitable"
|+Distribution of Voiced & Voiceless Consonants in Standard Bulgarian{{sfnp|Ignatova-Tzoneva|2019|pp=73}}
|-
! rowspan="2"|Position || colspan="22"|Consonant
|- class="static-row-header"
! style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''b''' ||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''p'''}} ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''v'''||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''f'''}} ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''d''' ||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white| '''t'''}}||style="background:#FFFFF0;"|'''z''' ||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''s'''}} ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''d͡z'''{{resize|80%|{{ref|a|a}}}}|| style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''t͡s'''}}||style="background:#FFFFF0;"|'''ʒ''' ||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''ʃ'''}} || style="background:#FFFFF0;"|'''d͡ʒ'''||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''t͡ʃ'''}} ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''g''' ||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''k'''}} ||style="background:#000000;"|{{font color | white|'''x'''}} ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"|'''m''' ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"|'''l''' ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''n''' ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''r''' ||style="background:#FFFFF0;"| '''j'''
|-
|Position I: Before central and back vowels ({{IPAslink|a}}, {{IPAslink|ɤ̞|ɤ}}, {{IPAslink|ɔ}}, {{IPAslink|u}}) || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}
|-
|Position II: Before front vowels ({{IPAslink|ɛ}}, ({{IPAslink|i}}) || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}
|-
| Position III: Before sonorants ({{IPAslink|m}}, {{IPAslink|n}}, {{IPAslink|r}}, {{IPAslink|l}}) || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}
|-
|Position IV: Before {{IPAslink|v}} || style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}
|-
|Position V: At word end || style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}
|-
|Position VI: Before voiceless consonants|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}
|-
|Position VII: Before voiced consonants||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}} ||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}|| style="background:#FFE4E1;"|{{cross|14}}|| style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}||style="background:#F0FFF0;"|{{tick|14}}
|-
|}
{{smalldiv|{{note|a|a}} The very limited distribution of /d͡z/ is yet another indicator that it is unable to function as a fully-fledged phoneme in CSB and should instead be regarded as an allophone of {{IPAslink|z}}, as suggested by Scatton.{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=191}}}}

===Consonant classification based on place and manner of articulation===
====Place of articulation====
The consonants:
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|п}} ({{IPAslink|p}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|б}} ({{IPAslink|b}}), and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|м}} ({{IPAslink|m}}) are [[bilabial]];
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ф}} ({{IPAslink|f}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|в}} ({{IPAslink|v}}) and the allophone of {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}}, [{{IPA|ɱ}}], are [[labiodental]];
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|т}} ({{IPAslink|t}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|д}} ({{IPAslink|d}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ц}} ({{IPAslink|t͡s}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|дз}} ({{IPAslink|d͡z}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|с}} ({{IPAslink|s}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|з}} ({{IPAslink|z}}) and the velar allophone of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|л}}, [{{IPA|ɫ}}], are [[denti-alveolar consonant|dento-alveolar]] and sometimes also even described as [[dental consonants|dental]];
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|р}} ({{IPAslink|r}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|н}} ({{IPAslink|n}}), as well the "light" {{font color|MediumVioletRed|л}} ({{IPAslink|l}}) are [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]];
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ш}} ({{IPAslink|ʃ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ж}} ({{IPAslink|ʒ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ч}} ({{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|дж}} ({{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}}) are [[postalveolar]];
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|й}} ({{IPAslink|j}}) is [[palatal]]; and
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|к}} ({{IPAslink|k}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|г}} ({{IPAslink|g}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|х}} ({{IPAslink|x}}), along with the allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} before velars, [{{IPA|ŋ}}], are [[velar]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Sabev, The Sound System of Standard Bulgarian</ref>{{sfnp|Townsend|Janda|1996|pp=286}}

The palatalized allophones of
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|п}} ({{IPAslink|p}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|б}} ({{IPAslink|b}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|м}} ({{IPAslink|m}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ф}} ({{IPAslink|f}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|в}} ({{IPAslink|v}}) are pronounced by many Bulgarians as sequences of C+j.;{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=190–191}}
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|т}} ({{IPAslink|t}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|д}} ({{IPAslink|d}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ц}} ({{IPAslink|t͡s}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|дз}} ({{IPAslink|d͡z}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|с}} ({{IPAslink|s}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|з}} ({{IPAslink|z}}) remain [[denti-alveolar consonant|dento-alveolar]] but are articulated with the back of the tip of the tongue ([[laminal consonant|laminally]]) rather than with the tip ([[coronal consonant|apically]]);
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|р}} ({{IPAslink|r}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|н}} ({{IPAslink|n}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|л}} ({{IPA|l}}) shift towards the palatum and become [[alveolo-palatal consonants|alveo-palatal]]; and
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|к}} ({{IPAslink|k}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|г}} ({{IPAslink|g}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|х}} ({{IPAslink|x}}) are articulated at the back of the [[palatum]] instead of the velum.{{sfnp|Scatton|Huntley|1993|pp=190–191}}

====Manner of articulation====
* [[Plosives]] (7): {{font color|MediumVioletRed|п}} ({{IPAslink|p}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|б}} ({{IPAslink|b}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|т}} ({{IPAslink|t}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|д}} ({{IPAslink|d}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|к}} ({{IPAslink|k}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|г}} ({{IPAslink|g}});
* [[Fricatives]] (7): {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ф}} ({{IPAslink|f}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|в}} ({{IPAslink|v}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|с}} ({{IPAslink|s}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|з}} ({{IPAslink|z}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ш}} ({{IPAslink|ʃ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ж}} ({{IPAslink|ʒ}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|х}} ({{IPAslink|x}});
* [[Affricates]] (4): {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ц}} ({{IPAslink|t͡s}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|дз}} ({{IPAslink|d͡z}}), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ч}} ({{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|дж}} ({{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}});
* [[Nasals]] (2): {{font color|MediumVioletRed|м}} ({{IPAslink|m}}) and {{font color|MediumVioletRed|н}} ({{IPAslink|n}})
* [[Trill consonant|Trills]] (1): {{font color|MediumVioletRed|р}} ({{IPAslink|r}})
* [[Lateral consonant|Laterals]] (1): {{font color|MediumVioletRed|л}} ({{IPAslink|l}})
* [[Approximants]] (1): {{font color|MediumVioletRed|й}} ({{IPAslink|j}})<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

== Word stress ==
Stress is not usually marked in written text. In cases where the stress must be indicated, a [[grave accent]] is placed on the vowel of the stressed syllable.{{ref|13a|13}}

Bulgarian [[lexical stress|word stress]] is dynamic. Stressed syllables are louder and longer than unstressed ones. As in Russian and other East Slavic languages, as well as English, Bulgarian stress is also lexical rather than fixed as in French, Latin or the West Slavic languages. It may fall on any syllable of a polysyllabic word, and its position may vary depending on the inflection and derivation, for example:
* nouns – {{font color|MediumVioletRed|мъ̀ж}} {{IPA|/mɤʃ/}} ('man'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|мъжъ̀т}} {{IPA|/mɐˈʒɤt/}} ('the man'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|мъжѐ}} {{IPA|/mɐˈʒɛ/}} ('men'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|мъжѐте}} {{IPA|/mɐˈʒɛtɛ/}} ('the men')
* verbs – {{font color|MediumVioletRed|отѝвам}} {{IPA|/oˈtivɐm/}} ('I am going'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|отидѝ}} {{IPA|/otiˈdi/}} ('go!')

Bulgarian stress is also distinctive: the following examples are only differentiated by stress (see the different vowels):
* nouns
** {{font color|MediumVioletRed|въ̀лна}} {{IPA|/ˈvɤɫnɐ/}} ('wool'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|вълна̀}} {{IPA|/vɐɫˈna/}} ('wave')
** {{font color|MediumVioletRed|па̀ра}} {{IPA|/ˈparɐ/}} ('steam'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|пара̀}} {{IPA|/pɐˈra/}} ('coin')
* verbs
** {{font color|MediumVioletRed|когато до̀йде}} {{IPA|/koˈɡato ˈdɔjdɛ/}} ('when he comes'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|когато дойдѐ}} {{IPA|/koˈɡato dojˈdɛ/}} (when he came')
** {{font color|MediumVioletRed|взрѝвен}} {{IPA|/ˈvzrivɛn/}} ('explosive'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|взривѐн}} {{IPA|/vzriˈvɛn/}} ('exploded'){{ref|14a|14}}

Stress usually isn't signified in written text, even in the above examples, if the context makes the meaning clear. However, the grave accent may be written if confusion is likely. {{ref|15a|15}}

The stress is often written in order to signify a dialectal deviation from the standard pronunciation:
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|каза̀ ми}} {{IPA|/kɐˈza mi/}} ('he told me'), instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|каза ми}} {{IPA|/ˈkazɐ mi/}}
* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|иска̀ да дойде}} {{IPA|/iˈska dɐ dɔjdɛ/}} ('he wanted to come'), instead of {{font color|MediumVioletRed|искаше да дойде}} {{IPA|/ˈiskɐʃɛ dɐ dɔjdɛ/}}){{ref|16a|16}}

{{smalldiv|1={{note|13a|13}} For practical purposes, the grave accent can be [[Combining character|combined]] with letters by pasting the symbol "<code>̀</code>" directly after the designated letter. An alternative is to use the keyboard shortcut Alt + 0300 (if working under a [[Windows (operating system)|Windows operating system]]), or to add the decimal [[HTML code]] "<code>&#768;</code>" after the targeted stressed vowel if editing HTML source code. See [https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/0300/index.htm "Accute accent" diacritic character in Unicode], [https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/045d/index.htm Unicode character "Cyrillic small letter i with grave"] and [https://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/040d/index.htm Unicode character "Cyrillic capital letter i with grave"] for the exact Unicode characters that utilize the [[grave accent]]. Retrieved 2010-06-21. {{note|14a|14}} Note that the last example is only spelled the same in the masculine. In the feminine, neuter and the plural, it is spelled differently—e.g. ''vzrìvna'' ('explosive' fem.), ''vzrivèna'' ('exploded' fem.), etc. {{note|15a|15}} However, the grave accent is obligatorily used to disambiguate between the two non-stressed words—* {{font color|MediumVioletRed|и}} ('and'), {{font color|MediumVioletRed|ѝ}} ('to her'). Since many computer programs do not allow for accents on Cyrillic letters, "{{font color|MediumVioletRed|й}}" is sometimes seen instead of "{{font color|MediumVioletRed|ѝ}}". {{note|16a|16}} Note that in this case the accent would be written in order to differentiate it from the present tense {{font color|MediumVioletRed|иска да дойде}} {{IPA|/ˈiskɐ dɐ dojdɛ/}} ('he wants to come').}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite conference
|last1=Andreeva
|first1=Bistra
|last2=Barry
|first2=William
|last3=Koreman
|first3=Jacques
|title=Interspeech 2013
|chapter=The bulgarian stressed and unstressed vowel system. A corpus study
|journal=Proc. Of 14th Annual Conference of the International Speech Communication Association, Interspeech 2013
|location=Lyon
|year=2013
|pages=2720–2724
|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260159052
|doi=10.21437/Interspeech.2013-97
|s2cid=34957292
}}
* {{Cite journal
|journal=Език и литература
|year=1950
|volume=4
|last=Andreychin
|first=Lyubomir
|script-title=bg:За меките съгласни в българския език
|trans-title=On the Palatal Consonants in Bulgarian
|language=bg
}}
* {{cite book |last=Bogorov |first=Ivan |script-title=bg:Първичка българска словница |trans-title=First Bulgarian Grammar |year=1848 |location=Bucharest}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Choi
|first1=Kwon-Jin
|journal=Съпоставително езикознание/Contrastive Linguistics
|year=1994
|volume=19
|issue=2
|publisher=Sofia University
|location=Sofia
|script-title=bg:Глайдовата система на българския и корейския език
|trans-title=The Glide System in Bulgarian and Korean
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last=Choi
|first=Kwon-Jin
|journal= Български език и литература (електронна версия)
|issue=2–3
|year=1999
|script-title=bg:Фонологичността на признака мекост в съвременния български език
|trans-title=The Phonological Value of the Palatalisation Feature in Contemporary Bulgarian
|url=https://liternet.bg/publish1/choi/mekost.htm
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Danchev
|first=Andrey
|script-title=bg:Съпоставително езикознание. Теория и методология
|trans-title=Comparative Linguistics. Theory and Methodology
|publisher=St. Clement of Ohrid University Publishing House
|location=Sofia
|year=2001
|url=https://elearn.uni-sofia.bg/mod/resource/view.php?id=223522&forceview=1
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Dokovova
|first1=Marie
|last2=Sabev
|first2=Mitko
|last3=Scobbie
|first3=James
|last4=Lickley
|first4=Robin
|last5=Cowen
|first5=Steve
|journal= Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Australasian Speech Science and Technology Association Inc.
|location=Canberra
|year=2019
|pages=2720–2724
|title=Bulgarian Vowel Reduction in Unstressed Position : an Ultrasound and Acoustic Investigation
|url=https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/80145/1/Dokovova_etal_ICPhS2019_Bulgarian_vowel_reduction_in_unstressed_position.pdf
|isbn=9780646800691
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Duridanov
|first=Ivan
|script-title=bg:Граматика на старобългарския език
|trans-title= Grammar of Old Bulgarian
|language=bg
|year=1991
|publisher=Bulgarian Language Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
|location=Sofia
|isbn=954-430-159-3
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Haralampiev
|first=Ivan
|script-title=bg:Историческа граматика на българския език
|trans-title=Historical Grammar of the Bulgarian Language
|language=bg
|year=2001
|publisher=Faber
|location=Sofia
|isbn=954775064X
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Ignatova-Tzoneva
|first=Dimitrina
|journal=Научни трудове на Русенския университет
|volume=47
|year=2008
|pages=7–12
|series=5.3
|script-title=bg:Отново за палаталността на българските съгласни
|trans-title=Another Look at the Palatalisation of Bulgarian Consonants
|language=bg
|url=https://conf.uni-ruse.bg/bg/docs/cp/5.3/5.3-1.pdf
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Ignatova-Tzoneva
|first1=Dimitrina
|last2=Baeva
|first2=Desislava
|journal= Научни трудове на Русенския университет
|volume=48
|year=2009
|series=6.3
|script-title=bg:Палатални или смекчени са българските съгласни
|trans-title=Are Bulgarian Consonants Palatal or Palatalised?
|language=bg
|url=https://conf.uni-ruse.bg/bg/docs/cp09/6.3/6.3-3.pdf
|pages=17–24
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last=Ignatova-Tzoneva
|first=Dimitrina
|journal= Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference on Truths and Lies About Facts, News and Events
|volume=1
|year=2018
|script-title=bg:За ревизия на становището за състава на българската фонемна система
|trans-title=On a Revision of the Stance on the Make-Up of Bulgarian Phonemic Inventory
|language=bg
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346627275
|isbn=978-619-7404-03-6
|pages=1–12
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Ignatova-Tzoneva
|first1=Dimitrina
|journal=Славянские языки: единицы, категории, ценностные константы: - Сб. науч. статей
|year=2010
|location=Volgograd
|series=6.3
|script-title=bg:Сравнительная характеристика мягкости консонантов в современных славянских языках
|trans-title=Comparison of the Degree of Consonant Palatalisation in Contemporary Slavic Languages
|language=ru
|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346627825
|isbn=978-5-9669-0790-7
|pages=108–120
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Ignatova-Tzoneva
|first=Dimitrina
|script-title=bg:Моделиране на фонемната система на съвременния български книжовен език
|trans-title=Modelling the Phonemic Inventory of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian
|language=bg
|publisher=Ruse University
|year=2019
|isbn=978-619-90981-1-0
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Joshi
|first1=R. Malatesha
|last2=Aaron
|first2=P. G.
|year=2006
|title=Handbook of Orthography and Literacy
|publisher=Taylor & Francis
|isbn=9780805846522
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkXzdWSyBFgC
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Klagstad Jr.
|first=Harold L.
|year=1958
|pages=42–54
|title=The Phonemic System of Colloquial Standard Bulgarian
|publisher=American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Ladefoged
|first1=Peter
|last2=Maddieson
|first2=Ian
|year=1996
|title=The Sounds of the World's Languages
|publisher=Blackwell
|location=Oxford
|isbn=0-631-19814-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Mangold
|first=Max
|script-title=bg:Увод в езикознанието с оглед и на българския език
|trans-title=Introduction into Linguistics Also Taking Account of the Bulgarian language
|publisher=Sofia University
|location=Sofia
|year=1988}}</ref>
* {{cite book
|last=Mirchev
|first=Kiril
|publisher=Наука и изкуство
|year=1963
|location=Sofia
|script-title=bg:Историческа граматика на българския език
|trans-title=Historical Grammar of the Bulgarian Language
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last=Merlingen
|first=Weriand
|journal=Studia linguistica in honorem acad. S. Mladenov
|publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
|location=Sofia
|year=1957
|title=Zur Phonologie der sog. palatalisierten Konsonanten
|pages=493–501
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Momchilov
|first=Ivan
|script-title=bg:Грамматика на новоболгарскыя езыкъ
|trans-title=Grammar of New Bulgarian 
|year=1868
|language=bg
|url=https://miryan.org/library/ivan_momchilov/ivan_momchilov_all.pdf
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Nikolov
|first=Vasil
|title=On the Official Language of the Republic of Macedonia
|location=Sofia
|year=2020
|publisher=Prof. Marin Drinov Publishing House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
|language=en
|isbn=978-619-245-081-6
|url=https://www.bas.bg/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Za-oficialnia-ezik-na-RSM-EN-Online-Version.pdf
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Padareva-Ilieva
|first1=Gergana
|last2=Mitsova
|first2=Sofiya
|journal= International Journal of Linguistics and Communication
|volume=2
|number=1
|year=2014
|pages=45–65
|title=Is Bulgarian Language Losing Its Alveo-Dental Consonant [l]?
|location=New York
|url=http://ijlcnet.com/journals/ijlc/Vol_2_No_1_March_2014/4.pdf
|issn=2372-4803
}}
* {{Cite thesis
|last=Pritchard
|first=Sonia
|year=2012
|title=A Cross-Language Study of the production and Perception of Palatalized Consonants
|location=Ottawa
|doi=10.20381/ruor-5807
|url= https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/22882/1/Pritchard_Sonia_2012_thesis.pdf
|language=en
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Sabev
|first=Mitko
|year=2013
|title=The Sound System of Standard Bulgarian
|url=http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~llsroach/phon2/b_phon/b_phon.htm
|language=en
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Scatton
|first=Ernest A.
|year=1984
|title=A reference grammar of modern Bulgarian
|publisher=Slavica Publishers
|isbn=9780893571238
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UdiAAAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Scatton
|first1=Ernest A.
|last2=Huntley
|first2=David
|year=1993
|title=The Slavonic Languages
|publisher=Routledge
|location=London
|isbn=0-415-04755-2
}}
* {{Cite journal
|journal=Collection in Honour of the 70th Anniversary of Prof. Lyubomir Miletich
|last=Selishchev
|first=Afanasii
|title=The Slavonic Languages
|year=1933
|script-title=bg:Диалектологическое значение македонской топоними
|trans-title=Dialectological Meaning of Macedonian Toponyms
|publisher=Macedonian Scientific Institute
|location=Sofia
|isbn=0-415-04755-2
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Shklifov
|first1=Blagoy
|script-title=bg:Проблеми на българската диалектна и историческа фонетика с оглед на македонските говори
|trans-title=Issues in Bulgarian Dialectal and Historical Phonetics with an Eye to the Macedonian Dialects
|location=Sofia
|publisher=Качармазов
|year=1995
|isbn=954603004X
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Stoykov
|first=Stoyko
|script-title=bg:Увод във фонетиката на българския език
|trans-title=Introduction into Bulgarian Phonetics
|edition=Third
|location=Sofia
|publisher=Наука и изкуство
|year=1966
|url= https://www.scribd.com/document/385973960/Ivod-Vyv-Fonetikata-Na-Bylgarskia-Ezik-OCR
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Teodorov-Balan
|first1=Aleksandar
|publisher=T.F. Chipev
|year=1940
|script-title=bg:Нова българска граматика
|trans-title=New Bulgarian Grammar
|location=Sofia
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Ternes
|first1=Elmer
|last2=Vladimirova-Buhtz
|first2=Tatjana
|year=1999
|chapter=Bulgarian
|pages=55–57
|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC
|isbn=0-521-63751-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Tilkov
|first=Dimitar
|year=1982
|script-title=bg:Граматика на съвременния български книжовен език
|trans-title=Grammar of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian
|volume=I Phonetics
|publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
|location=Sofia
|language=bg
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Townsend
|first1=Charles E.
|last2=Janda
|first2=Laura A.
|year=1996
|title=COMMON and COMPARATIVE SLAVIC: Phonology and Inflection, with special attention to Russian, Polish, Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian
|publisher=Slavica Publishers, Inc.
|location=Columbus, Ohio
|language=English
|isbn=0-89357-264-0
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Totomanova
|first=Ana-Maria
|script-title=bg:Из българската историческа фонетика
|trans-title=On Bulgarian Historical Phonetics
|location=Sofia
|publisher=University Printing House St. Clement of Ohrid
|year=2014
|edition=III
|isbn=978-954-07-3788-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Trubetzkoy
|first=Nikolai
|title=Principles of Phonology
|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles
|publisher=University of California Press
|year=1971 |orig-year=1939
|isbn=0-520-01535-5
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=van Campen
|first1=Joseph
|last2=Ornstein
|first2=Jacob
|journal=Language
|volume=35
|number=2, Part I
|publisher=Linguistic Society of America
|year=1959
|title=Alternative Analyses of the Bulgarian Nonsyllabic Phonemes
|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/410535
|pages=264–270
|doi=10.2307/410535
|jstor=410535
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Voegelin
|first1=C.F.
|last2=Voegelin
|first2=Florence
|journal=Anthropological Linguistics
|volume=7
|number=8
|year=1965
|publisher=Indiana University
|location=Bloomington
|title=Languages of the World—Indo-European Fascicle One
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Zhobov
|first=Vladimir
|year=2004
|script-title=bg:Звуковете в българския език
|trans-title=Sounds in the Bulgarian Language
|language=bg
}}
{{Refend}}

{{Bulgarian language}}
{{Language phonologies}}

[[Category:Bulgarian language|Phonology]]
[[Category:Slavic phonologies]]

Yamanouchi, Nagano

2023-12-11T11:08:31Z

Mutichou: better version of the seal

{{Infobox settlement

| name = Yamanouchi
| native_name = {{nobold|{{lang|ja|山ノ内町}}}}
| official_name =
| native_name_lang = ja
| settlement_type = [[Towns of Japan|Town]]

| image_skyline = Shiga Kogen from Nozoki05s4s4272.jpg
| imagesize =
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Shiga Kogen Highlands
| image_flag = Flag of Yamanouchi, Nagano.svg
| flag_alt =
| image_seal = Emblem of Yamanouchi, Nagano.svg
| seal_alt =
| image_shield =
| shield_alt =
| image_blank_emblem =
| nickname =
| motto =

| image_map = Yamanouchi in Nagano Prefecture Ja.svg
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location of Yamanouchi in Nagano Prefecture
| pushpin_map = Japan
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =  
| coordinates = {{coord|36|44|40.5|N|138|24|45.7|E|region:JP|display=inline,title}}
| coor_pinpoint = 
| coordinates_footnotes = 

| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = Japan
| subdivision_type1 = [[List of regions of Japan|Region]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Chūbu region|Chūbu]] ([[Kōshin'etsu region|Kōshin'etsu]])
| subdivision_type2 = [[Prefectures of Japan|Prefecture]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Districts of Japan|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Shimotakai District, Nagano|Shimotakai]]

| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =

| seat_type = 
| seat =

| government_footnotes = 
| leader_party =
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name =
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 = 

| total_type = 
| unit_pref = 

| area_magnitude = 
| area_footnotes = 
| area_total_km2 = 265.90
| area_land_km2 =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_water_percent =
| area_note =

| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m =

| population_footnotes = 
| population_total = 12403
| population_as_of = April 2019
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_est =
| pop_est_as_of =
| population_demonym = 
| population_note =

| timezone1 = [[Japan Standard Time]]
| utc_offset1 = +9
| timezone1_DST =
| utc_offset1_DST =

| postal_code_type =
| postal_code =
| area_code_type = 
| area_code =

| blank_name_sec1 = Symbols
| blank_info_sec1 =  
| blank1_name_sec1 = • Tree
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Tsuga sieboldii]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = • Flower
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Apple]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = • Bird
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Japanese bush warbler]]
| blank4_name_sec1 =
| blank4_info_sec1 =
| blank5_name_sec1 =
| blank5_info_sec1 =
| blank6_name_sec1 =
| blank6_info_sec1 =
| blank7_name_sec1 =
| blank7_info_sec1 =

| blank_name_sec2 = Phone number
| blank_info_sec2 = 0269-33-3111
| blank1_name_sec2 = Address
| blank1_info_sec2 = 3352-1 Hirao, Yamanouchi-machi, Shimotakai-gun, Nagano-ken 381-0498

| website ={{Official|1=http://www.town.yamanouchi.nagano.jp/}}
| footnotes =
}}

{{Nihongo| '''Yamanouchi'''|山ノ内町|Yamanouchi-machi }} is a [[Towns of Japan|town]] located in [[Shimotakai District, Nagano|Shimotakai District]] in [[Nagano Prefecture]], [[Japan]]. {{As of|2019|04|01}}, the town had an estimated [[population]] of 12,403 in 5020 households,<ref>[http://www.town.yamanouchi.nagano.jp/toppage.html Yamanouchi Town official statistics]{{in lang|ja}}</ref> and a [[population density]] of 47 persons per km2. The total area of the town is {{convert|265.90|sqkm|sqmi}}.

Yamanouchi, located in the [[Japanese Alps]], includes [[Shiga Highlands]], one of the largest ski resorts in Japan. The town of Yamanouchi hosted three venues during the [[1998 Winter Olympics]]: [[Snowboarding at the 1998 Winter Olympics|Snowboarding]] [[Half-pipe]] events were held at [[Kanbayashi Snowboard Park]] and the technical events of [[Alpine skiing at the 1998 Winter Olympics|Alpine skiing]] were held at [[Mount Higashidate]] and [[Mount Yakebitai]]. The town of Yamanouchi is a gateway to [[Jōshin'etsu-kōgen National Park]] via Route 292, the Shiga-Kusatsu-Kogen Highway. This route is a mountain-ridge which connects Yamanouchi to [[Karuizawa]] in the south.

Yamanouchi is also home to [[Jigokudani Monkey Park]] where [[Japanese macaques]] can be found soaking in an [[Onsen|outdoor hot spring]]. These macaques were part of the opening sequence in [[Baraka (film)|Baraka]], the 1992 [[non-narrative film|non-narrative]] [[documentary film]] directed by [[Ron Fricke]].

==Geography==
[[Shimotakai District, Nagano|Shimotakai District]], in northern mountainous Nagano Prefecture, comprises Yamanouchi town, [[Kijimadaira, Nagano|Kijimadaira Village]], and [[Nozawaonsen, Nagano|Nozawaonsen Village]]. Yamanouchi is the largest of these. More than 90% of Yamanouchi is covered by mountains and forests. The town measures approximately 39 kilometers east-west and 12 kilometers north-south (266 square kilometers), and has an elevation ranging from 424 meters to 2341 meters. The surrounding area is known for its [[Nature therapy|forest therapy]].

In winter, damp air from the [[Japan Sea]] hits the mountains causing heavy snowing. Many ski resorts operate in the area. The plateau above the town is dotted with over 70 large and small wetlands and ponds which can be traced to volcanic activity. The main mountains include Mt. Yokote, Mt. Uriwa, Mt. Iwasugeyama, Mt. Shiga, and Mt. Kousha.

===Surrounding municipalities===
*Nagano Prefecture
** [[Nakano, Nagano|Nakano]]
** [[Takayama, Nagano|Takayama]]
** [[Kijimadaira, Nagano|Kijimadaira]]
** [[Sakae, Nagano|Sakae]]
*[[Gunma Prefecture]]
** [[Nakanojō, Gunma|Nakanojō]]

===Climate===
The town has a [[humid continental climate]] characterized by warm and humid summers, and cold winters with heavy snowfall ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Dfb''). The average annual temperature in Yamanouchi is 2.7 °C. The average annual rainfall is 2020 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 15.6 °C, and lowest in January, at around -9.7 °C.<ref>[https://en.climate-data.org/asia/japan/nagano/yamanouchi-49593/ Yamanouchi climate data]</ref>

==Demographics==
The population of Yamanouchi has declined since the 1950s.
{{Historical populations
| 1940 | 15,617
| 1950 | 20,114
| 1960 | 19,645
| 1970 | 19,166
| 1980 | 18,964
| 1990 | 17,680
| 2000 | 15,900
| 2010 | 13,678
| 2020 | 11,352
|align = none
| footnote =
}}

==History==
Stone tools from the [[Japanese Paleolithic]] period, pottery from the [[Jōmon period]], and 9 [[burial mounds]] from the [[Kofun period]] have been excavated in the area.

The area of present-day Yamanouchi was part of ancient [[Shinano Province]]. The modern town of Yamanouchi was established on April 1, 1955 by the merger of the town of Hirao with the neighboring villages of Honami and Yomase.

==Education==
Yamanouchi has four public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the town government. The town does not have a high school. The closest high school is Nagano Prefectural Nakano Rissikan Senior High School<ref>{{Cite web|author=Nagano Prefecture Nakano Rissikan High School|url=http://www.nagano-c.ed.jp/rishikan/jp/|title=長野県中野立志館高等学校|access-date=2019-04-16}}</ref> in the neighboring town of [[Nakano, Nagano]] near [[Shinshūnakano Station]]

*Yamanouchi Junior High School, next to [[Yudanaka Station]]
*Yamanouchi East Elementary School
*Yamanouchi Nishi Elementary School
*Yamanouchi Minami Elementary School
*Yamanouchi North Elementary School

==Transportation==
===Railway===
*[[file:NER-mark.svg|20px]] [[Nagano Electric Railway]] - Nagano Line
**{{STN|Yomase}} - {{STN|Kamijō|Nagano}} - {{STN|Yudanaka}}

===Highway Bus===
*Express buses are available from [[Nagano Station]].

===Highway===
*{{jct|country=JPN|Route|292}}
*{{jct|country=JPN|Route|403}}

==Sister City Relations==
*[[Sun Valley, Idaho]], United States, sister city since February 1, 1973
*[[Adachi, Tokyo|Adachi Ward]] in Tokyo since October 1, 1982

==Local attractions==
*[[Shiga Highlands|Shiga Kōgen]], a [[UNESCO]] [[Man and the Biosphere Programme|Man and the Biosphere Reserve]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?code=JPN+03&mode=all |title=Biosphere Reserve Information - Shiga Highland |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=29 April 2011}}</ref>
*[[Jigokudani Monkey Park]]
* [[Sano ruins]], Jōmon period settlement traces, a National Historic Site
*Shibu Onsen, an area of tradition wooden [[Ryokan (inn)]], with nine public baths
*Ryuuou Ski Park, with the Sky (Sora) Terrace at 1770m.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ryuoo.com/soraterrace/|title=Sora Terrace|publisher=Ryuou Ski Park |access-date=10 April 2019}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
{{Gallery
| title =Yamanouchi, Nagano
| align =center
| footer =
| style =
| state =
| height =160
| width =160
| captionstyle =
| File:Jigokudani hotspring in Nagano Japan 001.jpg
| alt1=
| [[Jigokudani Monkey Park]]
| File:Yamanouchi town hall.JPG
| alt2=
| Yamanouchi City Hall
| File:Shijuhachi-ike.jpg
| alt3=
| Shijuhachi Pond
| File:Onuma-ike.jpg
| alt4=
| Onuma Pond
| File:Nagano Yudanaka sta17n4272.jpg
| alt5=
| The Former Yudanaka Station, now a hot spring bath
| File:地獄谷温泉後楽館と間欠泉Img743.jpg
| alt6=
| Jigokutani onsen, Korakukukan
| File:西館東館.jpg
| alt7=
| Shiga Kogen Ski resort, Nishitateyama and Higashitateyama
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://www.town.yamanouchi.nagano.jp/ Official Website] {{in lang|ja}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Nagano}}

[[Category:Yamanouchi, Nagano| ]]
[[Category:Towns in Nagano Prefecture]]

Robert Henry Codrington

2023-11-17T17:15:34Z

Mutichou: +Category:Anglican missionaries in Vanuatu

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| background =
| name = Robert Henry Codrington
| image = Robert_Henry_Codrington.jpg
| religion = [[Church of England]]
| alias =
| location =
| Title =
| Period =
| Predecessor =
| Successor =
| ordination =
| post =
| previous_post =
| present_post =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1830|9|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Wroughton]], [[Wiltshire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1922|9|11|1830|9|15|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Chichester]]
}}
'''Robert Henry Codrington''' (15 September 1830, [[Wroughton]], [[Wiltshire]] – 11 September 1922)<ref name="davidson">Davidson, Allan K. "The Legacy of Robert Henry Codrington." ''International Bulletin of Missionary Research.'' Oct 2003, Vol. 27 Issue 4, p. 171-176. [http://anglicanhistory.org/oceania/davidson_codrington.pdf full text].</ref> was an [[Church of England|Anglican]] priest and [[anthropology|anthropologist]] who made the first study of [[Melanesia]]n [[society]] and [[culture]]. His work is still held as a classic of [[ethnography]].

Codrington wrote, "One of the first duties of a missionary is to try to understand the people among whom he works,"<ref>''The Melanesians.'' Robert Codrington.</ref> and he himself reflected a deep commitment to this value. Codrington worked as headmaster of the [[Melanesian Mission]] school on [[Norfolk Island]] from 1867 to 1887.<ref name="davidson"/> Over his many years with the Melanesian people, he gained a deep knowledge of their society, languages, and customs through a close association with them. He also intensively studied "[[Melanesian languages]]", including the [[Mota language]].<ref name="davidson"/>

He popularized the use of the word "[[Mana (Oceanian mythology)|mana]]" in the West, and described mana "as a generalized power that is perceived in objects appearing in any sense out of the ordinary, or that is acquired by persons who possess them."<ref name=":10027">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/46661540 |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |date= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |others=Edited by Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=324, 326 |oclc=46661540}}</ref>

==Bibliography of works by Codrington==
* ''A Sketch of Mota Grammar.'' (1877). ([https://archive.org/details/asketchmotagram00codrgoog full text from the Internet Archive]).
* ''The Melanesian Languages.'' (1885). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ([https://archive.org/details/melanesianlangua00codruoft full text from the Internet Archive]).
* [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Melanesians:_Studies_in_their_Anthropology_and_Folklore ''The Melanesians: Studies in their Anthropology and Folk-Lore'']. (1891). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ([https://archive.org/details/melanesiansstudi00codruoft full text from the Internet Archive]).
* ''A Dictionary of the Language of Mota, Sugarloaf Island, Banks' Islands: With a short grammar and index.'' London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
* "Melanesians." ''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics''. Ed. James Hastings. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 8:529–38.

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Robert Henry Codrington}}
* [http://anglicanhistory.org/oceania/codrington/ Bibliography of works by or about Codrington] from [[Project Canterbury]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Codrington, Robert Henry}}
[[Category:1830 births]]
[[Category:1922 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:People from Wroughton]]
[[Category:19th-century English Anglican priests]]
[[Category:20th-century English Anglican priests]]
[[Category:English anthropologists]]
[[Category:British ethnographers]]
[[Category:20th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:Anglican missionaries in Vanuatu]]

{{Anglican-bio-stub}}
{{UK-anthropologist-stub}}
{{ethnographer-stub}}

Daughter of Ferrix

2023-11-07T13:23:07Z

Mutichou: /* Plot */ typo

{{Use American English|date=August 2023}}
{{Use list-defined references|date=August 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{For|the titular character|Maarva Andor}}
{{Infobox television episode
| series = [[Andor (TV series)|Andor]]
| image =
| caption =
| season = 1
| episode = 11
| director = [[Benjamin Caron]]
| writer = [[Tony Gilroy]]
| music = [[Nicholas Britell]]
| photographer = Damián García
| editor = [[Yan Miles]]
| release_date = {{Start date|2022|11|16}}
| length = 43 minutes
| guests_title = Cast
| guests =
| prev = [[One Way Out (Andor)|One Way Out]]
| next = [[Rix Road]]
}}
"'''Daughter of Ferrix'''" is the eleventh episode of the American [[streaming television]] series ''[[Andor (TV series)|Andor]]'', based on ''[[Star Wars]]'' created by [[George Lucas]]. It was written by [[Tony Gilroy]] and directed by [[Benjamin Caron]].

The episode stars [[Diego Luna]] as [[Cassian Andor]], who reprises his role from the ''[[Star Wars]]'' [[Spin-off (media)|spinoff]] film, ''[[Rogue One]]'' (2016). [[Toby Haynes]] was hired in September 2020 after a production delay due the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], and Gilroy joined the series as [[showrunner]] in early 2019, replacing [[Stephen Schiff]]. Both executive produce alongside Luna and [[Kathleen Kennedy (producer)|Kathleen Kennedy]].

"Daughter of Ferrix" was released on [[Disney+]] on November 16, 2022.

== Plot ==
Cassian Andor and fellow prisoner [[Ruescott Melshi]] manage to evade capture by holding onto the side of a cliff for several hours. When the patrols eventually leave, they explore the desolate planet eventually coming across a ship. They attempt to steal it from a pair of Narkinian fishers, but are caught in a trap. Andor and Melshi manage to prove they are prisoners, causing the fishers to decide to free them due to the Empire's destruction of their planets wildlife in order to supply the prisons.

Maarva Andor passes away, and Brasso attempts to comfort a grieving B2EM0. Brasso carries her body away, observed by a crowd including disguised rebel Cinta Kaz and disguised imperial Corv. Corv informs Dedra Meero, who attempts to condense her funeral procession in two days by ordering they demand permits for each attender. Corv also reveals Ferrix's tradition of turning the deceased ashes into a brick to then help build their community. Sergeant Mosk contacts Syril Karn, revealing this, and Karn decides to attend the funeral to catch Andor. A traumatized and imprisoned Bix Caleen is taken back into torture to see if she knew Anto Kreegyr.

Vel Sartha visits Luthen Rael's antiques shop, confronting his assistant Kleya Marki. Marki is angry at Vel for breaking protocol, but agrees to tell Rael of Maarva's death. Vel returns to the house of her cousin Mon Mothma and sees Mothma's daughter, Leida, partaking in an old courtship ritual in retaliation to her mother's objection against the Empire. Mothma confides in Vel about the Empire closing in on her missing money, grappling with the inevitability of her capture.

Rael goes to Segra Meelo and discovers Saw Gerrera has changed his mind and now wishes to join Kreegyr on his mission. Rael admits that Kreegyr will die on his mission, which is why he can no longer allow Gerrera to join him. Gerrera's paranoia quickly takes over as he demands which one of his team is secretly a spy for Rael. He eventually calms down, and reluctantly agrees to sacrifice Kreegyr.

Rael contacts Marki and begins to fly back to Coruscant when he is confronted by an Imperial Ship which demands registration. Rael tricks the ship into activating its tractor beam, using it to destroy the front of the ship before destroying the TIE fighters with lasers.

On Niamos, Andor retrieves his belongings and contacts his friend Xanwan on Ferrix, discovering his adoptive mothers death. He decides to return to Ferrix, whilst Melshi leaves to spread the word of rebellion. They part ways, hoping to meet again.

== Production ==
=== Development ===
[[Disney]] CEO [[Bob Iger]] announced in February 2018 that there were several Star Wars series in development,<ref name="Disney+SeriesFeb2018" /> and that November one was revealed as a prequel to the film ''[[Rogue One]]'' (2016). The series was described as a [[spy thriller]] show focused on the character [[Cassian Andor]], with [[Diego Luna]] reprising his role from the film.<ref name="Luna" /> [[Jared Bush]] originally developed the series, writing a pilot script and [[Bible (screenwriting)|series bible]] for the project.<ref name="Schiff" /> By the end of November, [[Stephen Schiff]] was serving as [[showrunner]] and executive producer of the series.<ref name="Schiff" /> [[Tony Gilroy]], who was credited as a co-writer on ''Rogue One'' and oversaw extensive reshoots for the film,<ref name="Gilroy" /> joined the series by early 2019 when he discussed the first story details with Luna.<ref name="VanityFairMay2022" /> Gilroy's involvement was revealed that October, when he was set to write the first episode, direct multiple episodes, and work alongside Schiff;<ref name="Gilroy" /> Gilroy had officially replaced Schiff as showrunner by April 2020.<ref name="O'ReillyGough" /> Six weeks of pre-production for the series had taken place in the [[United Kingdom]] by then, but this was halted and production on the series delayed due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="PreProdApr2020" /><ref name="O'ReillyGough2" /> Pre-production had begun again by September ahead of a planned filming start the next month. At that time, Gilroy, who is based in New York, chose not to travel to the UK for production on the series due to the pandemic, and was therefore unable to direct the series' first episode. Instead, the UK-based [[Toby Haynes]], who was already "high on the list" of potential directors for the series, was hired to direct the first three episodes. Gilroy would remain executive producer and showrunner.<ref name="Haynes" /> In December 2020, Luna was revealed to be executive producing the series.<ref name="AnnouncementVideo" />

The eleventh episode, titled "Daughter of Ferrix", was written by [[Tony Gilroy]].<ref name="WGACredits" />

=== Writing ===
Following the Narkina 5 prison arc, the final two episodes contained a connected story arc.<ref name="Structure" /> When writing the scene in which Ruescott Melshi and Andor depart, Gilroy had decided that Melshi would not be coming with Andor to Ferrix, and also knew that Melshi would be motivated to be the "heroic version of that, which is, people have to know what he just went through", noting that all the characters had been "radicalized" following their incarceration on Narkina 5. He knew that while writing the scene, his first impulse was that the two characters could not be together.<ref name="ColliderGilroy" /> Gilroy was also satisfied that director [[Benjamin Caron]] had made the scene "feel like the end of ''[[Rogue One]]''" (2016).<ref name="VultureGilroy" />

=== Casting ===
The episode stars Diego Luna as Cassian Andor,<ref name="Luna" /><ref name="EndCredits" /> [[Kyle Soller]] as Syril Karn, [[Adria Arjona]] as Bix Caleen, [[Joplin Sibtain]] as Brasso, [[James McArdle]] as Timm Karlo, and [[Rupert Vansittart]] as Chief Hyne.<ref name="EndCredits" />

=== Filming ===
Filming began in London, England, at the end of November 2020,<ref name="LunaFilmingStart" /><ref name="TitleAnnouncementVerge" /> with the production based at [[Pinewood Studios]].<ref name="CleveleysFilming" /><ref name="PinewoodFilming" /> The series was filmed under the [[working title]] ''Pilgrim'',<ref name="CleveleysFilming" /> and was the first live-action ''Star Wars'' series to not make use of the [[StageCraft]] digital background technology.<ref name="NoStageCraft" /> Filming locations included [[Black Park]] in Buckinghamshire, England for the flashback scenes, as well as at Middle Peak Quarry in Derbyshire, England.<ref name="FilmingLocations" />

=== Music ===
[[Nicholas Britell]] composed the musical score for the episode.<ref name="Britell" /><ref name="BritellVarietyMay2022" /> The episode's soundtrack was released in December 2022 as part of the third volume for the series.<ref name="Soundtrack" />

{{Track listing
| headline = ''Andor: Episode 11 (Original Soundtrack)''
| total_length = 9:56
| title1 = Andor (Main Title Theme) – Episode 11
| length1 = 0:43
| title2 = Tell Me They’re Leaving/Bee
| length2 = 1:27
| title3 = The Daughters of Ferrix
| length3 = 1:43
| title4 = Dewi and Freedi Pamular
| length4 = 0:54
| title5 = Full Fondor
| length5 = 1:27
| title6 = Your Mother Is Dead
| length6 = 3:42
}}

== Release ==
"Daughter of Ferrix" was released on Disney+ on November 16, 2022.<ref name="ReleaseDate" />

== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
{{Expand section|date=August 2023}}
The [[review aggregator]] website [[Rotten Tomatoes]] reports a 94% approval rating, based on 17 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Treating fans to a terrific dogfight while also breaking their hearts with a stern reminder about the cost of rebellion, ''Andor'' continues to impress."<ref>{{Cite Rotten Tomatoes |id=andor |type=tv |title=Daughter of Ferrix |season=1 |episode=11 |access-date=August 3, 2023}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=



<ref name="Disney+SeriesFeb2018">{{Cite web |last1=Goldberg |first1=Lesley |last2=Couch |first2=Aaron |date=February 6, 2018 |title='Star Wars' TV Series: Disney Developing "a Few" for Its Streaming Service |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/star-wars-tv-series-disney-developing-a-few-streaming-service-1082523 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611003731/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/star-wars-tv-series-disney-developing-a-few-streaming-service-1082523 |archive-date=June 11, 2019 |access-date=August 1, 2018 |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Luna">{{Cite magazine |last=Lang |first=Brent |date=November 8, 2018 |title='Star Wars': Diego Luna to Lead Spinoff Series |url=https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/star-wars-diego-luna-1203023798/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115010213/https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/star-wars-diego-luna-1203023798/ |archive-date=November 15, 2018 |access-date=December 1, 2018}}</ref>

<ref name="Schiff">{{Cite web |last=Andreeva |first=Nellie |date=November 30, 2018 |title=Disney+ 'Star Wars' Series Starring Diego Luna Taps Stephen Schiff As Showrunner |url=https://deadline.com/2018/11/star-wars-series-diego-luna-taps-stephen-schiff-showrunner-disney-plus-streaming-1202511875/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609070401/https://deadline.com/2018/11/star-wars-series-diego-luna-taps-stephen-schiff-showrunner-disney-plus-streaming-1202511875/ |archive-date=June 9, 2019 |access-date=June 9, 2019 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Gilroy">{{Cite magazine |last=Otterson |first=Joe |date=October 15, 2019 |title='Rogue One' Writer Tony Gilroy Joins Cassian Andor 'Star Wars' Series at Disney Plus (Exclusive) |url=https://variety.com/2019/tv/news/cassian-andor-series-tony-gilroy-diego-luna-disney-plus-1203370479/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403065859/https://variety.com/2019/tv/news/cassian-andor-series-tony-gilroy-diego-luna-disney-plus-1203370479/ |archive-date=April 3, 2020 |access-date=April 24, 2020}}</ref>

<ref name="VanityFairMay2022">{{Cite magazine |last=Breznican |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Breznican |date=May 17, 2022 |title=Star Wars: The Rebellion Will Be Televised |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/05/star-wars-cover-the-rebellion-will-be-televised |url-status=live |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517114556/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/05/star-wars-cover-the-rebellion-will-be-televised |archive-date=May 17, 2022 |access-date=May 17, 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>

<ref name="O'ReillyGough">{{Cite web |last=Kit |first=Boris |date=April 24, 2020 |title='Star Wars': Cassian Andor Disney+ Series Adds Two Actors (Exclusive) |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/star-wars-cassian-andor-disney-series-adds-two-actors-1291772/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424203338/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/star-wars-cassian-andor-disney-series-adds-two-actors-1291772 |archive-date=April 24, 2020 |access-date=May 27, 2022 |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref>

<ref name="PreProdApr2020">{{Cite web |last=KingPatel |date=April 10, 2020 |title=Exclusive: Cassian Andor Disney+ Series Had Completed About Six Weeks Of Pre-Production Prior To Shut Down |url=https://www.comicbookmovie.com/tv/star_wars/cassian_andor/exclusive-cassian-andor-disney-series-had-completed-about-six-weeks-of-pre-production-prior-to-shut-down-a174467 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414141324/https://www.comicbookmovie.com/tv/star_wars/cassian_andor/exclusive-cassian-andor-disney-series-had-completed-about-six-weeks-of-pre-production-prior-to-shut-down-a174467 |archive-date=April 14, 2020 |access-date=December 5, 2020 |website=Comic Book Movie}}</ref>

<ref name="O'ReillyGough2">{{Cite magazine |last=Otterson |first=Joe |date=April 24, 2020 |title=Cassian Andor Disney Plus Series Adds Genevieve O'Reilly, Denise Gough |url=https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/cassian-andor-disney-plus-series-genevieve-oreilly-denise-gough-1234589631/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424234821/https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/cassian-andor-disney-plus-series-genevieve-oreilly-denise-gough-1234589631/ |archive-date=April 24, 2020 |access-date=December 5, 2020}}</ref>

<ref name="Haynes">{{Cite web |last=Kroll |first=Justin |date=September 22, 2020 |title='Black Mirror's Toby Haynes To Direct 'Rogue One' Spin-Off Series At Disney+ As Tony Gilroy Steps Aside As Director |url=https://deadline.com/2020/09/black-mirrors-toby-haynes-rogue-one-disney-tony-gilroy-1234582109/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923033035/https://deadline.com/2020/09/black-mirrors-toby-haynes-rogue-one-disney-tony-gilroy-1234582109/ |archive-date=September 23, 2020 |access-date=September 22, 2020 |website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]}}</ref>

<ref name="AnnouncementVideo">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gSW-pARyP-M |title=Sizzle Reel {{!}} Andor {{!}} Disney+ |date=December 10, 2020 |last=[[Star Wars]] |publisher=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

<ref name="WGACredits">{{Cite web |title=Andor (2021–2022) |url=https://directories.wga.org/project/1225499/andor/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611153055/https://directories.wga.org/project/1225499/andor/ |archive-date=June 11, 2022 |access-date=June 11, 2022 |website=[[Writers Guild of America West]]}}</ref>



<ref name="Structure">{{Cite web |last=Khosla |first=Proma |date=November 9, 2022 |title='Andor' Was Never Meant to Be Political |url=https://www.indiewire.com/features/general/andor-not-political-disney-plus-tony-gilroy-interview-1234780620/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518200016/https://www.indiewire.com/features/general/andor-not-political-disney-plus-tony-gilroy-interview-1234780620/ |archive-date=May 18, 2023 |access-date=July 30, 2023 |website=[[IndieWire]]}}</ref>

<ref name="ColliderGilroy">{{Cite web |last=Lovitt |first=Maggie |date=November 21, 2022 |title='Andor': Tony Gilroy Explains Why Cassian and Melshi Had to Go Their Separate Ways |url=https://collider.com/andor-cassian-melshi-seperate-ways-explained-tony-gilroy-comments/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121175725/https://collider.com/andor-cassian-melshi-seperate-ways-explained-tony-gilroy-comments/ |archive-date=November 21, 2022 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |website=[[Collider (website)|Collider]]}}</ref>

<ref name="VultureGilroy">{{Cite web |last=Hadadi |first=Roxana |date=November 23, 2022 |title=Tony Gilroy Built ''Andor''{{'s}} Finale Crescendo First |url=https://www.vulture.com/article/andor-tony-gilroy-finale-interview.html |url-access=limited |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123171214/https://www.vulture.com/article/andor-tony-gilroy-finale-interview.html |archive-date=November 23, 2022 |access-date=August 3, 2023 |website=[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]]}}</ref>



<ref name="EndCredits">{{Cite episode |title=Daughter of Ferrix |url=https://www.disneyplus.com/video/81361203-cc00-49dd-b60f-8b9203d165d3 |series=Andor |series-link=Andor (TV series) |last=Gilroy |first=Tony |author-link=Tony Gilroy |network=[[Disney+]] |date=November 16, 2022 |season=1 |number=11 |url-access=subscription}} End credits begin at 38:06.</ref>



<ref name="LunaFilmingStart">{{Cite web |last=Paz |first=Maggie Dela |date=December 4, 2020 |title=Cassian Andor: Diego Luna Confirms Disney+ Series Has Begun Filming |url=https://www.comingsoon.net/tv/news/1157097-cassian-andor-has-begun-filming |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205100627/https://www.comingsoon.net/tv/news/1157097-cassian-andor-has-begun-filming |archive-date=December 5, 2020 |access-date=December 5, 2020 |website=[[ComingSoon.net]]}}</ref>

<ref name="TitleAnnouncementVerge">{{Cite web |last=Peters |first=Jay |date=December 10, 2020 |title=Star Wars: Andor starring Rogue One's Diego Luna is coming to Disney Plus in 2022 |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/10/22168641/star-wars-andor-cassian-disney-plus-2022-diego-luna |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211000155/https://www.theverge.com/2020/12/10/22168641/star-wars-andor-cassian-disney-plus-2022-diego-luna |archive-date=December 11, 2020 |access-date=December 10, 2020 |website=[[The Verge]]}}</ref>

<ref name="CleveleysFilming">{{Cite web |date=May 11, 2021 |title=Last Traces of Star Wars Filming in Cleveleys |url=https://www.visitcleveleys.co.uk/about/seafront/star-wars-filming-in-cleveleys/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517145417/https://www.visitcleveleys.co.uk/about/seafront/star-wars-filming-in-cleveleys/ |archive-date=May 17, 2021 |access-date=May 17, 2021 |website=Visit Cleveleys}}</ref>

<ref name="PinewoodFilming">{{Cite web |last= |date=December 8, 2020 |title=Star Wars: Andor filming at Pinewood Studios until summer 2021 |url=https://www.kftv.com/news/2020/12/08/star-wars-andor-filming-at-pinewood-studios-until-summer-2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209093224/https://www.kftv.com/news/2020/12/08/star-wars-andor-filming-at-pinewood-studios-until-summer-2021 |archive-date=December 9, 2020 |access-date=May 30, 2021 |publisher=[[Kemps Film and TV Production Services Handbook|KFTV]]}}</ref>

<ref name="NoStageCraft">{{Cite web |last=Kim |first=Matt |date=May 27, 2022 |title=Andor Is the First Star Wars Show for Disney That 'Doesn't Lean' on StageCraft |url=https://www.ign.com/articles/andor-no-stagecraft-disney-star-wars |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527005842/https://www.ign.com/articles/andor-no-stagecraft-disney-star-wars |archive-date=May 27, 2022 |access-date=May 28, 2022 |website=[[IGN]]}}</ref>

<ref name="FilmingLocations">{{Cite web |last=Guimarães |first=Elisa |date=December 3, 2022 |title='Andor' Filming Locations: Where Was the 'Star Wars' Show Shot? |url=https://collider.com/where-was-andor-shot-filming-locations/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207191234/https://collider.com/where-was-andor-shot-filming-locations/ |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |access-date=April 10, 2023 |website=[[Collider (website)|Collider]]}}</ref>



<ref name="Britell">{{Cite web |date=February 16, 2022 |title=Nicholas Britell to Score Disney+'s 'Rogue One' Prequel Series 'Andor' |url=https://filmmusicreporter.com/2022/02/16/nicholas-britell-to-score-disneys-rogue-one-prequel-series-andor/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216221909/https://filmmusicreporter.com/2022/02/16/nicholas-britell-to-score-disneys-rogue-one-prequel-series-andor/ |archive-date=February 16, 2022 |access-date=February 16, 2022 |website=Film Music Reporter}}</ref>

<ref name="BritellVarietyMay2022">{{Cite magazine |last=Burlingame |first=Jon |date=May 27, 2022 |title='Succession' Composer Nicholas Britell Enters the 'Star Wars' Universe With Music for 'Andor' (Exclusive) |url=https://variety.com/2022/artisans/news/star-wars-andor-music-succession-composer-nicholas-britell-1235279455/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528061635/https://variety.com/2022/artisans/news/star-wars-andor-music-succession-composer-nicholas-britell-1235279455/ |archive-date=May 28, 2022 |access-date=May 28, 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="Soundtrack">{{Cite web |title=Details for 'Andor' – Volume 3 (Episodes 9-12) Soundtrack Album Revealed |url=https://filmmusicreporter.com/2022/12/08/details-for-andor-volume-3-episodes-9-12-soundtrack-album-revealed/ |access-date=2022-12-09 |website=filmmusicreporter.com}}</ref>



<ref name="ReleaseDate">{{Cite web |date=August 1, 2022 |title=New ''Andor'' Trailer Goes Big On Rebel Action, And Updated Premiere Details Revealed |url=https://www.starwars.com/news/new-andor-trailer-premiere-date |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801123236/https://www.starwars.com/news/new-andor-trailer-premiere-date |archive-date=August 1, 2022 |access-date=August 1, 2022 |website=[[StarWars.com]]}}</ref>





}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb episode|13848060}}
* {{Wookieepedia episode|Daughter of Ferrix}}

{{Andor}}
[[Category:Andor (TV series) episodes]]
[[Category:2022 American television episodes]]
[[Category:Television episodes written by Tony Gilroy]]

Maurepas

2023-05-09T07:18:40Z

Mutichou: fixed typo

'''Maurepas''' may refer to:
* [[Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas]], French statesman Count of Maurepas (Yvelines)
* [[Fort Maurepas]], also known as Old Biloxi, a settlement in Louisiana (New France)
* [[Maurepas, Louisiana]], an unincorporated community in the United States
* [[Lake Maurepas]], a lake in Louisiana, United States
* [[Fort Maurepas (Canada)]], a fort in Manitoba
* [[Maurepas, Somme]], a French ''commune'' in the Somme département
* [[Maurepas, Yvelines]], a French ''commune'' in the Yvelines département, the place of origin of Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux and all namesakes of Maurepas.
{{Disambiguation|geo}}

Deutschlandsberg

2023-03-05T14:03:40Z

Mutichou: the stress is on the second syllable according to de:Deutschlandsberg and that's how it sounds in the recording

{{One source|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Deutschlandsberg
| native_name =
| settlement_type =

| image_skyline = Blick auf Deutschlandsberg.jpg
| imagesize =
| image_caption = Deutschlandsberg
| image_shield = AUT Deutschlandsberg COA.svg
| shield_link =

| pushpin_map = Austria
| pushpin_mapsize = 270
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Austria
| image_map =
| mapsize =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location within Deutschlandsberg district

| coordinates = {{coord|46|48|58|N|15|12|54|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Austria]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of Austria|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Styria]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[District (Austria)|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Deutschlandsberg District|Deutschlandsberg]]
| parts_type =
| parts_style = para
| p1 =

| leader_title = [[Burgomaster|Mayor]]
| leader_name = Josef Wallner
| leader_party = {{Polparty|Austria|SPÖ}}
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =

| area_footnotes = {{Austria population Wikidata|area_footnotes}}
| area_total_km2 = {{Austria population Wikidata|area_total_km2}}
| area_metro_km2 =
| elevation_m = 372
| elevation_max_m =
| elevation_min_m =
| population_as_of = {{Austria population Wikidata|population_as_of}}
| population_footnotes = {{Austria population Wikidata|population_footnotes}}
| population_total = {{Austria population Wikidata|population_total}}
| population_urban =
| population_metro =
| population_note =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| established_title =
| established_date =
| timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| timezone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| registration_plate = [[Vehicle registration plates of Austria|DL]]
| postal_code_type = [[List of postal codes in Austria|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 8530
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in Austria|Area code]]
| area_code = 03462
| website = [http://www.deutschlandsberg.at www.deutschlandsberg.at]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Deutschlandsberg''' ({{IPA-de|dɔʏtʃˈlantsbɛʁk|lang|De-Deutschlandsberg.ogg}}; {{lang-sl|Lonč}}) is a town in [[Deutschlandsberg (district)|Deutschlandsberg district]] of Styria, Austria. It is located in southern Austria, near the border with [[Slovenia]]. It is approximately 35 km from [[Graz]]. Popular tourist attractions include the [[Deutschlandsberg Castle]].

==Population==
{{Historical populations
|align=left
|1869|3008
|1880|3938
|1890|4462
|1900|4833
|1910|5132
|1923|5078
|1934|5389
|1939|3493
|1951|6720
|1961|6693
|1971|7295
|1981|7620
|1991|7760
|2001|7983
|2011|8136
}}
{{clear-left}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.deutschlandsberg.at/ Official Website (in German)]
{{commons category|Deutschlandsberg}}

{{Cities and towns in Deutschlandsberg (district)}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Deutschlandsberg District]]

{{Styria-geo-stub}}

Proto-Esperanto

2022-09-25T08:48:36Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 1111743710 by 2603:900A:1C01:6238:4427:D626:EB39:F560 (talk): again, undid changes by a user whose hobby is trying to reform Esperanto through Wikipedia

{{short description|Language sketches by Zamenhof prior to Esperanto}}
{{About|early versions of Esperanto|a fictional ancestor language to Esperanto|Arcaicam Esperantom}}

{{Infobox language
|name = Proto-Esperanto
|nativename = {{lang|art|Lingwe uniwersala}}, {{lang|eo|Lingvo universala}}
|speakers = none
|familycolor = Constructed language
|fam2 = [[international auxiliary language]]
|script = [[Latin script|Latin]]
|creator = [[L. L. Zamenhof]]
|created = 1878–1881
|setting = [[international auxiliary language]]
|posteriori =
|isoexception = historical
|glotto=none
}}
{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=History}}

'''Proto-Esperanto''' ({{lang-eo|Pra-Esperanto}}) is the modern term for any of the stages in the evolution of [[L. L. Zamenhof]]'s [[Esperanto|language project]], prior to the publication of {{lang|eo|[[Unua Libro]]}} in 1887.

==The {{lang|art|Lingwe uniwersala}} of 1878==
As a child, Zamenhof had the idea to introduce an [[international auxiliary language]] for communication between different nationalities. He originally wanted to revive some form of simplified [[Latin]] or [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]], but as he grew older he came to believe that it would be better to create a new language for his purpose. During his teenage years he worked on a language project until he thought it was ready for public demonstration. On December 17, 1878 (about one year before the first publication of [[Volapük]]), Zamenhof celebrated his 19th birthday and the birth of the language with some friends, who liked the project. Zamenhof himself called his language {{lang|art|Lingwe Uniwersala}} (Universal Language).

''W'' is used for ''v''. Otherwise, all modern Esperanto letters are attested apart from ''ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ''. Known verb forms are present ''-á'', imperative ''-ó'', infinitive ''-are''.<ref>Zamenhof appears to have not distinguished acute and grave accents in his orthography (Kiselman 2010:53).</ref> Nouns were marked by ''-e'' in the singular and ''-es'' in the plural; the article was singular ''la'' and plural ''las''. It appears that there was no accusative case, and that stress was as in modern Esperanto, except when marked, as in ''-á'' and ''-ó''.

Only four lines of the {{lang|art|Lingwe uniwersala}} stage of the language from 1878 remain, from an early song that Zamenhof composed:

{{Verse translation
|Malamikete de las nacjes,
Kadó, kadó, jam temp' está;
La tot' homoze in familje
Konunigare so debá.
|Enmity of nations,
Fall, fall, the time has come! ''[lit. "already it is time!"]''
All humanity in a family
Must unite.
|lang=art|attr1=L.L.Zamenhof}}

In modern Esperanto, this would be,
{{lang|eo|<poem>Malamikeco de la nacioj,
Falu, falu, jam temp' estas;
La tuta homaro en familion
Unuiĝi [= kununuigi sin] devas.</poem>}}

{{lang|eo|Jam temp' está}} remains an idiom in modern Esperanto, an allusion to this song.

==The {{lang|eo|Lingvo universala}} of 1881==
While at university, Zamenhof handed his work over to his father, Mordechai, for safe-keeping until he had completed his medical studies. His father, not understanding the ideas of his son and perhaps anticipating problems from the [[Okhranka|Tsarist police]], burned the work. Zamenhof did not discover this until he returned from university in 1881, at which point he restarted his project. A sample from this second phase of the language is this extract of a letter from 1881:

:{{lang|eo|Ma plej kara [ami] miko, kvan ma plekulpa plumo faktidźas tiranno pu to. Mo poté de cen taj brivoj kluri, ke sciigoj de [tuc fuc] fu-ći specco debé[j] blessi tal fradral kordol; mo vel vidé tol jam ...}}
Modern: {{lang|eo|Mia plej kara amiko, neniam mia senkulpa plumo fariĝus tirano por vi. Mi povas de cent viaj leteroj konkludi, kiel sciigoj de tiu-ĉi speco devas vundi vian fratan koron; mi kvazaŭ vidas vin jam ...}}
:(My dearest friend, never (lit. 'when') would my innocent pen become a tyrant for you. From a hundred of your letters I can conclude that announcements of this kind must wound your brotherly heart; I [can] already see you thus...)

By this time the letter ''v'' had replaced ''w'' for the [v] sound; verbal inflection for person and number had been dropped; the nominal plural was ''-oj'' in place of ''-es'' (as well as adjectival ''-a'' and adverbial ''-e''); and the noun cases were down to the current two (though a genitive ''-es'' survives today in the correlatives). The accusative case suffix was ''-l'', but in many cases was only used on pronouns:
:{{lang|eo|Fu'''l'''-ći rudźo e fu'''l'''-ći fiaro debá kini la princaŭ}} ({{lang|eo|Tiu'''n'''-ĉi rozo'''n''' kaj tiu'''n'''-ĉi najtingalo'''n''' devadis ricevi la princino}}) 'The princess needed to receive this rose and this nightingale'.

Beside the stronger Slavic flavor of the orthography (''ć, dź, h́, ś, ź'' for ''ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ŝ, ĵ'') compared to the modern language, the imperfective verb forms (present and imperfect) still had final stress:
: present tense ''-è'', [[imperfect]] ''-à'', [[preterite]] ''-u'', future ''-uj'', conditional ''-as'', jussive ''-ó'', and infinitive ''-i''.

The pronouns ended in a nominal ''o'' (or adjectival ''a'' for possessives: ''mo'' "I", ''ma'' "my"), but there were other differences as well, including a conflation of 'he' and 'it':

:{| class=wikitable
!'''1881 pronouns'''||singular||plural
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|1st person||''mo''||''no''
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2nd person||''to''||''vo''
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|3rd masc./neut.||''ro''||rowspan=2|''po''
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|3rd feminine||''śo''
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|3rd reflexive||colspan=2|''so''
|}
In addition, there was indefinite ''o'' 'one'.

The correlatives were similarly close, though it is not clear if there was a distinction between indefinite and relative forms (modern ''i-'' and ''ki-''; these may have corresponded to ''kv-'' and ''k-'') and no possessive forms are known:

:{| class="wikitable"
! ||-o||-u||-a||-e||-al||-el||-am||-om
|-
|'''ti-''' ||fo ||fu ||fa ||fi ||fej ||fe ||fan||
|-
|'''ki- / i-''' ||kvo, ko ||kvu, ku ||kva   || || ||kve, ke ||kvan, kan|| kom
|-
|'''ĉi-''' ||ćio ||ćiu || ||ćii || || ||ćian ||
|-
|'''neni-''' ||fio ||fiu || || || || ||fian ||
|}
The last row was evidently pronounced as ''fj-''.

Esperanto at this stage had a consonantal [[ablaut]] in verbs, with a voiceless consonant for an attempt at something, and a voiced consonant for success. For example, {{lang|eo|aŭti}} to listen (for), {{lang|eo|aŭdi}} to hear; {{lang|eo|trofi}} to look for, {{lang|eo|trovi}} to find; {{lang|eo|prufi}} to argue (a point), {{lang|eo|pruvi}} to prove. Traces of this remain in a few pairs of words such as {{lang|eo|pesi}} 'to weigh (an item)' and {{lang|eo|pezi}} 'to weigh (have weight)' (cf. their derivatives {{lang|eo|pesilo}} 'scales' & {{lang|eo|pezilo}} 'a weight').<ref>Kiselman (2010:64–65)</ref>

==Transition to the modern Esperanto of 1887==
Zamenhof refined his ideas for the language for the next several years. Most of his refinements came through translation of literature and poetry in other languages. The final stress in the verb conjugations was rejected in favour of always stressing the second-last vowel, and the old plural ''-s'' on nouns became a marker of finite tenses on verbs, with an imperfect ''-es'' remaining until just before publication. The Slavic-style acute diacritics became [[circumflex]]es to avoid overt appearances of nationalism, and the new bases of the letters ''ĵ, ĝ'' (for former ''ź, dź)'' helped preserve the appearance of Romance and Germanic vocabulary.

In 1887 Zamenhof finalized his tinkering with the publication of the {{lang|eo|[[Unua Libro]]}} (''First Book''), which contained the [[Esperanto]] language as we know it today. In a letter to [[Nikolai Borovko]] he later wrote,
{{Quote|I've worked for six years perfecting and testing the language, when in the year 1878 it had already seemed completely ready to me.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}|Zamenhof}}
==Later proposals by Zamenhof==
By 1894, several proposals of changes on Esperanto had appeared.
Zamenhof was pressured to answer and presented [[Reformed Esperanto|a reformed version]] himself.
The changes were not well received by the community and were later rejected by Zamenhof.

==Further reading==
* [[Gaston Waringhien]], in his book {{lang|eo|[[Lingvo kaj Vivo]]}} (''Language and Life''), analyzed the evolution of the language through manuscripts from 1881, 1882, and 1885.

==See also==
*[[Arcaicam Esperantom]] – a constructed fictitious 'archaic' version of Esperanto.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*Christer Kiselman, 2010. {{lang|eo|Variantoj de esperanto iniciatitaj de Zamenhof}}. In [http://www2.math.uu.se/~kiselman/havanouea.pdf ''Esperanto: komenco, aktualo kaj estonteco''], UEA. Compares the variants of 1878, 1881, 1887, 1894, and 1906.

