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Symphony No. 9 (Dvořák)

2010-12-17T23:31:37Z

Nallimbot: r2.5.2) (robot Adding: uk:Симфонія № 9 (Дворжак)

{{redirect|New World Symphony|the Miami-based orchestra|New World Symphony Orchestra}}
{{redirect|From the New World}}

[[Image:The title page of the autograph score of Dvořák's ninth symphony.jpg|250px|thumb|upright|The title page of the autograph score of Dvořák's ninth symphony]]
{| class="infobox" style="text-align:center" cellspacing="3"
|'''[[Antonín Dvořák]]''', Symphony No. 9 op. 95
|-
| style="text-align:center; padding-bottom:0.5em; line-height:1.4em" | [[File:Antonin Dvorak - symphony no. 9 in e minor 'from the new world', op. 95 - i. adagio - allegro molto.ogg|noicon|center|frameless]]
1. ''Adagio - Allegro molto''
|-
| style="text-align:center; padding-bottom:0.5em; line-height:1.4em" | [[File:Antonin Dvorak - symphony no. 9 in e minor 'from the new world', op. 95 - ii. largo.ogg|noicon|center|frameless]]
2. ''Largo''
|-
| style="text-align:center; padding-bottom:0.5em; line-height:1.4em" | [[File:Antonin Dvorak - symphony no. 9 in e minor 'from the new world', op. 95 - iii. molto vivace.ogg|noicon|center|frameless]]
3. ''Scherzo : Molto vivace''
|-
| style="text-align:center; padding-bottom:0.5em; line-height:1.4em" | [[File:Antonin Dvorak - symphony no. 9 in e minor 'from the new world', op. 95 - iv. allegro con fuoco.ogg|noicon|center|frameless]]
4. ''Allegro con fuoco''
|}
The '''Symphony No. 9 in E Minor "From the New World"''', Op. 95, B. 178 ({{lang-cs|'''Symfonie č. 9 e moll „Z nového světa“'''}}), popularly known as the '''New World Symphony''', was composed by [[Antonín Dvořák]] in 1893 during his visit to the [[United States]] from 1892 to 1895. It is by far his most popular [[symphony]], and one of the most popular in the modern [[repertoire]]. In older literature and recordings this symphony is often indicated as Symphony No. 5 - see also [[Curse of the ninth]].

==Instrumentation==
This symphony is scored for an orchestra of the following:

2 [[flute]]s (one doubling [[piccolo]])<ref>The scoring of piccolo in this symphony is extremely unusual; although the English horn is brought in for the famous solo in the second movement, the piccolo plays only a short phrase in the first, and nothing else.</ref>, 2 [[oboe]]s (one doubling on [[English horn]]), 2 [[clarinet]]s in A & B flat (B flat in movt II), 2 [[bassoon]]s, 4 [[Horn (instrument)|horn]]s in E, C and F, 2 [[trumpet]]s in E, C and E flat, 2 tenor [[trombones]], bass trombone, [[tuba]] (second movement only)<ref>Tuba is only scored in the second movement. According to the full score book published by Dover, pharses "''Trombone basso e Tuba''" is indicated in the measures in second movement; The bass trombone is used in all four movements. </ref>, [[timpani]], [[Triangle (instrument)|triangle]] (third movement only), [[cymbal]]s (fourth movement only), and [[String section|string]]s.

==Movements==
The piece has four [[Movement (music)|movements]]:
*I. [[Tempo#Italian tempo markings|Adagio]], [[Time signature|4/8]] — [[Tempo#Italian tempo markings|Allegro]] molto, 2/4, [[E minor]]
*II. [[Tempo#Italian tempo markings|Largo]], common time, [[D-flat major]], then later [[C-sharp minor]]
*III. [[Scherzo]]: Molto [[Tempo#Italian tempo markings|vivace]] — Poco sostenuto, 3/4, E minor
*IV. Allegro con fuoco, common time, [[E minor]], ends in [[E major]]

== Influences ==
Dvořák was interested in the [[Native American music]] and African-American [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]]s he heard in America. Upon his arrival in America, he stated:

:"I am convinced that the future music of this country must be founded on what are called Negro melodies. These can be the foundation of a serious and original school of composition, to be developed in the United States. These beautiful and varied themes are the product of the soil. They are the folk songs of America and your composers must turn to them." <ref>[http://www.classicalnotes.net/columns/newworld.html Classical Classics - Dvorak's "New World" Symphony, Classical Notes, Peter Gutmann]</ref>

The symphony was commissioned by the [[New York Philharmonic]], and premiered on December 16, 1893 at [[Carnegie Hall]] conducted by [[Anton Seidl]]. A day earlier, in an article published in the ''[[New York Herald]]'' on December 15, 1893, Dvořák further explained how Native American music had been an influence on this symphony:

:"I have not actually used any of the [Native American] melodies. I have simply written original themes embodying the peculiarities of the Indian music, and, using these themes as subjects, have developed them with all the resources of modern rhythms, [[counterpoint]], and orchestral color."

In the same article, Dvořák stated that he regarded the symphony's second movement as a "sketch or study for a later work, either a [[cantata]] or [[opera]] ... which will be based upon [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow|Longfellow]]'s [''The Song of''] ''[[The Song of Hiawatha|Hiawatha]]''" (Dvořák never actually wrote such a piece). He also wrote that the third movement [[scherzo]] was "suggested by the scene at the feast in ''Hiawatha'' where the Indians dance".

Curiously enough, passages which modern ears perceive as the musical idiom of African-American spirituals may have been intended by Dvořák to evoke a Native American atmosphere. In 1893, a newspaper interview quoted Dvořák as saying "I found that the music of the negroes and of the Indians was practically identical", and that "the music of the two races bore a remarkable similarity to the [[music of Scotland]]".<ref>{{cite book
| last = Kerkering
| first = John D.
| coauthors = Albert Gelpi, Ross Posnock
| title = The Poetics of National and Racial Identity in Nineteenth-Century American Literature
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 2003
| pages = 133
| isbn = 0521831148
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Beckerman
| first = Michael Brim
| title = New Worlds of Dvorak: Searching in America for the Composer's Inner Life
| publisher = W. W. Norton & Company
| year = 2003
| pages = 237
| isbn = 0393047067
}}</ref> Most historians agree that Dvořák is referring to the [[pentatonic scale]], which is typical of each of these musical traditions.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Clapham
| first = John
| title = The Musical Quarterly, ''The Evolution of Dvorak's Symphony "From the New World"''
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1958
| pages = 167–183
}}</ref>

In a 2008 article in the ''[[Chronicle of Higher Education]]'', prominent [[Musicology|musicologist]] [[Joseph Horowitz]] asserts that [[African-american]] [[Spiritual (music)|spiritual]]s were a major influence on the 9th symphony, quoting Dvořák from an 1893 interview in the ''[[New York Herald]]'' as saying, "In the negro melodies of America I discover all that is needed for a great and noble school of music."<ref>Joseph Horowitz, "New World Symphony and Discord: In the Gilded Age, a Czech visionary saw America's musical future in 'negro melodies', ''[[Chronicle of Higher Education]]'', January 11, 2008, ''The Chronicle Review'', page B18. Accessible from [http://www.chronicle.com Chronicle of Higher Education web site].</ref>

Despite all this, it is generally considered that, like other Dvořák pieces, the work has more in common with folk music of his native [[Bohemia]] than with that of the United States. [[Leonard Bernstein]] averred that the work was truly multinational in its foundations.<ref>Leonard Bernstein - the 1953 American Decca recordings. DGG 477 0002. Comments on the 2nd compact disc.</ref>

== Popular reception ==
At the Ninth Symphony's premiere at [[Carnegie Hall]] the reception was one of perpetual cheering. The end of every movement was met with thunderous clapping and Dvořák felt obliged to stand up and bow. In a letter to his publisher Simrock he stated how there was "no getting out of it, and I had to show myself willy-nilly".{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

== The song "Goin' Home"==
It has been claimed that the theme from the Largo was adapted into a spiritual-like song "Goin' Home", by composer [[Harry Burleigh]], whom Dvořák met during his American sojourn, and lyricist [[William Arms Fisher]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Gift of Music: Great Composers and Their Influence|first=Jane Stuart|last=Smith|coauthors=Betty Carlson|publisher=Crossway Books|year=1995|id=ISBN 089107869X}}, [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN089107869X&id=kZPyvhV_caAC&pg=RA1-PA157&lpg=RA1-PA157&ots=3CA2X93x4Z&sig=tHGkjugzk7cPp7DuXEdogbV8Peg p. 157]: "The largo of the second movement has a hauntingly beautiful melody played by the English horn. There is a sense of longing about it, and a spiritual has been adapted from it, 'Going Home'"</ref> but the song was actually written by Fisher and based on Dvořák's Largo theme. Richard Taruskin, however, states that it is unknown whether or not there already existed a spiritual that was used by Dvořák. What is known for sure, however, is that the tune since ''became'' one or was popularised as a result.<ref>', Taruskin, Richard, The Oxford History of Western Music: Music in the Nineteenth Century, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 765'</ref>

==Original manuscript score==
The score as published has some differences from Dvořák's manuscript. The published score is the version almost always heard today. However, the original version as written by Dvořák has been championed by the conductor [[Denis Vaughan]], who performed it for the first time on 17 May 2005 with the [[London Philharmonic Orchestra]] at the [[Royal Albert Hall]], London.<ref>[http://www.caare.co.uk/concert_B.html Caare: Guardian of Art & Sport]</ref>

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book
| last = Beckerman
| first = Michael
| title = Dvořák and His World
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| year = 1993
| location =
| isbn = 0691000972
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Clapham
| first = John
| title = Antonin Dvořák: Musician and Craftsman
| publisher = St Martin's Press
| year = 1966
| location = New York
}}
*{{cite book
| last = [[Hans-Hubert Schönzeler|Schönzeler]]
| first = [[Hans-Hubert Schönzeler|Hans-Hubert]]
| title = Dvořák
| publisher = Marion Boyars
| year = 1984
| location =
| isbn = 0714525758
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Layton
| first = Robert
| title = Dvořák Symphonies and Concertos
| publisher = University of Washington Press
| year = 1978
| location = Seattle
| isbn = 0295955058
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Tibbetts
| first = John C.
| title = Dvořák in America 1892-1895
| publisher = Amadeus Press
| year = 2003
| location =
| isbn = 093134056X
}}

==External links==

*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cuo/audio.html Free recording] by the Columbia University Orchestra.
*A visual analysis of the First Movement [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zyF1cLA2Izw]

===Other===
*[http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/variations/scores/adr4498/large/index.html Score] from Indiana University
*{{IMSLP2|id=Symphony_No.9%2C_Op.95_%28Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k%2C_Anton%C3%ADn_Leopold%29|cname=Symphony No. 9}}
*[http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/nemusic4.htm True Story of "Goin' Home"]
*[http://www.namethathymn.com/hymn-lyrics-detective-forum/index.php?a=vtopic&t=15 Lyrics and Discussion on "Going Home"]

{{Dvořák symphonies}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Symphony No. 9 (Dvorak)}}
[[Category:Symphonies by Antonín Dvořák|Symphony 009]]
[[Category:1893 compositions]]

[[ca:Simfonia núm. 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[cs:Symfonie č. 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[da:Symfoni nr. 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[de:9. Sinfonie (Dvořák)]]
[[es:Sinfonía n.º 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[eu:9. Sinfonia (Dvořák)]]
[[fr:Symphonie nº 9 de Dvořák]]
[[ko:교향곡 9번 (드보르자크)]]
[[hr:Simfonija br. 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[is:Sinfónía frá nýja heiminum]]
[[it:Sinfonia n. 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[he:הסימפוניה התשיעית (מן העולם החדש) של דבוז'אק]]
[[lt:Iš naujojo pasaulio]]
[[ja:交響曲第9番 (ドヴォルザーク)]]
[[pl:Symfonia nr.9 (Dvořák)]]
[[pt:Sinfonia n.º 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[ru:Симфония № 9 (Дворжак)]]
[[fi:Sinfonia nro 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[sv:Från nya världen]]
[[uk:Симфонія № 9 (Дворжак)]]
[[vi:Giao hưởng số 9 (Dvořák)]]
[[zh:第9號交響曲 (德弗札克)]]

Goguryeo–Sui War

2010-12-17T21:33:10Z

Nallimbot: r2.5.2) (robot Modifying: zh:高句丽与隋的战争

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict= Goguryeo-Sui Wars
|partof=the [[Goguryeo-China wars]]
|image=
|caption=
|date= 598 – 614
|place= [[Manchuria]], Northern [[Korean Peninsula]], [[Yellow Sea]]
|casus=
|territory=
|result= Goguryeo victory.
|combatant1=[[Goguryeo]]
|combatant2=[[Sui Dynasty]]
|combatant3=
|commander1=[[Yeongyang of Goguryeo|King Yeongyang]] [[Eulji Mundeok]] [[Gang Yi-sik]] [[Yeongnyu of Goguryeo|Go Geon-mu]]
|commander2=[[Yang Liang]] [[Gao Jiong]] [[Emperor Yang of Sui]] [[Yuwen Shu]] [[Yu Zhongwen]] [[Lai Hu'er]] [[Zhou Luohou]]
|commander3=
|strength1=approximately 300,000
|strength2=1,133,800 foot soldiers and total of more than 3,000,000 in invasion of 612
|strength3=
|casualties1=Much less than opposing forces.
|casualties2=Heavy.
|casualties3=
|notes=
}}
{{History_of_Korea}}
The '''Goguryeo-Sui Wars''' were a series of campaigns launched by the [[Sui Dynasty]] of [[China]] against the [[Goguryeo]] of [[Korea]] between [[598]] and [[614]]. It resulted in the defeat of Sui and contributed to its eventual downfall of the dynasty in [[618]].

==Background==
The [[Sui Dynasty]] united [[China]] in 589, defeating the [[Chen Dynasty]] and ending the division of the continent that spanned almost 300 years. After the unification of China, Sui asserted its position as the overlord of all of [[Asia]], and most countries submitted themselves. However, in [[Goguryeo]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], [[Pyeongwon of Goguryeo|Pyeongwon]] and his successor [[Yeongyang of Goguryeo|Yeongyang]] insisted on maintaining an equal relationship with the [[Sui Dynasty]].

[[Emperor Wen of Sui China|Wendi]] of Sui was displeased with the challenge from Goguryeo, which continued small scale raiding into Sui's northern border. Wendi sent diplomatic papers in 596 after Sui envoys spotted Goguryeo diplomats in the [[yurt]] of the Eastern Turk [[Khanate]], demanding Goguryeo cancel any military alliance with the Turks, stop the annual raiding of Sui border regions, and acknowledge Sui as their overlord. Though Yeongyang appeared to comply with the ultimatum, in the following year, 597, he launched a joint preemptive invasion with the [[Malgal]] against Chinese outposts along the border in present-day [[Hebei]] province.

==First War of 598==
Wendi ordered his fifth and youngest son, [[Yang Liang]] (assisted by the co-prime minister [[Gao Jiong]]), and Admiral Zhou Luohou (周羅睺), to conquer Goguryeo with an army and navy totaling 300,000.

Yang Liang's army faced the early rainy season when it reached Goguryeo. The unseasonably heavy rain made the army's progress almost impossible and hampered the transport of provisions. Constant attacks by Goguryeo forces and illness inflicted heavy casualties. Coming to the conclusion that the army could not achieve the objective on its own, Yang decided to combine with Zhou's naval fleet and proceed.

Zhou's navy also came across their own challenges, contending with rough seas, losing many ships despite staying close to the coastline. Whenever they anchored, Goguryeo detachments were present to attack the Sui sailors. The fleet engaged in a battle against a Goguryeo fleet totaling 50,000 led by Admiral [[Gang Isik]], presumably on the present [[Bohai Sea]]. Already weakened by ambushes and nature's onslaught, the Sui fleet suffered a devastating loss.

The Sui forces were all defeated, both at land and sea. Historical texts record that about 90% of the Sui troops perished.<ref name="chineseEncyclopedia"> {{cite web |title = Goguryeo-Sui Wars in 598 |publisher = Jongo Knows, Encyclopedia of China |url = http://knows.jongo.com/res/article/16256 |accessdate= 2008-02-12}} </ref> Goguryeo casualties are thought to be almost nonexistent compared to those of Sui. Yang faced no option but retreat. This war was the only major defeat for Wendi, who died in [[604]].

==Second War of 612==
===Preparations===
[[Emperor Yang of Sui China|Yangdi]], when he won the throne in 604, built the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] connecting the north and south of China. The south, economic base of China, and the north, political base of China, were connected by the canal, allowing transportation of troops for the massive military campaign<ref>{{cite web |title= China's Grand Canal |author= John M. Jackson |url= http://filebox.vt.edu/users/jojacks2/words/grandcanal.htm |accessdate= 2004-03-12}}</ref>.

After the construction of the canal, Yangdi ordered the enlisting of soldiers in 611. He instructed them to gather in present-day [[Beijing]]. The force gathered by year's end was one of the greatest in civilization according to the ''[[Book of Sui]]''. An estimated 1,133,800 combat troops were mobilized. The support troops, responsible for logistics and transportation of resources, are believed to have dwarfed even that number. The total strength of the army is in dispute, with estimates ranging from 3 million to more than 5 million, no doubt a highly exaggerated number due to the fact that no deployment of such a large number of soldiers had ever occurred anywhere on the planet until the 17th century. The army began to depart in early 612, and due to its size, it took 40 days for all of them to depart. The long line of soldiers stretched for about 400 kilometers (200 miles).

===Campaign in Manchuria===
[[Yeongyang of Goguryeo|Yeongyang]] gave up the buffer zone that he had acquired after the war of [[598]], as that the area was not suitable to face such a vast army. The Goguryeo troops retreated behind what is now known as the [[Liao River]]. A fortunate event for the Koreans was that the river melted much sooner than usual. By the time [[Emperor Yang of Sui China|Yangdi]] arrived, the ice had all melted. Undaunted, Yangdi ordered the construction of three bridges across the river. The bridges however, were too short to reach the opposite bank in another fortunate turn of events for the Korean defenders, and Goguryeo's ambush successfully held off the first assault. After the extension of the bridges however, the Sui forces succeeded in crossing the river, and the army surrounded the fortresses of Goguryeo.

Yangdi ordered his generals before the campaigns not to make individual decisions regarding the movement of troops, but to report to him to receive instruction. This order hampered Sui strategy throughout the campaign. During the strategically important campaign against [[Yodong fortress]], the general commanding the siege had to send a messenger to the emperor for the approval of the surrender. By the time the messenger returned, Goguryeo's troops were again ready to defend the fortress. Exploiting this flaw in the Sui system, Yodong and other citadels of Goguryeo continued to hold on. By June, five months after the start of the campaign, not a single fortress had fallen to Sui. Yangdi felt that a fundamental change in strategy was needed to seize control of northern Korea.

===Campaign against Pyongyang===
The new strategy was to keep the fortresses of Goguryeo in [[Manchuria]] at bay, while sending a contingent of army and navy to take [[Pyongyang]], Goguryeo's capital. An army contingent, with a strength of 305,000, and a naval fleet of some 200,000 were dispatched.

===Naval Assault===
The navy reached the bay of the [[Daedong River]] before the army. Seeing that the Sui army had not arrived yet, Yeongyang sent a small host to engage the Sui navy in battle. After a short engagement, feigning defeat, Goguryeo troops retreated into the city. The Sui naval commander, [[Lai Huni]], considering this was a chance to add to his merit, led a host of some 100,000 to lay assault against Pyeongyang.

When the Sui soldiers reached the outer citadel, however, they found the wall empty and the gate open. Upon entering the citadel, they found the valuables and weapons laid out in the open. Being cautious, Lai Huni didn't allow looting. While passing through a large [[Buddhist]] [[temple]], Goguryeo troops ambushed Sui troops, but it failed and survivors retreated yet again. Lai, considering the ambush in the temple a decisive move of Goguryeo that failed, allowed the looting of the outer citadel.

While the looting of the citadel was at its peak, special contingent of Goguryeo troops, consisting of thousands of troops, ambushed the Sui troops. Confused and disoriented, Lai didn't offer resistance, but ran to the fleet at the sea, his legion reduced to mere thousands. Disheartened by his failure, Lai changed his plan to wait for army contingent against Pyeongyang and combine to lay siege on the city.

===Sui Army's Campaign===
The army contingent, led by generals [[Yu Zhongwen]] and [[Yuwen Shu]], had their own problems. While the supply could be transported safely within China, once it reached Goguryeo territory, there was a danger of ambush by Goguryeo forces. Yangdi solved the problem by instructing each soldiers to carry food for himself, which greatly increased each soldier's burden. Many resorted to discarding the food. By the time it had reached [[Yalu River]], the army's shortage of provisions was acute.

Yeongyang decided to assess the strength of the Sui army by ordering his Commander Field Marshal [[Eulji Mundeok]] to fake a surrender and peace negotiation terms with the Sui generals. Generals Wu and Yuwen had their own secret order from Yangdi to seize Yeongyang or Eulji if they should fall into their hands. However, the generals' advisers, notably the Assistant Director of the Right of the Department of State Affairs, [[Liu Shilong]] (劉士龍), convinced them it would be unwise to arrest negotiators from the opposing camp. They ultimately let Eulji return to Goguryeo and Yu Zhongwen later regretted his decision, attempting to lure Eulji back. He sent a message that he wished to discuss things further but Eulji, aware of Wu's intentions, did not comply.

The two generals argued about the next course of action, with Yu Zhongwen arguing strongly that Eulji should be pursued. They did agree that the Goguryeo capital should be captured. Accordingly, the Sui troops began the advancing south towards [[Pyeongyang]]. Eulji maneuvered the Goguryeo troops so that they engaged the Sui army seven times a day, each time faking defeat and retreat. The strategy would draw the Sui army deeper south with the perception of victory. The Sui army eventually advanced to about 20 km from Pyeongyang. Yu Zhongwen later recognized that his advancing troops were suffering from exhaustion, and that fortifications of Pyeongyang made for an impossible campaign.

Yu reached a dilemma and could not decide on advancing or retreat. Eulji sent him for the occasion a poem:
<blockquote> Your divine plans have plumbed the heavens; Your subtle reckoning has spanned the earth. You win every battle, your military merit is great. Why then not be content and stop the war?<ref name=cummings>''Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History'', Bruce Cummings, 1997, ISBN: 0-393-04.</ref></blockquote> When no response came, Eulji sent a representative. The plan now was to offer Emperor Yeongyang to Yangdi escort to submission if the Sui army would withdraw. Seizing this opportunity to retreat, Yu withdrew his troops towards Sui.

===The Battle of Salsu River===
{{Main|Battle of Salsu}}

When Sui army had reached [[Battle of Salsu|Salsu]] (thought to be present-day [[Chongchon River]]), the water was shallow. Eulji had already cut off the flow of water with a dam. When Sui army had half crossed the river, Eulji opened the dam, drowning many thousands of Sui soldiers. Goguryeo charged the remaining Sui army. The historical text records that Sui soldiers had to run almost 200 kilometers that day to escape death. The Battle of Salsu contributed to the massive overall casualty figure for Sui during the campaign. Emperor Yang crossed the Liao River to attack Goguryeo, initially, with 305,000 men. Only 2,700 returned.<ref name=ZZTJ181>''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', [[s:zh:資治通鑑/卷181|vol. 181]].</ref><ref name=SGSG20>''[[Samguk Sagi]]'', vol. 20[http://147.46.181.118/IMAGE/SNUG0020.PDF].</ref>

==Third War of 613==
Yangdi invaded Liaodong again the following year ([[613]]), but was again obliged to retreat without success. While Yangdi was away, [[Yang Xuangan]], the son of Yangdi's prime minister [[Yang Su]], fomented rebellion against Yangdi. Fearing attack from two fronts, Yangdi was forced to retreat and use his army to put down Yang Xuangan's rebellion.

==Fourth War of 614==
After crushing the revolt, Yangdi invaded [[Goguryeo]] again in 614. Though he managed to breach Goguryeo's first line of defence without capturing the frontier fortress, he could not advance far beyond Liao River due to Goguryeo's constant ambushes and obstruction to his supply lines. Yeongyang, seeing a chance to end these exhausting wars, offered peace and returned Yang Xuangan's associate Husi Zheng (斛斯政), who had fled to Goguryeo after Yang Xuangan's rebellion, to Sui. Perceiving the little success in Goguryeo and the increasing internal discontent in China, Yangdi accepted Yeongyang's offer of peace and withdrew Sui troops from Goguryeo's territory.

==Aftermath==
Yangdi's continuous campaigns against Goguryeo resulted in the deaths of millions of people in Sui. The discontent against the regime rose, and after the last campaign, revolts erupted across China. Yangdi moved the capital to the south in [[Yangzhou]], but the revolts were too widespread.

The losses that Sui suffered, both in terms of lives and resources and consequently the trust the people had in the Sui state, contributed to the fall of the Sui Dynasty. Peasants, farmers, soldiers, aristocrats, and landlords rose up against the emperor along with many of the dynasty's military officers. In fact, [[Yuwen Shu|Yuwen Shu's]] son, [[Yuwen Huaji]] became a powerful Sui general who led a successful coup against Yangdi and personally murdered him.

==Notes and references==
* Asmolov, Konstantin V. "The System of Military Activity of Koguryô." ''Korea Journal'' 32:2 (Summer 1992): 103-116.
* Gabriel, Richard A. and Boose, Donald W. "The Korean Way of War: Salsu River." In Richard A. Gabriel and Donald W. Boose. ''The Great Battles of Antiquity: A Strategic and Tactical Guide to Great Battles that Shaped the Development of War''. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1994.
* Graff, David A., Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900. ISBN 0-415-23954-0
<references/>

==See also==
{{Military history of Goguryeo}}

* [[Military history of Goguryeo]]
* [[List of China-related topics]]
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
* [[History of China]]
* [[History of Korea]]

[[Category:6th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:7th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Naval history of China]]
[[Category:Wars involving Sui Dynasty]]
[[Category:Wars involving Goguryeo]]
[[Category:6th century in China]]
[[category:7th century in China]]

[[ko:고구려-수 전쟁]]
[[id:Perang Goguryeo-Sui]]
[[ja:麗隋戦争]]
[[no:Goguryeo-Sui-krigene]]
[[th:สงครามโกคูรยอ-สุย]]
[[zh:高句丽与隋的战争]]

Kye Sun-hui

2010-12-17T21:26:37Z

Nallimbot: r2.5.2) (robot Modifying: fr:Kye Sun-hui

{{Korean name|Kye}}
{{MedalTableTop}}
{{MedalSport | Women's [[judo]]}}
{{MedalCountry | {{PRK}} }}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Olympic Games]]}}
{{MedalGold | [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996 Atlanta]] | [[Judo at the 1996 Summer Olympics - Women's 48 kg| -48 kg]]}}
{{MedalSilver| [[2004 Summer Olympics|2004 Athens]] | [[Judo at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's 57 kg| -57 kg]]}}
{{MedalBronze| [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000 Sydney]] | [[Judo at the 2000 Summer Olympics - Women's 52 kg| -52 kg]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[World Judo Championships|World Championships]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[1997 World Judo Championships|1997 Paris]] | -52 kg}}
{{MedalBronze|[[1999 World Judo Championships|1999 Birmingham]] | -52 kg}}
{{MedalGold|[[2001 World Judo Championships|2001 Munich]] | -52 kg}}
{{MedalGold|[[2003 World Judo Championships|2003 Osaka]] | -57 kg}}
{{MedalGold|[[2005 World Judo Championships|2005 Cairo]] | -57 kg}}
{{MedalGold|[[2007 World Judo Championships|2007 Rio de Janeiro]] | -57 kg}}
{{MedalBottom}}

'''Kye Sun-Hui''' (born August 2, 1979 in [[Pyongyang]]) is a [[North Korea]]n [[judoka]].

Kye won three Olympic medals in different weight classes, in [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996]], [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]] and [[2004 Summer Olympics|2004]]. When she won the gold medal in Atlanta, 1996 she became the youngest gold medalist in judo. She had entered the Games thanks to the [[Wild card (sports)|wild card system]], and her Olympic gold has been described as one of the biggest surprises of the Atlanta Olympics.<ref>[http://en.beijing2008.cn/spirit/pastgames/halloffame/k/n214045958.shtml Official website of the Beijing Olympic Games]</ref>

Kye will be competing for the fourth time at the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in [[Beijing]].<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/20/content_8408606.htm "Global athletes chase Olympic dream"], Xinhua, June 20, 2008</ref>

She has been awarded the [[Kim Il Sung Prize]] and the title of "labour heroine".<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-07/30/content_8847494.htm "Kye Sun Hui pinned high hope to win gold at Olympics for DPRK"], Xinhua, July 30, 2008</ref>

== References ==
{{refs|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.databaseolympics.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=KYESUN01 Database Olympics]
*[http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/profiles/bio_uk.asp?PAR_I_ID=95355 Olympic.org profile]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kye, Sun-Hi
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 2, 1979
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kye, Sun-Hi}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:North Korean judoka]]
[[Category:Judoka at the 1996 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Judoka at the 2000 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Judoka at the 2004 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Judoka at the 2008 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Olympic judoka of North Korea]]
[[Category:Olympic gold medalists for North Korea]]
[[Category:Olympic silver medalists for North Korea]]
[[Category:Olympic bronze medalists for North Korea]]

{{NorthKorea-Olympic-medalist-stub}}
{{NorthKorea-judo-bio-stub}}

[[es:Kye Sun-Hui]]
[[fr:Kye Sun-hui]]
[[ko:계순희]]
[[ja:ケー・スンヒ]]
[[fi:Kye Sun-Hui]]

Al-Fatiha

2010-12-17T20:13:00Z

Nallimbot: r2.5.2) (robot Modifying: ku:Fatihe

{{About|the sura of the Qur'an}}
{{infobox surah
| number = 1
| number-3 = 001
| name = Al-Fātihah
| name-ar = الفاتحة
| name-en = The Opening
| next_sura = Al-Baqara
| othernames = ''see'' [[al-Fatiha#Alternate names|Alternate names]]
| classification = Meccan
| juz = 1
| verses = 7
| words = 29
| letters = 139
| audio = 001 abdulbaset fatiha.ogg
}}

'''[[Sura]] Al-Fatiha''' ({{lang-ar| '''سورة الفاتحة'''}}, ''Sūratu al-Fātihah'', "The Opener") is the first [[Chapter (books)|chapter]] of the [[Muslim]] holy book, the [[Qur'an]]. Its seven [[Ayah|verses]] are a prayer for [[Islamic concept of God|God]]'s guidance, and stress His lordship and mercy. This chapter has an essential role in [[salat|daily prayers]]; Muslims recite the Surah Al-Fatiha seventeen times a day, at the start of each [[rak'ah|unit of prayer]].

==Interpretation==
Muslims believe that the [[Qur'an]] is a revelation from Allah . Translations into other languages are considered to be merely superficial "interpretations" of the meanings and not authentic versions of the Qur'an.

The Arabic text with transliteration and translation in English is as follows: {{cite quran|1|1|7}}.

'''1:1''' {{lang|ar|بِسْمِ اللّهِ الرَّحْمـَنِ الرَّحِيم}}
: {{transl|sem|''[[Basmala|Bismillāhi]] [[Ar-Rahman|r-raḥmāni]] [[R-Ḥ-M|r-raḥīm]]''}}
: Beginning is with Allah's Personal Name Ar'Reh'maan Who is The Fountain of Infinite Mercy.

[Personal names are never translated in any language of the world-Proper names must be transcribed in the alphabet of other languages in the manner that a non native produces the same-as near sound as is in the original language]

Important to note and remember: Allah's Personal Name Ar'Reh'maan/الرَّحْمـَنِ is unique; exclusive; unprecedented [19:65]; this has no parallel, no dual, no plural, no feminine equivalent. Personal Names, unlike attributive/adjectival names/descriptions, never have duality and plurality and neither with personal names is done feminization or masculinization].

'''1:2''' {{lang|ar|الْحَمْدُ للّهِ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِين}}
: {{transl|sem|''[[Alhamdulillah|Al ḥamdu lillāhi]] rabbi l-'[[Alamin|ālamīn]]''}}
:The Infinite Glory and Praise stands specified eternally, entirely and exclusively for Allah, the Sustainer Lord of the Known/Existing Worlds-All that exists.

: "Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds;"

'''1:3''' {{lang|ar|الرَّحمـنِ الرَّحِيم}}
: {{transl|sem|''Ar raḥmāni r-raḥīm''}}
: The Sustainer Lord of the Worlds is Ar'Reh'maan Who is The Fountain of Infinite Mercy.

: "Most Gracious, Most Merciful;"

'''1:4''' {{lang|ar|مَـالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّين}}
: {{transl|sem|''[[Malik|Māliki]] [[Islamic view of the Last Judgment|yawmi d-dīn]]''}}
: Ar'Reh'maan is the Master/the Sovereign/the Authority/Holder of "The Day of Resurrection/Judgment and Requital".

: "Master of the Day of Judgment."

'''1:5''' {{lang|ar|إِيَّاك نَعْبُدُ وإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِين}}
: {{transl|sem|''Iyyāka na'budu wa iyyāka nasta'īn''}}
: [Our Sustainer Lord Ar'Reh'maan] You are the Only Whom we solely and exclusively owe and demonstrate allegiance and servitude and You are exclusively the One we look for help to elevate ourselves.

: "Thee do we worship, and Thine aid we seek."

'''1:6''' {{lang|ar|اهدِنَــــا الصِّرَاطَ المُستَقِيمَ}}
: {{transl|sem|''Ihdinā ṣ-[[Sirat al-Mustaqim|ṣirāṭ al-mustaqīm]]''}}
: Our Sustainer Lord Ar'Reh'maan! You guide us upon the Path that keeps heading safely and straight to the destination of peace and tranquility;

: "Show us the straight way,"

'''1:7''' {{lang|ar|صِرَاطَ الَّذِينَ أَنعَمتَ عَلَيهِمْ غَيرِ المَغضُوبِ عَلَيهِمْ وَلاَ الضَّالِّين}}
: {{transl|sem|''Ṣirāṭ al-laḏīna an'amta 'alayhim ġayril maġḍūbi 'alayhim walāḍ ḍāllīn''}}
: the Path journeyed by those upon whom You showered blessings, this Path/Course is other than of those who made themselves liable to criminal cognizance/arrest, and nor is of those ones who are the neglectful wanderers.

: "The way of those on whom Thou hast bestowed Thy Grace,"

: "those whose (portion) is not wrath, and who go not astray."

==Notes==
The first verse, transliterated as "''[[Basmala|bismillāhir rahmānir rahīm]]''", may be familiar to non-Arabic speakers and non-Muslims because of its ubiquity in Arabic and Muslim societies. This verse appears at the start of every chapter in the Qur'an with the exception of the [[at-Tawba|ninth chapter]]. The verse is normally said before reciting a chapter or part of a chapter during daily prayer, and also before public proclamations and indeed before many personal and everyday activities in many Arabic and Muslim societies as a way to invoke God's blessing and proclaim one's motives before an undertaking.

The two words "ar ''[[Rahman (Islamic term)|rahmān]]''" and "''ar rahīm''" are often translated in English as "the beneficent" and "the merciful" or "the generous." They are often also translated as superlatives, for example, "the most generous" and "the most merciful". Grammatically the two words "rahmaan" and "raheem" are different linguistic forms of the [[triconsonantal root]] [[R-Ḥ-M|R-H-M]], connoting "mercy". (For more information, see the section on root forms in [[Semitic languages]]). The form "rahmaan" denotes degree or extent, i.e., "most merciful," while "raheem" denotes time permanence, i.e., "ever merciful".

The second verse's "الحمد الله" ranks as one of the most popular phrases in all of Arabic, being used to express one's well-being, general happiness, or even consolation in a disaster (see [[Alhamdulillah]]). The verse is also significant in that it includes a relationship between the two most common names for God in Arabic "الله" and "رب". The first word is a ubiquitous name for God, and the second roughly translates to "Lord." It shares the same root with the Hebrew "rabbi". In some printings of the Qur'an, both words appear in red everywhere in the Qur'an.

The reading of the first word of the fourth verse, translated as "master/king" above, has been the subject of debate. The two main [[qira'ah|recitations]], of the Qur'an, [[Warsh]] and Hafs, differ on whether it should be "maliki" with a short "a," which means "king" (Warsh, from [[Nafi']]; [[Ibn Kathir]]; [[Ibn Amir]]; [[Abu 'Amr]]; Hamza), or "māliki" with a long "a," which means "master" or "owner" (Hafs, from Asim, and [[al-Kisa'i]]). Both "maliki" and "māliki" derive from the same [[triconsonantal root]] in Arabic, M-L-K. Both readings are considered valid by many practitioners, since both can be seen as describing God.

In the seventh verse, [[hadith]] inform us that "ġayril maġḍūbi 'alayhim" (those who earned your anger) refers to the Jews, who, according to Allah, abandoned practicing his religion; "walāḍ ḍāllīn" (those who went astray) refers to the Christians, who lost the knowledge and thus deserve less anger.<ref>(Verse 1:7) Narrated by ‘Adi bin Hâtim رضي الله عنه: I asked Allâh’s Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم , about the Statement of Allâh: 1. " غير المغضوب عليهم Ghairil-maghdûbi ‘alaihim (not the way of those who earned Your Anger)," he صلى الله عليه وسلم replied "They are the Jews". And 2. ولا الضالين Walad dâllîn (nor of those who went astray)," he صلى الله عليه وسلم replied: "The Christians, and they are the ones who went astray" - this hadith is quoted by At-Tirmidhi and Musnad Abu Dâwûd.</ref><ref>http://www.qurancomplex.com/Quran/Targama/Targama.asp?t=eng&l=eng</ref><ref>http://sharing4islamic.multiply.com/journal/item/80/The_sweetness_of_Surah_Al_Fatiha-the_opening</ref>

In some Muslim societies, Al-Fatiha is traditionally read together by a couple to seal their [[engagement]], however this act is not recorded in the [[sunnah]] and is seen by many to be an [[bid'ah|innovation]].

==Revelation==
Islamic scholarly tradition is concerned, amongst other things, with when and where verses and chapters of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad - for example, whether a verse was revealed while Muhammad was in [[Mecca]] or [[Medina]]. According to [[Ibn Abbas]] and others, Sura Al-Fatiha is a [[Meccan sura]]; according to [[Abu Hurayrah]] and others, it is a [[Medinan sura]]. The former view is more widely accepted, although some believe that it was revealed in both Mecca and Medina.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Alternate names==
This surah is sometimes known in English as "the Exordium". In various [[Hadith]] it is described as "the mother of the Book" (''Umm al-Kitab'') and "the mother of the Qur'an" (''Umm al-Qur'an''), and "the cure of diseases" ("Sura-tul-shifa") and said to be the [[7 (number)|seven]] verses alluded to in [[Al-Hijr]] {{Quran-usc|15|87}}.

==Statistics==
This sura contains 7 verses, 29 words and 139 letters (or 25 and 120, not counting the first verse), although [[Ibn Kathir]] says "The scholars say that Al-Fatiha consists of 25 words, and that it contains 113 letters." This is due to different methods of counting letters. Also, since the Qur'an came as an orally recited revelation rather than one written down, there were slightly different methods of spelling, similar to the differences between American English spelling and British English spelling (center vs. centre). AIt falls in the first [[hizb]], and hence the first [[juz']], which are sections of the Qur'an.

{{Sura|1|—|[[Al-Baqara]]}}

==Translations, interpretations and commentaries==
Because of a hadith which states that "whoever does not recite Surah Al-fatihah in his prayer his prayer is invalid", many Islamic scholars emphasise the importance of this chapter in their commentaries. In practice, this means that Muslims who perform [[salat|daily prayers]] according to traditional rules will recite Surah Al-Fatiha at least 10 times a day (only 10 of the 17 ruk'a require this Surah){{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}.

http://www.truequran.com.pk

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Al-Fatiha in different languages]]
Visit http://www.truequran.com

[http://haqeeqat.com.pk/ Word by word analysis]

==External links==
{{Wikisourcerename|The Holy Qur'an/Al-Fatiha|Al-Fatihah}}

[[Category:Sura|Fatiha]]
[[Category:Sura 1]]
[[Category:Salat]]

[[ace:Surat Al-Fatihah]]
[[als:Fatiha]]
[[ar:سورة الفاتحة]]
[[an:Al-Fatiha]]
[[az:Fatihə surəsi]]
[[bn:আল ফাতিহা]]
[[be:Аль-Фаціха]]
[[be-x-old:Аль-Фаціха]]
[[bs:El-Fatiha]]
[[bg:Ал-Фатиха]]
[[cy:Al-Fâtiha]]
[[da:Al-Fatiha]]
[[de:Al-Fātiha]]
[[es:Fatiha]]
[[fa:فاتحه (سوره)]]
[[fr:Fatiha]]
[[ko:개경장]]
[[hi:अल-फ़ातिहा]]
[[id:Surah Al-Fatihah]]
[[is:Fyrsta súran]]
[[it:Al-Fātiḥa]]
[[he:סורת אל-פאתחה]]
[[jv:Surat Al Faatihah]]
[[kk:Фатиха сүресі]]
[[ku:Fatihe]]
[[la:Al-Fatiha]]
[[mk:Ел-Фатиха]]
[[ml:അൽ ഫാത്തിഹ]]
[[mzn:فاتحه]]
[[ms:Surah Al-Fatihah]]
[[nl:Soera De Opening]]
[[pnb:سورت فاتحہ]]
[[ps:سورة الفاتحة]]
[[pl:Al-Fatihah]]
[[pt:Al-Fatiha]]
[[ru:Сура Аль-Фатиха]]
[[sq:Suretu El Fatiha]]
[[sl:Odprtje knjige (sura)]]
[[su:Al Fatihah]]
[[fi:Al-Fatiha]]
[[sv:Al-Fatiha]]
[[tt:Әл-Фатыйха]]
[[te:అల్-ఫాతిహా]]
[[tr:Fatiha Suresi]]
[[uk:Фатіха]]
[[ur:الفاتحہ]]
[[diq:Fatiha]]
[[zh:開端章]]

The Catholic university of Korea

2010-12-17T19:26:01Z

Nallimbot: r2.5.2) (robot Adding: ja:カトリック大学校, ko:가톨릭대학교

{{Infobox University
|name = The Catholic University of Korea
|native_name = 가톨릭대학교
|image_name =
|image_size =
|caption =
|latin_name =
|motto = 사랑 진리 봉사
|mottoeng = Love Truth Service
|established = 1855
|closed =
|type = [[Private university|Private]]
|affiliation = [[Roman Catholic]]
|endowment =
|rector =
|officer_in_charge =
|chairman =
|chancellor =
|president = Fr. Johan Pahk Yeong-sik
|vice-president =
|superintendent =
|provost =
|vice_chancellor =
|principal =
|dean =
|director =
|head_label =
|head =
|faculty = 1,005
|staff = 289
|students = 11,013
|undergrad = 8,443
|postgrad = 2,570
|doctoral =
|other =
|city = Songsin Campus : [[Seoul]]
|state =
|province =
|country = [[South Korea]] Songeui Campus : [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]] Songsim Campus : [[Bucheon]], [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
|coor =
|campus = [[urban area | urban]]
|former_names =
|free_label =
|free =
|sports =
|colors = Blue
|colours =
|nickname =
|mascot = [[Dove]]
|athletics =
|affiliations =
|website = http://www.catholic.ac.kr/
|logo =
|footnotes =
}}

{{Infobox Korean name
|hangul=가톨릭대학교
|hanja=天主教大學校
|rr=Gatollik Daehakgyo
|mr=Kat'ollik Taehakkyo}}

'''The Catholic University of Korea''' is a leading [[Roman Catholic]] institution of higher education in [[South Korea]].
It operates campuses in the capital, [[Seoul]], and in neighboring [[Bucheon]] City.
The university operates a medical school, which is considered to be one of the top three medical schools in Korea along with [[Seoul National University]] and [[Yonsei University]]. The medical school has eight affiliated hospitals in major cities of the region.

==History==

The university traces its roots to St. Joseph's Seminary, founded before Christianity was legalized, in 1855 in Baeron, a Catholic refuge in modern-day [[Jecheon]], [[North Chungcheong]] province. After the legalization of Christianity, the school moved to [[Yongsan-gu]], Seoul, in 1887, and was renamed Seminary of Sacred Heart of Jesus. A hospital associated with the seminary was opened in 1936. The seminary became Songsim College in 1947 (Songsim, or 聖心, means '[[Sacred Heart]]' in Korean) and the medical school was established in 1954. The name was later changed to Catholic College. Songsim Women's College was founded in 1964; the two colleges were merged in 1990 to form the present-day entity of Catholic University.

==Seoul St. Mary's Hospital==
[[Seoul St. Mary's Hospital]] is one of the affiliated hospitals of Catholic University of Korea and is part of the CMC (Catholic Medical Center) network. The new hospital opened on 30th April, 2009. With 1200 beds, Seoul St.Mary's Hospital is the largest hospital building unit in Korea. On top of its size, the hospital is going to feature state-of-the-art healthcare facilities with numerous specialized wards.
<gallery></gallery>

==See also==
*[[List of colleges and universities in South Korea]]
*[[List of Korea-related topics]]
*[[Education in South Korea]]

==External links==
*[http://www.catholic.ac.kr/eng/ Official school website]
*[http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=11843&size=A Article on new bioethics graduate school at the university]

[[ko:가톨릭대학교]]
[[ja:カトリック大学校]]

Copper

2010-11-26T23:58:43Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Modifying: koi:Ыргӧн

{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox copper}}

'''Copper''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|k|ɒ|p|ər}} {{respell|KOP|ər}}) is a [[chemical element]] with the symbol '''Cu''' ({{lang-la|cuprum}}) and [[atomic number]] 29. It is a [[ductile]] [[metal]], with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and malleable, and a freshly exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy color. It is used as a [[thermal conductor]], an [[electrical conductor]], a building material, and a constituent of various metal [[alloy]]s.

[[File:Cu-Scheibe.JPG|thumb|left|150px|A copper disc made by [[continuous casting]] and [[industrial etching|etching]].]]
Copper metal and [[alloys]] have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined on [[Cyprus]], hence the origin of the name of the metal as Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cuprum.

There may be insufficient reserves to sustain current high rates of copper consumption.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/060119_scarce_metals.html|title=Earth's Limited Supply of Metals Raises Concern|accessdate=2008-03-16}}</ref> Some countries, such as Chile and the United States, still have sizeable reserves of the metal which are extracted through large open pit mines.

Copper compounds are commonly encountered as salts of {{chem|Cu|2+}}, which often impart blue or green colors to minerals such as [[turquoise]] and have been used historically widely as pigments. Copper metal architectural structures and statuary eventually corrode to acquire a characteristic green [[patina]]. Copper as both metal and pigmented salt, has a significant presence in [[decorative art]].

Copper(II) ions ({{chem|Cu|2+}}) are soluble in water, where they function at low concentration as bacteriostatic substances, fungicides, and wood preservatives. In sufficient amounts, copper salts can be poisonous to higher organisms as well. However, despite universal toxicity at high concentrations, the {{chem|Cu|2+}} ion at lower concentrations is an essential trace [[nutrient]] to all [[higher plant]] and animal life. In animals, including humans, it is found widely in tissues, with concentration in liver, muscle, and bone. It functions as a [[Cofactor (biochemistry)|co-factor]] in various [[enzyme]]s and in copper-based [[pigment]]s.

==Characteristics==
===Physical properties===
Copper occupies the same family of the [[periodic table]] as [[silver]] and [[gold]], since they each have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled [[electron shell]] which forms [[metallic bond]]s. Like silver and gold, copper is easily worked, being both [[ductile]] and [[malleable]]. The ease with which it can be drawn into wire makes it useful for electrical work as does its excellent electrical conductivity.

Copper is normally supplied, as with nearly all metals for industrial and commercial use, in a fine grained [[polycrystalline]] form. Polycrystalline metals have greater strength than [[monocrystalline]] forms, and the difference is greater for smaller grain (crystal) sizes.<ref>{{cite book|author = William F. Smith, Javad Hashemi|title = Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering|page = 223|publisher = McGraw-Hill Professional|year= 2003|isbn = 0072921943}}</ref>

[[File:Copper just above its melting point.jpg|thumb|Copper just above its melting point keeps its pink luster color when enough light outshines the orange incandescence color.]]
[[File:Copper wire comparison.JPG|thumb|Comparison between unoxidized copper wire (left) and normal oxidized copper (right).]]
Copper has a reddish, orangish, or brownish color owing to a thin layer of [[tarnish]] (including [[oxides]]). Pure copper, is pink- or peach-coloured. Copper, [[osmium]] (blueish) and [[gold]] (yellow) are the only three elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Chambers|first = William|last2 = Chambers|first2 = Robert|title = Chambers's Information for the People|publisher = W. & R. Chambers|year = 1884|volume = L|page = 312|edition = 5th|url = http://books.google.com/?id=eGIMAAAAYAAJ|isbn = 0665469128}}.</ref> Copper's characteristic color results from its [[band structure]]: copper is the exception to [[Madelung's rule]], with only one electron in the 4s subshell instead of two. The energy of a photon of blue or violet light is sufficient for a ''d'' band electron to absorb it and transition to the half-full ''s'' band. Thus, the light reflected by copper is missing some blue/violet components and appears red. This phenomenon is exhibited by gold which has a corresponding 5s/4d structure.<ref>{{cite book|author = Razeghi, M. |title = Fundamentals of Solid State Engineering|pages = 154–156|publisher = Birkhäuser|year = 2006|isbn =0387281525}}</ref> Liquid copper appears somewhat greenish, a characteristic shared with gold in the absence of bright [[ambient light]].

===Electrical properties===
[[File:Busbars.jpg|thumb|Copper electrical [[busbar]]s distributing power to a large building]]
The similarity in electron structure makes copper, silver, and gold similar in many ways: All three have high thermal and electrical conductivities, and all three are malleable. Among pure metals at [[room temperature]], copper has the second highest [[electrical conductivity|electrical]] and [[thermal conductivity]], after [[silver]].<ref name=CRC>{{cite book|author = Hammond, C. R.|title = The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition|publisher =CRC press|isbn = 0849304857|year = 2004}}</ref>
At 59.6×106 [[Siemens (unit)|S]]/m copper has the second highest electrical conductivity of any element, just after silver. This high value is due to virtually all the valence electrons (one per atom) taking part in conduction. The resulting [[free electron]]s in the copper amount to a huge charge density of 13.6×109 C/m3. This high charge density is responsible for the rather slow [[drift velocity]] of currents in copper cable (drift velocity may be calculated as the ratio of [[current density]] to charge density). For instance, at a current density of 5×106 A/m2 (typically, the maximum current density present in household wiring and grid distribution) the drift velocity is just a little over ⅓ mm/s.<ref>{{cite book|author = Seymour, J.|title = Physical Electronics|pages = 25–27, 53–54|publisher= Pitman Publishing|year = 1972|isbn = 0273411764}}</ref>

===Chemical characteristics===
{{Main|Galvanic corrosion}}
In direct mechanical contact with metals of different [[Galvanic series|electropotential]] (for example, a copper [[Pipe (material)|pipe]] joined to an [[iron]] pipe), especially in the presence of moisture, as the completion of an electrical circuit (for instance through the common [[ground (electricity)|ground]]) will cause the juncture to act as an [[electrochemical cell]] (like a single cell of a [[battery (electricity)|battery]]). The weak electrical currents themselves are harmless but the electrochemical reaction will cause the conversion of the iron to other compounds, eventually destroying the functionality of the union.

During the late 20th century in the United States, the temporary popularity of aluminium for household electrical wiring resulted in many homes having a combination of copper and aluminium wiring necessitating electrical contact (and therefore physical contact) between the two metals. The article on [[aluminium wire]] discusses [[Aluminium_wire#Joining_aluminium_and_copper_wires|some of the issues]] experienced by homeowners and housing contractors.

Copper does not react with water, but it slowly reacts with atmospheric oxygen forming a layer of brown-black copper oxide. In contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air, this oxide layer stops the further, bulk corrosion. A green layer of copper carbonate, called [[verdigris]], can often be seen on old copper constructions, such as the [[Statue of Liberty]].

Copper reacts with [[hydrogen sulfide]]- and [[sulfide]]-containing solutions, forming various copper sulfides on its surface. In sulfide-containing solutions, copper is less noble than [[hydrogen]] and will corrode. This is observed in everyday life when copper metal surfaces [[tarnish]] after exposure to air containing sulfur compounds.

Copper is slowly dissolved in oxygen-containing ammonia solutions because ammonia forms water-soluble complexes with copper. Copper reacts with a combination of oxygen and hydrochloric acid to form a series of copper chlorides. Copper(II) chloride (green/blue) when boiled with copper metal undergoes a [[symproportionation]] reaction to form white copper(I) chloride.

Copper reacts with an acidified mixture of hydrogen peroxide to form the corresponding copper salt:
:Cu + 2 HCl + H2O2 → CuCl2 + 2 H2O

===Occurrence===
[[File:Cuivre Michigan.jpg|thumb|Crystals of native copper 12 × 8.5 cm.]]
Copper can be found as [[native copper]] in [[mineral]] form (for example, in [[Michigan]]'s [[Keweenaw Peninsula]]). It is a polycrystal, with the largest single crystals measuring 4.4×3.2×3.2 cm.<ref>{{cite journal|url = http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM66/AM66_885.pdf|journal = American Mineralogist|volume = 66|page=885|year= 1981|title= The largest crystals|author = Rickwood, P. C.}}</ref> Minerals such as the [[sulfide]]s: [[chalcopyrite]] (CuFeS2), [[bornite]] (Cu5FeS4), [[covellite]] (CuS), [[chalcocite]] (Cu2S) are sources of copper, as are the [[carbonate]]s: [[azurite]] (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2) and [[malachite]] (Cu2CO3(OH)2) and the oxide: [[cuprite]] (Cu2O).<ref name=CRC/>

Copper is found in a variety of [[enzyme]]s and [[protein]]s, including the [[cytochrome c oxidase]] and certain [[superoxide dismutase]]s. Copper is used for biological electron transport, e.g. the blue copper proteins [[azurin]] and [[plastocyanin]]. The name "blue copper" comes from their intense blue color arising from a ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) absorption band around 600 nm. Most [[mollusc]]s and some [[arthropod]]s such as the [[horseshoe crab]] use the copper-containing pigment [[hemocyanin]] rather than [[iron]]-containing [[hemoglobin]] for oxygen transport, so their blood is blue when oxygenated rather than red.<ref name=NOAA>{{cite web|title = Fun Facts|work = Horseshoe Crab|publisher = University of Delaware|url = http://www.ocean.udel.edu/horseshoecrab/funFacts.html|accessdate = 2008-07-13}}</ref>

===Isotopes===
{{Main|Isotopes of copper}}
Copper has 29 distinct [[isotope]]s ranging in [[atomic mass]] from 52 to 80. Two of these, 63Cu and 65Cu, are stable and occur naturally, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper. They both have nuclear spin of 3/2.<ref name="nubase">{{cite journal|title=Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties|journal=Nuclear Physics A|volume=729|page=3|publisher=Atomic Mass Data Center|year=2003|doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001|author=Audi, G}}</ref> The other 27 isotopes are [[radioactivity|radioactive]] and do not occur naturally. The most stable of these is 67Cu with a [[half-life]] of 61.83 hours.<ref name="nubase"/>

==Compounds==
[[File:CopperIoxide.jpg|thumb|Copper(I) oxide powder]]
{{See also|Category:Copper compounds}}
Most compounds of copper adopt [[oxidation state]]s copper(I) and copper(II), which are often called ''cuprous'', and copper(II) ''cupric'', respectively.

===Copper(I)===
Copper(I) is that main form of copper encountered in its ores. The cuprous halides except the fluoride are well known: [[copper(I) chloride|CuCl]], [[copper(I) bromide|CuBr]], [[copper(I) iodide|CuI]]. Sugars are sometimes detected by their ability to convert blue copper(II) complexes to reddish [[copper(I) oxide]] (Cu2O), e.g. [[Benedict's reagent]].

===Copper(II)===
Copper(II) is more commonly encountered in everyday life. [[Copper(II) carbonate]] is the green tarnish that gives the unique appearance of copper-clad roofs or domes on older buildings. [[Copper(II) sulfate]] forms a blue crystalline penta[[hydrate]] which is perhaps the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used as a [[fungicide]], known as [[Bordeaux mixture]].<ref name="Boux">{{cite book | url = http://books.google.de/books?id=cItuoO9zSjkC&pg=PA623 | page = 623 | chapter = Nonsystematic (Contact) Fungicides | title = Ullmann's Agrochemicals | isbn = 9783527316045 | author1 = Wiley-Vch, | date = 2007-04-02}}</ref>

Adding an aqueous solution of [[sodium hydroxide]] will cause the precipitation of blue solid [[copper(II) hydroxide]]. A simplified equation is:
:Cu2+ + 2 OH− → Cu(OH)2
A fuller equation shows that the reaction involves to hydroxide ions deprotonating the hexaaquacopper(II) complex:
:[Cu(H2O)6]2+ + 2 OH− → Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 2 H2O
An [[ammonia solution|aqueous ammonia]] causes the same precipitate to form. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming a deep blue ammonia complex, [[Schweizer's reagent|tetraamminecopper(II)]]:
:Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 4 NH3 → [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ + 2 H2O + 2 OH−
This compound was once important in the processing of cellulose.

Other well-known copper(II) compounds include [[copper(II) acetate]], [[copper(II) carbonate]], [[copper(II) chloride]], [[copper(II) nitrate]], and [[copper(II) oxide]]. Many tests for copper ions exist, one involving [[potassium ferrocyanide]], which gives a brown precipitate with copper salts.

===Copper(III) and copper(IV)===
A representative copper(III) complex is [CuF6]3-. Copper(III) compounds are uncommon but are involved in a variety of reactions in [[bioinorganic chemistry]] and [[homogeneous catalysis]]. The [[unconventional superconductors|cuprate superconductors]] contain copper(III), e.g. YBa2Cu3O7-δ. Compounds of copper(IV) are extremely rare, examples are the salts of [CuF6]2-.

==History==
===Copper Age===
{{Main|Copper Age}}
Copper, as [[native copper]], is one of the few metals to occur naturally as an un-compounded mineral. Copper was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record, and has a history of use that is at least 10,000 years old. Some estimates of copper's discovery place this event around 9000 BC in the [[Middle East]].<ref name=discovery>{{cite web|url=http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/copper/overview.php|title=CSA – Discovery Guides, A Brief History of Copper|publisher=Csa.com|accessdate=2008-09-12}}</ref> A copper pendant was found in what is now northern [[Iraq]] that dates to 8700 BC.<ref>{{cite book|page = 56|title = Rayner W. Hesse|publisher= Greenwood Publishing Group|year = 2007|isbn = 0313335079|author = Rayner W. Hesse}}</ref> It is probable that [[gold]] and [[Iron meteorite|meteoritic iron]] were the only metals used by humans before copper.<ref name=vander>{{cite web|url=http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Cu|title=Copper|publisher=Elements.vanderkrogt.net|accessdate=2008-09-12}}</ref> By 5000 BC, there are signs of copper [[smelting]]: the refining of copper from simple copper compounds such as [[malachite]] or [[azurite]]. Among archaeological sites in Anatolia, [[Çatal Höyük]] (~6000 BC) features native copper artifacts and smelted lead beads, but no smelted copper. [[Can Hasan]] (~5000 BC) had access to smelted copper but the oldest smelted copper artifact found (a copper chisel from the chalcolithic site of [[Prokuplje]] in Serbia) has pre-dated Can Hasan by 500 years. The smelting facilities in the Balkans appear to be more advanced than the Anatolian forges found at a later date, so it is quite probable that copper smelting originated in the [[Balkans]]. [[Investment casting]] was realized in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asia.<ref name=discovery/> Carbon dates have established mining at around 2280 to 1890 BC at [[Alderley Edge]] in [[Cheshire]], UK.<ref>{{cite book|author = Timberlake, S. and Prag A.J.N.W.|year = 2005|title = The Archaeology of Alderley Edge: Survey, excavation and experiment in an ancient mining landscape|location = Oxford|publisher = John and Erica Hedges Ltd.|page = 396}}</ref>

[[File:Copper Ingot Crete.jpg|left|thumb|Corroded copper [[ingot]] from [[Zakros]], [[Crete]] is shaped in the form of an animal skin typical for that era.]]
Copper smelting appears to have been developed independently in several parts of the world. In addition to its development in the Balkans by 5500 BC, it was developed in China before 2800 BC, in the Andes around 2000 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa around 900 AD.<ref>{{cite news|author = Cowen, R. |url = http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH3.html|title = Essays on Geology, History, and People, Chapter 3: "Fire and Metals: Copper|accessdate =2009-07-07}}</ref> Copper is found extensively in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] by the 3rd millennium BC. In Europe, [[Ötzi the Iceman]], a well-preserved male dated to 3300–3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure. High levels of [[arsenic]] in his hair suggest he was involved in copper [[smelting]]. Over the course of centuries, experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; for example, knowledge of copper smelting led to the discovery of [[bloomery|iron smelting]].

In the Americas production in the [[Old Copper Complex]], located in present day Michigan and Wisconsin, was dated to between 6000 to 3000 BC.<ref name=occ>Thomas C. Pleger, "A Brief Introduction to the Old Copper Complex of the Western Great Lakes: 4000-1000 BC", ''[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6NUQNQAACAAJ Proceedings of the Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting of the Forest History Association of Wisconsin]'', Oconto, Wisconsin, October 5, 2002, pp. 10-18.</ref><ref>Thomas E. Emerson, Dale L. McElrath, ''[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awsA08oYoskC&pg=PA709&dq=%22Old+copper+metalsmithing%22#v=onepage&q=%22Old%20copper%20metalsmithing%22&f=false Archaic Societies: Diversity and Complexity Across the Midcontinent]'', SUNY Press, 2009 ISBN 1-4384-2701-8.</ref>

Some reports{{Which?|date=November 2010}} claim that ancient American civilizations, such as the [[Mound builder (people)|Mound Builders]] knew of a method of tempering copper which has not yet been rediscovered. According to historian Gerard Fowke, there is no evidence of any such "lost art", and the best technique demonstrated for strengthening copper in this era was hammering.<ref>''Archæological history of Ohio: the Mound builders and later Indians'' by Gerard Fowke, 1902. p. 704-5. [http://books.google.com/books?id=cUtCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA705&lpg=PA705&dq=how+to+temper+copper+indians&source=bl&ots=GshUnKFJ_j&sig=9-q3wcJAIM2OEhA8WFGf86G2kDk&hl=en&ei=TMciTIf7LIa0lQea_PmnBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=how%20to%20temper%20copper%20indians&f=false]</ref>

===Bronze Age===
{{Main|Bronze Age}}
Alloying of copper with zinc or tin to make [[brass]] or [[bronze]] was practiced soon after the discovery of copper itself. Copper and bronze artifacts from [[Sumer]]ian cities date to 3000 BC,<ref name=hist>{{cite book|pages = 13;48–66|title = Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology|author = McNeil, Ian |publisher = Routledge|year = 2002|location = London ; New York|isbn = 0203192117}}</ref> and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] artifacts of copper and copper-[[tin]] alloys nearly as old. The use of bronze became so widespread in Europe approximately from 2500 BC to 600 BC that it has been named the [[Bronze Age]]. The transitional period in certain regions between the preceding [[Neolithic]] period and the Bronze Age is termed the [[Chalcolithic]] ("copper-stone"), with some high-purity copper tools being used alongside stone tools. Brass (copper-zinc alloy) was known to the [[Greeks]], but only became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman empire.<ref name=hist/>

===Antiquity and Middle Ages===
[[File:Venus symbol.svg|left|thumb|80px|In [[alchemy]] the symbol for copper, perhaps a stylized mirror, was also the symbol for the goddess and planet [[Venus]].]]
[[File:TimnaChalcolithicMine.JPG|thumb|[[Chalcolithic copper mine]] in [[Timna Valley]], [[Negev Desert]], [[Israel]].]]

In Greek, the metal was known by the name ''chalkos'' (χαλκός). Copper was a very important resource for the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it became known as ''aes Cyprium'' (''aes'' being the generic Latin term for copper alloys such as bronze and other metals, and ''Cyprium'' because so much of it was mined in [[Cyprus]]). From this, the phrase was simplified to ''cuprum,'' hence the English ''copper''. Copper was associated with the goddess [[Aphrodite]]/[[Venus (goddess)|Venus]] in mythology and [[alchemy]], owing to its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with [[Cyprus]], which was sacred to the goddess. In astrology and alchemy the seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with seven metals also known in antiquity, and [[Venus]] was assigned to copper.<ref>{{cite journal|title = The Nomenclature of Copper and its Alloys|author = Rickard, T. A. |journal = The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland|volume = 62|year = 1932|page=281|url = http://www.jstor.org/pss/2843960|doi = 10.2307/2843960|publisher = The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 62}}</ref>

Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd–2nd century BC. In North America, copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on [[Isle Royale]] with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.<ref>{{cite journal|title = The State of Our Knowledge About Ancient Copper Mining in Michigan|journal = The Michigan Archaeologist|volume = 41|pages = 119|author = Martin, Susan R. |year = 1995|url = http://www.ramtops.co.uk/copper.html|issue =2-3}}</ref>

Copper metallurgy was flourishing in [[South America]], particularly in [[Peru]] around the beginning of the first millennium AD. Copper technology proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Africa's major location for copper reserves is [[Zambia]]. Copper burial ornamentals dated from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early 20th century. [[Australia]]n copper artifacts exist, but they appear only after the arrival of the Europeans; the [[aboriginal culture]] apparently did not develop their own metallurgical abilities.

Crucial in the metallurgical and technological worlds, copper has also played an important cultural role, particularly in currency. [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money. At first, just the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. [[Julius Caesar]] had his own coins, made from a copper-zinc alloy, while [[Augustus|Octavianus Augustus Caesar]]'s coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, [[Roman metallurgy|Roman copper mining and smelting activities]] reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the [[Industrial Revolution]]; the [[Roman province|provinces]] most intensely mined were those of [[Hispania]], [[Cyprus]] and in [[Central Europe]].<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.272.5259.246 | title = History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice | pages = 246–249 (247f.) | year = 1996 | last1 = Hong | first1 = S. | last2 = Candelone | first2 = J.-P. | last3 = Patterson | first3 = C. C. | last4 = Boutron | first4 = C. F. | journal = Science | volume = 272}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Callataÿ | first = François de | year = 2005 | title = The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks | journal = Journal of Roman Archaeology | volume = 18 | pages = 361–372 (366–369)}}</ref>

The gates of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]] used [[Corinthian bronze]] made by depletion gilding. Corinthian bronze was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun.<ref>{{cite journal|url = http://www.goldbulletin.org/downloads/JACOB_2_33.PDF|title = Corinthian Bronze and the Gold of the Alchemists|issue = 2|volume = 33|first = D. M.|last = Jacobson|year = 2000|page=60}}</ref> In ancient India (before 1000 BC), copper was used in the [[holistic]] medical science [[Ayurveda]] for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and as time passed, (~1500 BC) for headaches, burns, and itching. [[Hippocrates]] (~400 BC) used copper to treat leg ulcers associated with varicose veins. Ancient Aztecs fought sore throats by gargling with copper mixtures.

Copper is also the part of many rich stories and legends, such as that of Iraq's [[Baghdad Battery]]. Copper cylinders soldered to lead, which date back to 248 BC to 226 AD, resemble a galvanic cell, leading people to believe this may have been the first battery. This claim has so far not been substantiated.

The Bible also refers to the importance of copper: "Men know how to mine silver and refine gold, to dig [[iron]] from the earth and melt copper from stone" (Job 28:1–2).

===Modern period===
[[Image:AngleseyCopperStream.jpg|right|thumb|160px|A copper saturated stream running from the disused [[Parys Mountain]] mines]]
The [[Great Copper Mountain]] was a mine in Falun, Sweden, that operated for a millennium from the 10th century to 1992. It produced as much as two thirds of Europe's copper needs in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden's wars during that time. It was referred to as the nation's treasury; Sweden had a [[History of copper currency in Sweden|copper backed currency]].

Throughout history, copper's use in art has extended far beyond currency. It was used by [[Renaissance]] [[sculptors]], in pre-photographic technology known as the [[daguerreotype]], and the [[Statue of Liberty]]. [[Copper plating]] and [[Copper sheathing]] for ships' hulls was widespread. The ships of Christopher Columbus were among the earliest to have this protection.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Copper History|url = http://www.copperinfo.com/aboutcopper/history.html|accessdate = 2008-09-04}}</ref> The [[Norddeutsche Affinerie]] in [[Hamburg]] was the first modern [[electroplating]] plant starting its production in 1876.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1002/adem.200400403|title = Process Optimization in Copper Electrorefining|year = 2004|author = Stelter, M.|journal = Advanced Engineering Materials|volume = 6|page=558|last2 = Bombach|first2 = H.}}</ref> The German scientist [[Gottfried Osann]] invented [[powder metallurgy]] of copper in 1830 while determining the metal's atomic weight. Around then it was also discovered that the amount and type of alloying element (e.g. tin) would affect the tones of bells, leading to bell casting. [[Flash smelting]] was developed by [[Outokumpu]] in [[Finland]] and first applied at the [[Harjavalta]] plant in 1949. The energy-efficient process accounts for 50% of the world’s primary copper production.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.outokumpu.com/files/Technology/Documents/Newlogobrochures/FlashSmelting.pdf|title = Outokumpu Flash Smelting|publisher = [[Outokumpu]]|page = 2}}</ref>

Copper has been pivotal in the economic and sociological worlds, notably disputes involving copper mines. The 1906 Cananea Strike in Mexico dealt with issues of work organization. The Teniente copper mine (1904–1951) raised political issues about capitalism and class structure. Japan's largest copper mine, the Ashio mine, was the site of a riot in 1907. The Arizona miners' strike of 1938 dealt with American labor issues including the "right to strike".

==Production==
[[File:Chuquicamata-002.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chuquicamata]] is the world's largest [[open-pit mining|open pit]] copper [[mining|mines]].]]
[[File:2005copper (mined).PNG|thumb|Copper output in 2005]]
Most copper ore is mined or [[copper extraction|extracted]] as copper sulfides from large [[open pit mine]]s in [[porphyry copper]] deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Examples include: [[Chuquicamata]] in [[Chile]], [[Bingham Canyon Mine]] in [[Utah]] and [[El Chino Mine]] in [[New Mexico]], [[US]]. The average abundance of copper found within [[crustal rocks]] is approximately 68 [[parts per million|ppm]] by mass, and 22 [[parts per million|ppm]] by [[atoms]]. In 2005, Chile was the top mine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followed by the USA, Indonesia and Peru, reports the [[British Geological Survey]].<ref name=CRC/>

===Reserves===
[[File:Copper - world production trend.svg|thumb|World production trend]]
[[File:Copper Price History USD.png|left|thumb|Copper prices 2003–2008 in USD]]
Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast (around 1014 tons just in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, or about 5 million years worth at the current rate of extraction). However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable, given present-day prices and technologies. Various estimates of existing copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brown, Lester|title=Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble|publisher=New York: W.W. Norton|year=2006|page=109|isbn=0393328317}}</ref>

Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world.<ref name=Leonard2006>{{cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/tech/htww/2006/03/02/peak_copper/index.html|title=Peak copper?|publisher=Salon – How the World Works|author=Leonard, Andrew |date=2006-03-02|accessdate=2008-03-23}}</ref> Because of these and other factors, the future of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate, including the concept of [[Peak copper]], analogue to [[Peak Oil]].

The copper price, one measure of the availability of supply versus worldwide demand, has quintupled from the 60-year low in 1999, rising from [[US dollar|US$]]0.60 per [[Pound (mass)|pound]] (US$1.32/[[kilogram|kg]]) in June 1999 to US$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006, where it dropped to US$2.40 per pound (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007 then rebounded to US$3.50 per pound (US$7.71/kg = [[pound sterling|£]]3.89 = [[euro|€]]5.00) in April 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://metalspotprice.com/copper-trends/|title =Copper Trends: Live Metal Spot Prices}}</ref> By early February 2009, however, weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year's highs had left copper prices at US$1.51 per pound.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.forbes.com/2009/02/04/copper-frontera-southern-markets-equity-0205_china_51.html|title = A Bottom In Sight For Copper|author = Ackerman, R. |date = 02-04-2009|publisher = Forbes}}</ref>

The [[Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries]] (CIPEC), defunct since 1992, once tried to play a similar role for copper as [[OPEC]] does for [[Petroleum|oil]], but never achieved the same influence, not least because the second-largest producer, the [[United States]], was never a member. Formed in 1967, its principal members were [[Chile]], [[Peru]], [[Zaire]], and [[Zambia]].

===Methods===
{{Main|Copper extraction techniques}}

===Recycling===
Copper is 100% [[Recycling|recyclable]] without any loss of quality whether in a raw state or contained in a manufactured product. Copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and [[aluminium]]. It is estimated that 80% of the copper ever mined is still in use today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.copperinfo.com/environment/recycling.html|title=International Copper Association}}</ref>

High purity copper scrap is directly melted in a [[furnace]] and the molten copper is deoxidized and cast into [[Billet (manufacturing)|billet]]s, or [[ingot]]s. Lower purity scrap is usually refined to attain the desired purity level by an [[electroplating]] process in which the copper scrap is dissolved into a bath of [[sulfuric acid]] and then electroplated out of the [[solution]].<ref>[http://www.copper.org/publications/newsletters/innovations/1998/06/recycle_overview.html "Overview of Recycled Copper" ''Copper.org''.]</ref>

==Applications==
About 98% of all copper is used as the metal, taking advantage of distinctive physical properties - being [[malleable]] and [[ductile]], a good conductor of both [[conductor of heat|heat]] and [[conductor of electricity|electricity]], and being resistant to corrosion.

The purity of copper is expressed as 4N for 99.99% pure or 7N for 99.99999% pure. The numeral gives the number of nines after the decimal point when expressed as a decimal (e.g. 4N means 0.9999, or 99.99%). Copper is often too soft for its applications, so it is incorporated in numerous [[alloys]]. For example, brass is a copper-zinc alloy, and bronze is a copper-tin alloy.<ref name="Applications for Copper">{{cite web|title = Copper|publisher = American Elements|year = 2008|url = http://www.americanelements.com/cu.html|accessdate = 2008-07-12}}</ref>
<div style="clear:left;"></div>

Copper can be [[machined]], although it is usually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts, such as threaded components, to get good machinability characteristics. Good thermal conduction makes it useful for heatsinks and in heat exchangers.

[[File:Kupferfittings 4062.jpg|thumb|Assorted copper fittings]]
It is widely used in piping for [[water]] supplies, [[refrigeration]] and [[air conditioning]].

===Electronics and related devices===
Its electrical properties are exploited in its use as [[Copper wire]], [[electromagnet]]s, electrical [[relay]]s, [[busbar]]s and [[switch]]es. [[Integrated circuit]]s, as well as [[Printed circuit board]]s increasingly feature copper in place of [[aluminium]] because of its superior electrical conductivity. As a material in the manufacture of computer [[heat sink]]s, as a result of its superior heat dissipation capacity to [[aluminium]]. [[Vacuum tube]]s, [[cathode ray tube]]s, and the [[magnetron]]s in [[microwave oven]]s use copper, as do [[Waveguide|wave guide]]s for microwave radiation.

[[File:Minneapolis City Hall.jpg|thumb|Copper roof on the [[Minneapolis City Hall]], coated with [[patina]]]]

===Architecture and industry===
*While electrical applications use [[oxygen-free copper]], unalloyed copper used in architectural applications is the lower-purity [[Phosphorus]] Deoxidized Copper (also called Cu-DHP).<ref>[[ASTM]] B 152, ''Standard Specification for Copper Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Rolled Bar.''</ref>
*Copper has been used as water-proof [[Metal roof|roofing]] material since ancient times, giving many old buildings their greenish roofs and domes. Initially [[copper oxide]] forms, replaced by [[Copper sulfide|cuprous and cupric sulfide]], and finally by [[Copper(II) carbonate|copper carbonate]]. The final copper sulfate [[patina]] (termed [[verdigris]]) is highly resistant to [[corrosion]].<ref>{{cite web|last = Berg|first = Jan|title = Why did we paint the library's roof?|url = http://www.deforest.lib.wi.us/FAQS.htm|accessdate = 2007-09-20 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070625065039/http://www.deforest.lib.wi.us/FAQS.htm  |archivedate = 2007-06-25}}</ref>
*[[Statue|Statuary]]: The [[Statue of Liberty]], for example, contains 179,220 pounds (81.29 [[metric ton]]s) of copper.
*Alloyed with [[nickel]], e.g. [[cupronickel]] and [[Monel]], used as corrosive resistant materials in [[shipbuilding]].
*[[James Watt (inventor)|Watt]]'s [[steam engine]] firebox due to superior heat dissipation.
*Copper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating original portion of structures during restoration of damage due to [[dry rot]].
*Copper wires may be placed over non-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of [[moss]]. ([[Zinc]] may also be used for this purpose.)
[[File:CopperC.jpg|thumb|Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant]]
*Copper is used to prevent a building being directly struck by [[lightning]]. High above the roof, copper spikes ([[lightning rod]]s) are connected to a very thick copper cable which leads to a large metal plate underneath the ground. The [[voltage]] is dispersed throughout the ground harmlessly, instead of destroying the main structure.<ref>{{cite book|title = Physics 1, Jacaranda Science. 3rd Ed.|year =2009}}</ref>

[[Lead]] free [[solder]], alloyed with [[tin]].

Copper has good corrosion resistance, but not as good as gold. It has excellent [[brazing]] and [[soldering]] properties and can also be [[welded]], although best results are obtained with [[gas metal arc welding]].<ref>{{cite book|author = Davis, Joseph R. |title = Copper and Copper Alloys|pages = 3–6,266|publisher = ASM International|year = 2001|isbn = 0871707268}}</ref>

===Applications of copper compounds===
About 2% of the copper production is diverted for the production of compounds. The main applications are for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture.<ref name="Boux"/>

===Biomedical applications===
*As a [[biostatic]] surface in hospitals, and to line parts of [[ship]]s to protect against [[barnacle]]s and [[mussel]]s, originally used pure, but superseded by [[Muntz metal]]. [[Bacteria]] will not grow on a copper surface because it is biostatic. Copper [[doorknob]]s are used by [[hospital]]s to reduce the transfer of disease, and [[Legionellosis|Legionnaires' disease]] is suppressed by copper tubing in [[air-conditioning]] systems.
*[[Copper(II) sulfate]] is used as a [[fungicide]] and as algae control in domestic lakes and ponds. It is used in gardening powders and sprays to kill [[mildew]].<ref name="Boux"/>
*[[Copper-62-PTSM]], a complex containing radioactive [[copper-62]], is used as a [[positron emission tomography]] radiotracer for heart blood flow measurements.
*[[Copper-64]] can be used as a [[positron emission tomography]] radiotracer for [[medical imaging]]. When complexed with a [[chelate]] it can be used to treat cancer through [[radiation therapy]].

===Aquaculture applications===
{{Main|Copper alloys in aquaculture}}
[[Copper alloys]] have become important netting materials in the [[aquaculture]] industry. What sets copper alloys apart from other materials is that copper alloys are [[antimicrobial]]. In the marine environment, the antimicrobial/algaecidal properties of copper alloys prevent [[biofouling]]. In addition to their [[antifouling]] benefits, copper alloys have strong structural and [[corrosion-resistant]] properties in [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] environments. It is the combination of all of these properties – antifouling, high strength, and corrosion resistance – that has made copper alloys a desirable material for netting and structural materials in commercial large-scale [[fish farming]] operations.

===Miscellaneous Uses===
*As a component in [[ceramic glaze]]s, and to color [[glass]].
*[[Musical instrument]]s, especially [[brass instrument]]s and [[timpani]].
*[[Fire_extinguisher#Class_D|Class D fire extinguisher]], used in powder form to extinguish lithium fires by covering the burning metal and acting as a heat sink.
*Textile fibers to create [[antimicrobial]] protective fabrics.<ref>{{cite web|title = Antimicrobial Products that Shield Against Bacteria and Fungi|publisher = Cupron, Inc.|year = 2008|url = http://www.cupron.com/|accessdate = 2008-07-13}}</ref>
*Weaponry
**Small arms [[Cartridge (firearms)|ammunition]] commonly uses copper as a jacketing material around the bullet core.
**Copper is also commonly used as a case material, in the form of brass.
**Copper is used as a liner in [[shaped charge]] armor-piercing warheads and demolition explosives (blade).
*Copper is frequently used in [[electroplating]], usually as a base for other metals such as nickel.

==Alloys==
{{See also|List of copper alloys}}
Numerous [[copper alloys]] exist, many with important historical and contemporary uses. [[Speculum metal]] and bronze are alloys of copper and [[tin]]. Brass is an alloy of copper and [[zinc]]. [[Monel]] metal, also called [[cupronickel]], is an alloy of copper and [[nickel]]. While the metal "bronze" usually refers to copper-tin alloys, it also is a generic term for any alloy of copper, such as [[aluminium bronze]], silicon bronze, and manganese bronze. Copper is one of the most important constituents of [[carat (purity)|carat]] silver and gold alloys and carat [[solder]]s used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.<ref name=goldalloys>{{cite web|url = http://www.utilisegold.com/jewellery_technology/colours/colour_alloys/|accessdate = 2009-06-06|title = Gold Jewellery Alloys|publisher = World Gold Council}}</ref>

[[Oxygen-free copper|Oxygen-free pure copper]] can be alloyed with phosphorus to better withstand oxidizing conditions. This alloy has an application as thick corrosion-resistant overpack for spent nuclear fuel disposal in deep crystalline rocks.<ref>See [[SKB]] and [[Posiva]] reports on copper corrosion studies</ref>{{Full}}

==Biological role==
{{Main|Copper in health}}

[[File:ARS copper rich foods.jpg|thumb|Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef or lamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses, cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources include lobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives, avocados and wheat bran.]]

====Copper essentiality====
''For a detailed discussion about copper [[homeostasis]], absorption, distribution, and excretion, see: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Essentiality] ''

Copper is an essential [[trace element]] that is vital to the health of all living things (humans, plants, animals, and microorganisms). The human body normally contains copper at a level of about 1.4 to 2.1 mg for each kg of body weight.<ref name="copper.org">{{cite web|url = http://www.copper.org/consumers/health/papers/cu_health_uk/cu_health_uk.html|title = Amount of copper in the normal human body, and other nutritional copper facts|accessdate = April 3, 2009}}</ref> Copper is distributed widely in the body and occurs in liver, muscle and bone. Copper is transported in the bloodstream on a [[plasma protein]] called [[ceruloplasmin]]. When copper is first absorbed in the gut it is transported to the [[liver]] bound to [[serum albumin|albumin]]. Copper metabolism and excretion is controlled delivery of copper to the liver by ceruloplasmin, where it is excreted in [[bile]].

Daily dietary standards for copper have been set by various health agencies around the world. Researchers specializing in the fields of [[microbiology]], [[toxicology]], [[nutrition]], and [[health risk assessments]] are working together to define precise copper levels required for essentiality while avoiding deficient or excess copper intakes.