[[Category:Esperanto history]]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]

Language complexity

2022-03-25T09:49:44Z

Mutichou: removed useless category

'''Language complexity''' is a topic in [[linguistics]] which can be divided into several sub-topics such as [[Phonology|phonological]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]], [[Syntax|syntactic]], and [[Semantics|semantic]] complexity.<ref name="Miestamo2008">{{cite book |last1=Miestamo |first1=Matti |first2=Kaius |last2=Sinnemäki |first3=Fred |last3=Karlsson (eds.) |title=Language Complexity: Typology, Contact, Change |volume=94 |location=Amsterdam |publisher=[[John Benjamins]] |pages=356 |year=2008 |doi=10.1075/slcs.94 |series=Studies in Language Companion Series |isbn=978 90 272 3104 8 }}</ref><ref name="Wurzel2001">{{cite journal |last1=Wurzel |first1=Wolfgang Ullrich |title=Creoles, complexity, and linguistic change |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=5 |issue=2/3 |pages=377–387 |year=2001 |issn =1430-0532 }}</ref> The subject also carries importance for [[language evolution]].<ref name="Sampson2009">{{cite book |editor1-last=Sampson |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor1-link=Geoffrey Sampson |editor2-last=Gil |editor2-first=David |editor2-link=David Gil (linguist) |editor3-last=Trudgill |editor3-first=Peter |editor3-link=Peter Trudgill |date=2009 |title=Language Complexity as an Evolving Variable |series=Studies in the Evolution of Language |volume=13 |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199545216 |oclc=227962299}}</ref>

Language complexity has been studied less than many other traditional fields of linguistics. While the [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]] is turning towards recognizing that complexity is a suitable research area, a central focus has been on [[Methodology of science|methodological]] choices. Some languages, particularly [[pidgin]]s and [[Creole language|creoles]], are considered simpler than most other languages, but there is no direct ranking, and no universal method of measurement although several possibilities are now proposed within different schools of analysis.<ref name="Joseph2012">{{cite journal |last1=Joseph |first1=John E. |first2=Frederick J. |last2=Newmeyer |author-link2=Frederick Newmeyer |title='All Languages Are Equally Complex': The rise and fall of a consensus |journal=Historiographia Linguistica |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=341–368 |year=2012 |doi=10.1075/hl.39.2-3.08jos }}</ref>

== History ==
Throughout the 19th century, differential complexity was taken for granted. The classical languages [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], as well as [[Sanskrit]], were considered to possess qualities which could be achieved by the rising European [[national language]]s only through an elaboration that would give them the necessary structural and lexical complexity that would meet the requirements of an advanced civilization. At the same time, languages described as 'primitive' were naturally considered to reflect the simplicity of their speakers.<ref name="Joseph2012" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Arkadiev|first=Peter|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1197563838|title=The complexities of morphology|last2=Gardani|first2=Francesco|year=2020|isbn=978-0-19-260551-1|location=Oxford|pages=1–2|oclc=1197563838}}</ref> On the other hand, [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]] noted that some nations "which appear to be at the very lowest grade of intellectual culture", such as [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Sámi languages|Sámi]] and some [[native American languages]], possess a striking degree of elaborateness.<ref name="Joseph2012" />

=== Equal complexity hypothesis ===
{{POV section|date=July 2021}}During the 20th century, linguists and [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] adopted a [[standpoint theory|standpoint]] that would reject any [[Nationalism|nationalist]] ideas about superiority of the languages of establishment. The first known quote that puts forward the idea that all languages are equally complex comes from Rulon S. Wells III, 1954, who attributes it to [[Charles F. Hockett]]. Within a year, the same idea found its way to [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]:
{{Quote|text=All languages of today are equally complex(.) -- There are no 'primitive' languages, but all languages seem to be equally old and equally developed.<ref name="Joseph2012" />}}

While laymen never ceased to consider certain languages as simple and others as complex, such a view was erased from official contexts. For instance, the 1971 edition of [[Guinness Book of World Records]] featured [[Saramaccan language|Saramaccan]], a creole language, as "the world's least complex language". According to linguists, this claim was "not founded on any serious evidence", and it was removed from later editions.<ref name="Arends2001">{{cite journal |last1=Arends |first1=Jacques |title=Simple grammars, complex languages |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=5 |issue=2/3 |pages=180–182 |year=2001 |issn =1430-0532 }}</ref> Apparent complexity differences in certain areas were explained with a balancing force by which the simplicity in one area would be compensated with the complexity of another; e.g. [[David Crystal]], 1987:
{{Quote|text=All languages have a complex grammar: there may be relative simplicity in one respect (e.g., no word-endings), but there seems always to be relative complexity in another (e.g., word-position).<ref name="McWhorter2001">{{cite journal |last1=McWhorter |first1=John H. |title=The world's simplest grammars are creole grammars |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=5 |issue=2/3 |pages=125–166 |year=2001 |issn =1430-0532 |doi=10.1515/lity.2001.001 }}</ref> }}

In 2001 the compensation hypothesis was eventually refuted by the [[creolistics|creolist]] [[John McWhorter]] who pointed out the absurdity of the idea that, as languages change, each would have to include a mechanism that calibrates it according to the complexity of all the other 6,000 or so languages around the world. He underscored that linguistics has no knowledge of any such mechanism.<ref name="McWhorter2001" />

Revisiting the idea of differential complexity, McWhorter argued that it is indeed creole languages, such as Saramaccan, that are structurally "much simpler than all but very few older languages". In McWhorter's notion this is not problematic in terms of the equality of creole languages because simpler structures convey [[logic|logical meanings]] in the most straightforward manner, while increased language complexity is largely a question of features which may not add much to the functionality, or improve usefulness, of the language. Examples of such features are [[Inalienable possession|inalienable possessive]] marking, [[switch-reference]] marking, syntactic asymmetries between [[Matrix clause|matrix]] and [[Subordination (linguistics)|subordinate clauses]], [[grammatical gender]], and other secondary features which are most typically absent in creoles.<ref name="McWhorter2001" />

During the years following McWhorter's article, several books and dozens of articles were published on the topic.<ref name=Newmeyer2014>{{cite book |editor1-last=Newmeyer |editor1-first=Frederick J. |editor1-link=Frederick Newmeyer |editor2-last=Preston |editor2-first=Laurel B. |date=2014 |title=Measuring Grammatical Complexity |series=Oxford Linguistics |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199685301 |oclc=869852316 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199685301.001.0001}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=December 2016}} As to date, there have been research projects on language complexity, and several workshops for researchers have been organised by various universities.<ref name="Miestamo2008" />

== Complexity metrics ==
At a general level, language complexity can be characterized as the number and variety of elements, and the elaborateness of their interrelational structure.<ref name="Rescher1998">{{cite book |last=Rescher |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Rescher |title=Complexity: A Philosophical Overview |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |location=New Brunswick |date=1998 |isbn=978-1560003779 }}</ref><ref name="Sinnemäki2011">{{cite thesis |last=Sinnemäki|first=Kaius|date=2011|title=Language universals and linguistic complexity: Three case studies in core argument marking |publisher=University of Helsinki |url=http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-10-7259-8|access-date=2016-04-28}}</ref> This general characterisation can be broken down into sub-areas:
* ''Syntagmatic complexity'': number of parts, such as word length in terms of phonemes, syllables etc.
* ''Paradigmatic complexity'': variety of parts, such as phoneme inventory size, number of distinctions in a grammatical category, e.g. aspect
* ''Organizational complexity'': e.g. ways of arranging components, phonotactic restrictions, variety of word orders.
* ''Hierarchic complexity'': e.g. recursion, lexical–semantic hierarchies.<ref name="Sinnemäki2011" />

Measuring complexity is considered difficult, and the comparison of whole natural languages as a daunting task. On a more detailed level, it is possible to demonstrate that some structures are more complex than others. Phonology and morphology are areas where such comparisons have traditionally been made. For instance, linguistics has tools for the assessment of the phonological system of any given language. As for the study of syntactic complexity, grammatical rules have been proposed as a basis,<ref name="McWhorter2001" /> but generative frameworks, such as the [[minimalist program]] and the Simpler Syntax framework, have been less successful in defining complexity and its predictions than non-formal ways of description.<ref name="Hawkins2014">{{cite book |last1=Hawkins |first1=John A. |chapter=Major contributions from formal linguistics to the complexity debate |editor1-last=Newmeyer |editor1-first=Frederick J. |editor1-link=Frederick Newmeyer |editor2=Preston |editor-first2=Laurel B. |title=Measuring Grammatical Complexity |pages=14–36 |isbn=9780199685301 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |date=2014 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199685301.003.0002 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=December 2016}}

Many researchers suggest that several different concepts may be needed when approaching complexity: entropy, size, description length, effective complexity, information, connectivity, irreducibility, low probability, syntactic depth etc. Research suggests that while methodological choices affect the results, even rather crude analytic tools may provide a feasible starting point for measuring grammatical complexity.<ref name="Sinnemäki2011" />

==Computational tools==
*[[Coh-Metrix]]
*[[L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Di Garbo |editor1-first=Francesca |editor2-last=Olsson |editor2-first=Bruno |editor3-last=Wälchli |editor3-first=Bernhard |date=2019 |title=Grammatical Gender and Linguistic Complexity, Volume 1: General Issues and Specific Studies |series=Studies in Diversity Linguistics |volume=26 |location=Berlin |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-96110-179-5 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.3446224 |doi-access=free |oclc=1150166021 |url=https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/223}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Di Garbo |editor1-first=Francesca |editor2-last=Olsson |editor2-first=Bruno |editor3-last=Wälchli |editor3-first=Bernhard |date=2019 |title=Grammatical Gender and Linguistic Complexity, Volume 2: World-Wide Comparative Studies |series=Studies in Diversity Linguistics |volume=27 |location=Berlin |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-3-96110-181-8 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.3446230 |doi-access=free |oclc=1150195371 |url=https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/237}}
* {{cite book |last=Miestamo |first=Matti |title=Language Complexity: Typology, Contact, Change |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |year=2008 |isbn=978-90-272-3104-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ristad |first=Eric |title=The Language Complexity Game |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-262-18147-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/languagecomplexi00rist }}
* {{cite book |last=Sweet |first=Henry |year=1899 |title=The Practical Study of Languages; A Guide for Teachers and Learners |publisher=J. M. Dent & Co. |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/practicalstudyof00swee |access-date=2011-03-15 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Sampson |editor1-first=Geoffrey |editor1-link=Geoffrey Sampson |editor2-last=Gil |editor2-first=David |editor2-link=David Gil (linguist) |editor3-last=Trudgill |editor3-first=Peter |editor3-link=Peter Trudgill |date=2009 |title=Language Complexity as an Evolving Variable |series=Studies in the Evolution of Language |volume=13 |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780199545216 |oclc=227962299}}
{{Refend}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
[[Category:Language]]

Proto-Esperanto

2022-01-12T11:35:18Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 1050772097 by 159.242.0.111 (talk) : for the 100th time, undid changes by a user whose hobby is trying to reform Esperanto through Wikipedia

Proto-Esperanto

2021-10-14T13:20:01Z

Mutichou: undid vandalism (falsifying quotes)

List of language proficiency tests

2021-02-01T08:27:12Z

Mutichou: +Esperanto

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{Primary sources|date=April 2009}}
The following is a non-exhaustive, but growing, list of standardized tests that assess a person's language proficiency of a foreign/secondary language. Various types of such exams exist per many languages—some are organized at an international level even through national authoritative organizations, while others simply for specific limited business or study orientation.

==Afrikaans==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Akan language|Akan]]-[[Twi]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Albanian language|Albanian]]==
* [https://info.flats.byu.edu/list-of-languages/ The Foreign Language Achievement Testing Service] at [[Brigham Young University]] offer both BYU and non-BYU students the opportunity to test their ability in the language
* [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)
* [[University of Tirana]] offers its own [https://www.fhf.edu.al/datat-e-provimit-per-mbrojtjen-e-gjuhes-shqipe/], levels A1-C2. Exams are held on the last Friday of every month, excepting July, August and December.

==[[American Sign Language]]==
* ASLPI<ref>http://www.gallaudet.edu/the-american-sign-language-proficiency-interview/aslpi</ref>

==[[Amharic]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Armenian language|Armenian]]==
* [https://info.flats.byu.edu/list-of-languages/ The Foreign Language Achievement Testing Service] at [[Brigham Young University]] offer both BYU and non-BYU students the opportunity to test their ability in the language
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Arabic language|Arabic]]==
* The Arabic Language Proficiency Test (ALPT)<ref>http://www.egypteducation.info/Tests/Language-Tests.html</ref> is a standardized Arabic proficiency test designed by Arabic Academy and endorsed by the Islamic Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ICCI). There are 56 member countries under ICCI that cover all 22 Arab countries as well as 34 countries in Africa and the Far East. The ALPT started in 2002 and measures the student's level of proficiency in Arabic. The ALPT has five sections: Listening Comprehension, Reading, Structure, Writing, Speaking.
* Eton Institute offers its own "Arabic Language Competency Test" (ALCT), a 4-skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening) exam which generates a band-score result similar to the IELTS model, but for Arabic.
* [http://e-toafl.com E-TOAFL] and Al-Arabiyyah tests by the AL_ARABIYYAH-INSTITUTE, are tests conducted online that measures a learner's level according to the CEFR benchmark.
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]
* CIMA (Certificat International de Maîtrise en Arabe)<ref>https://www.imarabe.org/fr/activites/cours-arabe/cima</ref> is a standardized Arabic proficiency test developed by the Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris, and is offered since 2018 in Paris (at the Institute) and in several accredited centres around the world.

==[[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani (Azeri)]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Baluchi language|Baluchi]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Bengali language|Bengali]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Brazilian Sign Language]]==
*ProLibras - Brazilian Sign Language Certificate<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ines.gov.br/|title=Instituto Nacional de Educação de Surdos - INES|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref>

==[[British Sign Language]]==
*Signature - British Sign Language Certificate Levels 1-6<ref>[http://www.signature.org.uk]</ref>
*iBSL - British Sign Language Certificate Levels 1-6<ref>[http://www.ibsl.org.uk/]</ref>
*[[Scottish Qualifications Authority]] - British Sign Language Certificate Levels 1-6, along with other related qualifications.<ref>[http://www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/65528.html]</ref>

== [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] ==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]==
*The Standard Test of Bulgarian as a Foreign Language
(STBFL) (Стандартизиран тест по
български език като чужд език (СТБЕЧ))
http://www.deo.uni-sofia.bg/bg/certificate/bg
https://www.mon.bg/upload/7447/reglament_BG_online.pdf
http://www.legacy.deo.uni-sofia.bg/alte/index.htm
http://www.deo.uni-sofia.bg/bg/coursis
http://www.deo.uni-sofia.bg/bg/language/bulgarian
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Cambodian language|Cambodian (Khmer)]]==
* [https://info.flats.byu.edu/list-of-languages/ The Foreign Language Achievement Testing Service] at [[Brigham Young University]] offer both BYU and non-BYU students the opportunity to test their ability in the language by a non-repeatable 144-question exam, the so-called [http://testingcenter.uci.edu/khmer.html Khmer Exemption Exam]
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Catalan language|Catalan]]==
*Certificats de català - [[Institut Ramon Llull]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.llull.cat/catala/aprendre_catala/certificats_examens.cfm|title=Certificats Català - Institut Ramon Llull – Llengua i cultura catalanes|author=Institut Ramon Llull|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref> Valid in most [[Catalan-speaking territories]], usually the first option in [[Catalonia]].
** Nivell bàsic (A2)
** Nivell elemental (B1)
** Nivell intermedi (B2)
** Nivell de suficiència (C1)
** Nivell superior (C2)
*Certificats de valencià - [[Junta Qualificadora de Coneixements de Valencià]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ceice.gva.es/ca/web/jqcv |title=Junta Qualificadora de Coneixements de Valencià|author=Junta Qualificadora de Coneixements de Valencià|access-date=24 May 2017}}</ref> Valid in most [[Catalan-speaking territories]], usually the first option in the [[Land of Valencia]].
** Nivell A2
** Nivell B1
** Grau mitjà (C1)
** Grau superior (C2)
*Certificats de català - [[Direcció General de Política Lingüística del Govern Balear]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.llull.cat/catala/aprendre_catala/certificats_examens_marc.cfm |title=Marc europeu comú de referència|author=[[Institut Ramon Llull]]|access-date=24 May 2017}}</ref> Valid in most [[Catalan-speaking territories]], usually the first option in the [[Balearic Islands]].
** Nivell A2
** Nivell B1
** Nivell B2
** Nivell C1
** Nivell C2

==[[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)
* [https://info.flats.byu.edu/list-of-languages/ The Foreign Language Achievement Testing Service] at [[Brigham Young University]] offer both BYU and non-BYU students the opportunity to test their ability in the language

==[[Chinese language|Chinese]]==

===[[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]]===
*[[Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi|HSK]] - Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi. Official test of Mandarin in mainland China, consisting of reading, writing, listening and comprehension
*HSKK - HSK Speaking Test. HSKK assesses the test takers’ oral Chinese abilities. HSKK consists of three levels, HSKK (Primary level), HSKK (Intermediate level) and HSKK (Advanced level). HSKK is conducted in the form of audio recording.
*[[Test of Chinese as a Foreign Language|TOCFL]] - Test of Chinese as a Foreign Language. Test used in Taiwan for Mandarin as a foreign language.
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE Chinese A0+ CEFR
* ILCE Chinese A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE Chinese A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Chinese A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Chinese A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Chinese A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Chinese A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Chinese A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Chinese A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Chinese Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]
* Certificados en Lenguas Extranjeras ([http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras CLE]). Certificate of proficiency in six foreign languages, Mandarin Chinese being one of them, issued by the Ministry of Education, City of Buenos Aires (Argentina). Tests the four skills. Targeted at primary and secondary-level students in the City of BA, for whom it is free of charge. See http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras
* TSC - Test of Spoken Chinese was conducted under the leadership of YBM, the largest language institute in Korea. Most large South Korean companies now require Chinese employees to pass the TSC.
* BCT - [[Business Chinese Test]], as an international, standardized test of Chinese language proficiency, focuses on assessing non-native Chinese speakers’ abilities to use the Chinese language in real business or common working environments and evaluating the language tasks they are able to complete. The BCT, as a test series, consists of three independent tests: BCT (A), BCT (B) and the BCT Speaking Test.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.hanban.org/node_8000.htm |title=BCT |access-date=17 July 2018}}</ref>

===[[Cantonese]]===
* Certificate in Chinese Language - [[University of Hong Kong]]<ref>[http://www.chinese.hku.hk/main/chinese-language-centre/certificate-in-chinese-language-courses-for-foreign-students/ Certificate in Chinese language courses, School of Chinese, University of Hong Kong]</ref>
** First Examination
** Certificate Examination
* Computerized Oral Proficiency Assessment (COPA) - assessment of oral and comprehension skills only<ref>[http://www.ycclc.cuhk.edu.hk/contentViewer.aspx?YRoGETac=MTI2ODl8fHNob3J0Y3V0fHw2MzYwMzk2MTkzMjY4OTk0MDU=&NOItACIfiTNEDi=NjM2MDM5NjE5MzI2ODk5NDA1fHwzMTB8fDEyNjg5 COPA at Yale-China Chinese Language Center at CUHK]</ref>
* Diploma Programme in Chinese as a Foreign/Second Language (Cantonese) - [[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]; levels: Foundation, Certificate, Diploma, Advanced<ref>[http://www.ycclc.cuhk.edu.hk/contentViewer.aspx?YRoGETac=NTM5NTJ8fGxpbmttYWlubHZsfHw2MzYwMzk2MDgzMzk1Mjk0MzY=&NOItACIfiTNEDi=NjM2MDM5NjA4MzM5NTI5NDM2fHw4OHx8NTM5NTI= Yale-China Chinese Language Center CUHK Cantonese programmes]</ref>
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

===[[Hokkien]]===
* MSC - Minnanhua Shuiping Ceshi ({{zh|s=闽南话水平测试|t=閩南話水平測試|poj=Bân-lâm-ōe Chúi-pêng Chhek-chhì|l=Hokkien Level Test}}). This is the first, and the only one for now, official standardized test of a [[variety of Chinese]] other than Mandarin in mainland China. It is a speaking test with four parts: reading out words, sentences, a passage and speaking on a topic. There is no preferred dialect of Hokkien for the test; any dialect may be used as long as the pronunciation is proper in that dialect. The first test was held in [[Xiamen]] on 19 November 2016 to select future examiners, and so it was only for people in the education, broadcasting and cultural sectors who have received prior trainings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xmnn.cn/xmnn/2016/11/20/100125859.shtml|title=厦门第一期闽南话水平测试举行老厦门人都说"难"|date=20 November 2016|access-date=8 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.toutiao.com/i6298867917450641921/|title=要考好闽南话有秘诀？猛戳这里，值得收藏的闽南话水平测试宝典！|date=22 June 2016|access-date=8 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_1564302|title=福建将推闽南话水平等级测试，以纯正度评判、录音方式考核|date=19 November 2016|access-date=8 December 2016}}</ref> The first test open to the public was held on 9 and 10 December 2017 in [[Xiamen]] and a free 2-day pre-test training was provided to test-takers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xmyywz.com/m/list!newsDetail.do?newsId=1738|title=关于举办闽南话水平测试及考前培训的通知|author=厦门市语言文字工作委员会办公室|date=8 November 2017|access-date=21 January 2018}}</ref>

====[[Taiwanese Hokkien]]====
* General Taiwanese Proficiency Test (GTPT) is a standardized proficiency test for speakers of Taiwanese designed by the Center for Taiwanese Languages Testing at [[National Cheng Kung University]], Tainan, Taiwan. In addition to GTPT, there is another International Taiwanese Proficiency Test (ITPT) for speakers of Taiwanese as a second language.<ref>[http://ctlt.twl.ncku.edu.tw/ Center for Taiwanese Languages Testing, NCKU]</ref>

==[[Czech language|Czech]]==
* [http://ujop.cuni.cz/en/exam/czech-language-certificate-exam CCE] - Czech Language Certificate Exam<ref>[http://ujop.cuni.cz/cce/index_en.php Czech Language Certificate Exam | UJOP UK] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918001918/http://ujop.cuni.cz/cce/index_en.php |date=2012-09-18 }}</ref>
* [[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages

==[[Danish language|Danish]]==
* [http://www.clavis.org/en/for-students/tests-and-examinations/danish-language-proficiency-test/ CLAVIS Danish Language Proficiency Test]
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Dari language|Dari]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Dutch language|Dutch]]==
*[[Nederlands als Tweede Taal]] (''Dutch as a second language'', abbreviated ''NT2''). A two-part examination required in the Netherlands to study at the tertiary level. Part I is less thorough than II. Successful completion gains a [[NT2-I]] or [[NT2-II]] [[diploma]]
*[[Certificaat Nederlands als vreemde taal]] (''CNavT''). A set of six exams, each aimed at confirming proficiency for specific fields. "Profile Tourist and Informal Language Proficiency (PTIT)" is equal to ECF A2, and "Profile Language Proficiency Higher Education" is equal to ECF B2 (both are accepted by most higher level education institutions in Belgium and the Netherlands).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnavt.org/main.asp?lan=13&typ=65 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2010-07-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722104355/http://www.cnavt.org/main.asp?lan=13&typ=65 |archive-date=2011-07-22 }}</ref>
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[English language|English]]==
* [https://tep.languagetesting.com/ ACTFL TEP] - ACTFL Test of English Proficiency
* [[AMIR (exam)|AMIR]] - English Proficiency Test for Higher Education in Israel
* [[Anglolinguist Language Certificate]]
* [http://www.babbel.com/englishtest/en Babbel English Test powered by Cambridge English]
* [[Berlitz Telelangue Language Audit]]
* [[Berlitz GTEC English Language Assessment]]
* [http://www.cal.org/aea/bl/ CAL BEST Literacy]
* [http://www.cal.org/aea/bp/ CAL BEST Plus 2.0]
* [http://www.cal.org/resource-center/publications/cal-ept-teachers CAL English Proficiency Test for Teachers (CAL EPT Teachers)]
* [http://www.cal.org/resource-center/publications/cal-ept-students CAL English Proficiency Tests for Students (CAL EPT Student] s)]
* [http://www.cal.org/resource-center/publications/cal-ept-students-diagnostic CAL English Proficiency Test: Diagnostic for Students (CAL EPT Diagnostic]
* [[Cambridge English Language Assessment|UCELA]] - University of Cambridge English Language Assessment
* [[A2 Key]] - UCELA (University of Cambridge English Language Assessment)
* [[B1 Preliminary]] - UCELA (University of Cambridge English Language Assessment)
* [[B2 First]] - UCELA (University of Cambridge English Language Assessment)
* [[C1 Advanced]] - UCELA (University of Cambridge English Language Assessment)
* [[C2 Proficiency]] - UCELA (University of Cambridge English Language Assessment)
* [[Cambridge Young Learners English Tests|Cambridge English: Young Learners (YLE) tests]] - UCELA (University of Cambridge English Language Assessment)
* [[CaMLA]] [[Examination_for_the_Certificate_of_Competency_in_English|ECCE (The Examination for the Certificate of Competency in English)]]
* [[CaMLA]] [[Examination_for_the_Certificate_of_Proficiency_in_English|ECPE (The Examination for the Certificate of Proficiency in English)]]
* [[CaMLA]] EPT (CaMLA English Placement Test)
* [[CaMLA]] ITASA (International Teaching Assistant Speaking Assessment)
* [[CaMLA]] [[MELAB]] (The Michigan English Language Assessment Battery)
* [[CaMLA]] MET (The Michigan English Test)
* Certificados en Lenguas Extranjeras ([http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras CLE]). Certificate of proficiency in six foreign languages, English being one of them, issued by the Ministry of Education, City of Buenos Aires (Argentina). Tests the four skills. Targeted at primary and secondary-level students in the City of BA, for whom it is free of charge. See http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras
* [http://www.worldeducation.info/International-Tests/Canada-CAEL.html (CAEL)] The Canadian Academic English Language Assessment
* [https://englishtest.duolingo.com Duolingo English Test (DET)] - [[Duolingo]]
* E3PT - [http://english3.com/english3-profiency-test.php English3 Proficiency Test]
* [http://english3.com/j1-interview.php E3J1 English Interview]
* [[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages
* [[EF Standard English Test]]
* ELSA [[English Language Skills Assessment]]
* [[Euroexam International]] at CEFR levels A1 to C1
* [[EXAMAGRAM]] - Free On-line English testing<ref>[http://www.examagram.com www.examagram.com]</ref>
* FluentIQ Test Center - High degree of accuracy, low cost, and almost instant results. Available online via www.fluentiq.com
* Former ELPT - [[English Language Proficiency Test]]
* [https://www.itestenglish.com/ GEP - Global English Proficiency Exams - United Kingdom] - Online and paper based English exams based on the CEFR. All four skills are tested, affordable, reliable and valid. A set of 8 exams for children, teens and adults.
* GTEC - Global Test of English Communication
* [[G-TELP]] - General Tests of English Language Proficiency Test
*[http://www.ielpt.com IELPT] - International English Language Proficiency Test
* [[IELTS]] - International English Language Testing System
* [[IELCA]] - International English Language Competency Assessment (www.lrnglobal.org)
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE English A1 CEFR
* ILCE English A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE English A2 CEFR
* ILCE English B1 CEFR
* ILCE English B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE English B2 CEFR
* ILCE English A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE English C1 CEFR
* ILCE English C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE English C2 CEFR
* ILCE English Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE English Gastronomy Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE English Nursing Care A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE English Sport Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE English Logistics Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE English For Students in Uniformed Classes For Students of High School A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* [[International Test of English Proficiency|iTEP]] - International Test of English Proficiency
* [[LanguageCert]] Entry Level Certificate in ESOL International (Entry 1) (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Preliminary A1)
*[[LanguageCert]] Entry Level Certificate in ESOL International (Entry 1) (Speaking) (Preliminary A1)
*[[LanguageCert]] Entry Level Certificate in ESOL International (Entry 2) (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Access A2)
*[[LanguageCert]] Entry Level Certificate in ESOL International (Entry 2) (Speaking) (Access A2)
*[[LanguageCert]] Entry Level Certificate in ESOL International (Entry 3) (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Achiever B1)
*[[LanguageCert]] Entry Level Certificate in ESOL International (Entry 3) (Speaking) (Achiever B1)
*[[LanguageCert]] Level 1 Certificate in ESOL International (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Communicator B2)
*[[LanguageCert]] Level 1 Certificate in ESOL International (Speaking) (Communicator B2)
*[[LanguageCert]] Level 2 Certificate in ESOL International (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Expert C1)
*[[LanguageCert]] Level 2 Certificate in ESOL International (Speaking) (Expert C1)
*[[LanguageCert]] Level 3 Certificate in ESOL International (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Mastery C2)
*[[LanguageCert]] Level 3 Certificate in ESOL International (Speaking) (Mastery C2)
* [[LanguageCert]] Young Learners ESOL Certificate (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Fox)
*[[LanguageCert]] Young Learners ESOL Certificate (Speaking) (Fox)
*[[LanguageCert]] Young Learners ESOL Certificate (Listening, Reading, Writing) (Owl)
*[[LanguageCert]] Young Learners ESOL Certificate (Speaking) (Owl)
* [https://www.msu-exams.gr/el] MSU- Michigan State University
* MHLE - Iran Ministry of Health Language Exam
* [[Ministry of Science, Research and Technology (Iran)|MSRT]] - Iran Ministry of Science, Research and Technology language exam (Also known as MCHE)<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20031203182447/http://www.msrt.ir/]</ref><ref>[http://msrt-exam.saorg.ir/]</ref>
* [[Malaysian University English Test|MUET]]
*[[Occupational English Test|Occupational English Test (OET)]] is specifically designed for healthcare professionals
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]
* [[Oxford Test of English]] (OTE) - Four skill online computer-adaptive test, CEFR A2, B1, and B2
* PAPORA - On-line Accreditation of A1/A2 English Proficency
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A1- CSPA / ASPA level I (speaking exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A1 CSPA / ASPA level II (speaking exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A1+ CSPA / ASPA level III (speaking exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A1- Entry level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A1 Access level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A1+ Achiever level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A2 Preliminary level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - A2+ Elementary level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - B1 Progress level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - B2 Competency level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - C1 First Class level (four-skill exam)
* [https://pathexaminations.com/ Path International Examinations] - C2 Expert level (four-skill exam)

* [[PTE Academic]] - On-line testing
* [[PTE General]] - A series of six exams from [[Pearson Language Assessments]] (formerly known as the London Tests of English)
* [[STEP Eiken|STEP EIKEN]] - Test in Practical English Proficiency (Japan)
* Test of English as a Functional Language (IIT Kanpur, India)
* [[TEPS]] - Test of English Proficiency ([[South Korea]])
* [[The European Language Certificates|TELC]] - The European Language Certificates
* [[TIEC]] - Test of International English Competency
* [[TOEFL]] - Test of English as a Foreign Language
* [[TOEIC]] - Test of English for International Communication
* [[TOLIMO]] - The Test of Language by the Iranian Measurement Organization<ref>[http://www.tolimo.sanjesh.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712052754/http://tolimo.sanjesh.org/|date=2015-07-12}}</ref>
* [[TrackTest|TrackTest English Proficiency Test]] - Online English Assessment Center using six [[Common European Framework of Reference for Languages|CEFR]] levels.
* [[TSE (examination)|TSE]] - Test of Spoken English
* [[Trinity College London ESOL]]
* TWE - [[Test of Written English]]
* UBELT - [[University of Bath]] English Language Test
* [http://www.ukae.org UKAE Exams]

===Canadian English language test for permanent resident status===
* The [[Canadian English Language Proficiency Index Program]] (CELPIP) is an English language proficiency test designated by Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) for permanent resident status in Canada and Canadian citizenship.

==[[Esperanto]]==
* [https://edukado.net/ekzamenoj/ker CEFR certification for levels B1, B2, C1].

==[[Estonian language|Estonian]]==
* [http://www.innove.ee/en/language-examination Estonian Language Proficiency Examinations], a.k.a. Eesti keele tasemeeksamid

==[[Finnish language|Finnish]]==
*Various, Yleiset kielitutkinnot from Opetushallitus<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oph.fi/yleiset_kielitutkinnot|title=Opetushallitus - Yleiset kielitutkinnot|access-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414013234/http://www.oph.fi/yleiset_kielitutkinnot|archive-date=14 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[French language|French]]==
*TEF - [[Test d'évaluation du français]]
*TCF - [[Test de connaissance du français]]
*TFI - [[Test de français international]]
*[[Diplôme d'études en langue française|Diplôme d'études en langue française (DELF)]] - Levels: A1, A2, B1, B2.
*[[Diplôme approfondi de langue française|Diplôme approfondi de langue française (DALF)]] - Levels: C1, C2.
*[http://www.paris-sorbonne.fr/selfee Examens de langue française] ([[Paris-Sorbonne University|Université Paris-Sorbonne IV]]) - Levels: B1, B2, C1, C2, C3
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages
*[[The European Language Certificates|TELC]] - The European Language Certificates
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE French A0+ CEFR
* ILCE French A1 CEFR
* ILCE French A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE French A2 CEFR
* ILCE French B1 CEFR
* ILCE French B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE French B2 CEFR
* ILCE French A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE French C1 CEFR
* ILCE French C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE French C2 CEFR
* ILCE French A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE French A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE French A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE French B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE French B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE French A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE French A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE French B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only writing
* ILCE French B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE French A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE French A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE French B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only listening
* ILCE French B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE French Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE French Gastronomy Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR

* Certificados en Lenguas Extranjeras ([http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras CLE]). Certificate of proficiency in six foreign languages, French being one of them, issued by the Ministry of Education, City of Buenos Aires (Argentina). Tests the four skills. Targeted at primary and secondary-level students in the City of BA, for whom it is free of charge. See http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras

==[[French Sign Language]]==
* Le Diplôme de Compétence en Langue des Signes Française (DCL)<ref>http://www.cpformation.com/dcl-diplome-de-competence-en-langue/dcl-de-langue-des-signes-francaise/</ref> est un diplôme qui a été créé spécifiquement pour les adultes, c’est un diplôme national et reconnu par les besoins du monde professionnel actuel.

==[[Ga language|Ga]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Galician language|Galician]]==
*[[Certificate of Galician Studies|CELGA]] - Certificado en lingua galega - [[Xunta de Galicia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.xunta.es/linguagalega/validacion_de_estudos_de_galego |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-04-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150425103543/http://www.xunta.es/linguagalega/validacion_de_estudos_de_galego |archive-date=2015-04-25 }} (in Galician)</ref>

==[[Georgian language|Georgian]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[German language|German]]==
*[[Deutsches Sprachdiplom Stufe I and II]] (DSD) - German as a foreign language
*[[Deutsche Sprachprüfung für den Hochschulzugang|DSH]] - Deutsche Sprachprüfung für den Hochschulzugang
*[[TestDaF]] - Test Deutsch als Fremdsprache

DSD II, DSH, and TestDaF are accepted by any university in Germany. They are officially recognised as university entrance qualifications. Other tests may be considered, but no guarantees are given. In other German-speaking countries the situation varies.

*[[Zertifikat Deutsch|ZD]] - Zertifikat Deutsch
*[[Zertifikat Deutsch für den Beruf|ZDfB]] - Zertifikat Deutsch für den Beruf
*[[ÖSD (Österreichisches Sprachdiplom Deutsch)]] - Austrian German Diploma
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages
* A1 level (Start Deutsch 1) from the [[Goethe-Institut#Exams|Goethe-Institut]]
* A2 level (Start Deutsch 2) from the Goethe-Institut
* B1 level (Goethe-Zertifikat B1) from the Goethe-Institut
* B2 level (Goethe-Zertifikat B2) from the Goethe-Institut
* C1 level (Goethe-Zertifikat C1) from the Goethe-Institut
* C2 level (Großes Deutsches Sprachdiplom) from the Goethe-Institut
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]
* Certificados en Lenguas Extranjeras ([http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras CLE]). Certificate of proficiency in six foreign languages, German being one of them, issued by the Ministry of Education, City of Buenos Aires (Argentina). Tests the four skills. Targeted at primary and secondary-level students in the City of BA, for whom it is free of charge. See http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras
* [[Euroexam International]] at CEFR levels A2 to C1
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE German A0+ CEFR
* ILCE German A1 CEFR
* ILCE German A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE German A2 CEFR
* ILCE German B1 CEFR
* ILCE German B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE German B2 CEFR
* ILCE German A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE German C1 CEFR
* ILCE German C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE German C2 CEFR
* ILCE German A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE German A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE German A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE German B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE German B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE German A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE German A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE German B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only writing
* ILCE German B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE German A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE German A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE German B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only listening
* ILCE German B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE German Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE German Gastronomy Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE German Nursing Care A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR

==[[Greek language|Greek]]==
*KGP - [[State Certificate of Language Proficiency]]
*[http://www.greeklanguage.gr/certification/ Πιστοποίηση Ελληνομάθειας] - Certification of Attainment in Greek (Administered by the Center for the Greek Language, in accordance with CEFRL)
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

* Fairfax Public Schools offers proficiency testing in Greek for its own students https://www.fcps.edu/academics/high-school-academics-9-12/world-languages/credit-exam-world-languages

==[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Haitian Creole]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Hausa language|Hausa]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]==
* The Hebrew Proficiency Test [https://www.nite.org.il/index.php/en/tests/yael.html (YAEL)] takes place in Israel and is taken by students who seek to demonstrate a sufficient knowledge of Hebrew for the sake of university admissions.
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages.
*[[Georgetown University]] offers proficiency testing in [https://arabic.georgetown.edu/hebrew/hebrew-placement-exam/ this language] for its own students.
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Hindi language|Hindi]]==
* Kendriya Hindi Sansthan [http://mhrd.gov.in/language-education-10]
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Assessment of Performance toward Proficiency in Languages (APPL) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.actfl.org/assessment-professional-development/assessments-the-actfl-testing-office/aappl|title=ACTFL Assessment of Performance toward Proficiency in Languages {{!}} American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|website=www.actfl.org|language=en|access-date=2018-05-03}}</ref>

==[[Hmong language|Hmong-Mong]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]==
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages
<ref>[http://www.ecl.hu/pages/Default.aspx?lang=en European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815050644/http://www.ecl.hu/pages/Default.aspx?lang=en |date=2013-08-15 }}</ref> The certificate examinations are staged on four levels of language proficiency according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
:*A2 – beginner;
:*B1 – basic;
:*B2 – intermediate;
:*C1 – advanced.
* [[Eötvös Loránd University|ELTE]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160425012250/http://www.elte.hu/en/language_courses/hungarian Hungarian Language Courses] from complete beginner (A1) to proficiency levels (C2)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160402040523/http://www.itk.hu/index.php?id=19&fomenu=8&menu=19&lang=hun ORIGO Egynyelvű vizsga] (Hungarian-only exam) by [[Idegennyelvi Továbbkepző Központ]] levels B1, B2 and C1 recognized by the [[Hungary|Hungarian State]]
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Igbo language|Igbo]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]==
* UKBI (Uji Kemahiran Berbahasa Indonesia) also called TOIFL (Test of Indonesian as a Foreign Language)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uji Kemahiran Berbahasa Indonesia (UKBI)|url=https://ukbi.kemdikbud.go.id|website=ukbi.kemdikbud.go.id|publisher=[[Language and Book Development Agency|Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan]]}} </ref>
* BIPA (Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur Asing)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bahasa Indonesia bagi penutur asing (BIPA)|url=http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/info_bipa|website=badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id|publisher=[[Language and Book Development Agency|Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan]]}}</ref>
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Irish language|Irish]]==
* [[Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teg.ie/|title=Maidir le teg (About teg)}}</ref>

==[[Italian language|Italian]]==
According to the Ministero degli Esteri (Italian Foreign Affairs), there are four officials Italian certifications approved [http://www.esteri.it/MAE/EN/Sala_Stampa/ArchivioNotizie/Comunicati/2013/02/20130206_cliq.htm CLIQ] (Certificato di Lingua Italiana di Qualità): CILS, CELI, PLIDA and .IT ROMA TRE
*[[CILS (Qualification)]] - Certificazione di Italiano come Lingua Straniera
*[[CELI]] - Certificato di Conoscenza della Lingua Italiana
* [[PLIDA]] - Certificazione Progetto Lingua Italiana Dante Alighieri
* [[.IT ROMA TRE]] - Certificazione dell'ITaliano come lingua straniera
*[[The European Language Certificates|TELC]] - The European Language Certificates
*[[AIL (Qualification)]] - Accademia Italiana di Lingua, Diploma Elementare di Lingua Italiana DELI A1 A2, Diploma Intermedio di Lingua Italiana DILI B1 B2, Diploma Avanzato di Lingua Italiana DALI C1, C2, Diploma Commerciale di Lingua Italiana DILC B1 DALC C1
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]
* Certificados en Lenguas Extranjeras ([http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras CLE]). Certificate of proficiency in six foreign languages, Italian being one of them, issued by the Ministry of Education, City of Buenos Aires (Argentina). Tests the four skills. Targeted at primary and secondary-level students in the City of BA, for whom it is free of charge. See http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE Italian A0+ CEFR
* ILCE Italian A1 CEFR
* ILCE Italian A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE Italian A2 CEFR
* ILCE Italian B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Italian A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Italian C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE Italian A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE Italian A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Italian A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Italian B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Italian B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Italian A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Italian A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Italian B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Italian B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Italian A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Italian A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Italian B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Italian B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Italian Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE Italian Gastronomy Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR

==[[Japanese language|Japanese]]==
*[[Japanese Language Proficiency Test|JLPT]] - Japanese Language Proficiency Test (N5, N4, N3, N2, N1)
*[[The Japanese Language NAT-TEST|NAT-TEST]] - The Japanese Language NAT-TEST
*[[Business Japanese Proficiency Test|BJT]] - Business Japanese Proficiency Test (ビジネス日本語能力テスト)
*[[Examination for Japanese University Admission|EJU]] - Examination for Japanese University Admission (日本留学試験)
*[[Nihongo Kentei]] - Overall Japanese language proficiency test（日本語検定）
*[[Kanji kentei]] - Japanese Kanji Aptitude Test (日本漢字能力検定試験)
*[https://kotowaza-kentei.jp Japan Proverb Test]
*[[J-Test]]
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE Japanese A0+ CEFR
* ILCE Japanese A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE Japanese A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Japanese A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Japanese A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Japanese A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Japanese A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Japanese A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Japanese A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Japanese Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]

==[[Japanese Sign Language]]==
* Zenkoku-Shuwa Kentei<ref>http://kentei.com-sagano.com/syuwakentei/</ref>

==[[Javanese language|Javanese]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Kashmiri language|Kashimiri]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]==
* [http://www.kazakhtest.kz KAZTEST]
Levels : Reasonable grade
Elementary : 31-64 grades
Pre-Intermediate : 65-104 grades
Intermediate : 105-119 grades
Upper-Intermediate : 120-134 grades
Advanced : 135-145 grades
Higher advanced : 146-150 grades
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Klingon language|Klingon]]==
* [[Klingon Language Institute]] (Klingon Language Certification Program)

==[[Kongo language|Kikongo-Kongo]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Korean language|Korean]]==
*[http://exam.ybmsisa.com/kpe/eng_main.asp KPE]- Korean proficiency Exam
*[[TOPIK]] - Test of Proficiency in Korean
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE Korean A0+ CEFR
* ILCE Korean A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE Korean A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Korean A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Korean A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Korean A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Korean A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Korean A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Korean A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Korean Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]

==[[Krio language|Krio]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]==
* КЫРГЫЗТЕСТ [http://kyrgyztest.gov.kg]

==[[Lao language|Lao (Laotian)]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Latin language|Latin]]==
*[[AP Latin]]
*[[Certamen Ciceronianum Arpinas]]
*[[National Latin Exam]]

==[[Latvian language|Latvian]]==
*State Language Proficiency Certificate in Latvian<ref>{{cite web|url=http://visc.gov.lv/en/stlang/|title=State Language Examination|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://visc.gov.lv/valval/prasmesparb.shtml |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-06-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602083308/http://visc.gov.lv/valval/prasmesparb.shtml |archive-date=2013-06-02 }}</ref>

==[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]==
*Level Examinations of Language Proficiency for Lithuanian<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lsk.flf.vu.lt/en/department/testing/level-examinations/general-information/|title=General Information|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref>

==[[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish ]]==
*LaF - Diplom Lëtzebuergesch als Friemsprooch<ref name="laf_insl">{{cite web|url=http://www.insl.lu/Francais/page3/p3frame.htm|title=Institut national des langues - INL|access-date=2 May 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508061725/http://www.insl.lu/Francais/page3/p3frame.htm|archive-date=8 May 2015}}</ref>

==[[Malay language|Malaysian]]==
* The Malay Language Proficiency Certification Test, a.k.a. [http://alamiyyah.usim.edu.my/the-malay-language-proficiency-certification-test-for-non-malaysian-skbmw/ Sijil Kecekapan Bahasa Melayu Bagi Warganegara Asing (SKBMW)], endorsed by The Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia, and governed by Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia (MPM) a.k.a. Malaysian Examinations Council;
* [https://www.moe.gov.sg/careers/teach/entrance-proficiency-test/malay-language-entrance-proficiency-test The Malay Language Entrance Proficiency Test (ML EPT)], only applicable for applicants being considered for teaching Malay in Singapore.
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]==
* Mongolian Language Proficiency Test (MLPT)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://catalog.num.edu.mn/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=107134}}</ref>
*[https://info.flats.byu.edu/list-of-languages/ The Foreign Language Achievement Testing Service] at [[Brigham Young University]] offer both BYU and non-BYU students the opportunity to test their ability in the language
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Burmese language|Myanmar (Burmese)]]==
* [http://www.mlt-myanmar.com/index.php/about-mlt/ MLT]: Test levels include MB, M1, M2, M3, M4, M5.
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Nepali language|Nepali]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]==
*Norsk Språktest - Folkeuniversitetet:<ref>[http://www.folkeuniversitetet.no/english-pages/norsk-spraktest/side-id-10296/ Norsk Språktest - Folkeuniversitetet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130410054959/http://www.folkeuniversitetet.no/english-pages/norsk-spraktest/side-id-10296/ |date=2013-04-10 }}</ref>
:*Norskprøve 2 for voksne innvandrere - Level A2;
:*Norskprøve 3 for voksne innvandrere - Level B1;
:*Test i norsk - høyere nivå - Advanced Level ([[Bergenstest]]en).
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)
- Bergenstest for voksne innvandrere - Level B2

==[[Persian language|Persian (Farsi)]]==
* SAMFA Standard Persian Language Proficiency Test [http://dubai.mfa.ir/?siteid=222&fkeyid=&siteid=222&pageid=5305&newsview=496430]
* [[Ankara University]] [[TÖMER]] [http://www.tomer.ankara.edu.tr/en/subeler/100/sayfa/883/persian Persian course] offering levels A1 to C1
* [[Georgetown University]] offers proficiency testing in [https://arabic.georgetown.edu/persian/persian-placement-exam/ this language] for its own students.
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]

==[[Polish language|Polish]]==
* [[Certificate Examinations in Polish as a Foreign Language]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.certyfikatpolski.pl/index.php?lang=en|title=Home page|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref> The certificate examinations are staged on three levels of language proficiency:
:*B1 – basic;
:*B2 – general intermediate;
:*C2 – advanced.
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]==

===Brazilian Portuguese===
*[[CELPE-Bras]] - Brazilian Certificate of Proficiency in Portuguese for Foreigners<ref>{{cite web|url=http://portal.inep.gov.br/celpebras-estrutura_exame|title=Estrutura do Exame - Inep|access-date=2 May 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507104745/http://portal.inep.gov.br/celpebras-estrutura_exame|archive-date=7 May 2015}}</ref>
* Certificados en Lenguas Extranjeras ([http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras CLE]). Certificate of proficiency in six foreign languages, Portuguese being one of them, issued by the Ministry of Education, City of Buenos Aires (Argentina). Tests the four skills. Targeted at primary and secondary-level students in the City of BA, for whom it is free of charge. See http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/educacion/idiomas/certificados-en-lenguas-extranjeras
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]

===European Portuguese===
*[[The European Language Certificates|TELC]] - The European Language Certificates (Portuguese Level B1 only)
*[[CAPLE]] - Centre for Evaluation of the Portuguese Language (Centro de Avaliação de Português Língua Estrangeira)<ref>[http://ww3.fl.ul.pt/caple/default.aspx Centro de Avaliação de Português Língua Estrangeira] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614155552/http://ww3.fl.ul.pt/caple/default.aspx |date=2012-06-14 }}</ref>
:*ACESSO - Certificado acesso ao português (Level A1)
:*CIPLE - Certificado inicial de português língua estrangeira (Level A2)
:*DEPLE - Diploma elementar de português língua estrangeira (Level B1)
:*DIPLE - Diploma intermédio de português língua estrangeira (Level B2)
:*DAPLE - Diploma avançado de português língua estrangeira (Level C1)
:*DUPLE - Diploma universitário de português língua estrangeira (Level C2)
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]

==[[Romanian language|Romanian]]==

* [https://www.ilr.ro/atestate/ Romanian Language Institute] (not to be confused with [[Romanian Cultural Institute]])
** [https://www.ilr.ro/category/atestate/sesiuni-de-atestare/ Certificat de competență lingvistică]

* [[University of Bucharest]]
** [https://unibuc.ro/studii/centre-de-limbi-straine/centrul-de-limbi-straine-al-universitatii-din-bucuresti/ Certificat CLS] ("Centrul de Limbi Străine")

* [[Babeș-Bolyai University]] ([[Cluj-Napoca]])
** [http://romaniandepartment.com/certificate/atestat-de-limba-romana/descriere/ Atestat de limba română] (B2 only)

* [[ECL Language tests | ECL Examination System]]
** [https://ecl.org.ro/ro/despre-ecl Certificat ECL] (A2/B1/B2/C1)

==[[Russian language|Russian]]==
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE Russian A0+ CEFR
* ILCE Russian A1 CEFR
* ILCE Russian A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE Russian A2 CEFR
* ILCE Russian B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Russian A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Russian C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE Russian A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE Russian A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Russian A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Russian B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Russian B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Russian A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Russian A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Russian B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Russian B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Russian A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Russian A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Russian B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Russian B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Russian Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR

*[[Test of Russian as a Foreign Language]]
*[[The European Language Certificates|TELC]] - The European Language Certificates
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]

==[[Serbian language|Serbian]]==
* Nacionalni sertifikat o poznavanju srpskog jezika<ref>[http://www.srpskijezik.edu.rs/index.php?id=1160&jzk=sr Национални сертификат о познавању српског језика за странце], National Serbian language proficiency certificate for foreigners</ref> organised by the Department of Philology of the [[Univerzitet u Beogradu]]

==[[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Slovak language|Slovak]]==
* Certificate of Slovak language proficiency. Levels: A2, B1, B2, C1, C2.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdv.uniba.sk/ujop/certifikovana-skuska-zo-slovenciny-ako-cudzieho-jazyka/|title=Certifikovaná skúška zo slovenčiny ako cudzieho jazyka - Centrum ďalšieho vzdelávania Univerzity Komenského|access-date=2 September 2017}}</ref>
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - European Consortium for the Certificate of Attainment in Modern Languages
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Slovene language|Slovene]]==
* Izpit iz znanja slovenščine. Levels: A1 (Breakthrough), A2/B1 (Basic), B2 (Intermediate), C1/C2 (Advanced).<ref>[http://centerslo.si/izpiti/izpiti-iz-znanja-slovenscine/ Izpit iz znanja slovenščine], Center za slovenščino kot drugi in tuji jezik</ref> Offered by the Department of Philosophy of the [[Univerza v Ljubljani]]
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Somali language|Somali]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Spanish language|Spanish]]==
* [http://www.siele.org] SIELE - Servicio Internacional de Evaluación de la Lengua Española
*CELA - Certificado de Español como Lengua Adicional del Centro de Enseñanza para Extranjeros (CEPE) de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM). 3 Levels: Independent Level (B1), Advanced Level (B2) and Proficiency Level (C2)
*[[Certificate of Use of Language in Spanish|CELU]] - Certificado de Español: Lengua y Uso, Certificate of Spanish: Language and use.
*[http://www.mecd.gob.es/educacion-mecd/areas-educacion/estudiantes/ensenanza-idiomas.html Certificado de las Escuelas Oficiales de Idiomas], Spain - Diploma de español, level "Básico" - A2, "Intermedio" - B1, "Avanzado" - B2, C1
*[[Diplomas de Español como Lengua Extranjera|DELE]] - Diplomas de Español como Lengua Extranjera. Levels: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2.
*[[ECL Language tests|ECL]] - Consorcio Europeo para el Certificado en Lenguas Modernas
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/esPro-BULATS/Tests/Pages/Tests.aspx LanguageCert] USAL esPro Comprensión auditiva y de lectura
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/esPro-BULATS/Tests/Pages/Tests.aspx LanguageCert] USAL esPro Expresión escrita
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/esPro-BULATS/Tests/Pages/Tests.aspx LanguageCert] USAL esPro Expresión oral
* ACTFL [[Oral Proficiency Interview - computer|OPIc]]
* ILCE CEFR Exam System
* ILCE Spanish A0+ CEFR
* ILCE Spanish A1 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish A1 / A2 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish A2 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 / C2 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish A1 / A2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Spanish A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Spanish B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Spanish B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only speaking
* ILCE Spanish A1 / A2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Spanish A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Spanish B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Spanish B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only writing
* ILCE Spanish A1 / A2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Spanish A2 / A2+ / B1 / B1+ / B2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Spanish B1 / B1+ / B2 / B2+ / C1 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Spanish B2 / B2+ / C1 / C1+ / C2 CEFR only listening
* ILCE Spanish Tourism and Hotel Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
* ILCE Spanish Gastronomy Sector A1 / A2 / B1 / B2 / C1 CEFR
*[[The European Language Certificates|TELC]] - The European Language Certificates

==[[Spanish Sign Language]]==
* The University of Granada offers a course in Spanish Sign Language<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20180125134451/https://www.ugr.es/~cm/cursos/gr20.html</ref> The exam consists of two parts:
** Expression (a text for the students to sign)
** Compression (a signed video for the students to write up in a Word document)

== [[Swahili language|Swahili (Kiswahili)]] ==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Swedish language|Swedish]]==
*[[Swedex]] - Swedex consists of three different levels corresponding to the A2, B1 and B2 levels in the [[Common European Framework of Reference for Languages]]. It can be taken in examination centres in twenty-five different countries. Swedex tests the skills of the student in five different areas: vocabulary, grammar, listening, writing and reading.
*[[Test in Swedish for University Studies|TISUS]] - Test in Swedish for University Studies is another certificate, often used as a proof of competence in Swedish to gain access to Swedish universities.
*Stockholm Chamber of Commerce Certificate in Business Swedish<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.utbildning.se/certificate-in-business-swedish-15331|title=Stockholm Chamber of Commerce Certificate in Business Swedish|author=utbildning.se|access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref>
*[http://www.oph.fi/utbildning_och_examina/sprakexamina/allmanna_sprakexamina Allmänna språkexamina], Ulbildningsstyrelse (Finland)
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Tagalog language|Tagalog (Filipino)]]==
* [https://info.flats.byu.edu/list-of-languages/ The Foreign Language Achievement Testing Service] at [[Brigham Young University]] offer both BYU and non-BYU students the opportunity to test their ability in the language by a non-repeatable 80-question exam, the so-called [http://testingcenter.uci.edu/tagalog.html Tagalog Exemption Exam]
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Tajik language|Tajik]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Tamil language|Tamil]]==
* [https://ajalang.com AJA Assessment] AJA Assessment Tamil Language Proficiency Test in Reading, Writing, Listening & Speaking
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Telugu language|Telugu]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Thai language|Thai]]==
*[http://www.sti.chula.ac.th/academic/non-native/CU-TFL The Chulalongkorn University Proficiency Test of Thai as a Foreign Language (CU-TFL)] : CU-TFL is a standardized proficiency test for speakers of Thai as a foreign language designed by the Sirindhorn Thai Language Institute, Chulalongkorn University, located in Bangkok.
*The School of Language and Culture of the Technology Promotion Association (Thailand-Japan) offers its own [http://www.tpa.or.th/slc/banner.php?content=OTc= Thai proficiency test].
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI).

==[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Turkish language|Turkish]]==
* Turkish Proficiency Exam - Türkçe Yeterlik Sınavı (TYS)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://turkcesinavi.com|title=TÜRKÇE YETERLİK SINAVI|access-date=2 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://yee.org.tr/turkiye/tr/turkce-yeterlik-sinavi|title=Türkçe Yeterlik Sınavı ( TYS ) - Yunus Emre Enstitüsü|author=Tasarım ve Uygulama : Aren Tanıtım|access-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421084204/http://www.yee.org.tr/turkiye/tr/turkce-yeterlik-sinavi|archive-date=21 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*UTS - Distance Turkish Test (Uzaktan Türkçe Sınavı)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utstomer.com/english/Default.aspx|title=UTS - Uzaktan Türkçe SÄ±navÄ±(Distance Turkish Test)|access-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413201824/http://www.utstomer.com/english/default.aspx|archive-date=13 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[http://www.tomer.ankara.edu.tr/html/uts.html Ankara Üniversitesi TÖMER - Uzaktan Türkçe Sınavı] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405042047/http://www.tomer.ankara.edu.tr/html/uts.html |date=2013-04-05 }}</ref>
*[[The European Language Certificates|TELC]] - The European Language Certificates
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet A1 (Dinleme, Okuma, Yazma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet A1 (Konuşma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet A2 (Dinleme, Okuma, Yazma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet A2 (Konuşma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet B1 (Dinleme, Okuma, Yazma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet B1 (Konuşma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet B2 (Dinleme, Okuma, Yazma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet B2 (Konuşma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet C1 (Dinleme, Okuma, Yazma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet C1 (Konuşma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet C2 (Dinleme, Okuma, Yazma)
*[http://www.languagecert.org/en/turkish/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet/Pages/languagecert-au-tomer-turkyet.aspx LanguageCert] AÜ TÖMER TürkYet C2 (Konuşma)

==[[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Uyghur language|Uighur]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Urdu language|Urdu]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]==
* VINATEST - Kỳ thi đánh giá năng lực Tiếng Việt (Hanoi University)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vinatest.hanu.vn/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130221091821/http://vinatest.hanu.vn/ |archive-date=2013-02-21 }}</ref>
* NLTV - Kỳ thi năng lực Tiếng Việt (VNS)<ref>[http://www.vns.edu.vn/vns/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=5&Itemid=9&lang=vi]</ref>
* IVPT - Kỳ Thi Năng Lực Tiếng Việt Quốc Tế (International Vietnamese Proficiency Test) was designed by Center for Vietnamese Studies at National Cheng Kung University (Taiwan) for the speakers of Vietnamese as second language in Taiwan.<ref>[http://cvs.twl.ncku.edu.tw] Center for Vietnamese Studies, National Cheng Kung University, TAIWAN</ref>

==[[Welsh language|Welsh]]==
* [[WJEC (exam board)|WJEC]] offers [http://www.wjec.co.uk/qualifications/welsh-for-adults/ Defnyddio'r Gymraeg] tests at Mynediad (Entry) level, Sylfaen (Foundation) level, Canolradd (Intermediate) and Uwch (Advanced) level.

==[[Wolof language|Wolof]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Wu Chinese|Wu]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==[[Zulu language|Zulu]]==
* Official [[American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages|ACTFL]] Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Language tests| ]]
[[Category:Education-related lists]]

Duolingo

2021-01-25T20:24:25Z

Mutichou: /* Criticism */ spelling of name

{{short description|language-learning platform}}
{{multiple issues|
{{third-party|date=October 2020}}
{{shortlead|date=September 2020}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox website
| name = Duolingo, Inc.
| logo = Duolingo_logo (2019).svg
| collapsible = yes
| screenshot = Duolingo homepage.png
| caption = Duolingo [[homepage]]
| company_type = [[Privately held company]]
| location = [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], United States
| area_served = World
| founder = [[Luis von Ahn]], [[Severin Hacker]]
| CEO = [[Luis von Ahn]]
| industry = [[Online education]], [[Professional certification#Language education|Professional certification]], [[Translation]], [[Crowdsourcing]]
| services = Language courses, Duolingo English Test, Duolingo for Schools, Tinycards flashcard app
| revenue = {{Increase}}$ 36 million USD in 2018<ref name="Forbes2019" />
| operating_income =
| international = yes
| employees = 200+<ref name=Twitter2019>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/duolingo/status/1198993548797984775/ |title=We're thankful for our 200+ employees who have come from all around the world to help make education more accessible. |access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref>
| url = {{URL|https://www.duolingo.com}}
| programming_language = [[Kotlin (programming language)|Kotlin]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.duolingo.com/migrating-duolingos-android-app-to-100-kotlin|title=Migrating Duolingo's Android app to 100% Kotlin|website=blog.duolingo.com}}</ref> [[Swift (programming language)|Swift]],<ref name="real world swift">{{cite web|url=http://making.duolingo.com/real-world-swift|title=Real World Swift – Making Duolingo Blog|website=making.duolingo.com}}</ref> [[React (JavaScript library)|React]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[Scala (programming language)|Scala]]<ref name="making.duolingo.com">{{cite web|url=http://making.duolingo.com/rewriting-duolingos-engine-in-scala|title=Rewriting Duolingo's engine in Scala – Making Duolingo Blog|website=making.duolingo.com}}</ref>[[HTML]], [[CSS]], [[JavaScript]]
| advertising = Yes
| registration = Yes
| users = >300 million users<ref name="active users">{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2018/08/01/duolingo-hires-its-first-chief-marketing-officer-as-active-user-numbers-stagnate/|title=Duolingo hires its first chief marketing officer as active user numbers stagnate but revenue grows|author=Frederic Lardinois |access-date=21 November 2018}}</ref>
| language = {{Collapsible list
|title=[[multilingualism|Multilingual]]
|[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]
|[[Catalan language|Catalan]] (Through Spanish only)
|[[Standard Chinese|Chinese]] (Mainland Chinese Standard Mandarin, Simplified Characters)
|[[Czech language|Czech]]
|[[Danish language|Danish]]
|[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|[[English language|English]] (American)
|[[Esperanto]]
|[[French language|French]] (European)
|[[Finnish language|Finnish]]
|[[German language|German]]
|[[Greek language|Greek]]
|[[Guarani language|Guarani]] (Through Spanish only)
|[[Haitian Creole]]
|[[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
|[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
|[[Hindi]]
|[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
|[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
|[[Irish language|Irish]]
|[[Italian language|Italian]]
|[[Japanese language|Japanese]]
|[[Latin language|Latin]]
|[[Korean language|Korean]]
|[[Navajo language|Navajo]]
|[[Bokmål|Norwegian]] (Bokmål)
|[[Polish language|Polish]]
|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (Brazilian)
|[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
|[[Russian language|Russian]]
|[[Scottish Gaelic]]
|[[Spanish language|Spanish]] (Latin American)
|[[Swahili language|Swahili]]
|[[Swedish language|Swedish]]
|[[Thai language|Thai]] (Interface language for learning English only)
|[[Turkish language|Turkish]]
|[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
|[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (Northern Vietnamese)
|[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
|[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]}}
| launched = {{start date and age|2011|11|30|df=yes}} (private beta) {{start date and age|2012|06|19|df=yes}} (public release)
| current_status = Online
| native_clients = [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[iOS]], [[Windows Phone]], [[Windows 10 Mobile]], [[Web Browser]]
}}

'''Duolingo''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|d|uː|oʊ|ˈ|l|ɪ|ŋ|ɡ|oʊ|,_|d|j|uː|-|,_|d|ʒ|uː|-}} {{respell|D(Y)OO|oh|LING|goh}}) is an American language-learning website and mobile app, as well as a digital language-proficiency assessment exam. The company uses the [[freemium]] model; the app and the website are accessible without charge, although Duolingo also offers a premium service for a fee.

As of 13 October 2020, the language-learning website and app offered 98 different language courses in 38 languages.<ref>https://www.duolingo.com/courses/all</ref> The app has over 300 million registered users across the world.<ref name="bizjournals201603">{{cite web |url=http://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2016/03/23/duolingo-moving-to-east-liberty-plans-to-add.html | publisher=The Business Journals | title=Duolingo moving to East Liberty, plans to add employees |access-date=24 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://venturebeat.com/2015/06/10/100m-users-strong-duolingo-raises-45m-led-by-google-at-a-470m-valuation-to-grow-language-learning-platform | work = Venture beat | title=100M users strong, Duolingo raises $45M led by Google at a $470M valuation to grow language-learning platform |access-date=21 June 2015| date = 10 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher = Microsoft | work = Windows phone | url= http://www.windowsphone.com/en-us/store/app/duolingo-learn-languages-for-free/2d89520e-d360-4b5b-ba5a-5a15064aa935 |title=Duolingo – Learn Languages for Free |access-date=21 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/parulguliani/2016/07/22/duolingo-looks-to-dominate-the-mobile-education-market-with-new-flashcard-app/#5530e29a63ff|title=Duolingo Looks To Dominate The Mobile Education Market With New Flashcard App TinyCards|last=Guliani|first=Parul|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref>

==History==
The project was initiated at the end of 2009 in [[Pittsburgh]] by [[Carnegie Mellon University]] professor [[Luis von Ahn]] (creator of [[reCAPTCHA]]) and his graduate student [[Severin Hacker]], and then developed along with Antonio Navas, Vicki Cheung, Marcel Uekermann, Brendan Meeder, Hector Villafuerte, and Jose Fuentes.<ref name="TechCrunch Article">{{cite news|url=https://techcrunch.com/2011/04/12/duolingo/ |work=TechCrunch|title=Meet Duolingo, Google's Next Acquisition Target; Learn A Language, Help The Web | first =MG | last = Siegler |date=12 April 2011|access-date=21 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="Duolingo Team">{{cite web|url=http://twitpic.com/4sjlpm | publisher= Twitpic|title=The Duolingo Team}}</ref><ref name="vator.tv">{{Cite web|url=https://vator.tv/news/2018-06-22-when-duolingo-was-young-the-early-years|title=When Duolingo was young: the early years|date=2018-06-22|website=VatorNews|access-date=2019-12-21}}</ref>

The inspiration for Duolingo came from two places. Luis von Ahn wanted to create a program that served two purposes in one program.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Learning with Big Data: The Future of Education|last1 = Mayer-Schönberger|first1 = Viktor|publisher = Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year = 2014|isbn = 978-0-54435550-7|pages = 9–10|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OXzeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |last2 = Cukier |first2 = Kenneth}}</ref> Duolingo originally achieved this by teaching its users a foreign language while having them translate simple phrases in documents, though the translation feature has since been removed.<ref name="Immersion removed">{{cite web|url=https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/20364950|title=Immersion|publisher=duolingo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330133138/https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/20364950|archive-date=30 March 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Von Ahn was born in [[Guatemala]]. He saw how expensive it was for people in his community to learn English. [[Severin Hacker]] (born in [[Zug, Switzerland]]), co-founder of Duolingo and current [[Chief technology officer|CTO]], and von Ahn believed that "free education will really change the world"<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2014/01/22/crowdsourcing-capitalists-how-duolingos-founders-offered-free-education-to-millions/ |title= Crowdsourcing Capitalists: How Duolingo's Founders Offered Free Education To Millions| first =Parmy | last = Olson|work=Forbes}}</ref> and wanted to supply people an outlet to do so.

The project was originally sponsored by Luis von Ahn's [[MacArthur fellowship]] and a [[National Science Foundation]] grant.<ref name="NSFGrant">{{cite web|url= https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=1054630 |publisher=National Science Foundation|title= Online Education as a Vehicle for Human Computation}}</ref><ref name="NewScientist">{{cite magazine|url= https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328476.200-learn-a-language-translate-the-web.html |magazine=New Scientist|title=Learn a language, translate the web}}</ref>

On October 19, 2011, Duolingo raised $3.3 million from a Series A first-round of funding, led by [[Union Square Ventures]], with participation from author [[Tim Ferriss]] and actor [[Ashton Kutcher]]'s firm, [[A-Grade Investments]] <ref name="pittsgazzette">{{cite news|last= Todd |first= Deborah M.|title= Ashton Kutcher backs CMU duo's startup Duolingo |url= http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/business/news/ashton-kutcher-backs-cmu-duos-startup-duolingo-641086/ |access-date=13 July 2012|newspaper= Pittsburgh Post Gazette|date=3 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="wsj">{{cite news |title= The Daily Start-Up: Kutcher-Backed Language Site Duolingo Finds Its Voice |url= https://blogs.wsj.com/venturecapital/2012/06/19/the-daily-start-up-kutcher-backed-language-site-duolingo-finds-its-voice/ |access-date=13 July 2012|newspaper= The Wall Street Journal |date=19 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crunchbase.com/funding_round/duolingo-series-a--e8b84a3f|title=Series A - Duolingo - 2011-10-19|website=Crunchbase|language=en|access-date=2019-12-13}}</ref>

Duolingo launched into [[private beta]] a month later on November 30, 2011, and accumulated a waiting list of more than 300,000 users.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2011/12/16/2639262/duolingo-translate-internet-teach-languages|title=Duolingo will translate the internet while teaching languages|author=Adi Robertson|date=16 December 2011|website=[[The Verge]]|access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://duolingo.tumblr.com/post/20142464554|title=We have a blog!|website=Official Duolingo Blog|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref><ref name="vator.tv"/>

On June 19, 2012, Duolingo later launched for the general public.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vator.tv/news/2018-06-22-when-duolingo-was-young-the-early-years|title=When Duolingo was young: the early years|date=2018-06-22|website=VatorNews|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref>

On September 17, 2012, Duolingo raised $15 million from a Series B second-round of funding led by [[New Enterprise Associates]], with participation from [[Union Square Ventures]] bringing Duolingo's total funding to $18.3 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2012/09/17/duolingo-raises-15m-series-b-round-lead-by-nea-will-expand-to-more-languages-and-to-mobile-soon/|title=Duolingo Raises $15M Series B Round Led By NEA, Will Expand To More Languages And To Mobile Soon|website=TechCrunch|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-13}}</ref>

On 13 November 2012, Duolingo released their [[iOS]] app through the [[iTunes App Store]].<ref name="TCiOS">{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2012/11/13/language-learning-service-duolingo-launches-its-first-iphone-app/|title=Language Learning Service Duolingo Launches Its First iPhone App|author=Frederic Lardinois|date=13 November 2012|work=[[TechCrunch]]|publisher=[[AOL]]|access-date=18 April 2016}}</ref> The application is a free download and is compatible with most [[iPhone]], [[iPod]] and [[iPad]] devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/app/duolingo-learn-spanish-french/id570060128|title=Duolingo – Learn Spanish, French, German, Portuguese, and Italian for free|work=iTunes App Store|publisher=Apple|access-date=29 April 2013}}</ref>

On 29 May 2013, Duolingo released their [[Android app]], which was downloaded about a million times in the first three weeks and quickly became the #1 education app in the Google Play store.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-1023_3-57593078-93/duolingo-brings-free-language-courses-to-the-ipad/|title=Duolingo brings free language courses to the iPad|last=Farber|first=Dan|date=11 July 2013|publisher=C net|access-date=21 February 2014}}</ref>

On June 19, 2013, one year after launching for the general public, Duolingo passed 4 million users, all through word of mouth,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/3412629|title=Forum - Duolingo|website=forum.duolingo.com|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> and on November 21, 2013, Duolingo reached 15 million users<ref name=":0" />

On February 18, 2014, Duolingo raised $20 million from a Series C round of funding led by [[Kleiner Perkins|Kleiner Caufield & Byers]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crunchbase.com/funding_round/duolingo-series-c--69ddeb3d|title=Series C - Duolingo - 2014-02-18|website=Crunchbase|language=en|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> It was reported Duolingo had had about 25 million registered users, 12.5 million active users, and 34 employees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2014/02/18/duolingo-raises-20m-series-c-round-led-by-kleiner-perkins-wants-to-dominate-online-language-learning/|title=Duolingo Raises $20M Series C Led By Kleiner Perkins To Dominate Online Language Learning|website=TechCrunch|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> On June 2, 2014, Duolingo passed 30 million users.<ref name=":0" />

On June 10, 2015, Duolingo raised $45 million from a Series D fourth-round of funding led by [[CapitalG|Google Capital]], bringing its total funding to $83.3 million, a valuation of $470 million, as well as passing 100 million users.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crunchbase.com/funding_round/duolingo-series-d--e0fe8ebb|title=Series D - Duolingo - 2015-06-10|website=Crunchbase|language=en|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2015/06/10/duolingo-raises-45-million-series-d-round-led-by-google-ventures-now-valued-at-470m/|title=Duolingo Raises $45 Million Series D Round Led By Google Capital, Now Valued At $470M|website=TechCrunch|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2015/06/10/100m-users-strong-duolingo-raises-45m-led-by-google-at-a-470m-valuation-to-grow-language-learning-platform/|title=100M users strong, Duolingo raises $45M led by Google at a $470M valuation to grow language-learning platform|date=2015-06-10|website=VentureBeat|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref>

In April 2016, it was reported that Duolingo had 17 million monthly users.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aws.amazon.com/solutions/case-studies/duolingo-case-study-dynamodb/|title=Duolingo Case Study-DynamoDB|website=Amazon Web Services, Inc.|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Duolingo Stores 31 Billion Items on Amazon DynamoDB and Uses AWS to Deliver Language Lessons|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fhnAvn2YxZA|language=en|access-date=2019-12-23}}</ref>

On July 25, 2017, that Duolingo raised $25 million from a Series E fifth-round of investment from [[Drive Capital]], bringing its total funding to $108.3 million, a valuation of $700 million, as well as passing 200 million users and having 25 million monthly users.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crunchbase.com/funding_round/duolingo-series-e--3d03bf06|title=Series E - Duolingo - 2017-07-25|website=Crunchbase|language=en|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2017/07/25/duolingo-raises-25m-at-a-700m-valuation/|title=Duolingo raises $25M at a $700M valuation|website=TechCrunch|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> It was reported that Duolingo had 95 employees,<ref name="Duolingo">{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/duolingo-now-valued-at-1-5-billion-300968516.html|title=Duolingo Now Valued at $1.5 Billion|last=Duolingo|website=www.prnewswire.com|language=en|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> and the funds would be directed toward creating initiatives such as TinyCards and Duolingo Labs.<ref name="forbes.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/elaineramirez/2017/09/07/duolingo-korean-language-course-launch/4/#2ecaa1d8739f|title=Duolingo Is Launching A Korean Course To Cash In On Asia's Booming Language Market|last1=Elaine|first1=Ramirez|website=Forbes|access-date=11 October 2017}}</ref>

On August 1, 2018, it was reported Duolingo had passed 300 million users.<ref name="social.techcrunch.com">{{Cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2018/08/01/duolingo-hires-its-first-chief-marketing-officer-as-active-user-numbers-stagnate/|title=Duolingo hires its first chief marketing officer as active user numbers stagnate but revenue grows|website=TechCrunch|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref>

On December 4, 2019, it was announced that Duolingo raised $30 million in a series F sixth-round of investment from [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]]’s investment company [[CapitalG]], bringing a total funding of $138.3 million, a valuation of $1.5 billion, reporting 30 million monthly active learners.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://venturebeat.com/2019/12/04/duolingo-raises-30-million-from-alphabets-capitalg-at-1-5-billion-valuation/|title=Duolingo raises $30 million from Alphabet's CapitalG at $1.5 billion valuation|date=2019-12-04|website=VentureBeat|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-13}}</ref> Duolingo will use the funds on developing new products and expanding its team. Expanding the team will span a variety of positions, including in engineering, business development, design, curriculum and content creators, community outreach and marketing.<ref name="triblive.com">{{Cite web|url=https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/duolingo-touts-1-5b-valuation-language-company-to-hire-100-more-people-mostly-in-pittsburgh/|title=Duolingo touts $1.5B valuation; language company to hire 100 more people, mostly in Pittsburgh {{!}} TribLIVE.com|website=triblive.com|access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref>

During 2019, Duolingo grew from 170 staff members<ref name="Adams">{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2019/07/16/game-of-tongues-how-duolingo-built-a-700-million-business-with-its-addictive-language-learning-app/|title=Game of Tongues: How Duolingo Built A $700 Million Business With Its Addictive Language-Learning App|last=Adams|first=Susan|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> to 200 employees,<ref name="Duolingo"/> with headquarters in the [[Pittsburgh]] neighborhood of [[East Liberty (Pittsburgh)|East Liberty]]<ref name="duolingo.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.duolingo.com/comment/3412629|title=Duolingo turns two today!|author=Luis|access-date=21 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/blog/innovation/2013/05/duolingo-launching-on-android-signing.html |title= Duolingo launching on Android; plans move to bigger office |publisher= Biz journals|date=29 May 2013|access-date=21 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2016/03/23/duolingo-moving-to-east-liberty-plans-to-add.html|title=Duolingo moving to East Liberty, plans to add employees|date=23 March 2016|last=Hartmans|first=Avery|website=Pittsburgh Business Times|access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref> and offices in [[New York City|New York]]; [[Bellevue, Washington]] (near [[Seattle]]); and [[Beijing]].<ref name="Duolingo"/><ref name="bellevue">{{Cite web|url=https://www.geekwire.com/2019/language-learning-startup-duolingo-looks-grow-seattle-area-office-2019/|title=Language-learning startup Duolingo looks to grow Seattle-area office in 2019
|last=Schlosser
|first=Kurt|website=GeekWire|language=en|access-date=2020-02-03
|date=2019-03-14}}
</ref> Of Duolingo’s 199 employees, 165 work in its East Liberty headquarters, 17 work in New York, 8 in Bellevue, and 8 in China.<ref name="triblive.com"/>

Duolingo had a revenue of $1 million in 2016, $13 million in 2017,<ref name="social.techcrunch.com"/> $36 million in 2018,<ref name="Adams"/> and was projected to hit $86 million in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201912/13/WS5df2ebe7a310cf3e3557de46.html|title=Language-learning app Duolingo bullish on Chinese market - Chinadaily.com.cn|last=张洁|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> In April 2020, Duolingo passed one million paid subscribers.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Doughty|first=Nate|date=April 8, 2020|title=Duolingo passes one million paid users, expands with new hires|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/news/2020/04/08/duolingo-passes-one-million-paid-users-expands.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=December 12, 2020|website=Pittsburgh Business Times}}</ref>

==Language courses==

===Courses for English speakers===
{{As of|2021|01|11|df=US}}, 36 courses are available to the public in English, three of which are [[constructed language]]s, including two [[fictional language]]s.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Allan|first1=Patrick|date=16 January 2017|title=Language Learning Showdown: Rosetta Stone Vs. Duolingo|url=https://www.lifehacker.com.au/2017/01/language-learning-showdown-rosetta-stone-vs-duolingo/|access-date=11 October 2017|publisher=Lifehacker}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Fisher|first1=Stacy|title=Duolingo Review|url=https://www.thebalance.com/duolingo-review-1357041|access-date=11 October 2017|publisher=The Balance}}</ref><ref name="duolingo">{{cite web|title=Language Courses for English Speakers|url=https://en.duolingo.com/courses|access-date=January 11, 2020|publisher=Duolingo}}</ref> Four of the courses listed have been released for beta testing, but are not complete as of January 11, 2021. In this list, the courses are ordered by number of active learners.

As of January 11, 2021:<ref name="duolingo"/>
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (28.8M)
* [[French of France|French]] (17.1M)
* [[German language|German]] (9.16M)
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]] (9.04M)
* [[Italian language|Italian]] (6.12M)
* [[Korean language|Korean]] (5.6M)
* [[Mandarin Chinese]] (4.82M)
* [[Russian language|Russian]] (3.92M)
* [[Hindi]] (3.76M)
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (2.98M)
* [[Brazilian Portuguese]] (2.48M)
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (2.2M)
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (1.53M)
* [[Latin]] (1.43M)
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (1.27M)
* [[Irish language|Irish]] (1.11M)
* [[Greek language|Greek]] (1.09M)
* [[Polish language|Polish]] (962K)
* [[Bokmål|Norwegian Bokmål]] (946K)
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (893K)
* [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (710K)
* [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] (599K)
* [[Danish language|Danish]] (541K)
* [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (510K)
* [[Valyrian languages|High Valyrian]] (499K)
* [[Scottish Gaelic]] (487K)
* [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (469K)
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]] (460K)
* [[Czech language|Czech]] (425K)
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (Beta) (399K)
* [[Swahili Language|Swahili]] (389K)
* [[Hungarian_language|Hungarian]] (Beta) (320K)
* [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (306K)
* [[Klingon language|Klingon]] (Beta) (303K)
* [[Esperanto language|Esperanto]] (291K)
* [[Navajo language|Navajo]] (Beta) (289K)
}}

=== Courses available in other languages ===
As of June 28, 2020, 23 languages are available to speakers of languages other than English.<ref>{{cite web|title=Duolingo Language Courses|url=https://www.duolingo.com/courses/all|access-date=18 November 2018|website=Duolingo}}</ref>

As of January 16, 2021:
{{Hidden
| headercss = background:#58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Mandarin Chinese
| content = The Mandarin Chinese course is also available in the following language besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Japanese}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = English
| content = The English course is available in the following languages:
{{Columns-list|*Arabic
*Chinese
*Czech
*Dutch
*French
*German
*Greek
*Hindi
*Hungarian
*Indonesian
*Italian
*Japanese
*Korean
*Polish
*Portuguese
*Romanian
*Russian
*Spanish
*Thai
*Turkish
*Ukrainian
*Vietnamese|colwidth=15em}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Esperanto
| content = The Esperanto course is also available in the following languages besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*French (Beta)
*Portuguese (Beta)}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = French
| content = The French course is also available in the following languages besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Arabic
*Chinese
*Dutch
*German
*Italian
*Portuguese
*Russian
*Spanish}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = German
| content = The German course is also available in the following languages besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Arabic
*Dutch
*French
*Italian
*Portuguese
*Russian
*Turkish}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Italian
| content = The Italian course is also available in the following languages besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Chinese (Beta)
*French
*Portuguese
*Spanish}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Japanese
| content = The Japanese course is also available in the following language besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Chinese}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Korean
| content = The Korean course is also available in the following language besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Chinese (Beta)}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Brazilian Portuguese
| content = The Brazilian Portuguese course is also available in the following language besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*French}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Russian
| content = The Russian course is also available in the following language besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Turkish}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Spanish
| content = The Spanish course is also available in the following languages besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Chinese (Beta)
*French
*German
*Italian
*Portuguese
*Russian}}
}}
{{Hidden
| headercss = background: #58CD00; font-size: 100%; width: 100%;
| contentcss = text-align: left; font-size: 100%; width: 95%;
| header = Swedish
| content = The Swedish course is also available in the following language besides English:
{{Columns-list
|colwidth=15em
|*Arabic}}
}}

===Future Courses===
[[Māori language|Māori]],<ref>https://incubator.duolingo.com/courses/mi/en/status, Duolingo, retrieved on January 9th, 2021</ref> [[Yiddish]],<ref>https://incubator.duolingo.com/courses/yi/en/status, Duolingo, retrieved on January 9th, 2021</ref> and [[Haitian Creole]]<ref>https://incubator.duolingo.com/courses/ht/en/status, Duolingo, retrieved on January 9th, 2021</ref> courses for English speakers are planned to be added to Duolingo.

==Features==

Duolingo mimics the structure of [[video games]] in several ways in order to engage its users. It features a reward system in which users acquire "lingots", an [[in-game currency]] that they can spend on features such as character customizations or bonus levels (both available on the mobile app only).

On public leaderboards people can compete against their friends or see how they stack up against the rest of the world in randomly selected groupings of up to 30 users. The level system that Duolingo uses is XP ([[experience points]]), a numerical system that represents a user's skill-level. Badges in Duolingo represent achievements that are earned from completing specific objectives or challenges.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Huynh|first1=Duy|title=Analyzing Gamification of "Duolingo" with Focus on Its Course Structure|last2=Zuo|first2=Long|last3=Iida|first3=Hiroyuki|date=5 December 2016|journal=Games and Learning Alliance|publisher=Springer, Cham|isbn=9783319501819|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|pages=268–277|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-50182-6_24}}</ref>

The study process in Duolingo combines various methods such as: listening to the pronunciation, reading sentences, voice recording, forming phrases by ordering words and matching images to words.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Agomuoh|first=Fionna|title=I've been learning French on the Duolingo app for over a year now — here's what it's like to use the app|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/duolingo-review-guide-learning-language-2018-1|access-date=2020-01-21|website=Business Insider}}</ref>

===Use in schools===

Duolingo provides "Duolingo for Schools" with features designed to allow teachers to track students' progress. In 2012 an effectiveness study concluded that Duolingo usage for Spanish study was more effective than classroom language-learning alone, but that Duolingo was less effective for advanced language-learners.<ref>{{Cite web|last=VESSELINOV|first=ROUMEN|date=December 2012|title=Duolingo Effectiveness Study|url=http://static.duolingo.com/s3/DuolingoReport_Final.pdf|access-date=30 May 2018|website=Duolingo.com}}</ref> One proposed reason for this is that the [[Grammar–translation method|grammar-translation]] method that Duolingo primarily uses is more applicable to simple words and phrases than to complex ones; simpler ones can translate in a more exact manner from one language to another and thus are more conducive to Duolingo's [[Grammar–translation method|grammar-translation]] method.<ref>
{{cite journal|last=Ahmed|first=Heba|date=15 June 2016|title=Duolingo as a Bilingual Learning App: a Case Study|url=http://awej.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=930:heba-bahjet-essa-ahmed&catid=66&Itemid=168|journal=Arab World English Journal|volume=7|issue=2|pages=255–267|doi=10.24093/awej/vol7no2.17|issn=2229-9327|doi-access=free}}
</ref>

===Incubator===
Duolingo Incubator<ref>[https://incubator.duolingo.com/ Duolingo Incubator]</ref> is a platform where volunteers can participate and contribute to create new language courses for Duolingo. Volunteers willing to participate must be a registered Duolingo user and has to go through the application process before contributing to a particular course they are interested in. This initiative allowed Duolingo to create more courses hence increasing their community in order to reach the maximum potential of the language learners.

==Business model==
Most language-learning features in Duolingo are free of charge, but it has periodic advertising in both its mobile and web browser applications,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.duolingo.com/comment/15479130|title=Duolingo: Learn Spanish, French and other languages for free|website=duolingo.com|language=en|access-date=12 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Crowdsourcing Capitalists: How Duolingo's Founders Offered Free Education To Millions|url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2014/01/22/crowdsourcing-capitalists-how-duolingos-founders-offered-free-education-to-millions/|website = Forbes|access-date =22 December 2015}}</ref> which users can remove by paying a subscription fee. This feature, ‘Duolingo Plus’, includes benefits such as unlimited hearts, level skipping, and progress quizzes. It originally employed a [[Crowdsourcing|crowd sourced]] business model, where the content came from organizations (such as [[CNN]] and [[BuzzFeed]]) that paid Duolingo to translate it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Simonite |first=Tom |url=http://www.technologyreview.com/news/506656/the-cleverest-business-model-in-online-education/ |title= The Cleverest Business Model in Online Education |publisher= Technology review |date=29 November 2012|access-date=21 February 2014}}</ref>

==Infrastructure==
Duolingo utilizes many services in the [[Amazon Web Services]] suite of products, including [[Amazon DynamoDB]], [[Amazon Virtual Private Cloud]], nearly 200 virtual instances in [[Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud]] (EC2), [[Amazon Simple Storage Service]] (S3) and [[Amazon Relational Database Service]] (RDS).<ref name="aws.amazon.com">{{cite web|url=https://aws.amazon.com/solutions/case-studies/duolingo/|title=AWS Case Study: Duolingo|work=Web Services|publisher=Amazon|access-date=28 March 2015}}</ref> The server backend is written in the programming language [[Python (programming language)|Python]].{{better source|date=August 2019}} A component called the Session Generator was rewritten in [[Scala (programming language)|Scala]] by 2017.<ref name="making.duolingo.com" /> The frontend was written in [[Backbone.js]] and [[Mustache (template system)|Mustache]] but is now primarily in React and Redux. Duolingo provides a [[Single-page application|single-page web application]] for desktop computer users and also smart phone applications on [[Android (operating system)|Android]] (both [[Google Play Store]] and [[Amazon Appstore]]) and [[iOS App Store]] platforms. 20% of traffic comes from desktop users and 80% from mobile app users.<ref name="aws.amazon.com" />

==Recognition and awards==
In 2013, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] chose Duolingo as its [[iPhone]] App of the Year, the first time this honor had been awarded to an educational application.<ref name="gigaom">{{cite web|url=http://gigaom.com/2013/12/17/duolingo-snags-iphone-app-of-the-year/|title=Duolingo snags iPhone App of the Year|date=17 December 2013|publisher=Gigaom|access-date=21 February 2014}}</ref> Duolingo won Best Education Startup at the 2014 [[Crunchies]],<ref name="duolingo.com" /> and was the most downloaded app in the Education category in [[Google Play]] in 2013 and 2014.<ref name="TNW">{{cite web|url=https://thenextweb.com/apps/2014/12/11/google-play-remembers-year-entertainment/|title=Google Play reveals the most downloaded apps, games and entertainment content from 2014|date=11 December 2014|publisher=The Next Web|access-date=29 December 2014}}</ref> In 2015, Duolingo was announced the 2015 award winner in Play & Learning category by Design to Improve Life.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.designtoimprovelife.dk/duolingo-index-award-2015-winner-play-learning-category/|title=Duolingo-Index: Award 2015 Winner (Play & Learning Category)|date=27 August 2015|website=Design to Improve Life|publisher=Design to Improve Life|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505004458/https://designtoimprovelife.dk/duolingo-index-award-2015-winner-play-learning-category/|archive-date=5 May 2016|access-date=28 April 2016}}</ref>

Duolingo was named No. 44 on [[Fast Company]]'s "The World's 50 Most Innovative Companies" list in 2018 "for making new languages irresistible".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovative-companies/2018|title=The World's 50 Most Innovative Companies of 2018|website=Fast Company|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> No. 2 on [[Fast Company]]'s "The World's Most Innovative Companies: Education Honorees" in 2018 "for making a new language irresistible",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovative-companies/2018/sectors/education|title=The World's Most Innovative Companies 2018: Education Honorees|website=Fast Company|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> and No. 2 on [[Fast Company]]'s "The World's Most Innovative Companies: Education Honorees" in 2017 "for letting friends compare notes as they learn a new language".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovative-companies/2017/sectors/education|title=The World's Most Innovative Companies 2017: Education Honorees|website=Fast Company|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> No. 6 on [[Fast Company]]'s "The World's Most Innovative Companies: Social Media Honorees" in 2017 "for letting friends compare notes".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovative-companies/2017/sectors/social-media|title=The World's Most Innovative Companies 2017: Social Media Honorees|website=Fast Company|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> No. 7 on [[Fast Company]]'s "The World's Most Innovative Companies: Education Honorees" in 2013 "for crowdsourcing web translation by turning it into a free language-learning program".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/most-innovative-companies/2013/sectors/education|title=The World's Most Innovative Companies 2013: Education Honorees|website=Fast Company|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref>

Duolingo won [[Inc. (magazine)|Inc. magazine's]] Best Workplaces 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inc.com/profile/duolingo|title=Duolingo|website=Inc.com|access-date=2019-08-01}}</ref> [[Entrepreneur (magazine)|Entrepreneur magazine's]] Top Company Culture List 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/top-company-culture|title=Top Company Cultures of 2018|website=Entrepreneur|language=en|access-date=2019-08-01}}</ref> and appeared in [[CNBC]]'s 2018 and 2019 "Disruptor 50" lists.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/05/22/duolingo-2018-disruptor-50.html|title=2018 Disruptor 50: No. 35 Duolingo|last=staff|first=CNBC.com|date=22 May 2018|work=CNBC|access-date=5 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/14/duolingo-2019-disruptor-50.html|title=Duolingo: 2019 Disruptor 50 List|website=CNBC|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/duolingo-names-gillian-munson-to-board-of-directors-300931393.html|title=Duolingo Names Gillian Munson to Board of Directors|last=Duolingo|website=www.prnewswire.com|language=en|access-date=2019-12-14}}</ref> TIME Magazine's 50 Genius Companies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://time.com/collection/genius-companies-2018/5412500/duolingo/|title=Duolingo: The 50 Most Genius Companies of 2018|website=Time|language=en-us|access-date=5 November 2018}}</ref> In 2019, Duolingo was named one of Forbes's "Next Billion-Dollar Startups 2019".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/amyfeldman/2019/07/16/next-billion-dollar-startups-2019/|title=Next Billion-Dollar Startups 2019|last=Feldman|first=Amy|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=2019-07-20}}</ref>

==Criticism==
Duolingo has received criticism for its lack of effectiveness in helping students to fully learn a language. Duolingo's CEO, Luis von Ahn, promises only to get users to a level between advanced beginner and early intermediate: "A significant portion of our users use it because it's fun and it's not a complete waste of time". After six months of studying French with Duolingo, von Ahn demonstrated a lack of basic [[verb tense]]s when asked to describe his weekend in French, "mangling his tenses." Bob Meese, Duolingo's [[chief revenue officer]], did not immediately understand the spoken question "{{lang|es|¿Hablas español?}}" after six months of Duolingo Spanish study.<ref name="Forbes2019">{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2019/07/16/game-of-tongues-how-duolingo-built-a-700-million-business-with-its-addictive-language-learning-app/|title=Game of Tongues: How Duolingo Built A $700 Million Business With Its Addictive Language-Learning App|first=Susan|last=Adams|website=Forbes|access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref>

Language coach and podcaster Kerstin Cable has criticized the app for "its impractical vocabulary, its insistence upon one acceptable translation per sentence prompt, and its lack of explanation for incorrect answers",<ref name="Does Duolingo Even Work">{{cite web |last1=Heaney |first1=Katie |title=Does Duolingo Even Work |url=https://www.thecut.com/2019/01/does-duolingo-even-work.html |access-date=28 October 2020 |date=9 July 2019}}</ref> describing Duolingo's method as "you learn by parroting phrases without even beginning to cover the background stories that grammar and pragmatics tell."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cable |first1=Kersten |title=It's a free app loved by millions. Is Duolingo wasting your time? |url=https://www.fluentlanguage.co.uk/blog/duolingo-review-fluentlanguage |website=Fluentlanguage |access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref> Linguist Steven Sacco at [[San Diego State University]] attempted to test Duolingo's claim of "34 hours of Duolingo are equivalent to a full university semester of language education"<ref>{{cite web |title=Are there official studies about Duolingo? |url=https://support.duolingo.com/hc/en-us/articles/115000035183-Are-there-official-studies-about-Duolingo- |website=Duolingo Help Center |publisher=Duolingo |access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref> by completing a course in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and taking a standardized elementary exam ultimately receiving a failing grade.<ref name="Does Duolingo Even Work" /> Sacco suggested some use for Duolingo as helpful for learning vocabulary only in addition to immersion environments like a classroom.<ref name="Does Duolingo Even Work" /> Both Sacco and Cable added that Duolingo's [[Grammar-translation method|translation method]] of teaching is ultimately inferior to [[Language immersion|learning a language in an immersion environment]].

== In popular culture ==
Duolingo's mascot, a green cartoon owl named Duo, has been a subject of an [[Internet meme]] in which the mascot will stalk and threaten users if they do not keep using the app.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Anderson|first=Sage|title=The Duolingo owl is out for vengeance in these threatening memes|url=https://mashable.com/article/duolingo-owl-memes/|access-date=2019-06-07|website=Mashable|language=en}}</ref> Acknowledging the meme, Duolingo released a video on April 1, 2019; the video depicts a new feature called "Duolingo Push". In the video, users of "Duolingo Push" will receive reminders to use the app in person by Duo himself, who stares at users and follows them around until they use the app (in the video, Duo is depicted by a person in a large [[Costumed character|mascot costume]]).<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8wc83qX6oNM|title=Introducing Duolingo Push|date=2019-03-31|publisher=Duolingo|access-date=2019-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=How Duolingo Took over the Meme World and What Marketers Can Learn from It|url=https://www.rypl.io/post/what-is-the-duolingo-meme-craze-and-what-marketers-can-learn-from-it|access-date=2019-06-07|website=rypl.io}}</ref>

In November 2019, ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' parodied Duolingo in a skit where adults learned to communicate with children using a fictitious course on the app titled "Duolingo for Talking to Children".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lee|first=Madasyn|date=November 5, 2019|title=Pittsburgh-based Duolingo a fan of talk-to-kids 'SNL' sketch|work=Pittsburgh Tribune-Review|url=https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/pittsburgh-based-duolingo-a-fan-of-snls-talk-to-kids-skit/}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Language|Internet}}
* [[Babbel]]
* [[Computer-assisted language learning]]
* [[Gamification]]
* [[Language education]]
* [[Language pedagogy]]
* [[List of flashcard software]]
* [[List of language self-study programs]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q2918660|c=Category:Duolingo|voy=no|species=no|n=no|wikt=no|q=no|s=no|b=no|v=no|m=no|mw=no}}
* {{Official website}}

{{MOOC}}
{{Spaced repetition}}

[[Category:Duolingo| ]]
[[Category:Social networking language-learning websites]]
[[Category:Language learning software]]
[[Category:Crowdsourcing]]
[[Category:Education companies established in 2011]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2011]]
[[Category:American educational websites]]
[[Category:2011 establishments in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Multilingual websites]]
[[Category:Companies based in Pittsburgh]]
[[Category:IOS software]]
[[Category:Android (operating system) software]]
[[Category:Universal Windows Platform apps]]

Esperanto Youth Week

2020-10-01T13:42:35Z

Mutichou: /* List of weeks */ corrected location of 2019 edition

{{Esperanto sidebar|expanded=Services}}
'''Esperanto Youth Week''' ({{lang-eo|Junulara E-Semajno}}, '''JES''') is one of the most important [[Esperanto]] youth meetings in the world.{{Vague|date=November 2019}} It is organised by the [[German Esperanto Youth]] (GEJ) and the [[Polish Esperanto Youth]] (PEJ) at the end of every year in a different city of [[central Europe]], starting 2009-10.

The meeting is taking the place of the former [[Internacia Seminario]] and [[Ago-Semajno]], two Esperanto gatherings aimed at youth which had been overlapping since the beginning of the 2000s (decade); the former was organized by GEJ alone, while the latter was organized by the Polish Esperanto Youth and Varsovia Vento.

== List of weeks ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! valign=top | Number !! valign=top | Dates !! valign=top | City !! valign=top | Country
|-
| 11 || 27 December 2019-3 January 2020 || [[Karłów]] || {{POL}}
|-
| 10 || 28 December 2018-4 January 2019 || [[Storkow, Brandenburg|Storkow]] || {{DEU}}
|-
| 9 || 26 December 2017-2 January 2018 || [[Szczecin]] || {{POL}}
|-
| 8<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2016/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102191411/http://jes.pej.pl/2016/ |archive-date=2018-01-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 28 December 2016-4 January 2017 || [[Langwedel, Schleswig-Holstein|Langwedel]] || {{DEU}}
|-
| 7<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2015/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102072904/http://jes.pej.pl/2015/ |archive-date=2018-01-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 27 December 2015-3 January 2016 || [[Eger]] || {{HUN}}
|-
| 6<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2014/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129174553/http://jes.pej.pl/2014/ |archive-date=2017-11-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 28 December 2014-4 January 2015 || [[Weißwasser]] || {{DEU}}
|-
| 5<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2013/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710024249/http://jes.pej.pl/2013/ |archive-date=2014-07-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 28 December 2013-4 January 2014 || [[Szczawno-Zdrój]] || {{POL}}
|-
| 4<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2012/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920021607/http://jes.pej.pl/2012/ |archive-date=2017-09-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 28 December 2012-4 January 2013 || [[Naumburg]] || {{DEU}}
|-
| 3<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2011/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022073305/http://jes.pej.pl/2011/ |archive-date=2017-10-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 27 December 2011-1 January 2012 || [[Gdańsk]] || {{POL}}
|-
| 2<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2010/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120015028/http://jes.pej.pl/2010/ |archive-date=2011-01-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 27 December 2010-2 January 2011 || [[Burg (Spreewald)|Burg]] || {{DEU}}
|-
| 1<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://jes.pej.pl/2009/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101003055513/http://jes.pej.pl/2009/ |archive-date=2010-10-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> || 26 December 2009-3 January 2010 || [[Zakopane]] || {{POL}}
|}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171106041641/http://jes.pej.pl/ Official website] of the Esperanto Youth Week

== References ==
<references/>

{{Esperanto-stub}}

[[Category:Esperanto meetings]]

Jezero (crater)

2020-09-05T06:34:40Z

Mutichou: the word "jezero" still doesn't exist in Slovak, see https://slovnik.juls.savba.sk/?w=jazero

{{short description|Crater on Mars}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox crater data
| titlecolor = #FA8072
| title = Jezero crater
| image = Jezero crater-Isidis basin.jpg
| caption = Jezero crater on the edge of the [[Isidis Planitia|Isidis]] basin
| coordinate_title = [[Mars#Geography|Coordinates]]
| globe = Mars
| coordinates = {{coord|18.38|N|77.58|E|globe:mars_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| diameter = {{convert|49.0|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| eponym = [[Jezero, Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
}}
[[File:SyrtisMajor-MC-13-JezeroCrater.jpg|262px|thumb|<div align="center">Jezero crater (lower right) and region seen from the ''[[Viking 1]]'' Orbiter</div>]]
'''Jezero''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|j|ɛ|z|ər|oʊ}} {{respell|YEZ|ə|roh}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|z|ər|oʊ}} {{respell|JEZ|ə|roh}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2018/jezero-landing-site-mars-2020-rover.html|title=We're going to Jezero!|date=20 November 2018|accessdate=2018-12-09|last=Lakdawlla|first=Emily|website=Planetary Society}}</ref> is a [[Impact crater|crater]] on [[Mars]] located at {{coord|18.38|N|77.58|E|globe:Mars}}<ref name="HR-20080606">{{cite web |last=Wray |first=James |title=Channel into Jezero Crater Delta |url=http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_007925_1990 |date=6 June 2008 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref> in the [[Syrtis Major quadrangle]]. The diameter of the crater is about {{convert|49.0|km|mi|abbr=on}}. Thought to have once been flooded with water, the crater contains a fan-[[river delta|delta]] deposit rich in [[clay]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12873-prime-landing-sites-chosen-for-biggest-martian-rover.html|title=Prime landing sites chosen for biggest Martian rover|first=Hazel|last=Muir|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> The lake in the crater was present when valley networks were forming on Mars. Besides having a delta, the crater shows point bars and inverted channels. From a study of the delta and channels, it was concluded that the lake inside the crater probably formed during a period when there was continual surface runoff.<ref>Goudge, T., et al. 2017. [https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2017/pdf/1195.pdf Stratigraphy and Evolution of Delta Channel Deposits, Jezero Crater Mars.] Lunar and Planetary Science XLVIII (2017). 1195.pdf.</ref>

In 2007, following the discovery of its ancient lake, the crater was named for [[Jezero, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Jezero]]<ref name="slobodna-bosna.ba-USA Embassy-in-Sarajevo">{{cite web |title=4th July celebration at USA Embassy in Sarajevo / Pro-ruski savez na (ne)djelu: Dodik i Čović odbili doći na proslavu Dana nezavisnosti SAD-a |url=https://www.slobodna-bosna.ba/vijest/119385/proruski_savez_na_ne_djelu_dodik_i_chovic_odbili_doci_na_proslavu_dana_nezavisnosti_sad_a.html |website=slobodna-bosna.ba |accessdate=3 July 2019 |language=bs |date=3 July 2019}}</ref> in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], one of several eponymous towns in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/14300|title=Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Jezero on Mars|website=planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov|access-date=2018-12-14}}</ref> In several [[Slavic languages]], including [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Slovene language|Slovene]], the word ''[[wikt:jezero#Serbo-Croatian|jezero]]'' means 'lake' and is correctly pronounced as ['je.ze.ro], not [ˈjɛ.zə.ɹoʊ] or ['dʒɛ.zə.ɹoʊ].

In November 2018, it was announced that Jezero crater had been chosen as the landing site for the [[Mars 2020|Mars 2020 rover]] mission.<ref name="NYT20200728kc">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=How NASA Found the Ideal Hole on Mars to Land In - Jezero crater. the destination of the Perseverance rover, is a promising place to look for evidence of extinct Martian life. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/28/science/nasa-jezero-perseverance.html |date=28 July 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=28 July 2020 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20181119">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=NASA Mars 2020 Rover Gets a Landing Site: A Crater That Contained a Lake - The rover will search the Jezero Crater and delta for the chemical building blocks of life and other signs of past microbes. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/19/science/nasa-mars-2020-rover.html |date=19 November 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=21 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="SPC-20181119">{{cite news |last=Wall |first=Mike |title=Jezero Crater or Bust! NASA Picks Landing Site for Mars 2020 Rover |url=https://www.space.com/42486-mars-2020-rover-jezero-crater-landing-site.html |date=19 November 2018 |work=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=20 November 2018 }}</ref>

==Crater==
Life may have developed in the crater since it is believed the lake was long-lived; the delta may have required a period of 106–107 years to form.<ref name="Schon, S. 2012">Schon, S., J. Head, C. Fassett. 2012. An overfilled lacustrine system and progradational delta in Jezero crater, Mars: Implications for Noachian climate. Planetary and Space Science: 67, 28–45</ref> [[Clay minerals]] have been detected in and around the crater.<ref>Bibring, J. et al. 2006. Global mineralogical and aqueous Mars history derived from OMEGA/Mars Express data. Science: 312, 400-404.</ref><ref>Mangold, N., et al. 2007. Mineralogy of the Nili Fossae region with OMEGA/Mars Express data: 2. Aqueous alteration of the crust. Journal of Geophysical Research 112, E08S04. doi:10.1029/2006JE002835.</ref><ref>Poulet, F., et al. 2005. Phyllosilicates on Mars and implications for early martian climate. Nature, 438. doi:10.1038/nature04274.</ref> The [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]] identified [[smectite]] clays.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Murchie, S. |display-authors=etal |title=A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter |date=2009 |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=114 |issue=E2 |pages=E00D06 |doi=10.1029/2009JE003342 |bibcode=2009JGRE..114.0D06M |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/43957/1/jgre2648.pdf }}</ref> Clays form in the presence of water, so this area probably once held water and maybe life in ancient times. The surface in places is cracked into polygonal patterns. Such shapes often form when clay dries out. These patterns can be seen in the image below. The image shows a channel that carried water and sediments into Jezero crater.<ref name="HR-20080606" />

Researchers described in a paper, released in March 2015, how an ancient Martian lake system existed in Jezero Crater. The study advanced the idea that water filled the crater at least two separate times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/03/150325210744.htm|title=Ancient Martian lake system records two water-related events|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> There are two channels on the northern and western sides of the crater that probably supplied it with water; each of these channels has a delta-like deposit where sediment was carried by water and deposited in the lake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spaceref.com/mars/ancient-martian-lake-system-records-two-water-related-events.html|title=Ancient Martian Lake System Records Two Water-related Events - SpaceRef|website=spaceref.com|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> Craters of a given diameter are expected to have a certain depth; a depth less than expected means sediment has entered the crater.<ref>Garvin, J., S. Sakimoto, J. Frawley. 2003. Craters on Mars: Global geometric
properties from gridded MOLA topography. In: Sixth International Conference
on Mars. Abstract no. #3277</ref> Calculations suggest that the crater may hold about one kilometer of sediments. Most of the sediments may have been brought in by channels.<ref name="Schon, S. 2012"/>
{{clear}}
[[File:PIA23518-Mars2020-LandingSite-20191217.jpg|thumb|center|500px|<div align="center">Mars 2020 and more - landing sites (17 December 2019)</div>]]
[[File:PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213.jpg|thumb|center|500px|<div class="center">Jezero crater lake billions of years ago (artist concept)</div>]]
[[File:PIA23976-Mars-JezeroCraterMap-20200715.jpg|thumb|center|500px|<div align="center">Jezero crater map (Green circle: rover's landing ellipse) (15 July 2020)</div>]]
{{Multiple image
|align=center |direction=horizontal |total_width= |title=Proposed landing site – [[Jezero (crater)|Jezero crater]]<ref name="NASA-20150304" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Assessing the Mineralogy of the Watershed and Fan Deposits of the Jezero Crater Paleolake System, Mars |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=775 |date=6 March 2015 |last1=Goudge |first1=Timothy A. |last2=Mustard |first2=John F. |last3=Head |first3=James W. |last4=Fassett |first4=Caleb I. |last5=Wiseman |first5=Sandra M. |s2cid=29382260 |doi=10.1002/2014JE004782 |bibcode=2015JGRE..120..775G}}</ref> ({{coord|18.855|N|77.519|E|globe:Mars}})<ref name="HR-20080606" />
|image1=USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater.png |caption1=Jezero and surrounding region|width1=182
|image2=NASA-Mars-JezeroCrater-20181116.jpg |caption2=Jezero crater on Mars - ancient rivers (on the left) fed the crater; overflow flooding carved the outlet canyon (on the right )|width2=200
|image3=PIA23511-Mars2020-JezeroCrater-AncientLakeshore-20191112.jpg|caption3=Ancient shoreline, and planned landing ellipse for the Mars 2020 mission|width3=224
|image4=PIA23380-Mars2020-JezeroCrater-Minerals-20191112jpg.jpg|caption4=Minerals (green=carbonates; red=olivine sand eroding from carbonate-containing rocks)|width4=223
|image5=260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full.jpg |caption5=Jezero delta – chemical alteration by water|width5=195
}}

==Mars 2020 mission==
[[File:PIA19303-JezeroCraterRegion-PossibleMars2020LandingSite-20150304-modified.jpg|thumb|300px|<center>Proposed Mars 2020 landing site inside Jezero crater.</center>]]
Jezero crater, once considered a site for the [[Mars Science Laboratory]], was later proposed as a [[Landing|landing site]] for the [[Mars 2020]] rover mission.<ref name="NASA-20150304">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=PIA19303: A Possible Landing Site for the 2020 Mission: Jezero Crater |url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA19303 |date=4 March 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=7 March 2015 }}</ref><ref>http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl/workshops/2nd_workshop/talks/Fassett_Nili.pdf</ref> In early 2017 it was selected to be among the top three candidate sites for the landing, along with [[Northeast Syrtis]], 30 km to the southwest.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nature.com/news/three-sites-where-nasa-might-retrieve-its-first-mars-rock-1.21470 |title=Three sites where NASA might retrieve its first Mars rock |work=Nature |first=Alexandra |last=Witze |date=2017-02-11 |accessdate=2017-02-26 |doi=10.1038/nature.2017.21470|bibcode=2017Natur.542..279W }}</ref>

A primary aim of the Mars 2020 mission is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a [[Mars sample return mission|later mission]] could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12-mile (20 km) wide, smooth, flat circular area is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded.<ref name="NASA-Themis">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=The Floods of Iani Chaos |url=http://themis.mars.asu.edu/feature/31 |date=2010 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=7 March 2015 }}</ref> They would like to examine [[Sediment|sediment layers]].

In November 2018, Jezero crater was selected as the target landing site for the Mars 2020 rover mission.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/nasas-mars-2020-rover-will-land-in-jezero-crater-1830540291|title=NASA's Mars 2020 Rover Will Land in Jezero Crater|first=Ryan F.|last=Mandelbaum|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref>

==Interactive Mars map==
{{Mars map}}

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Astrobiology]]
* [[Climate of Mars]]
* [[Composition of Mars]]
* [[Exploration of Mars]]
* [[Geology of Mars]]
* [[Impact crater]]
* [[Inverted relief]]
* [[Lakes on Mars]]
* [[List of craters on Mars]]
* [[Mars lander]]
* [[Water on Mars]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal|title=Clay minerals in delta deposits and organic preservation potential on Mars|journal=Nature Geoscience|date=2008|last1=Ehlmann|first1=B.L. |last2=Mustard|first2=John F.|last3=Fassett|first3=Caleb I.|last4=Schon|first4=Samuel C.|last5=Head Iii|first5=James W.|last6=Des Marais|first6=David J.|last7=Grant|first7=John A.|last8=Murchie|first8=Scott L.|doi=10.1038/ngeo207|volume=1|pages=355–358|issue=6|bibcode = 2008NatGe...1..355E |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/34950/2/ngeo207-s1.pdf}}
*{{cite conference|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1354.pdf|conference=Lunar and Planetary Sciences conference|date=2008|title=Meander Loops and Point Bar Sequences - Evidence of a Stable Delta Plain Environment in Jezero crater|author=Schon|display-authors=etal}}

==External links==
* [https://marsnext.jpl.nasa.gov/documents/LandingSiteWorksheet_Jezero_final.pdf NASA – Jezero Crater – DataSheet] (14 January 2017)
* [https://marsnext.jpl.nasa.gov/workshops/2015_08/20_Goudge_Jezero_Mars_2020_2nd_Workshop_for_Web.pdf NASA – Jezero Crater – Workshop Images/Details] (4 August 2015)
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/136797589@N04/34024740002/ Video – FlyOver bw (01:20)] and [https://www.flickr.com/photos/seandoran/40295668634/ color (02:20)] (SDoran; 21 April 2017)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzeQ1aha5D4 Video – Mars 2020 Site News (01:00)] (NASA; 19 November 2018)
* [https://www.msn.com/en-us/video/null/nasa-selects-jezero-crater-as-landing-site-for-mars-2020-rover/vp-BBPSW23 Video – Mars 2020 Site News (00:50)] (MSN; 19 November 2018)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qnZ_sidmr4Y Video – Mars 2020: Jezero crater flyover (02:13)] (NASA; 13 December 2018)

{{Mars 2020}}
{{Geography of Mars}}
{{Portal bar|Astronomy|Biology|Solar System|Spaceflight}}

[[Category:Impact craters on Mars]]
[[Category:Mars 2020]]
[[Category:Syrtis Major quadrangle]]

Talk:Moscow International Business Center

2020-09-04T20:05:49Z

Mutichou: Mutichou moved page Talk:Moscow City (businnes center) to Talk:Moscow International Business Center over redirect: moved to the old title because the new one has a spelling mistake

{{WikiProjectBannerShell |1=
{{WikiProject Architecture|class=B|importance=High}}
{{WikiProject Business|class=B|importance=Low}}
{{WikiProject Russia|class=B|importance=top|econ=yes|art=yes|tech=yes}}
{{WikiProject Urban studies and planning|class=|importance=}}
}}
{{American English}}
{{User:ClueBot III/ArchiveThis|archiveprefix=Talk:Moscow International Business Center/Archives/|format=Y|age=26297|index=yes|archivebox=yes|box-advert=yes}}

== External links modified ==

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on [[Moscow International Business Center]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/814285785|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes:
*Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20071015210813/http://stroi.ru/eng/default.aspx?m=34&d=35 to http://www.stroi.ru/eng/default.aspx?m=34&d=35

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

{{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}}

Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''InternetArchiveBot''']] ([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]]) 22:07, 7 December 2017 (UTC)

== External links modified (February 2018) ==

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on [[Moscow International Business Center]]. Please take a moment to review [[special:diff/824239284|my edit]]. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit [[User:Cyberpower678/FaQs#InternetArchiveBot|this simple FaQ]] for additional information. I made the following changes:
*Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100806195055/http://www.capitalcity.ru/en/apartments/ to http://www.capitalcity.ru/en/apartments/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

{{sourcecheck|checked=false|needhelp=}}

Cheers.—[[User:InternetArchiveBot|'''InternetArchiveBot''']] ([[User talk:InternetArchiveBot|Report bug]]) 03:57, 6 February 2018 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion:
* [[commons:File:Moscow International Business Center2018.jpg|Moscow International Business Center2018.jpg]]
You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 17:51, 2 October 2018 (UTC)

Moscow International Business Center

2020-09-04T20:05:46Z

Mutichou: Mutichou moved page Moscow City (businnes center) to Moscow International Business Center over redirect: moved to the old title because the new one has a spelling mistake

{{short description|Commercial district in central Moscow, Russia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Moscow International Business Center
| native_name = Московский международный деловой центр
| image = Moscow International Business Center20.jpg
| image_size = 320px
| caption =
| alternate_names = Moskva-City
| coordinates = {{coord|55|44|48|N|37|32|13|E|region:RU|display=inline,title}}
| status = under construction
| highest_prev =
| highest_next =
| highest_start =
| highest_end =
| address =
| location_town =
| location_country = Russia
| location = [[Presnensky District]], [[Moscow]]
| floor_count =
| start_date = 1995
| completion_date = 2024
| opening =
| management =
| owner =
| cost =
| roof =
| architect =
| engineer =
| main_contractor =
| module = {{Infobox street
| embed = yes
| metro = {{MOSMETRO-bull|4}} [[Mezhdunarodnaya (Moscow Metro)|Mezhdunarodnaya]] {{MOSMETRO-bull|4}} [[Vystavochnaya]] {{MOSMETRO-bull|8A}} [[Delovoy Tsentr (Kalininsko-Solntsevskaya Line)|Delovoy Tsentr]] {{small|(closed)}} {{MOSMETRO-bull|11}} [[Delovoy Tsentr (Third Interchange Contour)|Delovoy Tsentr]] {{MOSMETRO-bull|14}} [[Delovoy Tsentr (Moscow Central Circle)|Delovoy Tsentr]]
}}
}}
The '''Moscow International Business Center''' ('''MIBC''') ({{lang-rus|Московский международный деловой центр|r=Moskovskiy mezhdunarodniy delovoy tsentr}}), also known as '''Moscow-City''', ({{lang-rus|Москва-Сити|r=Moskva-Siti}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.citynext.ru|title=Official website |publisher=Eng.citynext.ru |accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.stroi.ru/eng/default.aspx?m=34&d=35 |title=Construction World: Integrated Body For Urban Design Policy And Development of Moscow |publisher=Stroi.ru |accessdate=25 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015210813/http://stroi.ru/eng/default.aspx?m=34&d=35 |archivedate=15 October 2007 }}</ref> is a commercial development located just east of the [[Third Ring Road (Moscow)|Third Ring Road]] at the western edge of the [[Presnensky District]] in the [[Central Administrative Okrug]] of the city of [[Moscow]], [[Russia]]. As of 2019 the MIBC is still under development. Construction of the MIBC takes place on the Presnenskaya Embankment of the [[Moskva River]], approximately {{convert|4|km|mi|sp=us}} west of [[Red Square]], overlooked by the Third Ring Road. The project occupies an area of 60 hectares.<ref name="Citynext.ru">{{Cite web|url=http://www.citynext.ru/ |title=ОАО "СИТИ" – Москва-Сити – Московский международный деловой центр |publisher=Citynext.ru |date=14 September 2010 |accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref>

The Moscow government first conceived the project in 1992, as a mixed development of office, residential, retail and entertainment facilities.<ref name="Design Build Network">{{Cite web|url=http://www.designbuild-network.com/projects/mibc/ |title=Moscow International Business Centre (MIBC), Moscow |publisher=Design Build Network |accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref> An estimated 250,000 – 300,000 people will be working in, living in, or visiting the complex at any given time.<ref name="Citynext.ru" /> MIBC includes 6 skyscrapers with minimum height of 300 meters or more ([[List of tallest buildings in Shanghai|Shanghai has 5]], [[List of tallest buildings in Hong Kong|Hong Kong has 6]], [[List of tallest buildings in Chicago|Chicago has 6]]). Europe's second tallest building, the [[Federation Tower]], is in the MIBC. The complex also includes the [[OKO Tower|third-tallest]], [[Mercury City Tower|fourth-tallest]], [[Eurasia (building)|sixth-tallest]], [[City of Capitals|seventh-tallest]], and [[Naberezhnaya Tower|eighth-tallest]] buildings in [[Europe]]. By 2016, twelve of twenty-three planned facilities of MIBC were already built, seven buildings are in construction and four are in the design stage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tekstilschiky.mos.ru/presscenter/news/detail/3324736.html|title=«Москва-Сити» к 2018 году развернется на 100 га|website=tekstilschiky.mos.ru}}</ref>

__TOC__

== General description ==

=== History ===
Before construction began, the area had been a [[stone quarry]] and industrial zone, where most of the buildings were old factories that had been closed or abandoned. A public company, CITY, was created in 1992, to oversee the initial creation and development of Moscow City as well as its subsequent usage. CITY is also a general contractor and both landlord and lessor. Overall responsibility for the [[architectural plan]]ning and design of Moscow City belongs to the architectural studio No. 6, which is a part of the large Moscow practice Mosproject-2 named after Mikhail Vasilyevich Posokhin. This group, headed by Gennady Lvovich Sirota, who is officially the Chief Architect of Moskva-Citi, is in charge of overseeing the design of the complex as a whole and agreeing the details of individual projects. Each building lot has its own investor and architect. By 2014 the volume of investments in Moskva-Citi was approximately $12 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/articles/2014/03/18/25-let-spustya|title=Анатомия проекта: 25 лет спустя|last=Ведомости|date=18 March 2014}}</ref>

=== Management ===
Established in the spring of 1992, the [[Open joint-stock company|PJSC]] City Company manages the creation and development of the MIBC. On 30 December 1994, the [[Government of Moscow]] authorized PJSC City to act as the managing company for the MIBC and to negotiate with third parties to help develop the MIBC. As of February 2014, the company was owned by the Solvers Group, led by Oleg Malis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/articles/2014/06/16/poslednie-kogo-zdes-zhdali-lyudi-kotorye-pridut-navodit|title="Последние, кого здесь ждали, - люди, которые придут наводить порядок", - Олег Малис, управляющий партнер группы Solvers|last=Ведомости|date=2014-06-16|access-date=2018-03-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://citymoscow.ru/about|title=ПАО "СИТИ" {{!}} Управляющая компания ММДЦ "Москва-Сити"|website=citymoscow.ru|access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref>

{{wide image|Moscow-City2020.jpg|800px|align-cap=center|2020|}}

==Buildings==
<imagemap>
File:Moskva_city.svg|center|550px|The plots of Moscow-City
poly 1641 833 1642 834 1680 899 1659 916 1779 1118 1798 1101 1843 1153 1780 1200 1739 1146 1757 1133 1638 928 1621 941 1582 869 [[Bagration Bridge]]
poly 1173 482 1174 483 1395 379 1430 436 1220 562 [[One Tower (Moscow)|One Tower]]
poly 1484 465 1485 466 1850 253 1818 182 1891 140 2106 507 1749 800 1674 792 [[Expocentre]]
poly 1586 721 1587 722 1638 804 1566 845 1517 766 [[Evolution Tower]]
poly 1512 770 1513 771 1620 952 1511 1022 1412 828 [[Evolution Tower]]
poly 1407 832 1408 833 1512 1023 1399 1090 1288 900 [[Imperia Tower]]
poly 1501 583 1502 583 1581 710 1451 783 1372 662 [[Central Core]]
poly 1368 663 1369 664 1449 786 1287 883 1209 756 [[Central Core]]
poly 1205 758 1206 759 1281 882 1143 963 1099 964 1060 930 1049 894 1056 860 1069 841 [[Central Core]]
poly 1283 901 1284 902 1396 1094 1224 1170 1157 976 [[City of Capitals]]
poly 1149 979 1150 980 1215 1172 1132 1193 1059 1192 996 1167 948 1129 973 1097 983 1097 1076 969 1107 984 1141 983 [[Naberezhnaya Tower]]
poly 1017 720 1018 721 1066 812 1039 838 1027 877 846 874 843 818 [[Eurasia (building)]]
poly 1196 613 1197 614 1248 697 1077 805 1030 713 [[Federation Tower]]
poly 1319 518 1320 519 1381 621 1260 697 1232 650 1277 623 1241 566 [[Mercury City Tower]]
poly 774 289 775 290 838 315 823 388 836 614 798 627 766 602 755 536 753 377 [[Northern Tower]]
default [[File:Moskva_city.svg]]
desc bottom-left
</imagemap>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%"
|+ Current status of construction
|-
|bgcolor="bbffbb" width="90px" | Completed
|bgcolor="ddffdd" width="90px" |[[Topping out|Topped out]]
|bgcolor="ffffbb" width="90px" | Under construction
|bgcolor="ffeebb" width="90px" | On hold
|bgcolor="EEEEEE" width="90px" | Presumably
|}

=== List of building complexes ===
Roof height, max height, and floors apply to the tallest building of the respective complex. Completion of construction applies to the building in each complex completed last.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:100%;"
|- style="text-align:center; white-space:nowrap;" bgcolor="FF2800"
! Plot number
! Name
! Started
! Completed
! Buildings in complex
! Roof height
! Max height
! Floors
! Total area, m²
! class="unsortable" |Notes
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| style="text-align:center;" |Tower 2000 and [[Bagration Bridge]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 1996
| style="text-align:center;" | 2001
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 104
| style="text-align:center;" | 104
| style="text-align:center;" | 34
| style="text-align:center;" | 61 057
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Design Build Network" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/application/?nav=building&lng=3&id=bashnya2000-moscow-russia|title=Bashnya 2000, Moscow, Russia|author=Emporis GmbH|publisher=Emporis.com|accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | [[One Tower (Moscow)|One Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2019
| style="text-align:center;" | 2024
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 442
| style="text-align:center;" | 442
| style="text-align:center;" | 110
| style="text-align:center;" | 281 608
| style="text-align:center;" | Once completed, it will become the tallest building in Moscow.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/07/05/moscow-unveils-plans-for-europes-tallest-apartment-tower-a66292|title=Moscow Unveils Plans for 'Europe’s Tallest' Apartment Tower|date=2019-07-05|website=The Moscow Times|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-02-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.skuratov-arch.ru/portfolio/city-skyscraper/?lang=en|title=Multifunctional high-rise residential complex in Moscow City {{!}} Sergey Skuratov Architects|website=skuratov-arch.ru|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-04}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[Evolution Tower]]
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 2011
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 2014
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 1
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 246
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 246
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 55
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 169 000
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/265320/evolution-tower-moscow-russia|title=Evolution Tower, Moscow {{!}} 265320 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-03-25}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/evolution-tower/19725|title=Evolution Tower - The Skyscraper Center|website=www.skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=2018-03-25}}</ref><ref name=":42">http://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/2844-upward-spiral-the-story-of-the-evolution-tower.pdf</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 3
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
| style="text-align:center;" |[[Empire (skyscraper)|Imperia Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2006
| style="text-align:center;" | 2018
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| style="text-align:center;" | 239
| style="text-align:center;" | 239
| style="text-align:center;" | 59
| style="text-align:center;" | 287 723
| style="text-align:center;" | Construction of Tower 2. Foundation work.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|url=http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=13478|title=Imperia Tower, Moscow - SkyscraperPage.com|website=skyscraperpage.com|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/171933/imperia-tower-moscow-russia|title=Imperia Tower, Moscow {{!}} 171933 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/imperia-tower/1017|title=Imperia Tower - The Skyscraper Center|website=www.skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite news|url=http://www.m24.ru/articles/17236|title=В "Москве-Сити" появится новое здание с пешеходной улицей|work=m24.ru|access-date=2018-03-28|language=ru}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 5
| style="text-align:center;" |[[Expocentre]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 1977
| style="text-align:center;" | 1978
| style="text-align:center;" | 8
| style="text-align:center;" | 15
| style="text-align:center;" | 15
| style="text-align:center;" | 10
| style="text-align:center;" | 165 000
| style="text-align:center;" |
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 6
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |Central Core
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | 2005
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | 2022
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | 1
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | 50
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | 50
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | 6
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | 450 000
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://citymoscow.ru/citypoint|title=City Point|website=citymoscow.ru|access-date=2020-02-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://citymoscow.ru/afimall|title=Афимолл|website=citymoscow.ru|access-date=2020-02-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stroi.mos.ru/press_releases/marat-khusnullin-k-2022-ghodu-novuiu-ploshchad-moskva-siti-ukrasit-supiersovriemiennyi-mul-tifunktsional-nyi-kontsiertnyi-zal|title=Марат Хуснуллин: к 2022 году новую площадь «Москва-Сити» украсит суперсовременный мультифункциональный концертный зал|website=stroi.mos.ru|language=ru|access-date=2020-02-02}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 7
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 8
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 9
| style="text-align:center;" |[[City of Capitals]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2005
| style="text-align:center;" | 2009
| style="text-align:center;" | 3
| style="text-align:center;" | 302<ref>Height of Moscow Tower</ref>
| style="text-align:center;" | 302
| style="text-align:center;" | 76
| style="text-align:center;" | 288 680
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.capitalcity.ru/en/apartments/|title=Capital City : New standards of comfortable living|publisher=Capitalcity.ru|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806195055/http://www.capitalcity.ru/en/apartments/|archivedate=6 August 2010|url-status=dead|accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 10
| style="text-align:center;" |[[Naberezhnaya Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2003
| style="text-align:center;" | 2007
| style="text-align:center;" | 3
| style="text-align:center;" | 268<ref>Height of C block</ref>
| style="text-align:center;" | 268
| style="text-align:center;" | 59
| style="text-align:center;" | 254 000
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="architecture">[http://www.capitalcity.ru/en/capital_city/architecture/ Official site] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301152123/http://www.capitalcity.ru/en/capital_city/architecture/|date=2010-03-01}}</ref><ref name=":04">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/200466/capital-city-moscow-tower-moscow-russia|title=Capital City Moscow Tower, Moscow {{!}} 200466 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-04-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/200467/capital-city-st-petersburg-tower-moscow-russia|title=Capital City St. Petersburg Tower, Moscow {{!}} 200467 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/253452/capital-city-north-office-block-moscow-russia|title=Capital City North Office Block, Moscow {{!}} 253452 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/2512d0c2-c776-11e1-a850-00144feab49a.html#axzz207vxsXEN 'The sky's the limit' (Editorial)]. ''Financial Times'' (London). 6 July 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2012. {{registration required}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 11
| style="text-align:center;" |[[IQ-quarter]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2008
| style="text-align:center;" | 2017
| style="text-align:center;" | 3
| style="text-align:center;" | 169<ref>Height of Tower 3</ref>
| style="text-align:center;" | 169
| style="text-align:center;" | 42
| style="text-align:center;" | 228 000
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name=":05">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/359396/iq-quarter-hotel-moscow-russia|title=iQ Quarter Hotel, Moscow {{!}} 359396 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/359393/iq-quarter-tower-1-moscow-russia|title=iQ Quarter Tower 1, Moscow {{!}} 359393 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref><ref name=":24">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/359394/iq-quarter-tower-2-moscow-russia|title=iQ Quarter Tower 2, Moscow {{!}} 359394 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/complex/359|title=IQ-Quarter Complex - The Skyscraper Center|website=www.skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 12
| style="text-align:center;" |[[Eurasia Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2007
| style="text-align:center;" | 2015
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 309
| style="text-align:center;" | 309
| style="text-align:center;" | 70
| style="text-align:center;" | 207 542
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name=":06">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/204748/eurasia-tower-moscow-russia|title=Eurasia Tower, Moscow {{!}} 204748 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/stalnaya-vershina/485|title=Stalnaya Vershina - The Skyscraper Center|website=www.skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=2018-06-22}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 13
| style="text-align:center;" |[[Federation Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2003
| style="text-align:center;" | 2017
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| style="text-align:center;" | 374<ref>Height of Vostok Tower</ref>
| style="text-align:center;" | 374
| style="text-align:center;" | 101
| style="text-align:center;" | 439 154
| style="text-align:center;" | Vostok/East Tower is currently the tallest building in Moscow.
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 14
| style="text-align:center;" |[[Mercury City Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2009
| style="text-align:center;" | 2013
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 339
| style="text-align:center;" | 339
| style="text-align:center;" | 75
| style="text-align:center;" | 158 528
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="skyscraperpage1">{{Cite web|url=http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=45047|title=Mercury City Tower, Moscow|publisher=SkyscraperPage.com|accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref><ref name="emporis1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.emporis.com/application/?nav=building&id=291262&lng=3|title=Mercury City Tower, Moscow, Russia|author=Emporis GmbH|publisher=Emporis.com|accessdate=25 September 2010}}</ref><ref name="emporis1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.archfwa.com/default.aspx?page=5&type=99&project=319&focus=4|title=Mercury City Tower, Frank Williams And Partners Architects, LLP : Portfolio International|author=Spliteye Multimedia LLC at http://www.spliteye.com/|publisher=Archfwa.com|accessdate=25 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182125/http://www.archfwa.com/default.aspx?page=5&type=99&project=319&focus=4|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite news|url=http://www.eliterics.com/2012/05/russia-moscow-mercury-city-tower-332m.html|title=Russia: Moscow Mercury City Tower (332m) Photos & Renderings|work=Eliterics|accessdate=13 July 2012|year=2011}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 15
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Grand Tower (Moscow)|Grand Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2013
| style="text-align:center;" | 2022
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 283
| style="text-align:center;" | 283
| style="text-align:center;" | 62
| style="text-align:center;" |315 282
| style="text-align:center;" |Construction was put on hold in 2013 and resumed in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skyscrapercenter.com/building/grand-tower/16470|title=Grand Tower - The Skyscraper Center|website=skyscrapercenter.com}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 16
| style="text-align:center;" |[[OKO]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2011
| style="text-align:center;" | 2015
| style="text-align:center;" | 3
| style="text-align:center;" | 354
| style="text-align:center;" | 354
| style="text-align:center;" | 85
| style="text-align:center;" | 429 600
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name=":07">{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/complex/754|title=Oko Business Centre Complex - The Skyscraper Center|website=www.skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=2018-06-25}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/1193732/oko-apartment-tower-moscow-russia|title=OKO Apartment Tower, Moscow {{!}} 1193732 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-06-25}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite web|url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/1193733/oko-office-tower-moscow-russia|title=OKO Office Tower, Moscow {{!}} 1193733 {{!}} EMPORIS|last=GmbH|first=Emporis|website=www.emporis.com|access-date=2018-06-25}}</ref><ref name=":33">{{Cite web|url=http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=48165|title=OKO Towers, Moscow - SkyscraperPage.com|website=skyscraperpage.com|access-date=2018-06-25}}</ref><ref name=":44">{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/oko-office-tower/12025|title=OKO - Office Tower - The Skyscraper Center|website=www.skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=2018-06-28}}</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite web|url=http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/oko-residential-tower/363|title=OKO - Residential Tower - The Skyscraper Center|website=www.skyscrapercenter.com|access-date=2018-06-28}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 17
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |[[Neva Towers]]
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 2013
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 2020
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 2
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 345
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 345
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 79
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | 357 000
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rendvlp.com/projects/renaissance-moscow-towers?locale=en|title="NEVA TOWERS" MIXED-USE PROJECT|website=www.rendvlp.com|access-date=6 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517003939/http://www.rendvlp.com/projects/renaissance-moscow-towers?locale=en|archive-date=17 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://realty.rbc.ru/news/577d23d19a7947a78ce91983|title=Небоскребы "Москва-Сити": каким задумывали район 20 лет назад|website=РБК Недвижимость|access-date=2018-03-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://regnum.ru/news/2479002.html|title=Башню Neva Towers в «Москва-Сити» достроят в 2020 году|work=ИА REGNUM|access-date=2018-09-10|language=ru-RU}}</ref>
|- bgcolor="ffffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 18
|- bgcolor="bbffbb"
| style="text-align:center;" | 19
| style="text-align:center;" |[[Northern Tower]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 2005
| style="text-align:center;" | 2007
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 108
| style="text-align:center;" | 132
| style="text-align:center;" | 27
| style="text-align:center;" | 135 000
| style="text-align:center;" |
|}

=== Building gallery ===
<gallery mode="packed" widths="200" heights="180">
File:Tower 2000 in Moscow.jpg|Tower 2000
File:Moscow International Business Center A 02.jpg|[[Evolution Tower]]
File:Moscow International Business Center A 06.jpg|[[Imperia Tower]]
File:Moscow Afimall atrium 08-2016 img1.jpg|Central Core
File:Capital-city-towers-moscow-indexxrus.JPG|[[City of Capitals]]
File:Nabereshnaya Tower2016.jpg|[[Naberezhnaya Tower]]
File:IQ-querter1.jpg|[[IQ-quarter]]
File:Eurasia1-Moscow-city.jpg|[[Eurasia (building)|Eurasia]]
File:Башня федерация 2018.jpg|[[Federation Tower]]
File:Wikitrip to Moscow International Business Center 2016-03-22 049.JPG|[[Mercury City Tower]]
File:Oko towers in 2016, Moscow.jpg|[[OKO]]
File:Neva Towers2.jpg|[[Neva Towers]]
File:Nothern tower, Moscow.jpg|[[Northern Tower]]
</gallery>

==Transport==

=== Pedestrian ===
[[File:Входы в "Афимолл Сити" и комплекс небоскрёбов "Федерация".jpg|250px|thumb|right]]
The [[Bagration Bridge]] is a pedestrian bridge that goes over the [[Moskva River]]. It connects Tower 2000 and the rest of the MIBC complex.

=== Road ===
[[File:Москва-Сити и ТТК (вид от Кутузовского проспекта).jpg|250px|thumb|right]]
Major thoroughfares that connect to the MIBC are the [[Third Ring Road (Moscow)|Third Ring Road]], 3rd Magistralnaya street, and the Presnenskaya Embankment.

To correspond with the growing MIBC, new highways and interchanges were built to connect the MIBC with the main transport arteries of the city. These projects include the ten-lane Dorogomilovsky Bridge of the [[Third Ring Road (Moscow)|Third Ring Road]] over the [[Moskva River]], the Third Ring Road interchange with [[Kutuzovsky Prospekt|Kutuzovsky Avenue]], and the extension of the Presnenskaya Embankment. Existing roads were reconstructed and rearranged.

=== Rapid transit ===
The MIBC is served by two [[Moscow Metro|metro]] lines, and three stations, and was for a time served by a further station and line. Two of the stations are named Delovoy Tsentr ([[Russian language|Russian]] for "business center"). [[Vystavochnaya]] (formerly known as Delovoy Tsentr) and [[Mezhdunarodnaya (Moscow Metro)|Mezhdunarodnaya]] are on the [[Filyovskaya line]], while [[Delovoy Tsentr (Bolshaya Koltsevaya line)|Delovoy Tsentr]] is on the incomplete [[Bolshaya Koltsevaya line]]. The first [[Delovoy Tsentr (Kalininsko–Solntsevskaya line)|Delovoy Tsentr]] was on [[Kalininsko–Solntsevskaya line|Kalininsko-Solntsevskaya line]] since 2014, but was closed after four years operation, pending further development of the line.

The MIBC in addition is served by the [[Moscow Central Circle]] urban rail, with a station also named [[Delovoy Tsentr (Moscow Central Circle)|Delovoy Tsentr]] which opened in 2016. There are also plans to install a high-speed rail system between the MIBC and [[Sheremetyevo International Airport]].{{fact|date=February 2019}}

== Accidents ==
[[File:Pozhar federation-2012-04-02-(22-42).jpg|thumb|250x250px|Fire on the 67th floor of Vostok of the [[Federation Tower]]s (2 April 2012).]]
* On 2 April 2012, a fire occurred on the 67th floor of [[Federation Tower|Federation Tower East/Vostok]] while it was under construction. 25 fire-fighting units and 4 helicopters of the Moscow Aviation Center responded and took four hours to extinguish the fire. Nobody was injured.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://positiverussia.com/news/2012/04/03/Pozhar-na-bashne-Vostok-kompleksa-Federaciya/|title=Пожар на башне "Восток" комплекса "Федерация"|website=positiverussia.com|access-date=2017-12-31}}</ref>
* On 25 January 2013, a fire occurred on the 24th floor of one of the skyscrapers at the [[OKO]] complex while it was under construction.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pravda.ru/news/accidents/25-01-2013/1142834-fire-0/|title=В Москва-сити сгорел очередной небоскреб|date=2013-01-25|work=Правда.Ру|access-date=2017-12-31|language=ru}}</ref>
* On 12 January 2014, a fire occurred on the 15th floor of a 17-story building on Testovaya Street while it was under construction. The fire was extinguished and nobody was injured.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://ria.ru/incidents/20140112/988808920.html|title=Возгорание произошло в одном из строящихся зданий "Москва-сити"|date=2014-01-12|work=РИА Новости|access-date=2017-12-31|language=ru}}</ref>
* On 9 July 2014, a fire occurred on [[Evolution Tower]]. The fire was extinguished and nobody was injured.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bfm.ru/news/264630|title=В одной из башен "Москва-Сити" произошел пожар|last=BFM.ru|work=BFM.ru - деловой портал|access-date=2017-12-31|language=ru}}</ref>
* On 18:45 on 31 August 2015, a fire occurred on the 33rd floor of Federation Tower East/Vostok due to the ignition of construction materials.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://gantbpm.ru/news/pozhar-v-mmdc-moskva-siti/|title=Пожар в ММДЦ Москва-Сити Башня Федерация Восток|work=Консалтинговая компания GANTBPM Управление проектами фирма Москва|access-date=2017-12-31|language=ru-RU}}</ref>
* On 13 April 2016, a worker fell to his death on the [[Naberezhnaya Tower]], presumably from the hundredth floor.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://lenta.ru/news/2016/04/13/chp/|title=C небоскреба в "Москва-Сити" упал мужчина|access-date=2017-12-31}}</ref>
* On 18 June 2017, [[roofer]] Sergey Delyashov [[Buildering|climbed]] on [[Eurasia (building)|Eurasia/Steel Peak]] and was later rescued.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ntv.ru/novosti/1822058/|title=На стене небоскреба в "Москва-Сити" заметили неизвестного человека|last=ntv.ru|website=НТВ|language=en|access-date=2017-12-31}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery heights="120px" widths="180px">
Moscow International Business Center1.jpg|A view of the MIBC from residential complex Nebo at [[Michurinsky Prospekt]].
File:Moscow-City. Night (45595943931).jpg|The MIBC at night. A view from [[Sberbank City]].
File:Interchange near Moscow-City.jpg|Transport interchange of [[Third Ring Road (Moscow)|Third Ring Road]] and 3rd Magistralnaya Street near the Moscow City.
File:Отель "Украина" (вид от Москва-Сити).jpg|View of the [[Hotel Ukraina]] from the observation deck of the MIBC's [[Federation Tower]] on the 89th floor.
</gallery>

== See also ==
Other [[commercial district]]s in Russia:

* [[Lakhta Center]]
* [[Yekaterinburg City]]

Building comparisons:
* [[List of tallest buildings in Moscow]]
* [[List of tallest buildings in Russia]]
* [[List of tallest buildings in Europe]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons and category|Moscow International Business Center|Moscow International Business Center}}
*[http://www.citynext.ru/ Official IBC site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160521141543/http://federationtower.ru/ Official Federation Tower site]
*[http://www.citytowers.ru/viewforum.php?id=32 Citytowers Forum]
*[http://mymoscowcity.com/ My Moscow City]

{{Moscow-City}}

[[Category:Moscow International Business Center| ]]
[[Category:Financial districts in Russia]]
[[Category:Central business districts in Russia]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers in Moscow]]
[[Category:Government of Moscow]]
[[Category:Economy of Moscow]]
[[Category:Mixed-use developments in Russia]]

English as She Is Spoke

2020-08-03T15:27:29Z

Mutichou: typo (the a → a)

{{short description|Book by Pedro Carolino}}
{{Infobox book
| title_orig = O novo guia da conversação em portuguez e inglez
| image = O novo guia da conversaçao en portuguez e inglez 1ere edition.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| author = José da Fonseca and Pedro Carolino
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = France
| language = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and English
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[phrase book]]
| publisher = J.P. Aillaud
| pub_date = 1855
| english_pub_date =
| media_type = Print
| pages = 182
| isbn =
| oclc =
| wikisource = English As She Is Spoke
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}

'''''O novo guia da conversação em portuguez e inglez, ou Escolha de dialogos familiares''''' ("The new guide of the conversation in Portuguese and English, or School of familiar dialogues"), commonly known by the name '''''English as She Is Spoke''''', is a 19th-century book that was intended as a [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]–[[English language|English]] conversational [[guide]] or [[phrase book]], but is regarded as a classic source of unintentional [[humour in translation]], because the "English" translations provided are usually inaccurate or incoherent.

While the book was written by Pedro Carolino, some editions have incorrectly credited José da Fonseca as its co-author.

The humour is largely a result of Carolino's indiscriminate use of [[literal translation]]; this causes many [[idiom]]atic expressions to be translated ineptly. For example, Carolino translates the Portuguese phrase ''{{wiktpt|chover a cântaros}}'' as "raining in jars", when an analogous English idiom is available in the form of "raining buckets".

It is widely believed that Carolino could not speak English, and that a [[French language|French]]–English dictionary was used to translate an earlier Portuguese–French phrase book, ''O novo guia da conversação em francês e português'', written by José da Fonseca. Carolino likely added Fonseca's name to the book without his permission in an attempt to give it some credibility. The Portuguese–French phrase book is apparently a competent work, without the defects that characterize ''English as She Is Spoke''.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Collins Library: The Mystery of Pedro Carolino
|url=http://www.collinslibrary.com/pedro.html
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415183419/http://www.collinslibrary.com/pedro.html
|archivedate=2002-04-15
|accessdate=2009-01-15
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Origins of English as She is Spoke
|url=http://www.collinslibrary.com/pedro2.html
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030202143018/http://www.collinslibrary.com/pedro2.html
|archivedate=2003-02-02
|accessdate=2009-01-15
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Evolution of "English as She is Spoke"
|url=http://www.collinslibrary.com/english.html
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021207121403/http://www.collinslibrary.com/english.html
|archivedate=2002-12-07
|accessdate=2009-01-15
}}</ref>

The title ''English as She Is Spoke'' was given to the book in its 1883 republication; this phrase does not actually appear in the original phrasebook, nor does the word "spoke."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/onovoguiadaconve00fons|title=O novo guia da conversação, em portuguez e inglez; ou, Escolha de dialogos familiares sôbre varios assumptos;|first1=José da|last1=Fonseca|first2=Pedro|last2=Carolino|date=May 29, 1855|publisher=Paris, Va. J.P. Aillaud, Monlon e Ca.|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.ie/books?id=lUd5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=snippet&q=spoke&f=false|title=O novo guia da conversação, em portuguez e inglez: ou, Escolha de dialogos familiares sôbre varios assumptos|first=José da|last=Fonseca|date=May 29, 1855|publisher=Va. J.P. Aillaud, Monlon e Ca.|via=Google Books}}</ref>
==Cultural appraisals and influence==
[[Mark Twain]] said of ''English as She Is Spoke'' that "Nobody can add to the absurdity of this book, nobody can imitate it successfully, nobody can hope to produce its fellow; it is perfect."<ref>[[Mark Twain]], ''[[s:Introduction to "The New Guide of the Conversation in Portuguese and English"|Introduction to The New Guide of the Conversation in Portuguese and English]]'' (1883) p. 239.</ref>

Stephen Pile mentions this work in ''[[The Book of Heroic Failures]]'' and comments: "Is there anything in conventional English which could equal the vividness of ''{{'}}to [[wikt:craunch|craunch]] a [[marmoset]]{{'}}''?"<ref>{{cite web|title=Scan of 1883 printed version; p. 60
|url=http://www.s4ulanguages.com/english-as-she-is-spoke.html
|accessdate=2009-06-14
}}</ref> The original has "to craunch the marmoset", an entry under the book's "Idiotisms and Proverbs". This is the author's attempt to translate the French slang idiomatic expression ''{{wiktfr|croquer le marmot}}'', used to indicate "waiting patiently for someone to open a door",<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exclassics.com/espoke/espk1.htm|title=English as she is spoke - Introduction to the British edition|website=www.exclassics.com}}</ref> with ''{{wiktfr|croquer}}'' referring to the "knocking" or "rapping" sound, and ''marmot'', a term for the [[grotesque]] [[door knocker]]s in vogue at the time. The term is presumably inspired by the [[marmot]]'s large teeth, as many of the grotesque door knockers were figures holding the knocker clasped in their teeth. "Craunch" is an archaic term meaning 'to chew' or 'crunch'. In Modern French, ''croquer'' usually means "to crunch" (cf. [[croque monsieur]]); its use in this idiom is a survival from the Middle French meaning of ''croquer, crocquer'', which meant "to slap, hit, strike."

[[Tristan Bernard]] wrote a very short comedy with a similar name, {{lang|fr|L'Anglais tel qu'on le parle}} (1899). [[Eugène Ionesco|Ionesco]]'s {{lang|fr|[[La Cantatrice chauve]]}} (1950) is mostly made of lines used out-of-[[Context (language use)|context]] from inter-lingual conversation books. British comedy television series ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' made use of the theme of the mis-translating guide in the sketch "[[Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook]]" (1970), which may have been directly inspired by ''English as She Is Spoke''.<ref name="auto">[http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-a-portuguese-to-english-phrasebook-became-a-cult-comedy-sensation How a Portuguese-to-English Phrasebook Became a Cult Comedy Sensation], by Tucker Leighty-Phillips, at ''[[Atlas Obscura]]''; published June 29, 2016; retrieved December 24, 2018</ref>

== Phrase examples ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Sentence in Portuguese
! Given translation
! Idiomatic translation
|-
| ''As paredes têm ouvidos.''
| The walls have hearsay.
| The walls have ears.
|-
| ''Anda de gatinhas.''
| He go to four feet.
| He's crawling.
|-
| ''A estrada é segura?''
| Is sure the road?
| Is the road safe?
|-
| ''Sabe montar a cavalo.''
| He know ride horse.
| He can ride a horse.
|-
| ''Quem cala consente.''
| That not says a word, consent.
| Silence is consent.
|-
| ''Que faz ele?''
| What do him?
| What does he do? / What is he doing?
|-
| ''Tenho vontade de vomitar.''
| I have mind to vomit.
| I feel sick.
|-
| ''Este lago parece-me bem piscoso. Vamos pescar para nos divertirmos.''
| That pond it seems me many multiplied of fishes. Let us amuse rather to the fishing.
| This lake looks full of fish. Let's have some fun fishing.
|-
| ''O criado arou a terra real.''
| The created plough the land real.
| The servant ploughed the royal land.
|-
| ''Bem sei o que devo fazer ou me compete.''
| I know well who I have to make.
| I know very well what I have to do and what my responsibilities are.
|}

==Publication history==

* 1853 – In Paris, J.-P. Aillaud, Monlon e Ca published a Portuguese–French phrase book entitled ''O novo guia da conversação em francês e português'' by José da Fonseca. The [[Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal]] (National Library of Portugal) has a copy of this book with catalogue number L.686P. Another copy of this book is in the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] (National Library of France) under the catalogue number FRBNF30446608.
* 1855 – In Paris, J.-P. Aillaud, Monlon e Ca published a Portuguese–English phrase book entitled ''O Novo Guia da Conversação, em Português e Inglês, em Duas Partes'' (literally, ''The new guide to conversation, in Portuguese and English, in Two Parts''), with authorship attributed to José da Fonseca and Pedro Carolino. A copy of this book is in the ''Bibliothèque nationale de France'' under the catalogue number FRBNF30446609. Another copy is in the [[Bodleian Library]], [[Oxford]].
* 1883 – The book was published in London as ''English as She is Spoke''. The first American edition, published in [[Boston]], also came out this year, with an introduction by [[Mark Twain]].
* 1969 – The book was re-published in New York by [[Dover Publications]], under the title ''English as she is spoke; the new guide of the conversation in Portuguese and English'' ({{ISBN|0-486-22329-9}}).
* 2002 – A new edition edited by [[Paul Collins (American writer)|Paul Collins]] was published under the [[Collins Library]] imprint of [[McSweeney's]] ({{ISBN|0-9719047-4-X}}).
* 2002 – Brazilian edition of the copies of the 1855 edition held in the ''Bibliothèque nationale de France'' and the Bodleian Library, published by Casa da Palavra, Rio de Janeiro ({{ISBN|85-87220-56-X}}).
* 2004 – A revised paperback version of the above Collins Library edition was published ({{ISBN|1-932416-11-0}}).