====Copper excess and deficiency====
''For a detailed discussion, see: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Copper_deficiency_and_excess_health_conditions_.28non-genetic.29] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Hereditary_copper_metabolic_diseases]''

It is believed that [[zinc]] and copper compete for absorption in the digestive tract so that a diet that is excessive in one of these minerals may result in a deficiency in the other. The [[Recommended Dietary Allowance|RDA]] for copper in normal healthy adults is 0.9 [[milligram|mg]]/day. On the other hand, professional research on the subject recommends 3.0 mg/day.<ref>{{cite book|publisher = National Research Council, Food Nutrition Board, NRC/NAS|title= Copper. In: Recommended Dietary Allowances|location = Washington, D.C.|year =1980|pages = 151–154}}</ref> Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, [[copper deficiency]] can often produce [[anemia]]-like symptoms. Conversely, an accumulation of copper in body tissues are believed to cause the symptoms of [[Wilson's disease]] in humans. Copper deficiency is also associated with [[neutropenia]], bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, and abnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism.<ref name=Bonhametal2002>Bonham et al. (2002). The immune system as a physiological indicator of marginal copper status? ''British Journal of Nutrition''. doi:10.1079/BJN2002558</ref> Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low [[caeruloplasmin]], and low red blood cell [[superoxide dismutase]] (SOD) levels.<ref name=Bonhametal2002/> However, these tests are not sensitive to marginal but not severe copper status.<ref name=Bonhametal2002/> The "cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets" is another sign of deficiency, but the results have not been confirmed by replication.<ref name=Bonhametal2002/>

Chronic copper depletion leads to abnormalities in metabolism of fats, high triglycerides, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fatty liver disease and poor melanin and dopamine synthesis causing depression and sunburn.

====Toxicity and precautions====
<div style="float: right;">
{| class="wikitable"
! style="background:#FF9900"|NFPA 704
|-
| align="left"|{{NFPA 704|Health = 2|Flammability = 0|Reactivity = 0|Other =}}
|-
| width="80pt"|Fire diamond for copper metal
|}
</div>

{{Main|copper toxicity}}
''Also see: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Copper_Excess], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Copper_Toxicity_from_Excess_Exposures], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Acute_Exposures], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Chronic_Exposures], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Wilson_disease], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_health#Other_Copper-Related_Hereditary_Syndromes]''

Toxicity can occur from eating acidic food that has been cooked with copper cookware. [[Cirrhosis]] of the liver in children ([[Indian Childhood Cirrhosis]]) has been linked to boiling milk in copper cookware. The Merck Manual states that recent studies suggest that a genetic defect is associated with this cirrhosis.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec01/ch005/ch005c.html?qt=copper%20and%20milk&alt=sh|title = Merck Manulas - Online Medical Library: Copper|publisher = Merck|date = November 2005|accessdate = 2008-07-19}}</ref> Since copper is actively excreted by the normal body, chronic copper toxicosis in humans without a genetic defect in copper handling has not been demonstrated.<ref name="copper.org"/> However, large amounts (gram quantities) of copper salts taken in suicide attempts have produced acute copper toxicity in normal humans. Equivalent amounts of copper salts (30 mg/kg) are toxic in animals.<ref>{{cite web|title = Pesticide Information Profile for Copper Sulfate|url = http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryl-dicrotophos/copper-sulfate-ext.html|publisher = Cornell University|accessdate=2008-07-10}}</ref>

====Antibacterial properties====
{{Main|Antimicrobial properties of copper|Antimicrobial copper alloy touch surfaces|Copper alloys in aquaculture}}

Copper is [[antibacterial]]/[[germicidal]], via the [[oligodynamic effect]]. For example, [[brass]] doorknobs disinfect themselves of many [[bacteria]] within a period of eight hours.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.vol.at/schmiede/MsgverSSt.html|title=Doorknobs: A Source of Nosocomial Infection?|author=Kuhn, P. J. |year=1983|accessdate=2007-08-15}}</ref> [[Antimicrobial]] properties of copper are effective against [[MRSA]],<ref name="pmid16650507">{{cite journal|author=Noyce JO, Michels H, Keevil CW|title=Potential use of copper surfaces to reduce survival of epidemic meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the healthcare environment|journal=J. Hosp. Infect.|volume=63|page=289|year=2006|pmid=16650507|doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2005.12.008|issue=3}}</ref> [[Escherichia coli]]<ref name="pmid16751537">{{cite journal|author=Noyce JO, Michels H, Keevil CW|title=Use of copper cast alloys to control Escherichia coli O157 cross-contamination during food processing|journal=Appl. Environ. Microbiol.|volume=72|page=4239|year=2006|pmid=16751537|doi=10.1128/AEM.02532-05|issue=6|pmc=1489622}}</ref> and other [[pathogen]]s.<ref name="pmid18069086">{{cite journal|author=Mehtar S, Wiid I, Todorov SD|title=The antimicrobial activity of copper and copper alloys against nosocomial pathogens and Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolated from healthcare facilities in the Western Cape: an in-vitro study|journal=J. Hosp. Infect.|volume=68|page=45|year=2008|pmid=18069086|doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2007.10.009|issue=1}}</ref><ref name="pmid17567632">{{cite journal|author=Gant VA, Wren MW, Rollins MS, Jeanes A, Hickok SS, Hall TJ|title=Three novel highly charged copper-based biocides: safety and efficacy against healthcare-associated organisms|journal=J. Antimicrob. Chemother.|volume=60|page=294|year=2007|pmid=17567632|doi=10.1093/jac/dkm201|issue=2}}</ref><ref name="pmid17259354">{{cite journal|author=Noyce JO, Michels H, Keevil CW|title=Inactivation of influenza A virus on copper versus stainless steel surfaces|journal=Appl. Environ. Microbiol.|volume=73|page=2748|year=2007|pmid=17259354|doi=10.1128/AEM.01139-06|issue=8|pmc=1855605}}</ref> At colder temperatures, longer times are required to kill bacteria.

Copper kills a variety of potentially harmful pathogens. On February 29, 2008, the United States EPA registered 275 alloys, containing greater than 65% nominal copper content, as antimicrobial materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/copper-alloy-products.htm|title =EPA registers copper-containing alloy products|accessdate = 2009-06-06|publisher = US Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> Registered alloys include pure copper, an assortment of brasses and bronzes, and additional alloys. EPA-sanctioned tests using Good Laboratory Practices were conducted in order to obtain several antimicrobial claims valid against: [[methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']] (MRSA), ''Enterobacter aerogenes'', ''Escherichia coli'' O157: H7 and ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''. The EPA registration allows the manufacturers of these copper alloys to legally make public health claims as to the health effects of these materials. Several of the aforementioned bacteria are responsible for a large portion of the nearly two million hospital-acquired [[Nosocomial infection|infections]] contracted each year in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol7no2/pdfs/peterson.pdf|title = Center for Decease Control and Prevention|accessdate = 2009-06-06}}</ref> Frequently touched surfaces in hospitals and public facilities harbor bacteria and increase the risk for contracting infections. Covering touch surfaces with copper alloys can help reduce microbial contamination associated with hospital-acquired infections on these surfaces.

==See also==

*[[Electroplating]]
*[[Erosion corrosion of copper water tubes]]
**[[Cold water pitting of copper tube]]
*[[Metal theft]]
**[[Operation Tremor]]
*[[Smelter]]
*[[Peak copper]]
*[[:Category:Copper mining companies]]
**[[Anaconda Copper]]
**[[Antofagasta PLC]]
**[[Bingham Canyon Mine]]
**[[Codelco]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|title=Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology|editor=Massaro, Edward J.|publisher=Humana Press|year=2002|isbn=0-89603-943-9}}
*{{cite web|title=''Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary)'' Chapter 6: Copper Production Technology|publisher=Office of Technology Assessment|year=2005|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk2/1988/8808/880808.PDF}}
*Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp. 1161–1208(48) Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative Stress
*{{cite book|title=Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction, 6th Ed.|author=William D. Callister|publisher=Wiley, New York|year=2003|isbn=0471736961|location=Table 6.1, p. 137}}
*[http://www.memsnet.org/material/coppercubulk/ Material: Copper (Cu), bulk], MEMS and Nanotechnology Clearinghouse.
*{{cite journal|author=Kim BE, Nevitt T, Thiele DJ|title=Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution and regulation|journal=Nat. Chem. Biol.|volume=4|page=176|year=2008|pmid=18277979|doi=10.1038/nchembio.72|url=http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/v4/n3/abs/nchembio.72.html|issue=3}}
*[http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/cb/Volume/2009/1/Copper.asp Copper transport disorders]: an Instant insight from the [[Royal Society of Chemistry]]

==Notes==

{| Class = "wikitable" style = "text-align: center"
|+[[Pourbaix diagram]]s for copper
|Width = "25 %"|[[File:Copper in water pourbiax diagram.png‎|center|200px]]
|Width = "25 %"|[[File:Copper in sulphide media pourbiax diagram.png|center|200px]]
|Width = "25 %"|[[File:Copper in 10M ammonia pourbiax diagram.png‎|center|200px]]
|Width = "25 %"|[[File:Copper in chloride media more copper pourbiax.png‎‎|center|200px]]
|-
|In pure water, or acidic or alkali conditions. Copper in neutral water is more noble than hydrogen.
|In water containing sulfide
|In 10 M ammonia solution
|In a chloride solution
|}

==External links==
{{Commons|Copper}}
{{Wiktionary|copper}}
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/copper/index.html National Pollutant Inventory – Copper and compounds fact sheet]
*[http://www.weldaloy.com/resource_center.php Copper Resource Page.] Includes 12 PDF files detailing the material properties of various kinds of copper, as well as various guides and tools for the copper industry.
*[http://www.copper.org The Copper Development Association] has an extensive site of properties and uses of copper; it also maintains a [http://www.brass.org web site dedicated to [[brass]], a copper alloy].
*[http://www.3rd1000.com/elements/Copper.htm The Third Millennium Online page on Copper]
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cu/index.html The WebElements page on Copper]
*[http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=copper&months=300 Price history of copper, according to the IMF]

{{Clear}}
{{compact periodic table}}

{{Copper compounds}}
{{Jewellery}}

[[Category:Copper]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Dietary minerals]]
[[Category:Electrical conductors]]
[[Category:Symbols of Utah]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements]]
[[Category:Cubic minerals]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[af:Koper]]
[[ang:Coper]]
[[ar:نحاس]]
[[an:Arambre]]
[[ay:Anti]]
[[az:Mis]]
[[bn:তামা]]
[[zh-min-nan:Cu (goân-sò͘)]]
[[ba:Баҡыр]]
[[be:Медзь]]
[[be-x-old:Медзь]]
[[bs:Bakar]]
[[br:Kouevr]]
[[bg:Мед (елемент)]]
[[ca:Coure]]
[[cv:Пăхăр]]
[[cs:Měď]]
[[co:Ramu]]
[[cy:Copr]]
[[da:Kobber]]
[[de:Kupfer]]
[[dv:ރަތުލޯ]]
[[nv:Béésh Łichíiʼii]]
[[et:Vask]]
[[el:Χαλκός]]
[[myv:Пиже (металл)]]
[[es:Cobre]]
[[eo:Kupro]]
[[ext:Cobri]]
[[eu:Kobre]]
[[fa:مس]]
[[fr:Cuivre]]
[[fur:Ram]]
[[ga:Copar]]
[[gv:Cobbyr]]
[[gd:Copar]]
[[gl:Cobre]]
[[gu:તાંબુ]]
[[xal:Зес]]
[[ko:구리]]
[[hy:Պղինձ]]
[[hi:ताम्र]]
[[hr:Bakar (element)]]
[[io:Kupro]]
[[id:Tembaga]]
[[os:Æрхуы]]
[[zu:Umthofu]]
[[is:Kopar]]
[[it:Rame]]
[[he:נחושת]]
[[jv:Tembaga]]
[[kn:ತಾಮ್ರ]]
[[ka:სპილენძი]]
[[kk:Мыс]]
[[kw:Kober]]
[[sw:Shaba]]
[[koi:Ыргӧн]]
[[kv:Ыргӧн]]
[[kg:Mutako]]
[[ht:Kwiv]]
[[ku:Mis]]
[[la:Cuprum]]
[[lv:Varš]]
[[lb:Koffer]]
[[lt:Varis]]
[[lij:Rammo (elemento)]]
[[li:Koper]]
[[jbo:tunka]]
[[hu:Réz]]
[[mk:Бакар]]
[[ml:ചെമ്പ്]]
[[mi:Konukura]]
[[mr:तांबे]]
[[ms:Tembaga]]
[[mn:Зэс]]
[[my:ကြေးနီ]]
[[nah:Chīchīltic tepoztli]]
[[nl:Koper (element)]]
[[ja:銅]]
[[nap:Ramma]]
[[no:Kobber]]
[[nn:Kopar]]
[[oc:Coire]]
[[uz:Mis]]
[[pa:ਤਾਂਬਾ]]
[[pnb:تانبا]]
[[nds:Kopper]]
[[pl:Miedź]]
[[pt:Cobre]]
[[ksh:Koffer (Metall)]]
[[ro:Cupru]]
[[qu:Anta]]
[[ru:Медь]]
[[sah:Алтан (химия элэмиэнэ)]]
[[sa:ताम्रम्]]
[[stq:Kooper]]
[[sq:Bakri]]
[[scn:Rami]]
[[simple:Copper]]
[[sk:Meď]]
[[sl:Baker]]
[[sr:Бакар]]
[[sh:Bakar]]
[[fi:Kupari]]
[[sv:Koppar]]
[[tl:Tanso]]
[[ta:செப்பு]]
[[tt:Бакыр]]
[[te:రాగి]]
[[th:ทองแดง]]
[[tg:Мис]]
[[tr:Bakır]]
[[uk:Мідь]]
[[ur:تانبا]]
[[ug:مىس]]
[[vi:Đồng]]
[[fiu-vro:Vask]]
[[zh-classical:銅]]
[[war:Copper]]
[[yi:קופער]]
[[yo:Copper]]
[[zh-yue:銅]]
[[diq:Paxır]]
[[bat-smg:Varis]]
[[zh:铜]]

Cat

2010-11-26T21:38:34Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Adding: ha:Kyanwa

{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{for||cat (disambiguation)|cats (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move-indef}}

{{Taxobox
| name = Domestic cat<ref name=msw3/>
| status = DOM

| image = Collage of Six Cats-02.jpg
| image_width= 250px
| image_caption =
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Felidae]]
| genus = ''[[Felis]]''
| species = '''''F. catus'''''
| binomial = ''Felis catus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref name="Linaeus1758" />
| synonyms = ''Felis catus domestica'' (invalid junior synonym)<ref>{{Cite web
|url = http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=727487
|title = ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis catus domestica
|author=[[Integrated Taxonomic Information System|ITIS]]}}</ref> 
''Felis silvestris catus''<ref name=Driscoll />
}}

The '''cat''' (''Felis catus''), also known as the '''domestic cat''' or '''housecat'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/housecat |title="Housecat" in the American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=Education.yahoo.com |accessdate=6 October 2010}}</ref> to distinguish it from other [[felinae|felines]] and [[felidae|felids]], is a small furry [[Domestication|domesticated]] [[carnivore|carnivorous]] [[mammal]] that is valued by humans for its companionship and for its ability to hunt [[vermin]] and household pests. Cats have been associated with humans for at least 9,500 years,<ref name="9500 years">{{Cite web| title = Oldest Known Pet Cat? 9500-Year-Old Burial Found on Cyprus|url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/04/0408_040408_oldestpetcat.html|accessdate = 6 March 2007 |date=8 April 2004|publisher=National Geographic News}}</ref> and are currently the most popular pet in the world.<ref name=SciAm>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-taming-of-the-cat |title=The Evolution of House Cats |publisher=Scientific American |author=Carlos A. Driscoll, Juliet Clutton-Brock, Andrew C. Kitchener and Stephen J. O'Brien |accessdate=26 August 2009}}</ref> Owing to their close association with humans, cats are now found almost everywhere on Earth.

Cats are similar in [[anatomy]] to the other felids, with strong, flexible bodies, quick reflexes, sharp retractable claws, and teeth adapted to killing small prey. As [[nocturnal]] predators, cats use their acute hearing and ability to see in near darkness to locate prey. Not only can cats hear sounds too faint for human ears, they can also hear sounds higher in [[frequency]] than humans can perceive. This is because cats' usual prey (particularly rodents such as mice) make high frequency noises, so cats' hearing has [[evolution|evolved]] to pinpoint these faint high-pitched sounds. Cats rely more on smell than taste, and have a vastly better sense of smell than humans.

Despite being solitary hunters, cats are a social species and use a variety of [[animal communication|vocalization]]s, [[pheromone]]s and types of [[Cat body language|body language]] for [[cat communication|communication]]. These include [[Meowing|meow]]ing, [[purr]]ing, [[trill consonant|trilling]], [[hiss#Animals|hissing]], [[growling]], and grunting.<ref name=Moelk/>

Cats have a rapid breeding rate. Under controlled breeding, they can be bred and shown as [[Cat registry|registered]] pedigree pets, a hobby known as [[animal fancy|cat fancy]]. Failure to control the breeding of pet cats by spaying and neutering and the abandonment of former household pets has resulted in problems caused by large numbers of [[feral cat]]s worldwide, with a population of up to 60 million of these animals in the United States alone.<ref name=Rochlitz/>

As ''[[The New York Times]]'' wrote in 2007, "Until recently the cat was commonly believed to have been domesticated in [[ancient Egypt]], where it was a [[Animal cult#Cats|cult animal]]",<ref name="NYT">{{Cite news
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/29/science/29cat.html?em&ex=1183348800&en=46920e3fe2f7c649&ei=5087%0A
| title = Study Traces Cat's Ancestry to Middle East
| last = Wade
| first = Nicholas
| date=29 June 2007
|work=The New York Times
| accessdate=2 April 2008}}</ref> but a study that year revealed that the lines of descent of all house cats probably run through as few as five [[Self-domestication|self-domesticating]] [[African Wildcat]]s ''(Felis silvestris lybica)'' circa 8000 BC, in the [[Near East]].<ref name=Driscoll /> The earliest direct evidence of cat domestication is a [[kitten]] that was buried alongside a human 9,500 years ago in [[Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Meet Helen and Aphrodite, Cyprus's indigenous cats|url =http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/life/2009-11/03/content_8904093.htm|work=China Daily|accessdate = 3 November 2009}}</ref>

==Nomenclature and etymology==
The word ''cat'' derives from [[Old English]] ''catt'', which belongs to a group of related words in [[Languages of Europe|European languages]], including Welsh ''cath'', Spanish ''gato'', French ''chat'' ({{IPA-fr|ʃɑ}}), Basque ''katu'', [[Byzantine Greek]] ''Κάτια'' ''kátia'', [[Old Irish]] ''cat'', [[Frisian languages|Frisian]] and Dutch ''kat'', German ''Katze'', [[Armenian language|Armenian]] ''[[wikt:կատու|katu]]'', and [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''kotka''. The ultimate source of all these terms is [[Late Latin]] ''catus, cattus, catta'' "domestic cat", as opposed to ''feles'' "European wildcat". It is unclear whether the Greek or the Latin came first, but they were undoubtedly borrowed from an [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] language akin to [[Old Nubian language|Nubian]] ''kadís'' and [[Berber languages|Berber]] ''kaddîska'', both meaning "wildcat".<ref>{{Cite web| title = Cat|url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cat|work=[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php The Online etymology dictionary]|accessdate = 15 May 2007}}</ref> The term ''puss'' (as in pussycat) may come from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''poes'' or from [[Low German]] ''Puuskatte'', dialectal [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ''kattepus'', or [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ''pus'', ''pusekatt'', all of which primarily denote a woman and, by extension, a female cat.<ref>''Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language''. New York: Gramercy Books, 1996: 1571.</ref> This name could be related to [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''qadi.''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wordnik.com/words/cat/etymologies |title=cat – definition and meaning from |publisher=Wordnik |accessdate=6 October 2010}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" 0" style="float:right; text-align:center"
|+Classification based on human interaction<ref name=Bradshaw1999/>
|-
!Population
!Food source
!Shelter
!Socialized
|-
|Pedigree
|Fed by owner
|Human homes
| Yes
|-
|Pet
|Fed by owner
|Human homes
| Yes
|-
|Semi-feral
|General feeding
|Buildings
| Yes
|-
|Feral
|General feeding/foraging
|Buildings
| No
|-
|Pseudo-wildcat
|Foraging/hunting
|None
| No
|}

While ''[[wildcat]]s'' are the ancestral species from which domestic cats are descended, there are several intermediate stages between domestic pet and pedigree cats and these entirely wild cats. The semi-feral cat is a cat that is not owned by any one individual, but is generally friendly to people and may be fed by several households. [[Feral cat]]s are associated with human habitations and may be fed by people or forage in rubbish, but are wary of human interaction. Pseudo-wildcats are descended from domestic cats, but now tend to live entirely independently from people.<ref name=Bradshaw1999/>

A group of cats is referred to as a "clowder", a male cat is called a "tom" (or a "gib", if neutered), and a female is called a "molly" or "queen". The male progenitor of a cat, especially a pedigreed cat, is its "sire", and its female progenitor is its "dam". An immature cat is called a "[[kitten]]" (which is also an alternative name for young rats, rabbits, [[hedgehog]]s, [[beaver]]s, [[squirrel]]s and [[skunk]]s).

In [[England in the Middle Ages|medieval Britain]], the word ''kitten'' was interchangeable with the word ''catling''. A cat whose [[genealogy|ancestry]] is formally registered is called a [[pedigree (cat)|pedigreed cat]], [[purebred cat]], or a [[show cat]]. In strict terms, a pure-bred cat is one whose ancestry contains only individuals of the same breed. A pedigreed cat is one whose ancestry is recorded, but may have ancestors of different breeds. Cats of unrecorded mixed ancestry are referred to as [[domestic longhair cat|domestic longhairs]] and [[domestic shorthair cat|domestic shorthairs]] or commonly as random-bred, moggies, mongrels, or mutt-cats.

==Taxonomy and evolution==
[[File:AfricanWildCat.jpg|thumb|The wildcat ''[[Wildcat|Felis silvestris]]'' is a close relative and possible ancestor of the domestic cat.]]
The Felids are a rapidly evolving family of mammals that share a common ancestor only 10–15 million years ago,<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1007/PL00000060
| volume = 44
| issue = 0
| pages = S98–S116
| last = Johnson
| first = Warren
| title = Phylogenetic reconstruction of the felidae using 16S rRNA and NADH-5 mitochondrial genes
| journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution
| date = 1997
| last2 = O’brien
| first2 = Stephen J.
}}</ref> and include in addition to the domestic cat, lions, tigers, cougars, and many others. Within this family, domestic cats (''Felis catus'') are part of the [[genus]] ''[[Felis]]'', which is a group of small cats containing seven species.<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Wozencraft}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=180586 |title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Felis |publisher=Integrated Taxonomic Information System |accessdate=26 August 2009}}</ref> Members of the genus are found worldwide and include the [[Jungle Cat]] (''Felis chaus'') of southeast Asia, the [[African Wildcat]] (''Felis silvestris lybica''), the Chinese Mountain Cat (''Felis silvestris bieti'') and the Arabian [[Sand Cat]] (''Felis margarita'').<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher=Benchmark Books (NY)
| isbn = 0761415777
| last = Stefoff
| first = Rebecca
| title = Cats
| date = 2003-11
| page=34
}}</ref>

All the cats in this genus share a common ancestor that probably lived around 6–7 million years ago in Asia.<ref name=Johnson>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1126/science.1122277
| volume = 311
| issue = 5757
| pages = 73–77
| last = Johnson
| first = Warren E.
| title = The Late Miocene Radiation of Modern Felidae: A Genetic Assessment
| journal=Science
| year = 2006
| pmid = 16400146
| author = Johnson, WE ''et al.''}}</ref> Although the exact relationships within the Felidae are still uncertain,<ref name=Mattern/><ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1006/mpev.1996.0085
| volume = 6
| issue = 3
| pages = 351–365
| author = Masuda, R ''et al.''
| title = Molecular Phylogeny of Mitochondrial Cytochrome b and 12S rRNA Sequences in the Felidae: Ocelot and Domestic Cat Lineages
| journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
| date = 1996
| pmid = 8975691}}</ref> both the Chinese Mountain Cat and the African Wildcat are close relations of the domestic cat and are both classed as [[subspecies]] of the [[Wildcat]] ''Felis silvestris''.<ref name=Driscoll/><ref name=Mattern>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2000.tb00354.x
| volume = 16
| issue = 2
| pages = 232–253
| last = Mattern
| first = Michelle Y.
| title = Phylogeny and Speciation of Felids
| journal=Cladistics
| year = 2000
| last2 = McLennan
| first2 = Deborah A.
}}</ref> As domestic cats are little altered from wildcats, they can readily interbreed. This [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] may pose a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of wildcat populations, particularly in [[Scotland]] and [[Hungary]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oliveira R, Godinho R, Randi E, Alves PC |title=Hybridization versus conservation: are domestic cats threatening the genetic integrity of wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) in Iberian Peninsula? |journal=Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. |volume=363 |issue=1505 |pages=2953–61 |year=2008 |pmid=18522917 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2008.0052 |first1=R |first2=R |first3=E |first4=PC |pmc=2606743}}</ref>

The domestic cat was first classified as ''Felis catus'' by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in the tenth edition of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' of 1758.<ref name="Linaeus1758">{{Cite book|last=Linnaeus |first=Carolus |authorlink=Carl Linnaeus |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |publisher=Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii) |year=1766 |page=62 |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k99004c/f62.chemindefer |accessdate=2 April 2008 |language={{la icon}} |volume=1 |edition = 12th |origyear = 1758}}</ref><ref name="MSW3-catus">{{MSW3 Wozencraft|pages = 534–535|id = 14000031}}</ref> However, because of modern [[phylogenetics]], domestic cats are now usually regarded as another subspecies of the Wildcat ''Felis silvestris''.<ref name=Driscoll /><ref name="MSW3-catus" /><ref name="MSW3-silvestris">{{MSW3 Wozencraft|pages = 536–537|id = 14000057}}</ref> This has resulted in mixed usage of the terms, as the domestic cat can be called by its subspecies name, ''Felis silvestris catus''.<ref name=msw3/><ref name=Driscoll/> Wildcats have also been referred to as various subspecies of ''F. catus'',<ref name="MSW3-silvestris" /> but in 2003 the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] fixed the name for wildcats as ''F. silvestris''.<ref name = ICZN>{{Cite journal
| author=ICZN
| title = Opinion 2027
| journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature
| volume = 60
| publisher=[[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]]
| date = 2003
| url = http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm}}</ref> The most common name in use for the domestic cat remains ''F. catus'', following a [[Convention (norm)|convention]] for domesticated animals of using the earliest (the senior) [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] proposed.<ref name = ICZN/> Sometimes the domestic cat is called ''Felis domesticus''<ref name=MacDonald/> or ''Felis domestica'',<ref name="MSW3-catus"/> the term coined by German naturalist [[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben]] in 1777. These are not valid taxonomic names, and Linnaeus' binomial takes precedence.<ref>{{Cite book| edition = 4| publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann| isbn = 0750640693| last = Vella| first = Carolyn M.| coauthors = Lorraine M. Shelton, John J. McGonagle, Terry W. Stanglein|title = Robinson's Genetics for Cat Breeders and Veterinarians| year = 1999 |page=3}}</ref>

Cats have either a [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] or [[commensalism|commensal]] relationship with humans. However, in comparison to dogs, cats have not undergone major changes during the domestication process, as the form and behavior of the domestic cat are not radically different from those of wildcats, and domestic cats are perfectly capable of surviving in the wild.<ref name=Lipinski>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009
| volume = 91
| issue = 1
| pages = 12–21
| last = Lipinski
| first = Monika J.
| title = The ascent of cat breeds: Genetic evaluations of breeds and worldwide random-bred populations
| journal=Genomics
| date = 2008-01
| pmid = 18060738
| author= Lipinski, MJ ''et al.''
| pmc = 2267438
}}</ref><ref name=CameronBeaumont>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00028.x
| volume = 75
| issue = 3
| pages = 361–366
| last = Cameron-Beaumont
| first = Charlotte
| title = Evidence suggesting pre-adaptation to domestication throughout the small Felidae
| journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
| accessdate = 29 September 2009
| year = 2002
| url = http://www.neiu.edu/~jkasmer/Biol498R/Readings/essay1-06.pdf
|format=PDF| last2 = Lowe
| first2 = Sarah E.
| last3 = Bradshaw
| first3 = John W. S.
}}</ref> This limited evolution during domestication means that domestic cats tend to interbreed freely with feral cats, which distinguishes them from other domesticated animals.<ref name=Bradshaw1999>{{Cite journal
| title = Feral cats: their role in the population dynamics of Felis catus
| author=J. W. S Bradshawa, G. F. Horsfield, J. A. Allen and I. H. Robinson
| journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science
| year = 1999
| volume = 65
| issue = 3
| pages = 273–283
| doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00086-6
}}</ref> However, several natural behaviors and characteristics of wildcats may have [[preadaptation|preadapted]] them for domestication as pets.<ref name=CameronBeaumont/> These traits include their small size, social nature, obvious body language, love of play and relatively high intelligence;<ref>{{harv|Fogle|1981|pp=12–17}}</ref> they may also have an inborn tendency towards tameness.<ref name=CameronBeaumont/>

There are two main theories about how cats were domesticated. In one, people deliberately tamed cats in a process of [[artificial selection]], as they were useful predators of vermin.<ref name=OConnor>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1002/oa.913
| volume = 17
| issue = 6
| pages = 581–595
| last = O'Connor
| first = T. P.
| title = Wild or domestic? Biometric variation in the cat ''Felis silvestris'' Schreber
| journal=International Journal of Osteoarchaeology
| year = 2007
}}</ref> However, this has been criticized as implausible, because there may have been little reward for such an effort: cats do not carry out commands and, although they do eat rodents, other species such as [[ferret]]s or [[terrier]]s may be better at controlling these pests.<ref name=Driscoll>{{Cite journal|author=Driscoll CA, Macdonald DW, O'Brien SJ |title=In the Light of Evolution III: Two Centuries of Darwin Sackler Colloquium: From wild animals to domestic pets, an evolutionary view of domestication |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=106 |issue=S1 |pages=9971–9978 |year=2009|pmid=19528637 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901586106 |first1=CA |first2=DW |first3=SJ |pmc=2702791}}</ref> The alternative idea is that cats were simply tolerated by people and gradually diverged from their 'wild' relatives through [[natural selection]], as they adapted to hunting the vermin found around humans in towns and villages.<ref name=Driscoll/>

==Genetics==
{{Main|Cat genetics}}
[[File:WhiteCat.jpg|thumb|Blue-eyed cats with white fur have a high incidence of [[genetics|genetic]] [[Hearing impairment|deafness]].<ref name=Strain>{{Cite journal|author=Strain GM |title=Aetiology, prevalence and diagnosis of deafness in dogs and cats |journal=Br. Vet. J. |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=17–36 |year=1996 |pmid=8634862 |doi=10.1016/S0007-1935(96)80083-2 |first1=GM }}</ref>]]

The domesticated cat and its closest wild ancestor are both [[diploid]] organisms that possess 38 [[chromosome]]s<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Nie W, Wang J, O'Brien PC |title=The genome phylogeny of domestic cat, red panda and five mustelid species revealed by comparative chromosome painting and G-banding |journal=Chromosome Res. |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=209–22 |year=2002 |pmid=12067210 |doi=10.1023/A:1015292005631 |first1=W |first2=J |first3=PC |first4=B |first5=T |first6=MA |first7=F }}</ref> and roughly 20,000 genes.<ref name="pmid17975172"/> About 250 heritable [[genetic disorder]]s have been identified in cats, many similar to human [[Inborn error of metabolism|inborn errors]].<ref name="O'Brien">{{Cite journal|author=O'Brien SJ, Johnson W, Driscoll C, Pontius J, Pecon-Slattery J, Menotti-Raymond M |title=State of cat genomics |journal=Trends Genet. |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=268–79 |year=2008 |pmid=18471926 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2008.03.004 |first1=SJ |first2=W |first3=C |first4=J |first5=J |first6=M}}</ref> The high level of similarity among the [[metabolism]]s of mammals allows many of these feline diseases to be diagnosed using [[genetic testing|genetic tests]] that were originally developed for use in humans, as well as the use of cats in the study of the human diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Sewell AC, Haskins ME, Giger U |title=Inherited metabolic disease in companion animals: searching for nature's mistakes |journal=Vet. J. |volume=174 |issue=2 |pages=252–9 |year=2007|pmid=17085062 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.08.017 |first1=AC |first2=ME |first3=U }}</ref><ref name=OBrien/>

An interesting example of a [[mutation]] that is shared among all felines, including the big cats, is a mutant [[chemosensor]] in their [[taste bud]]s that prevents them from tasting sweetness, which may explain their indifference to fruits, berries, and other sugary foods.<ref name=sugar/> In some breeds of cats [[congenital deafness]] is very common, with most white cats (but not [[albino]]s) being affected, particularly if they also have blue eyes.<ref name=Strain/> The genes responsible for this defect are unknown, but the disease is studied in the hope that it may shed light on the causes of hereditary deafness in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Saada AA, Niparko JK, Ryugo DK |title=Morphological changes in the cochlear nucleus of congenitally deaf white cats |journal=Brain Res. |volume=736 |issue=1–2 |pages=315–28 |year=1996 |pmid=8930338 |doi=10.1016/0006-8993(96)00719-6 |first1=AA |first2=JK |first3=DK }}</ref>

Since a large variety of coat patterns exist within the various cat breeds, the cat is an excellent animal to study the [[cat coat genetics|coat genetics]] of hair growth and coloration.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Robinson, Roy; Vella, Carolyn M.; Lorraine Shelton; McGonagle, John J.; Carolyne Vella |title=Robinson's genetics for cat breeders and veterinarians |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford |year=1999 |isbn=0-7506-4069-3}}</ref> Several [[gene]]s interact to produce cats' hair color and coat patterns. Different combinations of these genes give different [[phenotype]]s. For example, the [[enzyme]] [[tyrosinase]] is needed to produce the dark pigment [[melanin]] and [[Burmese cats]] have a mutant form that is only active at low temperatures, resulting in color appearing only on the cooler ears, tail and paws.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Lyons LA, Imes DL, Rah HC, Grahn RA |title=Tyrosinase mutations associated with Siamese and Burmese patterns in the domestic cat (Felis catus) |journal=Anim. Genet. |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=119–26 |year=2005 |pmid=15771720 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01253.x |first1=LA |first2=DL |first3=HC |first4=RA }}</ref> A completely inactive gene for tyrosinase is found in albino cats, which therefore lack all pigment.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Imes DL, Geary LA, Grahn RA, Lyons LA |title=Albinism in the domestic cat (Felis catus) is associated with a tyrosinase (TYR) mutation |journal=Anim. Genet. |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=175–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16573534 |pmc=1464423 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x |first1=DL |first2=LA |first3=RA |first4=LA |format=Free full text}}</ref> Hair length is determined by the gene for [[FGF5|fibroblast growth factor 5]], with inactive copies of this gene causing long hair.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kehler JS, David VA, Schäffer AA |title=Four independent mutations in the feline fibroblast growth factor 5 gene determine the long-haired phenotype in domestic cats |journal=J. Hered. |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=555–66 |year=2007 |pmid=17767004 |doi=10.1093/jhered/esm072 |first1=JS |first2=VA |first3=AA |first4=K |first5=E |first6=DK |first7=SS |first8=SJ |first9=M |format=Free full text}}</ref>

The Cat Genome Project, sponsored by the Laboratory of Genomic Diversity at the U.S. [[National Cancer Institute]] Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center in [[Frederick, Maryland]], aims to help the development of the cat as an [[animal model]] for human hereditary and [[infectious disease]]s, as well as contributing to the understanding of the evolution of mammals.<ref name=OBrien>{{Cite journal|author=O'Brien SJ, Menotti-Raymond M, Murphy WJ, Yuhki N |title=The Feline Genome Project |journal=Annu. Rev. Genet. |volume=36 |pages=657–86 |year=2002 |pmid=12359739 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genet.36.060602.145553 |first1=SJ |first2=M |first3=WJ |first4=N }}</ref> This effort led to the publication in 2007 of an initial draft of the genome of an [[Abyssinian (cat)|Abyssinian]] cat called Cinnamon.<ref name="pmid17975172">{{Cite journal|author=Pontius JU, Mullikin JC, Smith DR |title=Initial sequence and comparative analysis of the cat genome |journal=Genome Res. |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1675–89 |year=2007 |pmid=17975172 |pmc=2045150 |doi=10.1101/gr.6380007 |first1=JU |first2=JC |first3=DR |first4=Team |first5=K |first6=S |first7=M |first8=J |first9=R |first11=N |last12=Schäffer |first12=AA |last13=Agarwala |first13=R |last14=Narfström |first14=K |last15=Murphy |first15=WJ |last16=Giger |first16=U |last17=Roca |first17=AL |last18=Antunes |first18=A |last19=Menotti-Raymond |first19=M |last20=Yuhki |first20=N |last21=Pecon-Slattery |first21=J |last22=Johnson |first22=WE |last23=Bourque |first23=G |last24=Tesler |first24=G |last25=Nisc Comparative Sequencing |first25=Program |last26=O'brien |first26=SJ |format=Free full text}}</ref> The existence of a draft genome has led to the discovery of several cat disease genes,<ref name="pmid17975172"/> and even allowed the development of cat [[genetic fingerprinting]] for use in [[forensics]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Menotti-Raymond M, David VA, Stephens JC, Lyons LA, O'Brien SJ |title=Genetic individualization of domestic cats using feline STR loci for forensic applications |journal=J. Forensic Sci. |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1039–51 |year=1997 |pmid=9397545 |first1=M |first2=VA |first3=JC |first4=LA |first5=SJ |format=Free full text}}</ref>

==Anatomy==
[[File:Scheme cat anatomy-en.svg|thumb|Diagram of the general [[anatomy]] of a male]]

Domestic cats are similar in size to the other members of the genus ''Felis'', typically weighing between {{convert|4|kg|lboz}} and {{convert|5|kg|lboz}}.<ref name=Mattern/> However, some [[Cat breed|breeds]], such as the [[Maine Coon]], can exceed 11 kilograms (25 lb). Conversely, very small cats (less than {{convert|1.8|kg|lboz}}) have been reported.<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.messybeast.com/dwarfcats.html|title = Dwarf, Midget and Miniature cats|accessdate = 6 March 2007}}</ref> The world record for the largest cat is {{convert|21.297|kg|lboz}}.<ref>Cat World (2008). Cat World Records: Heaviest Cat. Retrieved on 30 July 2008 from [http://www.cat-world.com.au/CatRecords.htm Cat-world.com]</ref> The smallest adult cat ever officially recorded weighed around 1.36 kilograms (3 lb).<ref>[http://www.cat-world.com.au/CatRecords.htm Cat-world.com.au] retrieved on 2008/29/11</ref> Cats average about 23–25 centimeters (9–10 in) in height and 46 centimeters (18.1 in) in head/body length (males being larger than females), with tails averaging 30 centimeters (11.8 in) in length.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/Animal-Bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/carnivora/domestic-cat.htm|title=Domestic Cat|publisher=[[SeaWorld]]|accessdate=4 March 2009}}</ref>

Cats have 7 [[cervical vertebrae]] like almost all [[mammals]], 13 [[thoracic vertebrae]] (humans have 12), 7 [[lumbar vertebrae]] (humans have 5), 3 [[sacrum|sacral vertebrae]] like most mammals (humans have 5 because of their bipedal posture), and a variable number of [[caudal vertebrae]] in the tail (humans retain 3 to 5 caudal vertebrae, fused into an internal [[coccyx]]).<ref>{{harv|Walker|1982|p=11}}</ref> The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cat's spinal mobility and flexibility. Attached to the spine are 13 ribs, the shoulder, and the [[pelvis]].<ref>{{harv|Walker|1982|p=16}}</ref> Unlike human arms, cat forelimbs are attached to the shoulder by free-floating [[clavicle|clavicle bones]], which allow them to pass their body through any space into which they can fit their heads.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Cat Skeleton|url = http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/zoolab/Table_of_Contents/Lab-9b/Cat_Skeleton_1/cat_skeleton_1.htm|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061206105542/http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/zoolab/Table_of_Contents/Lab-9b/Cat_Skeleton_1/cat_skeleton_1.htm|archivedate = 6 December 2006|accessdate = 12 December 2006}}</ref>

[[File:Cat skull.jpg|thumb|left|Skull]]

The cat skull is unusual among mammals in having very large [[eye socket]]s and a powerful and specialized jaw.<ref name=Case>{{Harv|Case|2003|p=35}}</ref> Within the jaw, cats have teeth adapted for killing prey and tearing meat. When it overpowers its prey, a cat delivers a lethal neck bite with its two long [[canine tooth|canine teeth]], inserting them between two of the prey's vertebrae and severing its [[spinal cord]], causing irreversible [[paralysis]] and death.<ref name=Smith1992>{{Cite book
| publisher=Freund Publishing House Ltd.
| isbn = 9652222704
| last = Smith
| first = Patricia
| coauthors = Eitan Tchernov
| title = Structure, function and evolution of teeth
| year = 1992
| page = 217
}}</ref> Compared to other felines, domestic cats have narrowly spaced canine teeth; which is an adaptation to their preferred prey of small rodents, which have small vertebrae.<ref name=Smith1992/> The [[premolar]] and [[molar (tooth)|first molar]] together compose the [[carnassial]] pair on each side of the mouth, which efficiently shears meat into small pieces, like a pair of [[scissors]]. These are vital in feeding, since cats' small [[molar (tooth)|molars]] cannot chew food effectively.<ref>{{Harv|Case|2003|p=37}}</ref>

Cats, like dogs, are [[digitigrade]]s. They walk directly on their toes, with the bones of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Lacquaniti F, Grasso R, Zago M |title=Motor Patterns in Walking |journal=News Physiol. Sci. |volume=14 |issue= 4|pages=168–174 |date=1 August 1999|pmid=11390844 |first1=F |first2=R |first3=M }}</ref> Cats are capable of walking very precisely, because like all [[felinae|felines]] they directly register; that is, they place each hind paw (almost) directly in the print of the corresponding forepaw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for their hind paws when they navigate rough terrain. Unlike most mammals, when cats walk, they use a "diagonal" [[gait]]; that is, they move the two legs on one side of the body before the legs on the other side. This trait is shared with [[camel]]s and [[giraffe]]s. As a walk speeds up into a trot, a cat's gait will change to be similar to other mammals: the diagonally opposite hind and forelegs will move simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite book| title=Outwitting Cats|first=Wendy|last=Christensen|page=23|publisher=Globe Pequot|year=2004|isbn=1592282407|url=http://books.google.com/?id=WmuQQXU6EtAC&pg=PA23&dq=cats+giraffes+camels+pace&q}}</ref>

Like almost all members of the [[Felidae]] [[family (biology)|family]], cats have protractable [[claw]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1017/S0952836901000565
| volume = 254
| issue = 01
| pages = 67–76
| last = Russell
| first = Anthony P.
| title = Claw Retraction and Protraction in the Carnivora: The Cheetah (Acinonyx Jubatus) as an Atypical Felid
| journal=Journal of Zoology
| year = 2001
| last2 = Bryant
| first2 = Harold N.
}}</ref> In their normal, relaxed position the claws are sheathed with the [[skin]] and [[fur]] around the [[paw|toe pads]]. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the forefeet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Outline of Cat Lessons|journal=The School Journal|date=22 December 1900|first=Annetta F.|last=Armes|volume=LXI|page=659|url=http://books.google.com/?id=-_gBAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=12 November 2007|publisher=E.L. Kellogg & Co.}}</ref> Cats can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws. They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense, climbing, "[[kneading (cats)|kneading]]", or for extra traction on soft surfaces. Most cats have five claws on their front paws, and four on their rear paws.<ref name=Danforth1947>{{Cite journal|author=Danforth CH. |title=Heredity of Polydactyly in the Cat |journal=J. Hered. |volume=38 |pages=107–112 |year=1947 |url=http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/38/4/107.pdf|format=PDF |pmid=20242531 |issue=4}}</ref> The fifth front claw (the [[dewclaw]]) is [[Anatomical terms of location#Proximal and distal|proximal]] to the other claws. More proximally, there is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth "finger". This special feature of the front paws, on the inside of the wrists, is the carpal pad, also found on the paws of [[big cat]]s and dogs. It has no function in normal walking, but is thought to be an anti-skidding device used while jumping. Some breeds of cats are prone to [[polydactyl cat|polydactylyism]], and may have eight or even ten toes.<ref name=Danforth1947/> These are particularly common along the North-East coast of North America.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1093/hmg/ddm370
| volume = 17
| issue = 7
| pages = 978–985
| last = Lettice
| first = Laura A
| title = Point mutations in a distant sonic hedgehog cis-regulator generate a variable regulatory output responsible for preaxial polydactyly
| journal=Human Molecular Genetics
| date = 2008
| pmid = 18156157
| last1 = Lettice
| first1 = LA
| last2 = Hill
| first2 = AE
| last3 = Devenney
| first3 = PS
| last4 = Hill
| first4 = RE
}}</ref>

==Physiology==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; text-align:center"
|+ Normal physiological values<ref>{{harv|Kahn|Line|2007|p=330}}</ref>
|-
|[[Body temperature]]
| 38.6 °C (101.5 °F)
|-
|[[Heart rate]]
| 120–140 beats per minute
|-
|[[Breathing rate]]
| 16–40 breaths per minute
|}

As cats are familiar and easily kept animals, their physiology has been particularly well studied; it generally resembles that of other carnivorous mammals but displays several unusual features probably attributable to cats' descent from desert-dwelling species.<ref name=MacDonald/> For instance, cats are able to tolerate quite high temperatures: humans generally start to feel uncomfortable when their skin temperature passes about 44.5 °C (112 °F), but cats show no discomfort until their skin reaches around 52 °C (126 °F),<ref>{{Harv|Case|2003|p=46}}</ref> and can tolerate temperatures of up to 56 °C (133 °F) if they have access to water.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Subcommittee on Dog and Cat Nutrition Co |title=Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats |publisher=National Academies Press |location=Washington, D.C |year=2006 |page=292 |isbn=0-309-08628-0}}</ref>

Cats conserve heat by reducing the flow of blood to their skin and lose heat by evaporation through their mouth. They do not sweat, and pant only at very high temperatures.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Adams T, Morgan ML, Hunter WS, Holmes KR |title=Temperature regulation of the unanesthetized cat during mild cold and severe heat stress |journal=J Appl Physiol |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=852–8 |year=1970 |pmid=5485356}}</ref> Unusually, a cat's body temperature does not vary throughout the day; this is part of cats' general lack of [[circadian rhythm]]s and may reflect their tendency to be active both during the day and at night.<ref>{{harv|Committee on Animal Nutrition|1986|p=1}}</ref> Cats' feces are usually dry and their urine is also highly concentrated, both of which are adaptations that allow cats to retain as much fluid as possible.<ref name=MacDonald/> Their kidneys are so efficient that cats can survive on a diet consisting only of meat, with no additional water,<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 196
| issue = 3
| pages = 625–632
| last = Prentiss
| first = Phoebe G.
| title = Hydropenia in cat and dog. Ability of the cat to meet its water requirements solely from a diet of fish or meat
| journal=Am J Physiol
| pmid = 13627237
| date = 28 February 1959
| first2 = AV
| first3 = HA
| author2 = W
| author3 = E
}}</ref> and can even rehydrate by drinking [[seawater]].<ref>{{harv|Committee on Animal Nutrition|1986|p=29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 196
| issue = 3
| pages = 633–641
| last = Wolf
| first = A. V.
| title = Potability of sea water with special reference to the cat
| journal=Am J Physiol
| pmid = 13627238
| date = 28 February 1959
| first2 = PG
| first3 = LG
| first4 = RJ
| author2 = P
| author3 = D
| author4 = S
}}</ref>

[[File:Cat and mouse.jpg|thumb|upright|Carrying a [[house mouse]].]]