== Related titles ==
The phrase inspired some other publications, notably:

* ''English as she is wrote'' (1883)
* ''English as she is taught'' (1887), also with introduction by Mark Twain<ref>[http://www.s4ulanguages.com/english-as-she-is-spoke.html English as she is spoke (1883)], "Related: English as she is Taught by Caroline B. Le Row (1887)."</ref>
* ''Ingglish az she iz spelt'' (1885), by "Fritz Federheld" (pseud. of Frederick Atherton Fernald)
* ''Britain as she is visit'', a spoof tourist guide in similar style to the original book, by [[Paul Jennings (UK author)|Paul Jennings]], British Life (M Joseph, 1976)
* ''Elvish as She Is Spoke'' (2006), by Carl F. Hostetter, from ''The Lord of the Rings 1954–2004: Scholarship in Honor of Richard E. Blackwelder'' (Marquette, 2006), ed. Wayne G. Hammond and Christina Scull<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elvish.org/articles/EASIS.pdf|title=Elvish as She Is Spoke, by Carl F. Hostetter}}</ref>
* ''Rails as she is spoke'' (2012), a humorous guide about [[Object-oriented programming|OOP]] problems in the [[Ruby on Rails]] web application framework, by Giles Bowkett<ref>[http://railsoopbook.com/ Rails as she is spoke web site]</ref>

==Contemporary allusions==
The phrase ''English as she is spoke'' is nowadays used allusively, in a form of linguistic play, as a stereotypical example of bad English grammar.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Sampson | first1 = Rodney | last2 = Smith | first2 = Colin | title = And now for something completely different: Dictionary of allusions in British English | year = 1997 | publisher = Hueber | isbn = 3-19-002468-5 | page = 324 }}</ref>

The book has been cited as one example of many diversions that President [[Abraham Lincoln]] used to lighten his heart and mind from the weight of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and his cabinet's political infighting.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Goodwin| first1 = Doris Kearns | title = Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln | url = https://archive.org/details/teamofrivalspoli00good| url-access = registration| year = 2005 | publisher = Simon and Schuster Paperbacks | isbn = 978-0-7432-7075-5 | page = [https://archive.org/details/teamofrivalspoli00good/page/600 600] }}</ref>

The [[Monty Python]] sketch "[[Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook]]" is a take on the idea, in which a publisher created a [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]-English phrasebook with deliberately mis-translated phrases.<ref name="auto"/>

The English rock band [[Cardiacs]] used passages from the book in their 1999 album [[Guns (Cardiacs album)|''Guns'']], most notably in the songs "Cry Wet Smile Dry" and "Sleep All Eyes Open."

==See also==
* ''[[Backstroke of the West]]'', a modern case of mistranslation through multiple languages into broken English, circulated as Internet humor
* [[Engrish]], broken English common among Japanese and some other Asian learners; frequently entering popular culture
* [[Franglais]], an expression for commingled English and French, from [[Miles Kington]]'s long-running column in [[Punch (magazine)|''Punch'']] magazine, "[[Let's parler franglais]]".
* [[My postillion has been struck by lightning]], a nonsense phrase often attributed to interlingual style books
* [[Spanglish]], a term for commingled English and Spanish
* ''[[Striking and Picturesque Delineations of the Grand, Beautiful, Wonderful, and Interesting Scenery Around Loch-Earn]]'', a 19th-century work in broken English also considered unintentionally humorous

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|English As She Is Spoke}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=lUd5AAAAIAAJ ''The New Guide of the Conversation, in Portuguese and English, in Two Parts'': full facsimile of the 1855 edition at Google Books]
* [http://www.exclassics.com/espoke/espkint.htm ''English as She is Spoke''] Online reading and multiple ebook formats at Ex-classics.
* [http://www.s4ulanguages.com/english-as-she-is-spoke.html ''English as She is Spoke; Or, A Jest in Sober Earnest'': Full facsimile/ scan of the original book (1883)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=TZFZ95l2QtEC ''English as She is Spoke; Or, A Jest in Sober Earnest'': full facsimile at Google Books]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/30411 Plain text ebook of ''English as She is Spoke'' at Project Gutenberg]
* [http://www.zompist.com/spoke.html English as she is spoke vs. Babelfish]
* [http://www.archimedes-lab.org/carolino.html English as she is spoke: Idiotisms and Proverbs]

{{authority control}}
[[Category:1855 books]]
[[Category:D. Appleton & Company books]]
[[Category:English-language education]]
[[Category:Humour]]
[[Category:Language textbooks]]
[[Category:Portuguese language]]
[[Category:Translation]]
[[Category:Translation dictionaries]]

Jezero (crater)

2020-07-30T21:24:33Z

Mutichou: the Slovak word for "lake" is jazero, not jezero

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
{{Infobox crater data
| titlecolor = #FA8072
| title = Jezero crater
| image = Jezero crater-Isidis basin.jpg
| caption = Jezero crater on edge of [[Isidis basin]]
| coordinate_title = [[Mars#Geography|Coordinates]]
| globe = Mars
| coordinates = {{coord|18.38|N|77.58|E|globe:mars_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| diameter = {{convert|49.0|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| eponym = [[Jezero, Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
}}
[[File:SyrtisMajor-MC-13-JezeroCrater.jpg|262px|thumb|<div align="center">Jezero crater (lower right) and region seen from the ''[[Viking 1]]'' Orbiter</div>]]
'''Jezero''' (pronounced as ['je.ze.ro]; incorrectly as: [ˈjɛ.zə.ɹoʊ] or ['dʒɛ.zə.ɹoʊ]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2018/jezero-landing-site-mars-2020-rover.html|title=We're going to Jezero!|date=20 November 2018|accessdate=2018-12-09|last=Lakdawlla|first=Emily|website=Planetary Society}}</ref> is a [[Impact crater|crater]] on [[Mars]] located at {{coord|18.38|N|77.58|E|globe:Mars}}<ref name="HR-20080606">{{cite web |last=Wray |first=James |title=Channel into Jezero Crater Delta |url=http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/PSP_007925_1990 |date=6 June 2008 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref> in the [[Syrtis Major quadrangle]]. The diameter of the crater is about {{convert|49.0|km|mi|abbr=on}}. Thought to have once been flooded with water, the crater contains a fan-[[river delta|delta]] deposit rich in [[clay]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12873-prime-landing-sites-chosen-for-biggest-martian-rover.html|title=Prime landing sites chosen for biggest Martian rover|first=Hazel|last=Muir|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> The lake in the crater was present when valley networks were forming on Mars. Besides having a delta, the crater shows point bars and inverted channels. From a study of the delta and channels, it was concluded that the lake did not experience times when the water went down. It probably formed when there was continual surface runoff.<ref>Goudge, T., et al. 2017. [https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2017/pdf/1195.pdf Stratigraphy and Evolution of Delta Channel Deposits, Jezero Crater Mars.] Lunar and Planetary Science XLVIII (2017). 1195.pdf.</ref>

In 2007, following the discovery of its ancient lake, the crater was named for [[Jezero, Bosnia and Herzegovina|Jezero]]<ref name="slobodna-bosna.ba-USA Embassy-in-Sarajevo">{{cite web |title=4th July celebration at USA Embassy in Sarajevo / Pro-ruski savez na (ne)djelu: Dodik i Čović odbili doći na proslavu Dana nezavisnosti SAD-a |url=https://www.slobodna-bosna.ba/vijest/119385/proruski_savez_na_ne_djelu_dodik_i_chovic_odbili_doci_na_proslavu_dana_nezavisnosti_sad_a.html |website=slobodna-bosna.ba |accessdate=3 July 2019 |language=bs |date=3 July 2019}}</ref> in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Jezero#Bosnia and Herzegovina|one of several]] eponymous towns in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/14300|title=Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Jezero on Mars|website=planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov|access-date=2018-12-14}}</ref> In several [[Slavic languages]], including [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Slovene language|Slovene]], the word ''[[wikt:jezero#Serbo-Croatian|jezero]]'' means 'lake'.

In November 2018, it was announced that Jezero crater had been chosen as the landing site for the planned [[Mars 2020|Mars 2020 rover]] mission.<ref name="NYT20200728kc">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=How NASA Found the Ideal Hole on Mars to Land In - Jezero crater. the destination of the Perseverance rover, is a promising place to look for evidence of extinct Martian life. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/28/science/nasa-jezero-perseverance.html |date=28 July 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=28 July 2020 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20181119">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=NASA Mars 2020 Rover Gets a Landing Site: A Crater That Contained a Lake - The rover will search the Jezero Crater and delta for the chemical building blocks of life and other signs of past microbes. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/19/science/nasa-mars-2020-rover.html |date=19 November 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=21 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="SPC-20181119">{{cite news |last=Wall |first=Mike |title=Jezero Crater or Bust! NASA Picks Landing Site for Mars 2020 Rover |url=https://www.space.com/42486-mars-2020-rover-jezero-crater-landing-site.html |date=19 November 2018 |work=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=20 November 2018 }}</ref>

==Crater==
Life may have developed in the crater since it is believed the lake was long-lived; the delta may have required a period of 106–107 years to form.<ref name="Schon, S. 2012">Schon, S., J. Head, C. Fassett. 2012. An overfilled lacustrine system and progradational delta in Jezero crater, Mars: Implications for Noachian climate. Planetary and Space Science: 67, 28–45</ref> [[Clay minerals]] have been detected in and around the crater.<ref>Bibring, J. et al. 2006. Global mineralogical and aqueous Mars history derived from OMEGA/Mars Express data. Science: 312, 400-404.</ref><ref>Mangold, N., et al. 2007. Mineralogy of the Nili Fossae region with OMEGA/Mars Express data: 2. Aqueous alteration of the crust. Journal of Geophysical Research 112, E08S04. doi:10.1029/2006JE002835.</ref><ref>Poulet, F., et al. 2005. Phyllosilicates on Mars and implications for early martian climate. Nature, 438. doi:10.1038/nature04274.</ref> The [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]] identified [[smectite]] clays.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Murchie, S. |display-authors=etal |title=A synthesis of Martian aqueous mineralogy after 1 Mars year of observations from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter |date=2009 |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=114 |issue=E2 |pages=E00D06 |doi=10.1029/2009JE003342 |bibcode=2009JGRE..114.0D06M |url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/43957/1/jgre2648.pdf }}</ref> Clays form in the presence of water, so this area probably once held water and maybe life in ancient times. The surface in places is cracked into polygonal patterns. Such shapes often form when clay dries out. These patterns can be seen in the image below. The image shows a channel that carried water and sediments into Jezero crater.<ref name="HR-20080606" />

Researchers described in a paper, released in March 2015, how an ancient Martian lake system existed in Jezero Crater. The study advanced the idea that water filled the crater at least two separate times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/03/150325210744.htm|title=Ancient Martian lake system records two water-related events|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> There are two channels on the northern and western sides of the crater that probably supplied it with water; each of these channels has a delta-like deposit where sediment was carried by water and deposited in the lake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spaceref.com/mars/ancient-martian-lake-system-records-two-water-related-events.html|title=Ancient Martian Lake System Records Two Water-related Events - SpaceRef|website=spaceref.com|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> Craters of a given diameter are expected to have a certain depth; a depth less than expected means sediment has entered the crater.<ref>Garvin, J., S. Sakimoto, J. Frawley. 2003. Craters on Mars: Global geometric
properties from gridded MOLA topography. In: Sixth International Conference
on Mars. Abstract no. #3277</ref> Calculations suggest that the crater may hold about one kilometer of sediments. Most of the sediments may have been brought in by channels.<ref name="Schon, S. 2012"/>
{{clear}}
[[File:PIA23518-Mars2020-LandingSite-20191217.jpg|thumb|center|500px|<div align="center">Mars 2020 and more - landing sites (17 December 2019)</div>]]
[[File:PIA22907-Mars-LakeJezero-ArtistConcept-20181213.jpg|thumb|center|500px|<div class="center">Jezero crater lake billions of years ago (artist concept)</div>]]
[[File:PIA23976-Mars-JezeroCraterMap-20200715.jpg|thumb|center|500px|<div align="center">Jezero crater map (Green circle: rover's landing ellipse) (15 July 2020)</div>]]
{{Multiple image
|align=center |direction=horizontal |total_width= |title=Proposed landing site – [[Jezero (crater)|Jezero crater]]<ref name="NASA-20150304" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Assessing the Mineralogy of the Watershed and Fan Deposits of the Jezero Crater Paleolake System, Mars |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=775 |date=6 March 2015 |last1=Goudge |first1=Timothy A. |last2=Mustard |first2=John F. |last3=Head |first3=James W. |last4=Fassett |first4=Caleb I. |last5=Wiseman |first5=Sandra M. |s2cid=29382260 |doi=10.1002/2014JE004782 |bibcode=2015JGRE..120..775G}}</ref> ({{coord|18.855|N|77.519|E|globe:Mars}})<ref name="HR-20080606" />
|image1=USGS-Mars-MC-13-JezeroCrater.png |caption1=Jezero and surrounding region|width1=182
|image2=NASA-Mars-JezeroCrater-20181116.jpg |caption2=Jezero crater on Mars - ancient rivers (on the left) fed the crater; overflow flooding carved the outlet canyon (on the right )|width2=200
|image3=PIA23511-Mars2020-JezeroCrater-AncientLakeshore-20191112.jpg|caption3=Ancient shoreline, and planned landing ellipse for the Mars 2020 mission|width3=224
|image4=PIA23380-Mars2020-JezeroCrater-Minerals-20191112jpg.jpg|caption4=Minerals (green=carbonates; red=olivine sand eroding from carbonate-containing rocks)|width4=223
|image5=260184-JezeroCrater-Delta-Full.jpg |caption5=Jezero delta – chemical alteration by water|width5=195
}}

==Mars 2020 mission==
[[File:PIA19303-JezeroCraterRegion-PossibleMars2020LandingSite-20150304-modified.jpg|thumb|300px|<center>Proposed Mars 2020 landing site inside Jezero crater.</center>]]
Jezero crater, once considered a site for the [[Mars Science Laboratory]], was later proposed as a [[Landing|landing site]] for the [[Mars 2020]] rover mission.<ref name="NASA-20150304">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=PIA19303: A Possible Landing Site for the 2020 Mission: Jezero Crater |url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA19303 |date=4 March 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=7 March 2015 }}</ref><ref>http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl/workshops/2nd_workshop/talks/Fassett_Nili.pdf</ref> Following several Mars 2020 landing site workshops, in early 2017 it survived the cut and was named to be among the top three sites still in the running for the landing, along with [[Northeast Syrtis]], 30 km to the southwest.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nature.com/news/three-sites-where-nasa-might-retrieve-its-first-mars-rock-1.21470 |title=Three sites where NASA might retrieve its first Mars rock |work=Nature |first=Alexandra |last=Witze |date=2017-02-11 |accessdate=2017-02-26 |doi=10.1038/nature.2017.21470|bibcode=2017Natur.542..279W }}</ref>

A primary aim of the Mars 2020 mission is to search for signs of ancient life. It is hoped that a [[Mars sample return mission|later mission]] could then return samples from sites identified as probably containing remains of life. To safely bring the craft down, a 12-mile (20 km) wide, smooth, flat circular area is needed. Geologists hope to examine places where water once ponded.<ref name="NASA-Themis">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=The Floods of Iani Chaos |url=http://themis.mars.asu.edu/feature/31 |date=2010 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=7 March 2015 }}</ref> They would like to examine [[Sediment|sediment layers]].

In November 2018, Jezero crater was selected as the planned landing site for the Mars 2020 rover mission.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/nasas-mars-2020-rover-will-land-in-jezero-crater-1830540291|title=NASA's Mars 2020 Rover Will Land in Jezero Crater|first=Ryan F.|last=Mandelbaum|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref>

==Interactive Mars map==
{{Mars map}}

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Astrobiology]]
* [[Climate of Mars]]
* [[Composition of Mars]]
* [[Exploration of Mars]]
* [[Geology of Mars]]
* [[Impact crater]]
* [[Inverted relief]]
* [[Lakes on Mars]]
* [[List of craters on Mars]]
* [[Mars lander]]
* [[Water on Mars]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal|title=Clay minerals in delta deposits and organic preservation potential on Mars|journal=Nature Geoscience|date=2008|last1=Ehlmann|first1=B.L. |last2=Mustard|first2=John F.|last3=Fassett|first3=Caleb I.|last4=Schon|first4=Samuel C.|last5=Head Iii|first5=James W.|last6=Des Marais|first6=David J.|last7=Grant|first7=John A.|last8=Murchie|first8=Scott L.|doi=10.1038/ngeo207|volume=1|pages=355–358|issue=6|bibcode = 2008NatGe...1..355E }}
*{{cite conference|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2008/pdf/1354.pdf|conference=Lunar and Planetary Sciences conference|date=2008|title=Meander Loops and Point Bar Sequences - Evidence of a Stable Delta Plain Environment in Jezero crater|author=Schon|display-authors=etal}}

==External links==
* [https://marsnext.jpl.nasa.gov/documents/LandingSiteWorksheet_Jezero_final.pdf NASA – Jezero Crater – DataSheet] (14 January 2017)
* [https://marsnext.jpl.nasa.gov/workshops/2015_08/20_Goudge_Jezero_Mars_2020_2nd_Workshop_for_Web.pdf NASA – Jezero Crater – Workshop Images/Details] (4 August 2015)
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/136797589@N04/34024740002/ Video – FlyOver bw (01:20)] and [https://www.flickr.com/photos/seandoran/40295668634/ color (02:20)] (SDoran; 21 April 2017)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzeQ1aha5D4 Video – Mars 2020 Site News (01:00)] (NASA; 19 November 2018)
* [https://www.msn.com/en-us/video/null/nasa-selects-jezero-crater-as-landing-site-for-mars-2020-rover/vp-BBPSW23 Video – Mars 2020 Site News (00:50)] (MSN; 19 November 2018)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qnZ_sidmr4Y Video – Mars 2020: Jezero crater flyover (02:13)] (NASA; 13 December 2018)

{{Mars 2020}}
{{Geography of Mars}}
{{Portal bar|Astronomy|Biology|Solar System|Spaceflight}}

[[Category:Impact craters on Mars]]
[[Category:Mars 2020]]
[[Category:Syrtis Major quadrangle]]

Talk:Esperanto

2019-12-14T19:43:26Z

Mutichou: /* not a language according to most linguists */

{{talk header}}
{{afd-merged-from|Criticism of Esperanto|Criticism of Esperanto|11 April 2016}}
{{article history
|action1=FAC
|action1date=08:02, 25 Feb 2005
|action1link=Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Esperanto/archive1
|action1result=not promoted
|action1oldid=10565547

|action2=PR
|action2date=23:09, 4 Mar 2005
|action2link=Wikipedia:Peer review/Esperanto/archive1
|action2result=reviewed
|action2oldid=10780574

|action3=GAN
|action3date=02:42, 25 December 2005
|action3link=
|action3result=listed
|action3oldid=32262026

|action4=GAR
|action4date=12:13, 1 July 2007
|action4link=
|action4result=delisted
|action4oldid=141795448

|action5=GAR
|action5date=19:19, 3 July 2007
|action5link=
|action5result=listed
|action5oldid=141987697

|action6=GAR
|action6date=19:52, 4 September 2007
|action6link=
|action6result=delisted
|action6oldid=155687164

|action7=PR
|action7date=00:26, 16 June 2008
|action7link=Wikipedia:Peer review/Esperanto/archive2
|action7result=reviewed
|action7oldid=219569840

|currentstatus=DGA
|otddate=2004-07-26
|otdoldid=4862111
|otd2date=2005-07-26
|otd2oldid=19469835
|otd3date=2012-07-26
|otd3oldid=504032970
|otd4date=2014-07-26
|otd4oldid=618572703
}}
{{Vital article|level=4|topic=Society|class=B}}
{{WikiProject banner shell|1=
{{WikiProject Constructed languages|class=B|importance=Top|Esperanto=yes|Esperanto core topics=yes}}
{{WikiProject Languages|class=B|importance=Top}}
{{WP1.0|class=B|importance=Mid|v0.7=pass|category=langlit}}
}}
{{refideas|1=http://www.theverge.com/2015/5/29/8672371/learn-esperanto-language-duolingo-app-origin-history
|2=
}}
{{User:MiszaBot/config
|archiveheader = {{talkarchivenav}}
|maxarchivesize = 31K
|counter = 21
|minthreadsleft = 4
|minthreadstoarchive = 1
|algo = old(60d)
|archive = Talk:Esperanto/Archive %(counter)d
}}

== List of sources about the number of native speakers ==

https://denaskuloj.home.blog/2019/03/15/kiom-da-denaskuloj-estas-en-la-tuta-mondo/

[[User:Tuxayo|Tuxayo]] ([[User talk:Tuxayo|talk]]) 18:52, 22 March 2019 (UTC)
:The Hungarian 2011 census counted 8397 speakers, of which 7412 don't speak it as a mother tongue (meaning that 985 do).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ksh.hu/nepszamlalas/docs/tables/regional/00/00_1_1_4_2_en.xls|title=1.1.4.2 Population by language knowledge and sex|last=|first=|date=|website=Hungarian Central Statistical Office|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref> [[User:Hegsareta|Hegsareta]] ([[User talk:Hegsareta|talk]]) 04:27, 18 August 2019 (UTC)

{{Talkref}}

== Removal of request to check a source for reliability ==

Just a heads up that I removed this tag from some data regarding the time it takes to learn Esperanto vs. other (European) languages. I checked the source and found the following:- the original study was done by a research institute of Paderborn University who are respected in the international pedagogic field, meeting part of wiki’s reliability criteria. The results were published in a printed text, which meets another part of the wiki reliability criteria. And the quotation itself came from a French document (quoting the printed Paderborn results) which was produced as a consultation document for the French Ministry of Education by an organisation the French government created to provide reliable data about school education for its Ministry. To me this seems to be about as reliable a source as it can be.

The only issue I can see is it’s hard to check if you don’t read French but at [[WP:V]] it states that the source being in the wiki’s native tongue isn’t a requirement for something to qualify as a reliable source, although it is preferred when available.

BTW I don’t speak Esperanto but I do speak French ;-) [[User:Dakinijones|Dakinijones]] ([[User talk:Dakinijones|talk]]) 17:18, 4 June 2019 (UTC)

:Thanks, [[user:Dakinijones|Dakinijones]]. BTW, I speak Esperanto with high though not native fluency, but I only read French a fair bit better than I speak it. :-) BTW2, I added a link to your mention of [[WP:V]]. It's easier for most readers to understand that way. --[[User:Thnidu|Thnidu]] ([[User talk:Thnidu|talk]]) 06:27, 11 July 2019 (UTC)

== "He" used generically in English ==

Under Neutrality > Gender:

''"As in English, li "he" may be used generically, whereas ŝi "she" is always female."''

I'm not sure that this is correct. How can "he" be used generically in English? Perhaps the writer meant to say that the male form of a profession (actor, baron, etc.) can be used generically, while the female form (actress, baroness, etc.) is always female? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/104.194.218.228|104.194.218.228]] ([[User talk:104.194.218.228#top|talk]]) 07:26, 28 September 2019 (UTC) 

:Traditional English grammars (i.e. those written between the eighteenth century and the mid-twentieth century) preferred ''he'' as a pronoun for a person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant. Examples from Wikipedia:

:{{cquote|If any one did not know it, it was his own fault}} — George Washington Cable, Old Creole Days (1879)
:{{cquote|No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality}} — Article 15, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
:{{cquote|everyone will be able to decide for himself whether or not to have an abortion}} — Albert Bleumenthal, New York State Assembly

:However, this rule fell out of fashion in the 1960s because it came to be seen as sexist. The most common alternative nowadays is the [[singular they]], but not many of those who reject the singular ''they'' would advocate the generic ''he'' as an alternative.

:I have reworded the text to remove the suggestion that generic ''he'' is standard in English. ''[[User:Kahastok|Kahastok]]'' ''[[User Talk:Kahastok|talk]]'' 10:50, 29 September 2019 (UTC)

:: On the contrary, I think that many of those who reject the singular ''they'' would advocate the generic ''he'' as an alternative. The change may have started in the 1960s, but I remember cases of it being used in the 1980s and 1990s. I don't know of its current prevalence, but I think the comparison is important.--[[User:Prosfilaes|Prosfilaes]] ([[User talk:Prosfilaes|talk]]) 03:33, 30 September 2019 (UTC)

== Nightic Esperanto ==

Hello, I have completed the Nightic Esperanto alphabet! Say "egg" on this discussion if you want me to make an article about it! I'm so excited! This poll will close in 7 days. [[User:PhoenixSummon|PhoenixSummon]] ([[User talk:PhoenixSummon|talk]]) 21:26, 26 November 2019 (UTC)

: Hen. [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not for things made up one day|Wikipedia is not for things made up one day]]. [[Wikipedia:WikiLove|Love]] —[[:commons:User:LiliCharlie|LiliCharlie]] ([[User talk:LiliCharlie|talk]]) 21:58, 26 November 2019 (UTC)

Ok, don't be rude. I just wanted people's opinions.

Ok, the poll is closed. I will postpone the article to 01/23/2020. Thanks for the time, bye! [[User:PhoenixSummon|PhoenixSummon]] ([[User talk:PhoenixSummon|talk]]) 20:21, 27 November 2019 (UTC)

: {{Ping|PhoenixSummon}} {{u|LiliCharlie}} wasn't being rude (unless that's what "hen" was about). They were just telling you that your idea doesn't belong in Wikipedia, and pointing you to the page explaining that policy. If you post such an article it will be swiftly deleted. The only way it could belong in Wikipedia is if you publish your idea somewhere else and it is picked up and commented on in reliable sources such as newspapers, news reports, dictionaries, academic papers, etc. Then an article could be written about it – but not by you. Someone else would have to write it up. That's another Wikipedia rule: basically, someone with an interest in a topic shouldn't write about it. Quoting [[Wikipedia:Independent sources]]:
:: Wikipedia is not a place to promote things or publish your thoughts, and is not a website for personal communication, a freely licensed media repository, or a censored publication.
:--[[User:Thnidu|Thnidu]] ([[User talk:Thnidu|talk]]) 04:14, 12 December 2019 (UTC)

:/ [[User:PhoenixSummon|PhoenixSummon]] ([[User talk:PhoenixSummon|talk]]) 02:50, 14 December 2019 (UTC)

== not a language according to most linguists ==

Apparently linguists now understand that Esperanto and other international auxiliary languages are not languages but parasitic systems based on real languages: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C09jMAH6X18&feature=youtu.be&t=1231 at 20'30" and 22'30". --[[User:Espoo|Espoo]] ([[User talk:Espoo|talk]]) 11:36, 14 December 2019 (UTC)
: I'm not sure how a couple of sentences by one linguist who hasn't studied Esperanto supports the claim that "most linguists say Esperanto is not a language". [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 19:43, 14 December 2019 (UTC)

Esperanto

2019-10-31T08:43:53Z

Mutichou: Zamenhof was not a pole

{{About|the language}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{short description|constructed language}}
{{Infobox language
|name = Esperanto
|nativename = ''esperanto''<ref>[https://www.unicode.org/cldr/charts/latest/summary/eo.html#108 Locale Data Summary for Esperanto [eo]] CLDR - Unicode Common Locale Data Repository. Retrieved September 28, 2019</ref>
|pronunciation = {{IPA-eo|espeˈranto||Eo-Esperanto.ogg}}
|states = 120 countries;<ref name="uea">[http://uea.org/info/en/kio_estas_uea What is UEA?], Universal Esperanto Association, 2018. Retrieved July 21, 2018.</ref> nowhere an official language
|speakers = [[Native Esperanto speakers|Native]]: estimated 1,000 to several thousand
|date = 2016
|ref =<ref name="hh">Harald Haarmann, ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304230135/http://fischer-zim.ch/esperanto/lingvaj-temoj/haarmann--leksikono-eo.htm Eta leksikono pri lingvoj]'', 2011, archive date March 4, 2016: ''Esperanto … estas lernata ankaŭ de pluraj miloj da homoj en la mondo kiel gepatra lingvo.'' ("Esperanto has also been learned by several thousand people in the world as a mother tongue.")</ref><ref name="jl">Jouko Lindstedt, Jouko, ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174639/http://www.helsinki.fi/~jslindst/odo.html Oftaj demandoj pri denaskaj Esperant‑lingvanoj]'' ("Frequently asked questions about native Esperanto speakers"), archive date March 3, 2016.</ref>
|speakers2 = [[Second language|L2]] users: estimates range from 63,000<ref name="svend">{{cite web|url=http://www.liberafolio.org/2017/02/13/nova-takso-60-000-parolas-esperanton/|title=Nova takso: 60.000 parolas Esperanton|trans-title=New estimate: 60.000 speak Esperanto|publisher=Libera Folio|language=Esperanto|date=February 13, 2017|accessdate=February 13, 2017}}</ref> to two million<ref name="e18">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/epo|title=Esperanto|publisher=Ethnologue|edition=20th|accessdate=October 6, 2017}}</ref>
|fam2 = [[International auxiliary language]]
|ancestor = [[Proto-Esperanto]]
|creator = [[L. L. Zamenhof]]
|created = 1887
|setting = International: most parts of the world
|posteriori = Vocabulary from [[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Germanic languages]], grammar from [[Slavic languages]]
|script = [[Latin script]] ([[Esperanto alphabet]]) [[Esperanto Braille]]
|agency = [[Akademio de Esperanto]]
|iso1 = eo
|iso2 = epo
|iso3 = epo
|linglist = epo
|lingua = 51-AAB-da
|image = Flag of Esperanto.svg{{!}}border
|imagesize = 140px
|imagecaption = [[Esperanto flag]]
|sign = Signuno
|glotto = espe1235
|glottorefname = Esperanto
| map = Number of Esperanto association members by country.svg
| mapcaption = [[Esperantujo]]: 120 countries worldwide
| mapsize = 260px
| notice = IPA
}}{{Esperanto sidebar}}

'''Esperanto''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɛ|s|p|ə|ˈ|r|ɑː|n|t|oʊ|,_|-|ˈ|r|æ|n|-}})<ref>{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=1917 |year=2003 |isbn=3-12-539683-2 }}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> is the most widely spoken [[constructed language|constructed]] [[international auxiliary language]]. It was created by [[L. L. Zamenhof]] in 1887, when he published a book detailing the language, ''[[Unua Libro]]'' ("First Book"), under the pseudonym "Dr. Esperanto". The word ''esperanto'' translates into English as "one who hopes".<ref>{{cite web|title=Doktoro Esperanto, Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof |url=https://global.britannica.com/biography/L-L-Zamenhof|website=Global Britannica.com|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc}}</ref>

Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible language that would serve as a universal [[second language]] to foster [[world peace]] and international understanding, and to build a ''community of speakers'', as he believed that one could not have a language without such a community.<ref>Deborah Yaffe, [https://paw.princeton.edu/article/language-idealists A language for idealists], Princeton Alumni Weekly, June 11, 2017. Retrieved January 3, 2019.</ref>

His original title for the language was simply "'''the international language'''" (''lingvo internacia''), but early speakers grew fond of the name ''Esperanto'' and began to use it as the name for the language just two years after its creation; the name quickly gained prominence and has been used as an official name ever since.<ref>{{harvnb|Schor|p=70}}</ref>

In 1905, Zamenhof published ''[[Fundamento de Esperanto]]'' as a definitive guide to the language. Later that year, he organized the first [[World Esperanto Congress]], an ongoing annual conference, in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], France. The first congress ratified the [[Declaration of Boulogne]], which established several foundational premises for the Esperanto movement; one of its pronouncements is that ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' is the only obligatory authority over the language; another is that the [[Esperanto movement]] is exclusively a [[linguistic]] movement and that no further meaning can ever be ascribed to it. Zamenhof also proposed to the first congress that an independent body of linguistic scholars should steward the future evolution of Esperanto, foreshadowing the founding of the [[Akademio de Esperanto]] (in part modeled after the [[Académie française]]), which was established soon thereafter. Since 1905, the congress has been held in a different country every year, with the exceptions of those years during the [[World Wars]]. In 1908, a group of young Esperanto speakers led by the [[Swiss]] [[Hector Hodler]] established the [[Universal Esperanto Association]] in order to provide a central organization for the global Esperanto community.

Esperanto grew throughout the 20th century, both as a language and as a linguistic community. Despite speakers facing [[persecution]] in regimes such as [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] under [[Stalin]],<ref name="conciseencyclopedia_nazi">{{cite book|last=Sutton|first=Geoffrey|title=Concise Encyclopedia of the Original Literature of Esperanto, 1887–2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Z_8CG9g2jIC&pg=PA161 |year=2008 |publisher=Mondial |isbn=978-1-59569-090-6 |quote="Hitler specifically attacked Esperanto as a threat in a speech in Munich (1922) and in ''Mein Kampf'' itself (1925). The Nazi Minister for Education banned the teaching of Esperanto on 17 May 1935 ... all Esperantists were essentially enemies of the state – serving, through their language, Jewish-internationalist aims" (pages 161–162)}}</ref> Esperanto speakers continued to establish [[List of Esperanto organizations|organizations]] and publish [[List of Esperanto periodicals|periodical]]s tailored to specific regions and interests. In 1954, the [[United Nations]] granted official support to Esperanto as an [[international auxiliary language]] in the [[Montevideo Resolution]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Records of the General Conference, Eighth Session, Montevideo 1954; Resolutions|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001145/114586e.pdf|website=UNESDOC Database|publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> [[List of Esperanto-language writers|Several writers]] have contributed to the growing body of [[Esperanto literature]], including [[William Auld]], who received the first nomination for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] for a literary work in Esperanto in 1999, followed by two more, in 2004 and 2006. Those writing in Esperanto are also officially represented in [[PEN International]], the worldwide writers association, through ''Esperanto PEN Centro''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pen-international.org/centres/esperanto-centre/|title=PEN International – Esperanto Centre|website=pen-international.org|accessdate=October 6, 2017}}</ref>

The development of Esperanto has continued unabated into the 21st century. The advent of the [[Internet]] has had a significant impact on the language, as learning it has become increasingly accessible on platforms such as [[Duolingo]], and as speakers have increasingly networked on platforms such as [[Amikumu]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/dec/06/saluton-the-surprise-return-of-esperanto |title=‘Saluton!’: the surprise return of Esperanto |author=Salisbury, Josh |website=The Guardian |accessdate=May 16, 2018}}</ref> With approximately two{{nbsp}}million speakers, a small portion of whom are even [[Native Esperanto speakers|native speakers]],<ref name="e18"/> it is the most widely spoken constructed language in the world.<ref>{{citation
|title = Discouraging Words
|magazine = [[Failure Magazine]]
|date = July 20, 2009
|first = Jason
|last = Zasky
|quote = But in terms of invented languages, it's the most outlandishly successful invented language ever. It has thousands of speakers – even native speakers – and that's a major accomplishment as compared to the 900 or so other languages that have no speakers. – Arika Okrent
|url = http://failuremag.com/index.php/feature/article/discouraging_words/
|url-status = dead
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20111119133127/http://failuremag.com/index.php/feature/article/discouraging_words/
|archivedate = November 19, 2011
}}</ref> Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially, ''[[Esperantujo]]'' is the name given to the collection of places where it is spoken, and the language is widely employed in world travel, correspondence, cultural exchange, conventions, literature, language instruction, television, and radio.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esperantio.net/index.php?id=13|title=Esperanta Civito – Pakto|website=esperantio.net}}</ref> Some people have chosen to learn Esperanto for its purported [[Propaedeutic value of Esperanto|help in third language acquisition]], like [[Latin]].

While many of its advocates continue to hope for the day that Esperanto becomes officially recognized as ''the'' [[international auxiliary language]], an increasing number have stopped focusing on this goal and instead view the Esperanto community as a "[[Stateless society|stateless]] [[diasporic]] linguistic minority" based on [[freedom of association]], with a culture worthy of preservation, based solely on its own merit.

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Three goals ==
Zamenhof had three goals, as he wrote in ''Unua Libro'':
# "To render the study of the language so easy as to make its acquisition mere play to the learner."<ref>"After half an hour I could speak more Esperanto than Japanese, I had studied during four years in secondary school" – Richard Delamore. In: "Kiel la esperantistoj povas denove avangardi?", ''[[Kontakto (revuo)|Kontakto]]'' 277 (2017:1), p. 20, [[Tutmonda Esperantista Junulara Organizo|TEJO]]</ref>
# "To enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with people of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not; in other words, the language is to be directly a means of international communication."
# "To find some means of overcoming the natural indifference of mankind, and disposing them, in the quickest manner possible, and en masse, to learn and use the proposed language as a living one, and not only in last extremities, and with the key at hand."<ref name="UnuaLibro">L.L.Zamenhof. [http://www.genekeyes.com/Dr_Esperanto.html International Language]. Warsaw. 1887</ref>

According to the database ''[[Ethnologue]]'' (published by the [[Summer Institute of Linguistics]]), up to two million people worldwide, to varying degrees, speak Esperanto,<ref>{{cite web|title=How Many People Speak Esperanto? - Esperanto.net|url=http://www.esperanto.net/veb/faq-5.html}}</ref> including about 1,000 to 2,000 [[Native Esperanto speakers|native speakers]] who learned Esperanto from birth.<ref name="Corsetti2004">{{cite journal |url=https://unstable.nl/andreas/ai/psy/s3.pdf |title=Regularizing the regular: The phenomenon of over-regularization in Esperanto‑speaking children |journal=Language Problems and Language Planning |year=2004 |pages=261–282 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721062115/http://unstable.nl/andreas/ai/psy/s3.pdf |archive-date=2015-07-21 |url-status=live |first1=Renato |last1=Corsetti |first2=Maria Antonietta |last2=Pinto |first3=Maria |last3=Tolomeo |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |volume=28 |issue=3 |format=PDF |doi=10.1075/lplp.28.3.04cor |issn=0272-2690 |oclc=4653164382}}</ref> The [[Universal Esperanto Association]] has more than 5500 members in 120<ref name="countries-speakers-uea">{{cite web|url=http://uea.org/info/en/kio_estas_uea|title=Universala Esperanto-Asocio: Kio estas UEA?|publisher=Uea.org|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref> countries. Its usage is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pasportaservo.org/monda-mapo|title=User locations|website=Pasporta Servo|accessdate=January 6, 2014|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115144559/http://pasportaservo.org/monda-mapo|archivedate=November 15, 2013}}</ref>

==Esperanto and the Internet==
===Lernu!===
{{lang|eo|[[Lernu!]]}} is one of the most popular online learning platforms for Esperanto. Already in 2013, the "lernu.net" site reported 150,000 registered users and had between 150,000 and 200,000 visitors each month.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uea.org/kongresoj/2013/kleriga_lundo.html|title=La programo de la kleriga lundo en UK 2013|website=Universala Esperanto Asocio|accessdate=January 6, 2014|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130805171625/http://www.uea.org/kongresoj/2013/kleriga_lundo.html|archivedate=August 5, 2013}}</ref> Lernu currently has nearly 300,000 registered users, who are able to view the site's interface in their choice of 24 languages – [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (both ''simplified'' and ''traditional'' characters) [[Danish language|Danish]], [[English language|English]], Esperanto, [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[French language|French]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[German language|German]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Kirundi]], [[Swahili language|Kiswahili]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''[[Bokmål]]''), [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbo-Croatian|Serbian]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]; a further five languages — [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Serbo-Croatian|Croatian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] – have at least 70 percent of the interface localized; nine additional languages – Dutch, Greek, Japanese, Korean, Lithuanian, Polish, Thai, Turkish and Vietnamese – are in varying stages of completing the interface translation. About 50,000 lernu.net users possess at least a basic understanding of Esperanto.

===Wikipedia===

With over {{formatnum:{{#expr:{{NUMBEROF|ARTICLES|eo}} round -3}}}} articles, [[Esperanto Wikipedia]] (Vikipedio) is the 32nd-largest Wikipedia, as measured by the number of articles,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias|title=List of Wikipedias|publisher=Meta.wikimedia.org|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref> and is the largest Wikipedia in a constructed language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias_by_language_group#Indo-European-based_Constructed_.28340.2C659_.E2.80.93_1.3.25.29|title=List of Wikipedias by language group|publisher=Meta.wikimedia.org|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref> About 150,000 users consult the Vikipedio regularly, as attested by Wikipedia's automatically aggregated log-in data, which showed that in October 2019 the website has 117,366 unique individual visitors per month, plus 33,572 who view the site on a mobile device instead.<ref name="bonvenon">''[https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikipedio:Ĉefpaĝo Bonvenon al Vikipedia]'' ("Welcome to Wikipedia"), main page of the Esperanto-language version of Wikipedia, 4 October 2019. Accessed 4 October 2019.</ref>

===Online Translate===
On February 22, 2012, [[Google Translate]] added Esperanto as its 64th language.<ref name="google translate">{{cite web |url=http://googletranslate.blogspot.com/2012/02/tutmonda-helplingvo-por-ciuj-homoj.html |title=Tutmonda helplingvo por ĉiuj homoj |first=Thorsten |last=Brants |work=[[Google Translate]] Blog |publisher=Google |date=February 22, 2012 |accessdate=August 14, 2012}}</ref> On July 25, 2016, [[Yandex Translate]] added Esperanto as a language.<ref>https://yandex.ru/blog/translate/yandeks-perevodchik-osvoil-11-novykh-yazykov</ref>

===Duolingo===
On May 28, 2015, the language learning platform [[Duolingo]] launched a free Esperanto course for English speakers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Esperanto for English speakers now in Beta!|url=https://www.duolingo.com/comment/8829387|publisher=Duolingo|accessdate=May 29, 2015}}</ref> On March 25, 2016, when the first Duolingo Esperanto course completed its beta-testing phase, that course had 350,000 people registered to learn Esperanto through the medium of English. {{As of|2017|05|27}}, over one million users had begun learning Esperanto on Duolingo;<ref>{{cite web|title=Duolingo: Incubator|url=https://incubator.duolingo.com/|publisher=Duolingo|accessdate=May 28, 2017}}</ref> by July 2018 the number of learners had risen to 1.36 million. On July 20, 2018, Duolingo changed from recording users cumulatively; it now reports only the number of "active learners" (i.e., those who are currently studying, but not those who have completed the course),<ref name="helpfulduo">[https://forum.duolingo.com/comment/28075993 Changing How We Display Learner Numbers, July 20, 2018. Retrieved July 21, 2018.]</ref> which as of October 2019 stands at 294,000 learners.<ref name="EN-to-EO">[https://www.duolingo.com/courses Language Courses for English Speakers], 28 October 2019, Duolingo.com. Accessed 28 October 2019</ref> On October 26, 2016, a second Duolingo Esperanto course, for which the language of instruction is Spanish, appeared on the same platform<ref>{{cite web|title=Duolingo Language Courses|url=https://www.duolingo.com/courses/all|publisher=Duolingo|accessdate=April 15, 2019}}</ref> and which as of October 2019 has a further 277,000 students.<ref name="ES-to-EO">[https://www.duolingo.com/courses/es Language Courses for Spanish Speakers], 28 October 2019, Duolingo.com. Accessed 28 October 2019</ref> A third Esperanto course, taught in Brazilian Portuguese, began its beta-testing phase on May 14, 2018, and as of October 2019, 232,000 people <ref name="PT-to-EO">[https://www.duolingo.com/courses/pt Language Courses for Portuguese Speakers], 28 October 2019, Duolingo.com. Accessed 28 October 2019</ref> are using this course to learn the international language. Esperanto is now one of 32 courses that Duolingo teaches through English, one of ten courses taught through Spanish and one of six courses taught through Portuguese.

== History ==
{{Main|History of Esperanto}}

=== Creation ===
[[File:Unua Libro ru 1st ed.pdf|thumb|left|upright|The first Esperanto book, by L. L. Zamenhof, published in 1887 in the [[Russian language]]]]

Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by [[L. L. Zamenhof]], a [[History of Jews in Poland|Polish-Jewish]] [[ophthalmologist]] from [[Białystok]], then part of the [[Russian Empire]] but now part of [[Poland]]. According to Zamenhof, he created the language to reduce the "time and labour we spend in learning foreign tongues" and to foster harmony between people from different countries: "Were there but an international language, all translations would be made into it alone ... and all nations would be united in a common brotherhood."<ref name="UnuaLibro"/> His feelings and the situation in Białystok may be gleaned from an extract from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:<ref>The letter is quoted in [http://www.u-matthias.de/latino/latin_en.htm Esperanto: The New Latin for the Church and for Ecumenism], by Ulrich Matthias. Translation from Esperanto by Mike Leon and Maire Mullarney</ref>

{{quote|"The place where I was born and spent my childhood gave direction to all my future struggles. In Białystok the inhabitants were divided into four distinct elements: Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews; each of these spoke their own language and looked on all the others as enemies. In such a town a sensitive nature feels more acutely than elsewhere the misery caused by language division and sees at every step that the diversity of languages is the first, or at least the most influential, basis for the separation of the human family into groups of enemies. I was brought up as an idealist; I was taught that all people were brothers, while outside in the street at every step I felt that there were no people, only Russians, Poles, Germans, Jews and so on. This was always a great torment to my infant mind, although many people may smile at such an 'anguish for the world' in a child. Since at that time I thought that 'grown-ups' were omnipotent, so I often said to myself that when I grew up I would certainly destroy this evil."|L. L. Zamenhof, in a letter to Nikolai Borovko, ca. 1895}}

{{quote|"It was invented in 1887 and designed that anyone could learn it in a few short months. Dr. Zamenhof lived on Dzika Street, No.9, which was just around the corner from the street on which we lived. Brother Afrum was so impressed with that idea that he learned Esperanto in a very short time at home from a little book. He then bought many dozens of them and gave them out to relatives, friends, just anyone he could, to support that magnificent idea for he felt that this would be a common bond to promote relationships with fellow men in the world. A group of people had organized and sent letters to the government asking
to change the name of the street where Dr. Zamenhof lived for many years when he invented Esperanto, from Dzika to Zamenhofa. They were told that a petition with a large amount of signatures would be needed. That took time so they organized demonstrations carrying large posters encouraging people to learn the universal language and to sign the petitions... About the same time, in the middle of the block was marching a huge demonstration of people holding posters reading "Learn Esperanto", "Support the Universal language", "Esperanto the language of hope and expectation", "Esperanto the bond for international communication" and so on, and many "Sign the petitions". I will never forget that rich-poor, sad-glad parade and among all these people stood two fiery red tramway cars waiting on their opposite lanes and also a few doroszkas with their horses squeezed in between. Such a sight it was. Later a few blocks were changed from Dzika Street to Dr. Zamenhofa Street and a nice monument was erected there with his name and his invention inscribed on it, to honor his memory. |Autobiography of Tema Kipnis, Jewish refugee from Poland}}

About his goals Zamenhof wrote that he wants mankind to "learn and use", "en masse", "the proposed language as a living one".<ref name="UnuaLibro"/> The goal for Esperanto to become a general world language was not the only goal of Zamenhof; he also wanted to "enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not; in other words, the language is to be directly a means of international communication."<ref name="UnuaLibro"/>

After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into Esperanto as well as writing original prose and verse, the [[Unua Libro|first book of Esperanto grammar]] was published in Warsaw on July 26, 1887. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades, at first primarily in the Russian Empire and Central Europe, then in other parts of Europe, the Americas, China, and Japan. In the early years, speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and periodicals, but in 1905 the first [[World Congress of Esperanto]] speakers was held in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], France. Since then world congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars. Since the Second World War, they have been attended by an average of more than 2,000 people and up to 6,000 people.

Zamenhof's name for the language was simply {{lang|eo|Internacia Lingvo}} ("International Language").<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/anno-buch?apm=0&aid=100059&teil=0101&seite=00000001&zoom=2 |title=Dr. Esperanto' International Language |publisher=L. Samenhof |accessdate=April 15, 2016 }} Facsimile of the title page of the First Book in English, 1889. {{cite web |url=http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/esr/ |title=Esperanto |publisher=Ling.ohio-state.edu |date=January 25, 2003 |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622054642/http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/esr/ |archive-date=2011-06-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Later history ===
[[File:1905-03-ge-frankf-mapo.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Esperanto groups in Europe in 1905]]
The autonomous territory of [[Neutral Moresnet]], between what is today Belgium and Germany, had a sizable proportion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and multi-ethnic population. There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language.

However, neither Belgium nor Prussia (now within Germany) had ever surrendered its original claim to it. Around 1900, Germany in particular was taking a more aggressive stance towards the territory and was accused of sabotage and of obstructing the administrative process in order to force the issue. It was the First World War, however, that was the catalyst that brought about the end of neutrality. On August 4, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, leaving Moresnet at first "an oasis in a desert of destruction".<ref>Musgrave, George Clarke. ''Under Four Flags for France'', 1918, p. 8</ref> In 1915, the territory was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, without international recognition.

After the Great War, a great opportunity seemed to arise for Esperanto when the Iranian delegation to the [[League of Nations]] proposed that it be adopted for use in international relations, following a report by [[Nitobe Inazō]], an official delegate of the League of Nations during the 13th World Congress of Esperanto in Prague.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esperanto.ie/en/zaft/zaft_2.html|title=New EAI pages|website=esperanto.ie}}</ref> Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, [[Gabriel Hanotaux]]. Hanotaux opposed all recognition of Esperanto at the League, from the first resolution on December 18, 1920 and subsequently through all efforts during the next three years.<ref>http://impofthediverse.blogspot.com/2014/12/a-dark-day-for-esperanto.html</ref> Hanotaux did not like how the French language was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat, effectively wielding his veto power to block the decision. However, two years later, the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. The French government retaliated by banning all instruction in Esperanto in France's schools and universities .<ref>http://impofthediverse.blogspot.com/2014/07/the-french-say-non-to-esperanto.html</ref><ref name="impofthediverse.blogspot.com">http://impofthediverse.blogspot.com/2014/09/the-danger-of-esperanto.html</ref> The French Ministry Of Instruction said that "French and English would perish and the literary standard of the world would be debased".<ref name="impofthediverse.blogspot.com"/> Nonetheless, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement. [[Anarchism]] as a political movement was very supportive during this time of [[anationalism]] as well as of the Esperanto language.<ref>{{lang|eo|"Anarkiistoj estis inter la pioniroj de la disvastigo de Esperanto. En 1905 fondiĝis en Stokholmo la unua anarkiisma Esperanto-grupo. Sekvis multaj aliaj: en Bulgario, Ĉinio kaj aliaj landoj. Anarkiistoj kaj anarki-sindikatistoj, kiuj antaŭ la Unua Mondmilito apartenis al la nombre plej granda grupo inter la proletaj esperantistoj, fondis en 1906 la internacian ligon Paco-Libereco, kiu eldonis la Internacian Socian Revuon. Paco-libereco unuiĝis en 1910 kun alia progresema asocio, Esperantista Laboristaro. La komuna organizaĵo nomiĝis Liberiga Stelo. Ĝis 1914 tiu organizaĵo eldonis multe da revolucia literaturo en Esperanto, interalie ankaŭ anarkiisma. Tial povis evolui en la jaroj antaŭ la Unua Mondmilito ekzemple vigla korespondado inter eŭropaj kaj japanaj anarkiistoj. En 1907 la Internacia Anarkiisma Kongreso en Amsterdamo faris rezolucion pri la afero de internacia lingvo, kaj venis dum la postaj jaroj similaj kongresaj rezolucioj. Esperantistoj, kiuj partoprenis tiujn kongresojn, okupiĝis precipe pri la internaciaj rilatoj de la anarkiistoj."}}[http://www.nodo50.org/esperanto/anarkiismo.htm "ESPERANTO KAJ ANARKIISMO" by Will Firth]</ref>

=== Official repression ===
[[File:1911 Anvers Congrès Esperanto.jpg|thumb|7th Esperanto congress, [[Antwerp]], August 1911]]
Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many states. The situation was especially pronounced in Nazi Germany, Francoist Spain up until the 1950s, and in the Soviet Union from 1937 to 1956.

In Nazi Germany, there was a motivation to forbid Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish, and due to the internationalist nature of Esperanto, which was perceived as "Bolshevist". In his work, ''Mein Kampf'', Adolf Hitler specifically mentioned Esperanto as an example of a language that could be used by an international Jewish conspiracy once they achieved world domination.<ref name="conciseencyclopedia_nazi"/> [[Esperantist]]s were killed during the Holocaust, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out for being killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://esperantodc.org/esw6.html |title=About ESW and the Holocaust Museum |publisher=Esperantodc.org |date=December 5, 1995 |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125045310/http://esperantodc.org/esw6.html |archivedate=November 25, 2010 }}</ref> The efforts of a minority of German Esperantists to expel their Jewish colleagues and overtly align themselves with the Reich were futile, and Esperanto was legally forbidden in 1935. Esperantists in German concentration camps did, however, teach the international language to fellow prisoners, telling guards they were teaching Italian, the language of one of Germany's Axis allies.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lins|first=Ulrich|title=Die gefährliche Sprache|year=1988|publisher=Bleicher|location=Gerlingen|isbn=3-88350-023-2|page=112}}</ref>

In Imperial Japan, the left wing of the Japanese Esperanto movement was forbidden, but its leaders were careful enough not to give the impression to the government that the Esperantists were socialist revolutionaries, which proved a successful strategy.<ref name="Esperanto as language and idea in China and Japan">{{cite journal |last=Lins |first=Ulrich |year=2008 |title=Esperanto as language and idea in China and Japan |journal=Language Problems and Language Planning |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=47–60 |publisher=John Benjamins |format=PDF |issn=0272-2690 |doi=10.1075/lplp.32.1.05lin |accessdate=July 2, 2012 |url=http://benjamins.com/series/lplp/32-1/art/05lin.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222105549/http://benjamins.com/series/lplp/32-1/art/05lin.pdf |archivedate=December 22, 2012 }}</ref>

After the [[October Revolution]] of 1917, Esperanto was given a measure of government support by the new workers' states in the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|former Russian Empire]] and later by the [[Soviet Union]] government, with the [[Soviet Esperanto Association]] being established as an officially recognized organization.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/EBook/chap07.html|title=Donald J. Harlow, The Esperanto Book, chapter 7|website=|publisher=Literaturo.org|accessdate=September 29, 2016}}</ref> In his biography on [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Leon Trotsky]] mentions that Stalin had studied Esperanto.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1940/xx/stalin/ch04.htm|title=Chapter IV: The period of reaction: Leon Trotsky: Stalin – An appraisal of the man and his influence (1940)|author=Leon Trotsky|publisher=Marxists.org|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref> However, in 1937, at the height of the [[Great Purge]], Stalin completely reversed the Soviet government's policies on Esperanto; many Esperanto speakers were executed, exiled or held in captivity in the Gulag labour camps. Quite often the accusation was: "You are an active member of an international spy organisation which hides itself under the name of 'Association of Soviet Esperantists' on the territory of the Soviet Union." Until the end of the Stalin era, it was dangerous to use Esperanto in the Soviet Union, despite the fact that it was never officially forbidden to speak Esperanto.<ref>Ulrich Lins: ''Die gefährliche Sprache. Die Verfolgung der Esperantisten unter Hitler und Stalin.'' Bleicher: Gerlingen, 1988, p. 220 and elsewhere {{ISBN|978-3883500232}}; (English version: ''Dangerous Language ― Esperanto under Hitler and Stalin.'' Palgrave Macmillan, 2017 {{ISBN|978-1137549167}}.)</ref>

Fascist Italy allowed the use of Esperanto, finding its phonology similar to that of Italian and publishing some tourist material in the language.

During and after the [[Spanish Civil War]], Francoist Spain suppressed [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchists]], socialists and [[Catalan nationalist]]s for many years, among whom the use of Esperanto was extensive,<ref name="Del Barrio">{{cite web|url=http://www.nodo50.org/esperanto/artik68es.htm|title=La utilización del esperanto durante la Guerra Civil Española|publisher=Nodo50.org|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref> but in the 1950s the Esperanto movement was again tolerated.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LgcbDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA140&lpg=PA140&dq=esperanto+used+by+spanish+anarchists&source=bl&ots=w8eajdGG3b&sig=vRuliJeBciKJXwNVOGEw3o5GFpU&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGr7iZscfVAhWCQCYKHWPuDTUQ6AEIVDAG#v=onepage&q=esperanto%20used%20by%20spanish%20anarchists&f=false|title=Dangerous Language – Esperanto under Hitler and Stalin|last=Lins|first=Ulrich|date=February 10, 2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781137549174|language=en}}</ref>

== Official use ==
[[File:Moresnet.png|thumb|alt=|Location of Moresnet]]
Esperanto has not been a secondary official language of any recognized country, but it entered the education system of several countries such as Hungary<ref>Michael Byram and Adelheid Hu: ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning.'' 2nd edition. Taylor and Francis, Hoboken 2013, {{ISBN|978-1-136-23554-2}}, page 229.</ref> and China.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/will-firth-esperanto-and-anarchism|title=Esperanto and Anarchism (translation of ''Lexikon der Anarchie, Schwarzer Nachtschatten, Plön 1998, (ISBN 3-89041-014-6) The Anarchist Library|website=theanarchistlibrary.org|access-date=August 8, 2017}}</ref>

There were plans at the beginning of the 20th century to establish [[Neutral Moresnet]], in central-western Europe, as the world's first Esperanto state. In addition, the self-proclaimed artificial island [[micronation]] of [[Republic of Rose Island|Rose Island]], near Italy in the Adriatic Sea, used Esperanto as its official language in 1968, and another micronation, the extant [[Republic of Molossia]], near Dayton, Nevada, uses Esperanto as an official language alongside English.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Esperanto? |url= http://www.molossia.org/esperanto.html | website=Republic of Molossia |location= 226 Mary Lane, [[Dayton, Nevada]], United States |access-date=August 4, 2017 | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20170706103815/http://www.molossia.org/esperanto.html | archivedate= July 6, 2017 | quote=Esperanto is the second language of the Republic of Molossia. }}</ref>

The Chinese government has used Esperanto since 2001 for daily news on china.org.cn. China also uses Esperanto in [[China Radio International]] and for the internet magazine ''El Popola Ĉinio''.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://esperanto.china.org.cn/|title=China Interreta Informa Centro-esperanto.china.org.cn|work=china.org.cn}}</ref>

The [[Vatican Radio]] has an Esperanto version of its website.<ref>h{{cite web|url=http://eo.radiovaticana.va/|title=Radio Vatikana|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160211101325/http://eo.radiovaticana.va/|archivedate=February 11, 2016}}</ref>

The US Army has published military phrase books in Esperanto,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kafejo.com/lingvoj/auxlangs/eo/maneuver/ |title=''The Maneuver Enemy'' website |publisher=Kafejo.com |date=June 2, 2004 |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> to be used from the 1950s until the 1970s in war games by [[opposing force|mock enemy forces]].

Esperanto is the working language of several non-profit international organizations such as the {{lang|eo|[[Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda]]}}, a left-wing cultural association which had 724 members in over 85 countries in 2006.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Esperanto|title=Esperanto {{!}} language|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=August 8, 2017}}</ref> There is also [[E@I|Education@Internet]], which has developed from an Esperanto organization; most others are specifically Esperanto organizations. The largest of these, the [[Universal Esperanto Association]], has an official consultative relationship with the United Nations and [[UNESCO]], which recognized Esperanto as a medium for international understanding in 1954.<ref name="UEA"/><ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001607/160782eb.pdf Report on the international petition in favour of Esperanto], UNESCO, June 1, 1954</ref> The [[World Esperanto Association]] collaborated in 2017 with UNESCO to deliver an Esperanto translation<ref>[http://uea.org/pdf/Unesko-Kuriero_1-2017.pdf Esperanto translation]</ref> of its magazine ''[[UNESCO Courier]]'' (''Unesko Kuriero en Esperanto'').

Esperanto is also the first language of teaching and administration of the [[Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino|International Academy of Sciences San Marino]].<ref name="ais">{{cite web|url=http://www.ais-sanmarino.org/ |title=Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj (AIS) San-Marino |publisher=Ais-sanmarino.org |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref>

In the summer of 1924, the [[American Radio Relay League]] adopted Esperanto as its official international auxiliary language, and hoped that the language would be used by radio amateurs in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible.

All the personal documents sold by the [[World Service Authority]], including the [[World Passport]], are written in Esperanto, together with English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, and Chinese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldservice.org/doc.html|title=World Government Documents (Personal)|publisher=Worldservice.org|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref>

===Achievement of its creator's goals===
Zamenhof's goal to "enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not",<ref name="UnuaLibro"/> as he wrote in 1887, has been achieved, as the language is currently spoken by people living in more than 100 countries.

On the other hand, one common criticism made is that Esperanto has failed to live up to the hopes of its creator, who dreamed of it becoming a universal second language.<ref>Saul Levin, 1993. "Can an Artificial Language Be More than a Hobby? The Linguistic and Sociological Obstacles". In Ian Richmond (ed.) ''Aspects of internationalism: language & culture''.</ref><ref>''The Christian Century'', 1930, 47:846</ref> In this regard it has to be noted that Zamenhof was well aware that it might take much time, maybe even ''many centuries'', to get this hope into reality. In his speech at the [[World Esperanto Congress]] in [[Cambridge]] in 1907 he said, "we hope that earlier or later, maybe after many centuries, on a neutral language foundation, understanding one each other, the nations will build ... a big family circle."<ref>"(...) [http://www.steloj.de/esperanto/paroloj/kongr3a.html ni esperas, ke pli aŭ malpli frue, eble post multaj jarcentoj], 
Sur neŭtrala lingva fundamento, 
Komprenante unu la alian, 
La popoloj faros en konsento 
Unu grandan rondon familian." L. L. Zamenhof. Kongresaj paroladoj. Jekaterinburg (Ruslanda Esperantisto). 1995, pp. 23–24</ref>

== Linguistic properties ==
=== Alphabet ===
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

The Esperanto alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]], using a one-sound-one-letter principle, except for [d͡z]. It includes six [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]] with [[diacritic]]s: [[ĉ]], [[ĝ]], [[ĥ]], [[ĵ]], [[ŝ]] (with [[circumflex]]), and [[ŭ]] (with [[breve]]). The alphabet does not include the letters ''q, w, x,'' or ''y'', which are only used when writing unassimilated foreign terms or proper names.

The 28-letter alphabet is:
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; table-layout:fixed"
|+ Esperanto alphabet
! Number ||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||10||11||12||13||14||15||16||17||18||19||20||21||22||23||24||25||26||27||28
|-
! [[Upper case]]
|[[A]]||[[B]]||[[C]]||[[Ĉ]]||[[D]]||[[E]]||[[F]]||[[G]]||[[Ĝ]]||[[H]]||[[Ĥ]]||[[I]]||[[J]]||[[Ĵ]]||[[K]]||[[L]]||[[M]]||[[N]]||[[O]]||[[P]]||[[R]]||[[S]]||[[Ŝ]]||[[T]]||[[U]]||[[Ŭ]]||[[V]]||[[Z]]
|-
! [[Lower case]]
|a||b||c||ĉ||d||e||f||g||ĝ||h||ĥ||i||j||ĵ||k||l||m||n||o||p||r||s||ŝ||t||u||ŭ||v||z
|-
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] [[phoneme]]
|{{IPAlink|a}}||{{IPAlink|b}}||{{IPAlink|t͡s}}||{{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}||{{IPAlink|d}}||{{IPAlink|e}}||{{IPAlink|f}}||{{IPAlink|ɡ}}||{{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}}||{{IPAlink|h}}||{{IPAlink|x}}||{{IPAlink|i}}||{{IPAlink|j}}={{IPAlink|i̯}}||{{IPAlink|ʒ}}||{{IPAlink|k}}||{{IPAlink|l}}||{{IPAlink|m}}||{{IPAlink|n}}||{{IPAlink|o}}||{{IPAlink|p}}||{{IPAlink|r}}||{{IPAlink|s}}||{{IPAlink|ʃ}}||{{IPAlink|t}}||{{IPAlink|u}}||{{IPAlink|w}}={{IPAlink|u̯}}||{{IPAlink|v}}||{{IPAlink|z}}
|}

All unaccented letters are pronounced approximately as in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], with the exception of ''c''. Esperanto ''j'' and ''c'' are used in a way familiar to speakers of many European languages, but unfamiliar to most English speakers: ''j'' has a ''y'' sound [j~i̯], as in '''''y'''ellow'' and ''bo'''y''','' and ''c'' has a ''ts'' sound [t͡s], as in ''hi'''ts''''' or the ''zz'' in ''pi'''zz'''a''.<ref>These letters occasionally have these values in English as well, for example the ''j'' in ''[[hallelujah|hallelu'''j'''ah]], [[Jarlsberg cheese|'''J'''arlsberg]],'' or ''[[Jägermeister|'''J'''ägermeister]]'', and the ''c'' in the name of composer ''[[Krzysztof Penderecki|Pendere'''c'''ki]]'', Czech president ''[[Václav Havel|Vá'''c'''lav Havel]]'', or the mineral ''[[letovicite]]''.</ref> The accented letters are a bit like ''h''-digraphs in English: ''Ĉ'' is pronounced like English ''ch'', and ''ŝ'' like ''sh''. ''Ĝ'' is the ''g'' in '''''g'''em'', ''ĵ'' a ''zh'' sound, as in ''fu'''s'''ion'' or French '''''J'''acques'', and the rare ''ĥ'' is like the German {{lang|de|Ba'''ch'''}}, Scottish Gaelic, Scots and Scottish Standard English ''lo'''ch''''', or how [[Scouse]] people sometimes pronounce the 'k' in ''boo'''k''''' and 'ck' in ''chi'''ck'''en''.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;"
|+ Esperanto letters pronounced differently than in English
|-
! Letter
! {{lang|eo|c}}
! {{lang|eo|ĉ}}
! {{lang|eo|ĝ}}
! {{lang|eo|ĥ}}
! {{lang|eo|j}}
! {{lang|eo|ĵ}}
! {{lang|eo|ŝ}}
! {{lang|eo|ŭ}}
|-
! [[help:IPA|Pronunciation]]
| {{IPA link|t͡s}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|x}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|u̯}} (in diphthongs)
|}

==== Writing diacritics ====
Even with the widespread adoption of [[Unicode]], the letters with diacritics (found in the "Latin-Extended A" section of the [[Unicode Standard]]) can cause problems with printing and computing, because they are not found on most physical keyboards and are left out of certain fonts.

There are two principal workarounds to this problem, which substitute [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] for the accented letters. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, created an "h-convention", which replaces ''ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ,'' and ''ŭ'' with ''ch, gh, hh, jh, sh,'' and ''u,'' respectively.<ref>[[Akademio de Esperanto]] (2007): [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/oficialaj_informoj/oficialaj_informoj_6_2007.html ''Oficialaj Informoj, Numero 6 - 2007 01 21''].</ref> If used in a database, a program in principle could not determine whether to render, for example, ''ch'' as ''c'' followed by ''h'' or as ''ĉ'', and would fail to render, for example, the word {{lang|eo|[[wikt:senchava|senchava]]}} properly. A more recent "[[x-convention]]" has gained ground since the advent of computing. This system replaces each diacritic with an ''x'' (not part of the Esperanto alphabet) after the letter, producing the six digraphs ''cx, gx, hx, jx, sx,'' and ''ux''.

There are computer [[keyboard layouts]] that support the Esperanto alphabet, and some systems use software that automatically replaces x- or h-convention digraphs with the corresponding diacritic letters (for example, {{lang|eo|Amiketo}}<ref>Amiketo and Tajpi are keyboard layouts which support the Esperanto alphabet for [http://www012.upp.so-net.ne.jp/klivo/amiketo/ Windows], [http://www012.upp.so-net.ne.jp/klivo/amiketo/makamiketo.html Mac OS X], and [http://www012.upp.so-net.ne.jp/klivo/amiketo/linamiketo.html Linux]</ref> for [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], and [[Linux]], {{lang|eo|Esperanta Klavaro}} for [[Windows Phone]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.windowsphone.com/en-us/store/app/esperanta-klavaro/e2264bb4-b596-4fb2-a5d3-42d007d6b53c|title=Esperanta Klavaro|work=windowsphone.com}}</ref> and [[Gboard]] and [[AnySoftKeyboard]] for [[Android (operating system)|Android]]).

Criticisms are made of the letters with circumflex diacritics, which some find odd or cumbersome, along with their being invented specifically for Esperanto rather than borrowed from existing languages; as well as being arguably unnecessary, as for example with the use of ''ĥ'' instead of ''x'' and ''ŭ'' instead of ''w''.<ref name="critiche">{{cite web|url=http://parracomumangi.altervista.org/domande.htm |title=Critiche all'esperanto ed alle altre lingue internazionali |publisher=Parracomumangi.altervista.org |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref>

=== Classification ===
The [[phonology]], [[grammar]], [[vocabulary]], and [[semantics]] are based on the [[Indo-European languages]] spoken in Europe. The [[phoneme|sound inventory]] is essentially [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], as is much of the semantics, whereas the vocabulary derives primarily from the [[Romance languages]], with a lesser contribution from [[Germanic languages]] and minor contributions from Slavic languages and Greek. [[Pragmatics]] and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof's original documents were influenced by the native languages of early authors, primarily Russian, Polish, German, and French. [[Paul Wexler (linguist)|Paul Wexler]] proposes that Esperanto is [[relexified]] [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], which he claims is in turn a relexified Slavic language,<ref name=Wexler>
{{cite book
| last = Wexler
| first = Paul
| title = Two-tiered Relexification in Yiddish: Jews, Sorbs, Khazars, and the Kiev-Polessian Dialect
| year = 2002
| publisher = De Gruyter Mouton
| isbn = 9783110898736
| page =
}}</ref> though this model is not accepted by mainstream academics.<ref name="Spolsky" >Bernard Spolsky,[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Xk9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157 ''The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History,''] Cambridge University Press, 2014 pp.157,180ff. p.183</ref>

Esperanto has been described as "a language [[Lexicon|lexically]] predominantly [[Romance languages|Romanic]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] intensively [[agglutination|agglutinative]], and to a certain degree [[isolating languages|isolating]] in character".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Blanke |first=Detlev |title=Internationale Plansprachen. Eine Einführung |trans-title=International Planned Languages. An Introduction |journal=Sammlung Akademie-Verlag |publisher=Akademie-Verlag |year=1985 |ISSN=0138-550X}}</ref> [[Linguistic typology|Typologically]], Esperanto has [[preposition]]s and a [[information flow|pragmatic word order]] that by default is ''[[subject–verb–object]].'' Adjectives can be freely placed before or after the nouns they modify, though placing them before the noun is more common. New words are formed through extensive [[prefix]]ing and [[suffix]]ing.

=== Grammar ===
{{Main|Esperanto grammar}}
Esperanto words are mostly [[Morphological derivation|derived]] by stringing together [[Root (linguistics)|roots]], grammatical endings, and at times [[prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es. This process is regular, so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood. [[Compound (linguistics)|Compound]] words are formed with a modifier-first, [[head (linguistics)|head-final]] order, as in English (compare "birdsong" and "songbird," and likewise, {{lang|eo|birdokanto}} and {{lang|eo|kantobirdo}}). Speakers may optionally insert an ''o'' between the words in a compound noun if placing them together directly without the ''o'' would make the resulting word hard to say or understand.

The different [[Part of speech|parts of speech]] are marked by their own suffixes: all [[common noun]]s end in {{lang|eo|-o}}, all [[adjective]]s in {{lang|eo|-a}}, all derived adverbs in {{lang|eo|-e}}, and all [[verb]]s except the [[jussive mood|jussive]] (or [[Imperative mood|imperative]]) end in {{lang|eo|-s}}, specifically in one of six [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical mood|mood]] suffixes, such as the [[present tense]] {{lang|eo|-as}}; the jussive mood, which is tenseless, ends in {{lang|eo|-u}}. Nouns and adjectives have two cases: [[Nominative case|nominative]] for grammatical subjects and in general, and [[Accusative case|accusative]] for direct objects and (after a preposition) to indicate direction of movement.

[[Grammatical number|Singular]] nouns used as [[grammatical subject]]s end in {{lang|eo|-o}}, [[Grammatical number|plural]] subject nouns in {{lang|eo|-oj}} (pronounced [oi̯] like English "oy"). Singular [[direct object]] forms end in {{lang|eo|-on}}, and plural direct objects with the combination {{lang|eo|-ojn}} ([oi̯n]; rhymes with "coin"): {{lang|eo|-o-}} indicates that the word is a noun, {{lang|eo|-j-}} indicates the plural, and {{lang|eo|-n}} indicates the [[accusative case|accusative]] (direct object) case. Adjectives [[Grammatical number#Adjectives and determiners|agree]] with their nouns; their endings are singular subject {{lang|eo|-a}} ([a]; rhymes with "ha!"), plural subject {{lang|eo|-aj}} ([ai̯], pronounced "eye"), singular object {{lang|eo|-an}}, and plural object {{lang|eo|-ajn}} ([ai̯n]; rhymes with "fine").

{| style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
! [[Noun]]
! Subject
! Object
|-
! Singular
| -'''{{lang|eo|o}}'''
| -'''{{lang|eo|on}}'''
|-
! Plural
| -'''{{lang|eo|oj}}'''
| -'''{{lang|eo|ojn}}'''
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
! [[Adjective]]
! Subject
! Object
|-
! Singular
| -'''{{lang|eo|a}}'''
| -'''{{lang|eo|an}}'''
|-
! Plural
| -'''{{lang|eo|aj}}'''
| -'''{{lang|eo|ajn}}'''
|}
|}

The suffix {{lang|eo|-n}}, besides indicating the direct object, is used to indicate movement and a few other things as well.

The six verb [[inflection]]s consist of three tenses and three moods. They are [[present tense]] {{lang|eo|-as}}, [[future tense]] {{lang|eo|-os}}, [[past tense]] {{lang|eo|-is}}, [[infinitive]] mood {{lang|eo|-i}}, [[conditional mood]] {{lang|eo|-us}} and [[jussive mood]] {{lang|eo|-u}} (used for wishes and commands). Verbs are not marked for person or number. Thus, {{lang|eo|kanti}} means "to sing", {{lang|eo|mi kantas}} means "I sing", {{lang|eo|vi kantas}} means "you sing", and {{lang|eo|ili kantas}} means "they sing".

{| style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
! Verbal tense
! Suffix
|-
! [[Present tense|Present]]
| {{lang|eo|'''-as''' (kantas)}}
|-
! [[Past tense|Past]]
| {{lang|eo|'''-is''' (kantis)}}
|-
! [[Future tense|Future]]
| {{lang|eo|'''-os''' (kantos)}}
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
! Verbal mood
! Suffix
|-
! [[Infinitive]]
| {{lang|eo|'''-i''' (kanti)}}
|-
! [[Jussive mood|Jussive]]
| {{lang|eo|'''-u''' (kantu)}}
|-
! [[Conditional mood|Conditional]]
| {{lang|eo|'''-us''' (kantus)}}
|}
|}

Word order is comparatively free. Adjectives may precede or follow nouns; subjects, verbs and objects may occur in any order. However, the [[article (grammar)|article]] {{lang|eo|la}} "the", [[demonstrative]]s such as {{lang|eo|tiu}} "that" and [[preposition]]s (such as {{lang|eo|ĉe}} "at") must come before their related nouns. Similarly, the negative {{lang|eo|ne}} "not" and [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] such as {{lang|eo|kaj}} "and" and {{lang|eo|ke}} "that" must precede the [[phrase]] or [[clause]] that they introduce. In [[copula (linguistics)|copular]] (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as in English: "people are animals" is distinguished from "animals are people".

=== Living language ===
The [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]] has found that Esperanto fulfills all the requirements of a [[living language]].<ref>''{{lang|eo|Laŭ la komuna opinio de gvidaj fakuloj de la Instituto, Esperanto apartenas al la kategorio de vivaj lingvoj. Pli detale traktante la temon, konsiderante la historion kaj la nunan staton de Esperanto, a.) ĝi estas grandmezure normigita, b.) amplekse sociiĝinta, c.) ne-etna viva lingvo, kiu en sekundara lingva komunumo plenumas ĉiujn eblajn lingvajn funkciojn, kaj samtempe ĝi funkcias kiel pera lingvo. – Ĉi supre diritaj respegulas la sciencan starpunkton de nia Instituto.}} {{lang|eo|[http://www.esperanto.hu/hu-lernejo.htm "Malgranda fina venko". El Hungario]}}</ref>{{clarify|date=October 2016}}

===Neutrality===
====Origin====
The [[vocabulary]], [[orthography]], [[phonology]], and [[semantics]], are all thoroughly [[European language|European]]. The vocabulary, for example, draws about two-thirds from [[Romance languages|Romance]] and one-third from [[Germanic languages]]; the [[syntax]] is Romance; and the phonology and semantics are [[Slavic languages|Slavic]].{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} The [[grammar]] is arguably more European than not, but Claude Piron among others argues that the derivation system is not particularly European, though the inflection is.<ref>{{cite book|title = Le défi des langues: Du gâchis au bon sens |first= Claude|last =Piron|publisher = Editions L'Harmattan |date = 1994|language = French|isbn=9782296287556|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=o5i5hbs3RAIC&printsec=frontcover}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=epo|title=Similar languages to Esperanto|website=ezglot.com|accessdate=October 6, 2017}}</ref>

====Gender====
{{main|Gender reform in Esperanto}}
Esperanto is frequently accused of being inherently [[sexism|sexist]], because the default form of some nouns is masculine while a derived form is used for the feminine, which is said to retain traces of the male-dominated society of late 19th-century Europe of which Esperanto is a product.<ref>[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/o-vortoj/seksa_signifo.html Bertilo] (in Esperanto)</ref><ref>[http://parracomumangi.altervista.org/Domande.htm Critiche all'esperanto ed alle altre lingue internazionali] (in Italian)</ref> These nouns are primarily titles and kin terms, such as ''sinjoro'' "Mr, sir" vs. ''sinjorino'' "Ms, lady" and ''patro'' "father" vs. ''patrino'' "mother". In addition, nouns that denote persons and whose definitions are not explicitly male are often assumed to be male unless explicitly made female, such as ''doktoro,'' a PhD doctor (male or unspecified) versus ''doktorino,'' a female PhD. This is analogous to the situation with the English suffix ''-ess,'' as in the words ''baron/baroness'', ''waiter/waitress'', etc. Esperanto pronouns are similar. The pronoun ''li'' "he" may be used generically, whereas ''ŝi'' "she" is always female.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kalocsay |first1= Kálmán|last2= Waringhien|first2= Gaston|title = Plena analiza gramatiko de Esperanto|date=1985|page=73|publisher = Universala Esperanto-Asocio|isbn = 9789290170327}}</ref>

=== Phonology ===
{{Main|Esperanto phonology}}

Esperanto typically has 22 to 24 consonants, depending on the phonemic analysis and individual speaker, five vowels, and two [[semivowel]]s that combine with the vowels to form six [[diphthong]]s. (The consonant {{IPA|/j/}} and semivowel {{IPA|/i̯/}} are both written ''j'', and the uncommon consonant {{IPA|/dz/}} is written with the digraph ''[[Dz (digraph)|dz]]'',<ref>Kalocsay & Waringhien (1985) {{lang|eo|Plena analiza gramatiko de Esperanto}}, § 17, 22</ref> which is the only consonant that doesn't have its own letter.) [[tone (linguistics)|Tone]] is not used to distinguish meanings of words. [[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is always on the second-last vowel in fully Esperanto words unless a final vowel {{lang|eo|o}} is elided, which occurs mostly in poetry. For example, ''{{wikteo|familio}}'' "family" is {{IPA|[fa.mi.ˈli.o]}}, with the stress on the second ''i'', but when the word is used without the final ''{{lang|eo|o}} ({{lang|eo|famili’}}),'' the stress remains on the second {{lang|eo|i}}: {{IPA|[fa.mi.ˈli]}}.

==== Consonants ====
The 23 consonants are:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto;"
|-
!
! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio- dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post- alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style="text-align:left;"| [[nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|n}}
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style="text-align:left;"| [[stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|b}}
| colspan="2" |  
| {{IPA link|t}} || {{IPA link|d}}
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| colspan="2" |  
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style="text-align:left;"| [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| {{IPA link|t͡s}} || ({{IPA link|d͡z}})
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} || {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style="text-align:left;"| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan="2" |  
| {{IPA link|f}} || {{IPA link|v}}
| {{IPA link|s}} || {{IPA link|z}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} || {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| colspan="2" |  
| ({{IPA link|x}}) ||  
| {{IPA link|h}} ||  
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style="text-align:left;"| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|l}}
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|j}}
| colspan="2" |({{IPA link|w}})
| colspan="2" |  
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style="text-align:left;"| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|r}}
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" |  
|}

The sound {{IPAslink|r}} is usually an [[alveolar trill]] {{IPAblink|r}}, but can also be a [[uvular trill]] {{IPAblink|ʀ}},<ref>{{cite web|title=PMEG – Bazaj elparolaj reguloj – Konsonanta variado|url=http://bertilow.com/pmeg/skribo_elparolo/elparolo/bazaj_reguloj.html#i-7fo|website=PMEG}}</ref> a [[Voiced uvular fricative|uvular fricative]] {{IPAblink|ʁ}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Fundamento de Esperanto – Gramatiko Franca|url=http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_franca.html|website=Akademio de Esperanto}}</ref> and an [[Alveolar and postalveolar approximants|alveolar approximant]] {{IPAblink|ɹ}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fundamento de Esperanto – Gramatiko Angla|url=http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html|website=Akademio de Esperanto}}</ref> Many other forms such as an [[alveolar tap]] {{IPAblink|ɾ}} are done and accepted in practice. The {{IPAslink|v}} is normally pronounced like English ''v,'' but may be pronounced {{IPAblink|ʋ}} (between English ''v'' and ''w'') or {{IPAblink|w}}, depending on the language background of the speaker. A semivowel {{IPA|/u̯/}} normally occurs only in [[diphthong]]s after the vowels {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPAslink|e̞|e}}, not as a consonant {{IPA|/w/}}. Common, if debated, [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] includes the pronunciation of {{lang|eo|nk}} as {{IPA|[ŋk]}} and {{lang|eo|kz}} as {{IPA|[ɡz]}}.

A large number of consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position (as in ''{{wikteo|stranga}}'', "strange") and four in medial position (as in ''{{wikteo|instrui}}'', "teach"). Final clusters are uncommon except in foreign names, poetic elision of final ''{{wikteo|o}},'' and a very few basic words such as ''{{wikteo|cent}}'' "hundred" and ''{{wikteo|post}}'' "after".

==== Vowels ====
Esperanto has the five vowels found in such languages as [[Classical Latin]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Modern Hebrew]], and [[Modern Greek]].
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;"
!
! | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! style="text-align: right;" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! style="text-align: right;" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e̞|e}}
| {{IPA link|o̞|o}}
|-
! style="text-align: right;" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|ä|a}}
|}

There are also two semivowels, {{IPA|/i̯/}} and {{IPA|/u̯/}}, which combine with the monophthongs to form six falling [[diphthongs#Falling and rising|diphthongs]]: ''{{lang|eo|aj}}, {{lang|eo|ej}}, {{lang|eo|oj}}, {{lang|eo|uj}}, {{lang|eo|aŭ}},'' and {{lang|eo|eŭ}}.

Since there are only five vowels, a good deal of variation in pronunciation is tolerated. For instance, ''e'' commonly ranges from {{IPA|[e]}} (French {{lang|fr|é}}) to {{IPA|[ɛ]}} (French {{lang|fr|è}}). These details often depend on the speaker's native language. A [[glottal stop]] may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in ''{{wikteo|heroo}}'' "hero" ({{IPA|[he.ˈro.o]}} or {{IPA|[he.ˈro.ʔo]}}) and ''{{wikteo|praavo}}'' "great-grandfather" ({{IPA|[pra.ˈa.vo]}} or {{IPA|[pra.ˈʔa.vo]}}).

=== Sample text ===
{{Listen|filename=Eo-drako-reĝo.ogg|title=Listen to this excerpt}}
The following short extract gives an idea of the character of Esperanto.<ref>Maire Mullarney ''Everyone's Own Language'', p147, Nitobe Press, Channel Islands, 1999</ref> (Pronunciation is covered above; the Esperanto letter ''j'' is pronounced like English ''y''.)
* Esperanto:
:«{{lang|eo|En multaj lokoj de Ĉinio estis temploj de la drako-reĝo. Dum trosekeco oni preĝis en la temploj, ke la drako-reĝo donu pluvon al la homa mondo. Tiam drako estis simbolo de la supernatura estaĵo. Kaj pli poste, ĝi fariĝis prapatro de la plej altaj regantoj kaj simbolis la absolutan aŭtoritaton de la feŭda imperiestro. La imperiestro pretendis, ke li estas filo de la drako. Ĉiuj liaj vivbezonaĵoj portis la nomon drako kaj estis ornamitaj per diversaj drakofiguroj. Nun ĉie en Ĉinio videblas drako-ornamentaĵoj, kaj cirkulas legendoj pri drakoj.}}»
* English translation:
:''In many places in China, there were temples of the dragon-king. During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragon-king would give rain to the human world. At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural creature. Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolised the absolute authority of a feudal emperor. The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon. All of his personal possessions carried the name "dragon" and were decorated with various dragon figures. Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China and legends about dragons circulate.''

=== Simple phrases ===
{{Inline audio}}

Below are listed some useful Esperanto words and phrases along with [[help:IPA|IPA]] transcriptions:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!English || Esperanto || [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|-
|Hello || {{Audio|Eo-saluton.ogg|Saluton|help=no}} || {{IPA|[sa.ˈlu.ton]}}
|-
|Yes || {{Audio|Eo-jes.ogg|Jes|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈjes]}}
|-
|No || {{Audio|Eo-ne.ogg|Ne|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈne]}}
|-
|Good morning || {{Audio|Eo-bonan matenon.ogg|Bonan matenon|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈbo.nan ma.ˈte.non]}}
|-
|Good evening || {{Audio|Eo-bonan vesperon.ogg|Bonan vesperon|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈbo.nan ves.ˈpe.ron]}}
|-
|Good night || {{Audio|Eo-bonan nokton.ogg|Bonan nokton|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈbo.nan ˈnok.ton]}}
|-
|Goodbye || {{Audio|Eo-ĝis la revido.ogg|Ĝis (la) revido|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈdʒis (la) re.ˈvi.do]}}
|-
|What is your name? || {{Audio|Eo-kio estas via nomo.ogg|Kio estas via nomo?|help=no}} Kiel vi nomiĝas? || {{IPA|[ˈki.o ˌes.tas ˌvi.a ˈno.mo]}} {{IPA|[ˈki.εl vi nɔ.ˈmi.dʒas]}}
|-
|My name is Marco. || {{Audio|Eo-mia nomo estas marko.ogg|Mia nomo estas Marko|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˌmi.a ˈno.mo ˌes.tas ˈmar.ko]}}
|-
|How are you? || {{Audio|Eo-kiel vi fartas.ogg|Kiel vi fartas?|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈki.el vi ˈfar.tas]}}
|-
|I am well.|| {{Audio|Eo-mi fartas bone.ogg|Mi fartas bone|help=no}} || {{IPA|[mi ˈfar.tas ˈbo.ne]}}
|-
|Do you speak Esperanto? || {{Audio|Cu vi parolas esperanton.ogg|Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈtʃu vi pa.ˈro.las ˌes.pe.ˈran.ton]}}
|-
|I don't understand you || {{Audio|Eo-mi ne komprenas vin.ogg|Mi ne komprenas vin|help=no}} || {{IPA|[mi ˌne kom.ˈpre.nas ˌvin]}}
|-
|All right || rowspan="2" | {{Audio|Eo-bone.ogg|Bone|help=no}} / En ordo || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[ˈbo.ne]}} / {{IPA|[en ˈor.do]}}
|-
|Okay
|-
|Thank you || {{Audio|Eo-dankon.ogg|Dankon|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈdan.kon]}}
|-
|You're welcome || {{Audio|Eo-ne dankinde.ogg|Ne dankinde|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˌne.dan.ˈkin.de]}}
|-
|Please || {{Audio|Eo-bonvolu.ogg|Bonvolu|help=no}} / Mi petas || {{IPA|[bon.ˈvo.lu]}} / {{IPA|[mi ˈpε.tas]}}
|-
|Forgive me/Excuse me || {{Audio|Eo-pardonu min.ogg|Pardonu min|help=no}} || {{IPA|[par.ˈdo.nu ˈmin]}}
|-
|Bless you! || {{Audio|Eo-sanon.ogg|Sanon!|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈsa.non]}}
|-
|Congratulations || {{Audio|Eo-gratulon.ogg|Gratulon|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ɡra.ˈtu.lon]}}
|-
|I love you || {{Audio|Eo-mi amas vin.ogg|Mi amas vin|help=no}} || {{IPA|[mi ˈa.mas ˌvin]}}
|-
|One beer, please || {{Audio|Eo-unu bieron mi petas.ogg|Unu bieron, mi petas|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈu.nu bi.ˈe.ron, mi ˈpe.tas]}}
|-
|Where is the toilet? || {{Audio|Eo-kie estas la necesejo.ogg|Kie estas la necesejo?|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈki.e ˈes.tas ˈla ˌne.tse.ˈse.jo]}}
|-
|What is that? || {{Audio|Eo-kio estas tio.ogg|Kio estas tio?|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈki.o ˌes.tas ˈti.o]}}
|-
|That is a dog || {{Audio|Eo-tio estas hundo.ogg|Tio estas hundo|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈti.o ˌes.tas ˈhun.do]}}
|-
|We will love! || {{Audio|Eo-ni amos.ogg|Ni amos!|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ni ˈa.mos]}}
|-
|Peace! || {{Audio|Eo-pacon.ogg|Pacon!|help=no}} || {{IPA|[ˈpa.tson]}}
|-
|I am a beginner in Esperanto. || {{Audio|Eo-mi estas komencanto de esperanto.ogg|Mi estas komencanto de Esperanto|help=no}} || {{IPA|[mi ˈes.tas ˌko.men.ˈtsan.to de ˌes.pe.ˈran.to]}}
|}

=== Vocabulary ===
{{Main|Esperanto vocabulary}}

The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by {{lang|eo|Lingvo internacia}}, published by Zamenhof in 1887. This book listed 900 roots; these could be expanded into tens of thousands of words using prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto [[dictionary]], {{lang|eo|Universala Vortaro}}, which had a larger set of roots. The rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed; it was recommended, however, that speakers use most international forms and then derive related meanings from these.

Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily (but not solely) from the European languages. Not all proposed borrowings become widespread, but many do, especially [[technical terminology|technical]] and [[science|scientific]] terms. Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots; {{lang|eo|komputilo}} "computer", for instance, is formed from the verb {{lang|eo|komputi}} "compute" and the suffix {{lang|eo|-ilo}} "tool". Words are also [[calque]]d; that is, words acquire new meanings based on usage in other languages. For example, the word {{lang|eo|muso}} "mouse" has acquired the meaning of a [[mouse (computing)|computer mouse]] from its usage in English. Esperanto speakers often debate about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether meaning can be expressed by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.

Some compounds and formed words in Esperanto are not entirely straightforward; for example, {{lang|eo|eldoni}}, literally "give out", means "publish", paralleling the usage of certain European languages (such as German). In addition, [[Esperanto words with the ad hoc suffix -um|the suffix ''-um-'']] has no defined meaning; words using the suffix must be learned separately (such as {{lang|eo|dekstren}} "to the right" and {{lang|eo|dekstrumen}} "clockwise").

There are not many idiomatic or slang words in Esperanto, as these forms of speech tend to make international communication difficult—working against Esperanto's main goal.

Instead of derivations of Esperanto roots, new roots are taken from European languages in the endeavor to create an international language.<ref name="piron1989">{{lang|eo|La Bona Lingvo}}, [[Claude Piron]]. Vienna: {{lang|eo|Pro Esperanto}}, 1989. {{lang|eo|La lingvo volas eleganti, ne elefanti.}} "The language wants to be elegant, not elephantine."</ref>

== Education ==
Esperanto speakers learn the language through [[autodidacticism|self-directed study]], online tutorials, and correspondence courses taught by volunteers. More recently, free teaching websites, like {{lang|eo|[[lernu!]]}} and {{lang|eo|[[Duolingo]]}}, are available.

Esperanto instruction is rarely available at schools, including [[Propaedeutic value of Esperanto|four primary schools in a pilot project]] under the supervision of the [[University of Manchester]], and by one count at a few universities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uea.org/agadoj/instruado/pirlot.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529120733/http://uea.org/agadoj/instruado/pirlot.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-05-29 |title=Esperanto en universitatoj |publisher=Uea.Org |date=April 17, 2003 |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> However, outside China and [[Hungary]], these mostly involve informal arrangements rather than dedicated departments or state sponsorship. [[Eötvös Loránd University]] in Budapest had a department of [[Interlinguistics]] and Esperanto from 1966 to 2004, after which time instruction moved to vocational colleges; there are state examinations for Esperanto instructors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geocities.com/bujdosoivan/tarte.htm |title=enhavo |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=October 27, 2009 |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20091027105835/http://geocities.com/bujdosoivan/tarte.htm |archivedate = October 27, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geocities.com/bujdosoivan/okt.htm#3 |title=Elte Btk |publisher=Webcitation.org |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021083127/http://geocities.com/bujdosoivan/okt.htm#3 |archivedate=October 21, 2009 }}</ref> Additionally, [[Adam Mickiewicz University]] in Poland offers a [[diplom]]a in Interlinguistics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amu.edu.pl/en/home/about-us/education/degree-list/full-degree-students/diploma-in-interlinguistics-esperanto|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418022807/http://amu.edu.pl/en/home/about-us/education/degree-list/full-degree-students/diploma-in-interlinguistics-esperanto |archivedate=April 18, 2012|title=Diploma in Interlinguistics (ESPERANTO)}}</ref> The [[Senate of Brazil]] passed a bill in 2009 that would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in [[Public school (government funded)|public schools]], although mandatory if there is demand for it. {{As of|2015}} the bill is still under consideration by the [[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|Chamber of Deputies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senado.gov.br/sf/atividade/materia/detalhes.asp?p_cod_mate=83989|title=Atividade Legislativa – Projetos e Matrias|publisher=Senado.gov.br|language=pt|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.camara.gov.br/sileg/Prop_Detalhe.asp?id=454210|title=PL 6162/2009 – Projetos de Lei e Outras Proposições – Câmara dos Deputados|publisher=Camara.gov.br|language=pt|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www12.senado.gov.br/noticias/materias/2009/06/18/entidades-manifestam-apoio-a-proposta-de-incluir-ensino-de-esperanto-na-grade-de-disciplinas-da-rede-publica|title=Entidades manifestam apoio à proposta de incluir ensino de Esperanto na grade de disciplinas da rede pública|work=Senado Federal – Portal de Notícias|language=pt|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref>

In the United States, Esperanto is notably offered as a weekly evening course at [[Stanford University|Stanford University's]] Bechtel International Center. Conversational Esperanto, The International Language, is a free drop-in class that is open to Stanford students and the general public on campus during the academic year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esperanto.org/stanford/|title=Esperanto – Stanford University|website=esperanto.org}}</ref> With administrative permission, Stanford Students can take the class for two credits a quarter through the Linguistics Department. "Even four lessons are enough to get more than just the basics," the Esperanto at Stanford website reads.

After taking the Esperanto course at their university and becoming fascinated with the language, two Stanford students embarked on a research project travelling around Europe to document the history and usage of Esperanto. They visited formal institutions devoted to Esperanto, including the Esperanto Museum in Vienna, and participated in tours conducted in the language and distributed a survey to major Esperanto organizations. Their research focused on the community of Esperanto speakers with the hope of engaging the Esperanto community and the public at large.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.stanford.edu/2017/03/30/students-explore-esperanto-across-europe/|title=Students explore Esperanto across Europe|first=Stanford|last=University|date=March 30, 2017|website=Stanford News}}</ref>

Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the amount of time required for other languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://esperanto-usa.org/?q=node/77 |title=Is Esperanto four times easier to learn? |publisher=Esperanto-USA |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310081949/http://esperanto-usa.org/?q=node%2F77 |archive-date=2013-03-10 |url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> [[Claude Piron]], an Esperanto-Activist and Chinese–English–Russian–Spanish translator for the United Nations, argued that Esperanto is far more intuitive than many ethnic languages: "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes [and] differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns.{{nbsp}}... The same [[neuropsychology|neuropsychological]] law [—called by] [[Jean Piaget]] ''generalizing assimilation''—applies to word formation as well as to grammar."<ref name=Piron>Piron, Claude: [http://www.claude-piron.ch/hidden-perverse-effects.html "The hidden perverse effect of the current system of international communication"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707080220/http://www.claude-piron.ch/hidden-perverse-effects.html |date=July 7, 2014 }}, published lecture notes</ref>

The Institute of Cybernetic Pedagogy at [[Paderborn University]] (Germany) has compared the length of study time it takes natively French-speaking high-school students to obtain comparable 'standard' levels in Esperanto, English, German, and Italian.<ref>Flochon, Bruno, 2000, " {{lang|fr|L'espéranto}} ", in Gauthier, Guy (ed.) {{lang|fr|Langues: une guerre à mort, Panoramiques.}} 4e trim. 48: 89–95. Cited in François Grin, {{lang|fr|[http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/rapports-publics/054000678/index.shtml L'enseignement des langues étrangères comme politique publique]}} (French)</ref> The results were:
* '''2,000''' hours studying German
* '''1,500''' hours studying English
* '''1,000''' hours studying Italian (or any other [[Romance language]])
* '''150''' hours studying Esperanto.

=== Third-language acquisition ===
{{Main|Propaedeutic value of Esperanto}}
Four primary schools in Britain, with 230 pupils, are currently following a course in "[[propaedeutics|propaedeutic]] Esperanto"—that is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness and accelerate subsequent learning of foreign languages—under the supervision of the [[University of Manchester]]. As they put it,
:''Many schools used to teach children the [[Recorder (musical instrument)|recorder]], not to produce a nation of recorder players, but as a preparation for learning other instruments. [We teach] Esperanto, not to produce a nation of Esperanto-speakers, but as a preparation for learning other languages.''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.springboard2languages.org |title=Springboard to Languages |publisher=Springboard2languages.org |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref>
Studies have been conducted in [[New Zealand]],<ref>Report: Article in {{lang|eo|Enciklopedio de Esperanto}}, volume I, p.436, on the pedagogic value of Esperanto.</ref> United States,<ref>Report: Christian Rudmick, ''The Wellesley College Danish-Esperanto experiment''.</ref><ref>Report: Edward Thorndike, ''Language Learning''. Bureau of Publications of Teachers College, 1933. [http://www.interlingua.org/ Interlingua.org]</ref><ref>Helen S. Eaton, "The Educational Value of an Artificial Language." ''The Modern Language Journal'', No. 12, pp. 87–94 (1927). [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/mlj/newsearchres.asp?contenttype=AA&topic=Artificial%20Language&searchtype=adv Blackwellpublishing.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703210156/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/mlj/newsearchres.asp?contenttype=AA&topic=Artificial%20Language&searchtype=adv |date=July 3, 2009 }}</ref> (Germany),<ref>Protocols of the annual November meetings in Paderborn "{{lang|eo|Laborkonferencoj: Interlingvistiko en Scienco kaj Klerigo}}" (Working conference: Interlinguistics in Science and Education), which can be obtained from the Institute of Pedagogic Cybernetics in Paderborn. Also in the works by Frank, Lobin, Geisler, and Meder.</ref> Italy<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internacialingvo.org/public/study.pdf|format=PDF|title=Study International Language (known as Esperanto) Commission, Interministerial Decree|year=1993|publisher=Internacialingovo.org|accessdate=January 14, 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709165754/http://www.internacialingvo.org/public/study.pdf|archivedate=July 9, 2011}}</ref> and Australia.<ref name="Norman">{{cite web |first=Alan J. |last=Bishop |url=http://education.monash.edu.au/projects/esperanto/Ekrep97.htm |title=''Ekparoli'' Project Report 1994–1997 |year=1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031204061223/http://education.monash.edu.au/projects/esperanto/Ekrep97.htm |archive-date=2003-12-04 |url-status=dead |publisher=Monash University |location=Clayton, Australia}}</ref> The results of these studies were favorable and demonstrated that studying Esperanto before another foreign language expedites the acquisition of the other, natural language. This appears to be because learning subsequent foreign languages is easier than learning one's first foreign language, whereas the use of a grammatically simple and culturally flexible auxiliary language like Esperanto lessens the first-language learning hurdle. In one study,<ref name=Williams_1965>Williams, N. (1965) 'A language teaching experiment', ''Canadian Modern Language Review'' 22.1: 26–28</ref> a group of European secondary school students studied Esperanto for one year, then French for three years, and ended up with a significantly better command of French than a control group, who studied French for all four years.

== Community ==
{{Main|Esperantujo}}

=== Geography and demography ===
[[File:PS mapo 2015.png|thumb|300px|Location map of hosts of {{lang|eo|[[Pasporta Servo]]}}, the Esperanto [[homestay]] community, by 2015]]
Esperanto is by far the most widely spoken [[constructed language]] in the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Byram |first=Michael |authorlink= |editor= |others= |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning |origyear= |url= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-33286-9 |oclc= |doi= |id= |page=464 |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=}}</ref> Speakers are most numerous in Europe and East Asia, especially in urban areas, where they often form [[Esperanto club]]s.<ref name=Sikosek_2003>Sikosek, Ziko M. {{lang|eo|Esperanto Sen Mitoj}} ("Esperanto without Myths"). Second edition. Antwerp: Flandra Esperanto-Ligo, 2003.</ref> Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and central countries of Europe; in China, [[Korea]], Japan, and [[Iran]] within Asia;<ref name="Esperanto as language and idea in China and Japan"/> in [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], and [[Mexico]] in the Americas;<ref name=e18 /> and in [[Togo]] in Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pagesperso-orange.fr/eric.coffinet/Afrika_Agado.html |title=Afrika Agado |language=eo|publisher=Pagesperso-orange.fr |accessdate=December 5, 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109212420/http://pagesperso-orange.fr/eric.coffinet/Afrika_Agado.html |archivedate=January 9, 2009}}</ref>

Countering a common criticism against Esperanto, the statistician Svend Nielsen has found there to be no significant correlation between the number of Esperanto speakers and similarity of a given national mother language to Esperanto. He concludes that Esperanto tends to be more popular in countries that are rich, with widespread Internet access and that tend to contribute more to science and culture. Linguistic diversity within a country was found to have a slight inverse correlation with Esperanto popularity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://svendvnielsen.wordpress.com/2017/09/24/explaining-the-density-of-esperanto-speakers-with-language-and-politics/|title=Explaining the density of Esperanto speakers with language and politics|author=Svend Vendelbo Nielsen|publisher=Kalkulinda|date=September 24, 2017|accessdate=October 7, 2017}}</ref>

==== Number of speakers ====
An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by [[Sidney S. Culbert]], a retired [[psychology]] professor at the [[University of Washington]] and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at [[ILR or Foreign Service Level language ability measures|Foreign Service Level 3]], "professionally proficient" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.).<ref name=Culbert>Culbert, Sidney S. [http://www.panix.com/~dwolff/docs/ Three letters about his method for estimating the number of Esperanto speakers], scanned and HTMLized by David Wolff</ref> Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of more than one million speakers, published annually in the [[World Almanac]] and Book of Facts. Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panix.com/~dwolff/docs/culbert-methods.html |title=Number of Esperantists (methods) |publisher=Panix.com |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results.

In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number for Esperanto speakers is shown as two million. This latter figure appears in ''[[Ethnologue]]''. Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speak the language. Although it is not Zamenhof's goal of a [[international auxiliary language|universal language]], it still represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language.

Marcus Sikosek (now [[Ziko van Dijk]]) has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated. He estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of [[Cologne, Germany|Cologne]]. Van Dijk finds only 30 [[fluency|fluent]] speakers in that city, and similarly smaller-than-expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members.<ref name=Sikosek_2003 />

[[Finnish people|Finnish]] [[linguistics|linguist]] [[Jouko Lindstedt]], an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme<ref name=Lindstedt_1996>Lindstedt, Jouko. "Re: {{lang|eo|Kiom?}}" (posting). [http://www.helsinki.fi/~jslindst/denask-l.html DENASK-L@helsinki.fi], April 22, 1996.</ref> to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community:
* 1,000 have Esperanto as their native language.
* 10,000 speak it fluently.
* 100,000 can use it actively.
* One million understand a large amount passively.
* Ten million have studied it to some extent at some time.

In 2017, doctoral student Svend Nielsen estimated around 63,000 Esperanto speakers worldwide, taking into account association memberships, user-generated data from Esperanto websites and census statistics. This number, however, was disputed by statistician Sten Johansson, who questioned the reliability of the source data and highlighted a wide margin of error, the latter point with which Nielsen agrees. Both have stated, however, that this new number is likely more realistic than some earlier projections.<ref name="svend"/>

In the absence of Dr. Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty. According to the website of the [[World Esperanto Association]]:
:Numbers of [[textbook]]s sold and membership of local societies put "the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions".<ref name="UEA">{{cite web |url=http://uea.org/info/en/ghisdate_pri_esperanto |title=An Update on Esperanto |publisher=Universala Esperanto‑Asocio |archive-date=2016-12-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209111559/http://uea.org/info/en/ghisdate_pri_esperanto |url-status=live |location=New York |quote=Based on the number of textbooks sold and membership ..., the number of people with some knowledge of Esperanto is in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions. ... In 1954 ... UNESCO ... recognised that the achievements of Esperanto match UNESCO's aims and ideals, and official relations were established between UNESCO and UEA. }}</ref>

==== Native speakers ====
{{Main|Native Esperanto speakers}}

Native Esperanto speakers, ''{{lang|eo|denaskuloj}},'' have learned the language from birth from Esperanto-speaking parents.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=epo |title=Ethnologue report for language code:epo |publisher=Ethnologue.com |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes occurs in a family of Esperanto speakers who often use the language.<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Jouko Lindstedt
|title=Native Esperanto as a Test Case for Natural Language
| version =
|publisher=[[University of Helsinki]]—Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures
|date=January 2006
|url=http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/sky/julkaisut/SKY2006_1/1FK60.1.5.LINDSTEDT.pdf
|format=PDF
}}</ref> The 15th edition of ''Ethnologue'' cited estimates that there were 200 to 2000 native speakers in 1996,<ref>{{e15|epo}}</ref> but these figures were removed from the 16th and 17th editions.<ref>{{e16|epo}}</ref> The current online version of ''Ethnologue'' gives "L1 users: 1,000 (Corsetti et al 2004)".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/epo|title=Esperanto|website=Ethnologue}}</ref>
As of 1996, there were approximately 350 attested cases of families with native Esperanto speakers (which means there were around 700 Esperanto speaking natives in these families, not calculating older native speakers).<ref>Corsetti, Renato (1996). A mother tongue spoken mainly by fathers. Language Problems and Language Planning 20: 3, 263–73</ref>

=== Culture ===
[[File:Uk 2008 libroservo.JPG|thumb|250px|Esperanto books at the [[World Congress of Esperanto|World Esperanto Congress]], Rotterdam 2008]]
{{Main|Esperanto culture|Esperanto literature|Esperanto film|Esperanto music}}

[[Esperantist]]s can access an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated [[Esperanto literature|literature]]. There are more than 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed [[List of Esperanto magazines|Esperanto magazines]]. In 2013 a museum about Esperanto opened in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/culture/2013-11/18/c_132897910.htm|title=China's first Esperanto museum opens|agency=Xinhua News Agency|accessdate=January 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208002954/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/culture/2013-11/18/c_132897910.htm|archive-date=December 8, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Esperantists use the language for free accommodations with Esperantists in 92 countries using the {{lang|eo|[[Pasporta Servo]]}} or to develop [[pen pal]]s through ''{{Interlanguage link multi|Esperanto Koresponda Servo|eo}}''.<ref name="Ellemberg2014">{{cite web |url=http://esperantofre.com/eks/ |title=Esperanto Koresponda Servo |date=June 8, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111223117/http://esperantofre.com/eks/ |archive-date=2016-01-11 |url-status=live |first=Enrique |last=Ellemberg |publisher=Esperanto Fremont |location=Fremont, California |orig-year=1st pub. 1996}}</ref>

Every year, Esperantists meet for the [[World Congress of Esperanto]] ''({{lang|eo|Universala Kongreso de Esperanto}})''.<ref>Ziko van Dijk. {{lang|eo|Sed homoj kun homoj: Universalaj Kongresoj de Esperanto 1905–2005}}. Rotterdam: UEA, 2005.</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Szilvási László |url=http://www.eventoj.hu/ |title=International Esperanto meetings |publisher=Eventoj.hu |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref>

Historically, much [[Esperanto music]], such as {{lang|eo|Kaj Tiel Plu}}, has been in various folk traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicexpress.com.br/artisto.asp?Artista=135#musica=Adiaux%20Birdeto%20Mia|title=musicexpress.com.br|publisher=Musicexpress.com.br|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref> There is also a variety of classical and semi-classical choral music, both original and translated, as well as large ensemble music that includes voices singing Esperanto texts. [[Lou Harrison]], who incorporated styles and instruments from many world cultures in his music, used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works, most notably {{lang|eo|La Koro-Sutro}} (1973). [[David Gaines (composer)|David Gaines]] used Esperanto poems as well as an excerpt from a speech by Dr. Zamenhof for his ''Symphony No. One (Esperanto)'' for mezzo-soprano and orchestra (1994–98). He wrote original Esperanto text for his {{lang|eo|Povas plori mi ne plu}} (''I Can Cry No Longer'') for unaccompanied [[SATB]] choir (1994).

There are also shared traditions, such as [[Zamenhof Day]], and shared [[behaviour]] patterns. [[Esperantist]]s speak primarily in Esperanto at [[World Esperanto Congress|international Esperanto meetings]].

Detractors of Esperanto occasionally criticize it as "having no culture". Proponents, such as Prof. [[Humphrey Tonkin]] of the [[University of Hartford]], observe that Esperanto is "culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one national culture". The late Scottish Esperanto author [[William Auld]] wrote extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is "the expression of a [[Esperanto as an international language|common human culture]], unencumbered by national frontiers. Thus it is considered a culture on its own."<ref>Auld, William. {{lang|eo|La Fenomeno Esperanto}} ("The Esperanto Phenomenon"). Rotterdam: {{lang|eo|Universala Esperanto-Asocio}}, 1988.</ref>

== Esperanto heritage ==
A number of Esperanto associations also advance education in and about the international language Esperanto and aim to preserve and promote the culture and heritage of Esperanto.<ref>Update 79, oct. 2017, p. 2, Esperanto Association of Britain (EAB)</ref> Poland added Esperanto to its list of Intangible heritage in 2014.<ref>[http://niematerialne.nid.pl/Aktualnosci/archiwum/folder%20krajowa%20lista%20niematerialne%20EN.pdf Polish Intangible Cultural Heritage List], Narodowy Instytut Dziedzictwa (Polish national heritage institute), pp. 14-15, 2014.</ref>

=== Noted authors in Esperanto ===
{{Main|Esperanto authors}}
Some authors of works in Esperanto are:
{|
|
* [[Muztar Abbasi]] (translated the [[Quran]] into Esperanto)
* [[William Auld]]
* [[Julio Baghy]]
* [[Kazimierz Bein]] ({{lang|eo|Kabe}})
* [[Marjorie Boulton]]
* [[Jorge Camacho (writer)|Jorge Camacho]]
* [[Fernando de Diego]] (mainly translations)
* [[Vasili Eroshenko]]
* [[Jean Forge]]
* [[Antoni Grabowski]]
* [[Kalman Kalocsay]]
* [[Anna Löwenstein]]
* [[Nikolai Vladimirovich Nekrasov|Nikolai Nekrasov]]
* [[Nemere István|István Nemere]]
|
* [[Claude Piron]]
* [[Edmond Privat]]
* [[Frederic Pujulà i Vallès]]
* [[Baldur Ragnarsson]]
* [[Reto Rossetti]]
* [[Raymond Schwartz]]
* [[Tibor Sekelj]]
* [[Tivadar Soros]]
* [[Spomenka Štimec]]
* [[Éva Tófalvi]]
* [[Vladimir Varankin]]
* [[Gaston Waringhien]]
* [[L. L. Zamenhof]]
* [[Þórbergur Þórðarson]]
|}

=== Popular culture ===
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2017}}
{{Main|Esperanto in popular culture}}

A reference to Esperanto appears in the book War with the Newts by Karel Čapek, published in 1936. As part of a passage on what language the salamander-looking creatures with human cognitive ability should learn, it is noted that "...in the Reform schools, Esperanto was taught as the medium of communication." (P. 206).
<ref>War with the Newts. Karel Čapek. 1936. The Penguin Group. Edition published in 2010 by Penguin Classics. Translated by M. & R. Weatherall.</ref>

Esperanto has been used in a number of films and novels. Typically, this is done either to add the exotic flavour of a foreign language without representing any particular ethnicity, or to avoid going to the trouble of inventing a new language. The [[Charlie Chaplin]] film ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (1940) showed [[Warsaw ghetto|Jewish ghetto]] shop signs in Esperanto. Two full-length feature films have been produced with [[dialogue]] entirely in Esperanto: ''{{lang|eo|[[Angoroj]]}},'' in 1964, and ''[[Incubus (1965 film)|Incubus]],'' a 1965 [[B-movie]] horror film which is also notable for starring [[William Shatner]] shortly before he began working on ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]''. In [[Captain Fantastic (film)|Captain Fantastic]] (2016) there is a dialogue in Esperanto. Finally, film director [[Alfonso Cuarón]] has publicly shown his fascination for Esperanto<ref>http://esperantodocumentary.com/blog/an-interview-with-director-alfonso-cuaron.html</ref> and called his production company [[Esperanto Filmoj]] ("Esperanto movies").

A language school teaching "Entrenationo" (representing a satire on Esperanto) is featured in Graham Greene's novel ''[[The Confidential Agent]]'', which was made [[Confidential Agent|into a film]] starring Charles Boyer and Lauren Bacall (1945). Other amateur productions have been made, such as a dramatization of the novel {{lang|eo|Gerda Malaperis}} (Gerda Has Disappeared). In ''Stamboul Train'', Greene used Esperanto as the language on signs at the main train station in Budapest. A number of mainstream films in national languages have used Esperanto in some way.

Esperanto is used as the universal language in the far future of [[Harry Harrison (writer)|Harry Harrison]]'s ''[[Stainless Steel Rat]]'' and ''[[Deathworld]]'' stories. [[Poul Anderson]]'s story "[[High Treason (Anderson story)|High Treason]]" takes place in a future where Earth became united politically but was still divided into many languages and cultures, and Esperanto became the language of its space armed forces, fighting wars with various extraterrestrial races. Esperanto is said to be the official language of all the peoples of [[Philip José Farmer]]'s ''[[Riverworld]]'' series.

The opening song to the popular video game ''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'', "{{lang|eo|Memoro de la Ŝtono}}", was written in Esperanto. It was the first game in the series that was played online, and would have players from both Japan and North America (official European support was added after the North American launch) playing together on the same servers, using an auto-translate tool to communicate. The composer, [[Nobuo Uematsu]], felt that Esperanto was a good language to symbolize worldwide unity.

In the geek fiction novel ''Off to Be the Wizard'', Esperanto is programmed as the language that triggers all of the wizard's spells. A teacher explains that this is because "no one really speaks Esperanto and it's easy to learn".

Esperanto is found in the [[Image Comics]] series ''[[Saga (comics)|Saga]]'' as the language Blue, spoken by the horned inhabitants of Wreath. It is rendered in blue-colored text. Blue is generally only spoken by inhabitants of Wreath, while most other cultures use a universal language that appears to be simply named "Language." Some Wreath inhabitants use translator rings to communicate with those who don't speak Blue. Magic seems to be activated via the linguistic medium of Blue.

In the television show ''[[Red Dwarf]]'', which begins in the late 22nd century, crewman [[Arnold Rimmer]] constantly spends his time trying to learn Esperanto and failing, even compared to his bunkmate [[Dave Lister (Red Dwarf)|Dave Lister]] who only maintains a casual interest. Additionally many of the signs around the ship ''[[Red Dwarf ships#Red Dwarf|Red Dwarf]]'' are written in both English and Esperanto. The novel ''[[Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers]]'' states that, although not required, it is widely expected that officers in the Space Corps be fluent in the language, hence Rimmer's interest.

Esperanto is available in the language selection in the video game ''[[Minecraft]]''.<ref>[https://crowdin.com/project/minecraft Minecraft – Translation Project on Crowdin]. Crowdin.</ref>

In Season 1, episode 15 of Nickelodeon's ''[[Danny Phantom]]'' the Werewolf-type creature, Wulf, speaks in Esperanto.

In the 2010 animated film ''[[Superman/Batman: Apocalypse]]'' Supergirl is heard speaking Esperanto. It is never referred to as Esperanto, and serves as a proxy for the language of Krypton.

=== Science ===
[[File:Bertalan Farkas (Author - Rudolf Csiba).jpg|thumb|left|Hungarian astronaut [[Bertalan Farkas]], the first Esperantist in space]]

In 1921 the [[French Academy of Sciences]] recommended using Esperanto for international scientific communication.<ref name="EspMov181" /> A few scientists and mathematicians, such as [[Maurice René Fréchet|Maurice Fréchet]] (mathematics), [[John C. Wells]] (linguistics), [[Helmar Frank]] (pedagogy and cybernetics), and [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel laureate]] [[Reinhard Selten]] (economics) have published part of their work in Esperanto. Frank and Selten were among the founders of the [[Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino|International Academy of Sciences]] in San Marino, sometimes called the "Esperanto University", where Esperanto is the primary language of teaching and administration.<ref name="rande de pereo">{{cite web |url=http://www.liberafolio.org/2011/akademio-internacia-de-la-sciencoj-rande-de-pereo |title=Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj rande de pereo |date=September 5, 2011 |work=Libera Folio |language=Esperanto |accessdate=July 1, 2012}}</ref><ref name="AIS-">{{cite book |title=AIS – La Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino / Die Internationale Akademie der Wissenschaften San Marino|last=Frank |first=Helmar |authorlink=Helmar Frank |author2=Fössmeier, Reinhard |year=2000 |publisher=Institut für Kybernetik |location= |isbn=978-3-929853-12-4 |page=449 |accessdate= |url=}}</ref>

A message in Esperanto was recorded and [[Contents of the Voyager Golden Record|included]] in ''[[Voyager 1]]''{{'}}s [[Voyager Golden Record|Golden Record]].

=== Commerce and trade ===
Esperanto business groups have been active for many years. The French Chamber of Commerce did research in the 1920s and reported in ''[[The New York Times]]'' in 1921 that Esperanto seemed to be the best business language.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70817F8395810738DDDAF0994DA405B818EF1D3|title=PARIS BUSINESS MEN WOULD USE ESPERANTO; Chamber of Commerce Committee Finds It Useful as a Code in International Trade.|work=The New York Times|date=February 16, 1921|accessdate=October 22, 2013}}</ref>

=== Goals of the movement ===
Zamenhof had three goals, as he wrote already in 1887: to create an easy language, to create a language ready to use "whether the language be universally accepted or not" and to find some means to get many people learn the language.<ref name="UnuaLibro"/> So Zamenhof's intention was not only to create an easy-to-learn language to foster peace and international understanding as a general language, but also to create a language for immediate use by a (small) language community. Esperanto was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages. This goal was widely shared among Esperanto speakers in the early decades of the movement.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}} Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations.<ref name="EspMov181" />

Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called {{lang|eo|[[Finvenkismo|finvenkistoj]]}}, from {{lang|eo|fina venko}}, meaning "final victory".<ref name="Feeney1999">{{cite web |url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/405278671.html |title=Esperanto: A surprising 2 million speakers worldwide get their words’ worth; from the ‘planned language’ created in the 19th century |work=Boston Globe |date=May 12, 1999 |page=F01 |first=Mark |last=Feeney |author-link=Mark Feeney |issn=0743-1791 |url-access=subscription |quote=Esperantists speak of the ''fina venko'', or ‘final victory’. The concept is that eventually every moderately educated person ... will know Esperanto enough to ... order a cup of coffee ...}}</ref> It has to be noted that there are two kinds of "finvenkismo"–"desubismo" and "desuprismo"; the first aims to spread Esperanto between ordinary people ("desube", from below) aiming to form a steadily growing community of Esperanto speakers. The second aims to act from above ("desupre"), beginning with politicians. Zamenhof considered the first way to have a better perspective, as "for such affairs as ours, governments come with their approval and help usually only, when everything is already completely finished".<ref>"[http://www.steloj.de/esperanto/paroloj/kongr6a.html La celo, por kiu ni laboras, povas esti atingita per du vojoj]: aŭ per laborado de homoj privataj, t.e. de la popolaj amasoj, aŭ per dekreto de la registaroj. Plej kredeble nia afero estos atingita per la vojo unua, ĉar al tia afero, kiel nia, la registaroj venas kun sia sankcio kaj helpo ordinare nur tiam, kiam ĉio estas jam tute preta." L. L. Zamenhof. Speech in Washington. 1910</ref>

Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called {{lang|eo|[[Raumism|raŭmistoj]]}}, from [[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], Finland, where a declaration on the short-term improbability of the {{lang|eo|fina venko}} and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980.<ref name="Silfer1999">{{cite web |url=http://esperanto-ondo.ru/H-silf55.htm |title=Kion signifas Raŭmismo |work=La Ondo de Esperanto |year=1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020530131146/http://esperanto.org/Ondo/H-silf55.htm |archive-date=2002-05-30 |url-status=live |first=Giorgio |last=Silfer |language=eo |location=Kaliningrad, Russia |issue=5 (55)}}</ref> However the "Manifesto de Raŭmo" clearly mentions the intention to further spread the language: "We want to spread Esperanto to put into effect its positive values more and more, step by step".<ref>"Ni celas disvastigi Esperanton por pli kaj pli, iom post iom realigi ĝiajn pozitivajn valorojn". [http://www.esperantio.net/index.php?id=10 Manifesto de Raŭmo]</ref>

In 1996 the [[Prague Manifesto (Esperanto)|Prague Manifesto]] was adopted at the annual congress of the World Esperanto Association (UEA); it was subscribed by individual participants and later by other Esperanto speakers. More recently, language-learning apps like [[Duolingo]] and [[Amikumu]] have helped to increase the amount of fluent speakers of Esperanto, and find others in their area to speak the language with.

=== Symbols and flags ===
{{Main|Esperanto symbols}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| header = Esperanto symbols
| direction = vertical
| width = 150
| image1 = Esperanto star.svg
| caption1 = The {{lang|eo|verda stelo}}
| image2 = Jubilea simbolo.svg
| caption2 = The {{lang|eo|[[Esperanto jubilee symbol|jubilea simbolo]]}}
}}

The earliest flag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green five-pointed star against a white [[canton (flag)|canton]], upon a field of green. It was proposed to Zamenhof by [[Richard H. Geoghegan|Richard Geoghegan]], author of the first Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887. The flag was approved in 1905 by delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer. A version with an "{{lang|eo|E}}" superimposed over the green star is sometimes seen. Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white [[Christian cross]] superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with [[Red flag (politics)|the color of the field changed from green to red]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flagspot.net/flags/qy-eo.html|title=Flags of Esperanto|publisher=Flagspot.net|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref>

In 1987, a second flag design was chosen in a contest organized by the UEA celebrating the first centennial of the language. It featured a white background with two stylised curved "E"s facing each other. Dubbed the "{{lang|eo|jubilea simbolo}}" ([[Esperanto jubilee symbol|jubilee symbol]]),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fotw.net/flags/qy-eo.html#jub |title=Esperanto flag: The jubilee symbol |publisher=Fotw.net |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070831011723/http://www.fotw.net/flags/qy-eo.html#jub |archive-date=2007-08-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref> it attracted criticism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the "{{lang|eo|melono}}" (melon) because of the design's elliptical shape. It is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional symbol, known as the "{{lang|eo|verda stelo}}" (green star).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fotw.net/flags/qy-eo.html |title=Esperanto flag |publisher=Fotw.net |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070831011723/http://www.fotw.net/flags/qy-eo.html |archive-date=2007-08-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Politics ===
Esperanto has been placed in many proposed political situations. The most popular of these is the [[Europe–Democracy–Esperanto]], which aims to establish Esperanto as the [[official language]] of the [[European Union]]. Grin's Report, published in 2005 by [[François Grin]], found that the use of English as the [[lingua franca]] within the European Union costs billions annually and significantly benefits English-speaking countries financially.<ref name="Grin Report">{{citation |last=Grin |first=François |year=2005 |title=L'enseignement des langues étrangères comme politique publique |publisher=Haut Conseil de L'Évaluation de L'École|language=French |url=https://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/var/storage/rapports-publics/054000678.pdf |access-date=9 June 2019}}.</ref> The report considered a scenario where Esperanto would be the lingua franca, and found that it would have many advantages, particularly economically speaking, as well as ideologically.

Russian Esperanto writer [[Nikolai Vladimirovich Nekrasov|Nikolai Nekrasov]] was arrested during the [[Great Purge|Stalinist repressions]] of the late 1930s, accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists", and executed on October 4, 1938. Another Esperanto writer [[Vladimir Varankin]] was executed on October 3, 1938.

=== Religion ===
Esperanto has served an important role in several religions, such as [[Oomoto]] from Japan and the [[Bahá'í Faith]] from [[Iran]], and has been encouraged by others, like some [[Spiritist]] movements.

==== Oomoto ====
The [[Oomoto]] religion encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its deified spirits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oomoto.or.jp/Esperanto/index-es.html |title=The Oomoto Esperanto portal |publisher=Oomoto.or.jp |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref>

==== Bahá'í Faith ====
The [[Bahá'í Faith]] encourages the [[Bahá'í Faith and auxiliary language|use of an auxiliary international language]]. [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] praised the ideal of Esperanto, and there was an affinity between Esperantists and Bahá'ís during the late 19th century and early 20th century.<ref name="BahaiEnc368" /><ref name="B Ency"/>

On February 12, 1913, `Abdu'l-Bahá gave a talk to the Paris Esperanto Society,

<blockquote>Now, praise be to God that Dr. Zamenhof has invented the Esperanto language. It has all the potential qualities of becoming the international means of communication. All of us must be grateful and thankful to him for this noble effort; for in this way he has served his fellowmen well. With untiring effort and self-sacrifice on the part of its devotees Esperanto will become universal. Therefore every one of us must study this language and spread it as far as possible so that day by day it may receive a broader recognition, be accepted by all nations and governments of the world, and become a part of the curriculum in all the public schools. I hope that Esperanto will be adopted as the language of all the future international conferences and congresses, so that all people need acquire only two languages—one their own tongue and the other the international language. Then perfect union will be established between all the people of the world. Consider how difficult it is today to communicate with various nations. If one studies fifty languages one may yet travel through a country and not know the language. Therefore I hope that you will make the utmost effort, so that this language of Esperanto may be widely spread<ref>{{cite book |last= Esslemont |first= J.E. |authorlink= John Esslemont |year= 1980 |origyear = 1923 |title= Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era |edition= 5th |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |isbn= 0-87743-160-4 |page = 165 |chapter=Universal Language |chapter-url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/o/BNE/bne-135.html |url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BNE/ }}</ref></blockquote>

[[Lidia Zamenhof]], daughter of L. L. Zamenhof, became a Bahá'í around 1925.<ref name="B Ency">{{cite encyclopedia |last= Smith |first= Peter | authorlink= Peter Smith (historian) |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title= Esperanto |year= 2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location= Oxford |isbn= 1-85168-184-1 |pages= 134–135}}</ref> [[James Ferdinand Morton, Jr.]], an early member of the [[Bahá'í Faith in Greater Boston]], was vice-president of the [[Esperanto League for North America]].<ref>{{cite web | last = Katz | first = Esther | authorlink = Esther | title = Morton, Jr., James Ferdinand (1870–1941) | work = The Margaret Sanger Papers Electronic Edition: Margaret Sanger and The Woman Rebel, 1914–1916 | publisher = Model Editions Partnership | year = 1999 | url = http://wyatt.elasticbeanstalk.com/mep/MS/xml/bmortonj.html | accessdate = June 6, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171011115850/http://wyatt.elasticbeanstalk.com/mep/MS/xml/bmortonj.html | archive-date = October 11, 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> [[Ehsan Yarshater]], the founding editor of ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', notes how as a child in Iran he learned Esperanto and that when his mother was visiting Haifa on a [[Bahá'í pilgrimage]] he wrote her a letter in Persian as well as Esperanto.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.payvand.com/news/12/aug/1166.html |title= Interview with Professor Ehsan Yarshater, the Founder and Editor of Encyclopedia Iranica |date= March 25, 2016 |website= Payvand News |access-date= May 22, 2017 }}</ref> At the request of 'Abdu’l-Baha, [[Agnes Baldwin Alexander]] became an early advocate of Esperanto and used it to spread the Bahá’í teachings at meetings and conferences in Japan.

Today there exists an active sub-community of Bahá'í Esperantists and various volumes of [[Bahá'í literature]] have been translated into Esperanto. In 1973, the [[Bahá'í Esperanto-League]] for active Bahá'í supporters of Esperanto was founded.<ref name="B Ency"/>

==== Spiritism ====
In 1908, [[Spiritism|spiritist]] Camilo Chaigneau wrote an article named "Spiritism and Esperanto" in the periodic ''La Vie d'Outre-Tombe'' recommending the use of Esperanto in a "central magazine" for all spiritists and esperantists. Esperanto then became actively promoted by spiritists, at least in [[Brazil]], initially by [[Ismael Gomes Braga]] and [[František Lorenz]]; the latter is known in Brazil as Francisco Valdomiro Lorenz, and was a pioneer of both spiritist and Esperantist movements in this country.<ref>{{pt icon}} [http://www.espirito.org.br/portal/artigos/geae/o-esp-e-o-esperanto.html O Espiritismo e o Esperanto (Spiritism and Esperanto)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091216040313/http://www.espirito.org.br/portal/artigos/geae/o-esp-e-o-esperanto.html |date=December 16, 2009 }}</ref>

The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto coursebooks, translations of [[Spiritist Codification|Spiritism's basic books]], and encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.math.uu.se/esperanto/207pardue.pdf#search=%22esperanto%20%2Breligion%22|title=Uma só língua, uma só bandeira, um só pastor: Spiritism and Esperanto in Brazil by David Pardue|format=PDF|publisher=[[University of Kansas]] Libraries|accessdate=August 26, 2006|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923050241/http://www.math.uu.se/esperanto/207pardue.pdf#search=%22esperanto%20%2Breligion%22|archivedate=September 23, 2006}}</ref>

==== Bible translations ====
The first translation of the Bible into Esperanto was a translation of the [[Tanakh]] or Old Testament done by [[L. L. Zamenhof]]. The translation was reviewed and compared with other languages' translations by a group of British clergy and scholars before its publication at the [[British and Foreign Bible Society]] in 1910. In 1926 this was published along with a New Testament translation, in an edition commonly called the "{{lang|eo|Londona Biblio}}". In the 1960s, the {{lang|eo|Internacia Asocio de Bibliistoj kaj Orientalistoj}} tried to organize a new, ecumenical Esperanto Bible version.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.att.net/~el_sxadaj/kbiblio.htm |title=La Sankta Biblio – "Londona text" |accessdate=August 26, 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061222215537/http://home.att.net/~el_sxadaj/kbiblio.htm |archivedate=December 22, 2006 }}</ref> Since then, the Dutch [[Remonstrant]] pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the [[Deuterocanonical]] or apocryphal books in addition to new translations of the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and some books of the Tanakh or Old Testament. These have been published in various separate booklets, or serialized in {{lang|eo|Dia Regno}}, but the [[Deuterocanonical]] books have appeared in recent editions of the ''Londona Biblio''.

==== Christianity ====
[[File:Esperanto-meso La Habana 2010 (Peter Knauer).jpg|thumb|250px|Mass in Esperanto during the 95th World Congress of Esperanto in Havana, 2010]]

Christian Esperanto organizations include two that were formed early in the history of Esperanto:
* 1910—The [[International Union of Catholic Esperantists]]. Two Roman Catholic popes, [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] and [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], have regularly used Esperanto in their multilingual {{lang|la|[[urbi et orbi]]}} blessings at Easter and Christmas each year since Easter 1994.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linguistic Democracy – Christmas 2010, Benedict XVI and Radicals: the use of Esperanto remains to be the only thing in common|url=http://www.eraonlus.org/en/78-era-news/6356/christmas-2010-benedict-xvi-and-radicals-the-use-of-esperanto-remains-to-be-the-only-thing-in-common.html}}</ref>
* 1911—The [[International League of Christian Esperantists]].

Individual churches using Esperanto include:
* The [[Quaker]] Esperanto Society,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.noos.ch/kes/index.php?pg=2&lg=en|title=KES – Quakers|website=noos.ch}}</ref> with activities as described in an issue of "The Friend"<ref>{{cite journal
|journal=The Friend
|title=Esperanto Lives On
|author=Eric Walker
|date=May 27, 2005
}}</ref>
* 1910—First [[Christadelphian]] publications in Esperanto.<ref>Botten J. The Captive Conscience 2002 p.110 re. Esperanto speaking Christadelphians in Tsarist Russia.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biblio-misio.org |title=Internacia Biblio-Misio |publisher=Biblio-misio.org |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110625154003/http://www.biblio-misio.org/ |archive-date=2011-06-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* There are instances of [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologists]] and teachers who use Esperanto as a medium. Nigerian pastor Bayo Afolaranmi's "Spirita nutraĵo"<ref>{{lang|eo|[https://groups.yahoo.com/group/spiritanutrajxo/ Spirita nutraĵo]}}</ref> (spiritual food) Yahoo mailing list, for example, has hosted weekly messages since 2003.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://groups.yahoo.com/group/spiritanutrajxo/
|title=Spirita nutraĵo
|author=Bayo Afolaranmi
|language=eo
|accessdate=September 13, 2006
}}</ref>
*[[Chick Publications]], publisher of [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Protestant fundamentalist]] themed evangelistic tracts, has published a number of comic book style tracts by [[Jack T. Chick]] translated into Esperanto, including "This Was Your Life!" ("{{lang|eo|Jen Via Tuta Vivo!}}")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chick.com/reading/tracts/1370/1370_01.asp |title=Esperanto 'This Was Your Life' |publisher=Chick.com |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Savplano.png|thumb|250px|The [[Plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints)|Plan of salvation]] of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] in Esperanto.]]
*The [[Book of Mormon]] has been partially translated into Esperanto, although the translation has not been officially endorsed by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pemanoj.blogspot.com/|title=ELEKTITAJ ĈAPITROJ EL LA LIBRO DE MORMON|accessdate=October 6, 2017}}</ref> There exists a group of Mormon Esperantists who distribute church literature in this language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://poresperantamormonaro.weebly.com/|title=Por-Esperanta Mormonaro|website=Por-Esperanta Mormonaro}}</ref>

==== Islam ====
[[Ayatollah Khomeini]] of Iran called on Muslims to learn Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of different religious backgrounds. After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international ''[[lingua franca]]'', it began to be used in the seminaries of [[Qom]]. An Esperanto translation of the [[Qur'an]] was published by the state shortly thereafter.<ref name="webcom">{{cite web |url=http://www.webcom.com/~donh/efaq.html |title=Esperanto – Have any governments opposed Esperanto? |publisher=Donald J. Harlow |accessdate=August 26, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202101831/http://192.220.96.203/efaq.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 2, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://porneniu.wordpress.com/learn-esperanto/ |title=Esperanto in Iran (in Persian)|publisher=Porneniu|accessdate=August 26, 2006 }}</ref>

== Modifications ==
{{Main|Esperantido}}

Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of {{lang|eo|[[Fundamento de Esperanto]]}} (''Foundation of Esperanto''), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with [[Reformed Esperanto|Zamenhof's proposals in 1894]] and {{lang|io|[[Ido (language)|Ido]]}} in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as [[Universal (Esperantido)|Universal]], were based on Esperanto.

In modern times, attempts have been made to eliminate perceived sexism in the language, such as [[Riism]].

== Eponymous entities ==
{{See also|Zamenhof-Esperanto object}}
There are some geographical and astronomical features named after Esperanto, or after its creator L. L. Zamenhof. These include [[Esperanto Island]] in [[Antarctica]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=136818|title=Esperanto Island|publisher=Data.aad.gov.au|accessdate=January 14, 2015}}</ref> and the asteroids [[1421 Esperanto]] and [[1462 Zamenhof]] discovered by Finnish astronomer and Esperantist [[Yrjö Väisälä]].

== See also ==
{{Wikipedia books
|1=Esperanto
|3=Esperanto 2
|5=History of Esperanto
}}
{{Portal|Constructed languages|Language}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Esperanto spoken article.ogg|2010-08-18}}
* [[Outline of Esperanto]]
* [[Arcaicam Esperantom]]
* [[Color argument]]
* [[Comparison between Esperanto and Ido]]
* [[Comparison between Esperanto and Interlingua]]
* [[Comparison between Esperanto and Novial]]
* [[Distributed Language Translation]]
* [[Duolingo]]
* [[Encyclopedias in Esperanto]]
* [[EoLA]]
* [[ESP-Disk]]
* [[Esperantic Studies Foundation]]
* [[Esperanto library]]
* [[Esperanto Wikipedia]]
* [[Esperantology]]
* [[Esperantujo]]
* ''[[lernu!]]''
* [[Indigenous Dialogues]]
* [[List of Esperanto magazines]]
* [[List of largest languages without official status]]
* [[North American Summer Esperanto Institute]]
* (English) [[Semajno de Kulturo Internacia]]

== References ==
{{Notelist-ua}}
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="EspMov181">{{cite book
|title = The Esperanto Movement
|author = Peter Glover Forster
|publisher = Walter de Gruyter
|year = 1982
|page = 181
|isbn = 978-90-279-3399-7}}</ref>

<ref name="BahaiEnc368">{{cite encyclopedia
|last = Smith
|first = Peter
|encyclopedia = A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith
|title = Zamenhof, Lidia
|year = 2000
|publisher = Oneworld Publications
|location = Oxford
|isbn = 1-85168-184-1
|pages = 368}}</ref>

* {{Cite book |ref=harv |title=Bridge of Words: Esperanto and the Dream of a Universal Language |last=Schor |first=Esther |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Bridge_of_Words.html?id=5DLpDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button#v=onepage&q&f=false |location=New York |publisher=[[Henry Holt and Company]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-42994-341-3 |lccn=2015018907 |access-date= May 8, 2017}}

}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111103135225/http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/student-theses/2006-0324-075222/UUindex.html Emily van Someren. Republication of the thesis 'The EU Language Regime, Lingual and Translational Problems'.]
* [http://katalogo.uea.org/index.php?inf=4006 ''Ludovikologia dokumentaro I''] Tokyo: Ludovikito, 1991. Facsimile reprints of the ''Unua Libro'' in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish, with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those languages.
* [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/index.html Fundamento de Esperanto]. HTML reprint of 1905 ''Fundamento'', from the Academy of Esperanto.
* [http://learn101.org/esperanto.php Esperanto Lessons]. Including the alphabet, adjectives, nouns, plural, gender, numbers, phrases, grammar, vocabulary, verbs, exam, audio, and translation.
* Auld, William. ''La Fenomeno Esperanto'' ("The Esperanto Phenomenon"). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988.
* Butler, Montagu C. ''Step by Step in Esperanto''. ELNA 1965/1991. {{ISBN|0-939785-01-3}}.
* DeSoto, Clinton (1936). ''200 Meters and Down''. West Hartford, Connecticut, US: [[American Radio Relay League]], p. 92.
* Crystal, David, article "Esperanto" in ''The New Penguin Encyclopedia'', Penguin Books, 2002.
* Crystal, David, ''How Language Works'' (pages 424–5), Penguin Books, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-14-101552-1}}.
* [[Michael Everson|Everson, Michael]]. {{cite web|url= http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/esperanto.pdf |title=The Alphabets of Europe: Esperanto }} {{small|(25.4 KB)}}. Evertype, 2001.
* Forster, Peter G. ''The Esperanto Movement''. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1982. {{ISBN|90-279-3399-5}}.
* Garvia, Roberto. ''Esperanto and Its Rivals: The Struggle for an International Language''. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. {{ISBN|0812291271}}.
* Gledhill, Christopher. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110719135041/http://stl.recherche.univ-lille3.fr/sitespersonnels/gledhill/Esperanto_a_corpus-based_description_GLEDHILL.pdf The Grammar of Esperanto: A Corpus-Based Description.]'' Second edition. Lincom Europa, 2000. {{ISBN|3-89586-961-9}}.
* Harlow, Don. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070202034405/http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.book.html The Esperanto Book]. Self-published on the web (1995–96).
* Okrent, Arika. [http://inthelandofinventedlanguages.com/ In the Land of Invented Languages].
* [[John C. Wells|Wells, John]]. ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'' ("Linguistic aspects of Esperanto"). Second edition. Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989.
* Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus, ''[http://genekeyes.com/Dr_Esperanto.html Dr. Esperanto's International Language: Introduction & Complete Grammar]'' The original 1887 ''[[Unua Libro]]'', English translation by Richard H. Geoghegan; HTML online version 2006. Print edition (2007) also available from [http://www.esperanto-usa.org/ ELNA] or [http://www.uea.org/ UEA].
* {{citation|title=The Decline and Fall of Esperanto|first1=Robert|last1=Patterson|first2=Stanley M.|last2=Huff|journal=Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association|date=November 1999|volume=6|issue=6|pages=444–446|pmc=61387|pmid=10579602|doi=10.1136/jamia.1999.0060444}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Esperanto Esperanto] at the [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=eo}}
{{Sister project links|wikt=Category:Esperanto language|n=Category:Esperanto|voy=no|d=Q143|species=no|mw=no|m=no|s=Category:Esperanto|v=Topic:Esperanto}}
*{{curlie|World/Esperanto|Esperanto}}
* [http://www.uea.org/ UEA.org] – Website of the [[World Esperanto Association]]
* [https://www.kursosaluton.org/ Kurso Saluton! – International Course]
* {{lang|eo|[http://en.lernu.net/ Lernu!]}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Esperanto_%28Bookshelf%29 ''Esperanto Bookshelf'' at] [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://babilejo.org/ Esperanta babilejo – Esperanto chat]
* {{lang|eo|[http://esperanto.us/ Eldonejo Mistera Sturno]}} Short-story e-books with linked dictionary defining all uncommon terms.
* [http://mesg2012.blogspot.com/p/unesco-resolutions-about-esperanto-in.html 1985 UNESCO resolutions]
* [http://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=epo#most-similar-languages Most similar languages to Esperanto]
* [http://www.icxlm.org/kulturoa.htm The culture of Esperanto]
*[http://esperantohub.blogspot.com/ Esperanto Hub – portal to the world of Esperanto]
*[http://cals.conlang.org/language/esperanto/ Esperanto] at the [[Conlang Atlas of Language Structures]].
{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto| ]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Constructed languages]]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Multilingualism]]
[[Category:Constructed languages introduced in the 1880s]]
[[Category:1887 introductions]]

Affirmation and negation

2019-07-03T22:59:50Z

Mutichou: /* Simple negation of verbs and clauses */ Polish is a better example because this phenomenon is much more systematic in Polish than in Russian

{{Grammatical categories}}
In [[linguistics]] and [[grammar]], '''affirmation''' and '''negation''' ([[List of glossing abbreviations|abbreviated]] respectively '''{{sc|aff}}''' and '''{{sc|neg}}''') are the ways that grammar encodes negative and positive polarity in [[verb phrase]]s, [[clause]]s, or other [[utterance]]s. Essentially an affirmative (positive) form is used to express the validity or [[truth]] of a basic assertion, while a negative form expresses its falsity. Examples are the [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s "Jane is here" and "Jane is not here"; the first is affirmative, while the second is negative.

The [[grammatical category]] associated and with affirmative and negative is called '''polarity'''. This means that a sentence, verb phrase, etc. may be said to have either affirmative or negative polarity (its polarity may be either affirmative or negative). Affirmative is typically the unmarked polarity, whereas a negative statement is marked in some way, whether by a negating word or particle such as [[English grammar|English]] ''not'', an [[affix]] such as [[Japanese language|Japanese]] -''nai'', or by other means, which reverses the meaning of the [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]]. The process of converting affirmative to negative is called '''negation''' – the grammatical rules for negation vary from language to language, and a given language may have more than one method of doing so.