Cats are [[Obligate carnivores|obligate carnivore]]s: their [[physiology]] has evolved to efficiently process meat, and they have difficulty digesting plant matter.<ref name=MacDonald>{{Cite journal|author=MacDonald ML, Rogers QR, Morris JG |title=Nutrition of the domestic cat, a mammalian carnivore |journal=Annu. Rev. Nutr. |volume=4 |pages=521–62 |year=1984 |pmid=6380542 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.002513 |first1=ML |first2=QR |first3=JG }}</ref> In contrast to [[omnivore]]s such as [[rat]]s, which only require about 4% protein in their diet, about 20% of a cat's diet must be protein.<ref name=MacDonald/> Cats are unusually dependent on a constant supply of the [[amino acid]] [[arginine]], and a diet lacking arginine causes marked weight loss and can be rapidly fatal.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Morris JG, Rogers QR |title=Arginine: an essential amino acid for the cat |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=108 |issue=12 |pages=1944–53 |date=1 December 1978|pmid=722344 |first1=JG |first2=QR |format=Free full text}}</ref> Another unusual feature is that the cat also cannot produce the amino acid [[taurine]], with taurine deficiency causing [[macular degeneration]], where the cat's retina slowly degenerates, causing irreversible blindness.<ref name=MacDonald/> Since cats tend to eat all of their prey, they obtain minerals by digesting animal bones, and a diet composed only of meat may cause [[calcium]] deficiency.<ref name=MacDonald/>

A cat's [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]] is also adapted to meat eating, being much shorter than that of omnivores and having low levels of several of the [[digestive enzyme]]s that are needed to digest carbohydrates.<ref name=Zoran/> These traits severely limit the cat's ability to digest and use plant-derived nutrients, as well as certain [[fatty acid]]s.<ref name=Zoran>{{Cite journal|author=Zoran DL |title=The carnivore connection to nutrition in cats |journal=J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. |volume=221 |issue=11 |pages=1559–67 |year=2002|pmid=12479324 |doi= 10.2460/javma.2002.221.1559|url=http://www.rawessentials.co.nz/media/documents/website%20-zorans_article.pdf |format=PDF|first1=DL}}</ref> Despite the cat's meat-oriented physiology, several vegetarian or vegan cat foods have been marketed that are supplemented with [[chemical synthesis|chemically synthesized]] taurine and other nutrients, in attempts to produce a complete diet. However, some of these products still fail to provide all the nutrients that cats require,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Gray CM, Sellon RK, Freeman LM |title=Nutritional adequacy of two vegan diets for cats |journal=J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. |volume=225 |issue=11 |pages=1670–5 |year=2004 |pmid=15626215 |doi=10.2460/javma.2004.225.1670 |first1=CM |first2=RK |first3=LM }}</ref> and diets containing no animal products pose the risk of causing severe nutritional deficiencies.<ref name=Zaghini>{{Cite journal|author=Zaghini G, Biagi G |title=Nutritional peculiarities and diet palatability in the cat |journal=Vet. Res. Commun. |volume=29 Suppl 2 |pages=39–44 |year=2005 |pmid=16244923 |doi=10.1007/s11259-005-0009-1 |first1=G |first2=G }}</ref>

==Senses==
{{Main|Cat senses}}
[[File:Cat eyes 2007-1.jpg|upright|thumb|Cats have extremely sensitive vision, particularly in dim light.]]

Cats have excellent [[night vision]] and can see at only one-sixth the light level required for human vision.<ref>{{Harv|Case|2003|p=43}}</ref> This is partly the result of cat eyes having a [[tapetum lucidum]], which reflects any light that passes through the [[retina]] back into the eye, thereby increasing the eye's sensitivity to dim light.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2004.00318.x
| volume = 7
| issue = 1
| pages = 11–22
| author= Ollivier, FJ ''et al.''
| title = Comparative morphology of the tapetum lucidum (among selected species)
| journal=Veterinary Ophthalmology
| year = 2004
| pmid = 14738502}}</ref> Another adaptation to dim light is the large pupils of cats' eyes. Unlike some big cats, such as tigers, domestic cats have slit [[pupil]]s.<ref name=Malmstrom/> These slit pupils can focus bright light without [[chromatic aberration]], and are needed since the domestic cat's pupils are much larger, relative to their eyes, than the pupils of the big cats.<ref name=Malmstrom>{{Cite journal|author=Malmström T, Kröger RH |title=Pupil shapes and lens optics in the eyes of terrestrial vertebrates |journal=J. Exp. Biol. |volume=209 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=18–25 |year=2006 |pmid=16354774 |doi=10.1242/jeb.01959 |first1=T |first2=RH |format=Free full text}}</ref> Indeed, at low light levels a cat's pupils will expand to cover most of the exposed surface of its eyes.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1007/BF00261338
| volume = 59
| issue = 3
| pages = 485–490
| last = Hammond
| first = P.
| title = The relationship between feline pupil size and luminance
| journal=Experimental Brain Research
| year = 1985
| last2 = Mouat
| first2 = G.S.V.
}}</ref> However, domestic cats have rather poor [[color vision]] and can only see two colors: blue and green, and are less able to distinguish between red and green,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Loop MS, Bruce LL |title=Cat color vision: the effect of stimulus size |journal=Science |volume=199 |issue=4334 |pages=1221–2 |year=1978 |pmid=628838 |doi=10.1126/science.628838 |first1=MS |first2=LL}}</ref> although they can achieve this in some conditions.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Schneider H, Beller FK |title=The Spectral Sensitivity of Dark- and Light-adapted Cat Retinal Ganglion Cells |journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=13 |pages=1543–1550 |date=1 April 1993|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/reprint/13/4/1543 |issue=4 |pmid=8463834}}</ref>

[[File:Olhos de um gato-3.jpg|thumb|left|Cats' whiskers are highly sensitive to touch.]]

Cats have excellent hearing and can detect an extremely broad range of frequencies. They can hear higher-pitched sounds than either dogs or humans, detecting frequencies from 55 [[Hertz|Hz]] up to 79 [[Hertz|kHz]], a range of 10.5 [[octave]]s; while humans can only hear from 31 Hz up to 18 kHz, and dogs hear from 67 Hz to 44 kHz, which are both ranges of about 9 octaves.<ref name=PMID15472899>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1002/ar.a.20117
| volume = 281
| issue = 1
| pages = 1111–1122
| last = Heffner
| first = Rickye S
| title = Primate hearing from a mammalian perspective
| journal=The Anatomical Record. Part A, Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology
| accessdate = 20 August 2009
| date = 2004-11
| url = http://psychology.utoledo.edu/images/users/74/Primate%20Hearing%20from%20a%20Mammalian%20Perspective.pdf
|format=PDF| pmid = 15472899
| last1 = Heffner
| first1 = RS
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060919003302/http://psychology.utoledo.edu/images/users/74/Primate+Hearing+from+a+Mammalian+Perspective.pdf |archivedate = 19 September 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00101-4
| volume = 57
| issue = 3–4
| pages = 259–268
| last = Heffner
| first = Henry E.
| title = Auditory awareness
| journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science
| accessdate = 20 August 2009
| date = 1998-05}}</ref> Cats do not use this ability to hear [[ultrasound]] for communication but it is probably important in hunting,<ref name=Sunquistp10>{{Harv|Sunquist|Sunquist|2002|p=10}}</ref> since many species of rodents make ultrasonic calls.<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 106
| issue = 4
| pages = 360–365
| last = Blumberg
| first = M S
| title = Rodent ultrasonic short calls: locomotion, biomechanics, and communication
| journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology
| year = 1992
| pmid = 1451418
| doi = 10.1037/0735-7036.106.4.360
}}</ref> Cats' hearing is also extremely sensitive and is among the best of any mammal,<ref name=PMID15472899/> being most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz.<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 19
| issue = 1
| pages = 85–88
| last = Heffner
| first = R S
| title = Hearing range of the domestic cat
| journal=Hearing Research
| accessdate = 20 August 2009
| year = 1985
| url = http://psychology.utoledo.edu/images/users/74/Audiograms/HearingRangeOfTheDomesticCat_1985.pdf
|format=PDF| doi = 10.1016/0378-5955(85)90100-5
| pmid = 4066516
| last2 = Heffner
| first2 = HE
}}</ref> This sensitivity is further enhanced by the cat's large movable outer ears (their ''[[pinna (anatomy)|pinnae]]''), which both amplify sounds and help a cat sense the direction from which a noise is coming.<ref name=Sunquistp10/>

Cats have an acute sense of smell, which is due in part to their well-developed [[olfactory bulb]] and also to a large surface of [[olfactory mucosa]], in cats this mucosa is about 5.8 cm2 in area, which is about twice that of humans and only 1.7-fold less than the average dog.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1093/icb/7.3.421
| volume = 7
| issue = 3
| pages = 421–429
| last = Moulton
| first = David G.
| title = Olfaction in Mammals
| journal=Amer. Zool.
| date = 1 August 1967
}}</ref> Cats are very sensitive to [[cat pheromone|pheromones]] such as [[3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol]],<ref name="felinine">{{Cite journal
|author=M. Miyazaki, T. Yamashita, Y. Suzuki, Y. Saito, S. Soeta, H. Taira, and A. Suzuki
|year = 2006
|title = A major urinary protein of the domestic cat regulates the production of felinine, a putative pheromone precursor
|journal=Chem. Biol.
|volume = 13
|issue = 10
|pages = 1071–1079
|pmid = 17052611
|doi = 10.1016/j.chembiol.2006.08.013
|format = PDF
|first1 = M
|first2 = T
|first3 = Y
|first4 = Y
|first5 = S
|first6 = H
|first7 = A
}}</ref> which they use to communicate through urine spraying and marking with scent glands.<ref name=Sommerville/> Cats also respond strongly to plants such as [[catnip]] which contains [[nepetalactone]], as they can detect this substance at less than one part per billion.<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 31
| issue = 6
| pages = 455–456
| last = Grognet
| first = Jeff
| title = Catnip: Its uses and effects, past and present
| journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal
| date = 1990-06
| pmc = 1480656
}}</ref> This response is also produced by other plants, such as [[Actinidia polygama|Silver Vine]] and [[valerian (herb)|valerian]], and may be caused by the smell of these plants mimicking a pheromone and stimulating cats' social or sexual behaviors.<ref name=Tucker>{{Cite journal

| url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/f613756573257t02/
| volume = 42
| issue = 2
| pages = 214–231
| last = Tucker
| first = Arthur
| coauthors = Sharon Tucker
| title = Catnip and the catnip response
| journal=Economic Botany
| year = 1988
| doi_brokendate = 20 June 2010
}}</ref>

Cats have relatively few taste buds compared to humans. Owing to a mutation in an early cat ancestor, one of two genes necessary to taste [[sweetness]] may have been lost by the cat family.<ref name=sugar>{{Cite journal| last = Li|first = Xia|title = Pseudogenization of a Sweet-Receptor Gene Accounts for Cats' Indifference toward Sugar|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume = 1|issue = 1|publisher=[[Public Library of Science]]|year = 2005|doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.0010003|accessdate = 8 November 2006|pages = e3|pmid = 16103917|author = Li, X ''et al.''|format = Free full text|pmc = 1183522}}</ref> Their [[taste bud]]s instead respond to amino acids, bitter tastes and acids.<ref name=Bradshaw2006>{{Cite journal
| volume = 136
| issue = 7
| pages = 1927S–1931
| last = Bradshaw
| first = John W. S.
| title = The Evolutionary Basis for the Feeding Behavior of Domestic Dogs (Canis familiaris) and Cats (Felis catus)
| journal=J. Nutr.
| date = 1 July 2006
| pmid = 16772461
}}</ref> To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable [[vibrissa]]e (whiskers) over their body, especially their face. These provide information on the width of gaps and on the location of objects in the dark, both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they also trigger protective [[blink reflex]]es to protect the eyes from damage.<ref>{{Harv|Case|2003|p=47}}</ref>

==Health==
{{Main|Cat health}}
In captivity, an average life expectancy for male indoor cats at birth is 12 to 14 years,<ref>{{cite journal |author=E. J. Taylor, C. Adams & R. Neville |year=1995 |title=Some nutritional aspects of ageing in dogs and cats |journla=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=645–656 |doi=10.1079/PNS19950064 |pmid=8643702}}</ref> with females usually living a year or two longer. However, there have been records of cats reaching into their 20s and 30s, with the oldest known cat, [[Creme Puff (cat)|Creme Puff]], dying at a verified age of 38.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Me-wow! Texas woman says cat is 30 years old Although she can't hear or see very well, Caterack the cat is still purring|url = http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/33094898/ns/today-today_pets_and_animals?GT1=43001|accessdate = 30 September 2009}}</ref> Having a cat [[neutering|neutered]] or [[spaying|spayed]] confers some health benefits, since castrated males cannot develop [[testicular cancer]], spayed females cannot develop [[uterine cancer|uterine]] or [[ovarian cancer]], and both have a reduced risk of [[mammary tumor|mammary cancer]].<ref name="spay-neuter">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/cat-care/spay-neuter.html|title=Cat care: Spay-neuter|year=2009|work=American Society for the Prevention of Cruelity to Animals|accessdate=6 September 2009}}</ref> The lifespan of feral cats is hard to determine accurately, although one study reported a [[median]] age of 4.7 years, with a range between 0 to 10 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Levy JK, Gale DW, Gale LA |title=Evaluation of the effect of a long-term trap-neuter-return and adoption program on a free-roaming cat population |journal=J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. |volume=222 |issue=1 |pages=42–6 |year=2003 |pmid=12523478 |url=http://www.collierferalcatcoalition.org/tnr%20sources/javma.2003.222.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.2460/javma.2003.222.42 |first1=JK |first2=DW |first3=LA }}</ref>

===Diseases===
Cats can suffer from a wide range of health problems, including infectious diseases, parasites, injuries and chronic disease. [[Feline vaccination|Vaccinations]] are available for many of these diseases, and domestic cats are regularly given treatments to eliminate parasites such as worms and fleas.

===Poisoning===
In addition to obvious dangers such as [[rodenticide]]s, [[insecticide]]s and [[herbicide|weed killer]]s, cats may be poisoned by many chemicals that are usually considered safe.<ref name="vetinfo"/> This is because their livers are less effective at some forms of [[detoxification]] than those of other animals, including humans and dogs.<ref name=MacDonald/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Williams RT |title=Species variations in the pathways of drug metabolism |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=22 |pages=133–8 |date=1 February 1978|pmid=417918 |pmc=1637137 |doi=10.2307/3428562 |first=R. T. |format=Free full text |url=http://jstor.org/stable/3428562 |publisher=Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 22}}</ref> Some of the most common causes of poisoning in cats are antifreeze and rodent baits.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Rowland J |title=Incidence of ethylene glycol intoxication in dogs and cats seen at Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital |journal=Vet Hum Toxicol |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=41–4 |year=1987 |pmid=3824875 |first1=J}}</ref> It has also been suggested that cats may be particularly sensitive to environmental pollutants.<ref name="vetinfo"/><ref name=Peters>{{Cite journal|author=Potera C |title=Chemical exposures: cats as sentinel species |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=115 |issue=12 |pages=A580 |year=2007 |pmid=18087575 |pmc=2137107 |first1=C |doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a580a}}</ref> When a cat has a sudden or prolonged serious illness without any obvious cause, it is therefore possible that it has been exposed to a toxin.

Human medicines should never be given to cats. For example, the painkiller [[paracetamol]] (also called acetaminophen, sold as [[Tylenol]] and [[Panadol]]) is extremely toxic to cats: even very small doses can be fatal and need immediate treatment.<ref name="CanVetJ2003-Allen">{{Cite journal| author=Allen AL|title = The diagnosis of acetaminophen toxicosis in a cat|journal=Canadian Veterinary Journal |date=1 June 2003| pages = 509–10|volume = 44|issue = 6|pmid = 12839249|pmc = 340185|first1 = AL}}</ref><ref name="VetHumToxicol1998-Villar">{{Cite journal| author=Villar D, Buck WB, Gonzalez JM|title = Ibuprofen, aspirin and acetaminophen toxicosis and treatment in Dogs and Cats|journal=Vet Hum Toxicol|year = 1998|pages = 156–62|volume = 40|issue = 3|pmid = 9610496|first1 = D|first2 = WB|first3 = JM}}</ref> Even [[aspirin]], which is sometimes used to treat [[arthritis]] in cats, is much more toxic to them than to humans and must be administered cautiously.<ref name="vetinfo"/> Similarly, application of [[minoxidil]] (Rogaine) to the skin of cats, either accidentally or by well-meaning owners attempting to counter loss of fur, has sometimes been fatal.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Camille DeClementi|title = Suspected toxicosis after topical administration of minoxidil in 2 cats|journal=Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care|year = 2004|pages = 287–292|volume = 14|issue = 4|doi = 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2004.04014.x|accessdate= 18 January 2007|last2 = Bailey|first2 = Keith L.|last3 = Goldstein|first3 = Spencer C.|last4 = Orser|first4 = Michael Scott}}</ref> [[Essential oil]]s can be toxic to cats and there have been reported cases of serious illnesses caused by [[tea tree oil]], and tea tree oil-based flea treatments and shampoos.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Bischoff K, Guale F |title=Australian tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil poisoning in three purebred cats |journal=J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=208–10 |date=1 April 1998|pmid=9576358 |first1=K |first2=F }}</ref>

Other common household substances that should be used with caution around cats include [[mothball]]s and other [[naphthalene]] products.<ref name="vetinfo"/> [[Phenol]]-based products ([[Pine-Sol]], [[Dettol]] (Lysol) or [[hexachlorophene]]<ref name="vetinfo">{{Cite web| url = http://www.vetinfo.com/ctoxin.html|title = Toxic to Cats|accessdate = 18 January 2007|publisher=Vetinfo4Cats}}</ref>) are often used for cleaning and disinfecting near cats' feeding areas or litter boxes but these can sometimes be fatal.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Rousseaux CG, Smith RA, Nicholson S|title = Acute Pinesol toxicity in a domestic cat|journal=Vet Hum Toxicol|year = 1986|pages = 316–7|volume = 28|issue = 4|pmid = 3750813|first1 = CG|first2 = RA|first3 = S}}</ref> [[Ethylene glycol]], often used as an automotive [[antifreeze]], is particularly appealing to cats, and as little as a teaspoonful can be fatal.<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.cfainc.org/articles/antifreeze.html|title = Antifreeze Warning|publisher=The Cat Fanciers' Association, Inc. |accessdate = 15 May 2007}}</ref> Some human foods are toxic to cats; for example [[theobromine]] in [[chocolate]] can cause [[theobromine poisoning]], although few cats will eat chocolate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aspcapro.org/animal-poison-control/documents/l-vettech_0301.pdf |format=PDF|title=Death by Chocolate? Methylxanthine Toxicosis |publisher=Veterinary Technician |year=2001 |accessdate=25 August 2009}}</ref> Large amounts of onions or [[garlic]] are also poisonous to cats.<ref name="vetinfo"/> Many [[houseplant]]s are also dangerous,<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.cfainc.org/articles/plants.html|title = Plants and Your Cat|publisher=The Cat Fanciers' Association, Inc.|accessdate = 15 May 2007}}</ref> such as ''[[Philodendron]]'' species and the leaves of the [[Lilium longiflorum|Easter Lily]], which can cause permanent and life-threatening kidney damage.<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 220
| issue = 1
| pages = 49–52, 36
| last = Langston
| first = Cathy E
| title = Acute renal failure caused by lily ingestion in six cats
| journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
| date = 1 January 2002
| pmid = 12680447
| doi = 10.2460/javma.2002.220.49
}}</ref>

==Behavior==
{{See also|Cat behavior|cat communication}}
{{listen|filename = Cat in front of open fire purring.ogg|title = "Cat purring"|description = A young female cat, purring in front of a warm open fire.|format = [[Ogg]]}}
Free-ranging cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at night.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00479.x
| volume = 276
| issue = 2
| pages = 195–203
| last = Germain
| first = E.
| title = Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids
| journal=Journal of Zoology
| year = 2008
| last2 = Benhamou
| first2 = S.
| last3 = Poulle
| first3 = M.-L.
}}</ref><ref name=Barratt>{{Cite journal
| volume = 20
| issue = 3
| pages = 271–280
| last = Barratt
| first = David G.
| title = Home Range Size, Habitat Utilisation and Movement Patterns of Suburban and Farm Cats Felis catus
| journal=Ecography
|date=1 June 1997
| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/3682838
| doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0587.1997.tb00371.x
}}</ref> The timing of cats' activity is quite flexible and varied, which means that house cats may be more active in the morning and evening ([[crepuscular]] behavior), as a response to greater human activity at these times.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1037/0735-7044.99.6.1162
| volume = 99
| issue = 6
| pages = 1162–1175
| last = Randall
| first = Walter
| title = Circadian rhythms in food intake and activity in domestic cats.
| journal=Behavioral Neuroscience
| pmid = 3843546
| year = 1985
| first2 = RF
| first3 = S
| first4 = JT
| last2 = Johnson
| last3 = Randall
| last4 = Cunningham
}}</ref> House cats have territories that vary considerably in size, in one study ranging from seven to {{convert|28|ha|acre|lk=in}}.<ref name=Barratt/> Although they spend the majority of their time in the vicinity of their home, they can range many hundreds of meters from this central point.<ref name=Barratt/>

Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals, especially as they grow older. The daily duration of sleep varies, usually 12–16 hours, with 13–14 being the average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours in a 24-hour period. The term ''[[wikt:cat nap|cat nap]]'' refers to the cat's ability to fall asleep (lightly) for a brief period and has entered the English lexicon—someone who nods off for a few minutes is said to be "taking a cat nap". During sleep cats experience short periods of [[rapid eye movement sleep]] accompanied by muscle twitches, which suggests that they are [[dream]]ing.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/0166-2236(79)90110-3
| volume = 2
| pages = 280–282
| last = Jouvet
| first = Michel
| title = What does a cat dream about?
| journal=Trends in Neurosciences
| year = 1979}}</ref>

===Sociability===
[[File:Listen, do you want to know a secret.jpg|thumb|[[Social grooming]] in a pair]]
Although wildcats are solitary, the social behavior of domestic cats is much more variable and ranges from widely dispersed individuals to [[feral cat colony|feral cat colonies]] that form around a food source, based on groups of co-operating females.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/0376-6357(95)00070-4
| volume = 37
| issue = 1
| pages = 85–88
| last = Pontier
| first = Dominique
| coauthors = Eugenia Natoli
| title = Male reproductive success in the domestic cat (''Felis catus'' L.): A case history
| journal=Behavioural Processes
| year = 1996}}</ref><ref name=Crowell-davis2004>{{Cite journal| author=Crowell-davis, S.L.|year = 2004|title = Social organization in the cat: a modern understanding|journal=Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery|volume = 6|issue = 1|pages = 19–28|url = http://zoopsy.free.fr/veille_biblio/social_organization_cat_2004.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 21 May 2008|doi = 10.1016/j.jfms.2003.09.013|pmid = 15123163|last1 = Crowell-Davis|first1 = SL|last2 = Curtis|first2 = TM|last3 = Knowles|first3 = RJ}}</ref> Within such groups one cat is usually dominant over the others.<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 11
| issue = 1
| pages = 56–66
| last = Baron
| first = Alan
| title = Patterns of Social Interaction in Cats (''Felis domestica'')
| journal=Behaviour
| date = 1 January 1957
| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/4532869
| doi = 10.1163/156853956X00084
| first3 = J. M.
| author3 = Warren
| last2 = Stewart
}}</ref> Each cat in a colony holds a distinct territory, with sexually active males having the largest territories, which are about ten times larger than those of female cats and may overlap with several females' territories.<ref name=Sommerville/> These territories are marked by urine spraying, by rubbing objects at head height with secretions from facial glands and by defecation.<ref name=Sommerville>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00102-6
| volume = 57
| issue = 3–4
| pages = 269–286
| last = Sommerville
| first = B. A.
| title = Olfactory awareness
| journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science
| year = 1998
}}</ref> Between these territories are neutral areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflicts. Outside these neutral areas, territory holders usually chase away stranger cats, at first by staring, hissing, and growling, and if that does not work, by short but noisy and violent attacks. Despite some cats cohabiting in colonies, cats do not have a social survival strategy, or a [[herd behavior|pack mentality]] and always hunt alone.<ref name=Bradshaw/>

Domestic cats use many vocalizations for [[cat communication|communication]], including [[purr]]ing, [[trill consonant|trilling]], [[hiss#Animals|hissing]], [[growling]], snarling and several different forms of [[Meowing|meow]]ing.<ref name=Moelk>{{Cite journal
| volume = 57
| issue = 2
| pages = 184–205
| last = Moelk
| first = Mildred
| title = Vocalizing in the House-Cat; A Phonetic and Functional Study
| journal=The American Journal of Psychology
| date = 1944-04
| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/1416947
| doi = 10.2307/1416947
| publisher=The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 57, No. 2
}}</ref> In contrast, feral cats are generally silent.<ref>{{harv|Jensen|2009|p=208}}</ref> Their types of [[Cat body language|body language]], including position of ears and tail, relaxation of whole body, and kneading of paws, are all indicators of mood. The tail and ears are particularly important social signal in cats, with a raised tail acting as a friendly greeting.<ref name=behaviourguide/><ref name=Cafazzo/> Tail raising also indicates the cat's position in the group's [[social hierarchy]], with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate animals.<ref name=Cafazzo>{{Cite journal|author=Cafazzo S, Natoli E |title=The social function of tail up in the domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) |journal=Behav. Processes |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=60–6 |year=2009 |pmid=18930121 |doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2008.09.008 |first1=S |first2=E }}</ref> Nose-touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by [[social grooming]], which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.<ref name=Crowell-davis2004/> However, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular older cats may show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens, which may include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as Feline Asocial Aggression.<ref>{{Cite journal| url = http://faculty.washington.edu/jcha/330_cats_introducing.pdf|format = PDF|title = Intercat aggression in households following the introduction of a new cat|author=E. Levine|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|issue = 90|year = 2005|pages = 325–336|doi = 10.1016/j.applanim.2004.07.006|volume = 90|accessdate = 8 April 2009|last2 = Perry|first2 = P|last3 = Scarlett|first3 = J|last4 = Houpt|first4 = K}}</ref>

For cats, life in proximity with humans (and other animals kept by humans) amounts to a "symbiotic social adaptation". They may express great affection towards their human companions, especially if they [[imprinting (psychology)|imprint]] on them at a very young age and are treated with consistent affection. It has been suggested that, [[ethology|ethologically]], the human keeper of a cat functions as a sort of surrogate for the cat's mother, and that adult domestic cats live their lives in a kind of extended kittenhood, a form of behavioral [[neoteny]].<ref>[http://animal.discovery.com/guides/cats/body/maturity.html Cat Guide: Adolescence and Sexual Maturity] Animal Planet</ref> Conversely, the high-pitched purrs cats make to solicit food may mimic the cries of a hungry human infant, making them particularly hard for humans to ignore.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=McComb K, Taylor AM, Wilson C, Charlton BD |title=The cry embedded within the purr |journal=Curr. Biol. |volume=19 |issue=13 |pages=R507–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19602409 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.033}}</ref>

===Grooming===
[[File:Cat tongue macro.jpg|thumb|The hooked papillae on a cat's tongue act like a [[hairbrush]] to help clean and detangle fur.]]
Cats are known for their cleanliness, spending many hours licking their coats.<ref name=hairballs/> The cat's [[tongue]] has backwards-facing spines about 500 [[micrometre]]s long, which are called [[Filiform papilla|papillae]]. These are quite rigid, as they contain [[keratin]].<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1159/000145583
| volume = 114
| issue = 2
| pages = 97–105
|author= Boshel, J ''et al.''
| title = Filiform Papillae of Cat Tongue
| journal=Cells Tissues Organs
| year = 1982
| pmid = 17728549}}</ref> These spines allow cats to groom themselves by licking their fur, with the rows of papillae acting like a hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate [[hairball]]s of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-shaped and about two to three centimeters long. Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease elimination of the hair through the gut, as well as regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff brush.<ref name=hairballs>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vet.cornell.edu/FHC/news/hair.htm |title=When Hair Balls Aren't Harmless. |publisher=Cornell Feline Health Center |year=2006 |accessdate=25 August 2009}}</ref>

===Fighting===
[[File:GAto.jpg|thumb|left|Cats intimidate opponents by arching their backs, raising their fur, turning sideways, and [[hiss#Animals|hissing]].]]
With domestic cats, males are more likely to fight than females.<ref name=Lindell>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00032-4
| volume = 55
| issue = 1–2
| pages = 153–162
| last = Lindell
| first = Ellen M.
| title = Intercat aggression: a retrospective study examining types of aggression, sexes of fighting pairs, and effectiveness of treatment
| journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science
| date = 1997-12
}}</ref> With feral cats, the most common reason for [[Catfight (animal behavior)|cat fighting]] is when two males are competing to mate with a female: here most fights will be won by the heavier male.<ref>Akihiro Yamane, Teruo Doi and Yuiti Ono "Mating behaviors, courtship rank and mating success of male feral cat (Felis catus)" Journal of Ethology, Volume 14, Number 1, p35-44 (1996) doi:10.1007/BF02350090</ref> Another possible reason for fighting in domestic cats is when the cats have difficulties in establishing a territory within a small home.<ref name=Lindell/> Female cats will also fight over territory or to defend their kittens. Spaying females and neutering males will decrease or eliminate this behavior in many cases, suggesting that the behavior is linked to [[sex hormone]]s.

When fighting, cats make themselves appear more impressive and threatening by raising their fur and arching their backs, thus increasing their apparent size.<ref name=behaviourguide>{{Cite web|url=http://animal.discovery.com/guides/cats/behavior/bodylanguageintro.html |title=Cat Guide: Body Language |publisher=Animal Planet |accessdate=26 August 2009 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080630210950/http://animal.discovery.com/guides/cats/behavior/bodylanguageintro.html |archivedate = 30 June 2008}}</ref> Often, the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward. Attacks usually comprise powerful slaps to the face and body with the forepaws as well as bites, but serious damage is rare; usually the loser runs away with little more than a few scratches to the face, and sometimes the ears. Cats will also throw themselves to the ground in a defensive posture to rake their opponent's belly with their powerful hind legs.<ref>[http://www.hsus.org/pets/pet_care/our_pets_for_life_program/cat_behavior_tip_sheets/aggression_between_family_cats.html Aggression Between Family Cats] ''The Humane Society of the United States'' 2002</ref>

Normally, serious injuries from fighting will be limited to infections of scratches and bites, though these can occasionally kill cats if untreated. In addition, bites are probably the main route of transmission of [[feline immunodeficiency virus]] (FIV).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Pedersen NC, Yamamoto JK, Ishida T, Hansen H |title=Feline immunodeficiency virus infection |journal=Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=111–29 |year=1989 |pmid=2549690 |doi=10.1016/0165-2427(89)90134-7 |first1=NC |first2=JK |first3=T |first4=H }}</ref> Sexually active males will usually be involved in many fights during their lives, and often have decidedly battered faces with obvious scars and cuts to the ears and nose.

===Hunting and feeding===
Cats feed on small prey, primarily birds and rodents.<ref name=Woods/> Feral cats and house cats that are free-fed tend to consume many small meals in a single day, although the frequency and size of meals varies between individuals.<ref name=Bradshaw>{{Cite journal|author=Bradshaw JW, Goodwin D, Legrand-Defrétin V, Nott HM |title=Food selection by the domestic cat, an obligate carnivore |journal=Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Physiol. |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=205–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8759144 |doi=10.1016/0300-9629(95)02133-7 |first1=JW |first2=D |first3=V |first4=HM }}</ref> Cats use two hunting strategies, either stalking prey actively, or waiting in ambush until an animal comes close enough to be captured. Although it is not certain, the type of strategy used may depend on the prey species in the area, with for example, cats waiting in ambush outside burrows, but tending to actively stalk birds.<ref name=Turner153>{{Harv|Turner|Bateson|2000|p=153}}</ref>

Most breeds of cat have a noted fondness for settling in high places, or perching. In the wild, a higher place may serve as a concealed site from which to hunt; domestic cats may strike prey by pouncing from such a perch as a tree branch, as does a [[leopard]].<ref>{{Cite web| title=Why Do Cats Like High Places?|publisher=Dr. Holly Nash, DVM, MS|url =http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=1+1313&aid=1125|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080102145008/http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?cls=1&cat=1313&articleid=1125|archivedate=2 January 2008|work=Drs. Foster & Smith, Inc.}}</ref> Other possible explanations include that height gives the cat a better observation point, allowing it to survey its territory. During a fall from a high place, a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute [[equilibrioception|sense of balance]] and flexibility.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Falling Cats|url = http://www.verrueckte-experimente.de/leseproben_e.html|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20051026122408/http://www.verrueckte-experimente.de/leseproben_e.html|archivedate = 26 October 2005|accessdate = 24 October 2005}}</ref> This is known as the cat's "[[cat righting reflex|righting reflex]]". It always rights itself in the same way, provided it has the time to do so, during a fall. The height required for this to occur is around 90 cm (3 feet). Cats without a tail also have this ability, since a cat mostly moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of [[angular momentum]] to set up for landing, and the tail is in fact little used for this feat.<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://helix.gatech.edu/Classes/ME3760/1998Q3/Projects/Nguyen/|title=How does a Cat always land on its feet?|author=Huy D. Nguyen|publisher=Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Medical Engineering|accessdate = 15 May 2007}}</ref> This leads to the proverb "a cat always lands on its feet."