Affirmative and negative responses (especially, though not exclusively, to [[question]]s) are often expressed using [[particle (grammar)|particle]]s or words such as [[yes and no|''yes'' and ''no'']], where ''yes'' is the affirmative and ''no'' the negative particle.

==Affirmative and negative responses==
{{main article|Yes and no}}
Special affirmative and negative words ([[particle (grammar)|particle]]s) are often found in responses to questions, and sometimes to other assertions by way of agreement or disagreement. In English, these are ''yes'' and ''no'' respectively, in French ''oui'', ''si'' and ''non'', in Swedish ''ja'', ''jo'' and ''nej'', and so on. Not all languages make such common use of particles of this type; in some (such as [[Welsh grammar|Welsh]]) it is more common to repeat the verb or another part of the predicate, with or without negation accordingly.

Complications sometimes arise in the case of responses to negative statements or questions; in some cases the response that confirms a negative statement is the negative particle (as in English: "You're not going out? No."), but in some languages this is reversed. Some languages have a distinct form to answer a negative question, such as French ''si'' and Swedish ''jo'' (these serve to contradict the negative statement suggested by the first speaker).

== Grammatical rules for negation ==

===Simple negation of verbs and clauses===
Languages have a variety of [[grammar|grammatical]] rules for converting affirmative [[verb phrase]]s or [[clause]]s into negative ones.

In many languages, an affirmative is made negative by the addition of a [[grammatical particle|particle]], meaning "not". This may be added before the [[verb phrase]], as with the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''no'':
* ''Está en casa.'' ("(S)he is at home", affirmative)
* '''''No''' está en casa.'' ("(S)he is not at home", negative)
Other examples of negating particles preceding the verb phrase include [[Italian language|Italian]] ''non'', [[Russian grammar|Russian]] не ''nye'' and [[Polish grammar|Polish]] ''nie'' (they can also be found in [[constructed language]]s: ''ne'' in [[Esperanto language|Esperanto]] and ''non'' in [[Interlingua grammar|Interlingua]]). In some other languages the negating particle follows the verb or verb phrase, as in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]:
*''Ik zie hem.'' ("I see him", affirmative)
*''Ik zie hem '''niet'''.'' ("I do not see him", negative)
Particles following the verb in this way include ''not'' in archaic and dialectal [[English language|English]] ("you remember not"), ''nicht'' in [[German language|German]] (''ich schlafe nicht'', "I am not sleeping"), and ''inte'' in [[Swedish Language|Swedish]] (''han hoppade inte'', "he did not jump").

In [[French language|French]], particles are added both before the verb phrase (''ne'') and after the verb (''pas''):
*''Je sais'' ("I know", affirmative)
*''Je '''(ne)''' sais '''pas''', J'sais pas, Chais pas'' ("I don't know", negative).
However, in colloquial French the first particle is often omitted: ''Je sais pas''. Similar use of two negating particles can also be found in [[Afrikaans]]: ''Hy kan '''nie''' Afrikaans praat '''nie''''' ("He cannot speak Afrikaans").

In standard [[Modern English]], negation is achieved by adding ''not'' after an [[auxiliary verb]] (which here means one of a special grammatical class of verbs that also includes forms of the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ''be''; see [[English auxiliaries]]). If no such verb is present then the [[Auxiliary verb#Dummy|dummy auxiliary]] ''do'' (''does'', ''did'') is introduced – see [[do-support|''do''-support]]. For example:
*I have gone → I have '''not''' gone (''have'' is the auxiliary)
*He goes → He '''does not''' go (no auxiliary in the original sentence)
Different rules apply in [[subjunctive]], [[imperative mood|imperative]] and [[non-finite clause|non-finite]] clauses. For more details see {{slink|English grammar|Negation}}. (In [[Middle English]], the particle ''not'' could follow any verb, e.g. "I see not the horse.")

In some languages, like [[Welsh language|Welsh]], verbs have special inflections to be used in negative clauses. (In some language families, this may lead to reference to a negative [[grammatical mood|mood]].) An example is [[Japanese language|Japanese]], which conjugates verbs in the negative after adding the suffix ''-nai'' (indicating negation), e.g. ''taberu'' ("eat") and ''tabe'''nai''''' ("do not eat"). It could be argued that English has joined the ranks of these languages, since negation requires the use of an auxiliary verb and a distinct [[syntax]] in most cases; the form of the basic verb can change on negation, as in "he '''sings'''" vs. "he doesn't '''sing'''". [[Arnold Zwicky|Zwicky]] and [[Geoffrey Pullum|Pullum]] have shown that ''n't'' is an [[inflection]]al suffix, not a [[clitic]] or a derivational suffix.<ref>{{Citation
| last=Zwicky
| first=Arnold M.
| author-link=Arnold Zwicky
| last2=Pullum
| first2=Geoffrey K.
| author2-link=Geoffrey Pullum
| title=Cliticization vs. Inflection: English ''n't''
| journal=Language
| volume=59
| issue=3
| pages=502–513
| year=1983
| url=http://www.stanford.edu/~zwicky/ZPCliticsInfl.pdf
| doi=10.2307/413900
| jstor=413900
| publisher=Linguistic Society of America
}}</ref>

Complex rules for negation also apply in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]; see {{slink|Finnish grammar|Negation of verbs}}. In some languages negation may also affect the dependents of the verb; for example in some [[Slavic languages]], such as [[Polish language|Polish]], the [[grammatical case|case]] of a [[direct object]] often changes from [[accusative]] to [[genitive]] when the verb is negated.

===Negation of other elements===
Negation can be applied not just to whole verb phrases, clauses or sentences, but also to specific elements (such as [[adjective]]s and [[noun phrase]]s) within sentences.<ref>The linguist D. Biber refers to two types of negation, synthetic ('no', 'neither' or 'nor' negation) and analytic ('not' negation). For example, "He is neither here nor there" (synthetic) or "He is not here" (analytic).</ref> Ways in which this can be done again depend on the grammar of the language in question. English generally places ''not'' before the negated element, as in "I witnessed '''not a debate''', but a war." There are also negating affixes, such as the English [[prefix]]es ''non-'', ''un-'', ''in-'', etc. Such elements are called [[privative]]s.

===Multiple negation===
{{Main article|Double negative|Litotes}}
There also exist elements which carry a specialized negative meaning, including [[pronoun]]s such as ''nobody'', ''none'' and ''nothing'', [[determiners]] such as ''no'' (as in "no apples"), and adverbs such as ''never'', ''no longer'' and ''nowhere''.

Although such elements themselves have negative force, in some languages a clause in which they appear is additionally marked for ordinary negation. For example, in Russian, "I see nobody" is expressed as я никого́ не ви́жу ''ja nikovó nye vízhu'', literally "I nobody not see" – the ordinary negating particle не ''nye'' ("not") is used in addition to the negative pronoun никого́ ''nikovó'' ("nobody"). Italian behaves in a similar way: ''Non ti vede nessuno'', "nobody can see you", although ''Nessuno ti vede'' is also a possible clause with exactly the same meaning.

In [[Russian language|Russian]], all of the elements ("not", "never", "nobody", "nowhere") would appear together in the sentence in their negative form. In Italian, a clause works much as in Russian, but ''non'' does not have to be there, and can be there only before the verb if it precedes all other negative elements: ''Tu non porti mai nessuno da nessuna parte''. "Nobody ever brings you anything here", however, could be translated ''Nessuno qui ti porta mai niente'' or ''Qui non ti porta mai niente nessuno''. In French, where simple negation is performed using ''ne ... pas'' (see above), specialized negatives appear in combination with the first particle (''ne''), but ''pas'' is omitted:
*''Je '''ne''' bois '''jamais''''' ("I '''never''' drink")
*''Je '''ne''' vois '''personne''''' ("I see '''nobody'''")
*''Je '''n'<nowiki/>'''ai '''jamais''' vu '''personne''''' ("I have '''never''' seen '''anybody'''")

In [[Ancient Greek]], a simple negative (οὐ ''ou'' "not" or μή ''mḗ'' "not ([[Linguistic modality|modal]])") following another simple or compound negative (e.g. οὐδείς ''oudeís'' "nobody") results in an affirmation, whereas a compound negative following a simple or compound negative strengthens the negation:
* οὐδεὶς οὐκ ἔπασχέ τι ''oudeìs ouk épaskhé ti'', "nobody was not suffering something", i.e. "everybody was suffering"
* μὴ θορυβήσῃ μηδείς ''mḕ thorubḗsēi mēdeís'', "let (not) nobody raise an uproar", meaning "let nobody raise an uproar"

==Meaning of negation==
Simple grammatical negation of a clause in principle has the effect of converting a proposition to its [[negation|logical negation]] – replacing an assertion that something is the case by an assertion that it is not the case.

In some cases, however, particularly when a particular [[linguistic modality|modality]] is expressed, the semantic effect of negation may be somewhat different. For example, in English, the meaning of "you must not go" is not in fact the exact negation of that of "you must go" – this would be expressed as "you don't have to go" or "you needn't go". The negation "must not" has a stronger meaning (the effect is to apply the logical negation to the following infinitive rather than to the full clause with ''must''). For more details and other similar cases, see the relevant sections of [[English modal verbs]].

Negation flips [[downward entailing]] and upward entailing statements within the scope of the negation. For example, changing "one could have seen anything" to "no one could have seen anything" changes the meaning of the last word from "anything" to "nothing".

In some cases, by way of [[irony]], an affirmative statement may be intended to have the meaning of the corresponding negative, or vice versa. For examples see [[antiphrasis]] and [[sarcasm]].

For the use of double negations or similar as understatements ("not unappealing", "not bad", etc.) see [[litotes]].

==See also==
* [[Jespersen's Cycle]]
* [[Not!]]
* [[Polarity item]]
* [[Veridicality]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Laurence R. Horn, ''A Natural History of Negation''. 2001. {{ISBN|978-1-57586-336-8}}
*Douglas Biber, Susan Conrad, Randi Reppen, "Corpus Linguistics: Investigating Language Structure and Use". 1998. {{ISBN|0-521-49957-7}}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Tettamanti | first1 = Marco | last2 = Manenti | first2 = Rosa | last3 = Della Rosa | first3 = Pasquale A. | last4 = Falini | first4 = Andrea | last5 = Perani | first5 = Daniela | last6 = Cappa | first6 = Stefano F. | last7 = Moro | first7 = Andrea | year = 2008 | title = Negation in the brain. Modulating action representation | url = | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 358–367 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.08.004 | pmid=18771737}}

==External links==
* [http://alt-usage-english.org/excerpts/fxpostfi.html Postfix "NOT" in English]

[[Category:Grammatical categories]]
[[Category:Truth]]
[[Category:Negative concepts]]

Esperanto grammar

2019-05-13T09:40:23Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 896800225 by 100.19.74.92 (talk) - this changes the meaning of the sentence

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''[[Esperanto]]''' is a [[constructed language]]. It is designed to have a highly regular grammar, and as such is considered an easy language to learn.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and [[Kinship terminology|kin terms]], where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| colspan=2 align=center | '''vi''' (you){{ref|1|1}}
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore the subject pronoun is omitted.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he started running for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, except for), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects came into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Language grammars}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Esperanto grammar

2019-04-23T21:00:16Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 893826814 by 2600:1015:B061:B154:E5E8:9EE0:9AAF:A45A (talk) - vandalism, changed a quote to make it agree with their opinion

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. It is designed to have a highly regular grammar, and as such is considered an easy language to learn.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and [[Kinship terminology|kin terms]], where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you){{ref|1|1}} || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore the subject pronoun is omitted.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he started running for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, except for), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects came into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Language grammars}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Esperanto grammar

2019-03-28T08:12:36Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 889603607 by 2600:1015:B06B:C94D:1476:771C:E79E:9AD7 (talk): vandalism

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. It is designed to have a highly regular grammar, and as such is considered an easy language to learn.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and [[Kinship terminology|kin terms]], where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you){{ref|1|1}} || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore the subject pronoun is omitted.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he started running for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects came into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Language grammars}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Esperanto grammar

2018-11-14T08:30:26Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 868696233 by 2601:805:C280:7050:A49C:789F:7588:F068 (talk) - "thou" is in the quote (you can check in the source)

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. It is designed to have a highly regular grammar, and as such is considered an easy language to learn.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and [[Kinship terminology|kin terms]], where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you){{ref|1|1}} || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore the subject pronoun is omitted.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he started running for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects came into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Ch (digraph)

2018-10-15T10:18:38Z

Mutichou: /* Slovak */ better example (R acts as a vowel in "chrbtica")

{{refimprove|date=February 2018}}

[[Image:Latin CH.png|thumb|Ch]]
{{Wiktionary|ch}}

'''Ch''' is a [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] in the [[Latin script]]. It is treated as a letter of its own in [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]], [[Old Spanish language|Old Spanish]], [[Czech alphabet|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Kazakh alphabets#Latin script|Kazakh]], [[Uzbek alphabet|Uzbek]], [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], [[Guarani language|Guarani]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Cornish Language|Cornish]], [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] [[Belarusian Latin alphabet|Łacinka]] [[alphabet]]s. In [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] and [[Spanish language|Modern Spanish]], it also used to be considered a letter for collation purposes but this is no longer common.

== History ==

The digraph was first used in Latin since the 2nd century B.C. to transliterate the sound of the [[Greek language|Greek]] letter [[chi (letter)|chi]] in words borrowed from that language. In classical times, Greeks pronounced this as an [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] [[voiceless velar plosive]] {{IPA|[kʰ]}}. In post-classical Greek ([[Koine Greek phonology|Koine]] and [[Modern Greek phonology|Modern]]) this sound developed into a [[fricative consonant|fricative]] {{IPA|[x]}}. Since neither sound was found in native Latin words (with some exceptions like ''pulcher'' 'beautiful', where the original sound {{IPA|[k]}} was influenced by {{IPA|[l]}} or {{IPA|[r]}}), in Late Latin the pronunciation {{IPA|[k]}} occurred.

In [[Old French]], a language that had no {{IPA|[kʰ]}} or {{IPA|[x]}} and represented {{IPA|[k]}} by ''c'', ''k'' or ''qu'', ''ch'' began to be used to represent the [[voiceless palatal plosive]] {{IPA|[c]}}, which came from {{IPA|[k]}} in some positions and later became {{IPA|[tʃ]}} and then {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. Now the digraph ''ch'' is used for all the aforementioned sounds, as shown below. The Old French usage of ''ch'' was also a model of several other digraphs for palatals or postalveolars: [[lh (digraph)]], [[nh (digraph)]], [[sh (digraph)]].

==Voiceless velar fricative==

In the [[Goidelic languages]], several [[Germanic language|Germanic]], and [[Slavic language]]s that use the Latin alphabet instead of the Cyrillic alphabet, and others, ''ch'' represents the [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPA|[x]}}. Additionally, "ch" is frequently used in [[Transliteration|transliterating]] into many [[European languages]] from [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and various others.

[[Breton language|Breton]] has evolved a modified form of this digraph, ''c'h'' for representing {{IPA|[x]}}, as opposed to ''ch'', which stands for {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. In [[Manx language|Manx]], "ch" stands for {{IPA|[x]}}, while {{IPA|[tʃ]}} is represented by ''çh''.

In [[Rheinische Dokumenta]], ''ch'' represents {{IPA|[x]}}, as opposed to ''ch'', which stands for {{IPA|[ç]}}.

==Voiceless uvular fricative==

In [[Welsh language|Welsh]], it represents the [[voiceless uvular fricative]] {{IPA|[χ]}}.

==English==

In [[English language|English]], ''ch'' is most commonly pronounced as {{IPAblink|tʃ}}, as in ''chalk'', ''cheese'', ''cherry'', ''church'', ''much'', etc.

''Ch'' can also be pronounced as {{IPAblink|k}}, as in ''ache'', ''choir'', and ''stomach''. Most words with this pronunciation of ''ch'' find their origin in Greek words with the letter [[chi (letter)|chi]], like ''mechanics'', ''chemistry'' and ''character''.

In English words of French origin, "ch" represents {{IPAblink|ʃ}}, as in ''charade'', ''machine'', and ''nonchalant''. This pronunciation occurs in just a few loan words from other sources, like [[wikt:machete|machete]] (from Spanish) and [[wikt:pistachio|pistachio]] (from Italian).

In certain dialects of British English ''ch'' is often pronounced {{IPAblink|dʒ}} in two words: ''[[wikt:sandwich|sandwich]]'' and ''[[wikt:spinach|spinach]]'', and also in place names, such as [[Greenwich]] and [[Norwich]].

In words of [[Scots language|Scots]] origin it may be pronounced as {{IPAblink|x}} (or {{IPAblink|k}}), as in ''loch'' and ''[[clachan]]''.
In words of [[Hebrew]] or [[Yiddish]] origin it may be pronounced as {{IPAblink|χ}} (or {{IPAblink|x}}), as in ''[[challah]]''.

The digraph can also be silent, as in ''[[Crichton, Midlothian|Crichton]]'', ''[[wikt:currach|currach]]'', ''[[wikt:drachm|drachm]]'', ''[[yacht]]'' and traditionally in ''[[wikt:schism|schism]]''.

=== Braille ===

In English [[Braille]], the "ch" digraph, when pronounced as {{IPAblink|tʃ}}, is represented by a single cell:

{{Braille Cell|type=image|Ch}}

==Breton==
In [[Breton language|Breton]] ''ch'' represents the {{IPAblink|ʃ}}.

This digraph should not be confused with ''[[c'h]]'' {{IPA|[x]}}.

== Catalan ==
In Catalan ''ch'' represents final {{IPAblink|k}} sound. In the past it was widely used, but nowadays it is only used in some surnames. In medieval Catalan it was occasionally used to represent {{IPAblink|tʃ}} sound.

== Chamorro ==
''Ch'' is the fifth letter of the [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] language and its sound is {{IPA|[ts]}}.

==Chinese==
In [[Mandarin Chinese]] ''ch'' is used in [[Pinyin]] to represent an aspirated [[voiceless retroflex affricate]] {{IPA|/tʂʰ/}}.

==Czech==

===Structure===
The letter ''ch'' is a [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] consisting of the sequence of [[Latin]] [[alphabet]] [[grapheme]]s [[C]] and [[H]], however it is a single [[phoneme]] (pronounced as a [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPA-cs|x|}}) and represents a single entity in Czech [[collation]] order, inserted between ''[[H]]'' and ''[[I]]''. In capitalized form, ''Ch'' is used at the beginning of a [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] (''Chechtal se.'' "He giggled."), while ''CH'' or ''Ch'' can be used for standalone letter in lists etc. and only fully capitalized ''CH'' is used when the letter is a part of an abbreviation (e.g. ''[[Beskydy Protected Landscape Area|CHKO Beskydy]]'') and in all-uppercase texts.

===Usage===
In Czech alphabet, the digraph ''Ch'' is handled as a letter equal to other letters. In Czech dictionaries, indexes, and other alphabetical lists, it has its own section, following that of words (including names) beginning with ''H'' and preceding that of words that begin with ''I''. Thus, the word ''chemie'' will not be found in the ''C'' section of a Czech dictionary, nor the name ''Chalupa'' in the ''C'' section of the phonebook. The alphabetical order ''h'' ''ch'' is observed also when the combination ''ch'' occurs in median or final position: ''Praha'' precedes ''Prachatice'', ''hod'' precedes ''hoch''.

===History===
In the 15th century, the [[Czech language]] used to contain many [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] like modern [[Polish language|Polish]] does but most of them were replaced by single letters with [[diacritic mark]]s by the reform of [[Jan Hus]]. Besides ''ch'', there is only one digraph used in the Czech language - ''[[dž]]'', representing [[voiced postalveolar affricate]]. However, ''ch'' is the only Czech digraph which is treated as a single letter while ''[[dž]]'' is used in translating a foreign word into Czech (to approximate a foreign phonetic sound that has no Czech counterpart e.g. jam in Czech is ''[[dž]]''em).

==Dutch==
[[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''ch'' was originally voiceless, while ''g'' was voiced. In the northern Netherlands, both ''ch'' and ''g'' are voiceless, while in the southern Netherlands and Flanders the voiceless/voiced distinction is upheld. The voiceless fricative is pronounced [x] or [χ] in the north and [ç] in the south, while the voiced fricative is pronounced [ɣ] in the north (i.e. the northern parts of the area that still has this distinction) and [ʝ] in the south. This difference of pronunciation is called [[Hard and soft G in Dutch|'hard and soft g']].

==French==
In native [[French language|French]] words, ''ch'' represents {{IPA|[ʃ]}} as in ''chanson'' (song).

In most words of Greek origin, it represents {{IPA|[k]}} as in ''archéologie'', ''chœur'', ''chirographier''; but ''chimie'', ''chirurgie'', and ''chimère'' have {{IPA|[ʃ]}}.

==German==
In [[German language|German]], ''ch'' represents two [[allophone]]s: the voiceless velar fricative {{IPA|[x]}} when following [[back vowel]]s or {{IPA|[a]}} (the so-called "[[Ach-Laut]]") and the [[voiceless palatal fricative]] {{IPA|[ç]}} in all other positions (the so-called "Ich-Laut"). A similar allophonic variation is assumed to have existed in [[Old English]].

In [[German language|German]], it represents {{IPA|[k]}} before -s, as in ''Fuchs'' (fox). An initial Ch (which only appears in loanwords) may also be pronounced {{IPA|[k]}} in southern varieties, and is always pronounced {{IPA|[k]}} when a [[consonant]] follows the initial Ch as in ''Christus'' or ''Chlor'' (chlorine).

The [[Rheinische Dokumenta]] writing system uses ''ch'', for the voiceless palatal fricative {{IPA|[ç]}}, while ''ch'' represents {{IPA|[x]}}.

==Hungarian==
The digraph ''ch'' is not properly speaking part of the [[Hungarian alphabet]], but it has historically been used for [tʃ], as in English and Spanish (as with [[István Széchenyi|Szechenyi]] family name), and is found in a few words of Greek or other foreign origin, such as ''technik'', where it is pronounced the same as ''h'', somewhat as in Polish.

==Interlingua==
In [[Interlingua]], ''ch'' before ''e'' and ''i'' represents the sound {{IPA|[k]}}.

==Irish==
In [[Irish language|Irish]], ''ch'' stands for {{IPA|/x/}} when [[velarization|broad]] and {{IPA|/ç/}} (or {{IPA|/h/}} between vowels) when [[palatalization (phonetics)|slender]]. Examples: broad in ''chara'' {{IPA|/ˈxaɾˠə/}} "friend" (lenited), ''loch'' {{IPA|/ɫ̪ɔx/}} "lake, lough", ''boichte'' {{IPA|/bˠɔxtʲə/}} "poorer"; slender in ''Chéadaoin'' {{IPA|/ˈçeːd̪ˠiːnʲ/}} "Wednesday" (lenited), ''deich'' {{IPA|/dʲɛç/}} "ten".

==Italian==
In [[Italian language|Italian]], ''ch'' represents the [[voiceless velar plosive]] {{IPA|[k]}} before -e and -i.

==Kazakh==
''Ch'' represents {{IPAblink|t͡ɕ}} in the [[Kazakh alphabets#Latin script|Kazakh Latin alphabet]]. It is considered a separate letter, and is the 32nd and last letter of the alphabet.

As part of the switch of Kazakh from Cyrillic to Latin, the initial proposed Latin alphabet in 2017 (implemented by Presidential Decree 569 of 26 October 2017) tried to avoid the use of accent marks and digraphs in representing certain phonemes. Initially, /t͡ɕ/ would have been represented by ⟨C'⟩.<ref name = Decree569>{{cite web|title = О переводе алфавита казахского языка с кириллицы на латинскую графику|trans-title = On the change of the alphabet of the Kazakh language from the Cyrillic to the Latin script|language = RU|publisher = [[President of the Republic of Kazakhstan]]|url = http://www.akorda.kz/ru/legal_acts/decrees/o-perevode-alfavita-kazahskogo-yazyka-s-kirillicy-na-latinskuyu-grafiku|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171027180526/http://www.akorda.kz/ru/legal_acts/decrees/o-perevode-alfavita-kazahskogo-yazyka-s-kirillicy-na-latinskuyu-agrafiku|date = October 26, 2017|accessdate = October 26, 2017|archive-date = October 27, 2017|dead-url = no}}</ref> This was revised by Presidential Decree 637 of 19 February 2018, replacing the apostrophe with the diagraph ⟨Ch⟩.<ref name="Latin2018">{{cite web|url=https://astanatimes.com/2018/02/kazakhstan-adopts-new-version-of-latin-based-kazakh-alphabet/ |title=Kazakhstan adopts new version of Latin-based Kazakh alphabet|website=The Astana Times|date=26 February 2018}}</ref><ref>[http://www.akorda.kz/ru/legal_acts/decrees/o-vnesenii-izmeneniya-v-ukaz-prezidenta-respubliki-kazahstan-ot-26-oktyabrya-2017-goda-569-o-perevode-alfavita-kazahskogo-yazyka-s-kirillicy Decree No. 637 of February 19, 2018]</ref>

==Latin==
The Romans used ''ch'' to transliterate the sound of the [[Greek language|Greek]] letter [[chi (letter)|chi]] in words borrowed from that language. In classical times, Greeks pronounced this as an [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] [[voiceless velar plosive]] {{IPA|[kʰ]}}. In post-classical Greek ([[Koine Greek phonology|Koine]] and [[Modern Greek phonology|Modern]]) this sound developed into a [[fricative consonant|fricative]].

==Lithuanian==
''Ch'' is used in the Lithuanian language to represent the "soft h" {{IPA|/x/}}, in word choras [ˈxɔrɐs̪] "choir". This digraph is not considered a single letter in the Lithuanian alphabet. This digraph is used only in loanwords.

==Massachusett==
''Ch'' was used in the [[Massachusett orthography]] developed by [[John Eliot (missionary)|John Eliot]] to represent a sound similar to {{IPA|/tʃ/}} and in the modern orthography in use by some Wampanoag tribes for the same sound. In both systems, the digraph ''ch'' is considered a single letter.

==Nguni languages==
In [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]], ''ch'' represents the voiceless aspirated velar [[dental click]] {{IPA|[kǀʰ]}}.

==Occitan==
In [[Occitan language|Occitan]], ''ch'' represents {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, but in some dialects it is {{IPAblink|ts}}.

==Ossetic==
In the [[Ossetic language|Ossetic]] Latin alphabet, ''ch'' was used to write the sound [{{IPA link|tsʰ}}].

==Palauan==
In [[Palauan language|Palauan]], ''ch'' represents a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}}.

==Polish==
''Ch'' has been used in the Polish language to represent the "soft h" {{IPA|/x/}} as it is pronounced in the Polish word [[:pl:chleb|chleb]] "bread", and the ''h'' to represent "hard h", {{IPA|/ɦ/}} where it is distinct, as it is pronounced in the Polish word [[:pl:hak|hak]] "hook". Between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], the Polish [[intelligentsia]] used to exaggerate the "hardness" of the hard Polish h to aid themselves in proper spelling. In most present-day Polish dialects, however, ''ch'' and ''h'' are uniformly collapsed as {{IPA|/x/}}.

==Portuguese==
In [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], ''ch'' represents {{IPA|[ʃ]}}.

==Spanish==
''ch'' is pronounced as a [[voiceless postalveolar affricate]] {{IPA|[tʃ]}} in both Castillian and Hispanic American, or a [[voiceless postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|[ʃ]}} in Andalusian and Northwestern Mexico.

===Separate letter===
''ch'' has its own name (''che'') and used to be treated as a distinct letter of the alphabet. While ''Ch'' is used at the beginning of a [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]], either ''Ch'' or ''CH'' may be used for a standalone letter in lists, etc. In a normal Spanish crossword, 'CH' takes up two squares, although in some old crosswords it occupied only one square. Since the 2010 Orthography of the Spanish Language, ''Ch'' is no longer considered a letter of its own but rather a diagraph consisting of two letters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rae.es/sites/default/files/Principales_novedades_de_la_Ortografia_de_la_lengua_espanola.pdf |title=Principales novedades de la última edición de la Ortografía de la lengua española (2010) |publisher=Real Academia Española}}</ref>

===Collation===
Until 1994 ''ch'' was also treated as a single letter in Spanish [[collation]] order, inserted between [[C]] and [[D]]; in this way, ''mancha'' was after ''manco'' and before ''manda''. There was similar special treatment for ''[[ll]]''. However, an April 1994 vote in the 10th Congress of the [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]] adopted the standard international collation rules, so ''ch'' is now considered a sequence of two distinct characters, and dictionaries now place words starting with ''ch-'' between those starting with ''cg-'' and ''ci-''.<ref>[http://www.asale.org/la-asociacion/actividad-institucional/x-congreso-madrid-1994 Association of Spanish Language Academies], official website</ref> Similarly, ''mancha'' now precedes ''manco'' in alphabetical order. "Ch" was finally dropped as a distinct letter, with the release of the 2010 Orthography of the Spanish Language.

==Slovak==
In [[Slovak language|Slovak]], ''ch'' represents {{IPAslink|x}}, and more specifically {{IPAblink|ɣ}} in voiced position. At the beginning of a sentence it is used in two different variants: ''CH'' or ''Ch''. It can be followed by a [[consonant]] (''chladný'' "cold"), a [[vowel]] (''chémia'' "chemistry") or [[diphthong]] (''chiazmus'' "chiasmus").

Only few Slovak words treat ''CH'' as two separate letters, e.g., ''viachlasný'' (e.g. "multivocal" performance), from ''viac'' ("multi") and ''hlas'' ("voice").

In the [[Slovak alphabet]], it comes between ''H'' and ''I''.

==Swedish==
In [[Swedish language|Swedish]], ''ch'' represents /ɧ/ and /ɕ/ in loanwords such as ''choklad'' and ''check''. These sounds come from former [ʃ] and [tʃ], respectively. In the conjunction ''och'' (and), ''ch'' is pronounced [k] or silent.

==Upper Sorbian==
"Ch" represents {{IPA|[kʰ]}} in [[Upper Sorbian]].

==Uyghur==
''Ch'' represents [{{IPA link|tʃ}}] in [[Uyghur Latin Yéziqi|Uyghur Latin script]].

==Uzbek==
''Ch'' represents {{IPAblink|tʃ}} in the [[Uzbek alphabet]]. It is considered a separate letter, and is the 28th letter of the alphabet.

==Vietnamese==
In [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], ''ch'' represents the [[voiceless palatal plosive]] {{IPA|[c]}} in the initial position. In the final position, the pronunciation is identical to the final ''-k'': {{IPA|[k]}}.

==Welsh==
In [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''ch'' represents the [[voiceless uvular fricative]] {{IPAblink|χ}}. The digraph counts as a separate letter in the [[Welsh alphabet]], positioned after ''c'' and before ''d''; so, for example, ''chwilen'' 'beetle' comes after ''cymryd'' 'take' in Welsh dictionaries; similarly, ''Tachwedd'' 'November' comes after ''taclus'' 'tidy'.

==Alternate representations==
[[Morse code|International Morse code]] provides a unitary code for ''Ch'' used in several non-English languages, namely ''— — — —''.

In the Czech extension to [[Braille]] the letter ''Ch'' is represented as the dot pattern ⠻. English literary braille also has a single cell dedicated to {{angle bracket|ch}} (dots 1–6), which stands for "child" in isolation, but this is considered a single-cell contraction rather than a separate letter.

In [[computing]], ''Ch'' is represented as a [[List (computing)|sequence]] of ''[[C]]'' and ''[[H]]'', not as a single [[Character (computing)|character]]; only the historical KOI-8 ČS2 encoding contained ''Ch'' as a single character.

==Pop culture==
All principal characters created by [[Roberto Gómez Bolaños]] for his TV shows have names starting with Ch, including Chómpiras, Dr. Chapatín, and perhaps most famously [[El Chavo]] and [[El Chapulín Colorado]], a superhero whose costume has a "CH" inscribed by a heart (analogous to the way [[Superman]]'s costume has an S inscribed on a diamond). Bolaños' artistic name was ''Chespirito'', also with a Ch (''Chespir'' would be a Spanish substandard pronunciation of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]; suffix -ito means "little").

==See also==
*[[Czech language]]
*[[Spanish language]]
*[[List of all two-letter combinations|Two letter combinations]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Latin script}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ch (Digraph)}}
[[Category:Latin-script digraphs]]

Esperanto grammar

2018-06-22T08:40:25Z

Mutichou: undid vandalism - "ci" is still barely used and you still can't change quotes to make them agree with you

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, it is often said that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and [[Kinship terminology|kin terms]], where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you){{ref|1|1}} || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he started running for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects came into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Ľ

2018-04-01T21:43:43Z

Mutichou: Ľ is never found before I

{{distinguish2|[[wiktionary:l'|L' (with an apostrophe)]]}}
'''Ľ/ľ''' is a grapheme found only in the [[Slovak alphabet]]. It is an L with a [[caron]] diacritical mark, more normally ˇ but simplified to look like an apostrophe with L, and is pronounced as [[palatal lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ʎ]}}, similar to the "lj-" sound in ''[[Ljubljana]]'' or ''million.''<ref>[http://diacritics.typo.cz/index.php?id=5 Háček (Caron) - Diacritics Project @ Typo.cz] "In Czech and Slovak, the caron has a special vertical form used on tall characters (ď, ť, ľ, Ľ). Its introduction was no doubt a solution to the limited vertical space available on the body of a piece of metal type. The regular caron (ě, š, č, ň, …) ..."</ref>

Examples:
* ''podnikateľ'': "businessman"; ''skladateľ'': "composer"; ''bádateľ'': "researcher"
* ''ľalia'': "[[Lilium]]"; ''ľan'': "[[linen]]"; ''ľuľkovec zlomocný'': "[[Atropa belladonna]]"
* ''ľad'': "ice"; ''ľadovec'': "iceberg"
* ''[[Poľana]]'', mountain range in Central Slovakia; ''Sečovská Poľanka'', historical name for village [[Sečovská Polianka]] in Eastern Slovakia used from 1920 until 1948
* ''[[Ján Figeľ]]'', Slovak politician who was [[European Commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth|European Commissioner for Education, Training and Culture]] from 2004 to 2009; ''Jozef Ľupták'', teacher who took part in the [[Slovak National Uprising]] and was killed in action on October 27, 1944

Note that an approximation using an [[']] apostrophe is sometimes found in some English texts, for example "[[L'udovit Stur]]" (sic) for correct Slovak Ľ-caron in [[Ľudovít Štúr]]. This incorrect usage is sometimes the result of an [[Optical character recognition|OCR]] error.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Latin script}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:L}}
[[Category:Specific letter-diacritic combinations]]
[[Category:Slovak language]]

{{Latin-script-stub}}

Talk:Esperanto

2018-03-19T09:35:38Z

Mutichou: /* Writing diacritics */

Wikipedia:Requests for page protection

2018-02-20T11:02:50Z

Mutichou: /* Current requests for increase in protection level */ +Esperanto grammar

<noinclude>{{/Header}}{{Floating link|Administrator instructions|Administrator instructions}}
{{pp-move-indef}}

__TOC__{{no admin backlog}}</noinclude>



== Current requests for increase in protection level ==
{{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/PRheading}}

{{adminbacklog}}

=== [[:European Center of Sustainable Development ECSDEV]] ===
* {{pagelinks|European Center of Sustainable Development ECSDEV}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]], block evasion and socks editing for promotional purposes. [[Special:Contributions/2601:188:180:11F0:65F5:930C:B0B2:CD63|2601:188:180:11F0:65F5:930C:B0B2:CD63]] ([[User talk:2601:188:180:11F0:65F5:930C:B0B2:CD63|talk]]) 13:54, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s|1 week}} [[User:Vanamonde93|Vanamonde]] ([[User talk:Vanamonde93|talk]]) 14:28, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
*'''Automated comment:''' {{yo|Vanamonde93}} One or more pages in this request have not been protected.—[[User:Cyberbot I|cyberbot I]][[User talk:Cyberbot I|Talk to my owner]]:Online 14:50, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
*Relax, CBB, the page has been moved. [[User:Vanamonde93|Vanamonde]] ([[User talk:Vanamonde93|talk]]) 15:31, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|ar}} [[User:CambridgeBayWeather|CambridgeBayWeather]], [[User talk:CambridgeBayWeather|Uqaqtuq (talk)]], [[Special:Contributions/CambridgeBayWeather|Sunasuttuq]] 10:56, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

===[[:Market share of personal computer vendors]]===
* {{pagelinks|Market share of personal computer vendors}}
'''Semi-protection:''' High level of IP vandalism. Apparently a favorite for first-time and one-time Users, see [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Market_share_of_personal_computer_vendors&diff=824901073&oldid=824539581 here],
[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Market_share_of_personal_computer_vendors&diff=823126212&oldid=822358457 here],
[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Market_share_of_personal_computer_vendors&diff=819463966&oldid=818999713 here]. Cheers.[[User:Grahamboat|Grahamboat]] ([[User talk:Grahamboat|talk]]) 20:23, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:CambridgeBayWeather|CambridgeBayWeather]], [[User talk:CambridgeBayWeather|Uqaqtuq (talk)]], [[Special:Contributions/CambridgeBayWeather|Sunasuttuq]] 10:56, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Me, Myself & I (TV series)]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Me, Myself & I (TV series)}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[Wikipedia:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]] – IP and newly registered editors adding end date to the show even though show has not been cancelled yet. [[User:TheDoctorWho|'''The''''''Doctor''''''Who''']] [[User talk:TheDoctorWho|(talk)]] 20:39, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|pd|1 month}} [[User:CambridgeBayWeather|CambridgeBayWeather]], [[User talk:CambridgeBayWeather|Uqaqtuq (talk)]], [[Special:Contributions/CambridgeBayWeather|Sunasuttuq]] 10:57, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Murder of Amy Mihaljevic]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Murder of Amy Mihaljevic}}

'''Indefinite full protection:''' Content dispute/edit warring – Ongoing history of self promotion of James Renner. Self-insertion is high inappropriate and doesn't match the encyclopedic tone of wikipedia (other cases do not highlight a specific reporter with almost no connection to the case other than interest. Claims about connection to the case, like giving a file to police, were from an unreliable personal blog, and specific posts supporting the claims could not be found with the citations given. . [[User:Basilosauridae|Basilosauridae]] ([[User talk:Basilosauridae|talk]]) 22:05, 19 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:CambridgeBayWeather|CambridgeBayWeather]], [[User talk:CambridgeBayWeather|Uqaqtuq (talk)]], [[Special:Contributions/CambridgeBayWeather|Sunasuttuq]] 10:59, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides}}

'''Indefinite semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – This article is persistently targeted by {{u|Carlo Galanti}} to alter/removed sourced financial information. The editor often uses socks or edits the article anonymously. The case is extensively covered at [[Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Carlo Galanti/Archive]]. The page has recently come out of long-term protection and within weeks the same disruption has restarted. The two IPs ({{ip|87.3.36.151}} and {{ip|79.22.236.115}}) both geolocate to Telecom Italia which is Carlo Galanti's ISP. [[User:Betty Logan|Betty Logan]] ([[User talk:Betty Logan|talk]]) 01:51, 20 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s|1 year}} [[User:CambridgeBayWeather|CambridgeBayWeather]], [[User talk:CambridgeBayWeather|Uqaqtuq (talk)]], [[Special:Contributions/CambridgeBayWeather|Sunasuttuq]] 11:00, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

===[[:Roti]]===

*{{pagelinks|Roti}}

'''Temporary full protection''' - edit warring since controversial removal of origins. [[User:MapSGV|MapSGV]] ([[User talk:MapSGV|talk]]) 03:35, 20 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|p|2 days}} -- [[User:Dlohcierekim|Dlohcierekim]] ([[User talk:Dlohcierekim|talk]]) 03:40, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Matthew Flinders]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Matthew Flinders}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]]. [[User:power~enwiki|power~enwiki]] ([[User talk:Power~enwiki|π]], [[Special:Contributions/Power~enwiki|ν]]) 04:18, 20 February 2018 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s|4 days}} [[User:CambridgeBayWeather|CambridgeBayWeather]], [[User talk:CambridgeBayWeather|Uqaqtuq (talk)]], [[Special:Contributions/CambridgeBayWeather|Sunasuttuq]] 11:02, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Jazz Jennings]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Jazz Jennings}}

'''Indefinite semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – BLP vandalism issues. [[User:power~enwiki|power~enwiki]] ([[User talk:Power~enwiki|π]], [[Special:Contributions/Power~enwiki|ν]]) 04:28, 20 February 2018 (UTC)
*'''Automated comment:''' One or more pages in this request appear to already be protected. Please confirm.—[[User:Cyberbot I|cyberbot I]][[User talk:Cyberbot I|Talk to my owner]]:Online 05:10, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Eastern Polytechnic, Port Harcourt]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Eastern Polytechnic, Port Harcourt}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' New user and IP with possible COI repeatedly adding unconstructive edits such as phone numbers, breaking the nav box, and deleting references despite warnings. [[User:HickoryOughtShirt?4|HickoryOughtShirt?4]] ([[User talk:HickoryOughtShirt?4|talk]]) 04:52, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:David Lee Murphy discography]] ===
* {{pagelinks|David Lee Murphy discography}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent addition of [[WP:INTREF|unsourced or poorly sourced content]] – Multiple IPs keep changing certifications without providing any references and despite warnings. . [[User:Caldorwards4|Caldorwards4]] ([[User talk:Caldorwards4|talk]]) 04:54, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Scott Moir]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Scott Moir}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Repetitive false marriage claims (very understandable, however, and this user wishes for those claims to be true as well). [[User:Iseult|'''I'''seult]][[Special:Contribs/Iseult|'' Δx '']][[User talk:Iseult|parlez moi]] 07:32, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[Karaoke]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Karaoke}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' Ongoing mindless IP vandalism. [[User:Ghmyrtle|Ghmyrtle]] ([[User talk:Ghmyrtle|talk]]) 08:02, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Template:Infobox cricketer/career]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Template:Infobox cricketer/career}}

'''Indefinite template protection:''' [[WP:HIGHRISK|High-risk template]] – 20,000+ transclusions; the main template [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_cricketer&diff=759982843&oldid=757859665 was template protected] a year ago, this is used in just about every instance of that so should probably be similarily protected.. [[User:Galobtter|Galobtter]] ([[User talk:Galobtter|pingó mió]]) 08:04, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Cyclone Yasi]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Cyclone Yasi}}

'''Temporary semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:SOCK|sockpuppetry]]. [[User:B dash|B dash]] ([[User talk:B dash|talk]]) 08:10, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Charna Halpern]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Charna Halpern}}

'''Semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]] – Repeated violations of [[WP:BLP]]. [[User:Heliotom|Heliotom]] ([[User talk:Heliotom|talk]]) 08:20, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[:Lance Franklin]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Lance Franklin}}

'''Semi-protection:''' Persistent [[WP:VAND|vandalism]]. [[User:4TheWynne|4TheWynne]][[User talk:4TheWynne|(talk)]][[Special:Contribs/4TheWynne|(contribs)]] 08:44, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

=== [[Esperanto grammar]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Esperanto grammar}}
'''Semi-protection:''' Repeated vandalism (a user keeps pushing his point of view and changing quotes). See [[Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci]] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Global/2018-02#Global_block_for_somebody_who_keeps_lying_about_standard_Esperanto_in_order_to_change_the_language this global block request] for more information. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 11:02, 20 February 2018 (UTC)

==Current requests for reduction in protection level==
{{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/URheading}}

=== [[Flag of Yugoslavia]] ===
* {{pagelinks|Flag of Yugoslavia}}
'''Unprotection:''' The page was protected SIX YEARS AGO because an edit war not involving anonymous users.
Also, the user who protected the page ([[User:Zscout370|Zscout370]]) is not an administrator. [[Special:Contributions/201.68.234.240|201.68.234.240]] ([[User talk:201.68.234.240|talk]]) 19:27, 19 February 2018 (UTC)

==Current requests for edits to a protected page==
{{See|Wikipedia:Edit requests}}
{{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/SRheading}}

== Handled requests ==
''A rolling archive of the last seven days of protection requests can be found at [[Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/Rolling archive]].''

Esperanto grammar

2018-02-20T10:50:54Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 826523944 by 68.39.107.121 (talk) undid vandalism

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, it is often said that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you){{ref|1|1}} || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' comes precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Esperanto grammar

2018-02-15T12:40:57Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 825789401 by Special:Contributions/2600:1015:B023:B22D:754A:4835:41ED:9247 vandalism

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, it is often said that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you){{ref|1|1}} || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' comes precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Esperanto grammar

2018-02-13T08:27:11Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 825131825 by 174.231.1.84 (talk) please stop falsifying quotes

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, it is often said that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you) or '''ci'''{{ref|1|1}} (thou) || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' comes precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Esperanto grammar

2018-02-11T09:36:58Z

Mutichou: undid vandalism

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, one often says that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| colspan=2 | '''vi'''{{ref|1|1}} (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter
| '''ĝi''' (it)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. Zamenhof proposed that this pronoun can also be used as an [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> However, this proposal is not generally accepted.

In popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' comes precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Talk:Esperanto grammar

2018-02-10T15:32:08Z

Mutichou: /* Ci */

{{WP conlangs|class=B|importance=Mid|Esperanto=yes|Esperanto core topics=yes}}

== Gender ==

Removed the following because gender is not used in the commonly accepted linguistic sense:

:although it does assume the male gender for many of its nouns, forcing the use of a special affix to refer a noun to the female equivalent (thus, in Esperanto, a sister is defined as a "female brother"; this male bias as served as the source of criticism of Esperanto)

::Isn't it still true as an example of [[sexism]], having the male as the norm? As far as I have understood, a sister is a "female brother", where a brother is not a "male brother/sibling". Rather, the sentence should be rewritten.

Probably the treatment of the inherent gender of some root words (nearly all family relationship words) and the use of affixes ''ge-'', ''-in'', ''vir-'' should be moved to a section of a new article on [[Esperanto semantics]].
--[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] 23:19, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

:I expanded on gender and moved it under [[Esperanto vocabulary]] for now, as I'm not writing a semantics article.

:As to the earlier point, "female brother" isn't a good translation for Esperanto ''fratino'', any more than "female stallion" is a good translation of English ''mare''. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 05:06, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
::I think what he was trying to get at was that male sex is automatically assumed and in order to make a word feminine, one takes the masculine and adds the female ending. [[Special:Contributions/98.27.171.83|98.27.171.83]] ([[User talk:98.27.171.83|talk]]) 00:33, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

+++++
There is some confusion about gender in Esperanto that is caused by the inclusive language movement and by the fact that many people are familiar with Spanish, in which -o is a masculine ending.

Zamenhof did not speak Spanish. He spoke Polish, Russian, German, and Yiddish. In Slavic languages, such as Polish, and Russian, which he did speak, -O is the neuter ending. In German and Yiddish, nonnative words that end in O are also neuter. For Zamenhof in the 1880s, all Esperanto nouns would have been neuter unless he chose the ending arbitrarily, which is possible. Adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify, hence "mi vidas la belajn instruistojn," which can either be "pretty female teachers" or "handsome male teachers." However, if you wish to specify that the teachers are female, you don't have to write "mi vidas la belinajn instruistinojn." In other words, gender serves no grammatical function in Esperanto, but it is part of the meaning of some words. It is true that some words refer to masculine entities only and have to take a suffix to refer to feminine entities, but that is semantic, not grammatical and is the result of Zamenhof devising a way to keep the vocabulary small.

In other words, some words are semantically masculine and feminine counterparts have to be derived from them, but that is limited to the meanings of kinship terms and a few other words. Gender has no grammatical function in Esperanto.[[User:KenWC|KenWC]] ([[User talk:KenWC|talk]]) 14:23, 31 August 2016 (UTC)Ken<ref>observation of Esperanto usage and grammar</ref>

=== Comments ===
<references />

== "Sixteen rules" ==

I removed "Esperanto has a regular grammar (sixteen rules without many exceptions)", since the sixteen rules are '''not''' even close to a description of the grammar. They're just a "quick reference sheet" for people already familiar with Latin-like languages (and aren't even all concerned with grammar). [[user:Brion VIBBER|Brion VIBBER]], Tuesday, April 30, 2002

:I'd be tempted to stick them in somewhere, for their historical value, adding some language about them being a traditional description that assumes a background in European languages.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 23:52, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

::I agree. They're still how Eo is promoted, and they do a pretty good job too. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 00:02, 7 December 2005 (UTC)

== Irrelevant bit about orthography ==

These sentences:

:"The alphabet includes new letters that are not found on any national keyboard, which is overcome by use of the h-system, x-system, or Unicode. (See Esperanto orthography.) Other languages, like Chinese, have similar problems."

seem to be irrelevant in this article. I reckon we should delete them. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] | [[User talk:Jim Henry|Talk]] 17:59, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:this belongs in [[Esperanto]] IMHO [[User:MarSch|MarSch]] 13:46, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:: Similar text was '''removed''' from [[Esperanto]] and put into [[Esperanto orthography]] instead when [[Esperanto]] was going through peer review. I don't think we should add it back; it's trivia compared to most of the other material in the already fairly long (just under 32KB) [[Esperanto]] main article. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] | [[User talk:Jim Henry|Talk]] 17:45, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:::I noticed that this had been removed and then someone had put something similar back in. I tried cutting out the less relevant stuff, but you're right, it really doesn't belong here at all. However, I don't remember the orthography article mentioning that the reason for creating Esperanto-unique letters was to avoid problems with nationalism: the Esperanto alphabet is clearly based on Czech, but different enough to avoid appearances of bias. Whoever removes this paragraph might want to mention something like this in the orthography article. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 23:44, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:::: Feel free to add material to [[Esperanto orthography]] explaining Zamenhof's reasons for creating unique letters, especially if you can find a source or quote to support it. But it doesn't belong here. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] | [[User talk:Jim Henry|Talk]] 19:35, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)

::: I wasn't aware there is also [[Esperanto orthography]]. It should clearly go there. [[User:MarSch|MarSch]] 12:45, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== edits; "infixes" ==

I'm filling in a few details of the grammar. One change in wording I think I should justify, since there's a lot of confusion about it. Esperanto has no infixes. An infix is an affix that is placed within a root or stem, not merely a suffix followed by another suffix. If the participle of ''esper-'' were ''*espanter-o'', that would be an infix. ''Esper-ant-o'' is merely a root followed by two suffixes. Infixes are generally rather uncommon in the world's languages, though they are plentiful in Tagalog and Khmer. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

== sources of vocab ==

The basic vocab is almost entirely Latinate and Germanic. There is only a handful of direct Slavic or Greek borrowings. (That is, words that were taken directly from Slavic or Greek, rather than through Latinate or Germanic languages that had borrowed them.) --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

:I heard that most of the original Slavic borrowings had been changed to Germanic and Latinate equivalents in language reforms. Anyone knows anything else about this?

::Pretty sure that is not correct. Don't have my sources with me, but I remember Zamenhof's original basic vocubulary of 900 or so roots only a dozen or so Slavic words: ''kolbaso, kaĉo, svati,'' etc. Reforms are resisted pretty strongly, since there's a history of them creating chaos. A couple of the original Slavic words may be a bit archaic (e.g. ''svati'' "to match make"), but I have heard & read several times that all of Zamenhof's basic vocabulary is still considered basic to the language.

::What you may have heard about is the difference between what Zamenhof first dreamed up as a student, before he knew any English, versus what he finally published a decade (?) later. In its original conception, the language had more noun cases, the verbs inflected for person, and used <w> for modern <v>. It wouldn't surprise me if it also had more Slavic vocab at this stage. But none of the published Slavic vocab has ever been removed. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 23:34, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

:::Have now moved this to its own article, [[Esperanto vocabulary]]. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

== source for Zamenhof's "regret"? ==

I'm curious about the source of "Also to Zamenhof's regret, a limited number of adverbs do not end with ''-e''." Is this supported? Zamenhof went out of his way to create an indefinite part-of-speech ending, ''-aŭ'', for words like ''hodiaŭ'' that could be used as adverbs, prepositions, or nouns, and where most people would have difficulty deciding when to use ''-e''. (Unlike adjectives, verbs, or nouns, adverbs aren't a semantically coherent part of speech.) If he did regret making this decision, he could always have started using the ''-e'' ending instead, as you will occasionally see: ''anstate, hodie, apene'', etc. The fact that Zamenhof almost never bothered to do this makes me doubt that he regretted his decision. It's not like the choice of a particular ending is required by the grammar, unlike adjectival agreement.

If this isn't supported in Zamenhof's writings, I think we should remove the "regret" wording and instead give the reasons for the "special" adverbs. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 00:50, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)

== editing ==

I'm editing the article, adding a few examples, and moving a couple sections (participles, grammar examples) to help it flow a bit better.

One example I'd given earlier was the correlative ''neniel'' (nohow). Someone "corrected" this to "in no manner". However, no one ever says "in no manner"! "Nohow" has been used in formal writing for centuries. Here's an illustration from the OED:
:'''1775''' in Lett. Earl Malmesbury: ''A course of habitual improvement which nohow else is to be acquired.''

I put "nohow" back, along with the other colloquial translation, "no way". — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 23:13, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== need help with diphthongs ==

I wrote that the Esperanto phonemes are based on Polish [they are remarkably close; Espo ''nj'' and ''ĉj'' even correspond to Polish ''ń'' and ''ć'', and ''kz'' suggests that Esperanto was designed with regressive voicing assimilation ([gz]) in mind], but I'm unable to verify the diphthongs. Can someone verify or falsify my claim? Also, if Esperanto ''ŭ'' ends up corresponding to Polish ''ł'', we'd need to verify that ''ł'' can only close a syllable after ''a'' and ''e'' to have a match with Esperanto.

Thanks! --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 12:11, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

:First of all, I'm no expert in polish language, but it seems to me that polish ''ń'' and ''ć'' are a subset of the possible pronounciations of ''nj'' and ''ĉj'' (I think they are pronounced more in the "front" of the mouth than the usual Esperanto pronounciation).
:Regarding ''ŭ'', this is definitly not true. ''ł'' developed out of normal ''l'' and occurs for example in the name of the polish town ''Wrocław''. However, belarusian has a corresponding sound and letter (see [[U-breve]]), but I cannot tell whether it only occurs in the off-glide of diphthongs. --[[User:Schuetzm|Schuetzm]] 14:51, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

::Does Polish then not have any diphthongs? As for the <ł>, I only meant restrictions as an offglide. I'll try looking into Belorussian, though. Thanks! [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 18:11, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== introduction heading ==

I removed the introduction heading once. I see that it's back. Its existence makes it so the first thing you see is the ToC. Perhaps you have turned that off in your prefs or something, but if you take a look around the wiki, you will find that few other pages do it this way. -[[User:MarSch|MarSch]] 12:48, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

:Okay, I'll take it out. The only reason I put it in was to make editing easier, but I see your point. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 20:52, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== question, new article ==

Are people comfortable with the example,
:''la abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi'' (Bees have fur, but are not good for petting) ?

Personally, I would say this in the singular in Esperanto, despite the English plural, but I'm on unsure footing here.

Also, the article is getting a bit long. I suggest we move the sections on vocabulary and word formation (affixes) to a new article on [[Esperanto vocabulary]]. I'll do this if it seems alright with people, unless one of you would prefer to. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 10:54, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I've compiled the vocabulary article. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

== Esper-ent-o ==

According to the article, -ent is a suffix.
AFAIK, ''prezident-o'' is an import from European languages, with a restricted meaning over that of ''prezid-ant-o''.
They are closely related etymologically, but from a syntactic point of view they are unrelated.
There may have been proposals for -ent- (reference) but they have no currency.
If you need a tenseless active participle, you use -ant- or try another way.

:''-ent'' is sometimes considered a sort of pseudo-suffix, but you're right. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 11:23, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

:I wondeer if this section should be deleted, except for the bit about -igx-, since it strikes me as being someone's idea of how Eo should develop in the future rather than Eo as it actually is. Likewise with the Conditional Participles. --[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 21:11, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

::I've tried bringing in interesting tidbits, so this article won't just repeat what can easily be found elsewhere. I've seen conditional participles, though of course they're rare in the extreme. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 22:39, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

:::Maybe there should be a section for experimentalist things like ''ri, -u-,'' and ''-ent-''. Anyway, I don't think the article should suggest that they are part of normal Esperanto, in the way that ''bluas'' for ''estas blua'' is.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 23:50, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

== Ambaux ==

Should ''ambaux'' be counted among numerals?

:No. It's a pronoun, and maybe a conjunction? Like other pronouns, it can be used substantively or attributively, and the attributive usage is something like attributive numerals, but no more than ''tiu'' etc. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 11:15, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

== Patro Nia ==

I guess there should be a comma after ''ĉielo'', because ''kaj'' here is rather a substitute for ''(tiel) ankaŭ'' then to be seen as an "and". 
Furthermore it would be great, if another sample text could be included (for example a part of the '''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'''). This would provide more (religious) neutrality.   –   Korako / 10:59, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

:The nice thing about the ''Pater noster'' is that most English speakers have heard it enough times for it to be at least vaguely familiar, which isn't the case with the UDHR. But here's a link if you're interested in adding something: [http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/1115.htm UDHR in Eo]. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 11:36, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

::You're right there. For that very reason I would absolutely keep the Lord's Prayer in the sample section. Thanks for the link, I'll have a look at it. Maybe someone else will find an example which is both fairly well-known and virtually neutral.   –   Korako / 11:59, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

::Something from the UDHR would be a good addition (not replacement), so long as we provide an English translation.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 21:38, 4 January 2006 (UTC)
Most Catholics, you mean? I disagree with the usage of this text on a number of levels- most highly because as an English speaker, I feel confident in saying most English speakers have no idea what "Pater noster" is (as it's known as the Lord's Prayer in English). Even knowing the text, I think most other native English speakers would still be utterly clueless as to translating it without being intimately familiar with the text. First off, since this is the English-language version, shouldn't the section mention the English title "The Lord's Prayer"? And then the article is just flatly presumptious saying it should be readable without translation- even knowing the Lord's Prayer, the only reason I can figure out most of the text is from knowing a bit of Spanish. True English speakers would be utterly clueless, especially if they're non-Catholic. Then there's the obvious issue with using a religious text as a "universally readable" model- we all should see problems there. And virtually no one knows the UDHR, so that's non-workable. At the very least, you could try a children's song. Although "Ring Around the Rosie" has many odd objections as well, at least it is quite widely known regardless of religion. [[User:209.153.128.248|209.153.128.248]] 16:53, 27 December 2006 (UTC)

:[[File:Paternoster etc ngram.jpg|thumb|upright=2.5]] The Google n-gram of ''Our Father,Paternoster,Lord's Prayer'' makes it quite clear that, at least in the corpus covered by Google Books, ''Paternoster'' has been the least used of those terms through most of the past two centuries, holding roughly steady since 1940 at half the frequency of ''Our Father'' and one-third that of ''Lord's Prayer''. This vindicates the IP comment just above that
:: I feel confident in saying most English speakers have no idea what "Pater noster" is (as '''it's known as the Lord's Prayer in English''').
:Accordingly, I've changed the text of the link in § [[Esperanto_grammar#The_noun_phrase|"The noun phrase"]] to use— Well, whaddya know? It's the name of the article as well! Who's surprised?— "[[Lord's Prayer]]". To discuss this, please {{Tn|Ping}} me. --[[User:Thnidu|Thnidu]] ([[User talk:Thnidu|talk]]) 06:49, 25 May 2015 (UTC)

== "The Man Who Would Be King" ==

In the title of the Kipling story, "would be" is not a conditional, but a slightly archaic past-tense form. You could say of Prince Charles, that he is "la viro kiu* estus rego" if the Queen dies or abdicates (or "la regunto" using a conditional participle). But Kipling was writing about a freebooting English soldier who tried, but failed, to become king of Kafiristan; so the translation would be something like "La viro kiu* volis esti rego".

<nowiki>*</nowiki>or whatever, I'm pretty shaky on the Eo correlatives.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 21:34, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

It strikes me that the example you might want to use is "inventinto" (inventor, past tense), since it is a normal Eo word, not an artificial example.

:All very true, though we could apply the title "The Man Who Would Be King" to Al Gore as a joke, and people would understand perfectly what we meant, so it can be understood as a conditional today. The participles are the one point of Eo grammar that English speakers really have a problem understanding, and I've tried to come up with something that would click in people's minds. That's why I've been fighting to keep this, even if it's not historically accurate. I'd fight for the Wile E. Coyote example too. The tree-chopping one is pretty boring, and I'd love to have something better. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 01:00, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

::I've always understood Kipling's "would" in the title as archaic "wanted to". --[[User:Thnidu|Thnidu]] ([[User talk:Thnidu|talk]]) 05:59, 25 May 2015 (UTC)

== deleted article ==

i've deleted [[Interrogatives in Esperanto]] and redirected here, in case anyone wants to rescue anything from it. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:15, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

== Non-Indo-European aspects? ==

I have notices the following inaccuracies in the chapter:

1. English ''less'' : ''least'' has nothing to do with ablaut sensu stricto (i.e. a Proto-Indo-European change of vowel quantity or quality). The difference between the two words is due to a ''Middle English'' shortening of the vowel before ''ss''.
::But it is vocalic apophony. Can you come up with a better example for adjectives? [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:27, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

2. It is said that "European languages also have many words without ablaut"; in fact, the European languages inflect most words without ablaut. Ablaut is restricted to the strong verbs in Germanic. Most verbs, however, are weak. The Romance and Slavonic have little traces of ablaut in their verbal systems. Some Germanic nouns have umlaut (a Proto-Germanic change of vowel quality before an ''i'' in the following syllable), e.g. ''mouse'' : ''mice''; this is more frequently in German than in the other Germanic languages. However, most nouns are inclinated without any vowel change at all.
::No, all IE languages retain ablaut to some extent. But this could be worded better. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:27, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
3. The "regular analogic extension of standard European grammatical structures" are seen in many modern Indo-European languages. Most English nouns form the plural with ''-s''; the same is the case in Spanish.
::Yes, ''most.'' There are few cases in which it is ''all.'' [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:27, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
4. A future participle is known in both Latin and Ancient Greek. In fact, Ancient Greek has a developed participle system which may have served as a model for Zamenhof's system. E.g.

<TABLE border=1>
<TR>
<TD> </TD>
<TD>'''Present'''</TD>
<TD>'''Aorist'''</TD>
<TD>'''Perfect'''</TD>
<TD>'''Future'''</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'''Active'''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λύων}} = ''solvanta''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λύσας}} = ''solvinta''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λελυκώς}} = ''solvinta''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λύσων}} = ''solvonta''</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'''Middle'''</TD>
<TD rowspan=2>{{lang|grc|λυόμενος}} = ''solvata; solvanta sin / al si''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυσάμενος}} = ''solvinta sin / al si''</TD>
<TD rowspan=2>{{lang|grc|λελυμένος}} = ''solvita; solvita sin / al si''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυσόμενος}} = ''solvonta sin / al si''</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'''Passive'''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυθείς}} = ''solvita''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυθησόμενος}} = ''solvota''</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>

::Thanks for the points, esp. the last. I'll try to get them in. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:20, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

===Lith/IE parallel to -jn===

If the historical nasality and proto-IE origin were made explicit, the Lithuanian 5th declension would be something like ''-, -s, -n, -ns,'' parallel to Eo ''-, -j, -n, -jn.'' Proto-Esperanto had ''-s'' for the plural, though I don't know what he did for the accusative. Anyway, the ''-jn'' is the one thing people keep insisting is "non-European", to justify their claim that Eo is not a (purely) European language. The Lith. morphology is a rather tenuous connection, but then the use of -jn to justify classifying Eo as non-IE is just as tenuous. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 22:45, 24 February 2009 (UTC)

== Esperanto Is More Logical? ==

"A logical structure makes Esperanto easier to learn than most of the world's languages..."

Can we have some proof to bolster this statement? I'm skeptical that Esperanto has a 'logical' structure - at least show me how 'logical' it is compared to other languages? ('Logical' according to whom? Speakers of languages which do not routinely differentiate between verbs and nouns - such as many polysynthetic languages - would hardly find Esperanto grammar to be 'logical'. And what about speakers of languages which do not differentiate adverbs from adjectives, like German and Dutch?) [[User:70.138.218.110|70.138.218.110]] 20:45, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

:Perhaps 'morphological regularity' and 'syntactic flexibility' would be better. Or 'easier to learn than other Indo-European languages', since they pretty much all share the things that people might find difficult.

:Most polysynthetic languages do distinguish nouns and verbs quite clearly. Of the few which do not, their speakers are all bilingual in English. And going from a polysynthetic language to one with simpler morphology is rather easy; it commonly happens with language contact. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:13, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

::Yes, the article should replace 'logical' with the qualities you mentioned. I imagine you have some background in linguistics (as do I - it's what I majored in in college), so I have to disagree with the notion that most polysynthetic languages 'clearly' distinguish between nouns and verbs - polypersonal agreement often conflates and obscures what is traditionally 'verbal' and what is traditionally 'substantival' (although we can obviously talk of roots and affixes). I'm also skeptical that it's "easier" to go from a polysynthetic language to one with a simpler morphology - the tendency for speakers of Native American languages to start speaking the often less synthetic languages of Europeans has little to do with "ease" and more to do with historical processes. [I imagine you're referring to processes of pidginization, but it probably would be easier to go from Mohawk to a nascent pidgin than, say, from Spanish to Vietnamese, Yi (with its surprisingly variable syntax), or Nass-Gitksan (with its preference for VSO), even though these languages range from highly analytic (the former two) to slightly synthetic (the latter). So the actual desired trait for enhanced communication might be rigid, predictable syntax, and not necessarily simpler morphology.] Thank you for your prompt response, though - I understand a little better what might be meant by "logical" in this context. [[User:70.138.218.110|70.138.218.110]] 17:41, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
:::I was thinking of Tiwi, actually, which because of English influence is losing its polysynthesis. It's apparently easy enough for elders to 'dumb down' their speech in what is essentially baby talk, with non-incorporating verbs and overt arguments, but much harder for youngsters to master polysynthetic morphology. As for unclear boundaries between noun and verb, AFAIK that is an areal feature in the American Pacific Northwest, especially in Wakashan. If those people didn't speak English, then yes, the Espo noun-verb distinction would be difficult. I'm not so sure in other languages that outsiders find confusing on the N-Vb front, the speakers themselves have much difficulty with it. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 18:28, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
::::One more logical rule is the totally absence of irregularity of verbs (italian: inf. =''andare'', but present (1st person) = vado; english: think, but think'''ed''' is wrong, and the most used verbs are irregular; the verb ''to be'' is irregular in most of the languages of the world - even japanese, where to be is the only irregular verb - and it's irregular in almost all indoeuropean languages: French, hindi, latin, english, polish, bulgarian, greek...)

== Something missing... ==

Something really important is missing, please chech it (i just added it, it's not vandalism, you can correct if it's not a good english):
*In esperanto, ''ci'' is only for you singular, but it is rarely used (to express close friendship), in opposition with the most formal ''vi''. Zamenhof did not include it in the 16 rules, he did not consider it necessary (i.e. english does not have this difference), but ''ci'' is still in dictionaries. The most consider it as arcaicism, but some would want it to be more widely used, to avoid ambiguity.

Maybe searching in a English-Esperanto dictionary you can't find this because in english there is not difference, so you can search for ''ci'' in the esperanto part. It's a personal pronoun, it can't miss. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/160.97.9.85|160.97.9.85]] ([[User talk:160.97.9.85|talk]]) 09:43, 18 June 2008 (UTC) 

:That info is already there. Just read down a bit in the description. For the chart, there are all sorts of adjustments we could make, such as singular formal ''Vi'' and ''ĝi'' for a person of unknown gender ('s/he'). However, the chart as it is is how nearly everyone speaks Esperanto today. The three-way distinction ''ci, Vi, vi'' is archaic. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 21:25, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
::I can't find it, i don't understand why you deleted. Was the place where i putted this info not good? In the note, you could read it is an archaicism, because i also wrote that.

:::It says,
::::''Zamenhof created an informal second-person singular pronoun ''ci'' (thou), and capitalized the formal singular pronoun ''Vi,'' following usage in most European languages, but these forms are rarely seen today.''
:::[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 20:16, 19 June 2008 (UTC)

:The books that do mention ''ci'' also say that it's intentionally archaic; i.e., that it has the same connotations as English "thou". I have not seen the ci/Vi distinction; but if it did exist in Esperanto proper, it dropped out very early. [[User:Sluggoster|Sluggoster]] ([[User talk:Sluggoster|talk]]) 13:55, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

== Prepositions and case ==

The prepositions section says:

:"in Esperanto all prepositions govern the nominative... The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is replaced by the accusative.... A frequent use of the accusative is in place of al (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion (allative case). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition: ... la kato ĉasis la muson en la domon (the cat chased the mouse into the house)."

However, this is putting the cart before the horse. The 13th rule of grammar says, "To show DIRECTION, words take the accusative ending." All the Esperanto grammars I have seen follow this. In other words, "en la domon" is a fundamental part of the language, and "al en la domo" is a variation which is not even mentioned and is rarely if ever used. So the section is misleading to those who don't know Esperanto. I posted this more conventional explanation, which was reverted by Kwamikagami:

:in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). However, the noun turns accusative to show motion toward it:

::''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
::''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

:This happens with certain prepositions in German and Russian, but Esperanto extends it to all prepositions which ''sometimes'' show motion. Prepositions which ''always'' show motion do not take the accusative: ''al la domo'' (to the house), ''ĝis la fino'' (until the end). There's some uncertainty about few prepositions --- ''li iris tra la ĉambro, tra la pordo'' (he walked through the room, through the door), ''la hundo kuris post la aǔto(n)'' (the dog ran after the car [to try to catch up to it]) --- but the nominative is more common with these.

:To show motion away from, use ''de'' or ''el'' plus the preposition and nominative:

::''La glaso falis '''de sur''' la tablo'' (the glass fell from on top of the table)
::''Me reakiris la ovon '''el sub''' la fridujo'' (I picked up the egg from under the refrigerator)

:However, "de + en" is always replaced by "el", and "de + other preposition" is usually replaced by just "de" unless there's a special reason to stress the other position:

::''La knabo prenis la donacon '''el''' la skatolo'' (the boy took the present out of the box; i.e., from inside the box)

::''La glaso falis '''de''' la tablo'' (the glass fell from the table. Not "el la tablo" because it wasn't inside it.)

:All prepositions have a specific meaning. When none seems to fit, the indefinite preposition ''je'' is available:
::''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May; the "on" doesn't mean literally "on top of").

:In practice, ''je'' is generally limited to time expressions, measurements, the location of a blow, believing "in" something, etc: ''la vespermanĝaĵo estas je la 17a horo'' (dinner is at 17:00/5pm), ''la domo estas je 5 kilometroj de la preĝejo'' (the house is 5 km from the church), ''mi bezonas ŝtofon je 3 metroj de larĝo'' (I need a cloth 3 meters wide), ''Teresa kredas je Dio'' (Theresa believes in God), ''mi prenis lin je la maniko kaj li frapis min je la makzelo'' (I took him by the sleeve and he hit me in the jaw). It's also used for the complement of adjectives: ''preta je iri'' (ready to go), ''plena je rubo'' (full of rubbish), and for the direct object of verbal nouns: ''ŝia amo je floroj'' (her love of flowers), ''la decidinto je la matĉo'' (the decider of the match).

:Frequently the ''je'' in time and measurement expressions is replaced by the accusative if there is no other direct object in the sentence:
::''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''
::''Mi iris Londono'''n'''.''

:The accusative '''n''' can also be used with adverbs to show motion towards:
::''Mi iras hejmen.'' (I'm going home.)
::''La avio turnis sin suden.'' (The airplane turned southward.)
::''La sudena ŝoseo.'' (The freeway heading south.) (Compare: ''la suda ŝoseo'', the south freeway)

:The preposition ''de'' is particularly ambiguous because it has several meanings: of (posession), from (motion), by (agent).
::''La amo '''de''' ĉokoladaĵoj '''de''' Teresa'' (Theresa's love of chocolates, or the love of Theresa's chocolates.)
::''La pilko estis prenita '''de''' Jeffrey '''de''' la gazono '''de''' la domo '''de''' McCaffreys '''de''' Kreto '''de''' hieraŭ.'' (The ball had been taken by Jeffrey from the lawn of the house of the "McCaffreys of Crete" since yesterday.)
:This can be overcome by using more precise prepositions:
:* '''far''' for the agent: ''far Jeffrey''.
:* '''je''' for the object of a verbal noun: ''amo je ĉokoladaĵoj''.
:* '''ekde''' (starting from a time): ''ekde'' hieraŭ''.
:* '''disde''' (starting from a place and spreading).
:* '''ĉe''' (at the house of): ''de la gazono ĉe McCaffreys''.
:* '''el''' (from inside, made from ___ material, the city you were born in): ''McCaffreys el Kreto'', ''botoj el gomo'' (boots made of rubber), ''el la domo'' (out of the house).

:'''Far''' is an interesting case because it derives from ''fare de'' (made by), which derives from ''fari'' (to make). It's not normal for a word root to become a preposition, but that's what happened. Some have suggested extending this to other words (''nom'' = de nomo de, ''escept'' = escepte de, ''sud'' = sude de), but so far only ''far'' has gained wide acceptance. (Although David Jordan in ''Being Colloquial in Esperanto'' writes that he "hates it" due to its unorthodox derivation.)

First, apologies for not realizing I wasn't logged in when I posted it. But rather than get into post/revert wars I decided to put my case here. I think this explanation of "en la domon" is more true to the Esperanto tradition than what the article currently says. Second, this text has other things which are worthwhile in their own right: contrast with "motion from" which is not otherwise mentioned, uses of "je", the problem with "de" and its more precise equivalents, putting "far" in its place, and avoiding that troublesome word "allative". These parts should be put in the article in some form, perhaps with better examples than I could think of.

For ''je'' I'm following the Plena Vortaro:

:Komuna preposicio, kies senco estas nedifinita k kiun oni ĉiam povas uzi, kiam la senco ne montras klare, kia prepozicio konvenas. '''Oni tamen devas uzi ĝin kiel eble plej malofte, kaj preskaŭ nur en la sekvantaj okazoj:''' 1 Antaŭ la komplemento de adjektivo, 2 Antaŭ la nerekta komplimento de verbo, 3 Antaŭ la objekta komplimento de substantivo el verbo deveno, 4 Antaŭ circonstanca komplimento de tempo, mezuro kc.

As for ''far'', while I personally like it and the concept of turning a word root (zero-suffix) into a preposition, the article does not say how rare or controversial this is.

:William Auld discusses it with approval in ''La Fenomeno Esperanto'', and suggests some similar bare-root prepositions like "cel"; but I've never seen any used except "far", and that rarely. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] ([[User talk:Jim Henry|talk]]) 21:55, 7 September 2008 (UTC)

When I saw the words "allative" and "oblique" I did a double take. The Esperanto cases are nominative and accusative. I'm not a linguist but I've studied several western languages (Germanic, Romance, Russian, Koine Greek) and never come across the term "allative". Its Wikipedia page defines it as, "Allative case (abbreviated ALL, from Latin allāt-, afferre "to bring to") is a type of the locative cases used in several languages. The term allative is generally used for the lative case in the majority of languages which do not make finer distinctions", with examples from Finnish and the Baltic languages but not Esperanto.

Which leads to the question, does Esperanto have an allative case? The article says so, without explanation of citation. So is it one person's original research? I haven't read Kalocsay/Waringhien or Wennergren, but I've never seen it called such elsewhere. Most importantly, grammar rule 2 says Esperanto has two cases, nominative and accusative. Anything besides Zamenhof and the early congresses is non-official, so you can say "Esperanto appears to have an allative case" or "Esperanto can be analyzed as having an allative case", but not "Esperanto has an allative case". That contradicts the 16 rules and a dozen grammars and instructional texts produced over the decades. And regardless of whether it's correct, what good does it do to use an obscure linguistic term that few people understand, has not been traditionally applied to Esperanto, and may or may not be appropriate for Esperanto?

:I've heard the term used occasionally for E-o's locative-preposition-plus-accusative construction, but I don't think it's perfectly standard yet. I would prefer to call it an allative construction rather than an allative case, however. It's more like when a Greek textbook describes various ways the genitive or dative case is used, it doesn't mean that Greek has a temporal or instrumental case, only that those are uses of the basic cases. Similarly Esperanto just has the two cases, which have various uses with and without prepositions. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] ([[User talk:Jim Henry|talk]]) 21:55, 7 September 2008 (UTC)

::Jim's right. It should be ''allative construction,'' or ''allative use of the accusative case,'' not ''*allative case.'' [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 01:53, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

As for "oblique", I understand it as "all cases except the nominative". The Wikipedia entry describes it as "when a noun is the object of a sentence or a preposition. An oblique case can appear in any case relationship except the nominative case of a sentence subject or the vocative case of direct address." I don't find this term as offensive as "allative", but I question what value it adds to the article. At minimum is requires an explanation of why oblique applies to Esperanto. And perhaps why most Esperanto texts have overlooked the term until now.

:It's not called "oblique", but "nominative/oblique", showing that it is not just the case of the subject, but also of the object of a preposition. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 01:56, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

I'm also wondering if the preposition section should be spun off into a more detailed article.

[[User:Sluggoster|Sluggoster]] ([[User talk:Sluggoster|talk]]) 13:55, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

:You've got some good stuff here, but I have one objection. Just as you say that ''de'' plus another preposition is shortened to ''de'' (though not always! I've seen ''de sur'' etc.), so the argument I've seen for the accusative of motion is that ''al'' plus another preposition is shortened to that preposition plus the accusative. So ''al sub la lito'' or ''ĝis sub la lito'' (nominative, as all preps govern the nominative) becomes ''sub la liton.'' Since "all preps govern the nominative" is one of the basic rules of the language, so as to prevent Germans or Russians redundantly saying ''al sub la liton,'' I think we should keep it.

:A few ''de'' compounds: ''de antaŭ, de ĉe, de inter, de super, de sub,'' and ''el de. (El ligno'' would mean "(made) out of wood", whereas ''el de ligno'' would mean "(coming) out of a piece of wood".)

:You also keep the accusative when there's no longer a verb: ''danke vian oferon, responde vian leteron, ili sidis koncerne sian koron.'' [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 18:07, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

== Possessive Pronouns ==
I disagree with the statement that "pronouns also have a genitive case." The possessive pronouns (mia, via, etc.) are possessive adjectives, as evidenced by the fact that they are A) denoted by the adjectival suffix and B) fully declined as other adjectives are. The genitive in Esperanto is formed using the preposition "de" as stated in the Fundamento. Compare this to Latin, in which there is both a genitive and a series of possessive (adjectival) pronouns. "Eius" is not declined, as it is an independent noun, while "suus, -a, -um" is declined as an adjective. Esperanto's possessive adjectives are similar to the latter. There is, however, once genetive form created without use of a preposition: the correlatives ending in -es. Since these are undeclinable, freely associating nouns, they better fit the description "genitive." --[[User:N-k|N-k]], 12:05, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

:Okay, you're right. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 17:53, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

== Subordinate and Relative clauses ==

There seems to be nothing in the article about subordinate and relative clauses. Such as

'''''When'' I wrote this sentence''', I was using a laptop.

The man '''that robbed the bank''' has been captured.

The thief '''the police captured''' escaped.

There is a section on conjunctions but this is not the same.

For example, can I place the 'when' in the example after the word 'sentence'? Can I put 'that robbed the bank' before 'the man'? Interestingly no grammar that I can find online seems to indicate the order of such clauses relative to their head-word (The fact that this is not addressed generally seems to suggest that people are not aware that many languages don't work with the above word order (and Esperanto is likely not very easy for speakers of say Japanese where the head-first aspect of Esperanto is only easy for speakers of head-first languages). [[User:Macgroover|Macgroover]] ([[User talk:Macgroover|talk]]) 14:42, 20 December 2010 (UTC)

:You're right, the order is fairly fixed. I'll expand the section when I get a chance. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 15:08, 20 December 2010 (UTC)
:Didn't get to that, but added a more general section on word order which should answer your question. The short answer is 'no'. You're right, you often have to simply infer the rules from examples, but Wells does discuss this at some length, including comparisons to Japanese et al. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 08:16, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

== Suffix -unt- ==
Both [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/a-vortoj.html PMEG] and [http://vortaro.net/#unt PIV] list suffix -unt- as "experimental". This means that while the suffix may be used by some, it's not considered to be a feature of mainstream Esperanto (yet). Therefore I believe it's inappropriate to discuss such a feature in "Esperanto grammar". Maybe we should split that part to a separate "Variations of Esperanto grammar" article? --[[User:Vilius Normantas|Vilius Normantas]] ([[User talk:Vilius Normantas|talk]]) 13:42, 16 October 2012 (UTC)

:We note on the section header that this is unofficial. It keeps cropping up, however, as it's regularly derived from the official grammar. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 18:21, 16 October 2012 (UTC)

== “Easy to learn”: POV? ==

I can’t begin to imagine what test can be done, or objective standard is to be met when the opening paragraph states: ''A highly regular grammar makes Esperanto much easier to learn than most other languages of the world''. Without any citation, or substantiation, this would appear to be POV or original research, and should probably be removed unless there is some way of backing it up. The slight let-out that is given, saying that speakers of some backgrounds may find some elements of it difficult is a complete cop out, as it seems to me (and this I have no problem in stating is completely POV) that it is a grammar/ language largely incompatible with Germanic languages such as English, which with nearly 5% of the world’s speakers as a first language is quite a lot of people with a problem… [[User:Jock123|Jock123]] ([[User talk:Jock123|talk]]) 15:20, 8 July 2013 (UTC)

:This is commonly noted, so is not OR, and borders on being obvious. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 18:43, 8 July 2013 (UTC)
:Actually it isn't obvious. The regularity of a grammar has no relationship to the ease or rate of its acquisition, as the Wug test shows. [[Special:Contributions/24.91.44.95|24.91.44.95]] ([[User talk:24.91.44.95|talk]]) 00:12, 12 August 2017 (UTC)

== anstate, anstata, anstato, anstati ==

A while ago, I changed the assertion "With the -aŭ suffix, this is nearly universal, and the -aŭ is rarely dropped: anstataŭ 'instead of', anstataŭe 'instead', anstantaŭa 'substitute', anstataŭo 'a substitute', anstataŭi 'to replace', etc. (Rarely anstate, anstata, anstato, anstati.)" by replacing "rarely" to "not" and removing the parenthesis. However, my edit was reverted and I don't understand why. The words ''anstate, anstata, anstato, anstati'' are not part of Esperanto. I have never heard them in my entire life, there are 0 occurrences on tekstaro.com and, if someone uses them, they will be considered obvious mistakes. If ''anstate'' is worth mentioning on this article, then it should also be mentioned that ''ke'' can be a relative pronoun because many beginners make this mistake. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 11:14, 28 May 2015 (UTC)

:It's not a mistake, it's per Zamenhof. Never caught on, but still a possibility. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 23:12, 25 October 2015 (UTC)

== ili ŝparis la arbojn hakotajn ==

Shouldn't this be "Ili ŝparis la arbojn hakigotajn", or "Ili sxparis la arbojn faligotajn" - or something? Anyway, somehow this sentence seems incorrect. I'd have difficulty coming up with a plan for trees chopping anything, so they're probably the recipients of the chopping. I'm still studying a basal reader in basic Esperanto at this point, so I don't know. I haven't gone over your userpages, so I don't know if there's an expert here. Is there an expert here? [[Special:Contributions/203.215.119.201|203.215.119.201]] ([[User talk:203.215.119.201|talk]]) 08:41, 22 April 2016 (UTC)

:The trees are going to be chopped, in this case — you probably read ''hakontajn'' — this user 14:28, 28 December 2017 (UTC)

== Ci ==

An IP user added "ci" to the table of personal pronouns and changed examples sentences with "vi" to replace it with "ci". I undid these changes because they imply that "ci" is normally used in Esperanto, which is misleading as this word is extremely rare and never used by the majority of Esperanto speakers. Yet the user added "ci" again several times, even after I added explanations in the "Pronouns" section about "ci", which should be enough in my opinion. They also put "Fixed typo" as an edit summary when the edit replaced "vi" with "ci" in example sentences, which I think is not very honest. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 15:13, 13 November 2017 (UTC)

:[[user:Funlinguist|Funlinguist]]: please stop editing until you and others interested have discussed the matters here! There's no point in doing edits others do not agree with, they will naturally be reverted by someone else sooner or later (and that will only cause all of us more job!). Also, if you haven't seen it yet, I would urge you to read my message at [[User talk:2600:1015:B001:5166:8D53:E4E4:70F1:CB8B]].
:First of all, Funlinguist, do you think "ci" is a commonly used pronoun in Esperanto? [[User:786r|786r]] ([[User talk:786r|talk]]) 23:32, 5 February 2018 (UTC)

Response from Funlinguist
Well, the pronoun "ci" is not very common in Esperanto, but I had proposed a compromise where "ci" could at least be kept in the table, but with a link to the below explanation, so that everyone would be happy. I know that this may be subjective, but the pronoun ci may enrich the language, because it makes good etymological sense ("ci" comes from French tu and similar pronouns for the informal singular, while "vi" comes from French vous and similar pronouns for the plural and formal singular), and also by better distinguishing second person singular and plural (the use of "you" in Enlgish does not justify using "vi" for everything at all, because English is the only (other) language to do such a thing). I speak Esperanto, and I for one use "ci" myself (and I am in an Esperanto group on WhatsApp, and some of them have used "ci" themselves also). So, I was hoping to get "ci" into widespread use. I have been making this edit not only on this Wikipedia, but also in the other language Wikipedias. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Funlinguist|Funlinguist]] ([[User talk:Funlinguist#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Funlinguist|contribs]]) 15:02, 6 February 2018 (UTC) 

:[[user:Funlinguist|Funlinguist]]: Thank you for your reply! I also speak Esperanto. I think the/a regular argument against "ci" is that you never really know when another culture consider you to be in a "close" situation or when being in a "formal" situation (here in Sweden, since the 60s we use the ci-variant for everybody, formal variants can be percieved as being rude in different ways). I think -iĉ- is a good idea. But all of this is besides the point.
:Wikipedia is intended to be a media communicating knowledge and facts, nothing more, in a neutral way, without taking any sides. Now the article gives examples of Esperanto using an extremely rare word, "ci", and states that the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' contains the following text: "5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''ci'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "vi", "ye", "you"; "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on")."
:Can you see any potential problems here?
:Regards, [[User:786r|786r]] ([[User talk:786r|talk]]) 00:00, 7 February 2018 (UTC)

Thank you for answering. The first issue is that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia that describes think ''as they are'', not as you want them to be. You are free to think that Esperanto would be better if people used ''ci'', ''-iĉo'' or whatever, but that is irrelevant: this article should describe the grammar of Esperanto ''as it is actually used by its speakers'', just like I expect the article [[French orthography]] to describe how French people spell their language, not how someone thinks it should be reformed.

Another issue is that some of the edits you made don't just promote your point of view, but simply spread false information. That includes changing quotes to make them agree with you ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=824136539&oldid=824136441 here] or [https://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pronomo&curid=8887&diff=6267704&oldid=6267303 here] or [https://es.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto%2FEjercicios%2FZamenhofa_ekzercaro_1&type=revision&diff=341191&oldid=285861 here]), [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=814092876&oldid=812341918 incorrect translations] (claiming that ''reĝo'' means "ruler" and not "king" contradicts pretty much every Esperanto dictionary ever and actual usage) and made-up words no-one uses ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=815104260&oldid=814092876 Johaniĉo]).

Now, ''ci'' does exist in Esperanto and definitely deserves ''some'' place in this article, the question is how much. Here are what all the sources I could find (textbooks, grammar books, dictionaries) have to say about ''ci'':
* The [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html grammar section] of the ''Fundamento'' does not mention ''ci''. The [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/ekzercaro.html exercise] #16 uses it, only to mention immediately that it is not normally used. It does appear in the [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/universala_vortaro.html Universala Vortaro].
* [http://vortaro.net/#ci PIV] says ''ci'' is very seldom used.
* [http://reta-vortaro.de/revo/art/ci.html#ci.0 Reta Vortaro] says "''ci'' and ''cia'' exist only in theory and are practically almost never used" and "many Esperantists do not understand the pronoun ''ci''".
* [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/personaj.html PMEG] does not mention it in it lists of personal pronouns, but mentions it in a remark (and says it exists in theory and is normally not used). The page about second-person pronouns has [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html#i-lrm a section about ''ci''] that says pretty much the same.
* ''Plena Analiza Gramatiko'' has only ''vi'' in its table of second-person pronouns, but has remark about ''ci'': it quotes Zamenhof saying it is almost never used and says "it is sometimes found in poetry, to translate nuances of national languages and in the expression ''ci-diri al iu''".
* I saw no sign of ''ci'' in ''Teach Yourself Esperanto'', either in the list of personal pronouns (Unit 2) or in the vocabulary lists at the end.
* In Assimil's ''L'Espéranto sans peine'', the grammar notes of lesson 14 mention ''ci'', but "its use is restricted because of the usage of international politeness". As far as I can tell, it is never mentioned again.
* ''Parlons espéranto'' first gives the rules from the ''Fundamento'' (so without ''ci''). The section about personal pronouns says about ''ci'' that it is used "only in translations and poetry".
* ''Esperanto: A Corpus Based Description'' by Christopher Gledhill gives ''ci'' in its pronoun table, in the column "Archaic". It then says it was intended to be used in translations, but Zamenhof discouraged its use; "There are no examples of ''ci'' in the corpus, although its use is attested among some reform-minded Esperantists."
* The grammar on [https://lernu.net/en/gramatiko/pronomoj lernu!] does not mention ''ci'' in its list of pronouns. There is a section about ''ci'' that says it "was never really practically used" and "In normal Esperanto, only the word ''vi'' has been in regular use as a pronoun for addressing others."
* [https://ikurso.esperanto-france.org/fr/cge/lec01.php?section=4 This online French course] says the second-person pronoun is "''vi'' (or ''ci'', seldom used)" and then never mentions it again.
* And, for what it's worth, my personal experience: I speak Esperanto everyday, both in real life and with friends online; I regularly attend international events and ''nobody'' uses ''ci''. If someone did, most people would either not understand them or find them weird. A hypothetical linguist doing fieldwork at [[Esperanto Youth Week]] or the [[International Youth Congress]] would probably never find out about the existence of the word ''ci''. The rare cases I have come across of people using ''ci'' were all online, except maybe two people I have met in real life (French people from [[Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda|SAT]]).

So, basically: people who use ''ci'' are a tiny minority and ''ci'' is not a part of the common usage of Esperanto. That's why I think ''ci'' should not be used in any example sentences, because that would be giving [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources and undue weight|undue weight]] to a minority element and that would be confusing for readers ([https://www.duolingo.com/comment/25013484 here is an example] of a reader confused by an edit that was probably yours).

I personally wouldn't include ''ci'' in the pronoun table, just like the first table given in [[English personal pronouns]] doesn't include "though" (although there are explanations about it later). If other contributors want to include it, I'd be okay with it, but it should at least say something like "'''vi''' or '''ci'''", because in the current state, the table implies that ''vi'' is only plural, which is not true. We can also leave the sentence that says some people use ''ci'', but it would be good to find a reliable source ([[Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources#User-generated content|another language edition of Wikipedia does not count]]).

Finally, my opinion about ''-iĉo'' is similar: some people may use it, but they are a small minority and it is non-standard. If you ask the vast majority of Esperanto speakers how to say "boy" in Esperanto, they will answer ''knabo'', not ''knabiĉo''. Using ''-iĉo'' in examples would be misleading. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 14:26, 8 February 2018 (UTC)

:On -iĉ-, I could add that I think the most.. occuring/main usage, I think, is to use it with words whose roots are not gendered, like.. ''aktoriĉo'', for example. ''Knabo'' actually being gendered puts it into another class, I'm thinking.
:Based on the above, ''Esperanto: A Corpus Based Description'' seems to be possible to use as a source for some claim based on this: "There are no examples of ''ci'' in the corpus, although its use is attested among some reform-minded Esperantists", regarding use of ci. Given the various descriptions given in the sources above, I'm not sure how much we can trust it, but that goes beyond what we can control here on Wikipedia. It solves the sentence lacking a ref. (And yes, I also use Esperanto daily, and I have tehe same impression on the usage of ci, so far I've only encountered Funlinguist here using it.)
:(Archaic English second person is *''thou'', I think). Regards, [[User:786r|786r]] ([[User talk:786r|talk]]) 00:11, 9 February 2018 (UTC)

I see. By the way, again, I use ''ci'' and the ''iĉ'' suffix, and when I am with friends and I say ''vi'', I am talking to the ''group''. I would ''never'' address one friend with ''vi'' for etymological reasons. And also, I use the ''thou'' pronoun myself :). As for saying boy as "knabiĉo", I was trying to make it so that other people would be taught this way, and same for using "ci" more often. Technically speaking, ''ci'' is the familiar and intimate singular, and ''vi'' is the plural and '''formal''' singular. I think that some example sentences could use ''ci'', and others can keep using ''vi''. Again, the iĉ suffix is a great idea because this may please those who have criticized Esperanto for sexism. I have made mine own Esperanto course, and it has ''ci'' along with the other pronouns in the table and even teaches the iĉ suffix. :) [[User:Funlinguist]] —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 15:19, 9 February 2018 (UTC) 
: I ran a search in [http://tekstaro.com/ Tekstaro.com] for <code>\bcia?j?n?\b</code> (i.e. "ci", "cin", "cia", "ciaj", "cian", "ciajn") and I found 1,110 hits in a corpus with more than 5 million words (and 828 occur in a single source: ''Ĉu li?'' written by Henri Vallienne in 1908). The expression <code>\bvia?j?n?\b</code> (i.e. "vi" and derived forms) gave '''65,241''' hits, 60 times as many. I couldn't find any occurrence of ''-iĉ-'', but this is harder to say because the search for words ending in ''-iĉo(j)(n)'' gives ''kondiĉo'', ''feliĉo'', ''sandviĉo'' and other words without the suffix. I maintain that using ''ci'' and ''-iĉ-'' in any example sentence is misleading because it implies that something extremely rare is in fact common.
:Now, I have one very simple question to Funlinguist: '''do you understand that Wikipedia describes things as they are, not as you want them to be?''' [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 15:30, 10 February 2018 (UTC)

Esperanto grammar

2018-02-08T14:33:15Z

Mutichou: attempt at a compromise (see talk page)

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{dispute about|The common-ness of the pronoun "ci"|Ci|date=February 2018}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, one often says that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| '''vi''' (you) or '''ci''' (thou){{ref|1|1}} || '''vi''' (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter or [[wikt:epicene|epicene]]
| '''ĝi''' (it, s/he)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof introduced the singular second-person pronoun ''ci'' to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. According to Zamenhof it's also the [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown, is in-between 'male' and 'female', or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> This means that people who speak [[Grammatical gender|gender]]-less languages such as Turkish or Finnish, which have common word pronoun for third person regardless of gender, can continue to use neuter gender third person pronoun in Esperanto. It also means that reference to any intersex or gender-queer person would use third person neuter gender pronoun.

However, in popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Ci faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' comes precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Talk:Esperanto grammar

2018-02-08T14:27:51Z

Mutichou: /* Ci */ answer to Funlinguist

{{WP conlangs|class=B|importance=Mid|Esperanto=yes|Esperanto core topics=yes}}

== Gender ==

Removed the following because gender is not used in the commonly accepted linguistic sense:

:although it does assume the male gender for many of its nouns, forcing the use of a special affix to refer a noun to the female equivalent (thus, in Esperanto, a sister is defined as a "female brother"; this male bias as served as the source of criticism of Esperanto)

::Isn't it still true as an example of [[sexism]], having the male as the norm? As far as I have understood, a sister is a "female brother", where a brother is not a "male brother/sibling". Rather, the sentence should be rewritten.

Probably the treatment of the inherent gender of some root words (nearly all family relationship words) and the use of affixes ''ge-'', ''-in'', ''vir-'' should be moved to a section of a new article on [[Esperanto semantics]].
--[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] 23:19, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

:I expanded on gender and moved it under [[Esperanto vocabulary]] for now, as I'm not writing a semantics article.

:As to the earlier point, "female brother" isn't a good translation for Esperanto ''fratino'', any more than "female stallion" is a good translation of English ''mare''. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 05:06, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
::I think what he was trying to get at was that male sex is automatically assumed and in order to make a word feminine, one takes the masculine and adds the female ending. [[Special:Contributions/98.27.171.83|98.27.171.83]] ([[User talk:98.27.171.83|talk]]) 00:33, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

+++++
There is some confusion about gender in Esperanto that is caused by the inclusive language movement and by the fact that many people are familiar with Spanish, in which -o is a masculine ending.

Zamenhof did not speak Spanish. He spoke Polish, Russian, German, and Yiddish. In Slavic languages, such as Polish, and Russian, which he did speak, -O is the neuter ending. In German and Yiddish, nonnative words that end in O are also neuter. For Zamenhof in the 1880s, all Esperanto nouns would have been neuter unless he chose the ending arbitrarily, which is possible. Adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify, hence "mi vidas la belajn instruistojn," which can either be "pretty female teachers" or "handsome male teachers." However, if you wish to specify that the teachers are female, you don't have to write "mi vidas la belinajn instruistinojn." In other words, gender serves no grammatical function in Esperanto, but it is part of the meaning of some words. It is true that some words refer to masculine entities only and have to take a suffix to refer to feminine entities, but that is semantic, not grammatical and is the result of Zamenhof devising a way to keep the vocabulary small.

In other words, some words are semantically masculine and feminine counterparts have to be derived from them, but that is limited to the meanings of kinship terms and a few other words. Gender has no grammatical function in Esperanto.[[User:KenWC|KenWC]] ([[User talk:KenWC|talk]]) 14:23, 31 August 2016 (UTC)Ken<ref>observation of Esperanto usage and grammar</ref>

== "Sixteen rules" ==

I removed "Esperanto has a regular grammar (sixteen rules without many exceptions)", since the sixteen rules are '''not''' even close to a description of the grammar. They're just a "quick reference sheet" for people already familiar with Latin-like languages (and aren't even all concerned with grammar). [[user:Brion VIBBER|Brion VIBBER]], Tuesday, April 30, 2002

:I'd be tempted to stick them in somewhere, for their historical value, adding some language about them being a traditional description that assumes a background in European languages.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 23:52, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

::I agree. They're still how Eo is promoted, and they do a pretty good job too. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 00:02, 7 December 2005 (UTC)

== Irrelevant bit about orthography ==

These sentences:

:"The alphabet includes new letters that are not found on any national keyboard, which is overcome by use of the h-system, x-system, or Unicode. (See Esperanto orthography.) Other languages, like Chinese, have similar problems."

seem to be irrelevant in this article. I reckon we should delete them. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] | [[User talk:Jim Henry|Talk]] 17:59, 17 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:this belongs in [[Esperanto]] IMHO [[User:MarSch|MarSch]] 13:46, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:: Similar text was '''removed''' from [[Esperanto]] and put into [[Esperanto orthography]] instead when [[Esperanto]] was going through peer review. I don't think we should add it back; it's trivia compared to most of the other material in the already fairly long (just under 32KB) [[Esperanto]] main article. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] | [[User talk:Jim Henry|Talk]] 17:45, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:::I noticed that this had been removed and then someone had put something similar back in. I tried cutting out the less relevant stuff, but you're right, it really doesn't belong here at all. However, I don't remember the orthography article mentioning that the reason for creating Esperanto-unique letters was to avoid problems with nationalism: the Esperanto alphabet is clearly based on Czech, but different enough to avoid appearances of bias. Whoever removes this paragraph might want to mention something like this in the orthography article. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 23:44, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

:::: Feel free to add material to [[Esperanto orthography]] explaining Zamenhof's reasons for creating unique letters, especially if you can find a source or quote to support it. But it doesn't belong here. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] | [[User talk:Jim Henry|Talk]] 19:35, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)

::: I wasn't aware there is also [[Esperanto orthography]]. It should clearly go there. [[User:MarSch|MarSch]] 12:45, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== edits; "infixes" ==

I'm filling in a few details of the grammar. One change in wording I think I should justify, since there's a lot of confusion about it. Esperanto has no infixes. An infix is an affix that is placed within a root or stem, not merely a suffix followed by another suffix. If the participle of ''esper-'' were ''*espanter-o'', that would be an infix. ''Esper-ant-o'' is merely a root followed by two suffixes. Infixes are generally rather uncommon in the world's languages, though they are plentiful in Tagalog and Khmer. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

== sources of vocab ==

The basic vocab is almost entirely Latinate and Germanic. There is only a handful of direct Slavic or Greek borrowings. (That is, words that were taken directly from Slavic or Greek, rather than through Latinate or Germanic languages that had borrowed them.) --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

:I heard that most of the original Slavic borrowings had been changed to Germanic and Latinate equivalents in language reforms. Anyone knows anything else about this?

::Pretty sure that is not correct. Don't have my sources with me, but I remember Zamenhof's original basic vocubulary of 900 or so roots only a dozen or so Slavic words: ''kolbaso, kaĉo, svati,'' etc. Reforms are resisted pretty strongly, since there's a history of them creating chaos. A couple of the original Slavic words may be a bit archaic (e.g. ''svati'' "to match make"), but I have heard & read several times that all of Zamenhof's basic vocabulary is still considered basic to the language.

::What you may have heard about is the difference between what Zamenhof first dreamed up as a student, before he knew any English, versus what he finally published a decade (?) later. In its original conception, the language had more noun cases, the verbs inflected for person, and used <w> for modern <v>. It wouldn't surprise me if it also had more Slavic vocab at this stage. But none of the published Slavic vocab has ever been removed. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 23:34, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

:::Have now moved this to its own article, [[Esperanto vocabulary]]. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

== source for Zamenhof's "regret"? ==

I'm curious about the source of "Also to Zamenhof's regret, a limited number of adverbs do not end with ''-e''." Is this supported? Zamenhof went out of his way to create an indefinite part-of-speech ending, ''-aŭ'', for words like ''hodiaŭ'' that could be used as adverbs, prepositions, or nouns, and where most people would have difficulty deciding when to use ''-e''. (Unlike adjectives, verbs, or nouns, adverbs aren't a semantically coherent part of speech.) If he did regret making this decision, he could always have started using the ''-e'' ending instead, as you will occasionally see: ''anstate, hodie, apene'', etc. The fact that Zamenhof almost never bothered to do this makes me doubt that he regretted his decision. It's not like the choice of a particular ending is required by the grammar, unlike adjectival agreement.

If this isn't supported in Zamenhof's writings, I think we should remove the "regret" wording and instead give the reasons for the "special" adverbs. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 00:50, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)

== editing ==

I'm editing the article, adding a few examples, and moving a couple sections (participles, grammar examples) to help it flow a bit better.

One example I'd given earlier was the correlative ''neniel'' (nohow). Someone "corrected" this to "in no manner". However, no one ever says "in no manner"! "Nohow" has been used in formal writing for centuries. Here's an illustration from the OED:
:'''1775''' in Lett. Earl Malmesbury: ''A course of habitual improvement which nohow else is to be acquired.''

I put "nohow" back, along with the other colloquial translation, "no way". — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 23:13, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== need help with diphthongs ==

I wrote that the Esperanto phonemes are based on Polish [they are remarkably close; Espo ''nj'' and ''ĉj'' even correspond to Polish ''ń'' and ''ć'', and ''kz'' suggests that Esperanto was designed with regressive voicing assimilation ([gz]) in mind], but I'm unable to verify the diphthongs. Can someone verify or falsify my claim? Also, if Esperanto ''ŭ'' ends up corresponding to Polish ''ł'', we'd need to verify that ''ł'' can only close a syllable after ''a'' and ''e'' to have a match with Esperanto.

Thanks! --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 12:11, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

:First of all, I'm no expert in polish language, but it seems to me that polish ''ń'' and ''ć'' are a subset of the possible pronounciations of ''nj'' and ''ĉj'' (I think they are pronounced more in the "front" of the mouth than the usual Esperanto pronounciation).
:Regarding ''ŭ'', this is definitly not true. ''ł'' developed out of normal ''l'' and occurs for example in the name of the polish town ''Wrocław''. However, belarusian has a corresponding sound and letter (see [[U-breve]]), but I cannot tell whether it only occurs in the off-glide of diphthongs. --[[User:Schuetzm|Schuetzm]] 14:51, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

::Does Polish then not have any diphthongs? As for the <ł>, I only meant restrictions as an offglide. I'll try looking into Belorussian, though. Thanks! [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 18:11, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== introduction heading ==

I removed the introduction heading once. I see that it's back. Its existence makes it so the first thing you see is the ToC. Perhaps you have turned that off in your prefs or something, but if you take a look around the wiki, you will find that few other pages do it this way. -[[User:MarSch|MarSch]] 12:48, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

:Okay, I'll take it out. The only reason I put it in was to make editing easier, but I see your point. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 20:52, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

== question, new article ==

Are people comfortable with the example,
:''la abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi'' (Bees have fur, but are not good for petting) ?

Personally, I would say this in the singular in Esperanto, despite the English plural, but I'm on unsure footing here.

Also, the article is getting a bit long. I suggest we move the sections on vocabulary and word formation (affixes) to a new article on [[Esperanto vocabulary]]. I'll do this if it seems alright with people, unless one of you would prefer to. --[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 10:54, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I've compiled the vocabulary article. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]]

== Esper-ent-o ==

According to the article, -ent is a suffix.
AFAIK, ''prezident-o'' is an import from European languages, with a restricted meaning over that of ''prezid-ant-o''.
They are closely related etymologically, but from a syntactic point of view they are unrelated.
There may have been proposals for -ent- (reference) but they have no currency.
If you need a tenseless active participle, you use -ant- or try another way.

:''-ent'' is sometimes considered a sort of pseudo-suffix, but you're right. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 11:23, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

:I wondeer if this section should be deleted, except for the bit about -igx-, since it strikes me as being someone's idea of how Eo should develop in the future rather than Eo as it actually is. Likewise with the Conditional Participles. --[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 21:11, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

::I've tried bringing in interesting tidbits, so this article won't just repeat what can easily be found elsewhere. I've seen conditional participles, though of course they're rare in the extreme. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 22:39, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

:::Maybe there should be a section for experimentalist things like ''ri, -u-,'' and ''-ent-''. Anyway, I don't think the article should suggest that they are part of normal Esperanto, in the way that ''bluas'' for ''estas blua'' is.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 23:50, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

== Ambaux ==

Should ''ambaux'' be counted among numerals?

:No. It's a pronoun, and maybe a conjunction? Like other pronouns, it can be used substantively or attributively, and the attributive usage is something like attributive numerals, but no more than ''tiu'' etc. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 11:15, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

== Patro Nia ==

I guess there should be a comma after ''ĉielo'', because ''kaj'' here is rather a substitute for ''(tiel) ankaŭ'' then to be seen as an "and". 
Furthermore it would be great, if another sample text could be included (for example a part of the '''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'''). This would provide more (religious) neutrality.   –   Korako / 10:59, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

:The nice thing about the ''Pater noster'' is that most English speakers have heard it enough times for it to be at least vaguely familiar, which isn't the case with the UDHR. But here's a link if you're interested in adding something: [http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/1115.htm UDHR in Eo]. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 11:36, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

::You're right there. For that very reason I would absolutely keep the Lord's Prayer in the sample section. Thanks for the link, I'll have a look at it. Maybe someone else will find an example which is both fairly well-known and virtually neutral.   –   Korako / 11:59, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

::Something from the UDHR would be a good addition (not replacement), so long as we provide an English translation.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 21:38, 4 January 2006 (UTC)
Most Catholics, you mean? I disagree with the usage of this text on a number of levels- most highly because as an English speaker, I feel confident in saying most English speakers have no idea what "Pater noster" is (as it's known as the Lord's Prayer in English). Even knowing the text, I think most other native English speakers would still be utterly clueless as to translating it without being intimately familiar with the text. First off, since this is the English-language version, shouldn't the section mention the English title "The Lord's Prayer"? And then the article is just flatly presumptious saying it should be readable without translation- even knowing the Lord's Prayer, the only reason I can figure out most of the text is from knowing a bit of Spanish. True English speakers would be utterly clueless, especially if they're non-Catholic. Then there's the obvious issue with using a religious text as a "universally readable" model- we all should see problems there. And virtually no one knows the UDHR, so that's non-workable. At the very least, you could try a children's song. Although "Ring Around the Rosie" has many odd objections as well, at least it is quite widely known regardless of religion. [[User:209.153.128.248|209.153.128.248]] 16:53, 27 December 2006 (UTC)

:[[File:Paternoster etc ngram.jpg|thumb|upright=2.5]] The Google n-gram of ''Our Father,Paternoster,Lord's Prayer'' makes it quite clear that, at least in the corpus covered by Google Books, ''Paternoster'' has been the least used of those terms through most of the past two centuries, holding roughly steady since 1940 at half the frequency of ''Our Father'' and one-third that of ''Lord's Prayer''. This vindicates the IP comment just above that
:: I feel confident in saying most English speakers have no idea what "Pater noster" is (as '''it's known as the Lord's Prayer in English''').
:Accordingly, I've changed the text of the link in § [[Esperanto_grammar#The_noun_phrase|"The noun phrase"]] to use— Well, whaddya know? It's the name of the article as well! Who's surprised?— "[[Lord's Prayer]]". To discuss this, please {{Tn|Ping}} me. --[[User:Thnidu|Thnidu]] ([[User talk:Thnidu|talk]]) 06:49, 25 May 2015 (UTC)

== "The Man Who Would Be King" ==

In the title of the Kipling story, "would be" is not a conditional, but a slightly archaic past-tense form. You could say of Prince Charles, that he is "la viro kiu* estus rego" if the Queen dies or abdicates (or "la regunto" using a conditional participle). But Kipling was writing about a freebooting English soldier who tried, but failed, to become king of Kafiristan; so the translation would be something like "La viro kiu* volis esti rego".

<nowiki>*</nowiki>or whatever, I'm pretty shaky on the Eo correlatives.--[[User:CJGB|Chris]] 21:34, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

It strikes me that the example you might want to use is "inventinto" (inventor, past tense), since it is a normal Eo word, not an artificial example.

:All very true, though we could apply the title "The Man Who Would Be King" to Al Gore as a joke, and people would understand perfectly what we meant, so it can be understood as a conditional today. The participles are the one point of Eo grammar that English speakers really have a problem understanding, and I've tried to come up with something that would click in people's minds. That's why I've been fighting to keep this, even if it's not historically accurate. I'd fight for the Wile E. Coyote example too. The tree-chopping one is pretty boring, and I'd love to have something better. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 01:00, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

::I've always understood Kipling's "would" in the title as archaic "wanted to". --[[User:Thnidu|Thnidu]] ([[User talk:Thnidu|talk]]) 05:59, 25 May 2015 (UTC)

== deleted article ==

i've deleted [[Interrogatives in Esperanto]] and redirected here, in case anyone wants to rescue anything from it. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:15, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

== Non-Indo-European aspects? ==

I have notices the following inaccuracies in the chapter:

1. English ''less'' : ''least'' has nothing to do with ablaut sensu stricto (i.e. a Proto-Indo-European change of vowel quantity or quality). The difference between the two words is due to a ''Middle English'' shortening of the vowel before ''ss''.
::But it is vocalic apophony. Can you come up with a better example for adjectives? [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:27, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

2. It is said that "European languages also have many words without ablaut"; in fact, the European languages inflect most words without ablaut. Ablaut is restricted to the strong verbs in Germanic. Most verbs, however, are weak. The Romance and Slavonic have little traces of ablaut in their verbal systems. Some Germanic nouns have umlaut (a Proto-Germanic change of vowel quality before an ''i'' in the following syllable), e.g. ''mouse'' : ''mice''; this is more frequently in German than in the other Germanic languages. However, most nouns are inclinated without any vowel change at all.
::No, all IE languages retain ablaut to some extent. But this could be worded better. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:27, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
3. The "regular analogic extension of standard European grammatical structures" are seen in many modern Indo-European languages. Most English nouns form the plural with ''-s''; the same is the case in Spanish.
::Yes, ''most.'' There are few cases in which it is ''all.'' [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:27, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
4. A future participle is known in both Latin and Ancient Greek. In fact, Ancient Greek has a developed participle system which may have served as a model for Zamenhof's system. E.g.

<TABLE border=1>
<TR>
<TD> </TD>
<TD>'''Present'''</TD>
<TD>'''Aorist'''</TD>
<TD>'''Perfect'''</TD>
<TD>'''Future'''</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'''Active'''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λύων}} = ''solvanta''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λύσας}} = ''solvinta''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λελυκώς}} = ''solvinta''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λύσων}} = ''solvonta''</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'''Middle'''</TD>
<TD rowspan=2>{{lang|grc|λυόμενος}} = ''solvata; solvanta sin / al si''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυσάμενος}} = ''solvinta sin / al si''</TD>
<TD rowspan=2>{{lang|grc|λελυμένος}} = ''solvita; solvita sin / al si''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυσόμενος}} = ''solvonta sin / al si''</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>'''Passive'''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυθείς}} = ''solvita''</TD>
<TD>{{lang|grc|λυθησόμενος}} = ''solvota''</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>

::Thanks for the points, esp. the last. I'll try to get them in. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:20, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

===Lith/IE parallel to -jn===

If the historical nasality and proto-IE origin were made explicit, the Lithuanian 5th declension would be something like ''-, -s, -n, -ns,'' parallel to Eo ''-, -j, -n, -jn.'' Proto-Esperanto had ''-s'' for the plural, though I don't know what he did for the accusative. Anyway, the ''-jn'' is the one thing people keep insisting is "non-European", to justify their claim that Eo is not a (purely) European language. The Lith. morphology is a rather tenuous connection, but then the use of -jn to justify classifying Eo as non-IE is just as tenuous. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 22:45, 24 February 2009 (UTC)

== Esperanto Is More Logical? ==

"A logical structure makes Esperanto easier to learn than most of the world's languages..."

Can we have some proof to bolster this statement? I'm skeptical that Esperanto has a 'logical' structure - at least show me how 'logical' it is compared to other languages? ('Logical' according to whom? Speakers of languages which do not routinely differentiate between verbs and nouns - such as many polysynthetic languages - would hardly find Esperanto grammar to be 'logical'. And what about speakers of languages which do not differentiate adverbs from adjectives, like German and Dutch?) [[User:70.138.218.110|70.138.218.110]] 20:45, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

:Perhaps 'morphological regularity' and 'syntactic flexibility' would be better. Or 'easier to learn than other Indo-European languages', since they pretty much all share the things that people might find difficult.

:Most polysynthetic languages do distinguish nouns and verbs quite clearly. Of the few which do not, their speakers are all bilingual in English. And going from a polysynthetic language to one with simpler morphology is rather easy; it commonly happens with language contact. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 06:13, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

::Yes, the article should replace 'logical' with the qualities you mentioned. I imagine you have some background in linguistics (as do I - it's what I majored in in college), so I have to disagree with the notion that most polysynthetic languages 'clearly' distinguish between nouns and verbs - polypersonal agreement often conflates and obscures what is traditionally 'verbal' and what is traditionally 'substantival' (although we can obviously talk of roots and affixes). I'm also skeptical that it's "easier" to go from a polysynthetic language to one with a simpler morphology - the tendency for speakers of Native American languages to start speaking the often less synthetic languages of Europeans has little to do with "ease" and more to do with historical processes. [I imagine you're referring to processes of pidginization, but it probably would be easier to go from Mohawk to a nascent pidgin than, say, from Spanish to Vietnamese, Yi (with its surprisingly variable syntax), or Nass-Gitksan (with its preference for VSO), even though these languages range from highly analytic (the former two) to slightly synthetic (the latter). So the actual desired trait for enhanced communication might be rigid, predictable syntax, and not necessarily simpler morphology.] Thank you for your prompt response, though - I understand a little better what might be meant by "logical" in this context. [[User:70.138.218.110|70.138.218.110]] 17:41, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
:::I was thinking of Tiwi, actually, which because of English influence is losing its polysynthesis. It's apparently easy enough for elders to 'dumb down' their speech in what is essentially baby talk, with non-incorporating verbs and overt arguments, but much harder for youngsters to master polysynthetic morphology. As for unclear boundaries between noun and verb, AFAIK that is an areal feature in the American Pacific Northwest, especially in Wakashan. If those people didn't speak English, then yes, the Espo noun-verb distinction would be difficult. I'm not so sure in other languages that outsiders find confusing on the N-Vb front, the speakers themselves have much difficulty with it. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] 18:28, 17 September 2007 (UTC)
::::One more logical rule is the totally absence of irregularity of verbs (italian: inf. =''andare'', but present (1st person) = vado; english: think, but think'''ed''' is wrong, and the most used verbs are irregular; the verb ''to be'' is irregular in most of the languages of the world - even japanese, where to be is the only irregular verb - and it's irregular in almost all indoeuropean languages: French, hindi, latin, english, polish, bulgarian, greek...)

== Something missing... ==

Something really important is missing, please chech it (i just added it, it's not vandalism, you can correct if it's not a good english):
*In esperanto, ''ci'' is only for you singular, but it is rarely used (to express close friendship), in opposition with the most formal ''vi''. Zamenhof did not include it in the 16 rules, he did not consider it necessary (i.e. english does not have this difference), but ''ci'' is still in dictionaries. The most consider it as arcaicism, but some would want it to be more widely used, to avoid ambiguity.

Maybe searching in a English-Esperanto dictionary you can't find this because in english there is not difference, so you can search for ''ci'' in the esperanto part. It's a personal pronoun, it can't miss. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/160.97.9.85|160.97.9.85]] ([[User talk:160.97.9.85|talk]]) 09:43, 18 June 2008 (UTC) 

:That info is already there. Just read down a bit in the description. For the chart, there are all sorts of adjustments we could make, such as singular formal ''Vi'' and ''ĝi'' for a person of unknown gender ('s/he'). However, the chart as it is is how nearly everyone speaks Esperanto today. The three-way distinction ''ci, Vi, vi'' is archaic. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 21:25, 18 June 2008 (UTC)
::I can't find it, i don't understand why you deleted. Was the place where i putted this info not good? In the note, you could read it is an archaicism, because i also wrote that.

:::It says,
::::''Zamenhof created an informal second-person singular pronoun ''ci'' (thou), and capitalized the formal singular pronoun ''Vi,'' following usage in most European languages, but these forms are rarely seen today.''
:::[[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 20:16, 19 June 2008 (UTC)

:The books that do mention ''ci'' also say that it's intentionally archaic; i.e., that it has the same connotations as English "thou". I have not seen the ci/Vi distinction; but if it did exist in Esperanto proper, it dropped out very early. [[User:Sluggoster|Sluggoster]] ([[User talk:Sluggoster|talk]]) 13:55, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

== Prepositions and case ==

The prepositions section says:

:"in Esperanto all prepositions govern the nominative... The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is replaced by the accusative.... A frequent use of the accusative is in place of al (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion (allative case). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition: ... la kato ĉasis la muson en la domon (the cat chased the mouse into the house)."

However, this is putting the cart before the horse. The 13th rule of grammar says, "To show DIRECTION, words take the accusative ending." All the Esperanto grammars I have seen follow this. In other words, "en la domon" is a fundamental part of the language, and "al en la domo" is a variation which is not even mentioned and is rarely if ever used. So the section is misleading to those who don't know Esperanto. I posted this more conventional explanation, which was reverted by Kwamikagami:

:in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). However, the noun turns accusative to show motion toward it:

::''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
::''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

:This happens with certain prepositions in German and Russian, but Esperanto extends it to all prepositions which ''sometimes'' show motion. Prepositions which ''always'' show motion do not take the accusative: ''al la domo'' (to the house), ''ĝis la fino'' (until the end). There's some uncertainty about few prepositions --- ''li iris tra la ĉambro, tra la pordo'' (he walked through the room, through the door), ''la hundo kuris post la aǔto(n)'' (the dog ran after the car [to try to catch up to it]) --- but the nominative is more common with these.

:To show motion away from, use ''de'' or ''el'' plus the preposition and nominative:

::''La glaso falis '''de sur''' la tablo'' (the glass fell from on top of the table)
::''Me reakiris la ovon '''el sub''' la fridujo'' (I picked up the egg from under the refrigerator)

:However, "de + en" is always replaced by "el", and "de + other preposition" is usually replaced by just "de" unless there's a special reason to stress the other position:

::''La knabo prenis la donacon '''el''' la skatolo'' (the boy took the present out of the box; i.e., from inside the box)

::''La glaso falis '''de''' la tablo'' (the glass fell from the table. Not "el la tablo" because it wasn't inside it.)

:All prepositions have a specific meaning. When none seems to fit, the indefinite preposition ''je'' is available:
::''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May; the "on" doesn't mean literally "on top of").

:In practice, ''je'' is generally limited to time expressions, measurements, the location of a blow, believing "in" something, etc: ''la vespermanĝaĵo estas je la 17a horo'' (dinner is at 17:00/5pm), ''la domo estas je 5 kilometroj de la preĝejo'' (the house is 5 km from the church), ''mi bezonas ŝtofon je 3 metroj de larĝo'' (I need a cloth 3 meters wide), ''Teresa kredas je Dio'' (Theresa believes in God), ''mi prenis lin je la maniko kaj li frapis min je la makzelo'' (I took him by the sleeve and he hit me in the jaw). It's also used for the complement of adjectives: ''preta je iri'' (ready to go), ''plena je rubo'' (full of rubbish), and for the direct object of verbal nouns: ''ŝia amo je floroj'' (her love of flowers), ''la decidinto je la matĉo'' (the decider of the match).

:Frequently the ''je'' in time and measurement expressions is replaced by the accusative if there is no other direct object in the sentence:
::''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''
::''Mi iris Londono'''n'''.''

:The accusative '''n''' can also be used with adverbs to show motion towards:
::''Mi iras hejmen.'' (I'm going home.)
::''La avio turnis sin suden.'' (The airplane turned southward.)
::''La sudena ŝoseo.'' (The freeway heading south.) (Compare: ''la suda ŝoseo'', the south freeway)

:The preposition ''de'' is particularly ambiguous because it has several meanings: of (posession), from (motion), by (agent).
::''La amo '''de''' ĉokoladaĵoj '''de''' Teresa'' (Theresa's love of chocolates, or the love of Theresa's chocolates.)
::''La pilko estis prenita '''de''' Jeffrey '''de''' la gazono '''de''' la domo '''de''' McCaffreys '''de''' Kreto '''de''' hieraŭ.'' (The ball had been taken by Jeffrey from the lawn of the house of the "McCaffreys of Crete" since yesterday.)
:This can be overcome by using more precise prepositions:
:* '''far''' for the agent: ''far Jeffrey''.
:* '''je''' for the object of a verbal noun: ''amo je ĉokoladaĵoj''.
:* '''ekde''' (starting from a time): ''ekde'' hieraŭ''.
:* '''disde''' (starting from a place and spreading).
:* '''ĉe''' (at the house of): ''de la gazono ĉe McCaffreys''.
:* '''el''' (from inside, made from ___ material, the city you were born in): ''McCaffreys el Kreto'', ''botoj el gomo'' (boots made of rubber), ''el la domo'' (out of the house).

:'''Far''' is an interesting case because it derives from ''fare de'' (made by), which derives from ''fari'' (to make). It's not normal for a word root to become a preposition, but that's what happened. Some have suggested extending this to other words (''nom'' = de nomo de, ''escept'' = escepte de, ''sud'' = sude de), but so far only ''far'' has gained wide acceptance. (Although David Jordan in ''Being Colloquial in Esperanto'' writes that he "hates it" due to its unorthodox derivation.)

First, apologies for not realizing I wasn't logged in when I posted it. But rather than get into post/revert wars I decided to put my case here. I think this explanation of "en la domon" is more true to the Esperanto tradition than what the article currently says. Second, this text has other things which are worthwhile in their own right: contrast with "motion from" which is not otherwise mentioned, uses of "je", the problem with "de" and its more precise equivalents, putting "far" in its place, and avoiding that troublesome word "allative". These parts should be put in the article in some form, perhaps with better examples than I could think of.

For ''je'' I'm following the Plena Vortaro:

:Komuna preposicio, kies senco estas nedifinita k kiun oni ĉiam povas uzi, kiam la senco ne montras klare, kia prepozicio konvenas. '''Oni tamen devas uzi ĝin kiel eble plej malofte, kaj preskaŭ nur en la sekvantaj okazoj:''' 1 Antaŭ la komplemento de adjektivo, 2 Antaŭ la nerekta komplimento de verbo, 3 Antaŭ la objekta komplimento de substantivo el verbo deveno, 4 Antaŭ circonstanca komplimento de tempo, mezuro kc.

As for ''far'', while I personally like it and the concept of turning a word root (zero-suffix) into a preposition, the article does not say how rare or controversial this is.

:William Auld discusses it with approval in ''La Fenomeno Esperanto'', and suggests some similar bare-root prepositions like "cel"; but I've never seen any used except "far", and that rarely. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] ([[User talk:Jim Henry|talk]]) 21:55, 7 September 2008 (UTC)

When I saw the words "allative" and "oblique" I did a double take. The Esperanto cases are nominative and accusative. I'm not a linguist but I've studied several western languages (Germanic, Romance, Russian, Koine Greek) and never come across the term "allative". Its Wikipedia page defines it as, "Allative case (abbreviated ALL, from Latin allāt-, afferre "to bring to") is a type of the locative cases used in several languages. The term allative is generally used for the lative case in the majority of languages which do not make finer distinctions", with examples from Finnish and the Baltic languages but not Esperanto.

Which leads to the question, does Esperanto have an allative case? The article says so, without explanation of citation. So is it one person's original research? I haven't read Kalocsay/Waringhien or Wennergren, but I've never seen it called such elsewhere. Most importantly, grammar rule 2 says Esperanto has two cases, nominative and accusative. Anything besides Zamenhof and the early congresses is non-official, so you can say "Esperanto appears to have an allative case" or "Esperanto can be analyzed as having an allative case", but not "Esperanto has an allative case". That contradicts the 16 rules and a dozen grammars and instructional texts produced over the decades. And regardless of whether it's correct, what good does it do to use an obscure linguistic term that few people understand, has not been traditionally applied to Esperanto, and may or may not be appropriate for Esperanto?

:I've heard the term used occasionally for E-o's locative-preposition-plus-accusative construction, but I don't think it's perfectly standard yet. I would prefer to call it an allative construction rather than an allative case, however. It's more like when a Greek textbook describes various ways the genitive or dative case is used, it doesn't mean that Greek has a temporal or instrumental case, only that those are uses of the basic cases. Similarly Esperanto just has the two cases, which have various uses with and without prepositions. --[[User:Jim Henry|Jim Henry]] ([[User talk:Jim Henry|talk]]) 21:55, 7 September 2008 (UTC)

::Jim's right. It should be ''allative construction,'' or ''allative use of the accusative case,'' not ''*allative case.'' [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 01:53, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

As for "oblique", I understand it as "all cases except the nominative". The Wikipedia entry describes it as "when a noun is the object of a sentence or a preposition. An oblique case can appear in any case relationship except the nominative case of a sentence subject or the vocative case of direct address." I don't find this term as offensive as "allative", but I question what value it adds to the article. At minimum is requires an explanation of why oblique applies to Esperanto. And perhaps why most Esperanto texts have overlooked the term until now.

:It's not called "oblique", but "nominative/oblique", showing that it is not just the case of the subject, but also of the object of a preposition. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 01:56, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

I'm also wondering if the preposition section should be spun off into a more detailed article.

[[User:Sluggoster|Sluggoster]] ([[User talk:Sluggoster|talk]]) 13:55, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

:You've got some good stuff here, but I have one objection. Just as you say that ''de'' plus another preposition is shortened to ''de'' (though not always! I've seen ''de sur'' etc.), so the argument I've seen for the accusative of motion is that ''al'' plus another preposition is shortened to that preposition plus the accusative. So ''al sub la lito'' or ''ĝis sub la lito'' (nominative, as all preps govern the nominative) becomes ''sub la liton.'' Since "all preps govern the nominative" is one of the basic rules of the language, so as to prevent Germans or Russians redundantly saying ''al sub la liton,'' I think we should keep it.

:A few ''de'' compounds: ''de antaŭ, de ĉe, de inter, de super, de sub,'' and ''el de. (El ligno'' would mean "(made) out of wood", whereas ''el de ligno'' would mean "(coming) out of a piece of wood".)

:You also keep the accusative when there's no longer a verb: ''danke vian oferon, responde vian leteron, ili sidis koncerne sian koron.'' [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 18:07, 6 September 2008 (UTC)

== Possessive Pronouns ==
I disagree with the statement that "pronouns also have a genitive case." The possessive pronouns (mia, via, etc.) are possessive adjectives, as evidenced by the fact that they are A) denoted by the adjectival suffix and B) fully declined as other adjectives are. The genitive in Esperanto is formed using the preposition "de" as stated in the Fundamento. Compare this to Latin, in which there is both a genitive and a series of possessive (adjectival) pronouns. "Eius" is not declined, as it is an independent noun, while "suus, -a, -um" is declined as an adjective. Esperanto's possessive adjectives are similar to the latter. There is, however, once genetive form created without use of a preposition: the correlatives ending in -es. Since these are undeclinable, freely associating nouns, they better fit the description "genitive." --[[User:N-k|N-k]], 12:05, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

:Okay, you're right. [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 17:53, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

== Subordinate and Relative clauses ==

There seems to be nothing in the article about subordinate and relative clauses. Such as

'''''When'' I wrote this sentence''', I was using a laptop.

The man '''that robbed the bank''' has been captured.

The thief '''the police captured''' escaped.

There is a section on conjunctions but this is not the same.

For example, can I place the 'when' in the example after the word 'sentence'? Can I put 'that robbed the bank' before 'the man'? Interestingly no grammar that I can find online seems to indicate the order of such clauses relative to their head-word (The fact that this is not addressed generally seems to suggest that people are not aware that many languages don't work with the above word order (and Esperanto is likely not very easy for speakers of say Japanese where the head-first aspect of Esperanto is only easy for speakers of head-first languages). [[User:Macgroover|Macgroover]] ([[User talk:Macgroover|talk]]) 14:42, 20 December 2010 (UTC)

:You're right, the order is fairly fixed. I'll expand the section when I get a chance. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 15:08, 20 December 2010 (UTC)
:Didn't get to that, but added a more general section on word order which should answer your question. The short answer is 'no'. You're right, you often have to simply infer the rules from examples, but Wells does discuss this at some length, including comparisons to Japanese et al. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 08:16, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

== Suffix -unt- ==
Both [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/a-vortoj.html PMEG] and [http://vortaro.net/#unt PIV] list suffix -unt- as "experimental". This means that while the suffix may be used by some, it's not considered to be a feature of mainstream Esperanto (yet). Therefore I believe it's inappropriate to discuss such a feature in "Esperanto grammar". Maybe we should split that part to a separate "Variations of Esperanto grammar" article? --[[User:Vilius Normantas|Vilius Normantas]] ([[User talk:Vilius Normantas|talk]]) 13:42, 16 October 2012 (UTC)

:We note on the section header that this is unofficial. It keeps cropping up, however, as it's regularly derived from the official grammar. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 18:21, 16 October 2012 (UTC)

== “Easy to learn”: POV? ==

I can’t begin to imagine what test can be done, or objective standard is to be met when the opening paragraph states: ''A highly regular grammar makes Esperanto much easier to learn than most other languages of the world''. Without any citation, or substantiation, this would appear to be POV or original research, and should probably be removed unless there is some way of backing it up. The slight let-out that is given, saying that speakers of some backgrounds may find some elements of it difficult is a complete cop out, as it seems to me (and this I have no problem in stating is completely POV) that it is a grammar/ language largely incompatible with Germanic languages such as English, which with nearly 5% of the world’s speakers as a first language is quite a lot of people with a problem… [[User:Jock123|Jock123]] ([[User talk:Jock123|talk]]) 15:20, 8 July 2013 (UTC)

:This is commonly noted, so is not OR, and borders on being obvious. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 18:43, 8 July 2013 (UTC)
:Actually it isn't obvious. The regularity of a grammar has no relationship to the ease or rate of its acquisition, as the Wug test shows. [[Special:Contributions/24.91.44.95|24.91.44.95]] ([[User talk:24.91.44.95|talk]]) 00:12, 12 August 2017 (UTC)

== anstate, anstata, anstato, anstati ==

A while ago, I changed the assertion "With the -aŭ suffix, this is nearly universal, and the -aŭ is rarely dropped: anstataŭ 'instead of', anstataŭe 'instead', anstantaŭa 'substitute', anstataŭo 'a substitute', anstataŭi 'to replace', etc. (Rarely anstate, anstata, anstato, anstati.)" by replacing "rarely" to "not" and removing the parenthesis. However, my edit was reverted and I don't understand why. The words ''anstate, anstata, anstato, anstati'' are not part of Esperanto. I have never heard them in my entire life, there are 0 occurrences on tekstaro.com and, if someone uses them, they will be considered obvious mistakes. If ''anstate'' is worth mentioning on this article, then it should also be mentioned that ''ke'' can be a relative pronoun because many beginners make this mistake. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 11:14, 28 May 2015 (UTC)

:It's not a mistake, it's per Zamenhof. Never caught on, but still a possibility. — [[User:Kwamikagami|kwami]] ([[User talk:Kwamikagami|talk]]) 23:12, 25 October 2015 (UTC)

== ili ŝparis la arbojn hakotajn ==

Shouldn't this be "Ili ŝparis la arbojn hakigotajn", or "Ili sxparis la arbojn faligotajn" - or something? Anyway, somehow this sentence seems incorrect. I'd have difficulty coming up with a plan for trees chopping anything, so they're probably the recipients of the chopping. I'm still studying a basal reader in basic Esperanto at this point, so I don't know. I haven't gone over your userpages, so I don't know if there's an expert here. Is there an expert here? [[Special:Contributions/203.215.119.201|203.215.119.201]] ([[User talk:203.215.119.201|talk]]) 08:41, 22 April 2016 (UTC)

:The trees are going to be chopped, in this case — you probably read ''hakontajn'' — this user 14:28, 28 December 2017 (UTC)

== Ci ==

An IP user added "ci" to the table of personal pronouns and changed examples sentences with "vi" to replace it with "ci". I undid these changes because they imply that "ci" is normally used in Esperanto, which is misleading as this word is extremely rare and never used by the majority of Esperanto speakers. Yet the user added "ci" again several times, even after I added explanations in the "Pronouns" section about "ci", which should be enough in my opinion. They also put "Fixed typo" as an edit summary when the edit replaced "vi" with "ci" in example sentences, which I think is not very honest. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 15:13, 13 November 2017 (UTC)

:[[user:Funlinguist|Funlinguist]]: please stop editing until you and others interested have discussed the matters here! There's no point in doing edits others do not agree with, they will naturally be reverted by someone else sooner or later (and that will only cause all of us more job!). Also, if you haven't seen it yet, I would urge you to read my message at [[User talk:2600:1015:B001:5166:8D53:E4E4:70F1:CB8B]].
:First of all, Funlinguist, do you think "ci" is a commonly used pronoun in Esperanto? [[User:786r|786r]] ([[User talk:786r|talk]]) 23:32, 5 February 2018 (UTC)

Response from Funlinguist
Well, the pronoun "ci" is not very common in Esperanto, but I had proposed a compromise where "ci" could at least be kept in the table, but with a link to the below explanation, so that everyone would be happy. I know that this may be subjective, but the pronoun ci may enrich the language, because it makes good etymological sense ("ci" comes from French tu and similar pronouns for the informal singular, while "vi" comes from French vous and similar pronouns for the plural and formal singular), and also by better distinguishing second person singular and plural (the use of "you" in Enlgish does not justify using "vi" for everything at all, because English is the only (other) language to do such a thing). I speak Esperanto, and I for one use "ci" myself (and I am in an Esperanto group on WhatsApp, and some of them have used "ci" themselves also). So, I was hoping to get "ci" into widespread use. I have been making this edit not only on this Wikipedia, but also in the other language Wikipedias. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Funlinguist|Funlinguist]] ([[User talk:Funlinguist#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Funlinguist|contribs]]) 15:02, 6 February 2018 (UTC) 

:[[user:Funlinguist|Funlinguist]]: Thank you for your reply! I also speak Esperanto. I think the/a regular argument against "ci" is that you never really know when another culture consider you to be in a "close" situation or when being in a "formal" situation (here in Sweden, since the 60s we use the ci-variant for everybody, formal variants can be percieved as being rude in different ways). I think -iĉ- is a good idea. But all of this is besides the point.
:Wikipedia is intended to be a media communicating knowledge and facts, nothing more, in a neutral way, without taking any sides. Now the article gives examples of Esperanto using an extremely rare word, "ci", and states that the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' contains the following text: "5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''ci'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "vi", "ye", "you"; "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on")."
:Can you see any potential problems here?
:Regards, [[User:786r|786r]] ([[User talk:786r|talk]]) 00:00, 7 February 2018 (UTC)

Thank you for answering. The first issue is that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia that describes think ''as they are'', not as you want them to be. You are free to think that Esperanto would be better if people used ''ci'', ''-iĉo'' or whatever, but that is irrelevant: this article should describe the grammar of Esperanto ''as it is actually used by its speakers'', just like I expect the article [[French orthography]] to describe how French people spell their language, not how someone thinks it should be reformed.

Another issue is that some of the edits you made don't just promote your point of view, but simply spread false information. That includes changing quotes to make them agree with you ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=824136539&oldid=824136441 here] or [https://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pronomo&curid=8887&diff=6267704&oldid=6267303 here] or [https://es.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto%2FEjercicios%2FZamenhofa_ekzercaro_1&type=revision&diff=341191&oldid=285861 here]), [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=814092876&oldid=812341918 incorrect translations] (claiming that ''reĝo'' means "ruler" and not "king" contradicts pretty much every Esperanto dictionary ever and actual usage) and made-up words no-one uses ([https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=815104260&oldid=814092876 Johaniĉo]).

Now, ''ci'' does exist in Esperanto and definitely deserves ''some'' place in this article, the question is how much. Here are what all the sources I could find (textbooks, grammar books, dictionaries) have to say about ''ci'':
* The [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html grammar section] of the ''Fundamento'' does not mention ''ci''. The [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/ekzercaro.html exercise] #16 uses it, only to mention immediately that it is not normally used. It does appear in the [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/universala_vortaro.html Universala Vortaro].
* [http://vortaro.net/#ci PIV] says ''ci'' is very seldom used.
* [http://reta-vortaro.de/revo/art/ci.html#ci.0 Reta Vortaro] says "''ci'' and ''cia'' exist only in theory and are practically almost never used" and "many Esperantists do not understand the pronoun ''ci''".
* [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/personaj.html PMEG] does not mention it in it lists of personal pronouns, but mentions it in a remark (and says it exists in theory and is normally not used). The page about second-person pronouns has [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html#i-lrm a section about ''ci''] that says pretty much the same.
* ''Plena Analiza Gramatiko'' has only ''vi'' in its table of second-person pronouns, but has remark about ''ci'': it quotes Zamenhof saying it is almost never used and says "it is sometimes found in poetry, to translate nuances of national languages and in the expression ''ci-diri al iu''".
* I saw no sign of ''ci'' in ''Teach Yourself Esperanto'', either in the list of personal pronouns (Unit 2) or in the vocabulary lists at the end.
* In Assimil's ''L'Espéranto sans peine'', the grammar notes of lesson 14 mention ''ci'', but "its use is restricted because of the usage of international politeness". As far as I can tell, it is never mentioned again.
* ''Parlons espéranto'' first gives the rules from the ''Fundamento'' (so without ''ci''). The section about personal pronouns says about ''ci'' that it is used "only in translations and poetry".
* ''Esperanto: A Corpus Based Description'' by Christopher Gledhill gives ''ci'' in its pronoun table, in the column "Archaic". It then says it was intended to be used in translations, but Zamenhof discouraged its use; "There are no examples of ''ci'' in the corpus, although its use is attested among some reform-minded Esperantists."
* The grammar on [https://lernu.net/en/gramatiko/pronomoj lernu!] does not mention ''ci'' in its list of pronouns. There is a section about ''ci'' that says it "was never really practically used" and "In normal Esperanto, only the word ''vi'' has been in regular use as a pronoun for addressing others."
* [https://ikurso.esperanto-france.org/fr/cge/lec01.php?section=4 This online French course] says the second-person pronoun is "''vi'' (or ''ci'', seldom used)" and then never mentions it again.
* And, for what it's worth, my personal experience: I speak Esperanto everyday, both in real life and with friends online; I regularly attend international events and ''nobody'' uses ''ci''. If someone did, most people would either not understand them or find them weird. A hypothetical linguist doing fieldwork at [[Esperanto Youth Week]] or the [[International Youth Congress]] would probably never find out about the existence of the word ''ci''. The rare cases I have come across of people using ''ci'' were all online, except maybe two people I have met in real life (French people from [[Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda|SAT]]).

So, basically: people who use ''ci'' are a tiny minority and ''ci'' is not a part of the common usage of Esperanto. That's why I think ''ci'' should not be used in any example sentences, because that would be giving [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources and undue weight|undue weight]] to a minority element and that would be confusing for readers ([https://www.duolingo.com/comment/25013484 here is an example] of a reader confused by an edit that was probably yours).

I personally wouldn't include ''ci'' in the pronoun table, just like the first table given in [[English personal pronouns]] doesn't include "though" (although there are explanations about it later). If other contributors want to include it, I'd be okay with it, but it should at least say something like "'''vi''' or '''ci'''", because in the current state, the table implies that ''vi'' is only plural, which is not true. We can also leave the sentence that says some people use ''ci'', but it would be good to find a reliable source ([[Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources#User-generated content|another language edition of Wikipedia does not count]]).

Finally, my opinion about ''-iĉo'' is similar: some people may use it, but they are a small minority and it is non-standard. If you ask the vast majority of Esperanto speakers how to say "boy" in Esperanto, they will answer ''knabo'', not ''knabiĉo''. Using ''-iĉo'' in examples would be misleading. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 14:26, 8 February 2018 (UTC)

User talk:Funlinguist

2018-02-05T15:58:54Z

Mutichou: ←Created page with 'Instead of keeping editing Esperanto grammar (including [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=824136539&oldid=824136441 editing...'

Instead of keeping editing [[Esperanto grammar]] (including [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=824136539&oldid=824136441 editing quotes to make them agree with your point of view]), could you please react on [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution noticeboard#Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci]]? [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 15:58, 5 February 2018 (UTC)

User talk:208.70.40.2

2018-02-05T09:12:19Z

Mutichou: /* Dispute resolution request */ new section

Could you please stop pushing "ci" in the [[Esperanto grammar]] article? [https://esperanto.stackexchange.com/questions/1437/should-i-ever-use-the-pronoun-ci It is not part of the normal usage of Esperanto] and the remark I added in the pronoun section is enough. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 08:57, 13 November 2017 (UTC)

Please also do not make erroneous edits to other pages. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=T%E2%80%93V_distinction&curid=73511&diff=818433492&oldid=817456591 This] is contradicted by the later article, unsourced, unexplained and also ''wrong'', at least for Modern English. The same changes were made [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=T%E2%80%93V_distinction&diff=prev&oldid=814238205 here] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=T%E2%80%93V_distinction&diff=814445164&oldid=814267545 here], before, and were reverted then. I assume you are the same user and request that you ''stop it''. [[User:Throne3d|Throne3d]] ([[User talk:Throne3d|talk]]) 16:43, 3 January 2018 (UTC)

== January 2018 ==
[[File:Information orange.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Please do not introduce incorrect information into articles, as you did to [[:Esperanto grammar]]. Your edits could be interpreted as [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]] and have been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. If you believe the information you added was correct, please [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|cite references or sources]] or discuss the changes on the article's [[Wikipedia:Talk page guidelines|talk page]] before making them again. If you would like to experiment, use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. Thank you. [[User:Meiloorun|Meiloorun]] ([[User talk:Meiloorun|talk]]) 🍁 05:14, 5 January 2018 (UTC)
:''If this is a [[Network address translation|shared IP address]], and you did not make the edits, consider [[Wikipedia:Why create an account?|creating an account]] for yourself or [[Special:UserLogin|logging in with an existing account]] so you can avoid further irrelevant notices.''