[[File:Cat-eating-prey.jpg|thumb|Eating a [[house sparrow]]]]

One poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human owners. [[Ethology|Ethologist]] Paul Leyhausen proposed that cats adopt humans into their social group, and share excess kill with others in the group according to the local [[pecking order]], in which humans are placed at or near the top.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Leyhausen |first=Paul |title=Cat Behavior: The Predatory and Social Behavior of Domestic and Wild Cats |year=1978 |isbn=978-0824070175 |publisher=Garland STPM Press |location=New York}}</ref> However, anthropologist and animal scientist [[Desmond Morris]], in his 1986 book ''Catwatching'', suggests that when cats bring home mice or birds, they are teaching their human to hunt, or helping their human as if feeding "an elderly cat, or an inept kitten".<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher=Crown Pub
| last = Desmond
| first = Morris
| title = Catwatching Why Cats Purr and Everything Else You Ever Wanted to Know
| year = 1986
}}</ref> However, this proposal is inconsistent with the fact that male cats also bring home prey, despite males having no involvement with raising kittens.<ref name=Turner153/>

Domestic cats select food based on its temperature, smell and texture, strongly disliking chilled foods and responding most strongly to moist foods rich in amino acids, which are similar to meat.<ref name=Zaghini/><ref name=Bradshaw/> Cats may reject novel flavors (a response termed [[neophobia]]) and learn quickly to avoid foods that have [[taste aversion|tasted unpleasant]] in the past.<ref name=Bradshaw/> They may also avoid sugary foods and milk; since they are [[lactose intolerant]], these sugars are not easily digested and may cause soft stools or [[diarrhea]].<ref name=Bradshaw/><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kienzle E |title=Blood sugar levels and renal sugar excretion after the intake of high carbohydrate diets in cats |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=124 |issue=12 Suppl |pages=2563S–2567S |year=1994 |pmid=7996238 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/reprint/124/12_Suppl/2563S.pdf |format=PDF|first1=E }}</ref> They can also develop odd eating habits. Some cats like to eat or chew on other things, most commonly wool, but also plastic, paper, string, or even coal. This condition is called [[pica (disorder)|pica]] and can threaten their health, depending on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01136-7
| volume = 52
| issue = 3–4
| pages = 373–379
| last = Bradshaw
| first = John W. S.
| title = Factors affecting pica in the domestic cat
| journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science
| date = 1997-04
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.vmth.ucdavis.edu/home/beh/feline_behavior/pica.html| title= Pica: The Un-finicky Feline|publisher=University of California School of Veterinary Medicine|accessdate=6 September 2009}}</ref>

Since cats cannot fully close their mouths to create suction, they use a lapping method with the tongue to draw liquid upwards into their mouths. Lapping at a rate of four times a second, the cat touches the smooth tip of its tongue to the surface of the water, and quickly retracts it, drawing water upwards.<ref>{{Citation
|last = Wade
|first = Nicholas
|title = For Cats, a Big Gulp With a Touch of the Tongue
|newspaper = New York Times
|date = 11/11/2010
|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/12/science/12cats.html
|accessdate = 11/12/2010}}
</ref>

===Play===
{{Main|Cat play and toys}}
Domestic cats, especially young kittens, are known for their love of play. This behavior mimics hunting and is important in helping kittens learn to [[predation|stalk, capture, and kill]] prey.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Poirier FE, Hussey LK |title=Nonhuman Primate Learning: The Importance of Learning from an Evolutionary Perspective |journal=Anthropology & Education Quarterly |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=133–148 |date=1 July 1982|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/3216627 |doi=10.1525/aeq.1982.13.2.05x1830j |first=F. E. |first2=L. K.}}</ref> Cats will also engage in [[play fighting]], with each other and with humans. This behavior may be a way for cats to practice the skills needed for real combat, and might also reduce any fear they associate with launching attacks on other animals.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Byers, John A.; Bekoff, Marc |title=Animal play: evolutionary, comparative, and ecological perspectives |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1998 |page=135 |isbn=0-521-58656-9}}</ref>

Owing to the close similarity between play and hunting, cats prefer to play with objects that resemble prey, such as small furry toys that move rapidly, but rapidly lose interest (they become [[habituation|habituated]]) in a toy they have played with before.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00153-3
| volume = 79
| issue = 3
| pages = 263–271
| last = Hall
| first = Sarah L.
| title = Object play in adult domestic cats: the roles of habituation and disinhibition
| journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science
| date = 1 November 2002}}</ref> Cats also tend to play with toys more when they are hungry.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0168-1591(97)00136-6
| volume = 58
| issue = 1–2
| pages = 143–150
| last = Hall
| first = Sarah L.
| title = The influence of hunger on object play by adult domestic cats
| journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science
| date = 1998-06
}}</ref> String is often used as a toy, but if it is eaten it can become caught at the base of the cat’s tongue and then move into the [[intestine]]s, a medical emergency which can cause serious illness and death.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1053/svms.2002.36606
| volume = 17
| issue = 4
| pages = 178–183
| last = MacPhail
| first = Catriona
| title = Gastrointestinal obstruction
| journal=Clinical Techniques in Small Animal Practice
| date = 2002-11
| pmid = 12324686
| last1 = Norberg
| first1 = ST
| pmc = 2391006
}}</ref> Owing to the risks posed by cats eating string, it is sometimes replaced with a [[laser pointer]]'s dot, which cats may chase.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.poconorecord.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20061210/NEWS01/612100320/-1/NEWS|title=Fat indoor cats need exercise|date=10 December 2006|publisher=[[Pocono Record]]}}</ref> While concerns have been raised about the safety of these lasers, Professor John Marshall, an [[ophthalmologist]] at [[St Thomas' Hospital]], has stated that it would be "virtually impossible" to blind a cat with a laser pointer.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/34229.stm Eye expert challenges laser pen 'danger'] ''BBC News'' 24 November 1997</ref>

===Reproduction===
[[File:Cats having sex in Israel.jpg|thumb|When cats mate, the male [[Tomcat|tom]] bites the scruff of the female's neck as she assumes a position conducive to [[mating]].]]
Female cats are seasonally [[polyestrous]], which means they may have many periods of heat over the course of a year, the season beginning in spring and ending in late autumn. Heat periods occur about every two weeks and last about 4 to 7 days.<ref name=compendium/> Multiple males will be attracted to a female in heat. The males will fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female will reject the male, but eventually the female will allow the male to mate. The female will utter a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her. This is because a male cat's [[penis]] has a band of about 120–150 backwards-pointing spines, which are about one [[millimeter]] long;<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Aronson LR, Cooper ML |title=Penile spines of the domestic cat: their endocrine-behavior relations |journal=Anat. Rec. |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=71–8 |year=1967|pmid=6030760 |doi=10.1002/ar.1091570111 |url=http://www.catcollection.org/files/PenileSpines.pdf |format=PDF|first1=LR |first2=ML}}</ref> upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's [[vagina]], which is a trigger for [[ovulation]]. This act also occurs to clear the vagina of other sperm in the context of a 2nd (or more) mating, thus giving the latter males a larger chance of conception.

After mating, the female will wash her [[vulva]] thoroughly. If a male attempts to mate with her at this point, the female will attack him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the female is finished grooming, the cycle will repeat.<ref name=compendium/>

Because ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating, females may not be impregnated by the first male with which they mate.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Wildt DE, Seager SW, Chakraborty PK |title=Effect of copulatory stimuli on incidence of ovulation and on serum luteinizing hormone in the cat |journal=Endocrinology |volume=107 |issue=4 |pages=1212–7 |year=1980|pmid=7190893 |doi=10.1210/endo-107-4-1212 |first1=DE |first2=SW |first3=PK }}</ref> Furthermore, cats are [[superfecundation|superfecund]]; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, with the result that different kittens in a litter may have different fathers.<ref name=compendium>{{Cite web|url=http://vlsstore.com/Media/PublicationsArticle/PV_23_12_1049.pdf |format=PDF|title=Prolific Cats: The Estrous Cycle |publisher=Veterinary Learning Systems |accessdate=19 June 2009}}</ref>

[[File:Youngkitten.JPG|thumb|left|A kitten with newly opened eyes.]]
[[File:Cat carrying kitten (cropped).jpg|thumb|Females carry their kittens by the [[nape]] of the neck.]]
The [[gestation]] period for cats is between 64–67 days, with an average length of 66 days.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Tsutsui T, Stabenfeldt GH |title=Biology of ovarian cycles, pregnancy and pseudopregnancy in the domestic cat |journal=J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. |volume=47 |pages=29–35 |year=1993|pmid=8229938 |first1=T |first2=GH}}</ref> The size of a [[litter (animal)|litter]] averages three to five kittens, with the first litter usually smaller than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned at between six and seven weeks, and cats normally reach sexual maturity at 5–10 months (females) and to 5–7 months (males), although this can vary depending on breed.<ref name=compendium/> Females can have two to three litters per year, so may produce up to 150 kittens in their breeding span of around ten years.<ref name=compendium/>

Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks old,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Complete Book of Cat Care: How to Raise a Happy and Healthy Cat |last=Behrend |first=Katrin |coauthors=Wegler, Monika; translated from German by Elizabeth D. Crawford. |year=1991 |publisher=Barron's Educational Series, Inc. |location=Hauppauge, NY |isbn=0-8120-4613-7 |page=28}}</ref> or when they are ready to leave their mother. Cats can be surgically [[Sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilized]] (spayed or [[castration|castrated]]) as early as 7 weeks to limit unwanted reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Olson PN, Kustritz MV, Johnston SD |title=Early-age neutering of dogs and cats in the United States (a review) |journal=J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. |volume=57 |pages=223–32 |year=2001 |pmid=11787153 |first1=PN |first2=MV |first3=SD}}</ref> This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior, such as aggression, [[spraying (animal behavior)|territory marking]] (spraying urine) in males and yowling (calling) in females. Traditionally, this surgery was performed at around six to nine months of age, but it is increasingly being performed prior to [[puberty]], at about three to six months.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18052800 |author=Root Kustritz, Margaret V. |title=Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats.|journal=J Am Vet Med |year=2007|volume=231|pages=1665–75|url=http://www.imom.org/spay-neuter/pdf/kustritz.pdf}}</ref> In the USA approximately 80% of household cats are neutered.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.2460/javma.234.8.1023
| volume = 234
| issue = 8
| pages = 1023–1030
| last = Chu
| first = Karyen
| title = Population characteristics and neuter status of cats living in households in the United States
| journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
| year = 2009
| pmid = 19366332
| last1 = Chu
| first1 = K
| last2 = Anderson
| first2 = WM
| last3 = Rieser
| first3 = MY
}}</ref>

==Ecology==
===Habitats===
Cats are a [[cosmopolitan species]] and are found across much of the world.<ref name=Lipinski/> They are extremely adaptable and are now present on all continents except [[Antarctica]], and on 118 of the 131 main groups of islands – even on sub-Antarctic islands such as the [[Kerguelen Islands]].<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1007/s003000100316
| volume = 25
| issue = 2
| pages = 90–95
| last = Say
| first = Ludovic
| title = Spatio-temporal variation in cat population density in a sub-Antarctic environment
| journal=Polar Biology
| date = 2002
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1017/S1464793104006542
| volume = 80
| issue = 01
| pages = 45–72
| author= Frenot, Y ''et al.''
| title = Biological Invasions in the Antarctic: Extent, Impacts and Implications
| journal=Biological Reviews
| year = 2005}}</ref> Feral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas and wetlands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=24&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN |title=Global Invasive Species Database: Ecology of Felis catus |publisher=Invasive Species Specialist Group |year=2006 |accessdate=31 August 2009}}</ref> Their habitats even include small oceanic islands with no human inhabitants.<ref name=Nogales/> This ability to thrive in almost any terrestrial habitat has led to the cat's designation as one of the world's worst [[invasive species]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.issg.org/booklet.pdf |format=PDF|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070927223530/http://www.issg.org/booklet.pdf |archivedate=27 September 2007 |title=100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species: a Selection from the Global Invasive Species Database |publisher=The Invasive Species Specialist Group |year=2000 |accessdate=31 August 2009}}</ref> Despite this general adaptability, the close relatives of domestic cats, the [[African Wildcat]] (''Felis silvestris lybica'') and the Arabian [[Sand Cat]] (''Felis margarita'') both inhabit desert environments,<ref name=Driscoll/> and domestic cats still show similar adaptations and behaviors.<ref name=MacDonald/>

===Impact on prey species===
[[File:Feral-kitten-eating-adult-cottontail-rabbit.jpg|thumb|Young feral cat eating a [[cottontail rabbit]].]]

To date, there are few scientific data available to assess the impact of cat predation on prey populations. Cat numbers in the UK are growing annually and their abundance is far above the ‘natural’ [[carrying capacity]], because their population sizes are independent of their prey’s dynamics: i.e. cats are ‘recreational’ hunters.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=May|first=R.|year=1988|title= Control of feline delinquency|journal=Nature|volume=332|pages=392–393|doi=10.1038/332392a0}}</ref> Population densities can be as high as 2000 individuals per km2<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liberg|first=O.|year=1982|title= Food habits and prey impact by feral and house-based domestic cats in a rural area in southern Sweden |journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=65|pages=424–432|doi=10.2307/1381089|url=http://jstor.org/stable/1381089|issue=3|publisher=Journal of Mammalogy, Vol. 65, No. 3}}</ref> and the current trend is an increase of 0.5 million cats annually.

Even well-fed domestic cats may hunt and kill, mainly catching small mammals, but also birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish and invertebrates.<ref name=Woods>{{Cite journal|author=Woods M, McDonald RA, Harris S. |title=Predation of wildlife by domestic cats Felis catus in Great Britain |journal=Mammal Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=174–188 |year=2003 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2907.2003.00017.x }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Robertson ID |title=Survey of predation by domestic cats |journal=Aust. Vet. J. |volume=76 |issue=8 |pages=551–4 |year=1998 |pmid=9741724 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-0813.1998.tb10214.x }}</ref> Hunting by domestic cats may be contributing to the decline in the numbers of birds in urban areas, although the importance of this effect remains controversial.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Beckerman AP, Boots M, Gaston KJ. |title=Urban bird declines and the fear of cats |journal=Animal Conservation |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=320–325 |year=2007 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1795.2007.00115.x |url=http://img2.tapuz.co.il/forums/1_102419784.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> In the wild, the introduction of feral cats during human settlement can threaten native species with extinction.<ref name=Nogales>{{Cite journal|author=Nogales M, Martin A, Tershy BR, Donlan CJ, Veitch D, Uerta N, Wood B, Alonso J. |title=A Review of Feral Cat Eradication on Islands. |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=18 |issue=2 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00442.x |page=310}}</ref> In many cases controlling or eliminating the populations of non-native cats can produce a rapid recovery in native animals.<ref name="pmid14558589">{{Cite journal|author=Courchamp F, Chapuis JL, Pascal M |title=Mammal invaders on islands: impact, control and control impact |journal=Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=347–83 |year=2003 |pmid=14558589 |doi=10.1017/S1464793102006061 |first1=F |first2=JL |first3=M }}</ref> However, the ecological role of introduced cats can be more complicated: for example, cats can control the numbers of rats, which also prey on birds' eggs and young, so in some cases eliminating a cat population can actually accelerate the decline of an endangered bird species in the presence of a mesopredator, controlled by cats.<ref name="pmid18083843">{{Cite journal|author=Rayner MJ, Hauber ME, Imber MJ, Stamp RK, Clout MN |title=Spatial heterogeneity of mesopredator release within an oceanic island system |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=52 |pages=20862–5 |year=2007 |pmid=18083843 |pmc=2409232 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707414105 |first1=MJ |first2=ME |first3=MJ |first4=RK |first5=MN |format=Free full text}}</ref>

In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], cats are a particular problem in landmasses such as Australasia, where cat species have never been native and there were few equivalent native medium-sized mammalian predators.<ref name=AusGovReport>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/cat-impacts/pubs/impacts-feral-cats.pdf |format=PDF|title=Overview of the Impacts of Feral Cats on Australian Native Fauna |publisher=Australian Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |author=Chris R. Dickman |year=1996 |accessdate=28 August 2009}}</ref> Native species such as the [[New Zealand]] [[Kakapo]] and the Australian [[Bettong]], for example, tend to be more ecologically vulnerable and behaviorally "naive" to predation by feral cats.<ref name="pmid12085522">{{Cite journal|author=James H, Acharya AB, Taylor JA, Freak MJ |title=A case of bitten Bettongs |journal=J Forensic Odontostomatol |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=10–2 |year=2002 |pmid=12085522 |first1=H |first2=AB |first3=JA |first4=MJ }}</ref> Feral cats have had a major impact on these native species and have played a leading role in the endangerment and extinction of many animals.<ref name="pmid16094805">{{Cite journal|author=Glen AS, Dickman CR |title=Complex interactions among mammalian carnivores in Australia, and their implications for wildlife management |journal=Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=387–401 |year=2005 |pmid=16094805 |doi=10.1017/S1464793105006718 |first1=AS |first2=CR }}</ref>

===Impact on birds===
The domestic cat is probably a significant predator of birds. Current UK assessments indicate that they may be accountable for an estimated 64.8 million bird deaths each year.<ref name=Woods/> Certain species appear more susceptible than others; for example, 30% of [[house sparrow]] mortality is linked to the domestic cat.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chucher|first=P.B.| coauthors=Lawton, J.H.|year=1987|title= Predation by domestic cats in an English village. |journal=Journal of Zoology, London|volume=212|pages=439–455|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb02915.x}}</ref> In the recovery of ringed [[Erithacus rubecula|robins]] and [[Prunella modularis|dunnocks]], it was also concluded that 31% of deaths were a result of cat predation.<ref name="Mead 1982 183–186">{{Cite journal| doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.1982.tb00014.x| last=Mead|first=C.J.|year=1982 |title= Ringed birds killed by cats |journal=Mammal Review|volume=12|pages=183–186|issue=4}}</ref> The presence of larger carnivores such as [[coyote]]s which prey on cats and other small predators reduces the effect of predation by cats and other small predators such as [[opossum]]s and [[raccoon]]s on bird numbers and variety.<ref>[http://www38.homepage.villanova.edu/jameson.chace/Urban%20Ecology/Crooks&Soule_Mesopredator_release.pdf "Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system"] Crooks, K.R. & Soulé, M.E. 1999. Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system. ''Nature'', 400, 563–566</ref> The proposal that cat populations will increase when the numbers of these top predators decline is called the [[mesopredator release hypothesis]].

On islands, birds can contribute as much as 60% of a cat’s diet.<ref>{{Cite book| last=Fiztgerald|first=M.B.| coauthor =Turner, D.C.|title= Hunting behaviour of domestic cats and their impact on prey populations. In: The Domestic Cat: The biology of its behaviour, 2nd ed. Turner, D.C. and Bateson, P. (eds.),| pages= 151–175| publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}}</ref> In nearly all cases, however, the cat cannot be identified as the sole cause for reducing the numbers of island birds, and in some instances eradication of cats has caused a ‘[[mesopredator]] release’ effect;<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Courchamp|first=F.|coauthors= Langlais, M. and Sugihara, G.|year=1999 |title=Cats protecting birds: modelling the mesopredator release effect |journal=Mammal Review|volume=12|pages=183–186|issue=4}}</ref> where the suppression of top carnivores creates an abundance of smaller predators that cause a severe decline in their shared prey. Domestic cats are, however, known to be a contributing factor to the decline of many species; a factor that has ultimately led, in some cases, to extinction. [[Turnagra capensis|The South Island Piopio]], [[Rallus modestus|Chatham Islands Rail]],<ref name="Mead 1982 183–186"/> the [[Mergus australis|Auckland Islands Merganser]],<ref>{{Cite book| last= Stattersfield|first=A.J.|coauthor = Crosby, M.J., Long, A.J. and Wege, D.C.|year=1998|title= Endemic Bird Areas of the World: Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation.|publisher=BirdLife Conservation Series No.7. , Burlington Press|location=Cambridge.|isbn= 0946888337}}</ref> and the [[Pelecanoides urinatrix|common diving petrel]]<ref>{{Cite book| last=Williams|first=A.J.|year=1984|title= Status and Conservation of Seabirds at some Islands in the African Sector of the Southern Ocean. In: Status and Conservation of the World’s Seabirds, ed Croxall, J.P., Evans, P.G.H. & Schreiber, R.W. International Council for Bird Preservation. |pages=627–635| location=Cambridge.}}</ref> are a few from a long list, with the most extreme case being the flightless [[Xenicus lyalli|Stephen Island Wren]], which was driven to extinction only a few years after its discovery.<ref>{{Cite book| last=Falla|first=R.A.|year=1955|title= Zealand Bird Life past and present|publisher=Stiles.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| last=Galbreath|first=R.|coauthors= Brown, D.|year=2004 |title=The tale of the lighthouse-keeper’s cat: discovery and extinction of the Stephens Island wren (Traversia lyalli). |journal=Notornis|volume=51|pages=193–200 |url=http://www.notornis.org.nz/free_issues/Notornis_51-2004/Notornis_51_4_193.pdf}}</ref>

Some of the same factors that have promoted [[adaptive radiation]] of island [[Bird|avifauna]] over evolutionary time appear to promote vulnerability to non-native species in modern time. The susceptibility inherent of many island birds is undoubtedly due to evolution in the absence of mainland predators, competitors, diseases and parasites. In addition to lower reproductive rates and extended incubation periods.<ref name=dowd>{{Cite journal| last=Dowding|first=J.E.|coauthors= Murphy, E.C.|year=2001 |title= The Impact of Predation be Introduced Mammals on Endemic Shorebirds in New Zealand: A Conservation Perspective. |journal=Biological Conservation|volume=99|pages=47–64|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00187-7}}</ref> The loss of flight, or reduced flying ability is also characteristic of many island endemics.<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Whiting|first=M.F.|coauthors= Bradler, S. and Maxwell, T.|year=2003 |title= Loss and Recovery of Wings in Stick Insects |journal=Nature|volume=421|pages=264–267|doi=10.1038/nature01313|pmid=12529642|issue=6920}}</ref> These biological aspects have increased vulnerability to extinction in the presence of introduced species, such as the domestic cat.<ref>{{Cite book| last=WCMC|first=.|year=1992|title= World Conservation Monitoring Centre.|publisher=Chapman and Hall. |coauthor= McComb, J., Groombridge, B., Byford, E., Allan, C., Howland, J., Magin, C., Smith, H., Greenwood, V. and Simpson, L.|isbn=2831701562}}</ref> Equally, behavioural traits exhibited by island species, such as ‘predatory naivety’<ref>{{Cite journal| last=Steadman|first=D.W.|coauthors= Martin, P.S.|year=2003 |title= The Late Quaternary Extinction and Future Resurrection of Birds on Pacific Islands |journal=Earth Science Reviews|volume=61|pages=133–147|doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00116-2}}</ref> and ground-nesting,<ref name=dowd/> have also contributed to their susceptibility.

==Domesticated cats==
Cats are a common [[companion animal]] in Europe and North America, and their worldwide population exceeds 500 million.<ref name="NYT"/> In 1998 there were around 43 million cats in Western Europe, 33 million in Eastern Europe, seven million in Japan and three million in Australia.<ref>{{Harv|Turner|Bateson|2000|p=4}}</ref> A 2007 report stated that about 37 million US households owned cats, with an average of 2.2 cats per household giving a total population of around 82 million.<ref name=AMAstats>{{Cite web|url=http://www.avma.org/reference/marketstats/ownership.asp |title=Market research statistics – U.S. pet ownership |publisher=American Veterinary Medical Association |accessdate=27 August 2009}}</ref> This is slightly more than the 72 million pet dogs in that country.<ref name=AMAstats/> Although cat ownership has commonly been associated with women,<ref name=Ellin>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/fashion/05cats.html |title=More Men Are Unabashedly Embracing Their Love of Cats |work=New York Times |author=Abby Ellin |accessdate=30 August 2009|date=5 October 2008}}</ref> a 2007 [[Gallup poll]] reported that men and women were equally likely to own a cat.<ref name=Gallup>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/102952/companionship-love-animals-drive-pet-ownership.aspx |title=Companionship and Love of Animals Drive Pet Ownership |publisher=Gallup, Inc |author=Jeffrey M. Jones |accessdate=30 August 2009}}</ref> The ratio of pedigree/purebred cats to random-bred cats varies from country to country. However, generally speaking, purebreds are less than 10% of the total population.<ref>''ASPCA Complete Guide to Cats'' by James R. Richards,, DVM</ref>

[[File:Domestic cat (Felix catus) fur skin.jpg|thumb|right|A [[fur|pelt]].]]

According to the [[Humane Society of the United States]], as well as being kept as pets, cats are also used in the international [[fur trade]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hsus.org/web-files/PDF/What-is-that-they-re-wearing_FurBooklet.pdf |title=What is that they’re wearing? |format=PDF |publisher=Humane Society of the United States |accessdate=22 October 2009}}</ref> Cat fur is used in coats, gloves, hats, shoes, blankets and stuffed toys. About 24 cats are needed to make a cat fur coat.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6165786.stm |title=EU proposes cat and dog fur ban |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=22 October 2009|date=20 November 2006}}</ref> This use has now been outlawed in several countries, including the United States, Australia and the European Union.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hsus.org/about_us/humane_society_international_hsi/hsi_europe/dog_cat_fur/ |title=EU Announces Strict Ban on Dog and Cat Fur Imports and Exports |publisher=Humane Society International |accessdate=22 October 2009}}</ref> However, some cat furs are still made into blankets in [[Switzerland]] as [[traditional medicine|folk remedies]] that are believed to help [[rheumatism]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/switzerland-finds-a-way-to-skin-a-cat-for-the-fur-trade-and-high-fashion-815426.html |title=Switzerland finds a way to skin a cat for the fur trade and high fashion |work=The Independent |location=UK |accessdate=23 October 2009|location=London|first1=Tony|last1=Paterson|date=25 April 2008}}</ref>

It has long been common for cats to be eaten in some parts of China and in some other Asian countries. According to the ''Chengdu Business Daily'', people in southern China's [[Guangdong]] province ate 10,000 cats a day.<ref>"[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28292558/ China protesters: Stop 'cooking cats alive']." Msnbc.com. 18 December 2008.</ref> Animal People estimates that 4 million cats are killed and consumed in Asia every year.<ref>"[http://www.animalpeoplenews.org/03/9/dogs.catseatenAsia903.html How many dogs and cats are eaten in Asia?]". Animalpeoplenews.org. September 2003.</ref>

===Domesticated varieties===
{{Main|Cat breed}}
[[File:Chocolate Persian.jpg|thumb|right|A [[purebred]] chocolate [[Persian (cat)|Persian]]]]
The concept of a cat breed appeared in Britain during the late 19th century.<ref>{{Harv|Mason|1984|p=224}}</ref> The current [[list of cat breeds]] is quite large: with the [[Cat Fanciers' Association]] recognizing 41 breeds, of which 16 are "natural breeds" that probably emerged before humans began breeding pedigree cats, while the others were developed over the latter half of the 20th century.<ref name=Lipinski/> The owners and breeders of show cats compete to see whose animal bears the closest resemblance to the "ideal" definition and standard of the breed (see [[selective breeding]]). Because of common crossbreeding in populated areas, many cats are simply identified as belonging to the homogeneous breeds of [[domestic longhaired cat|domestic longhair]] and [[domestic shorthaired cat|domestic shorthair]], depending on their type of fur. In the United Kingdom and Australasia, non-purebred cats are referred in slang as moggies (derived from "Maggie", short for Margaret, reputed to have been a common name for cows and calves in 18th century England and latter applied to housecats during the [[Victorian era]]).<ref>{{Cite web
| url=http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-mog1.htm
| title=Moggie
| publisher=Worldwidewords.org
| accessdate=15 May 2007}}</ref> In the United States, a non-purebred cat is sometimes referred to in slang as a barn or alley cat, even if it is not a [[feral cat|stray]].

Cats come in a variety of colors and patterns. These are physical properties and should not be confused with a breed of cat. Furthermore, cats may show the color and/or pattern particular to a certain breed without actually being of that breed. For example, cats may have seal point coloration, but not be [[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]].

Some original cat breeds that have a distinct phenotype that is the main type occurring naturally as the dominant domesticated cat type in their region of origin are sometimes considered as subspecies and also have received names as such in nomenclature, although this is not supported by feline biologists. Some of these cat breeds are:
*''F. catus anura'' – the Manx – The Manx is a stocky, solid cat with a dense double [[Coat (animal)|coat]] (long or short), a compact body, very short back, hind legs that are visibly longer than the front legs, big bones, a wide chest, and greater depth of flank (sides of the cat nearest the rear) than other cats.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://fanciers.com/breed-faqs/manx-faq.html#description| title=Description|accessdate= 25 June 2010}}</ref> A female Manx would not weigh more than 10 pounds and a male does not weigh over 12 pounds. Specific to this breed is the way their ears appear as a "cradle" when looked at from behind. A Manx cat is mainly recognized by its appearance as it does not have a tail. Although some of them may have a small tail, most Manx cats are tailless. Because of the genetic deformation of these cats they are susceptible of developing what is called Manx Syndrome, a condition that could be fatal for a kitten. Although the gene normally affects only the tail, there is the risk of causing damage to the [[Vertebra|spine]] such as fused vertebrae.
*''F. catus siamensis'' – the Siamese – Siamese cats are amongst the firstly recognized Oriental cats, a type of cat with a long body but an elegant posture. The length is the main characteristic based on which these cats are distinguished. Their body, legs and tail are all long and still Siamese cats are known for their grace. Also, they are famous because of their blue almond eyes and they are also called "people cats" because of the affection they show to their owners.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cfainc.org/breeds/profiles/siamese.html| title=Breed Profile: Siamese|accessdate= 25 June 2010}}</ref>
*''F. catus cartusenensis'' – the Chartreux – The Chartreux is a natural French breed, which is easily recognized by its size, grayish color and double coat. These cats are also famous because of the paradox coming from the combination between a massively build body and smiling expression and sweet [[voice]].
*''F. catus angorensis'' – the Turkish Angora

====Coat patterns====
[[Cat coat genetics]] can produce a variety of coat patterns. Some of the most common are:

[[File:Co-kbk-07-001.jpg|thumb|Blue (grey) and white bicolor cat]]
; [[Bicolor cat|Bicolor, Tuxedo and Van]] :This pattern varies between the [[tuxedo cat]] which is mostly black with a white chest, and possibly markings on the face and paws/legs, all the way to the ''Van'' pattern (so named after the [[Lake Van]] area in Turkey, which gave rise to the [[Turkish Van]] breed), where the only colored parts of the cat are the tail (usually including the base of the tail proper), and the top of the head (often including the ears). There are several other terms for amounts of white between these two extremes, such as ''Harlequin'' or ''[[jellicle]] cat''. Bicolor cats can have as their primary (non-white) color black, red, any dilution thereof, and tortoiseshell (see below for definition).

[[File:Felis silvestris - July 2007-1.jpg|thumb|Mackerel tabby, showing the characteristic "M" on its forehead.]]
; [[Tabby]] :Striped, with a variety of patterns. The classic blotched tabby (or marbled) pattern is the most common and consists of butterflies and bullseyes. The mackerel or striped tabby is a series of vertical stripes down the cat's side (resembling the fish). This pattern broken into spots is referred to as a spotted tabby. Finally, the tabby markings may look like a series of ticks on the fur, thus the ticked tabby, which is almost exclusively associated with the Abyssinian breed of cats. The worldwide evolution of the cat means that certain types of tabby are associated with certain countries; for instance, blotched tabbies are quite rare outside NW Europe, where they are the most common type.

[[File:Curlycat02.jpg|thumb|Female tortoiseshell-and-white cat.]]
; [[Tortoiseshell cat|Tortoiseshell and calico]]
: This cat is also known as a calimanco cat or clouded tiger cat, and by the abbreviation 'tortie'. In the cat fancy, a tortoiseshell cat is patched over with red (or its dilute form, cream) and black (or its dilute blue) mottled throughout the coat. Additionally, the cat may have white spots in its fur, which make it a 'tortoiseshell and white' cat; if there is a significant amount of white in the fur and the red and black colors form a patchwork rather than a mottled aspect, in North America the cat will be called a calico. All calicos are tortoiseshell (as they carry both black and red), but not all tortoiseshells are calicos (which requires a significant amount of white in the fur and patching rather than mottling of the colors). The calico is also sometimes called a tricolor cat. The Japanese refer to this pattern as ''mi-ke'' (meaning "triple fur"), while the Dutch call these cats ''lapjeskat'' (meaning "patches cat"). A true tricolor must consist of three colors: a reddish color, dark or light; white; and one other color, typically a brown, black, or blue.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Torties, Calicos and Tricolor cats|url=http://www.fanciers.com/cat-faqs/tricolors.shtml| accessdate=24 October 2005}}</ref> Both tortoiseshell and calico cats are typically female because the coat pattern is the result of differential [[X chromosome]] [[x-inactivation|inactivation]] in females (which, as with all normal female mammals, have two X chromosomes). Conversely, cats where the overall color is ginger (orange) are commonly male (roughly in a 3:1 ratio). In a litter sired by a ginger tom, the females will be tortoiseshell or ginger. Male tortoiseshells can occur as a result of chromosomal abnormalities (often linked to sterility) or by a phenomenon known as [[mosaic (genetics)|mosaicism]], where two early stage embryos are merged into a single kitten.

[[File:Niobe050905-Siamese Cat.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Siamese (cat)|Siamese cat]], classical colorpoint pattern.]]

; [[Point (coat color)|Colorpoint]]
: The colorpoint pattern is most commonly associated with Siamese cats, but may also appear in any domesticated cat. A colorpointed cat has dark colors on the face, ears, feet, and tail, with a lighter version of the same color on the rest of the body, and possibly some white. The exact name of the colorpoint pattern depends on the actual color, so there are seal points (dark brown), chocolate points (warm lighter brown), blue points (dark gray), lilac or frost points (silvery gray-pink), red or flame points (orange), and tortie (tortoiseshell mottling) points, among others. This pattern is the result of a [[Mutation#Special classes|temperature sensitive mutation]] in one of the [[enzyme]]s in the [[metabolic pathway]] from [[tyrosine]] to pigment, such as [[melanin]]; thus, little or no pigment is produced except in the extremities or points where the skin is slightly cooler. For this reason, colorpointed cats tend to darken with age as bodily temperature drops; also, the fur over a significant injury may sometimes darken or lighten as a result of temperature change.

: The tyrosine pathway also produces [[neurotransmitter]]s, thus mutations in the early parts of that pathway may affect not only pigment, but also neurological development. This results in a higher frequency of [[strabismus|cross-eyes]] among colorpointed cats, as well as the [[White tiger#Genetics and albinism|high frequency of cross-eyes in white tigers]].

; White cats
[[File:Cat Gato branco.jpg|thumb|White cat]]
: True albinism (a mutation of the tyrosinase gene) is quite rare in cats. Much more common is the appearance of white coat color that is caused by a lack of [[melanocyte]]s in the skin. A [[Melanin#Genetic disorders and disease states|higher frequency of deafness in white cats]] is due to a reduction in the population and survival of melanoblast stem cells, which in addition to creating pigment producing cells, develop into a variety of neurological cell types. White cats with one or two blue eyes have a particularly high likelihood of being deaf.

; Smoke cats
: The bottom eighth of each hair is white or creamy-white, with the rest of the hair being a solid color. Genetically this color is a non-[[agouti signalling peptide|agouti]] cat with the dominant inhibitor gene; a non-agouti version of the silver [[tabby cat|tabby]]. Smoke cats will look solid colored until they move, when the white undercoat becomes apparent. It is mostly found in [[cat breed|pedigreed cat]]s (especially longhair breeds) but also present in some [[domestic longhaired cat]]s.

====Body types====
Cats can also come in several body types, ranging between two extremes:

; Oriental: Not a specific breed, but any cat with an elongated slender build, almond-shaped eyes, long nose, large ears (the Siamese and [[Oriental Shorthair]] breeds are examples of this).
; Foreign: Less slender than the oriental type, but nevertheless a cat with a slight build and generally athletic look. Typical example breeds would be the [[Abyssinian (cat)|Abyssinian cat]] and the [[Turkish Angora]]. Some people consider the foreign and oriental body types as being the same, however.
; Semi-Foreign: More or less the middle range of body conformation types, this type of cat is less slender without being stocky. Example breeds would be the [[Devon Rex]] and the [[Egyptian Mau]].
; Semi-Cobby: These cats look more rounded without looking too stocky. Example breeds would be the [[American Shorthair]] and [[British Shorthair]].
; Cobby: Any cat with a short, muscular, compact build, roundish eyes, short nose, and small ears. [[Persian (cat)|Persian cat]]s and [[Exotic Shorthair|Exotic cat]]s are two prime examples of such a body type.

===Effects on human health===
Because of their small size, domesticated house cats pose little physical danger to adult humans. However, in the USA cats inflict about 400,000 bites per year, with 90% of these bites coming from provoked animals; this number represents about one in ten of all animal bites.<ref name=Kravetz/> Many cat bites will become infected,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Talan DA, Citron DM, Abrahamian FM, Moran GJ, Goldstein EJ |title=Bacteriologic analysis of infected dog and cat bites. Emergency Medicine Animal Bite Infection Study Group |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=340 |issue=2 |pages=85–92 |year=1999 |pmid=9887159 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199901143400202 |first1=DA |first2=DM |first3=FM |first4=GJ |first5=EJ }}</ref> sometimes with serious consequences such as [[cat-scratch disease]], or, more rarely, [[rabies]].<ref name=Kravetz>{{Cite journal|author=Kravetz JD, Federman DG |title=Cat-associated zoonoses |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=162 |issue=17 |pages=1945–52 |year=2002 |pmid=12230416 |doi=10.1001/archinte.162.17.1945 |first1=JD |first2=DG |format=Free full text}}</ref> Cats may also pose a danger to pregnant women and [[immunosuppression|immunosuppressed]] individuals, since their feces can transmit [[toxoplasmosis]].<ref name=Torda>{{Cite journal|author=Torda A |title=Toxoplasmosis. Are cats really the source? |journal=Aust Fam Physician |volume=30 |issue=8 |pages=743–7 |year=2001 |pmid=11681144 |first1=A }}</ref> A large percentage of cats are infected with this parasite, with infection rates ranging from around 40 to 60% in both domestic and stray cats worldwide.<ref name="pmid9870370">{{Cite journal|author=Svobodová V, Knotek Z, Svoboda M |title=Prevalence of IgG and IgM antibodies specific to Toxoplasma gondii in cats |journal=Vet. Parasitol. |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=173–6 |year=1998 |pmid=9870370 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4017(98)00201-5 |first1=V |first2=Z |first3=M }}</ref><ref name="pmid15303992">{{Cite journal|author=Meireles LR, Galisteo AJ, Pompeu E, Andrade HF |title=Toxoplasma gondii spreading in an urban area evaluated by seroprevalence in free-living cats and dogs |journal=Trop. Med. Int. Health |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=876–81 |year=2004 |pmid=15303992 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01280.x |first1=LR |first2=Jr |first3=E |first4=Jr |format=Free full text}}</ref><ref name="pmid18707811">{{Cite journal|author=De Craeye S, Francart A, Chabauty J |title=Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Belgian house cats |journal=Vet. Parasitol. |volume=157 |issue=1–2 |pages=128–32 |year=2008 |pmid=18707811 |doi=10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.07.001 |first1=S |first2=A |first3=J |first4=V |first5=S |first6=I |first7=E }}</ref>

[[Allergy|Allergic]] reactions to cat [[dander]] and/or cat saliva are common.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Erwin EA, Woodfolk JA, Custis N, Platts-Mills TA |title=Animal danders |journal=Immunol Allergy Clin North Am |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=469–81 |year=2003 |pmid=14524386 |doi=10.1016/S0889-8561(03)00004-3 |first1=EA |first2=JA |first3=N |first4=TA }}</ref> Some humans who are [[cat allergy|allergic to cats]]—typically manifested by [[Allergic rhinitis|hay fever]], [[asthma]], or a skin [[rash]]—quickly acclimate themselves to a particular animal and live comfortably in the same house with it, while retaining an allergy to cats in general.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.animaltrustees.org/ATA_Web/pdfs/dealingwithcatallergies.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070604203854/http://www.animaltrustees.org/ATA_Web/pdfs/dealingwithcatallergies.pdf |archivedate=4 June 2007 |format=PDF| title=Dealing with cat allergies|work=animaltrustees.org}}</ref> Whether the risk of developing allergic diseases such as asthma is increased or decreased by cat ownership is uncertain.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Simpson A, Custovic A |title=Early pet exposure: friend or foe? |journal=Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |year=2003 |pmid=12582308 |first1=A |first2=A }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Simpson A, Custovic A |title=Pets and the development of allergic sensitization |journal=Curr Allergy Asthma Rep |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=212–20 |year=2005 |pmid=15842959 |doi=10.1007/s11882-005-0040-x |first1=A |first2=A }}</ref> Some owners cope with this problem by taking allergy medicine, along with bathing their cats frequently, since weekly bathing will reduce the amount of dander shed by a cat.<ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 100
| issue = 3
| pages = 307–312
| last = Avner
| first = D B
| title = Evaluation of different techniques for washing cats: quantitation of allergen removed from the cat and the effect on airborne Fel d 1
| journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
| date = 1997
| pmid = 9314341
| doi = 10.1016/S0091-6749(97)70242-2
| last2 = Perzanowski
| first2 = MS
| last3 = Platts-Mills
| first3 = TA
| last4 = Woodfolk
| first4 = JA
}}</ref> There have also been attempts to breed [[hypoallergenic cats]], which would be less likely to provoke an allergic reaction.<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1038/nbt0205-171
| volume = 23
| issue = 2
| pages = 171–172
| last = Miller
| first = Henry
| title = Cat and mouse in regulating genetic 'enhancement'
| journal=Nature Biotechnology
| year = 2005
| pmid = 15696141
| last1 = Miller
| first1 = H
}}</ref>

As well as posing health risks, interactions with cats may improve health and reduce physical responses to stress: for example the presence of cats may moderate increased [[blood pressure]].<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Allen K, Blascovich J, Mendes WB |title=Cardiovascular reactivity and the presence of pets, friends, and spouses: the truth about cats and dogs |journal=Psychosom Med |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=727–39 |year=2002 |pmid=12271103 |doi=10.1097/01.PSY.0000024236.11538.41 |first1=K |first2=J |first3=WB |format=Free full text}}</ref> Cat ownership may also improve psychological health by providing emotional support and dispelling feelings of depression, anxiety and loneliness.<ref>{{harv|Fogle|1981|pp=23–56}}</ref> Their ability to provide companionship and friendship are common reasons given for owning a cat.<ref name=Gallup/>

From another point of view, cats are thought to be able to improve the general [[mood (psychology)|mood]] of their owners by alleviating the negative attitudes. According to a Swiss study carried out in 2003, cats may change the overall psychological state of their owner as their company's effect appears to be comparable to the one of a human partner.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.scientificcommons.org/20081280| title=Spouses and cats and their effects on human mood|accessdate= 25 June 2010}}</ref> The researchers concluded that cats do not however promote optimistic moods but only alleviate the negative ones.

Several studies have shown that cats develop affection towards their owners. However, the effect of these pets on human health is closely related to the time and effort the cat owner is able to invest in it, in terms of bonding, playing and buying accessories for their pet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.catadmirer.com/| title=Cat Supplies|accessdate= 25 June 2010}}</ref>

===Indoor scratching===
A natural behavior in cats is to periodically hook their front claws into suitable surfaces and pull backwards. This marks their territory and exercises their legs, in addition to cleaning and sharpening their claws.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Landsberg GM |title=Feline scratching and destruction and the effects of declawing |journal=Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract. |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=265–79 |year=1991 |pmid=2053250 |first1=GM }}</ref> Indoor cats benefit from being provided with a [[scratching post]] so that they are less likely to use carpet or furniture which they can easily ruin.<ref>{{Cite web| title=Scratching or clawing in the house|url=http://www.fabcats.org/behaviour/scratching/info.html|accessdate=14 August 2005}}</ref> Commercial scratching posts typically are covered in carpeting or upholstery, but some authorities{{Who|date=October 2009}} advise against this practice, as not making it clear to the cat which surfaces are permissible and which are not; they suggest using a plain wooden surface, or reversing the carpeting on the posts so that the rougher texture of the carpet backing is a more attractive alternative to the cat than the floor covering. Scratching posts made of [[sisal]] rope or [[corrugated fiberboard|corrugated cardboard]] are also common.