== Please answer ==
Instead of keeping pushing your changes, could you please answer to people who are trying to get in touch with you, either in this page or [[Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci|in the talk page]] of the articles you are editing? [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 09:48, 6 January 2018 (UTC)

== Response ==
I am the IP user that keeps making the changes. I have tried to get in touch with the users by explaining why I did so, in the portion where I describe the edit that I made (how ci can help in number and formality distinction, just like a normal language). I know that the following statement may be subjective, but I think that the pronoun ci is great for Esperanto and I want other people to use it also (partly for etymological reasons). So, I am doing this change so that the other people learning Esperanto would be taught this way, and I feel that by undoing the changes, you are hindering my goal here. So, I request that you '''please allow the changes to stay'''. I do not have an account, so this is the best that I can do to get in touch with you (the users).
: According to many other users, "ci" does not exist in Esperanto. If something only exists in your mind, is not widely published, and cannot be verified by third party sources, then it is considered [[Wikipedia:No original research|original research]], which is not allowed on Wikipedia. I hope you understand that if you're trying to push your agenda, Wikipedia is not the place for that. [[User:Meiloorun|Meiloorun]] ([[User talk:Meiloorun|talk]]) 🍁 19:20, 6 January 2018 (UTC)
: The point of Wikipedia is to describe things as they are, not as you want them to be. Esperanto is a living language and the reality of Esperanto is that ''ci'' has never been widely used and people who use them are a tiny minority. (In 10 years of active use of Esperanto, I've met like 2 people who seriously use it and I've attended week-long events without hearing the word ''ci'' a single time - and the usual context is theoretical discussions about ''ci''. That's also what the citations in [[Esperanto grammar]] say: [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html#i-lrm] [http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm].) ''Ci'' deserves to be mentioned in specific articles as a remark, but putting it in pronoun tables and using ''ci'' in example sentences is misleading as it implies it is part of normal Esperanto usage. You have also added ''ci'' to quotes from the ''Fundamento'' where it has never been. [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 19:42, 6 January 2018 (UTC)
:: What I said about ''ci'' also applies to ''-iĉ-''. Although more used than ''ci'', it is unofficial and used only by a minority of speakers; words such as ''knabiĉo'' are very rare and ''Johaniĉo'' sounds like a joke (the only Google results for this word are Wikipedia pages you have edited). So please, could you stop pushing a fictional version of Esperanto in Esperanto-related articles? [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 09:49, 1 February 2018 (UTC)

== Dispute resolution request ==

I have added [[Wikipedia:Dispute_resolution_noticeboard#Talk:Esperanto_grammar#Ci|a request in the dispute resolution noticeboard]], could you please react to it? [[User:Mutichou|Mutichou]] ([[User talk:Mutichou|talk]]) 09:12, 5 February 2018 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Dispute resolution noticeboard

2018-02-05T09:08:29Z

Mutichou: /* Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci */ new section

<noinclude>{{Pp-move-indef}}</noinclude>
{{redirect-distinguish|WP:DRN|WP:DNR}}
{{Wikipedia:Dispute resolution noticeboard/Header}}
{{User:MiszaBot/config
|archiveheader = {{Archivemainpage|Wikipedia:Dispute resolution noticeboard}}
|maxarchivesize = 200K
|counter = 160
|minthreadsleft = 1
|minthreadstoarchive = 1
|algo = old(48h)
|archive = Wikipedia:Dispute resolution noticeboard/Archive %(counter)d
}}
[[Category:Dispute resolution noticeboard‎]]
[[Category:Non-talk pages that are automatically signed]]
[[Category:Pages that should not be manually archived]]
{{Noindex}}{{User:HBC Archive Indexerbot/OptIn|target=Wikipedia:Dispute resolution noticeboard/Archive index|mask=Wikipedia:Dispute resolution noticeboard/Archive<#>|leading_zeros=0|indexhere=no}}

=Current disputes=

== Talk:Selsey#Climate Edit War ==

{{DR case status|resolved}}
{{User:ClueBot III/DoNotArchiveUntil|1517739467}}
{{drn filing editor|Djm-leighpark|10:17, 21 January 2018 (UTC)}}
{{DRN archive top|Resolved. Thanks to the participating editors. [[User:Robert McClenon|Robert McClenon]] ([[User talk:Robert McClenon|talk]]) 05:03, 4 February 2018 (UTC)}}
'''Have you discussed this on a talk page?'''

Yes, I have discussed this issue on a talk page already.

'''Location of dispute'''
* {{pagelinks|Talk:Selsey#Climate Edit War}}
'''Users involved'''
* {{User|Djm-leighpark}}
* {{User|10 December 2017}}
* {{User|Wilfridselsey}}
* {{User|SovalValtos}}
* {{User|Charlesdrakew}}
* {{User|Dan Koehl}}
'''Dispute overview'''

The issue involves the a weather box for Selsey that was added as far as I can tell 29 August 2017 and expanded 22 October 2017. The box has been subject to removal and inclusion since. The data appears to come from 5km grid extrapolated data from the met office, there being no weather station in Selsey. How to write about UK Settlements guidance seems to be for use of climate box if there is local data. Though practice seems to be to use or also use a climate box if there is a weather station in the area. Arguments against use of weather box include undue weight, WP:UNDUE, maintenance effort, and against UK guidelines.

'''Have you tried to resolve this previously?'''

Observed edit warring in progress and attempted to raise discussion. Concensus is unlikely to be reached and I have moved to a non neutral position onto how with would go.

'''How do you think we can help?'''

Provide a neutral discussion as to whether a weather box is appropriate.

==== Summary of dispute by 10 December 2017 ====
Just look at the difference between the Bognor Regis and Selsey weather boxes. The averages in the Selsey weather box, calculated from the 5x5 km grid squares, reflect Selsey's more exposed position which means lower summer temperatures, higher winter temperatures, more wind and more sunshine. Although it forms part of the data, Selsey's weather box does not simply use Bognor Regis data. As I've said before, the fact that it is in the sunniest grid square warrants a weather box so that all extremes of the UK climate are covered. It would be good to do this for the warmest and the driest places too for example.--[[User:10 December 2017|10 December 2017]] ([[User talk:10 December 2017|talk]]) 16:58, 21 January 2018 (UTC)

==== Summary of dispute by Wilfridselsey ====
The problem for me is that a weather box just provides a load of data. IMO most people will find this meaningless unless there is some sort of analysis to support it. Also I think that is important to state that the data, was provided by a weather station, that is not located in Selsey. In other parts of the country the fact that the data came from a neighbouring weather station wouldn't skew the data significantly, however as Selsey is a promontory in the English Channel means that the weather, in Selsey, can be strongly influenced by sea conditions. It would not be possible for the weather station in Bognor to detect this.

==== Summary of dispute by SovalValtos ====
Climate in Selsey is best covered in text which can explain and clarify the context. The table gives undue weight to detailed figures which are not even measured data, just being synthesised for a grid square which includes part of Selsey, and which are derived by interpolation and regression. I am not sure where the further calculation of averages come from, WP:OR?. Tables with genuine data from weather stations in a region can be linked from settlements without one. They should not be included in settlement articles where there is no weather station. Including a table as a guide to holiday makers is not a convincing argument.[[User:SovalValtos|SovalValtos]] ([[User talk:SovalValtos|talk]]) 05:16, 22 January 2018 (UTC)

==== Summary of dispute by Charlesdrakew ====
<div style="font-size:smaller">Please keep it brief - less than 2000 characters if possible, it helps us help you quicker.</div>
This discussion could have been resolved at the article talk page, with a request for comment perhaps. I concur with Wilfredselsey and we usually cover climate on county articles rather that for every settlement. If Selsey is outstandingly sunny that can be stated in prose with a suitable source. It does not justify including a mass of detailed data not even specific to the settlement.[[User:Charlesdrakew|Charles]] ([[User talk:Charlesdrakew|talk]]) 19:36, 21 January 2018 (UTC)

==== Summary of dispute by Dan Koehl ====
Being involved through [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Selsey&diff=prev&oldid=819726767 my revert 11 januari 2018], after which I double checked the sources, and actually didnt find anything supporting the mentioned weather box, but unfortunately forgot about the issue. I now therefore agree with [[User:Djm-leighpark]], on a removal of the weather box and move climate section to subsection of geography. I would therefore back the weatherbox out. I think its good, that this issue was brought to [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution]], in order to support later, similair actions of removing POV claims of climate changes, which are not really supported by relevant sources. [[User:Dan Koehl|Dan Koehl]] ([[User talk:Dan Koehl|talk]]) 14:27, 21 January 2018 (UTC)

=== Talk:Selsey#Climate Edit War discussion ===
<div style="font-size:smaller">Please keep discussion to a minimum before being opened by a volunteer. Continue on article talk page if necessary.</div>

====First statement by moderator====
I will try to act as the moderator here. I see multiple editors, and will direct all of them to [[User:Robert McClenon/Mediation Rules|the mediation rules]]. It appears that some editors want to include a weather box and others do not. Is that correct? Are there any other issues? [[User:Robert McClenon|Robert McClenon]] ([[User talk:Robert McClenon|talk]]) 12:01, 22 January 2018 (UTC)

====First statements by editors====

.Yes that is absolutely correct--[[User:10 December 2017|10 December 2017]] ([[User talk:10 December 2017|talk]]) 16:14, 22 January 2018 (UTC)

.For practical purposes I would say that is correct. However if the same data was presented but not using a weatherbox we be likely have most of the same issues as mentioned above and on the talk page.[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 17:31, 22 January 2018 (UTC)

.As an additional concern I have come to suspect we ''may'' have Wikipedia content copied from UKCP09 (5km) gridded observation datasets source under (UK) Open Government Licence but not appropriately attributed in breach of licence. However some might argue this may or may not be a problem depending on how the Met office web site is navigated and I may have misinterpreted this. In all events my understanding is this would be likely resolvable by correct attributions etc. if necessary.[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 17:31, 22 January 2018 (UTC)

====Second statement by moderator====
It appears that the issue is whether to include a weather box in the article. What this noticeboard tries to do is to facilitate resolution of content disputes by compromise, but I don't know of a compromise between having a weather box and not having one. Therefore the most reasonable solution is probably a [[WP:RFC|Request for Comments]]. Are there any other thoughts as to what to do next? Is there agreement that a [[WP:RFC|Request for Comments]] allowing both existing editors and new editors to express their opinions and state their reasons is the way forward? Will each editor who has an idea for the weather box please prepare a draft weather box. If we get more than one proposal, we can choose between them. If there are any other ideas, please present them within 36 hours. [[User:Robert McClenon|Robert McClenon]] ([[User talk:Robert McClenon|talk]]) 01:29, 24 January 2018 (UTC)

====Second statements by editors====

@moderator. Interim stages between weatherbox and no weatherbox could be:
* Reduction in number of rows in the weatherbox
* Set collapse = yes parameter so the weatherbox initially renders collapsed.
* Use of a [[Template:Climate chart]]. Suggested by [[User:SovalValtos]] in the discussion on the Selsey talk page and the template suggested on [[WP:WikiProject_UK_geography/How_to_write_about_settlements#Geography]]. An example of a climate chart can be seen at [[Bognor Regis#Climate]].
* [[WP:WikiProject_UK_geography/How_to_write_about_settlements#Geography]] also suggests use of a separate article where climate data is extensive.
Unfortunately all but the last above are ways of presenting the data in the weatherbox differently and most key objections revolve around the sourcing, applicability, usage and sustainability of the data so I personally and not minded to judge any of those possible compromises as acceptable. (Incidently I'm not sure if moving to a different article would be good either).[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 06:29, 24 January 2018 (UTC)

@moderator. I am ok with going for RfC if necessary at this stage ... especially as suggested by yourself and [[User:Charlesdrakew]] (obviously though I prefer it is resolved here).
Indeed I was initially unsure of which direction to forward the dispute and accept I may have made a suboptimal choice. [[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 06:37, 24 January 2018 (UTC)

:Just to correct [[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] I have not suggested a [[Template:Climate chart]] in talk and I do not think it is anyone's first preference. Noone has said that text will not do. The editor who likes a chart [[User talk:10 December 2017|10 December 2017]] has also said in this edit [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3ASelsey&type=revision&diff=821130366&oldid=821100479] that they are 'open to having a discussion about the weather box'. Could they consider that it might be possible to include the information about sunshine hours in text or with links without a weather box? Otherwise, if this cannot be resolved here, I am I am happy to be guided by those who are experienced in these processes as to what to do next.[[User:SovalValtos|SovalValtos]] ([[User talk:SovalValtos|talk]]) 11:38, 25 January 2018 (UTC)
====Third statement by moderator====
First, is everyone willing to compromise on text? If everyone is willing to compromise on text, we resolve the dispute by compromising on text. If even one editor does not agree to that compromise, then we use the RFC.

Second, does anyone think that "nothing" is an option, or do we agree that we use either a box or text?

Third, if we go with the RFC, the two obvious options are the box and text. Are there any more options to list?

Fourth, does anyone object to the RFC? If so, they should state what the objection is, and it will likely be considered and ignored.

[[User:Robert McClenon|Robert McClenon]] ([[User talk:Robert McClenon|talk]]) 23:12, 25 January 2018 (UTC)

====Third statements by editors====

@moderator: I am happy for that to be in text/prose ''provided supported by suitable source''. I am a little concerned about about a dataset being regarded as a suitable source should the analysis of it being regarded as Original Research. In simple terms the Met office publishes the tables for the (weather station) at Bognor Regis through a public web interface [https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcp8bswvw see averages tab for Bognor]. For Selsey this is provdided by downloadable [https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climatechange/science/monitoring/ukcp09/download/longterm/fivekm_monthly.html 5km grid datasets] and I would caution analysis of these datasets ''might'' be regarded as Original Research. So if we were to use the existing citation with the sentence: ''Over the period 1981-2010 Selsey averaged monthly sunshine hours of 262.6 in July'' <ref name=meanSunshine>{{OGL-attribution|{{cite web
| url = https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climatechange/science/monitoring/ukcp09/download/longterm/fivekm_monthly.html
| title = Selsey Climate Period: 1981–2010
| publisher = Met Office
| accessdate = 14 January 2018}} }}</ref> that probably would NOT suffice as a suitable reference if I understand correctly.[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 00:08, 26 January 2018 (UTC)

:The dataset is not original research. It is a primary source, the use of which to draw conclusions in the article may be original research. Articles should mostly be written in prose and mainly from secondary sources. I therefor support sticking to text.[[User:Charlesdrakew|Charles]] ([[User talk:Charlesdrakew|talk]]) 09:26, 26 January 2018 (UTC)
::I agree with [[User:Charlesdrakew|Charles]] . [[User:Wilfridselsey|Wilfridselsey]] ([[User talk:Wilfridselsey|talk]]) 09:52, 26 January 2018 (UTC)

:::I am happy to compromise on text.
:::I hope I am not straying too far by saying that a primary source dataset for a specific 5km square is NOT specific to the settlement. I doubt the Met Office say it is, given Selsey is partly in four such squares over-lapping its and neighbouring areas.[[User:SovalValtos|SovalValtos]] ([[User talk:SovalValtos|talk]]) 20:15, 26 January 2018 (UTC)

====Fourth statement by moderator====
It appears that everyone is willing to compromise on text. If no one objects, we have resolution to compromise on text. If there is any objection, we will use the RFC. [[User:Robert McClenon|Robert McClenon]] ([[User talk:Robert McClenon|talk]]) 01:31, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
====Fourth statements by editors====
OK.[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 06:56, 28 January 2018 (UTC)
{{reflist-talk}}

====Fifth statement by moderator====
It seems that we have agreement to compromise on text. Will some editor please write the proposed text about the weather? We can then close this thread unless there is disagreement about the wording of the text. [[User:Robert McClenon|Robert McClenon]] ([[User talk:Robert McClenon|talk]]) 00:36, 30 January 2018 (UTC)

====Fifth statements by editors====

@moderator: As a startpoint I suggest the wording of the Climate section is as follows whilst remaining open to alternative suggestions:
:{{See also|Climate of the United Kingdom}}
:Selsey's climate is classified as warm and temperate.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100601115854/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at:80/pdf/Paper_2006.pdf World Map of the [[Köppen-Geiger]] climate classification updated.] Retrieved 15 January 2018</ref> Although Selsey is situated in the sunniest part of the UK,<ref>[https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcp2tgpns#averagesMapsthere Average Maps] Retrieved 15 January 2018</ref> there is rainfall throughout the year and even the driest month still has rain.<ref>[https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcp2tgpns#averagesTable Selsey Climate] Retrieved: 15 January 2018.</ref> Probably the most problematic climatic hazard is wind.<ref> Gardiner and Matthews. The Changing Geography of the UK p. 362</ref> The town is situated in an area where [[Tornado|tornadoes]] and [[Waterspout|waterspouts]] are common.<ref name=doe73>Doe. Extreme Weather. pp.73-74</ref> A tornado in 1986 damaged 200 houses and cut a swathe 70 metres wide. <ref name=bbcnews>''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/45580.stm Town picks up the pieces after tornado]'' [[BBC News]] 9 January 1998 retrieved 19 September 2010</ref> Another tornado in 1998 left an estimated £10m of destruction and damaged [[Patrick Moore]]'s observatory.<ref name=bbcnews />
[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 05:56, 30 January 2018 (UTC)
.
{{reflist-talk}}
::@moderator: [[User:Djm-leighpark]]'s suggested text is a good start. I have a concern about the use of the Ref 2. Averages Map source. Has it been added correctly? It leads to a Met Office site page where there is nothing to suggest Selsey is 'in the sunniest part of the UK'. Moving within the site to another page 'Sunshine - Annual average: 1971-2000' [https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate/gcp2tgpns#?region=uk] there is a map from which it is reasonable to deduce that Selsey is in one of the sunnier parts (Pembrokeshire and Norfolk having others). I would prefer the text to read "Selsey is in in one of the sunnier areas of the UK". Without scrupulously careful wording in Climate sections problems can arise.[[User:SovalValtos|SovalValtos]] ([[User talk:SovalValtos|talk]]) 22:36, 30 January 2018 (UTC)
::@moderator: Just to confirm I simply took the text directly from the existing article (without thinking too much about it). Especially after quick google I am tending to go with [[User:SovalValtos]] unless say [[User:Charlesdrakew]] has better suggestion.[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 23:01, 30 January 2018 (UTC)
:::I wrote the original text and inserted the Met Office climate table ref. My feeling was that it was a fairly easy reference to understand. Bognor is classed as the sunniest spot and [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/weather/8593378/Bognor-Regis-the-sunniest-spot-in-Britain.html W.Sussex the sunniest county] based on Met Office stats, so we can say that 'Selsey is in the sunniest part of the UK'. However, my original thought was for simplicity, and if any reader wanted to do some more research then the link that we provide to that Met office page, would enable them to do that. So I would be quite happy to go with [[User:SovalValtos|SovalValtos]]'s wording. [[User:Wilfridselsey|Wilfridselsey]] ([[User talk:Wilfridselsey|talk]]) 11:25, 31 January 2018 (UTC)

====Sixth statement by moderator====
I will change one of the ground rules, since there has been civil discourse between the editors, and allow the editors to talk to each other as well as to me. Please continue the discussion about the text about the weather. [[User:Robert McClenon|Robert McClenon]] ([[User talk:Robert McClenon|talk]]) 16:40, 31 January 2018 (UTC)
====Sixth statements by editors====
I think it's the weather box that's the issue not the text? As has been pointed out Selsey could do with a Geography section, with climate being part of that, also I would suggest that we need something about coastal erosion and the managed retreat not to mention the [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0713/18072013-Medmerry-UCL-archaeology archaeology]. I am quite confident that that would be developed without dispute, maybe a bit of tweaking. But weatherbox?[[User:Wilfridselsey|Wilfridselsey]] ([[User talk:Wilfridselsey|talk]]) 10:15, 2 February 2018 (UTC)
:Totally agree. I think the text can be done and is best done under normal editing collaboration. There's a bit on the notable Medmerry managed realignment scheme in the [[Bracklesham Bay]] article and (I could go on and on and on like I normally do ...) ... but these are things under normal collaborative editing which I think we normally do quite well. Believe we should go with the round five amendment with no weatherbox and get out of DRN and create a Geography if/when we need to later outside of DRN.[[User:Djm-leighpark|Djm-leighpark]] ([[User talk:Djm-leighpark|talk]]) 15:09, 2 February 2018 (UTC)
::Time to move on. No weather box and Met Office sources must not be asked to support wording that they will not bear, like any other source.[[User:SovalValtos|SovalValtos]] ([[User talk:SovalValtos|talk]]) 15:53, 3 February 2018 (UTC)
{{DRN archive bottom}}

== Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci ==

{{DR case status}}
{{User:ClueBot III/DoNotArchiveUntil|1519031309}}
{{drn filing editor|Mutichou|09:08, 5 February 2018 (UTC)}}

'''Have you discussed this on a talk page?'''

Yes, I have discussed this issue on a talk page already.

'''Location of dispute'''
* {{pagelinks|Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci}}
'''Users involved'''
* {{User|Mutichou}}
* {{User|Funlinguist}}
'''Dispute overview'''

Hi, this is my first experience with dispute resolution so I hope I'm in the right place.

For months, there has been an IP user whose main hobby is editing Esperanto-related articles (especially [[Esperanto grammar]]) to promote his point of view on how the language should be.

The involved IPs are: [[Special:Contributions/208.70.40.2|208.70.40.2]], [[Special:Contributions/2600:1015:B001:5166:8D53:E4E4:70F1:CB8B|2600:1015:B001:5166:8D53:E4E4:70F1:CB8B]], [[Special:Contributions/2601:805:C002:6420:1DB:A660:733B:1B80|2601:805:C002:6420:1DB:A660:733B:1B80]], [[Special:Contributions/2600:1015:B02E:9BEE:BDA6:8123:C35E:C479|2600:1015:B02E:9BEE:BDA6:8123:C35E:C479]], [[Special:Contributions/2600:1015:B008:AB42:81F3:2956:1A7B:7F9C|2600:1015:B008:AB42:81F3:2956:1A7B:7F9C]], [[Special:Contributions/Funlinguist|Funlinguist]] (he created an account once after I contacted him), etc.

His activity, by the way, is not limited to the English-language Wikipedia: [https://tools.wmflabs.org/guc/?user=208.70.40.2 global contributions].

For those who are not familiar with Esperanto, his main goal is adding ''ci'' in articles about Esperanto - a second-person singular pronoun that theoretically exists but has never been widely used and, for all intents and purposes, does not exist in the language as it is used. That would be like me replacing "you" with "thou" in all example sentences given in [[English grammar]] - maybe not exactly wrong, but misleading as it would imply that it is part of normal usage and it would be confusing for the readers (which [https://www.duolingo.com/comment/25013484/the-pronoun-ci it is], by the way).

The user's edit record include putting "[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=prev&oldid=810180532 Fixed typo]" as an edit summary when it was more than that and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Esperanto_grammar&diff=824063189&oldid=824063092 editing a quote] to add words that were never in it.

'''Have you tried to resolve this previously?'''

I first [[Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci|discussed it in the talk page]], but nobody replied. Then I left a message in [[User talk:208.70.40.2]], and another one, and finally, the user replied to me, but then continued editing as before and never answered another message. I have also left a message in [[User talk:2600:1015:B001:5166:8D53:E4E4:70F1:CB8B]] that has been ignored, and other users have messaged him in the same talk pages.

'''How do you think we can help?'''

I'm hoping the other user is willing to discuss the issue if other people try to get in touch with him.

==== Summary of dispute by Funlinguist ====
<div style="font-size:smaller">Please keep it brief - less than 2000 characters if possible, it helps us help you quicker.</div>

=== Talk:Esperanto grammar#Ci discussion ===
<div style="font-size:smaller">Please keep discussion to a minimum before being opened by a volunteer. Continue on article talk page if necessary.</div>

Esperanto grammar

2018-02-05T08:35:56Z

Mutichou: "ci" was never in the quote you edited, please stop spreading false information

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, one often says that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule<ref>http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html</ref> of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: ''mi'', "I"; ''vi'', "thou", "you"; ''li'', "he"; ''ŝi'', "she"; ''ĝi'', "it"; ''si'', "self"; ''ni'', "we"; ''ili'', "they"; ''oni'', "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| colspan=2 | '''vi'''{{ref|1|1}} (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter or [[wikt:epicene|epicene]]
| '''ĝi''' (it, s/he)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|¹}} Zamenhof has introduced a singular second-person pronoun, ''ci'', to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it"; third person neutral) is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. According to Zamenhof it's also the [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown, is in-between 'male' and 'female', or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> This means that people who speak [[Grammatical gender|gender]]-less languages such as Turkish or Finnish, which have common word pronoun for third person regardless of gender, can continue to use neuter gender third person pronoun in Esperanto. It also means that reference to any intersex or gender-queer person would use third person neuter gender pronoun.

However, in popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Ci faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' comes precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]

Esperantido

2018-02-05T08:34:11Z

Mutichou: Undid revision 820621061 by 208.70.40.2 (talk) unjustified changes

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Criticism}}

An '''Esperantido''' is a [[constructed language]] derived from [[Esperanto]]. ''Esperantido'' originally referred to the language which is now known as [[Ido (language)|Ido]]. The word ''Esperantido'' is derived from ''Esperanto'' plus the affix ''-id-'' (''-ido''), which means a "child (''born to a parent''), young (''of an animal'') or offspring" (''ido''). Hence, ''Esperantido'' literally means an "offspring or descendant of Esperanto".

A number of Esperantidos have been created to address a number of perceived flaws or weaknesses in Esperanto, or in other Esperantidos, attempting to improve their [[Esperanto vocabulary|lexicon]], [[Esperanto grammar|grammar]], [[Esperanto phonology|pronunciation]], and [[Esperanto orthography|orthography]]. Others were created as language games or to add variety to [[Esperanto literature]].

==Language reforms==
These attempted improvements were intended to replace Esperanto. Limited suggestions for improvement within the framework of Esperanto, such as orthographic reforms and [[riism]], are not considered Esperantidos.{{refn|Some of the more common letter substitutions are:<ref name="Pitt1987">{{cite web |url=http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j5/lords.php#esp |title=The Spelling of Esperanto |work=Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society |date=1987 |page=13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309185238/http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j5/lords.php#esp |archive-date=9 March 2013 |dead-url=yes |first=Arnold D. N. |last=Pitt |volume=5 |issue=2 |issn=0950-9585 |df= }}</ref>
*The English and French values of ''ts'', ''w'', and ''y'' for ''c'', ''ŭ'', and ''j'', and either English ''zh'' and ''j'' or French ''j'' and ''dj'' for ''ĵ'' and ''ĝ''
*''X'' for ''ĥ'', reflecting its use in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and the [[IPA]]; other proposals [[Esperanto phonology#Loss of phonemic ĥ|follow common usage]] and eliminate the rare letter ''ĥ'' entirely, and use ''x'' for ''ks'' and ''kz''
*''Qu'' for ''kv''
*Single letters for the fricatives and digraphs for the affricates. Generally in such proposals ''j'' and ''dj'' stand in for ''ĵ'' and ''ĝ'' ({{IPAblink|ʒ}} and {{IPAblink|dʒ|}}). For ''ŝ'' and ''ĉ'' ({{IPAblink|ʃ}} and {{IPAblink|tʃ|}}), there are two principal approaches, either ''c'' or ''x'' for ''ŝ'' and therefore either ''tc'' or ''tx'' for ''ĉ.'' The ''c, tc'' approach is reminiscent of French ''ch, tch'' for the same values, while the ''x, tx'' approach is found in [[Basque language|Basque]] and to a lesser extent in [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (with ''tx'' in native Brazilian names).}}

===Mundolinco===
{{Main|Mundolinco}}
''Mundolinco'' (1888) was the first Esperantido, created in 1888. Changes from Esperanto include combining the adjective and adverb under the suffix ''-e'', loss of the accusative and adjectival agreement, changes to the verb conjugations, eliminating the diacritics, and bringing the vocabulary closer to Latin, for example with superlative ''-osim-'' to replace the Esperanto particle ''plej'' "most".

===Reformed Esperanto===
{{Main|Reformed Esperanto}}
Zamenhof himself proposed [[Reformed Esperanto|several changes in the language]] in 1894, which were rejected by the Esperanto community and subsequently abandoned by Zamenhof himself.

===Ido===
{{Ido sidebar |expanded=Related}}
{{Main|Ido language}}
[[Ido (language)|Ido]] (1907), the foremost of the Esperantidos, sought to bring Esperanto into closer alignment with Western European expectations of an ideal language, based on familiarity with [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]], and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Reforms included changing the spelling by removing non-[[Roman alphabet|Roman]] letters such as ''ĉ'' and re-introducing the [[k/q dichotomy]]; removing a couple of the more obscure phonemic contrasts (one of which, {{IPA|[x]}}, has been [[Esperanto phonology#Loss of phonemic ĥ|effectively removed]] from standard Esperanto); ending the infinitives in ''-r'' and the plurals in ''-i'' like Italian; eliminating adjectival agreement, and removing the need for the accusative case by setting up a fixed default word order; reducing the amount of inherent gender in the vocabulary, providing a masculine suffix and an [[epicene]] third-person singular pronoun; replacing the pronouns and correlatives with forms more similar to the [[Romance languages]]; adding new roots where Esperanto uses the [[antonym]]ic prefix ''mal-''; replacing much of Esperanto's other regular derivation with separate roots, which are thought to be easier for Westerners to remember; and replacing much of the Germanic and Slavic vocabulary with Romance forms, such as ''navo'' for English-derived ''ŝipo''. See the [[#idopatronia|Ido ''Pater noster'' below]].

Ido spawned its own idos, the first being [[Adjuvilo]] (1908), which was created by an Esperantist to sow dissent in the Ido community.

===Saussure===
[[René de Saussure]] (brother of linguist [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]) published numerous Esperantido proposals, starting with a response to Ido later called ''Antido 1'' ("Anti-Ido 1") in 1907, which increasingly diverged from Esperanto before finishing with a more conservative [[Esperanto II]] in 1937. Esperanto II replaced ''j'' with ''y'', ''kv'' with ''q'', ''kz'' with ''x'', and diacritic letters with ''j'' (''ĵ'' and ''ĝ''), ''w'' (''ŭ''), and digraphs ''sh'' (''ŝ''), ''ch'' (''ĉ''); replaced the passive in ''-iĝ-'' with ''-ev-'', the indefinite ending ''-aŭ'' with adverbial ''-e'', the accusative ''-on'' on nouns with ''-u'', and the plural on nouns with ''-n'' (so ''membrun'' for ''membrojn'' "members"); dropped adjectival agreement; broke up the table of concords, changed other small grammatical words such as ''ey'' for ''kaj'' "and", and treated pronouns more like nouns, so that the plural of ''li'' "he" is ''lin'' rather than ''ili'' "they", and the accusative of ''ĝi'' "it" is ''ju''.

===Romániço===
{{main|Romániço}}
Romániço (1991) is designed to be more intuitive for native speakers of English. It replaces vocabulary and some grammar with Romance constructions, allows a somewhat more irregular orthography, and eliminates some criticized points such as case, adjectival agreement, verbal inflection for tense and mood, and inherent gender, but retains the ''o, a, e'' suffixes for parts of speech and an agglutinative morphology. It is intended as a compromise between Esperanto and naturalistic conlangs such as Interlingua.

===Esperanto sen Fleksio===
''Esperanto sen Fleksio'' (Esperanto without inflexion),<ref name="herezono">[http://www.herezono.com/esperanto_sen_fleksio.html Esperanto sen fleksio]</ref> proposed under this name by Richard Harrison in 1996<ref>Kennaway, Richard; [http://www2.cmp.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/conlang.html Some Internet resources relating to constructed languages]; 7 January 2005; retrieved on 29 July 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.allverbs.com/language.php?id=63213 Esperanto sen Fleksio]{{dead|date=December 2017}}; Allverbs; retrieved on 29 July 2008</ref><ref>[http://languages.miensk.com/Lang_other/Artificial/Artificial1.htm МОВЫ СВЕТУ]; Languages of the world; retrieved on 29 July 2008</ref> but based on long-term complaints from Asian Esperantists, is an experimental and unfinished proposal for a morphologically reduced variety of Esperanto.<ref>{{cite book|title=Daughters of Esperanto |first=Alan |last=Libert |publisher=Lincom |year=2008 |isbn=978-3895867484}}</ref> The main changes are:<ref name="Harrison2004">{{cite web |url=http://www.rickharrison.com/language/esf.html |title=Esperanto sen Fleksio |work=Artificial Language Lab |date=2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716230530/http://www.rickharrison.com/language/esf.html |archive-date=16 July 2012 |dead-url=yes |first=Rick |last=Harrison |df= }}</ref><ref name="Desquilbet2004">{{cite web |url=http://jerome.desquilbet.org/pages/256/ |title=Esperanto sen Fleksio |work= |date=25 November 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004180658/http://jerome.desquilbet.org/pages/256/ |archive-date=4 October 2011 |dead-url=yes |first=Jérôme |last=Desquilbet |language=fr |df= }}</ref>

*Loss of the [[plural]] (the suffix ''-j),'' except in the new plural definite article ''laj'' (short for ''la jo'') and possibly in a plural accusative preposition ''naj''; singular number is marked by ''unu'' or ''la'', plural by the new words ''jo'' and ''laj'' (''la jo'') (and maybe ''naj'')
*Replacement of the [[accusative case]] (the suffix ''-n)'' with either subject–verb–object word order or with a new preposition ''na'' for other word orders
*Loss of [[verb tense]]: past, present, and future are all subsumed under the [[infinitive verb|infinitive]] ending ''-i'', though the imperative, conditional, and a single active and passive participle (''-anta'' and ''-ita'') remain
*Shift from copula-plus-adjective to verb, for example ''boni'' instead of ''esti bona''

In an earlier version, the letter ''ŭ'' was replaced with ''w'', but the more recent version uses the same alphabet as regular Esperanto.<ref name="herezono" />

===Poliespo===
{{Main|Poliespo}}
While most Esperantidos aim to simplify Esperanto, ''[[Poliespo]]'' ("[[polysynthetic]] Esperanto", {{circa|1993}}) makes it considerably more complex. Besides the polysynthetic morphology, it incorporates much of the phonology and vocabulary of the [[Cherokee language]]. It has fourteen vowels, six of them [[nasal vowel|nasalized]], and three [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]s.

==Esperantidos for amusement==
There are also extensions of Esperanto created primarily for amusement.

===Universal===
{{Main|Universal (Esperantido)}}
One of the more interesting Esperantidos, grammatically, is ''Universal'' (1923–1928).<ref>[http://www.math.bas.bg/~iad/univers.html Universal ]</ref> It adds a [[schwa]] to break up consonant clusters, marks the accusative case with a nasal vowel, has [[Clusivity|inclusive and exclusive pronouns]], uses partial [[reduplication]] for the plural (''tablo'' "table", ''tatablo'' "tables"), and inversion for [[antonym]]s (''mega'' "big", ''gema'' "little"; ''donu'' "give", ''nodu'' "receive"; ''tela'' "far", ''leta'' "near"). Inversion can be seen in:
::''Al gefinu o fargu kaj la egnifu o grafu.''
::He finished reading [''<abbr title="literally">lit</abbr>''. 'to read'] and she started to write.

The antonyms are ''al'' "he" and ''la'' "she" (compare ''li'' "s/he"), the ''ge-'' (completive) and ''eg-'' (inchoative) [[aspect (linguistics)|aspects]], ''fin-'' "to finish" and ''nif-'' "to begin", and ''graf-'' "to write" and ''farg-'' "to read".

The ''Universal'' reduplicated plural and inverted antonyms are reminiscent of the musical language [[Solresol]].

===Esperant’===
''Esperant’'' ({{circa|1998}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.meeuw.org/esperant/esperant.html |title=Lernu je Esperant' |publisher=Meeuw.org |date=1999-05-17 |accessdate=2013-10-01}}</ref> is a style of speech that twists but does not quite violate the grammar of Esperanto.

The changes are morphological:
* The nominal suffix ''-o'' is removed, as in poetry. ''Knabo'' becomes ''knab’.''
* The plural ending ''-oj'' is replaced with the collective suffix ''-ar-.'' ''Knaboj'' becomes ''knabar’.''
* Adjectives lose their ''-a'' suffixes and combine with their head nouns. ''Bela knabino'' becomes ''belknabin’.''
* In direct objects, the accusative suffix ''-n'' is replaced with the preposition ''je.'' ''Knabon'' becomes ''je knab’.''
* Verbs become nouns, and their erstwhile tense and mood suffixes move elsewhere:
**This may be an adverb or [[prepositional phrase]]: ''donu hodiaŭ'' becomes ''hodiaŭu don’,'' and ''estas en la ĉielo'' becomes ''est’ ĉielas.''
**If the verb contains a [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]] suffix, this may detach from the verb: ''fariĝu'' becomes ''iĝu far’.''
**If none of these options is available, ''jen'' may be used as a placeholder: ''amas'' becomes ''jenas am’.'' The choice of where the tense suffix ends up is largely a stylistic choice.
* Subjects of the erstwhile verb take the preposition ''de'' if nouns, or become possessives if pronouns: ''knabo amas'' becomes ''am’ de knab’,'' and ''kiu estas'' becomes ''kies est’.''
* The article ''la'' becomes ''l’'' whenever the preceding word ends in a vowel.

Example:
:Boys love the pretty girl.

:Esperanto: Knaboj amas la belan knabinon.

:''Esperant’:'' Jenas am’ de knabar’ je l’ belknabin’.

Literally, "Behold (the) love of group of boys to the pretty-girl."

See the [[#esperantnipatr|Esperant’ ''Pater noster'' below]].

==Esperanto specializations==
There are various projects to adapt Esperanto to specialized uses. ''[[Esperanto de DLT]]'' (1983) is one; it was an adaptation of Esperanto as a [[pivot language]] for [[machine translation]].

==Esperantidos used in literature==
Esperanto has little in the way of the [[slang]], [[dialect]]ical variation, or [[archaism]]s found in natural languages. Several authors have felt a need for such variation, either for effect in original literature, or to translate such variation from national literature.

===Dialects ===
Occasionally, reform projects have been used by Esperanto authors to play the role of dialects, for example standard Esperanto and Ido to translate a play written in two dialects of Italian.

=== La Sociolekta Triopo ===
Halvelik (1973) created ''[[:eo:Popido|Popido]]'' ("Popular Idiom") to play the role of a substandard [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of Esperanto that, among other things, does away with much of Esperanto's inflectional system. For example, standard Esperanto

:''[[Film Noir|Redonu al tiu viro lian pafilon]].''
:"Give that man back his gun."

is in Popido,

:''Redonu al tu vir la pistol.''
("la" is the Popido equivalent of "lia"; the article in Popido is "lo")

In 1969, he published part I of the Sociolekto Triopo, [[Arcaicam Esperantom|Arkaika Esperanto]] to serve as equivalent to [[Middle English]], [[Middle High German]] and the like.

A [[slang]] completes the trio, called '''[[:eo:Gavaro|Gavaro]]'''.

All three parte do NOT constitute separate [[Esperantido]]j.

===Archaism and Arcaicam Esperantom===
[[Proto-Esperanto]] would theoretically fulfill the need for archaism, but too little survives for it to be used extensively. In 1931 [[Kalman Kalocsay]] published a translation<ref name="Kalocsay">''[http://www.angelfire.com/mo2/bulteno/1199.html#4 Elektronika Bulteno de EASL]'' includes the short story ''La Mezepoka Esperanto'' from ''Lingvo Stilo Formo'', 2nd cheap edition, [[Kalman Kalocsay]], Budapest, [[Literatura Mondo]], 1931.</ref> of the [[Funeral Sermon and Prayer]], the first Hungarian text (12th century), in which he created fictitious archaic forms as though Esperanto were a Romance language deriving from [[Vulgar Latin]].

[[Manuel Halvelik]] went further in 1969 with a book on ''[[Arcaicam Esperantom]],'' where he laid out the grammar of a fictitious ancestor of modern Esperanto. It echoes Proto-Esperanto in a more complex set of inflections, including [[dative case|dative]] and [[genitive case]]s ending in ''-d'' and ''-es'' and separate verbal inflections for person and number, as well as "retention" of [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s such as ''ph'' and ''tz,'' writing ''c'' for {{IPA|[k]}}, and the use of the letters ''q'', ''y'', ''w''.

==Comparison of Esperanto, Ido, ''Esperant''', and ''Arcaicam Esperantom''==
The Esperanto [[Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]] follows, compared to the Ido, ''Esperant’'' and ''Arcaicam Esperantom'' versions.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{|
|+ '''Esperanto'''
|-
|
Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉielo, 
sanktigata estu via nomo. 
Venu via regno, 
fariĝu via volo, 
kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero. 
Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ. 
Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn, 
kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj. 
Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton, 
sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
|}
{{col-2}}
{|
|+ '''''[[Arcaicam Esperantom]]'''''
|-
|
Patrom nosam, cuyu estas in Chielom, 
Estu sanctigitam Tuam Nomom. 
Wenu Tuam Regnom, 
Plenumizzu Tuam Wolom, 
Cuyel in Chielom, ityel anquez sobrez Terom. 
Nosid donu hodiez Panon nosan cheyutagan, 
Ed nosid pardonu nosayn Pecoyn, 
Cuyel anquez nos ityuyd cuyuy contrez nos pecait pardonaims. 
Ed nosin ned conducu in Tentod, 
Sed nosin liberigu ex Malbonom.
|}
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{|
|+ id="idopatronia" | '''[[Ido language|Ido]]'''
|
Patro nia, qua esas en la cielo, 
tua nomo santigesez; 
tua regno advenez; 
tua volo facesez 
quale en la cielo tale anke sur la tero. 
Donez a ni cadie l'omnidiala pano, 
e pardonez a ni nia ofensi, 
quale anke ni pardonas a nia ofensanti, 
e ne duktez ni aden la tento, 
ma liberigez ni del malajo.
|}
{{col-2}}
{|
|+ id="esperantnipatr" | '''''Esperant’'''''
|
Nipatr’, kies est’ ĉielas, 
iĝu via nom’ sankt’. 
Viu la regnalven’. 
Iĝu via la volfar’, 
kielas en la ĉiel’, tiel ankaŭu surtere. 
Hodiaŭu ĉiutagpandon’ nin. 
Kaju la pardon’ al niofend’, 
kiel ankaŭas nipardon’ al ofendintar’ nia. 
Kaju nea nia konduk’ entent’, 
sedu nia la liberig’ de l’ malbon’.
|}
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Constructed languages}}

[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Esperantido| ]]
[[Category:Constructed languages]]

Esperanto grammar

2018-02-04T09:07:03Z

Mutichou: Wikipedia is not here to "promote" anything. This article should describe the grammar of Esperanto as it is actually used, not some dude's opinion on how it should be.

{{Esperanto sidebar |expanded=Language}}
{{unreliable sources|date=August 2017}}
'''Esperanto''' is a [[constructed language]]. Due to its highly regular grammar, one often says that Esperanto is easier to learn than other languages.

Each part of speech has a unique suffix: nouns end with ''‑o''; adjectives with ''‑a''; present‑tense indicative verbs with ''‑as'', and so on.

It is possible to communicate effectively with a vocabulary of 400 to 500 "meaning words", though more exist in the language. The original vocabulary of Esperanto had around 900 meaning words, but was quickly expanded.

Reference grammars include the ''[[:eo:Plena Analiza Gramatiko|Plena Analiza Gramatiko (eo)]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Analytical Grammar}}) by [[Kálmán Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien]], and the ''[[Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]]'' ({{lang-en|Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar}}) by [[Bertilo Wennergren]].

==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Verbal suffixes indicate four moods, of which the [[Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tenses]], and are [[Inflection#Vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Lexical aspect|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|cases]], [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]; the adjectival form of [[personal pronoun]]s behaves like a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s for showing the destination of a motion, or for replacing certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]].

==Script and pronunciation==
{{Main|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto uses the [[Latin alphabet]] with six additional letters{{spnd}}ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ{{spnd}}and does not use the letters q, w, x, or y.

Zamenhof suggested [[Italian language|Italian]] as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English "the".

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects:
::''Mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon.''
:::"I found a bottle and took off the lid."
:For representative individuals:
::''La gepardo estas la plej rapida el la bestoj.''
:::"The cheetah is the fastest of the animals."
::''La abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi.''
:::"Bees have fur, but they're no good for petting."
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages:
::''la blua''
::: "the blue one"
::''la angla''
::: "English" (i.e. "the English language")
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite:
::''La mia bluas, la via ruĝas.''
:::"Mine is blue, yours is red".

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]]:
:''Ili tranĉis la manon.''
::"They cut their hands." [one hand each]

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]].

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either "human being" or "a human being", depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means "human beings" or "some human beings". The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to "some" and "a certain" than to English "a". This use of ''unu'' corresponds to English "a" when the "a" indicates a specific individual.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#specifa 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

==Parts of speech==
The suffixes ''‑o'', ''‑a'', ''‑e'', and ''‑i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes. Derivations from the word ''vidi'' (to see) are ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (vision).

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]: nominal, adjectival, verbal, or adverbial. These must be memorized explicitly and affect the use of the part-of-speech suffixes. With an adjectival or verbal root, the nominal suffix ''‑o'' indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful); whereas with a noun, the nominal suffix simply indicates the noun. Nominal or verbal roots may likewise be modified with the adjectival suffix ''‑a'': ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be [__]'' when added to an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root they mean "to act as" the noun, "to use" the noun, etc., depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (by sight, visually); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally).

The meanings of part-of-speech affixes depend on the inherent part of speech of the root they are applied to. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root (and therefore listed in modern dictionaries under the entry ''bros'''o'''),'' whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root (and therefore listed under ''komb'''i''').'' Change the suffix to ''-o,'' and the similar meanings of ''brosi'' and ''kombi'' diverge: ''broso'' is a brush, the name of an instrument, whereas ''kombo'' is a combing, the name of an action. That is, changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action; for the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco,'' as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o: belo'' (beauty). Nevertheless, redundantly affixed forms such as ''beleco'' are acceptable and widely used.

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e,'' but with an undefined part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs, and most of the adverbs that end in ''-aŭ'' have other functions, such as ''hodiaŭ'' "today" [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' "yet, still" [conjunction or adverb]. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' "now", ''tro'' "too, too much", not counting the adverbs among the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]].)

Other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without special suffixes. These are the prepositions ''(al'' "to"), conjunctions ''(kaj'' "and"), interjections ''(ho'' "oh"), numerals ''(du'' "two"), and pronouns ''(mi'' "I"—The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not a suffix, but part of the root). There are also several grammatical "[[grammatical particle|particles]]" that fit neatly into no category, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Nouns and adjectives==
A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n,'' which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin,'' and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine.)''

Adjectives [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns that they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns that they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). This requirement allows for free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[subject–object–verb]] or [[verb–subject–object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways also. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular:
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car)
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car).

A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun that it modifies does:
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of [[pronoun]]s in Esperanto: [[personal pronoun|personal]] ''(vi'' "you plural"), [[demonstrative]] ''(tio'' "that", ''iu'' "someone"), and [[relative pronoun|relative]]/[[interrogative word|interrogative]] ''(kio'' "what").
According to the fifth rule of the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'':
{{Quote
|text= 5. The personal pronouns are: mi, I; ci, thou, you; li, he; ŝi, she; ĝi, it; si, "self"; ni, "we"; vi, ''ye,you'', ili, "they"; oni, "one", "people", (French "on").
|author=L. L. Zamenhof |title= |source=''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (1905)
}}

===Personal pronouns===

The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of a [[reflexive pronoun]].
{| class=wikitable
|+ Personal pronouns
! colspan=2 | !! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
! colspan=2 | second person
| colspan=2 | '''vi'''{{ref|1|1}} (you)
|-
! rowspan=3 | third person !! masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
! feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
! neuter or [[wikt:epicene|epicene]]
| '''ĝi''' (it, s/he)
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 align=center | '''oni''' (one, [[singular they|they]], [[generic you|you]])
|-
! colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 align=center | '''si''' (self)
|}

{{note|1|1}} Zamenhof has introduced a singular second-person pronoun, ''ci'', to be used in translations from languages where the [[T–V distinction]] is important, and added it in the ''Dua Libro'' in 1888 clarifying that "this word is only found in the dictionary; in the language itself it is hardly ever used".<ref name="Dua_Libro"/> It has never been widely used, even by Zamenhof himself, who didn't include it as a pronoun in the 5th rule of the ''Fundamento''<ref name="Fundamento"/> and in his 28th ''Lingva Respondo'', published in 1908, recommended to use only ''vi''.<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28"/> The normal usage is to use ''vi'' regardless of number or formality.<ref name="PMEG"/><ref name="Eventoj"/> However, especially in some circles, people have begun to use ''ci'' in practical speech.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' as nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a: mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine).

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons:
:''li lavis sin'' "he washed" (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' "they washed" (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' "he washed him" (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' "he ate his bread" (someone else's bread).

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb,
:''oni diras, ke ...'' "One says that...", meaning: "they say that ..." or "it's said that ..."
With "impersonal" verbs where there is actually no item or being that is doing an action, no pronoun is used:
:''pluvas'' "rains; is raining; it's raining".

The rain is falling by itself, therefore "it" doesn't get used.

''Ĝi'' ("it") is mostly used with items that have physical bodies. According to Zamenhof it's also the [[wikt:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, meaning for use when the gender of an individual is unknown, is in-between 'male' and 'female', or for when the speaker simply doesn't wish to clarify the gender.<ref>Respondo 23, La Revuo, 1901, Aŭgusto</ref> This means that people who speak gender-less languages such as Turkish , which have common word pronoun for third person regardless of gender, can continue to use neuter gender third person pronoun in Esperanto. It also means that reference to any intersex or gender-queer person would use third person neuter gender pronoun.

However, in popular usage it's usually only used when referring to children:
:''La infano estas ploranta, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' "the child is crying, because it wants to eat".
When speaking of adults or people in general, in popular usage it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' ("that thing or person that is already known to the listener") to be used in such situations. This mirrors languages such as Japanese, but it's not a method that can always be used. For example, in the sentence
:''Iu ĵus diris, ke '''tiu''' malsatas'' "Someone just said that ''that thing/person'' is hungry",
the word ''tiu'' would be understood as referring to someone other than the person speaking (like English pronouns ''this'' or ''that'' but also referring to people), and so cannot be used in place of ''ĝi'', ''li'' or ''ŝi.''

===Other pronouns===
The [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]] and [[relative pronoun]]s form part of the [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and does not take accusative marking. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''<ref>An unofficial but widely recognized accusative preposition ''na'' has become popular with some Esperantists on the internet and may be used in such situations, especially when there is no following noun ''(ties,'' accusative ''na ties)''. The purposefully ambiguous preposition ''je'' may be so used as well (accusative ''je ties)'', though normally the ''-es'' words are simply not inflected for case.</ref>

==Prepositions==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require that a noun be in various [[case (linguistics)|cases]] ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''and so on),'' in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only exception is when there are two or more prepositions and one is ''replaced'' by the accusative.

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used:
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the "on" isn't literally true).

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition:
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo.''

Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case.

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case|allative construction]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition:
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house).

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions also, especially when they have vague meanings that add not much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used instead of prepositional phrases:
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Both ''por'' and ''pro'' often translate English 'for'. However, they distinguish ''for a goal'' (looking forward in time, or causing: ''por'') and ''for a cause'' (looking back in time, or being caused by: ''pro''): To vote ''por'' your friend means to cast a ballot with their name on it, whereas to vote ''pro'' your friend would mean to vote in their place or as they asked you to.

The preposition most distinct from English usage is perhaps ''de'', which corresponds to English ''of, from, off,'' and ''(done) by'':
:''libro '''de''' Johano'' (John''''s''' book)
:''li venis '''de''' la butiko'' (he came '''from''' the shop)
:''mordita '''de''' hundo'' (bitten '''by''' a dog)

However, English ''of'' corresponds to several Esperanto prepositions also: ''de, el'' (out of, made of), and ''da'' (quantity of, unity of form and contents):
:''tablo '''el''' ligno'' (a table '''of''' wood)
:''glaso '''da''' vino'' (a glass '''of''' wine)
:''listo '''da''' kondiĉoj '''de''' la kandidatoj'' (a list '''of''' conditions '''from''' the candidates)
The last of these, ''[[wikt:da#Esperanto|da]]'', is semantically Slavic and is difficult for Western Europeans, to the extent that even many Esperanto dictionaries and grammars define it incorrectly.<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij, 2007. "[http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#Da La artikolo]", in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''. See the entry for [[wikt:da#Esperanto|''da'' at Wiktionary]].</ref>

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. Because a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by).

==Verbs==
All verbal inflection is regular. There are three tenses, all of which are in the [[indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Lexical aspect|Aktionsart]] are common.

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am, we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas, ni estas,'' and ''li estas,'' respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house).

Most verbs are inherently [[Transitive verb|transitive]] or [[Intransitive verb|intransitive]]. As with the inherent part of speech of a root, this is not apparent from the shape of the verb and must simply be memorized. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-ig-'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝ-'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]):
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future.

{| class=wikitable
!
![[indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[Jussive mood|Jussive]] ([[volitive modality|volitive]])
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align="center"|-is
|align="center"|-inta
|align="center"|-ita
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-i
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-u
|align="center" rowspan="3"|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align="center"|-as
|align="center"|-anta
|align="center"|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align="center"|-os
|align="center"|-onta
|align="center"|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!; a command)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Tense===
As in English, Esperanto [[present tense]] may be used for generic statements such as "birds fly" (''la birdoj flugas'').

The Esperanto [[future tense|future]] is a true tense, used whenever future time is meant. For example, in English "(I'll give it to you) when I see you" the verb "see" is in the present tense despite the time being in the future; in Esperanto, future tense is required: ''(Mi donos ĝin al vi) kiam mi vidos vin''.

Esperanto tense is [[relative tense|relative]]. This differs from English absolute tense, where the tense is past, present, or future of the moment of speaking: In Esperanto, the tense of a [[subordinate clause|subordinate verb]] is instead anterior or posterior to the time of the main verb. For example, "John said that he would go" is in Esperanto ''Johano diris, ke li iros'' (lit., "John said that he will go"); this does not mean that he will go at some point in the future from now (as "John said that he will go" means in English), but that at the time he said this, his going was still in the future.

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go).

The [[jussive mood]], is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive]]:
:''Iru!'' (Go!)
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.)
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.)
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.)
:''Benu ĉi tiun domaĉon.'' (Bless this bad house.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] ("X is Y") and the existential ("there is") verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it causes neither to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs).

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.<ref>However, the reverse is not true, as this does not change the inherent part of speech: ''Morti'' (to die) does not have the same meaning as ''esti morta'' (to be dead).</ref>

==Participles==
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, there are six forms:
* three aspects: past (or "perfective"), present (or "progressive"), and future (or "predictive")
times
* two [[Grammatical voice|voices]]: [[active voice|active]] (performing an action) and [[passive voice|passive]] (receiving an action)
The participles represent aspect by retaining the vowel of the related verbal tense: '''i''', '''a''', '''o'''. In addition to carrying aspect, participles are the principal means of representing [[Grammatical voice|voice]], with either '''nt''' or '''t''' following the vowel (see next section).

===Adjectival participles===
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture a cartoon character running off a cliff. Before the character falls, they are ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As they drop, they are ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After they hit the ground, they are ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen).

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''ont'''a'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''ot'''a'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''ant'''a'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''at'''a'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''int'''a'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''it'''a'' (chopped).

Adjectival participles agree with nouns in number and case, just as other adjectives do:
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees [that were] '''to be chopped down''').

===Compound tense===
Compound tenses are formed with the [[adjectival participle]]s plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb. The participle reflects aspect and voice, while the verb carries tense:
*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught, I am caught)
*Present [[prospective aspect|prospective]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to catch / about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be caught / about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For "I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store", you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto.

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses:
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching).

Although such [[periphrastic]] constructions are familiar to speakers of most European languages, the option of contracting [''esti'' + adjective] into a verb is often seen for adjectival participles:

:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)

The active synthetic forms are:
{| class=wikitable
|+Synthetic compound tenses (active voice)
! !! Simple verb !! Progressive !! Perfect !! Prospective
|-
! Present tense
| ''mi kaptas'' (I catch)
| ''mi kaptantas'' (I am catching)
| ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
| ''mi kaptontas'' (I am about to catch)
|-
! Past tense
| ''mi kaptis'' (I caught)
| ''mi kaptantis'' (I was catching)
| ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught)
| ''mi kaptontis'' (I was about to catch)
|-
! Future tense
| ''mi kaptos'' (I will catch)
| ''mi kaptantos'' (I will be catching)
| ''mi kaptintos'' (I will have caught)
| ''mi kaptontos'' (I will be about to catch)
|-
! Conditional mood
| ''mi kaptus'' (I would catch)
| ''mi kaptantus'' (I would be catching)
| ''mi kaptintus'' (I would have caught)
| ''mi kaptontus'' (I would be about to catch)
|}

Infinitive and jussive forms are also found. There is a parallel passive paradigm. A few of these forms, notably ''-intus'' and ''-atas'', entered common usage, but most of them are very rare because they are difficult to understand.<ref>Bertilo Wennergren, ''Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko'', [http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/kunmetitaj_verboformoj/nekutimaj.html Nekutimaj kunmetitaj verboj]</ref>

===Nominal participles===
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o.'' This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense.

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a "hoper" (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping.''

===Adverbial participles===
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses:
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

===Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)===
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u (-unt-, -ut-).''<ref>Timothy Reagan (2009) ''Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics'', p. 167</ref> If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been [[Tree spiking|spiked]] and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta'' (he, the one "who would chop", and the tree, the one that "would be chopped").

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 United States presidential election]]:
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States,
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be),
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).<ref>This example is somewhat artificial, because the customary word for 'president' (of a country) is the tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto.'' ''Prezid'''a'''nto'' is typically used for the presidents of organizations other than sovereign countries, and ''prezid'''i'''nto'' is used for former presidents in such contexts.</ref>

The tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'' is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi.''

==Negation==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. Ordinarily, only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

Two negatives within a clause cancel each other out, with the result being a positive sentence.

: ''Mi ne faris nenion. Mi ja faris ion.'' It is not the case that I did nothing. I did do something.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't I who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

==Questions==
{{main|Interrogatives in Esperanto}}

"Wh" questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative ''(ki-'') [[Table of correlatives (Esperanto)|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Ci faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether):

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question:

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''— Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''— Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''— Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''— Malĝuste, mi iris'' (Incorrect, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

==Conjunctions==
Basic Esperanto [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunctions]] are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify:

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from [[Don Harlow]]:

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
[[Interjection]]s may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

==Word formation==
{{main|Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation}}
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixes]] and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==

===Numerals===
The cardinal [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning "a certain", and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j,'' just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:"certain people";
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj''
:"they ran some after others".
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural:
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n'''''
:"some particular idea",
but
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:"some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands".
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix:
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
At numbers beyond the thousands, the international roots ''miliono'' (million) and ''miliardo'' (milliard) are used. Beyond this there are two systems: A ''[[Long and short scales|billion]]'' in most English-speaking countries is different from a ''billion'' in most other countries (109 ''vs.'' 1012 respectively; that is, a thousand million ''vs.'' a million million). The international root ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous in Esperanto, and is deprecated for this reason. An unambiguous system based on adding the Esperanto suffix ''-iliono'' to numerals is generally used instead, sometimes supplemented by a second suffix ''-iliardo:''<ref>"[http://purl.org/net/voko/revo/art/bilion.html biliono]" at Reta Vortaro</ref>

:106: ''miliono''
:109: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:1012: ''duiliono''
:1015: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:1018: ''triiliono''
:1021: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these forms are grammatically nouns, not numerals, and therefore cannot modify a noun directly: ''mil homojn'' (a thousand people [accusative]) but ''milionon da homoj'' (a million people [accusative]).

===Compound numerals and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a,'' quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o,'' multiples with ''-obl-,'' fractions with ''‑on‑'', collectives with ''‑op‑'', and repetitions with the root ''‑foj‑''.

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score [20])
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently, the [[logogram]] [[@]] is not used (except in email addresses, of course):
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave [to] them three apples each).

Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn,'' so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

==Comparisons==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-,'' and the preposition ''ol'' (than):

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]).

Phrases like "The more people, the smaller the portions" and "All the better!" are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of "the":
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

==Word order==
Esperanto has a fairly [[free word order|flexible word order]]. However, word order does play a role in Esperanto grammar, even if a much lesser role than it does in English. For example, the negative particle ''ne'' generally comes before the element being negated; negating the verb has the effect of negating the entire clause (or rather, there is ambiguity between negating the verb alone and negating the clause):
:''mi ne iris'' 'I didn't go'
:''mi ne iris, mi revenis'' 'I didn't go, I came back'
:''ne mi iris'' or ''iris ne mi'' 'it wasn't me who went'
:''mi iris ne al la butiko sed hejmen'' 'I went not to the shop but home'.
However, when the entire clause is negated, the ''ne'' may be left till last:
:''mi iris ne'' 'I went not'.

The last order reflects a typical [[topic–comment]] (or [[theme–rheme]]) order: Known information, the topic under discussion, is introduced first, and what one has to say about it follows. (I went not: As for my going, there was none.) For example, yet another order, ''ne iris mi'', would suggest that the possibility of not having gone was under discussion, and ''mi'' is given as an example of one who did not go.

Compare:<ref>Sergio Pokrovskij (2007) [http://lingvakritiko.com/2007/02/05/la-artikolo/#vortordo 'La artikolo'], in ''Lingva Kritiko: Studoj kaj notoj pri la Internacia Lingvo''</ref>

:''Pasintjare mi feriis en Italujo''
::'Last year I vacationed in Italy' (Italy was the place I went on holiday)
:''En Italujo mi feriis pasintjare''
::'I vacationed in Italy last year' (last year was when I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare mi feriis''
::'In Italy last year I went on vacation' (a vacation is why I went)
:''En Italujo pasintjare feriis mi''
::(I am the one who went)

===The noun phrase===
Within a noun phrase, either the order ''adjective–noun'' or ''noun–adjective'' may occur, though the former is somewhat more common. Less flexibility occurs with numerals and demonstratives, with ''numeral–noun'' and ''demonstrative–noun'' being the norm, as in English.
:''blua ĉielo'' 'a blue sky'
:''tiu ĉielo'' 'that sky'
:''tiu blua ĉielo'' 'that blue sky'
:''sep bluaj ĉieloj'' 'seven blue heavens'

Adjective–noun order is much freer. With simple adjectives, adjective–noun order predominates, especially if the noun is long or complex. However, a long or complex adjective typically comes after the noun, in some cases parallel to structures in English, as in the second example below:<ref name=wells/>
:''homo malgrandanima kaj ege avara'' 'a petty and extremely greedy person'
:''vizaĝo plena de cikatroj'' 'a face full of scars'
:''ideo fantazia sed tamen interesa'' 'a fantastic but still interesting idea'

Adjectives also normally occur after correlative nouns. Again, this is one of the situations where adjectives come after nouns in English:
:''okazis io stranga'' 'something strange happened'
:''ne ĉio brilanta estas diamanto'' 'not everything shiny is a diamond'
Changing the word order here can change the meaning, at least with the correlative ''nenio'' 'nothing':
:''li manĝis nenion etan'' 'he ate nothing little'
:''li manĝis etan nenion'' 'he ate a little nothing'

With multiple words in a phrase, the order is typically demonstrative/pronoun–numeral–(adjective/noun):
:''miaj du grandaj amikoj ~ miaj du amikoj grandaj'' 'my two great friends'.

However, the article ''la'' comes precedes a noun phrase:
:''la blua ĉielo'' "the blue sky"

In [[prepositional phrase]]s, the preposition is ''required'' to come at the front of the noun phrase (that is, even before the article ''la''), though it is commonly replaced by turning the noun into an adverb:
:''al la ĉielo'' 'to the sky' or ''ĉielen'' 'skywards', never ''*ĉielo al''

===Constituent order===
[[Constituent order]] ''within'' a clause is generally free, apart from copular clauses.

The default order is [[subject–verb–object]], though any order may occur, with subject and object distinguished by case, and other constituents distinguished by prepositions:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon'' 'the dog chased/hunted the cat'
:''la katon ĉasis la hundo''
:''ĉasis la hundo la katon''
:''ĉasis la katon la hundo''
:''la hundo la katon ĉasis''
:''la katon la hundo ĉasis''
The expectation of a topic–comment (theme–rheme) order apply here, so the context will influence word order: in ''la katon ĉasis la hundo'', the cat is the topic of the conversation, and the dog is the news; in ''la hundo la katon ĉasis'', the dog is the topic of the conversation, and it is the action of chasing that is the news; and in ''ĉasis la hundo la katon'', the action of chasing is already the topic of discussion.

Context is required to tell whether
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno''
means the dog chased a cat which was in the garden, or there, in the garden, the dog chased the cat. These may be disambiguated with
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno''
::'The dog chased the cat, which was in the garden'
and
:''en la ĝardeno, la hundo ĉasis la katon''
::'In the garden, the dog chased the cat'.

Of course, if it chases the cat in''to'' the garden, the case of 'garden' would change:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon en la ĝardeno'''n''''', ''en la ĝardeno'''n''' la hundo ĉasis la katon'', etc.

Within copulative clauses, however, there are restrictions. [[Copula (linguistics)|Copulas]] are words such as ''esti'' 'be', ''iĝi'' 'become', ''resti'' 'remain', and ''ŝajni'' 'seem', for which neither noun phrase takes the accusative case. In such cases only two orders are generally found: noun-copula-predicate and, much less commonly, predicate-copula-noun.<ref name=wells>John Wells, 1978, ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'', p 42 ''ff''</ref>

Generally, if a characteristic of the noun is being described, the choice between the two orders is not important:
:''sovaĝa estas la vento'' 'wild is the wind', ''la vento estas sovaĝa'' 'the wind is wild'
However, ''la vento sovaĝa estas'' is unclear, at least in writing, as it could be interpreted as 'the wild wind is', leaving the reader to ask, 'is what?'.

===Attributive phrases and clauses===
In the sentence above, ''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu estis en la ĝardeno'' 'the dog chased the cat, which was in the garden', the [[relative pronoun]] ''kiu'' 'which' is restricted to a position ''after'' the noun 'cat'. In general, [[relative clause]]s and attributive prepositional phrases follow the noun they modify.

[[Attributive]] prepositional phrases, which are dependent on nouns, include genitives (''la libro de Johano'' 'John's book') as well as ''la kato en la ĝardeno'' 'the cat in the garden' in the example above. Their order cannot be reversed: neither ''*la de Johano libro'' nor ''*la en la ĝardeno kato'' is possible. This behavior is more restrictive than prepositional phrases which are dependent on verbs, and which can be moved around: both ''ĉasis en la ĝardeno'' and ''en la ĝardeno ĉasis'' are acceptable for 'chased in the garden'.

Relative clauses are similar, in that they are attributive and are subject to the same word-order constraint, except that rather than being linked by a preposition, the two elements are linked by a [[relative pronoun]] such as ''kiu'' 'which':
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''mi vidis la hundon, kiu ĉasis la katon'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'
Note that the noun and its adjacent relative pronoun do not agree in case. Rather, their cases depend on their relationships with their respective verbs.<ref>This is parallel to the rather archaic distinction in English between 'who' and 'whom'. Other sequences of case are possible, though with different readings: ''fuĝis la hundo, kiu ĉasis ĝin'' 'the dog which chased it fled'; ''mi vidis la katon, kiun la hundo ĉasis'' 'I saw the cat, which the dog chased'.</ref> However, they do agree in number:
:''fuĝis la kato'''j''', kiu'''j'''n ĝi ĉasis'' 'the cat'''s''' which it chased fled'

Other word orders are possible, as long as the relative pronoun remains adjacent to the noun it depends on:
:''fuĝis la kato, kiun ĉasis ĝi'' 'the cat which it chased fled'
:''vidis mi la hundon, kiu la katon ĉasis'' 'I saw the dog which chased the cat'

===Clause order===
[[Coordinate conjunction|Coordinate clauses]] allow flexible word order, but tend to be [[iconicity|iconic]]. For example, in
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon kaj la kato fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat and the cat fled',
the inference is that the cat fled after the dog started to chase it, not that the dog chased a cat which was already fleeing. For the latter reading, the clause order would be reversed:
:''la kato fuĝis, kaj la hundo ĉasis ĝin'' 'the cat fled, and the dog chased it'
This distinction is lost in [[subordinate clause]]s such as the relative clauses in the previous section:
:''la hundo ĉasis la katon, kiu fuĝis'' 'the dog chased the cat(,) which fled'
In written English, a comma disambiguates the two readings, but both typically have a comma in Esperanto.

Non-relative subordinate clauses are similarly restricted. They follow the [[grammatical conjunction|conjunction]] ''ke'' 'that', as in,
:''Mi estas certa, ke vi havos brilan sukceson'' 'I am certain that you will have a brilliant success'.

==Non-Indo-European aspects==
Esperanto's vocabulary, [[syntax]], and [[semantics]] derive predominantly from Indo-European national languages. Roots are typically [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin. The semantics shows a significant [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] influence.

It is often claimed that there are elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Frequently mentioned is Esperanto's [[Agglutination|agglutinative morphology]] based on invariant morphemes, and the subsequent lack of [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), which Zamenhof himself thought would prove alien to non-Indo-European language speakers. Ablaut is an element of all the source languages; an English example is ''song sing sang sung.'' However, the majority of words in all Indo-European languages inflect without ablaut, as ''cat, cats'' and ''walk, walked'' do in English. (This is the so-called [[strong inflection|strong]]–[[weak inflection|weak]] dichotomy.) Historically, many Indo-European languages have expanded the range of their 'weak' inflections, and Esperanto has merely taken this development closer to its logical conclusion, with the only remaining ablaut being frozen in a few sets of semantically related roots such as ''pli'', ''plej'', ''plu'' (more, most, further), ''tre'', ''tro'' (very, too much), and in the verbal morphemes ''‑as'', ''‑anta'', ''‑ata''; ''‑is'', ''‑inta'', ''‑ita''; ''‑os'', ''‑onta'', ''‑ota''; and ''‑us''.

Other features often cited as being nonstandard for an Indo-European language, such as the dedicated suffixes for different parts of speech, or the ''-o'' suffix for singular nouns, actually do occur in Indo‑European languages such as Russian.<ref>For example, Russian neuter and feminine nouns end in singular ''-o'' and ''-a,'' adjectives in ''-oje'' and ''-aja,'' adverbs in ''-o'' and ''-e,'' etc.; ''cf.'' also Provençal ''la fenestro'' (the window), which is identical to Esperanto ''la fenestro''.</ref> More pertinent is the accusative plural in ''-jn''. Esperanto is superficially similar to the non‑Indo‑European [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages—that is, it is similar in its mechanics, but not in use. None of these proposed "non-European" elements of the original Esperanto proposal were actually taken from non-European or non-Indo-European languages, and any similarities with those languages are accidental.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

East Asian languages may have had some influence on the development of Esperanto grammar after its creation. The principally cited candidate is the replacement of predicate adjectives with verbs, such as ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue) for ''la ĉielo estas blua'' and ''mia filino belu!'' (may my daughter be beautiful!) for the ''mia filino estu bela!'' mentioned above.

==Sample text==
The [[The Lord's Prayer|Pater noster]], from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above:

: ''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,
: ''sanktigata estu Via nomo.
: ''Venu Via regno,
: ''fariĝu Via volo,
: ''kiel en la ĉielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero.
: ''Nian panon ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ.
: ''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,
: ''kiel ankaŭ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.
: ''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,
: ''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.
: ''(Ĉar Via estas la regno kaj la potenco
: ''kaj la gloro eterne.)
: ''Amen.''

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are:
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''sanktigata''
|-
| '''sankt-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-at-''' || '''-a'''
|-
| ''holy'' || causative || passive participle || adjective
|-
| colspan="4" | "being made holy"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="3" | ''fariĝu''
|-
| '''far-''' || '''-iĝ-''' || '''-u'''
|-
| ''do'' || middle voice || jussive
|-
| colspan="3" | "be done"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ĉiutagan''
|-
| '''ĉiu-''' || '''tag-''' || '''-a''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''every'' || ''day'' || adjective || accusative
|-
| colspan="4" | "daily"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan=4 | ''ŝuldantoj''
|-
| '''ŝuld-''' || '''-ant-''' || '''-o''' || '''-j'''
|-
| ''owe'' || active participle || noun || plural
|-
| colspan="4" | "debtors"
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="5" | ''liberigu nin''
|-
| '''liber-''' || '''-ig-''' || '''-u''' || '''ni''' || '''-n'''
|-
| ''free'' || causative || jussive || ''we'' || accusative
|-
| colspan="5" | "free us"
|}
:{| class=wikitable
| colspan="4" | ''la malbono''
|-
| '''la''' || '''mal-''' || '''bon-''' || '''-o'''
|-
| generic article || antonym || ''good'' || noun
|-
| colspan="4" | "evil"
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
|refs=

<ref name="Dua_Libro">
{{
cite web
|url= https://www.gutenberg.org/files/20006/20006-h/20006-h.htm
|title= Dua Libro de l' Lingvo Internacia (1888)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= 6 December 2006
|website= Gutenberg.org
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="PMEG">
{{
cite web
|url= http://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/dua.html
|title= Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko
|last= Wennergren
|first= Bertilo
|date= 22 December 2017
|website=
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Eventoj">
{{
cite web
|url= http://www.eszperanto.hu/egyeb/ci.htm
|title= "Ci" estas senvalora balasto - Eventoj n-ro 103
|last= Golden
|first= Bernard
|date=
|website= www.esperanto.hu
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Lingvaj_Respondoj_28">
{{
cite web
|url= http://eduinf.waw.pl/esp/lern/librejo/0015/0011.php
|title= Lingvaj Respondoj - Pri la pronomo «ci» (Respondo 28)
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= February 1908
|website=
|publisher= La Revuo
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|quote=
}}
</ref>

<ref name="Fundamento">
{{
cite web
|url= https://eo.wikisource.org/wiki/Fundamento_de_Esperanto/Grammar
|title= Fundamento de Esperanto
|last= Zamenhof
|first= L. L.
|date= August 9, 1905
|website= wikisource.org
|publisher=
|access-date= 28 December 2017
|ISBN= 1-271-12113-1
|quote=
}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
* [http://literaturo.org/HARLOW-Don/Esperanto/eaccess/eaccess.language.html Esperanto Grammar] (by Don Harlow)
* [http://esperanto.50webs.com/ Esperanto Grammar] (by Jirka Hana)
* [http://web.mit.edu/esperanto/courses/iap/textbook.pdf An Elementary Esperanto Primer] (by Daniel M. Albro)
* ''[http://bertilow.com/pmeg/ Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko]'' ("A Complete Handbook of Esperanto Grammar", by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [http://lernu.net/en/gramatiko Detailed Lernu! Grammar of Esperanto] (written by Bertilo Wennergren)
* [https://esperanto.lingolia.com/en/grammar Esperanto Grammar with Exercises] (by Lingolia)

{{Constructed languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Esperanto|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Grammars of constructed languages]]