[[File:Cat claw closeup.jpg|thumb|Close-up of a cat's claw, with the quick clearly visible.]]
Although scratching can serve cats to keep their claws from growing excessively long, their nails can be trimmed if necessary. Another response to indoor scratching is [[onychectomy]], commonly known as declawing. This is a surgical procedure to remove the claw and first bone of each digit of a cat's paws. Declawing is most commonly only performed on the front feet. A related procedure is [[tendonectomy]], which involves cutting a tendon needed for cats to extend their claws.<ref name=Swiderski>{{Cite journal|author=Swiderski J |title=Onychectomy and its alternatives in the feline patient |journal=Clin Tech Small Anim Pract |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=158–61 |year=2002 |pmid=12587280 |doi=10.1053/svms.2002.36604 |first1=J}}</ref> Declawing is a major surgical procedure and can produce pain, infections and permanent lameness.<ref name=Swiderski/>

Since this surgery is almost always performed for the benefit of owners, it is controversial and remains uncommon outside of North America.<ref name=AMAwelfare>[http://www.avma.org/reference/backgrounders/declawing_bgnd.pdf Welfare Implications of Declawing of Domestic Cats] ''American Veterinary Medical Association'' 9 April 2009</ref> In many countries, declawing is prohibited by [[animal welfare]] laws and it is ethically controversial within the veterinary community.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite journal|author=Patronek GJ |title=Assessment of claims of short- and long-term complications associated with onychectomy in cats |journal=J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. |volume=219 |issue=7 |pages=932–7 |year=2001 |pmid=11601788 |doi=10.2460/javma.2001.219.932 |first1=GJ |url=http://symptomresearch.nih.gov/chapter_1/index.htm |format=Free full text}}</ref> While both the [[Humane Society of the United States]] and the [[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] strongly discourage or condemn the procedure,<ref>[http://www.pawproject.com/html/acknow.asp Paw Project Acknowledgements]</ref> the [[American Veterinary Medical Association]] supports the procedure under certain guidelines and finds "no scientific evidence that declawing leads to behavioral abnormalities when the behavior of declawed cats is compared with that of cats in control groups."<ref name=AVMA>{{Cite web|url=http://www.avma.org/issues/policy/animal_welfare/declawing.asp|title=Declawing of Domestic Cats|work=American Veterinary Medical Association|accessdate=30 July 2010}}</ref> They further argue that many cats would be given up and euthanized were declawing not performed.<ref name=AMAwelfare/>

===Waste===
[[File:Toilet Trained Cat 22 Aug 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|Toilet-trained house cat.]]

Cats bury their urine and feces. Indoor cats are usually provided with a box containing [[cat litter|litter]], typically [[bentonite]], but sometimes other absorbent material such as shredded paper or wood chips, or sometimes [[sand]] or similar material. It should be cleaned daily and changed often, depending on the number of cats in a household and the type of litter; if it is not kept clean, a cat may be fastidious enough to find other locations in the house for urination or defecation. This may also happen for other reasons; for instance, if a cat becomes [[constipation|constipated]] and defecation is uncomfortable, it may associate the discomfort with the litter box and avoid it in favor of another location.

Daily attention to the litter box also serves as a monitor of the cat's health. Bentonite or clumping litter is a variation which absorbs urine into clumps which can be sifted out along with feces, and thus stays cleaner longer with regular sifting, but has sometimes been reported to cause health problems in some cats.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmid=8888544 |year=1996 |last1=Hornfeldt |first1=CS |last2=Westfall |title=Suspected bentonite toxicosis in a cat from ingestion of clay cat litter. |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=365–6 |journal=Veterinary and human toxicology |author2=Westfall}}</ref> Those with toxoplasmosis-infected cats living in habitat areas of [[sea otter]]s<ref name=mag72>{{Cite news|url=http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/mag72.htm|title=Parasite in cats killing sea otters|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|date=21 January 2003|work=NOAA magazine|accessdate=24 November 2007}}</ref> may wish to dispose of droppings in the trash, rather than flushing them down the toilet.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Darcy |last=Brown-Martin |url=http://www.viamagazine.com/top_stories/articles/seaotter_savior07.asp |title=Monterey Bay’s sea otter sleuth |publisher=Viamagazine.com |year=2007 |accessdate=22 November 2008}}</ref> Some cats can be trained to use the human toilet, eliminating the litter box and its attendant expense, [[unpleasant odor]], and the need to use landfill space for disposal. Training may involve four to six weeks of incremental moves, such as moving and elevating the litter box until it is near the toilet, as well as employing an adapter such as a bowl or small box to suspend the litter above the toilet bowl.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.toilettrainedcat.com/toilet-train-cat.php |title=A Step-By-Step Guide on How To Train Your Cat to Use the Human Toilet |publisher=The Toilet Trained Cat |accessdate=15 February 2009}}</ref> When training is complete, the cat uses the toilet by squatting on the toilet seat over the bowl.

==Feral cats==
{{Main|Feral cat}}
[[File:Feral cat Virginia crop.jpg|thumb|upright|American feral [[farm cat]].]]

[[Feral cat]]s are wild cats that are unfamiliar with humans and roam freely in urban or rural areas.<ref name=Rochlitz>{{Cite book|author=Irene Rochlitz |title=The Welfare of Cats (Animal Welfare) |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |year=2007 |pages=141–175 |isbn=1-4020-6143-9}}</ref> The numbers of feral cats are not known, but estimates of the US feral population range from 25 to 60 million.<ref name=Rochlitz/> Feral cats may live alone, but most are found in large groups called [[feral cat colony|feral colonies]], which occupy a specific territory and are usually associated with a source of food.<ref name=hsus-feral>[http://www.hsus.org/pets/issues_affecting_our_pets/feral_cats/feral_cats_frequently_asked_questions.html#1_What_is_a_feral_cat What is the difference between a stray cat and a feral cat?] Humane Society of the United States</ref> Famous feral cat colonies are found in Rome around the [[Colosseum]] and [[Forum Romanum]], with cats at some of these sites being fed and vetted by volunteers.<ref>[http://www.romancats.com/index_eng.php Torre Argentina cat shelter]. Retrieved 17 June 2009.</ref>

Public attitudes towards feral cats vary widely: ranging from seeing them as free-ranging pets, to regarding them as vermin.<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher=Humane Society Press
| isbn = 0965894274
| last = Rowan
| first = Andrew N.
| coauthors = Deborah J. Salem
| title = The State of the Animals II: 2003
| date = 2003-11
| chapter = 4
| url = http://www.hsus.org/web-files/PDF/hsp/SOA_3-2005_Chap4.pdf
|format=PDF}}</ref> One common approach to reducing the feral cat population is termed ''trap-neuter-return'', where the cats are trapped, [[neutering|neutered]], [[immunization|immunized]] against rabies and the [[feline leukemia virus]], and then released. Before releasing them back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian often nips the tip off one ear to mark the feral as neutered and inoculated, since these cats may be trapped again.<ref name=hsus-feral/> Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives, and not only is their lifespan greatly increased, but behavior and nuisance problems caused by competition for food are also greatly reduced.<ref name=hsus-feral/>

==History and mythology==
{{Main|Cultural depictions of cats|Cats in ancient Egypt}}
[[File:Egypte louvre 058.jpg|thumb|upright|Egyptian sculpture at the [[Louvre]].]]

Traditionally, historians tended to think that [[ancient Egypt]] was the site of cat domestication, owing to the clear depictions of house cats in Egyptian paintings about 3,600 years old.<ref name=Driscoll/> However, in 2004, a Neolithic grave was excavated in [[Shillourokambos]], Cyprus, that contained the skeletons, laid close to one another, of both a human and a cat. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old, pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly.<ref name="9500 years"/><ref>{{Cite news|first=Hazel |last=Muir|title=Ancient remains could be oldest pet cat |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4867.html |publisher=[[New Scientist]] |date=8 April 2004 |accessdate=23 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|first=Marsha|last=Walton |title=Ancient burial looks like human and pet cat |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/04/08/cats.cyprus/index.html |publisher=CNN|date= 9 April 2004|accessdate=23 November 2007}}</ref> The cat specimen is large and closely resembles the [[African wildcat]] (''Felis silvestris lybica''), rather than present-day domestic cats. This discovery, combined with genetic studies, suggest that cats were probably domesticated in the Near East, in the [[Fertile Crescent]] around the time of the development of agriculture and then they were brought to Cyprus and Egypt.<ref name=Driscoll>{{Cite journal|author=Driscoll CA, Menotti-Raymond M, Roca AL |title=The Near Eastern origin of cat domestication |journal=Science |volume=317 |issue=5837 |pages=519–23 |year=2007 |pmid=17600185 |doi=10.1126/science.1139518 |first1=CA |first2=M |first3=AL |first4=K |first5=WE |first6=E |first7=EH |first8=M |first9=D |first11=N |last12=O'brien |first12=SJ |last13=Macdonald |first13=DW }}</ref>

In [[ancient Egypt]] cats were [[animal worship|sacred animal]]s, with [[Bastet|Bast]] often depicted in cat form, sometimes taking on the warlike aspect of a lioness.<ref>{{Harv|Mason|1984|p=220}}</ref> The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] are often credited with introducing the domestic cat from Egypt to Europe;<ref name=Mason223>{{Harv|Mason|1984|p=223}}</ref> in [[Gallia Aquitania|Roman Aquitaine]], a first or second century epitaph of a young girl holding a cat is one of two earliest depictions of the Roman domesticated cat.<ref>Paul Veyne, "The Household and its Freed Slaves", in Philippe Ariès and Georges Duby, eds, ''A History of Private Life !; FromPagan Rome to Byzantium'' 198781 and illustration (Bordeaux, Aquitaine Museum)</ref> However, it is possible that cats were already kept in Europe prior to the [[Roman Empire]], as they may have already been present in Britain in the late [[Iron Age]].<ref name=OConnor/> Domestic cats were spread throughout much of the rest of the world during the [[Age of Discovery]], as they were carried on [[sailing ship]]s to control shipboard rodents and as good-luck charms.<ref name=Mason223/>
[[File:Freya by Johannes Gehrts.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Freyja]] and her cats]]
Several ancient religions believed that cats are exalted souls, companions or guides for humans, that they are all-knowing but are mute so they cannot influence decisions made by humans. In Japan, the [[Maneki Neko]] is a cat that is a symbol of good fortune. Although there are no sacred species in Islam, some writers have stated that [[Muhammad]] had a favorite cat, [[Muezza]].<ref>{{Cite book| author=Geyer, Georgie Anne|year = 2004|title = When Cats Reigned Like Kings: On the Trail of the Sacred Cats|isbn = 0740746979|publisher=Andrews McMeel Pub.|location = Kansis City}}</ref> He is reported to have loved cats so much that "he would do without his cloak rather than disturb one that was sleeping on it".<ref name="Reeves">{{Cite book| author=Minou Reeves|title = Muhammad in Europe|publisher=New York University (NYU) Press|page = 52|isbn = 0814775330|year = 2000}}</ref>

[[Freyja]]—the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility in [[Norse mythology]]—is depicted as riding a chariot drawn by cats.

Many cultures have negative [[superstition]]s about cats. An example would be the belief that a [[black cat]] "crossing your path" leads to bad luck, or that cats are witches' [[familiar spirit|familiar]]s used to augment a witch's powers and skills. This led to the widespread extermination of cats in Europe in [[medieval]] times. The [[Black Plague]] was spread by [[flea]]s carried by infected rats, and the killing of cats ostensibly caused an increase in the rat population. The killing of cats in Medieval [[Ypres]] is commemorated in the innocuous present-day [[Kattenstoet]] (cat parade).

According to a myth in many cultures, cats have multiple lives. In many countries, they are believed to have nine lives, but in some Spanish-speaking regions they are said to have seven lives,<ref>{{Cite news| url = http://elcomercio.pe/impresa/notas/vidas-gato/20100307/423959|date=7 March 2010|accessdate=19 March 2010|author=Nora Sugobono|language= Spanish|title= Las vidas del gato|publisher=El Comercio}}</ref> while in Turkish and Arabic traditions the number of lives is six.<ref>{{Cite news|work=The Guardian |location=UK|url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/gallery/2010/mar/18/guide-to-pets-pet-myths?picture=360591960|accessdate=18 March 2010|author=Tim Dowling|title= Tall tails: Pet myths busted|location=London|date=19 March 2010}}</ref> The myth is attributed to the natural suppleness and swiftness cats exhibit to escape life-threatening situations.<ref name=myth>{{Cite web|url=http://www.best-cat-art.com/cat-myths.html |title=Cat Myths, Misinformation and Untruths |publisher=Best-cat-art.com |accessdate=22 November 2008}}</ref> Also lending credence to this myth is that [[cat righting reflex|falling cats]] often land on their feet because of an inbuilt automatic twisting reaction and are able to twist their bodies around to land feet first, though they can still be injured or killed by a high fall.<ref>[http://cats.about.com/od/catsafety/a/highrisefalls.htm The ASPCA Warns About High-Rise Falls by Cats.] About.com</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Cats}}
{{Wikipedia-Books}}

{{Colbegin}}
*[[Cat Fanciers' Association]]
*[[Cat flap]]
*[[Cat intelligence]]
*[[Cat lady]]
*[[Cat meat]]
*[[Cat pheromone]]
*[[Feline veterinarian]]
*[[Kattenstoet]] (cat Parade in [[Ypres]], [[Belgium]])
*[[List of cats]]
*[[List of fictional cats]]
*[[List of most popular cat names]]
*[[Lolcat]]
*[[Pet First Aid]]
{{Colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book|last=Case |first=Linda P. |title=The cat: its behavior, nutrition, & health |publisher=Iowa State Press |location=Ames, Iowa |year=2003 |isbn=0-8138-0331-4|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book| edition = 2nd| publisher=National Academy Press| isbn = 0309074835| last = Committee on Animal Nutrition|title = Nutrient Requirements of Cats|year =1986 |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=910#toc| isbn-status = May be invalid – please double check|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book| publisher=Charles C Thomas Pub Ltd|isbn = 0398041695|last =Fogle|title = Interrelations Between People and Pets|year =1981|author=edited by Bruce Fogle ; with a foreword by Andrew Edney.|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book|last=Jensen |first=Per |title=The Ethology of Domestic Animals (Modular Text) |publisher=CABI |location=Wallingford |year=2009 |isbn=1-84593-536-5|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book| edition = 1| publisher=Merck| isbn = 0911910999 |last1= Kahn |first1=Cynthia M. |last2=Line |first2=Scott|title = The Merck/Merial Manual for Pet Health|year =2007| author=Joseph Lee Hollander, editor.|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book| publisher=Prentice Hall Press| isbn = 0582460468| last = Mason| first = I.L.| title = Evolution of Domesticated Animals| year = 1984|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book| edition = 1| publisher=Springer| isbn = 1402061439| last = Rochlitz| first = Irene| title = The Welfare of Cats| year = 2007|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]| isbn = 0226779998| last1=Sunquist| first1=Melvin E|last2 =Sunquist|first2=Fiona| title = Wild cats of the world| year =2002| author=Mel Sunquist and Fiona Sunquist ; with photographs by Terry Whittaker and others.|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Turner |first1=D.C.|last2= Bateson |first2=P. |title=The Domestic Cat: The Biology of its Behaviour|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000|edition = 2 |isbn = 0521636485 |author=edited by Dennis C. Turner, Patrick Bateson.|ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book| edition = 4th Revised| publisher=Thomson Learning| isbn = 0030579147| last =Walker| first =Warren F.| title = Study of the Cat with Reference to Human Beings| year =1982|ref=harv}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia-3|2007-05-13|En-Cat_(part_1).ogg|En-Cat_(part_2).ogg|En-Cat_(part_3).ogg|}}
{{Wiktionary|cat|kitty|meow}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Felis silvestris catus|Cat}}
{{Wikispecies|Felis sylvestris catus|Cat}}
{{Wikibooks|Animal Care}}


;Anatomy
*[http://brainmaps.org/index.php?p=speciesdata&species=felis-catus High-Resolution Images of the Cat Brain]

;Articles
*[http://home.ncifcrf.gov/ccr/lgd/mammal%20pdfs/MS600_O%27Brien_SciAm.pdf The evolution of cats. Genomic paw prints in the DNA of the world's wild cats have clarified the cat family tree and uncovered several remarkable migrations in their past.] ''Scientific American''
*[http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/name/Felis_catus Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography] for ''Felis catus''
*[http://www.catpert.com/ Catpert. The Cat Expert] – Cat articles
*[http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Choosing_a_cat Choosing a cat] – article at ''[[Citizendium]]''
*[[John Moisant|John Moisant's]] [http://www.flickr.com/photos/amphalon/2144454358/ famous cat Mademoiselle Paree dressed in funeral attire for his funeral after his death in a plane crash]

;Veterinary related
*[http://home.ncifcrf.gov/ccr/lgd/comparative_genome/catgenome/index_n.asp Cat Genome Project] at the US [http://www.cancer.gov/ The National Cancer Institute]


{{Cat nav}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2010}}

[[Category:Cats| ]]
[[Category:Felines]]
[[Category:Invasive animal species]]
[[Category:Cosmopolitan species]]
[[Category:Sequenced genomes]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1758]]

{{Link GA|fr}}
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{{Link FA|sr}}

[[ace:Mië]]
[[af:Kat]]
[[als:Hauskatze]]
[[am:ድመት]]
[[ang:Catte]]
[[ar:قط]]
[[an:Felis catus]]
[[frp:Chat]]
[[ast:Gatu]]
[[gn:Mbarakaja]]
[[ay:Phisi]]
[[az:Ev pişiyi]]
[[bm:Jakuma]]
[[bn:বিড়াল]]
[[zh-min-nan:Niau]]
[[ba:Бесәй]]
[[be:Кот свойскі]]
[[be-x-old:Кот]]
[[bar:Katz]]
[[bo:ཞི་མི།]]
[[bs:Mačka]]
[[br:Kazh]]
[[bg:Котка]]
[[ca:Gat]]
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[[ceb:Iring]]
[[cs:Kočka domácí]]
[[sn:Kato]]
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[[myv:Катка]]
[[es:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[eo:Hejma kato]]
[[ext:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[eu:Katu]]
[[fa:گربه]]
[[fr:Chat]]
[[fy:Kat]]
[[fur:Gjat]]
[[ga:Cat]]
[[gd:Cat]]
[[gl:Gato]]
[[gan:貓]]
[[hak:Meu-é]]
[[xal:Мис]]
[[ko:고양이]]
[[ha:Kyanwa]]
[[haw:Pōpoki]]
[[hi:बिल्ली]]
[[hr:Domaća mačka]]
[[io:Kato]]
[[id:Kucing]]
[[ia:Catto]]
[[os:Гæды]]
[[zu:Ikati]]
[[is:Köttur]]
[[it:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[he:חתול הבית]]
[[jv:Kucing]]
[[kn:ಬೆಕ್ಕು]]
[[pam:Pusa]]
[[ka:შინაური კატა]]
[[csb:Kòt]]
[[sw:Paka-kaya]]
[[koi:Кань]]
[[kv:Кань]]
[[ht:Chat]]
[[ku:Pisîk]]
[[la:Feles]]
[[lv:Kaķis]]
[[lb:Hauskaz]]
[[lt:Katė]]
[[ln:Nkɔ́ndɔkɔ́]]
[[jbo:mlatu]]
[[lmo:Gàt]]
[[hu:Macska]]
[[mk:Мачка]]
[[mg:Saka]]
[[ml:പൂച്ച]]
[[mt:Qattus]]
[[mr:मांजर]]
[[arz:قطه]]
[[mzn:بامشی]]
[[ms:Kucing]]
[[cdo:Mà]]
[[mn:Муур]]
[[nl:Kat (dier)]]
[[nds-nl:Kat]]
[[ne:बिरालो]]
[[ja:ネコ]]
[[no:Tamkatt]]
[[nn:Katt]]
[[nrm:Cat]]
[[oc:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[uz:Mushuk]]
[[pnb:بلی]]
[[km:ឆ្មា]]
[[pcd:Cot]]
[[nds:Katt]]
[[pl:Kot domowy]]
[[pt:Gato]]
[[ro:Pisică de casă]]
[[qu:Michi]]
[[ru:Кошка]]
[[sah:Куоска]]
[[se:Bussá]]
[[sc:Felis]]
[[sco:Cat]]
[[stq:Kat]]
[[st:Katse]]
[[sq:Macja]]
[[scn:Jattu]]
[[si:බළලා හෙවත් පූසා]]
[[simple:Cat]]
[[sd:ٻلي]]
[[ss:Likati]]
[[sk:Mačka domáca]]
[[cu:Ко́тъ]]
[[sl:Domača mačka]]
[[szl:Kot]]
[[srn:Puspusi]]
[[sr:Мачка]]
[[sh:Mačka]]
[[fi:Kissa]]
[[sv:Katt]]
[[tl:Pusa]]
[[ta:பூனை]]
[[tt:Мәче]]
[[te:పిల్లి]]
[[th:แมว]]
[[to:Pusi]]
[[chr:ᏪᏌ]]
[[chy:Poeso]]
[[tr:Kedi]]
[[bug:Meong]]
[[uk:Кіт свійський]]
[[ur:بلی]]
[[ug:مۈشۈك]]
[[vec:Gato]]
[[vi:Mèo]]
[[fiu-vro:Kass]]
[[wa:Tchet]]
[[zh-classical:貓]]
[[war:Misay]]
[[wo:Muus]]
[[yi:קאץ]]
[[yo:Ológbò]]
[[zh-yue:貓]]
[[bat-smg:Katie]]
[[zh:猫]]

Keirin

2010-11-26T20:41:28Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Adding: ko:경륜

{{ infobox sport
| name = {{nihongo|'''Keirin'''|ケイリン}}
| image = ColwoodKeirin.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Keirin in [[Colwood, British Columbia]], July 2006.
| union = [[Union Cycliste Internationale]]
| nickname =
| first = [[1948 in sports|1948]] in [[Kitakyushu]], [[Japan]]
| registered =
| clubs = [[JKA Foundation]] (Japan Regulating Body)
| contact =
| team =
| mgender =
| category = [[Track cycling]]
| ball =
| olympic = [[Cycling at the 2000 Summer Olympics#Track cycling|2000]]
}}
{{nihongo|'''Keirin'''|ケイリン}} is a [[track cycling]] event in which racing [[cyclist]]s sprint for victory. Keirin originated in [[Japan]] in 1948; the first Olympic competitions in the sport occurred in 2000.

==Description==
Keirin is a mass-start track cycling event in which 6-9{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} [[Cycling sprinter|sprinters]] compete at one time in a race with a paced start. Riders draw lots to determine starting positions and start as the pacer (which could be a motorcycle, a [[derny]], or a [[tandem bicycle]], for example) approaches. The riders are required to remain behind the pacer, which starts at the deliberately slow speed of about 25 km/h, gradually increasing in speed and leaves the track approximately 600–700 meters before the end, at a speed of about 50 km/h. The first cyclist to finish the race is the winner (sometimes finishing at 70 km/h). Keirin races are about 2 kilometers in length (eight laps on a 250m track, six laps on a 333m track, and five laps on a 400m track).

In competitions, this event is often conducted in several rounds in order to reduce the number of competitors to one "final" round of 6–9 riders. Eliminated cyclists may get the opportunity to try again in the [[repechage]]s.

==World championships==
{{see also|UCI Track Cycling World Championships}}
Keirin has been a [[Union Cycliste Internationale|UCI]] [[UCI Track Cycling World Championships – Men's keirin|men's World Championship event]] since 1980. It has been a [[UCI Track Cycling World Championships - Women's Keirin|UCI women's World Championship event]] since 2002. [[Daniel Clark (cyclist)|Danny Clark]] was the first male UCI world champion and [[Li Na (cyclist)|Li Na]] of [[People's Republic of China|China]] was the sport's first female UCI world champion. The current men's and women's world champions are [[Chris Hoy]] (2010) of [[Great Britain]] and [[Simona Krupeckaitė]] of Lithuania (2010), respectively.

==Olympics==
{| align="right" class="wikitable"
!Olympics !! (Men's) Champion
|-
|[[Cycling at the 2000 Summer Olympics#Track_cycling|2000]] || {{flagIOCathlete|[[Florian Rousseau]]|FRA|2000 Summer}}
|-
|[[Cycling at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's Keirin|2004]] || {{flagIOCathlete|[[Ryan Bayley]]|AUS|2004 Summer}}
|-
|[[Cycling at the 2008 Summer Olympics - Men's Keirin|2008]] ||{{flagIOCathlete|[[Chris Hoy]]|GBR|2008 Summer}}
|}
Keirin was admitted into the Olympics in December 1996<ref name="bbc">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7525072.stm Cycling cash linked to Olympics], a July 2008 [[BBC News]] article</ref>. A [[BBC News]] investigation, reported in July 2008, found evidence that following the sport's admission into the Olympics, the [[Union Cycliste Internationale]] required (in writing) that the [[JKA Foundation|Japan Keirin Association]] support UCI projects in "material terms"; over a period of time the association subsequently gave three million dollars to UCI in consideration of "the excellent relationship the UCI has with representatives of the Olympic movement."<ref name="bbc"/>

Men's keirin became an event at the [[2000 Summer Olympics]] in [[Sydney]].

==Keirin in Japan==
{{seealso|Gambling in Japan}}
[[Image:Tairakeirin 2007-3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The entrance and grandstand at the [[Iwaki-Taira Velodrome]] in [[Iwaki, Fukushima|Iwaki]], [[Fukushima Prefecture|Fukushima]].]]
[[Image:TachikawaKeirin.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Start of a race at [[Tachikawa, Tokyo|Tachikawa]] Velodrome in [[Tokyo]]. Riders start from the blocks and pace up to speed behind the pacer, wearing purple and orange. A referee observes the start in the tower to the right.]]
[[Image:Omiya keirin1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|During a race at [[Omiya Velodrome]] in [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], the nine racers form a line behind the pacer as they go around a corner.]]
[[Image:Omiya keirin finish 3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Racers sprinting to the finish line in the last lap of a race at the Ōmiya Velodrome.]]
{{nihongo|Professional cycling|競輪|keirin}} began as a betting sport in Japan in 1948, and has since become very popular there. In 1957, the Nihon Jitensha Shinkōkai (NJS; also known in English as the Japanese Keirin Association) was founded to establish a uniform system of standards for the sport in Japan. Today keirin racing is regulated by the [[JKA Foundation]].

Aspiring professional keirin riders in Japan compete for entrance into the Japan Keirin School. The 10 percent of applicants who are accepted then undergo a strict, 15-hours per day, training regimen. Those who pass the graduation exams, and are approved by the NJS become eligible for professional keirin races in Japan.

===Champions from Japan===
{{nihongo|[[Koichi Nakano]]|中野浩一|Nakano Kōichi}} is the all-time winning cyclist on the Japan Professional Keirin circuit. One of the first Japanese keirin athletes to compete outside of his native country, Nakano holds the best record as a track cyclist at the [[UCI Track World Championships]] with a record of ten consecutive professional [[Sprint (cycling)|Sprint]] [[UCI Track Cycling World Championships – Men's sprint|World Track Cycling Championship]] wins from 1977–86 against mostly western European pro track cyclists, although he never won the Keirin World Championship. At that time, many leading sprint riders were from the Eastern bloc countries and competed in separate "amateur" events.

{{nihongo|Keita Ebine|海老根恵太|Ebine Keita}}, a keirin racer from [[Chiba Prefecture]], is the defending champion of the Keirin Grand Prix. In 2009, Ebine earned nearly ¥225 million in prize money (US$2.44 million). This includes the ¥100 million (US$1.09 million) prize for winning the Grand Prix. Ebine's earnings rank third on the all-time list, behind the ¥244 million earned by {{nihongo|Yūji Yamada|山田裕仁|Yamada Yūji}} in 2002, and the ¥228 million earned by {{nihongo|Yūichirō Kamiyama|神山雄一郎|Kamiyama Yūichirō}} in 1997.

The defending champion of the six-day Japan Championship is {{nihongo|Hiroyuki Murakami|村上　博幸|Murakami Hiroyuki}}, a keirin competitor from [[Kyoto]].

===Typical race===
Keirin races in Japan begin with all nine bicyclists parading to the starting blocks, bowing as they enter the track and again as they position their bikes for the start of the race. Every participant is assigned a number and a colour for identification and betting purposes, much like [[racing colours]] used in [[horse racing]].

At the sound of the gun, the bicyclists leave their starting blocks and attempt to gain position behind the pacer, a keirin bicyclist wearing purple with orange stripes. As the pace quickens, the pacer will usually depart the track with between one and two laps remaining, but the actual location where the pacer leaves varies with every race.

With 1½ laps remaining, officials begin sounding a [[bell (instrument)|bell]] or [[gong]], increasing in frequency until the bicyclists come around to begin the final lap of the race.

The race is monitored by four referees, each located in a tower next to one of the four turns (referred to as corners). After every race, each referee will wave either a white or red flag. A white flag indicates that no infractions occurred in that area. A red flag, however, signals a possible infraction and launches an inquiry into the race. Judges then examine the race on videotape to decide if a participant committed a rules violation; if so, he is disqualified and retires from the remainder of the meet.

Keirin ovals are divided into specific areas: The two straightaways (homestretch and backstretch), the four turns (corners), and two locations called the "center", referring to the area between corners 1 and 2 (1 center) and corners 3 and 4 (2 center).

Most keirin events are run at the standard distance of approximately {{convert|2000|m}}<ref>[http://keirin.jp/pc/dfw/portal/guest/world/english.html keirin.jp English page] accessed November 6, 2008</ref>, with the highest-caliber events contested at a longer distance. The Keirin Grand Prix, for example, is run at {{convert|2825|m}}, or seven laps around a 400-meter course.

===Rankings===
There are a total of six rankings that competitors can obtain in Japanese keirin racing. SS is the highest ranking, followed by S1, S2, A1, A2 and A3. All new keirin graduates begin their careers with an A3 ranking and work their way up by competing in keirin events.

The color of the shorts worn by each keirin competitor indicates rank. Those in A-class (A1, A2, A3) wear black shorts with a green stripe and white stars. S-class competitors (S1 and S2) wear a red stripe instead of a green stripe. Those in the elite SS class wear red shorts with a black stripe, white stars and special insignia. Introduced in 2007, the SS ranking is assigned by the NJS every December before the Grand Prix to the best keirin athletes, who retain the ranking for a period of one year.<ref>[http://www.keirin-pr.jp/ss/whats_ss/ "What's SS?"] keirin-pr.jp (Japanese), accessed November 6, 2008</ref>

===Race grades===
A race meeting at any given keirin [[velodrome]] in Japan is assigned a grade. The highest graded events are GP, GI (G1), GII (G2) and GIII (G3), reserved only for S-class riders. Underneath those are FI (F1) events, which are open to both S-class and A-class riders. The lowest graded events, FII (F2), are reserved for A-class riders.

The GP grade designation is reserved for the Keirin Grand Prix, a three-day meet held at the end of December for the year's top keirin competitors. The meet ultimately concludes with the Grand Prix race itself, which determines the annual Keirin racing champion.

As of December 2008, the nine competitors for the Keirin Grand Prix race are determined in the following order of priority:<ref>[http://keirin.jp/pc/dfw/portal/guest/news/index_news/index_news20081209_04.html "『KEIRINグランプリ08【GP】』出場予定選手の決定について"] keirin.jp (Japanese), accessed December 9, 2008</ref>

* Winners of each of six GI events during the year (Keirin Festival, Japan Championship, Prince Takamatsu Memorial Cup, Prince Tomohito Cup, All-Star Keirin and All-Japan Selection),
* Japanese medal winners of cycling events from the [[Summer Olympic Games]], if they are held in the same year,
* Competitors recommended by a Keirin selection committee,
* Competitors that have earned the most money from finishing first, second or third in Keirin events during the year, and finally,
* Competitors with the highest average race score during the year.

Once the Grand Prix field is determined, the nine competitors are assigned the SS rank and retain it for one year. The next nine competitors that are ranked under this system also receive the SS rank and compete in the GI SS Cup held one day prior to the Grand Prix. Also part of the Grand Prix meet is the GII Young Grand Prix, which is open to the best of those that have begun competing in Keirin within the last three years; it is the only Keirin race of the year in which both S-class and A-class compete in the same race.

Another prestigious event on the annual keirin racing calendar is the GI Japan Championship. Held every March over a period of six days, it is the longest single race meeting of the year.

Each of the keirin velodromes are generally permitted to host one event per year of either GI, GII or GIII designation. The remaining events at each track consist of a combination of FI and FII races for a total of approximately 70 race days per year. On average there is one GI or GII event every month and one GIII meeting per week on the annual calendar.

===Top events===
{| class="wikitable"
! Month
! Grade
! Event
! Host Venue
|-
|February
|II
|East/West Championship (東西王座戦)
|'''2011:''' [[Toyohashi, Aichi|Toyohashi]] Velodrome, [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]] '''2012:''' [[Kochi, Kochi|Kōchi]] Velodrome, [[Kochi Prefecture|Kōchi]]
|-
|March
|I
|Japan Championship (日本選手権)
|'''2011:''' [[Nagoya]] Velodrome, [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]] '''2012:''' [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto]] Velodrome, [[Kumamoto Prefecture|Kumamoto]]
|-
|April
|II
|Kyodo News Service Spring Cup1 (共同通信社杯春一番)
|'''2011:''' [[Takeo, Saga|Takeo]] Velodrome, [[Saga Prefecture|Saga]]
|-
|May
|I
|SS Series (SSシリーズ風光る)
|'''2011:''' [[Matsudo Velodrome]], [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]]
|-
|June
|I
|Prince Takamatsu Memorial Cup (高松宮記念杯)
|[[Ōtsu, Shiga|Ōtsu]] Biwako Velodrome, [[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]]
|-
|July
|I
|Prince Tomohito Cup (寛仁親王牌・世界選手権記)
|'''2011:''' [[Yahiko Velodrome]], [[Niigata Prefecture|Niigata]]
|-
|July
|II
|Summer Night Festival (サマーナイトフェスティバル)
|'''2011:''' [[Matsuyama, Ehime|Matsuyama]] Velodrome, [[Ehime Prefecture|Ehime]]
|-
|August
|I
|All-Japan Selection (全日本選抜)
|'''2011:''' [[Kishiwada, Osaka|Kishiwada]] Velodrome, [[Osaka Prefecture|Osaka]]
|-
|September
|I
|All-Star Keirin (オールスター競輪)
|'''2011:''' [[Gifu, Gifu|Gifu]] Velodrome, [[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]]

|-
|October
|II
|Kyodo News Service Autumn Cup1 (共同通信社杯秋本番)
|'''2010:''' [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] Velodrome, [[Nara Prefecture|Nara]] '''2011:''' [[Matsusaka, Mie|Matsusaka]] Velodrome, [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]]
|-
|November
|I
|Keirin Festival (競輪祭)
|Kokura Velodrome, [[Kokura]]
|-
|December
|II
|Young Grand Prix (ヤンググランプリ)
|'''2010:''' [[Tachikawa Velodrome]], [[Tokyo]] '''2011:''' [[Hiratsuka, Kanagawa|Hiratsuka]] Velodrome, [[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]]
|-
|December
|I
|SS Cup Minori (SSカップみのり)
|'''2010:''' Tachikawa Velodrome, Tokyo '''2011:''' Hiratsuka Velodrome, Kanagawa
|-
|December
|GP
|Keirin Grand Prix (KEIRINグランプリ)
|'''2010:''' Tachikawa Velodrome, Tokyo '''2011:''' Hiratsuka Velodrome, Kanagawa
|}

'''Table Notes:'''

1Up to 2008, the Kyodo News Service meet was run annually in October and was simply known as the Kyodo News Service Cup. It was split into the Spring Cup and Autumn Cup for the first time in 2009.

2In 2009 it was announced that the Keirin Festival, originally held in January, would be moved to November. Consequently, two Keirin Festival meets were held in 2009.

===Race schedule===
Keirin velodromes follow the same basic schedule of races when conducting a race meeting. On the first day of competition, the better keirin competitors are assigned to races of higher caliber, while others are assigned to low-caliber races. Keirin racers are guaranteed to compete on each day of the meeting unless they are disqualfied from a race or retire from the meet for any reason - in which case alternate competitors are called up to fill in the lower-caliber races.

Below is a schedule of races conducted during a typical three-day FI event (open to both S-class and A-class riders).<ref>[http://keirin.jp/pc/dfw/portal/guest/news/2007khn/10/news20071009_01.html "平成20年1月からのFI、FIIの12レース制導入について"] keirin.jp (page has link to PDF file with race schedule), October 9, 2007 (Japanese)</ref>

'''DAY 1'''
*Races 1-3: {{nihongo|A-class Preliminary|A級予選|A kyū yosen}} (low caliber)
**First two finishers in each race advance to Day 2 Semi-finals
**Third place finishers advance to Day 2 Selection
**Remaining riders compete in Day 2 General
*Races 4 & 5: {{nihongo|A-class Selection|A級選抜|A kyū senbatsu}} (medium caliber)
**First six finishers in each race advance to Day 2 Semi-finals
**Remaining riders compete in Day 2 Selection
*Race 6: {{nihongo|A-class Special|A級特選|A kyū tokusen}} (high caliber)
**All riders compete in Day 2 Semi-finals

After six races, S-class riders compete, advancing to the next day's races in the same manner as the A class:
*Races 7-9: {{nihongo|S-class Preliminary|S級予選|S kyū yosen}}
*Races 10 & 11: {{nihongo|S-class Selection|S級選抜|S kyū senbatsu}}
*Race 12: {{nihongo|S-class Special|S級特選|S kyū tokusen}}

'''DAY 2'''
*Races 1 & 2: {{nihongo|A-class General|A級一般|A kyū ippan}}
**First two finishers in each race advance to Day 3 Selection
**Remaining riders compete in Day 3 General
*Race 3: {{nihongo|A-class Selection|A級選抜|A kyū senbatsu}}
**First three finishers advance to Day 3 Special Excellence
**Fourth and fifth place finishers advance to Day 3 Selection
**Remaining riders compete in Day 3 General
*Races 4-6: {{nihongo|A-class Semi-finals|A級準決勝|A kyū junketsushō}}
**First three finishers in each race advance to Day 3 Final
**Fourth through eighth place finishers in each race advance to Day 3 Special Excellence
**Ninth place finisher competes in Day 3 Selection

S-class riders advance to the final day in a similar manner:
*Races 7 & 8: {{nihongo|S-class General|S級一般|S kyū ippan}}
*Race 9: {{nihongo|S-class Selection|S級選抜|S kyū senbatsu}}
*Races 10-12: {{nihongo|S-class Semi-finals|S級準決勝|S kyū junketsushō}}

'''DAY 3'''
*Races 1 & 2: {{nihongo|A-class General|A級一般|A kyū ippan}}
*Race 3: {{nihongo|A-class Selection|A級選抜|A kyū senbatsu}}
*Races 4 & 5: {{nihongo|A-class Special|A級特選|A kyū tokusen}}
*Races 6 & 7: {{nihongo|S-class General|S級一般|S kyū ippan}}
*Race 8: {{nihongo|S-class Selection|S級選抜|S kyū senbatsu}}
*Race 9: {{nihongo|A-class Final|A級決勝|A kyū ketsushō}}
*Races 10 & 11: {{nihongo|S-class Special Excellence|S級特別優秀|S kyū tokubetsu yūshō}}
*Race 12: {{nihongo|S-class Final|S級決勝|S kyū ketsushō}}

===Equipment===
[[Image:Chaintug.jpg|thumb|right|300 px|Mikashima Chaintug With NJS Stamp]]
As a result of the [[parimutuel betting|parimutuel gambling]] that surrounds keirin racing in Japan, a strict system of standards was developed for bicycles and repair tools. There are currently 50 [[velodromes]] in operation that hold races where annually over 20 million people attend and place bets amounting to over ¥1.5 trillion($15 billion) .<ref name="History of Keirin Racing">{{Cite web | title = History of Keirin Racing | publisher = Keirin Cycle Culture | url = http://www.keirinberlin.de/keirin-racing | accessdate = October 30, 2009 }}</ref> Since so much money is at stake, the Nihon Jitensha Shinkōkai (Japanese Bicycle Association or NJS) - now under the [[JKA Foundation]] - requires that all keirin racers in Japan ride and use equipment that meets their standards. All riders use very similar bicycles, so that no rider will have any advantage or disadvantage based on equipment. In addition, all riders must pass strict licensing requirements.

Those who wish to race in Japan must attend the Japan Bicycle Racing School where they learn the necessary rules, etiquette, and skills. The school typically accepts only 10% of applicants. Those who pass final examination must still be approved by the Japan Keirin Association.<ref name="History of Keirin Racing"/>

All bicycles and equipment must be built within strict guidelines set by the NJS, by a certified builder using NJS-approved materials. The products are then stamped by NJS and only equipment bearing this stamp may be used. However, it should be noted that the NJS standard is to ensure that no rider will have any advantage or disadvantage based on equipment, and does not necessarily relate to quality or standard of manufacture<ref name="Gordan Wilson">{{Cite book | last = Gordan Wilson | first = David | title = Bicycling Science | publisher = The MIT Press; 3 edition | date = April 1, 2004 | isbn = 978-0262731546}}</ref><ref name="Fritz">{{Cite web | last = Fritz | first = Yokota | title = NJS: Nihon Jitensha Sinkokai | publisher = Cyclelicio.us | date = November 21, 2006 | url = http://www.cyclelicio.us/2006/11/njs-nihon-jitensha-sinkokai.html | accessdate = October 30, 2009}}</ref>. For example, 36 spoke wheels are allowed but not 32, although 32 spoke wheels are typically lighter, and frames must be built by a very limited number of approved builders.

NJS approved equipment often sells for more than comparable equipment because of its specific use, build requirements, and limited manufacturers.<ref name="Gordan Wilson"/> Popular manufacturers include Samson, Nitto, [[Bridgestone#Bicycles|Bridgestone]], [[3Rensho]], [[Shimano]], [[Yoshiaki Nagasawa|Nagasawa]], [[Panasonic#National.2FPanasonic_bicycles|Panasonic]], Hatta, MKS, [[Kashimax]], and [[Sugino]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} Because the NJS's main objective is supporting the Japanese cycling market, its bureaucracy is notoriously critical of foreign manufacturers attempting to enter the Japanese market. The Italian cycling equipment manufacturer [[Campagnolo]] has, though, received NJS certification.<ref name="Fritz"/>

NJS-approved equipment is not required for keirin races outside Japan.

===Betting===
Bets that can be made on Keirin races include:
* {{nihongo|'''Exacta'''|２車単|ni-sha-tan}} - selecting the first two finishers in exact order
* {{nihongo|'''Quinella'''|２車複|ni-sha-fuku}} - first two finishers in any order
* {{nihongo|'''Trifecta'''|３連単|san-ren-tan}} - first three finishers in exact order
* {{nihongo|'''Trio'''|３連複|san-ren-puku}} - first three finishers in any order
* '''Quinella Place''', or {{nihongo|'''WIDE'''|ワイド|uaido}} - selecting two to finish in the top three, in any order.

Some Keirin velodromes accept the following wagers over the internet:<ref>[http://kdreams.jp/index.php?ac=St_About_K3K5 ケイドリームス競輪重勝式「Dokanto」K-3＆K-5について] kdreams.jp (Japanese), accessed December 29, 2009</ref><ref>[http://kdreams.jp/index.php?ac=St_About_Big ケイドリームス競輪重勝式「Dokanto」BIGDREAMについて] kdreams.jp (Japanese), accessed December 29, 2009</ref>
* '''K-3''' - selecting the winner of each of the last three races of the day.
* '''K-5''' - selecting the winner of each of the last five races of the day.
* '''BIG DREAM''' - selecting the first two finishers, in any order, in each of the last four races of the day.

The money wagered in the K-5 and BIG DREAM pools can carry over if there are no winning tickets.

{{seealso|Parimutuel betting}}

In extraordinary circumstances, races have been declared no-contests, forcing velodromes to refund millions of yen in bets. Such results are generally known as a {{nihongo|'''failure'''|不成立|fuseiritsu}}. A race at Shizuoka velodrome on January 2, 2008 was declared a failure when the back wheel of the pacer's bicycle nicked the bicycle of an actual competitor, causing him to fall.<ref>[http://keirin.jp/pc/dfw/dataplaza/guest/raceresult?KCD=38&KBI=20080102&RNO=9 Race Results: Shizuoka - Race 9 - January 2, 2008] keirin.jp (Japanese), accessed December 29, 2008</ref> In a race at [[Iwaki-Taira Velodrome]] on December 14, 2008, separate infractions resulted in the disqualification of the entire field; all but one of the competitors were handed a one-year suspension by the velodrome after the race.<ref>[http://keirin.jp/pc/dfw/dataplaza/guest/raceresult?KCD=13&KBI=20081214&RNO=10 Race Results: Iwaki-Taira - Race 10 - December 14, 2008] keirin.jp (Japanese), accessed December 29, 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.zakzak.co.jp/top/200812/t2008121505_all.html いわき平競輪で９人全員失格... 前代未聞の珍事ナゼ？] zakzak.co.jp (Japanese), accessed December 29, 2008</ref> The suspensions were lifted four months later.

==References==
{{Refimprove|date=August 2008}}
<references/>

==See also==
*[[Motor-paced racing]]

==External links==
*[http://keirin.jp/ Japan's official website in Japan] {{ja}}
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/special_events/cycling/newsid_3650000/3650963.stm Keirin] from the [[BBC Sport]] Academy website

{{cb start}}
{{Track cycling}}
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[[Category:Cycling in Japan]]
[[Category:Track cycling]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]

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[[it:Keirin]]
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[[pt:Keirin]]
[[ru:Кейрин]]

Winter

2010-11-26T20:29:34Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Modifying: koi:Тӧв

{{Other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2010}}
{{Refimprove|date=February 2008}}
{{stack
|[[File:Windbuchencom.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Snow frozen onto a tree in Germany.]]
|{{Weather}}
}}

'''Winter''' is the coldest [[season]] of the year in [[temperate climate]], between [[autumn]] and [[spring (season)|spring]]. At the winter [[solstice]], the days are shortest and the nights are longest, with days lengthening as the season progresses after the solstice.

===Meteorology===
[[File:Earth-satellite-seasons.gif|thumb|right|250px|Animation of snow cover changing with the [[season]]s.]]
Meteorological winter is the season having the shortest days and the lowest average temperatures, which have the coldest weather. This corresponds to the months of November, December and January in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], and June, July and August in the [[Southern Hemisphere]]. The coldest average temperatures of the season are typically experienced in January in the Northern hemisphere and in June or July in the Southern hemisphere. Nighttime predominates the winter season, and in some regions it has the highest rate of [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] as well as prolonged dampness because of permanent snow cover or high precipitation rates coupled with low temperatures, precluding evaporation. [[Blizzard]]s often develop and cause many transportation delays. A rare meteorological phenomenon encountered during winter is [[ice fog]], which comprises [[ice crystal]]s suspended in the air; it occurs only at very low temperatures, below about –30°C (–22°F)[http://www.iti.gov.nt.ca/parks/education/a_e/arctic_weather.htm].

Accumulations of snow and ice are mostly associated with winter in the Northern Hemisphere, due to the large land masses there. In the Southern Hemisphere, the more maritime climate and the relative lack of land south of 40°S makes the winters milder; thus, snow and ice are less common in inhabited regions of the Southern Hemisphere. In this region, snow occurs every year in elevated regions such as the Andes, the Great Dividing Range in Australia, and the mountains of New Zealand, and also occurs in the southerly [[Patagonia]] region of South America. Snow occurs year-round in Antarctica.

===Period===
[[File:EbniterStr04.JPG|thumb|260px|The road from [[Dornbirn]], Austria to the mountain village of Ebnit in winter.]]
Astronomically, the [[winter solstice]], being the day of the year which has fewest hours of daylight, ought to be the middle of the season, but [[seasonal lag|temperature lag]] means that the coldest period normally follows the solstice, so the season is sometimes regarded (in the USA and Britain) as beginning at the solstice and ending on the following [[equinox]]<ref>winter. (2009). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 13 May 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/645543/winter</ref><ref>solstice. (2009). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 13 May 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/553654/solstice</ref>. In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], depending on the year, this corresponds to the period between 21 or 22 December and 20 or 21 March . Meteorologists in the UK consider winter to be the three coldest months of December, January and February<ref>{{Cite book|title= Meteorological Glossary |edition= Sixth |year= 1991 |publisher= HMSO|location= London |isbn= 0-11-400363-7|page= 260}}</ref>. In Scandinavia, winter traditionally begins on 14 October and ends on the last day of February.<ref>vinter. (2009). The Norwegian Meteorological Institute. Retrieved 31 August 2009, from: http://met.no/./?module=Articles;action=Article.publicShow;ID=1104</ref> In many countries in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], including Australia<ref>Meteorological Glossary. Retrieved 21 June 2009 from Australian Bureau of Meteorology: http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/glossary/seasons.shtml</ref><ref>Images from around Australia on first day of Winter 2009: http://www.abc.net.au/local/photos/2009/06/02/2583319.htm</ref>, New Zealand and South Africa, winter begins on 1 June and ends on 31 August. In Brazil the winter begins on June 21 and ends on September 23{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}. In [[Celtic nations]] such as Ireland (using the [[Irish calendar]]) and in Scandinavia, the winter solstice is traditionally considered as midwinter, with the winter season beginning 1 November, on [[Halloween|All Hallows]], or [[Samhain]]. Winter ends and spring begins on [[Imbolc]], or [[Candlemas]], which is 1 or 2 February . This system of seasons is based on the length of days exclusively. (The three-month period of the shortest days and weakest solar radiation occurs during November, December, and January in the Northern Hemisphere and May through July in the [[Southern Hemisphere]].)
[[File:KleinarlWinterwonderland.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In the [[mid-latitudes]] and [[arctic]], winter is associated with snow and ice.]]
Also, many{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} mainland European countries tend to recognize [[Martinmas]] or [[St. Martin's Day]] (11 November), as the first calendar day of winter. The day falls at midpoint between the old Julian [[equinox]] and [[solstice]] dates. Also, [[Valentine's Day]] (14 February) is recognized by some countries as heralding the first rites of spring, such as flowers blooming.

In [[Chinese astronomy]] and other [[East Asia]]n [[Chinese calendar|calendars]], winter is taken to commence on or around 7 November, with the ''[[Jieqi|Jiéqì]]'' (known as 立冬 ''lì dōng''—literally, "establishment of winter").

The three-month period associated with the coldest average temperatures typically begins somewhere in late November or early December in the Northern Hemisphere and lasts through late February or early March. This "thermological winter" is earlier than the solstice delimited definition, but later than the daylight (Celtic) definition. Depending on [[seasonal lag]], this period will vary between climatic regions.

Cultural influences such as [[Christmas creep]] may have led to the winter season being perceived as beginning earlier in recent years, although high latitude countries like Canada and Russia are usually well into their real winters before the December solstice.

===Causes===
[[File:Winterdayroad.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|A winter day]]
[[File:2. Januar 2010 - Neulingen 006.JPG|thumb|right|Winter day in Baden-Württemberg (Germany)]]
{{See also|Effect of sun angle on climate}}
The tilt of the Earth's axis relative to its orbital plane plays a big role in the weather. The Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.44° to the plane of its orbit, and this causes different latitudes on the Earth to directly face the Sun as the Earth moves through its orbit. It is this variation that primarily brings about the seasons. When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere faces the Sun more directly and thus experiences warmer temperatures than the Northern Hemisphere. Conversely, winter in the Southern Hemisphere occurs when the Northern hemisphere is tilted more toward the Sun. From the perspective of an observer on the Earth, the winter Sun has a lower maximum altitude in the sky than the summer Sun.

During winter in either hemisphere, the lower altitude of the Sun in winter causes the sunlight to hit that hemisphere at an oblique angle. In regions experiencing winter, the same amount of [[solar radiation]] is spread out over a larger area. This effect is compounded by the larger distance that the light must travel through the atmosphere, allowing the atmosphere to dissipate more heat. Compared with these effects, the changes in the distance of the earth from the sun are negligible.

===Exceptionally cold winters===
*1684, when the [[Thames]] was frozen solid, hosting one of many [[River Thames frost fairs]], and the sea froze up to two miles out around the coast.
*[[Year Without a Summer]] was the name for the northern summer of 1816, because the weather was so cold that it reminded people of winter all year.
*In Europe, the winters of early 1947,<ref>[http://www.winter1947.co.uk Winter of 1947]</ref> 1962–63, 1981–82, and [[Winter of 2009–2010 in Europe|2009–10]] were considered abnormally cold.

[[File:Nieve LaCarlota.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Winter in [[Córdoba, Argentina]]]]

==Ecology==
[[File:Snowshoe hare.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Snowshoe Hare|snowshoe hare]] is one animal that changes color in winter.]]
To survive the harshness of winter, many animals have developed different behavioral and morphological adaptations for [[overwintering]]:
*[[Bird migration|Migration]] is a common effect of winter upon animals, notably [[bird]]s. However, the majority of birds do not migrate—the [[Cardinal (bird)|cardinal]] and [[European Robin]], for example. Some [[butterfly|butterflies]] also migrate seasonally.
*[[Hibernation]] is a state of reduced [[metabolism|metabolic activity]] during the winter. Some animals "sleep" during winter and only come out when the warm weather returns; e.g., [[Gopher (animal)|gopher]]s, frogs, snakes, and bats.
*Some animals store food for the winter and live on it instead of hibernating completely. This is the case for [[squirrel]]s, [[beaver]]s, [[skunk]]s, [[badger]]s, and [[raccoon]]s.
*Resistance is observed when an animal endures winter but changes in ways such as color and musculature. The color of the fur or plumage changes to white (in order to be confused with snow) and thus retains its [[cryptic (zoology)|cryptic]] coloration year-round. Examples are the [[ptarmigan]], [[arctic fox]], [[weasel]], [[hare|white-tailed jackrabbit]], and [[mountain hare]].
*Some fur-coated mammals grow a heavier coat during the winter; this improves the heat-retention qualities of the fur. The coat is then shed following the winter season to allow better cooling. The heavier coat in winter made it a favorite season for [[Animal trapping|trapper]]s, who sought more profitable skins.
*Snow also affects the ways animals behave; many take advantage of the insulating properties of snow by burrowing in it. Mice and [[vole]]s typically live under the snow layer.

Some [[annual plant]]s never survive the winter. Other annual plants require winter cold to complete their life cycle, this is known as [[vernalization]]. As for [[perennial plant|perennial]]s, many small ones profit from the insulating effects of snow by being buried in it. Larger plants, particularly [[deciduous|deciduous trees]], usually let their upper part go dormant, but their roots are still protected by the snow layer. Few plants bloom in the winter, one exception being the [[ume|flowering plum]], which flowers in time for [[Chinese New Year]]. The process by which plants become acclimated to cold weather is called [[Hardening (botany)|hardening]].

==Mankind and winter==
Humans evolved in tropical climate, and met cold weather as they migrated into [[Eurasia]]. Micro-evolution in Caucasian, Asiatic and Inuit people show some adaptation to the climate.

===Winter and human health===
Humans are sensitive to cold, see [[hypothermia]]. [[Snowblindness]], [[norovirus]], [[seasonal depression]] and falling [[icicle]]s are other health concerns associated with cold and snowy weather.

===Activities===
[[File:Snowboarder in halfpipe.jpg|right|thumb|Snowboarder in the halfpipe.]]
{{Main|Winter sport}}

====Snow activities====

Many winter activities involve the use of snow in some form (which sometimes is man-made, using [[snow cannon]]s):
*[[Bobsledding]] — a [[winter sport]] in which teams make timed runs down narrow, twisting, banked, purpose-built ice-covered tracks in a steerable [[sled]].
*Skiing — the activity of gliding over snow using fiberglass planks called ''skis'' that are strapped to the skiers' feet with [[ski bindings]].
*[[Sledding]] — a gravity-powered activity using a sled to glide downhill.
*[[Snow fort|Snow castle]] building — for example, constructions such as the [[SnowCastle of Kemi]], the largest in the world.
*[[Snowball fight]] — a physical [[game]] in which snowballs are thrown with the intention of hitting someone else.
*[[Snowboarding]] — an increasingly common sport in which participants strap a composite board to their feet and slide down a snow-covered mountain.
*[[Snowman]] building — creating a manlike model out of snow.
*[[Snowmobiling]] — driving snowmobiles in snow, across frozen lakes, on public trails, or around mountains.
*[[Snowshoeing]] — a means of travel on top of the snow by increasing the [[surface area]] of the feet by wearing snowshoes.
* [[Winter camping]] - cooking, eating and sleeping outside in the snow during the winter. Those who winter camp build a shelter from evergreen tree boughs, dig a [[snow cave]], create a [[quinzhee]] or sleep in a tent for shelter overnight.<ref>"Outdoor Action Guide to Winter Camping". Curtis, Rick , Outdoor Action Program, The Trustees of Princeton University. 05 Sep 2010. <http://www.princeton.edu/~oa/winter/wintcamp.shtml></ref>

====Ice activities====
[[File:Bandy game 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bandy]], an early form of ice hockey.]]
Many other winter activities and sports focus on ice, which may be contained in an [[ice rink]].
*[[Curling]] — a team sport using brooms and stones. The object of the game is to slide your stones in a bullseye and get your opponent's stones out of it.
*[[Ice biking]] — the continuation of regular [[cycling]] activities in the winter and cold weather.
*[[Ice boat]]ing — a means of travel in a specialized boat similar in appearance to a sailboat but fitted with skis or runners (skates) and designed to run over ice instead of (liquid) water.
*[[Ice climbing]] — the recreational activity of climbing ice formations such as icefalls and frozen waterfalls.
*[[Ice diving]] — a type of [[penetration diving]] where the dive takes place under ice.
*[[Ice fishing]] — the sport of [[fishing|catching fish]] with lines and hooks through an opening in the ice on a frozen body of water.
*[[Ice hockey]] — a team sport played on the ice with skates, sticks, and a puck. The goal is to send the puck into the opposing team's net.
*[[Ice racing]] — automobile racing on ice surfaces.
*[[Ice sculpture]] — elaborate sculptures are carved out of blocks of ice.
*[[Ice skating]] — a means of travelling on ice with skates, narrow (and sometimes [[parabolic figure skating blades|parabolic]]) bladelike devices molded into special [[boot]]s.
[[Image:Avercamp Winter.jpg|thumb|''Winter'' by [[Hendrick Avercamp]], early 17th century.]]
===Symbolism===
Some use winter to suggest death, as in [[Robert Frost]]'s "[[Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening]]". Some use it to suggest the absence of hope, as in [[C.S. Lewis]]' ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]],'' where it was always winter but never Christmas. Winter is one concerto in [[Antonio Vivaldi]]'s "The Four Seasons," and there are many examples of four paintings all showing the same scene in different seasons. Ursula K. LeGuin's novel ''[[The Left Hand of Darkness]]'' is set on a planet named Winter. In [[Alex Raymond]]'s comic strip ''[[Flash Gordon]]'', there is a land called Frigia, where it is always winter. The land of Frigia is also featured in the serial ''[[Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe]]''. Other uses of winter in the graphic arts occur in [[Winsor McCay]]'s ''[[Little Nemo in Slumberland]]''. There are many films in which a winter setting plays an important role, ''[[Fargo (film)|Fargo]]'' being an example. Novels such as ''[[Ethan Frome]]'' also use a winter setting to mirror the bleak, frozen feelings that the characters harbor. The film ''[[Requiem for a Dream]]'' concludes with "Act III: Winter," in which the movie reaches its chilling climax. The final vignette in [[James Joyce]]'s [[Dubliners]], 'The Dead', employs a winter motif in conjunction with themes of regret and isolation.

===Mythology===
====In various cultures====
In [[Persian culture]] the night starting winter is called [[Yalda]] (meaning: birth) and it has been celebrated for thousands of years. It is referred to as the eve of the birth of Mithra, the Sun God, who symbolised light, goodness and strength on earth. By the whiteness of Winter, the Sun (the white) rises again to fade away the darkness of the long night (Yalda). It is also believed that the last day of Winter (the white), which is the first day of Spring (also known as [[Nowrouz]]), is the day that all the "Good"s will over come all the "Bad"s for ever.

In [[Greek mythology]], [[Hades]] kidnapped [[Persephone]] to be his wife. [[Zeus]] ordered Hades to return her to [[Demeter]], the goddess of the Earth and her mother. However, Hades tricked Persephone into eating the food of the dead, so Zeus decreed that Persephone would spend six months with Demeter and six months with Hades. During the time her daughter is with Hades, Demeter became depressed and caused winter. In [[Welsh mythology]], [[Gwyn ap Nudd]] abducted a maiden named [[Creiddylad]]. On May Day, her lover, [[Gwythr ap Greidawl]], fought Gwyn to win her back. The battle between them represented the contest between summer and winter.

====Personifications====
*[[Old Man Winter]], also known as Father Winter
*[[Jack Frost]]
*[[Ded Moroz]]
*[[Snegurochka]]
*[[Sumarr and Vetr|Vetr]]
*[[Sinterklaas]]

==See also==
<table><tr><td valign=top>
'''Human-related''':
*[[Fimbulvetr]]
*[[List of winter festivals]]
*[[Winter City]]
*[[Arctic warfare]]
*[[Winter Olympic Games]]
*[[Winter War]]
<td valign=top>
'''Weather-related''':
*[[Cold wave]]
*[[Global cooling]]
*[[Nuclear winter]]
*[[Pineapple Express]]
*[[Siberian Express]]
*[[Volcanic winter]]
</tr></td></table>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Rosenthal, Norman E. (1998). Winter Blues. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-57230-395-6

==External links==
{{Commons|Winter|Winter}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.oulu.fi/northnature/english/englanti/ajankohttalvi.html Winter of animals and plants in Finland] by the Northern Nature Project
*[http://www.thursdaysclassroom.com/23sep99/story5.html Native American seasons myths] from the Zion Natural History Association

{{Seasons}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

[[Category:Winter| ]]

[[ar:شتاء]]
[[an:Hibierno]]
[[arc:ܣܬܘܐ]]
[[ast:Iviernu]]
[[ay:Autipacha]]
[[az:Qış]]
[[ba:Ҡыш]]
[[be:Зіма]]
[[be-x-old:Зіма]]
[[bo:དགུན་ཁ།]]
[[bs:Zima]]
[[br:Goañv]]
[[bg:Зима]]
[[ca:Hivern]]
[[cv:Хĕлле]]
[[cs:Zima]]
[[cy:Gaeaf]]
[[da:Vinter]]
[[de:Winter]]
[[et:Talv]]
[[el:Χειμώνας]]
[[eml:Invêren]]
[[myv:Теле]]
[[es:Invierno]]
[[eo:Vintro]]
[[eu:Negu]]
[[fa:زمستان]]
[[fr:Hiver]]
[[fy:Winter]]
[[fur:Unvier]]
[[ga:Geimhreadh]]
[[gl:Inverno]]
[[gu:શિયાળો]]
[[xal:Үвл]]
[[ko:겨울]]
[[hi:शीत ऋतु]]
[[hr:Zima]]
[[io:Vintro]]
[[id:Musim dingin]]
[[is:Vetur]]
[[it:Inverno]]
[[he:חורף]]
[[pam:Karimlan]]
[[ka:ზამთარი]]
[[koi:Тӧв]]
[[kv:Тӧв]]
[[ht:Livè]]
[[ku:Zivistan]]
[[la:Hiems]]
[[lv:Ziema]]
[[lb:Wanter]]
[[lt:Žiema]]
[[lmo:Envéren]]
[[hu:Tél]]
[[mk:Зима]]
[[mr:हिवाळा]]
[[ms:Musim sejuk]]
[[nah:Cehuetzilizpan]]
[[nl:Winter]]
[[nds-nl:Wienter]]
[[ne:शिशिर ऋतु]]
[[ja:冬]]
[[no:Vinter]]
[[nn:Vinter]]
[[nrm:Hivé]]
[[mhr:Теле (ийын пагыт)]]
[[uz:Qish]]
[[pl:Zima]]
[[pt:Inverno]]
[[ksh:Wengkter]]
[[ro:Iarnă]]
[[qu:Chiri mit'a]]
[[ru:Зима]]
[[sq:Dimri]]
[[scn:Mmirnata]]
[[simple:Winter]]
[[sk:Zima]]
[[sl:Zima]]
[[so:Jiilaal]]
[[sr:Зима]]
[[sh:Zima]]
[[fi:Talvi]]
[[sv:Vinter]]
[[tl:Taglamig]]
[[ta:மாரிகாலம்]]
[[tt:Кыш]]
[[th:ฤดูหนาว]]
[[tg:Зимистон]]
[[tr:Kış]]
[[tk:Gyş]]
[[uk:Зима]]
[[ur:موسم سرما]]
[[vec:Inverno]]
[[vi:Mùa đông]]
[[fiu-vro:Talv]]
[[wa:Ivier]]
[[zh-classical:冬]]
[[vls:Winter]]
[[war:Kathagkót]]
[[wuu:冬天]]
[[yi:ווינטער]]
[[zh-yue:天時冷]]
[[diq:Zımıstan]]
[[bat-smg:Žėima]]
[[zh:冬季]]

Black Eye Galaxy

2010-11-26T20:00:02Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Modifying: cs:Galaxie Černé oko

{{Galaxybox begin
| name = Black Eye Galaxy<ref name="tonryetal2001">{{cite journal
| author=J. L. Tonry, A. Dressler, J. P. Blakeslee, E. A. Ajhar, A. B. Fletcher, G. A. Luppino, M. R. Metzger, C. B. Moore
| title=The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. IV. SBF Magnitudes, Colors, and Distances
| journal=Astrophysical Journal
| year=2001
| volume=546
| issue=2
| pages=681–693
| url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ApJ...546..681T | doi=10.1086/318301
}}</ref>
}}
{{Galaxybox image
| image = [[Image:Blackeyegalaxy.jpg|250px]]
| caption = The Black Eye Galaxy (M64)
}}
{{Galaxybox observe
| epoch = [[J2000]]
| constell = [[Coma Berenices]]<ref name="sinnott1988">{{cite book
| author=R. W. Sinnott, editor
| title= The Complete New General Catalogue and Index Catalogue of Nebulae and Star Clusters by J. L. E. Dreyer
| year=1988
| publisher=Sky Publishing Corporation and Cambridge University Press
| isbn=0-933-34651-4}}</ref>
| ra = {{RA|12|56|43.7}}<ref name="ned">{{cite web
| title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
| work=Results for NGC 4826
| url=http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/
| accessdate=2006-11-06 }}</ref>
| dec = {{DEC|+21|40|58}}<ref name="ned" />
| appdim_v = 10.71 × 5.128 [[Minute of arc|moa]]<ref name="SIMBAD">{{cite web
| title=Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg
| work=Results for M 64 -- Seyfert Galaxy
| url=http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-id?Ident=M64
| accessdate=2008-07-09 }}</ref>
| appmag_v = 9.36<ref name="ned" />
}}
{{Galaxybox character
| g_type = (R)SA(rs)ab, [[Seyfert galaxy|HIISy2]]
}}
{{Galaxybox astrometry
| h_radial_v = 408
| hrv_err = 4<ref name="ned" />
| z = 0.001361
| z_err = 0.000013<ref name="ned" />
| gal_v = 400
| gv_err = 4
| g_dist = 24
| dist_err = 2
}}
{{Galaxybox catalog
| names = [[Messier object|M]]64,<ref name="ned" /> [[New General Catalogue|NGC]] 4826,<ref name="ned" /> [[Uppsala General Catalogue|UGC]] 8062,<ref name="ned" /> [[Principal Galaxies Catalogue|PGC]] 44182,<ref name="ned" /> Evil Eye Galaxy<ref name="SIMBAD" />
}}
{{Galaxybox reference
| Simbad = M64 Search M64
}}
{{Galaxybox end}}
The '''Black Eye Galaxy''' (also called '''Sleeping Beauty Galaxy'''; designated '''Messier 64''', '''M64''', or '''NGC 4826''') was discovered by [[Edward Pigott]] in March 1779, and independently by [[Johann Elert Bode]] in April of the same year, as well as by [[Charles Messier]] in 1780. It has a spectacular dark band of absorbing dust in front of the galaxy's bright nucleus, giving rise to its nicknames of the "Black Eye" or "Evil Eye" galaxy. M64 is well known among [[amateur astronomy|amateur astronomer]]s because of its appearance in small [[telescope]]s. It is a [[spiral galaxy]] in the [[Coma Berenices|Coma Berenices constellation]].

==General information==
At first glance, M64 seems to be a fairly normal spiral galaxy. As in the majority of galaxies, all of the stars in M64 are orbiting in the same direction, clockwise as seen in the Hubble image.

However, recent detailed studies have led to the remarkable discovery that the interstellar gas in the outer regions of M64 rotates in the opposite direction from the gas and stars in the inner regions. The inner region has a radius of only approximately 3,000 light-years, while the outer section extends another 40,000 light-years. This pattern is believed to trigger the creation of many new stars around the boundary separating the two regions.

A collision of two galaxies has left a merged star system with an unusual appearance as well as bizarre internal motions. Astronomers believe that the oppositely rotating gas arose when M64 absorbed a satellite galaxy that collided with it, perhaps more than one billion years ago. Active formation of new stars is occurring in the shear region where the oppositely rotating gases collide, are compressed, and contract.

Particularly noticeable in the image are hot, blue young stars that have just formed, along with pink clouds of glowing hydrogen gas that fluoresce when exposed to [[ultraviolet]] light from newly formed stars. It is approximately 17 million light years from earth.

The small galaxy that impinged on its neighbour has now been almost completely destroyed, its stars either merged with the main galaxy or scattered into space, but signs of the collision persist in the backward motion of gas at the outer edge of M64.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons|Messier 64|Black Eye Galaxy}}
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m064.html Messier 64, SEDS Messier pages]
* [http://hubblesite.org/news/2004/04 Hubblesite description and high resolution images]
* [http://www.spacetelescope.org/bin/images.pl?searchtype=freesearch&string=m64 ESA/Hubble images of M64]
* [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap070802.html APOD for August 2, 2007]
* {{WikiSky|name=The Black Eye Galaxy}}
* [http://www.petealbrecht.com/blog/M64%20April%2026-27%202008.jpg a real photo by Pete Albrecht]

{{Messier objects}}
{{Sky|12|56|43.7|+|21|40|58|24200000}}
[[Category:Spiral galaxies]]
[[Category:Unbarred spiral galaxies]]
[[Category:Coma Berenices constellation]]
[[Category:Messier objects]]
[[Category:NGC objects]]

[[ar:مجرة العين السوداء]]
[[zh-min-nan:Messier 64]]
[[be:Аб'ект Месье M64]]
[[bg:M64]]
[[ca:Galàxia de l'Ull Negre]]
[[cs:Galaxie Černé oko]]
[[co:M64]]
[[de:Messier 64]]
[[el:Μεσιέ 64]]
[[es:Galaxia del Ojo negro]]
[[eo:M64]]
[[fa:کهکشان سیه‌چشم]]
[[fr:M64]]
[[ko:검은 눈 은하]]
[[hr:Messier 64]]
[[it:Galassia Occhio Nero]]
[[he:גלקסיית העין השחורה]]
[[lb:Messier 64]]
[[lt:Juodosios akies galaktika]]
[[hu:Messier 64]]
[[ms:Galaksi Mata Hitam]]
[[nl:Zwarte Oogstelsel]]
[[ja:黒眼銀河]]
[[nn:Blått auga-galaksen]]
[[pl:Galaktyka Czarne Oko]]
[[pt:Galáxia Black Eye]]
[[ro:Messier 64]]
[[ru:Галактика M64]]
[[sk:Čiernooká galaxia]]
[[sr:Месије 64]]
[[sh:Messier 64]]
[[fi:Mustasilmägalaksi]]
[[sv:M64]]
[[tr:Siyah Göz Gökadası]]
[[uk:NGC 4826]]
[[zh:黑眼星系]]

Turtle

2010-11-26T19:41:10Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Adding: ha:Afifiya

{{Other uses}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Turtles
| image = Florida Box Turtle Digon3 re-edited.jpg
| image_caption = Florida Box Turtle ''[[Terrapene carolina]]''
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|215|0}}[[Triassic]] to Recent
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = '''Testudines'''
| ordo_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 <ref>{{ITIS |id=173749 |taxon=Testudines}}</ref>
| range_map = World.distribution.testudines.1.png
| range_map_caption = blue: sea turtles, black: land turtles
| diversity_link = List of Testudines families
| diversity = 14 extant families with ca. 300 species
| subdivision_ranks = [[Suborder]]s
| subdivision = [[Cryptodira]] [[Pleurodira]] and see [[#Systematics and evolution|text]]
}}

'''Turtles''' are [[reptile]]s of the [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Testudines''' (the [[crown group]] of the [[superorder]] '''Chelonia'''), characterised by a special [[bone|bony]] or [[cartilage|cartilaginous]] [[animal shell|shell]] developed from their [[rib]]s that acts as a [[shield]]. "Turtle" may either refer to the Testudines as a whole, or to particular Testudines which make up a [[form taxon]] that is not [[monophyletic]]—see also [[sea turtle]], [[terrapin]], [[tortoise]], and the discussion [[#Turtle, tortoise, or terrapin|below]].

The order Testudines includes both extant (living) and [[extinction|extinct]] species. The earliest known turtles date from 215 [[million]] years ago,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/dinos/Archelon.shtml |title=Archelon-Enchanted Learning Software |publisher=Enchantedlearning.com |date= |accessdate=2009-03-14}}</ref> making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups and a more ancient group than [[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s and [[Crocodile]]s. Of the many [[species]] alive today some are highly [[endangered species|endangered]].<ref name=barzyk/>

Like other reptiles, turtles are [[ectotherm]]s—varying their internal temperature according to the ambient environment, commonly called [[Poikilotherm|cold-blooded]]. However, [[leatherback sea turtle]]s have noticeably higher body temperature than surrounding water because of their high metabolic rate.

Like other [[amniote]]s (reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, and mammals), they breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, although many species live in or around water. The largest turtles are aquatic.

==Anatomy and morphology==
[[File:Chelonia mydas is going for the air.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Chelonia mydas]]'' in [[Kona District, Hawaii|Kona]], [[Hawaii]].]]
The largest living chelonian is the great [[leatherback turtle|leatherback sea turtle]] (''Dermochelys coriacea''), which reaches a shell length of {{convert|200|cm|ft}} and can reach a weight of over {{convert|900|kg|lb}}. Freshwater turtles are generally smaller, but with the largest species, the Asian softshell turtle ''[[Pelochelys cantorii]]'', a few individuals have been reported up to {{convert|200|cm|ft}}. This dwarfs even the better-known [[alligator snapping turtle]], the largest chelonian in North America, which attains a shell length of up to {{convert|80|cm|ft}} and a weight of about {{convert|60|kg|lb}}.
Giant tortoises of the genera ''[[Geochelone]]'', ''[[Meiolania]]'', and others were relatively widely distributed around the world into prehistoric times, and are known to have existed in North and South America, Australia, and Africa. They became extinct at the same time as the appearance of man, and it is assumed that humans hunted them for food. The only surviving [[giant tortoise]]s are on the [[Seychelles]] and [[Galápagos Islands]], and can grow to over {{convert|130|cm|in}} in length, and weigh about {{convert|300|kg|lb}}.<ref>{{cite web |author=Michael J. Connor |url=http://www.tortoise.org/general/wildfaqs.html#largest |title=CTTC's Turtle Trivia |publisher=Tortoise.org |date= |accessdate=2009-03-14}}</ref>

The largest ever chelonian was ''[[Archelon|Archelon ischyros]]'', a [[Cretaceous|Late Cretaceous]] sea turtle known to have been up to {{convert|4.6|m|ft|0}} long.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oceansofkansas.com/Turtles.html |title=Marine Turtles |publisher=Oceansofkansas.com |accessdate=2009-03-14}}</ref>

The smallest turtle is the [[speckled padloper tortoise]] of South Africa. It measures no more than {{convert|8|cm|in}} in length and weighs about {{convert|140|g|oz}}. Two other species of small turtles are the American [[mud turtle]]s and [[sternotherus|musk turtles]] that live in an area that ranges from [[Canada]] to [[South America]]. The shell length of many species in this group is less than {{convert|13|cm|in}} in length.
[[File:Defensive turtle.jpg|thumb|A turtle with eyes closer to the end of the head. Keeping only the nostrils and the eyes above the water surface.]]
[[File:Turtle1.jpg|thumb|[[African Spurred Tortoise]] in the zoo of [[Sharm el-Sheikh]].]]
[[File:Turtle3m.JPG|thumb|[[African Spurred Tortoise]] at a zoo in the [[Czech Republic]].]]

===Neck folding===
Turtles are divided into two groups, according to how they evolved a solution to the problem of withdrawing their necks into their shells (something the ancestral ''[[Proganochelys]]'' could not do): the [[Cryptodira]], which can draw their necks in while contracting it under their spine; and the [[Pleurodira]], which contract their necks to the side.

===Head===
Most turtles that spend most of their life on land have their eyes looking down at objects in front of them. Some aquatic turtles, such as snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles, have eyes closer to the top of the head. These species of turtles can hide from predators in shallow water where they lie entirely submerged except for their eyes and nostrils. Sea turtles possess glands near their eyes that produce salty tears that rid their body of excess [[salt]] taken in from the water they drink.

Turtles are thought to have exceptional night vision due to the unusually large number of [[rod cell]]s in their retinas. Turtles have color vision with a wealth of cone subtypes with sensitivities ranging from the near ultraviolet (UV A) to red. Some land turtles have very poor [[smooth pursuit|pursuit movement]] abilities, which are normally reserved for predators that hunt quick moving prey, but carnivorous turtles are able to move their heads quickly to snap.

Turtles have a rigid beak. Turtles use their [[jaw]]s to cut and chew food. Instead of teeth, the upper and lower jaws of the turtle are covered by horny ridges. Carnivorous turtles usually have knife-sharp ridges for slicing through their prey. Herbivorous turtles have serrated-edged ridges that help them cut through tough plants. Turtles use their tongues to swallow food, but they cannot, unlike most reptiles, stick out their tongues to catch food.

===Shell===
The upper shell of the turtle is called the ''[[carapace]]''. The lower shell that encases the belly is called the ''[[plastron]]''. The carapace and plastron are joined together on the turtle's sides by bony structures called ''bridges''. The inner layer of a turtle's shell is made up of about 60 bones that include portions of the backbone and the ribs, meaning the turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. In most turtles, the outer layer of the shell is covered by horny scales called [[scute]]s that are part of its outer skin, or [[Epidermis (skin)|epidermis]]. Scutes are made up of a fibrous [[protein]] called [[keratin]] that also makes up the scales of other reptiles. These scutes overlap the seams between the shell bones and add strength to the shell. Some turtles do not have horny scutes. For example, the [[Leatherback sea turtle|Leatherback turtle]] and the soft-shelled turtles have shells covered with leathery skin instead.

The rigid shell means turtles cannot breathe as other reptiles do, by changing the volume of their chest cavity via expansion and contraction of the ribs. Instead, turtles breathe in two ways. First, they employ [[buccal pumping]], pulling air into their mouth then pushing it into the lungs via oscillations of the floor of the throat. Secondly, by contracting the abdominal muscles that cover the posterior opening of the shell, the internal volume of the shell increases, drawing air into the lungs, allowing these muscles to function in much the same way as the mammalian diaphragm.

The shape of the shell gives helpful clues to how the turtle lives. Most tortoises have a large dome-shaped shell that makes it difficult for predators to crush the shell between their jaws. One of the few exceptions is the African [[pancake tortoise]], which has a flat, flexible shell that allows it to hide in rock crevices. Most aquatic turtles have flat, streamlined shells which aid in swimming and diving. American [[Chelydridae|snapping turtles]] and [[sternotherus|musk turtles]] have small, cross-shaped plastrons that give them more efficient leg movement for walking along the bottom of ponds and streams.

The color of a turtle's shell may vary. Shells are commonly colored brown, black, or olive green. In some species, shells may have red, orange, yellow, or grey markings and these markings are often spots, lines, or irregular blotches. One of the most colorful turtles is the eastern [[painted turtle]] which includes a yellow plastron and a black or olive shell with red markings around the rim.

Tortoises, being land-based, have rather heavy shells. In contrast, aquatic and soft-shelled turtles have lighter shells that help them avoid sinking in water and swim faster with more agility. These lighter shells have large spaces called [[fontanelle]]s between the shell bones. The shells of leatherback turtles are extremely light because they lack scutes and contain many fontanelles.

===Skin and molting===
[[File:Turtle-back-galawebdesign.jpg|thumb|Snapping Turtle Tail. Blue Hills Reservation, Massachusetts.]]
As mentioned above, the outer layer of the shell is part of the skin; each scute (or plate) on the shell corresponds to a single modified scale. The remainder of the skin is composed of skin with much smaller scales, similar to the skin of other reptiles. Turtles do not molt their skins all at once, as snakes do, but continuously, in small pieces. When kept in aquaria, small sheets of dead skin can be seen in the water (often appearing to be a thin piece of plastic) having been sloughed off when the animal deliberately rubs itself against a piece of wood or stone. Tortoises also shed skin, but a lot of dead skin is allowed to accumulate into thick knobs and plates that provide protection to parts of the body outside the shell.

By counting the rings formed by the stack of smaller, older scutes on top of the larger, newer ones, it is possible to estimate the age of a turtle, if one knows how many scutes are produced in a year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?articleid=2700 |title=Anatomy and Diseases of the Shells of Turtles and Tortoises |publisher=Peteducation.com |date= |accessdate=2009-03-14}}</ref> This method is not very accurate, partly because growth rate is not constant, but also because some of the scutes eventually fall away from the shell.

===Limbs===
Terrestrial tortoises have short, sturdy feet. Tortoises are famous for moving slowly, in part because of their heavy, cumbersome shell, which restricts stride length.

The amphibious turtles normally have limbs similar to those of tortoises, except the feet are webbed and often have long [[claw]]s. These turtles swim using all four feet in a way similar to the [[dog paddle]], with the feet on the left and right side of the body alternately providing thrust. Large turtles tend to swim less than smaller ones, and the very big species, such as alligator snapping turtles, hardly swim at all, preferring to simply walk along the bottom of the river or lake. As well as webbed feet, turtles have very long claws, used to help them clamber onto riverbanks and floating logs, upon which they like to [[Ectotherm|bask]]. Male turtles tend to have particularly long claws, and these appear to be used to stimulate the female while mating. While most turtles have webbed feet, some, such as the [[pig-nosed turtle]], have true flippers, with the digits being fused into paddles and the claws being relatively small. These species swim in the same way as sea turtles (see below).

Sea turtles are almost entirely aquatic and have [[Flipper (anatomy)|flippers]] instead of feet. Sea turtles fly through the water, using the up-and-down motion of the front flippers to generate thrust; the back feet are not used for propulsion, but may be used as [[rudder]]s for steering. Compared with freshwater turtles, sea turtles have very limited mobility on land, and apart from the dash from the nest to the sea as hatchlings, male sea turtles normally never leave the sea. Females must come back onto land to lay eggs. They move very slowly and laboriously, dragging themselves forwards with their flippers.

==Ecology and life history==
[[File:Turtle in Indonesia.ogv|thumb|Sea turtle swimming]]
Although many turtles spend large amounts of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. They can also spend much of their lives on dry land. Aquatic respiration in Australian freshwater turtles is currently being studied. Some species have large [[cloaca]]l cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called [[wikt:papilla|papillae]], have a rich blood supply, and increase the surface area of the cloaca. The turtles can take up dissolved [[oxygen]] from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use [[gill]]s to respire.

Turtles lay [[egg (biology)|eggs]], like other reptiles, which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Their albumen is white and contains a different protein from bird eggs, such that it will not coagulate when cooked. Turtle eggs prepared to eat consist mainly of yolk. In some species, [[Temperature-dependent sex determination|temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or a female]]: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves. When the turtles hatch, they squirm their way to the surface and head toward the water. There are no known species in which the mother cares for the young.

Sea turtles lay their eggs on dry, sandy beaches. Immature sea turtles are not cared for by the adults. Turtles can take many years to reach breeding age, and in many cases breed every few years rather than annually.

Researchers have recently discovered a turtle’s organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. It was found that the liver, lungs, and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are virtually indistinguishable from those of its immature counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/science/12turt.html All but Ageless, Turtles Face Their Biggest Threat: Humans]</ref>

==Systematics and evolution==
{{See also|List of Testudines families}}
[[File:Haeckel Chelonia.jpg|thumb|"Chelonia" ([[Testudines]]) from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'', 1904.]]
The first proto-turtles are believed to have existed in the early [[Triassic]] Period of the [[Mesozoic]] era, about 220 million years ago, and their shell, which has remained a remarkably stable [[body plan]], is thought to have evolved from bony extensions of their backbones and broad ribs that expanded and grew together to form a complete shell that offered protection at every stage of its evolution, even when the bony component of the shell was not complete. This is supported by fossils of the freshwater ''[[Odontochelys semitestacea]]'' or "half-shelled turtle with teeth", from the late Triassic, which have been found near [[Guangling]] in south-west China. ''Odontochelys'' displays a complete bony plastron and an incomplete carapace, similar to an early stage of turtle embryonic development.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Li C, Wu XC, Rieppel O, Wang LT, Zhao LJ |title=An ancestral turtle from the Late Triassic of southwestern China |journal=Nature |volume=456 |issue=7221 |pages=497–501 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=19037315 |doi=10.1038/nature07533 |ref=harv }}</ref> Prior to this discovery, the earliest-known fossil turtles were terrestrial and had a complete shell, offering no clue to the evolution of this remarkable anatomical feature. By the late [[Jurassic]], turtles had radiated widely, and their fossil history becomes easier to read.

Their exact ancestry is disputed. It was believed that they are the only surviving branch of the ancient [[evolutionary grade]] [[Anapsid]]a, which includes groups such as [[procolophonid]]s, [[millerettid]]s, [[Protorothyrididae|protorothyrids]], and [[pareiasaur]]s. All anapsid skulls lack a temporal opening, while all other extant [[amniote]]s have temporal openings (although in [[mammal]]s the hole has become the [[zygomatic arch]]). The millerettids, protorothyrids, and pareiasaurs became extinct in the late [[Permian]] period, and the procolophonoids during the Triassic.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anapsids/procolophonoidea.html |title=Introduction to Procolophonoidea |publisher=Ucmp.berkeley.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-03-14}}</ref>

However, it was recently suggested that the anapsid-like turtle skull may be due to [[reversion]] rather than to anapsid descent. More recent morphological [[phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] studies with this in mind placed turtles firmly within [[diapsid]]s, slightly closer to [[Squamata]] than to [[Archosaur]]ia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rieppel O, DeBraga M |title=Turtles as diapsid reptiles |journal=Nature |volume=384 |issue= |pages=453–5 |year=1996 |doi=10.1038/384453a0 |ref=harv}}</ref> All [[molecule|molecular]] studies have strongly upheld the placement of turtles within [[diapsid]]s, though some place turtles closer to Archosauria than [[Squamata]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zardoya R, Meyer A |title=Complete mitochondrial genome suggests diapsid affinities of turtles |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=95 |issue=24 |pages=14226–31 |year=1998 |month=November |pmid=9826682 |pmc=24355 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9826682 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.24.14226 |ref=harv}}</ref> Reanalysis of prior phylogenies suggests that they classified turtles as anapsids both because they assumed this classification (most of them studying what sort of anapsid turtles are) and because they did not sample fossil and extant taxa broadly enough for constructing the [[cladistics|cladogram]]. It has been suggested that ''Testudines'' diverged from other diapsids between 200 and 279 million years ago, though the debate is far from settled.<ref>{{cite book|last=Benton|first=M. J.|coauthors=|authorlink=|title=[[Vertebrate Paleontology (Benton)|Vertebrate Paleontology]]|edition=2nd|publisher=Blackwell Science Ltd|location=London|year=2000|isbn=0632056142|series=}}, 3rd ed. 2004 ISBN 0-632-05637-1</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Zardoya|first=R.|coauthors=Meyer, A.|year=1998|title=Complete mitochondrial genome suggests diapsid affinities of turtles|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=24355|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]]|issn=0027-8424|volume=95|issue=24|pages=14226–14231|doi=10.1073/pnas.95.24.14226|pmid=9826682|pmc=24355|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rieppel|first=O.|coauthors=deBraga, M.|year=1996|title=Turtles as diapsid reptiles|url=|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|issn=|volume=384|issue=|pages=453–455|doi=10.1038/384453a0|ref=harv}}</ref>

The earliest known fully-shelled turtle is the late-Triassic ''[[Proganochelys]]''. The genus species already had many advanced turtle traits, and thus probably had many millions of years of preceding turtle evolution and species in its ancestry. It did lack the ability to pull its head into its shell (and it had a long neck), and had a long, spiked tail ending in a club, implying an ancestry occupying a similar niche to the [[ankylosaur]]s (though only through [[parallel evolution]]).

Turtles are divided into three [[order (biology)|suborders]], one of which, the [[Paracryptodira]], is [[extinction|extinct]]. The two [[Extant taxon|extant]] suborders are the [[Cryptodira]] and the [[Pleurodira]]. The Cryptodira is the larger of the two groups and includes all the marine turtles, the terrestrial tortoises, and many of the freshwater turtles. The Pleurodira are sometimes known as the side-necked turtles, a reference to the way they withdraw their heads into their shells. This smaller group consists primarily of various freshwater turtles.

[[File:TURTLEFAMILYTREE.jpg|thumb|600px| A chart of the two extant Testudine suborders. Extinct groups that existed within these two suborders are shown as well.]]

===Turtle genera with basal or uncertain phylogenetic position===
* Genus †''[[Australochelys]]'' (Chelonia ''incertae sedis'')
* Genus †''[[Murrhardtia]]'' (Chelonia ''incertae sedis'')
* Genus †''[[Palaeochersis]]'' (Chelonia ''incertae sedis'')
* Genus †''[[Chinlechelys]]'' (Proganochelydia or basal Testudines)
* Genus †''[[Chelycarapookus]]'' (Testudines ''incertae sedis'')
* Genus †''[[Chitracephalus]]'' (Testudines ''incertae sedis'')
* Genus †''[[Neusticemys]]'' (Testudines ''incertae sedis'')
* Genus †''[[Scutemys]]'' (Testudines ''incertae sedis'')

===Suborder †Proganochelydia===
* Genus †''[[Odontochelys]]'' (tentatively placed here)
* Genus †''[[Proganochelys]]''
[[File:Proganochelys Quenstedti.jpg|thumb|300px|Fossil of ''[[Proganochelys quenstedti]]'', one of the oldest true turtles presently known. Unlike modern Testudines, ''Proganochelys'' was not able to hide its head under the shell.]]

===Suborder Cryptodira===
[[File:Pelomedusa subrufa.JPG|thumb|right|The [[African Helmeted Turtle]] (''Pelomedusa subrufa'') is a [[Pleurodira|pleurodire]]. Pleurodires hide their head sideways.]]
'''Basal genera'''
* Genus †''[[Kayentachelys]]''
* Genus †''[[Indochelys]]''
'''Infraorder †[[Paracryptodira]]'''
* '''Basal and ''incertae sedis'''''
** Family †[[Kallokibotiidae]]
** Family †[[Mongolochelyidae]]
** Family †[[Pleurosternidae]]
** Family †[[Solemydidae]]
* '''Superfamily †[[Baenoidea]]'''
** Family †[[Baenidae]]
** Family †[[Macrobaenidae]]
** Family †[[Neurankylidae]]
'''Infraorder [[Eucryptodira]]'''
*'''Basal and ''incertae sedis'''''
** †''"Sinemys" wuerhoensis''
** Genus †''[[Chubutemys]]'' (Meiolaniidae?)
** Genus †''[[Hangaiemys]]'' (Macrobaenidae?)
** Genus †''[[Judithemys]]''
** Genus †''[[Osteopygis]]''
** Genus †''[[Planetochelys]]''
** Family [[Chelydridae]] (snapping turtles)
** Family †[[Eurysternidae]]
** Family †[[Macrobaenidae]]
** Family †[[Meiolaniidae]] (horned turtles)
** Family †[[Plesiochelyidae]]
** Family †[[Sinemydidae]]
** Family †[[Xinjiangchelyidae]]
* '''Superfamily [[Chelonioidea]]''' (sea turtles)
** Family †[[Protostegidae]]
** Family †[[Thalassemyidae]]
** Family †[[Toxochelyidae]] [[File:T.h. hermanni con speroni 5.JPG|thumb|The [[Hermann's Tortoise|Western Hermann's Tortoise]] (''Testudo hermanni hermanni'') is a [[Cryptodira|cryptodire]]. Cryptodires hide their head inwards.]]
** Family [[Cheloniidae]] (green sea turtles and relatives)
** Family [[Dermochelyidae]] (leatherback turtles)
* '''Superfamily [[Testudinoidea]]'''
** Family †[[Haichemydidae]]
** Family †[[Lindholmemydidae]]
** Family †[[Sinochelyidae]]
** Family [[Platysternidae]] (big-headed turtle)
** Family [[Emydidae]] ([[pond turtle|pond]], [[Box turtle|box]] and [[water turtle]]s)
** Family [[Geoemydidae]] ([[Asian river turtle]]s, [[Asian leaf turtle]]s, [[Asian box turtle]]s and [[roofed turtle]]s)
** Family [[Testudinidae]] (true tortoises)
* '''Superfamily [[Trionychoidea]]'''
** Family †[[Adocidae]]
** Family [[Carettochelyidae]] (pignose turtles)
** Family [[Dermatemydidae]] (river turtles)
** Family [[Kinosternidae]] (mud turtles)
** Family [[Trionychidae]] (softshell turtles)

===Suborder Pleurodira===
* '''Basal and ''incertae sedis'''''
** Family †[[Araripemydidae]]
** Family †[[Proterochersidae]]
** Family [[Chelidae]] (Austro-American sideneck turtles)
* '''Superfamily [[Pelomedusoidea]]'''
** Family †[[Bothremydidae]]
** Family [[Pelomedusidae]] (African sideneck turtles)
** Family [[Podocnemididae]] ([[Madagascan Big-headed Turtle|Madagascan big-headed]] and [[American sideneck river turtle]]s)

==Turtle, tortoise, or terrapin==
Although the word turtle is widely used to describe all members of the order [[Testudines]], it is also common to see certain members described as '''terrapins''', '''tortoises''' or '''sea turtles''' as well. Precisely how these alternative names are used, if at all, depends on the type of English being used.
*[[British English]] normally describes these reptiles as turtles if they live in the sea; terrapins if they live in fresh or [[brackish water]]; or tortoises if they live on land. However, there are exceptions to this where American or Australian common names are in wide use, as with the [[Fly River turtle]].
*[[American English]] tends to use the word turtle as a general term for all species. "Tortoise" is used for most land-dwelling species, including the family [[Testudinidae]] and [[box tortoise]]s. Oceanic species are usually referred to as sea turtles. The name "terrapin" is typically reserved only for the brackish water [[diamondback terrapin]], ''Malaclemys terrapin''; the word terrapin being derived from the [[Algonquian]] word for this animal.<ref>http://www.bartleby.com/61/1/T0120100.html</ref>
*[[Australian English]] uses turtle for both the marine and freshwater species, but tortoise for the terrestrial species.
To avoid confusion, the word '''chelonian''' is popular among veterinarians, scientists, and conservationists working with these animals as a catch-all name for any member of the superorder [[Chelonia]], which includes all turtles, tortoises and terrapins living and extinct, as well as their immediate ancestors. It is based on the [[Ancient Greek]] word χελώνη, ''chelōnē''; [[Modern Greek]] χελώνα, ''chelōna''; meaning turtle/tortoise.

==Distribution==
Seven species of marine turtles are found worldwide. Of these, five have been recorded in Europe.<ref>King, .L. and Berrow, S,D. 2009. Marine turtles in Irish waters. ''Ir. Nat. J. Special Supplement 2009''</ref>

==As pets==
Turtles, particularly small terrestrial and freshwater turtles, are commonly kept as pets. Among the most popular are [[Russian tortoise]]s, [[spur-thighed tortoise]]s, and [[red-eared slider]]s.<ref name="Alderton">David Alderton (1986). ''An Interpret Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians'', Salamander Books Ltd., London & New York.</ref>

In the [[United States]], due to the ease of contracting [[salmonellosis]] through casual contact with turtles, the [[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) established a regulation in 1975 to discontinue the sale of turtles under 4 inches. It is illegal in every state in the U.S. for anyone to sell any turtles under 4 inches long. Many stores and flea markets still sell small turtles due to a loophole in the FDA regulation which allows turtles under 4 inches to be sold for educational purposes.<ref>GCTTS FAQ: ''[http://www.gctts.org/node/31 "4 Inch Law]", actually an FDA regulation''</ref><ref>[http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/12feb20041500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2004/aprqtr/21cfr1240.62.htm Turtles intrastate and interstate requirements; FDA Regulation, Sec. 1240.62, page 678 part d1.]</ref>

Some states have other laws and regulations regarding possession of red-eared sliders as pets because they are looked upon as [[invasive species]] or pests where they are not native, but have been introduced through the pet trade. As of July 1, 2007, it is illegal in Florida to sell any wild type red-eared slider. Unusual color varieties such as albino and pastel red-eared sliders, which are derived from captive breeding, are still allowed for sale.<ref>[http://www.newszap.com/articles/2007/06/30/fl/lake_okeechobee/aok02.txt Turtle ban begins today; New state law], ''newszap.com'', 2007-07-01. Retrieved 2007-07-06.</ref>

==As food, traditional medicine, and cosmetics==
[[File:Hankou-guilinggao-restaurant-0269.JPG|thumb|The window of a restaurant serving [[guilinggao]], decorated with a [[:wiktionary:龜|龜]] ("turtle") character.]]
The flesh of turtles was, and still is, considered a delicacy in a number of cultures.<ref name=barzyk>James E. Barzyk [http://www.tortoisetrust.org/articles/asia.html Turtles in Crisis: The Asian Food Markets]. The article itself is not dated, but mostly refers to data in the range 1995-2000.</ref> [[Turtle soup]] has been a prized dish in Anglo-American cuisine,<ref>[http://www.publicbookshelf.com/public_html/The_Household_Cyclopedia_of_General_Information/turtlesou_beh.html Turtle soup recipe] in ''[http://www.publicbookshelf.com/public_html/The_Household_Cyclopedia_of_General_Information The Household Cyclopedia of General Information]'' (1881)</ref>
and still remains so in some parts of Asia.{{Which?|date=September 2010}} [[Gopher tortoise]] stew was popular with some groups in Florida.<ref>"Gopher Tortoise Stew", in: [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/journeys_recipe.html?c=y&page=2 Recipes from Another Time: Savor the flavor of old St. Augustine and try a couple of these original recipes]. Smithsonian magazine, October 2001</ref>

Turtles remain a part of the traditional diet on the island of [[Grand Cayman]], so much so that when wild stocks became depleted, a [[turtle farming|turtle farm]] was established specifically to raise [[sea turtle]]s for their meat. The farm also releases specimens to the wild as part of an effort to repopulate the Caribbean Sea.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://turtle.ky/history.htm |title = Cayman Islands Turtle Farm |accessdate = 2009-10-28}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

Fat from turtles is also used in [[the Caribbean]] and in [[Mexico]] as a main ingredient in cosmetics, marketed under its Spanish name ''Crema de Tortuga''.<ref>[http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/mag110.htm NOAA Marine Forensics Branch]</ref>

[[File:Xi'an traditionnal medecine market (13).JPG|thumb|left|Turtle [[plastron]]s among other plants and animals parts are used in traditional Chinese medicines. (Other items in the image are dried [[Lingzhi mushroom|lingzhi]], snake, [[Siraitia grosvenorii|luo han guo]], and [[ginseng]]).]]
Turtle [[plastron]]s (the part of the shell that covers a tortoise from the bottom) are widely used in [[traditional Chinese medicine]]; according to statistics, [[Taiwan]] imports hundreds of tons of plastrons every year.<ref name=guiban>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.2744/CCB-0747.1
|journal= Chelonian Conservation and Biology|volume= 8|issue=1|pages=11–18|year= 2009|doi= 10.2744/CCB-0747.1
|title=Unregulated Trade in Turtle Shells for Chinese Traditional Medicine in East and Southeast Asia: The Case of Taiwan
|first1=Tien-Hsi|last1=Chen1|first2= Hsien-Cheh|last2= Chang2|first3= Kuang-Yang|last3= Lue|ref=harv|postscript=}}</ref> A popular medicinal preparation based on powdered turtle plastron (and a variety of herbs) is the [[guilinggao]] jelly;<ref name=dharma1>{{harvnb|Dharamanda}}, APPENDIX 1: "Golden Coin Turtle" (A report dated April 27, 2002 by ECES News (Earth Crash Earth Spirit)).
Quote: "The popularity of turtle jelly can be seen in the success of Ng Yiu-ming. His chain of specialty stores has grown from one shop in 1991 to 68 today, in Hong Kong, Macau, and mainland China. Ng also packs turtle jelly into portable containers sold at convenience stores. He insists no golden coin turtles are used. 'They're too expensive' he said. '... [I]f you know how to choose the herbal ingredients, jelly made from other kinds of turtles will be just as good.'"</ref><ref name=dharma3>{{harvnb|Dharamanda}}, APPENDIX 3: "Tortoise Jelly (Turtle Jelly)"</ref> these days, though, it is typically made with only herbal ingredients.

==Conservation status==
Efforts have been made by Chinese entrepreneurs to satisfy increasing demand for turtle meat as gourmet food and traditional medicine
with farmed turtles, instead of wild-caught ones; according to a study published in 2007, over a thousand turtle farms operated in China.<ref name=ff>"[http://www.fishfarmer-magazine.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/993/Turtle_farms_threaten_rare_species,_experts_say.html Turtle farms threaten rare species, experts say]". ''Fish Farmer'', 30 March 2007. Their source is an article by James Parham, Shi Haitao, and two other authors, published in Feb 2007 in the journal ''Conservation Biology''</ref><ref name=hylton>Hilary Hylton, "[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1618565,00.html Keeping U.S. Turtles Out of China]", ''Time'' Magazine, 2007-05-08. There is also a [http://www.turtlesurvival.org/may082007/ copy] of the article at the TSA site. Articles by [[Peter Paul van Dijk]] are mentioned as the main source.</ref> Turtle farms in [[Oklahoma]] and [[Louisiana]] raise turtles for export to China as well.<ref name=hylton/>

Nonetheless, wild turtles continue to be caught and sent to market in large number (as well as to turtle farms, to be used as breeding stock<ref name=ff/>), resulting in a situation described by conservationists as "the Asian turtle crisis".<ref>Sze Man Cheung, David Dudgeon, "[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/113422781/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 Quantifying the Asian turtle crisis: market surveys in southern China, 2000-2003]". ''Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems'', Volume 16 Issue 7, Pages 751-770. Published Online: 25 Oct 2006</ref> In the words of the biologist George Amato, "the amount and the volume of captured turtles... vacuumed up entire species from areas in Southeast Asia", even as biologists still didn't know how many distinct turtle species live in the region.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/pov/chancesoftheworld/special_video.php A Conversation at the Museum of Natural History]: filmmaker [[Eric Daniel Metzgar]], the creator of the film [[The Chances of the World Changing]], talks to [[George Amato]], the director of conservation genetics at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] about turtle conservation and the relationship between evolution and extinction</ref> It has been estimated that about 75% of Asia's 90 tortoise and freshwater turtle species have become threatened.<ref name=hylton/>

Harvesting wild turtles is legal in a number of states in the USA.<ref name=hylton/> In one of these states, [[Florida]], just a single seafood company in [[Fort Lauderdale]] was reported in 2008 as buying about 5,000 pounds of [[softshell turtle]]s a week. The harvesters (hunters) are paid about $2 a pound; some manage to catch as many as 30-40 turtles (500 pounds) on a good day. Some of the catch gets to the local restaurants, while most of it is exported to Asia. The [[Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission]] estimated in 2008 that around 3,000 pounds of softshell turtles were exported each week via [[Tampa International Airport]].<ref>[http://www.theledger.com/article/20081009/NEWS/810090272?Title=China_Gobbling_Up_Florida_Turtles "China Gobbling Up Florida Turtles"], By Craig Pittman, St. Petersburg Times. Published: Thursday, October 9, 2008</ref>

Nonetheless, the great majority of turtles exported from the USA are farm raised. According to one estimate by the [[World Chelonian Trust]], about 97% of 31.8 million animals harvested in the U.S. over a three-year period (November 4, 2002 - November 26, 2005) were exported.<ref name=hylton/><ref>[http://www.chelonia.org/articles/us/USmarket_51.htm Declared Turtle Trade From the United States - Totals]</ref> It has been estimated (presumably, over the same 2002-2005 period) that about 47% of the US turtle exports go to [[People's Republic of China]] (predominantly to [[Hong Kong]]), another 20% to [[Taiwan]], and 11% to [[Mexico]].
<ref>[http://www.chelonia.org/articles/us/Destinations.htm Declared Turtle Trade From the United States - Destinations] (Major destinations: 13,625,673 animals to Hong Kong, 1,365,687 to the rest of the PRC, 6,238,300 to Taiwan, 3,478,275 to Mexico, and 1,527,771 to Japan, 945,257 to Singapore, and 596,966 to Spain.</ref>
<ref>[http://www.chelonia.org/articles/us/Observations.htm Declared Turtle Trade From the United States - Observations]</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Snapping turtle 3 md.jpg|Closeup head-on view of a [[Common Snapping Turtle|common snapping turtle]] (''Chelydra serpentina''), taken near the [[Saint Lawrence River|St. Lawrence River]] in northern [[New York|New York State]]
File:Random Turtle.jpg|Turtle in the backyard of a [[Florida]] Resident.
</gallery>

==In culture==
{{Main|Cultural depictions of turtles and tortoises}}

==See also==
{{Wikipedia-Books|Turtles}}
* [[Adwaita]] — a giant turtle that was reportedly 250 years old when it died in 2006
* [[Araripemys arturi]]
* [[Turtle racing]]
{{-}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |title=Turtles and Crocodiles of Insular Southeast Asia and New Guinea |author=Iskandar, DT |year=2000 |publisher=Palmedia – ITB |location=Bandung }}
*{{Cite book |author=Pritchard, Peter Charles Howard |title=Encyclopedia of turtles |publisher=T.F.H. Publications |location=Neptune, NJ |year=1979 |isbn=0-87666-918-6 }}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikibooks|Keeping Pet Turtles}}
{{Sister project links}}
{{Wikispecies|Testudines}}
{{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Testudines}}
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/anapsids/testudines/testudines.html UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology]
* [http://www.studbook.ffept.org/pti_stats.php?lang=en Chelonian studbook] Collection and display of the weights/sizes of captive turtles
* [http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/fauna-of-australia/pubs/volume2a/ar18ind.pdf Biogeography and Phylogeny of the Chelonia] (taxonomy, maps)
* [http://www.heosemys.org/names.php The word 'turtle' in different languages]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17442-embryo-origami-gives-the-turtle-its-shell.html New Scientist article (including video) on how the turtle evolved its shell]

[[Category:Turtles| ]]
[[Category:Testudinidae]]

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Lysimachia maritima

2010-11-26T19:27:36Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Adding: hsb:Pomórska sywowka

{{Distinguish2|the OpenGL Auxiliary Library [[OpenGL#Associated_utility_libraries|GLAux]]}}
{{taxobox
|name = ''Glaux maritima''
|image = Glaux maritima (USDA).jpg
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
|ordo = [[Ericales]]
|familia = [[Myrsinaceae]]
|genus = '''''Glaux'''''
|genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
|species = '''''G. maritima'''''
|binomial = ''Glaux maritima''
|binomial_authority = L.
|}}
'''''Glaux''''' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants containing the single species '''''Glaux maritima''''', which is known by a number of common names, including '''sea milkwort''', '''sea milkweed''', and '''black saltwort'''. This is a plant of the family [[Myrsinaceae]] (formerly [[Primulaceae]]). It grows in coastal habitats, in both wet ground and water, and is a native to [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. This plant differs from all other genera of the former Primulaceae in having [[Petal|apetalous]] [[flower]]s with a pink, petaloid [[sepal|calyx]]. It is generally pentamerous both in the calyx and the seed capsule.

==External links==
*[http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?6393,6416,6417 Jepson Manual Treatment]
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=GLMA USDA Plants Profile]
*[http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=photos_index&where-taxon=Glaux+maritima Photo gallery]

[[Category:Myrsinaceae]]
[[Category:Monotypic plant genera]]
[[Category:Eudicot genera]]
{{Myrsinaceae-stub}}
[[Category:Flora of Pakistan]]

[[de:Strand-Milchkraut]]
[[et:Rannikas]]
[[es:Glaux]]
[[ko:갯봄맞이]]
[[hsb:Pomórska sywowka]]
[[nl:Melkkruid]]
[[pl:Mlecznik nadmorski]]
[[pt:Glaux]]
[[fi:Merirannikki]]
[[sv:Strandkrypa]]
[[tr:Deniz süt otu]]

Eggplant

2010-11-26T18:28:52Z

Nallimbot: [r2.5.2] robot Adding: bi:Obesin

{{Redirect2|Aubergine|Melongene|the color|Eggplant (color)}}
{{Merge from|Solanum ovigerum|date=September 2008}}

{{taxobox
|name = Eggplant / Aubergine / Melongene / Brinjal
|image = Solanum melongena ja02.jpg
|regnum = [[Plantae]]
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Asterids]]
|ordo = [[Solanales]]
|familia = [[Solanaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Solanum]]''
|species = '''''S. melongena'''''
|binomial = ''Solanum melongena''
|binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
|synonyms = ''Solanum ovigerum'' Dunal 
''Solanum trongum'' Poir. 
and see [[#Synonyms|text]]
|}}

The '''eggplant''', '''aubergine''', '''melongene''', '''brinjal''', or '''guinea squash''' (''Solanum melongena'') is a plant of the family ''[[Solanaceae]]'' (also known as the nightshades) and genus ''[[Solanum]]''. It bears a [[fruit]] of the same name, commonly used as a [[vegetable]] in cooking. As a [[nightshade]], it is closely related to the [[tomato]] and [[potato]] and is native to [[Nepal]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Sri Lanka]].

It is a delicate [[perennial plant|perennial]] often cultivated as an [[annual plant|annual]]. It grows 40 to 150 cm (16 to 57 in) tall, with large coarsely lobed [[leaf|leaves]] that are 10 to 20 cm (4–8 in) long and 5 to 10 cm (2–4 in) broad. (Semi-)wild types can grow much larger, to 225 cm (7 ft) with large leaves over 30 cm (12 in) long and 15 cm (6 in) broad. The stem is often [[spine (botany)|spiny]]. The [[flower]]s are white to purple, with a five-lobed [[Corolla (flower)|corolla]] and yellow [[stamen]]s. The [[fruit]] is fleshy, has a meaty texture, less than {{convert|3|cm}} in diameter on wild plants, but much larger in cultivated forms.

The fruit is botanically classified as a [[berry]], and contains numerous small, soft [[seed]]s, which are edible, but are bitter because they contain [[nicotine|nicotinoid]] [[alkaloid]]s, unsurprising as it is a close relative of [[tobacco]].

==History==
[[Image:Eggplant (Flower).jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Solanum melongena'', flower]]

The plant is native to [[India]].<ref>Tsao and Lo in "Vegetables: Types and Biology". ''Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering'' by Yiu H. Hui (2006). CRC Press. ISBN 1574445510.</ref><ref>Doijode, S. D. (2001). ''Seed storage of horticultural crops'' (pp 157). Haworth Press: ISBN 1560229012</ref> It has been cultivated in southern and eastern [[Asia]] since prehistory{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} but appears to have become known to the Western world no earlier than ca. 1500. The first known written record of the plant is found in [[Qí mín yào shù]], an ancient Chinese agricultural treatise completed in 544.<ref>{{cite |author=Fuchsia Dunlop |title=Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province |publisher=Ebury Press |year=2006 |pages=202}}</ref> The numerous [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and North African names for it, along with the lack of the ancient Greek and Roman names, indicate that it was introduced throughout the [[Mediterranean area]] by the [[Arabs]] in the early [[Middle Ages]]. The scientific name ''Solanum melongena'' is derived from a 16th century Arabic term for one variety.

The name ''eggplant'', used in the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Canada]] refers to the fact that the fruits of some 18th century European cultivars were yellow or white and resembled goose or hen's eggs.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} The name ''aubergine'', which is used in British English, is an adoption from the French word (derived from [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''albergínia,'' from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[wikt:باذنجان#Arabic|al-baðinjān]]'' from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''[[wikt:بادنجان#Persian|bâdenjân]]'', from [[Sanskrit]] ''[[wikt:वातिगगम#Sanskrit|vātiga-gama]]''). In Indian, South African, Malaysian and Singaporean English, the fruit is known as a ''[[wikt:brinjal#English|brinjal]]'', which derives directly from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''beringela''. ''Aubergine'' and ''brinjal'', with their distinctive br-jn or brn-jl aspects, derive from Persian and Sanskrit. A less common British English word is ''melongene'' which is also from French (derived from Italian "melanzana" from Greek "μελιτζάνα" from Arabic ''[[wikt:باذنجان#Arabic|al-baðinjān]]''). In the Caribbean [[Trinidad]], it also goes by "meloongen" from melongene.

Because of the plant's relationship with the [[Solanaceae|Solanaceae (nightshade) family]], the fruit was at one time believed to be extremely dangerous.

==Cultivated varieties==
[[Image:Three Types of Eggplant.jpg|thumb|Three varieties of eggplant]]
[[File:Makhuea - Thai eggplant.JPG|thumb|left|In [[Thai cuisine]] small and round varieties are preferred.]]
Different varieties of the plant produce fruit of different size, shape and color, though typically purple. There are even orange varieties.

The most widely cultivated varieties ([[cultivar]]s) in [[Europe]] and [[North America]] today are elongated ovoid, 12–25 cm wide (4½ to 9 in) and 6–9 cm broad (2 to 4 in) in a dark purple skin.

A much wider range of shapes, sizes and colors is grown in India and elsewhere in Asia. Larger varieties weighing up to a kilogram (2 pounds) grow in the region between the [[Ganges]] and [[Yamuna]] rivers, while smaller varieties are found elsewhere. Colors vary from white to yellow or green as well as reddish-purple and dark purple. Some cultivars have a color gradient, from white at the stem to bright pink to deep purple or even black. Green or purple cultivars in white striping also exist. Chinese varieties are commonly shaped like a narrower, slightly pendulous [[cucumber]], and were sometimes called Japanese eggplants in North America.

Oval or elongated oval-shaped and black-skinned cultivars include ''Harris Special Hibush'', ''Burpee Hybrid'', ''Black Magic'', ''Classic'', ''Dusky'', and ''Black Beauty''. Slim cultivars in purple-black skin include ''Little Fingers'', ''Ichiban'', ''Pingtung Long'', and ''Tycoon''; in green skin ''Louisiana Long Green'' and ''Thai (Long) Green''; in white skin ''Dourga''. Traditional, white-skinned, egg-shaped cultivars include ''Casper'' and ''Easter Egg''. Bicolored cultivars with color gradient include ''Rosa Bianca'' and ''Violetta di Firenze''. Bicolored cultivars in striping include ''Listada de Gandia'' and ''Udumalapet''. In some parts of India, miniature varieties (most commonly called ''Vengan'') are popular. A particular variety of green brinjal known as Matti Gulla is grown in [[Matti village]] of Udupi district in Karnataka state in India.

==Cooking==
{{Commons category|Eggplant-based food}}
The raw fruit can have a somewhat bitter taste, but becomes tender when cooked and develops a rich, complex flavor. Salting and then rinsing the sliced fruit (known as "degorging") can soften and remove much of the bitterness though this is often unnecessary. Some modern varieties do not need this treatment, as they are far less bitter.{{citation}} The fruit is capable of absorbing large amounts of cooking fats and sauces, allowing for very rich dishes, but the salting process will reduce the amount of oil absorbed. The fruit flesh is smooth; as in the related [[tomato]], the numerous [[seeds]] are soft and edible along with the rest of the fruit. The thin skin is also edible, so peeling is not required.

[[Image:Melanzane alla Parmigiana.jpg|thumb|[[Parmigiana|Melanzane alla Parmigiana]], or Eggplant Parmesan.]]

The plant is used in cuisines from [[Japanese cuisine|Japan]] to [[Spanish cuisine|Spain]]. It is often stewed, as in the French [[ratatouille]], the [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] [[Eggplant parmesan|melanzane alla parmigiana]], the Turkish [[musakka]], and [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle-Eastern]] and [[South Asian cuisine|South Asian]] dishes. Eggplants can also be battered before deep-frying and served with a sauce made of tahini and tamarind. In Iranian cuisine, it can be blended with whey as ''[[kashk]] e-bademjan'', tomatoes as ''mirza ghasemi'' or made into stew as ''khoresh-e-bademjan''. It can be sliced and [[deep-fried]], then served with plain [[yoghurt]], (optionally) topped with a tomato and garlic sauce such as in the [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish dish]] ''patlıcan kızartması'' or without yoghurt as in ''patlıcan şakşuka''. However, arguably the most famous Turkish eggplant dish is [[İmam bayıldı]].

It may also be roasted in its skin until charred, so that the pulp can be removed and blended with other ingredients such as lemon, tahini, and garlic, as in the Middle Eastern dish [[baba ghanoush]] and the similar [[Greek cuisine|Greek dish]] [[melitzanosalata]]. Grilled, mashed and mixed with [[onions]], [[tomatoes]] and [[spices]] make the [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] dish [[Baingan Bartha|Baingan ka Bhartha]] or ''Gojju'', similar to [[Salată de vinete]] in [[Romanian cuisine|Romania]], while a mix of roasted eggplant, roasted red peppers, chopped onions, tomatoes, mushrooms, carrots, celery and spices is called [[Zacuscă ]] in Romania or [[Ajvar]] in [[Serbian cuisine|Serbia]] and [[Balkans]].

The fruit can also be stuffed with [[meat]], [[rice]], or other fillings and then baked. In the [[Caucasus]], for example, it is fried and stuffed with [[walnut paste]] to make [[nigvziani badrijani]]. It can also be found in Chinese cuisine, braised (紅燒茄子), stewed (魚香茄子), steamed (凉拌茄子）, or stuffed (釀茄子).

As a native plant, it is widely used in [[Indian cuisine]], for example in [[sambar (dish)|sambhar]], [[dalma]] (a dal preparation with vegetables, native to Orissa), [[chutney]], [[curries]], and [[Indian pickle|achaar]]. Owing to its versatile nature and wide use in both everyday and festive Indian food, it is often described (under the name brinjal) as the 'King of Vegetables'. In one dish, Brinjal is stuffed with ground [[coconut]], [[peanuts]], and [[masala]] and then cooked in oil.

In [[Pakistan]] it is called ''Bengun'' while in [[Bangladesh]], it is called ''Begun'' (বেগুন). It, along with the fish [[Hilsa]], is used to cook a famous Bengali wedding dish.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Slices of eggplant are marinated with salt and chilli powder, covered with a batter of [[gram flour|bashone]] and deep-fried and eaten as a snack. This is called [[Beguni]] (বেগুনি) or Bataun or Bhata or Baigana Bhaja (In Oriya).

==Cultivation==
[[Image:Eggplantoutput.png|thumb|300px|right|Worldwide eggplant production]]
In [[tropical climate|tropical]] and [[subtropical climate]]s, eggplant can be sown directly into the garden. Eggplant grown in [[temperate]] climates fares better when transplanted into the garden after all danger of [[frost]] is passed. Seeds are typically started eight to ten weeks prior to the anticipated frost-free date.

Many pests and diseases which afflict other solanaceous vegetables, such as tomato, pepper (capsicum), and potato, are also troublesome to eggplants. For this reason, it should not be planted in areas previously occupied by its close relatives. Four years should separate successive crops of eggplants. Common [[North America]]n pests include the [[Colorado potato beetle|potato beetle]], [[flea beetle]], [[aphid]]s, and [[Tetranychus urticae|spider mites]]. (Adults can be removed by hand, though flea beetles can be especially difficult to control.) Good sanitation and crop-rotation practices are extremely important for controlling fungal disease, the most serious of which is [[Verticillium]].

Spacing should be 45 cm (18 in.) to 60 cm (24 in.) between plants, depending on cultivar, and 60 cm to 90 cm (24 to 36 in.) between rows, depending on the type of cultivation equipment being used. [[Mulch]]ing will help conserve moisture and prevent weeds and fungal diseases. The flowers are relatively unattractive to [[bee]]s and the first blossoms often do not set fruit. [[Hand pollination]] will improve the set of the first blossoms. Fruits are typically cut from the vine just above the calyx owing to the semi-woody stems. Flowers are [[Perfect_flower#Individual_reproductive_unit_.28a_flower_in_angiosperms.29|complete]], containing both female and male structures, and may be [[Self-pollination|self-pollinated]] or [[Cross_pollination#Mechanics|cross-pollinated]].<ref name="Polination of Vegetable Crops">{{Cite web| last=Westerfield| first=Robert| url=http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubs/PDF/C934.pdf| title=Pollination of Vegetable Crops| accessdate=2009-07-01| date=2008-11-14| format=pdf}}</ref>

==Statistics==
[[Image:Eggplant-sliced.jpg|right|thumb|A purple eggplant which has been sliced in half, showing the inside. The flesh surrounding the seeds is already beginning to [[oxidize]] and will turn brown just minutes after slicing.]]

Production of eggplant is highly concentrated, with 85 percent of output coming from five countries. China is the top producer (56% of world output) and India is second (26%); Egypt, Turkey and Indonesia round out the top producing nations. More than 4 million acres (2,043,788 hectares) are devoted to the cultivation of eggplant in the world.<ref name="FAOSTAT">{{Cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |title=FAOSTAT |accessdate=2007-04-24 |date=2008-11-11 |work=FAO}}</ref> In the United States, Georgia is the largest producing state.<ref>http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/vegetables/eggplant_profile.cfm</ref>

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="65%" class="wikitable" align=left style="clear:left"
! colspan=5|Top ten eggplant/aubergine producers — 2009
|-
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="25%" | Country
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="15%" | Production ([[Tonne]]s)
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="10%" | Footnote
|-
| {{PRC}} || align=right |19 026 154|| align=right | F
|-
| {{IND}} || align=right |10 378 000 || align=right |
|-
| {{EGY}} || align=right |1 250 000 || align=right | F
|-
| {{TUR}} || align=right |816 134 || align=right |
|-
| {{IDN}} || align=right |449 997 || align=right | F
|-
| {{IRQ}} || align=right |396 155 || align=right | F
|-
| {{JPN}} || align=right |349 200 || align=right | F
|-
| {{ITA}} || align=right |245 300 || align=right |
|-
| {{PHL}} || align=right |200 942 || align=right |
|-
| {{ESP}} || align=right |175 000 || align=right | F
|-
| bgcolor=#cccccc|{{noflag}}'''World'''
| bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | '''35 326 379'''
| bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | '''A'''
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:.7em"|No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates); 
Source: [http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division]{{Failed verification|date=August 2009}} 
|}
{{-}}

==Health properties==
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Eggplant, raw
| kJ=102
| protein=1.01 g
| fat=0.19 g
| carbs=5.7 g
| fiber=3.4 g
| sugars=2.35 g
| glucose=
| fructose=
| iron_mg=0.24
| manganese_mg=0.25
| calcium_mg=9
| magnesium_mg=14
| phosphorus_mg=25
| potassium_mg=230
| zinc_mg=0.16
| vitC_mg=2.2
| pantothenic_mg=0.281
| vitB6_mg=0.084
| folate_ug=22
| thiamin_mg=0.039
| riboflavin_mg=0.037
| niacin_mg=0.649
| right=1
| source_usda=1 }}

Studies of the Institute of Biology of São Paulo State University, Brazil, have shown that eggplant is effective in the treatment of [[hypercholesterolemia|high blood cholesterol]] {{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}. Another study from Heart Institute of the University of São Paulo found no effects at all and does not recommend eggplant as a replacement to [[statin]]s.<ref>Juliana Marchiori Praça, Andréa Thomaz, Bruno Caramelli. "Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Extract Does Not Alter Serum
Lipid Levels". Arq Bras Cardiol, volume 82 (nº 3), 273–6, 2004.</ref>

It helps to block the formation of [[free radicals]] and is also a source of [[folic acid]] and [[potassium]].<ref>[http://www.health24.com/dietnfood/Healthy_foods/15-18-20-127.asp Health24.com] – Aubergine</ref>

Eggplant is richer in [[nicotine]] than any other edible plant, with a concentration of 100 ng/g (or 0.01 mg/100g). However, the amount of nicotine from eggplant or any other food is negligible compared to [[passive smoking]].<ref>Edward F. Domino, Erich Hornbach, Tsenge Demana, [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/329/6/437?ijkey=09174147c440b96900667f3fef93fd3cd0100cee&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha The Nicotine Content of Common Vegetables], The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 329:437 August 5, 1993 Number 6</ref> On average, 20 lbs (9 kg) of eggplant contains about the same amount of nicotine as a [[cigarette]].

==Allergies==
Case reports of itchy skin and/or mouth after handling and/or eating eggplant have been reported anecdotally and published in medical journals (see also [[oral allergy syndrome]]). A recent (2008) study of a sample of 741 people in India (where eggplant is commonly consumed) found that nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, while 1.4% showed symptoms in less than 2 hours.<ref>B. N. Harish Babu * , P. A. Mahesh † and Y. P. Venkatesh * A cross-sectional study on the prevalence of food allergy to eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) reveals female predominance. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 38(11):1795–1802, 2008</ref>
Contact dermatitis from eggplant leaves<ref>Kabashima K, Miyachi Y. Contact dermatitis due to eggplant Contact Dermatitis 2004;50(2):101–102</ref> and allergy to eggplant flower pollen<ref>Gerth van Wijk R, Toorenenbergen AW, Dieges PH. Occupational pollinosis in commercial gardeners. [Dutch] Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1989;133(42):2081-3</ref> have also been reported. Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to hypersensitivity, such as hayfever) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be because eggplant is high in [[histamines]]. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens.<ref>SN Pramod,* YP Venkatesh. Allergy to Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Caused by a Putative Secondary Metabolite. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2008; Vol. 18(1): 59–62</ref> Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process.

==Varieties==
*''Solanum melongena var. esculentum'' common eggplant ([[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] Beauty)<ref>[http://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/73062/ Solanum melongena var. esculentum 'Ukrainian Beauty'] PlantFiles</ref>
*''Solanum melongena var. depressum'' dwarf eggplant
*''Solanum melongena var. serpentium'' snake eggplant

==Genetically engineered variety==
[[Bt brinjal]] is a [[genetically modified food|transgenic]] eggplant which has a gene from the soil bacterium [[Bacillus thuringiensis]] inserted into it. This variety was designed to give the plant resistance against [[lepidoptera]]n insects like the brinjal fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and fruit borer ([[Helicoverpa armigera]]).<ref>[http://www.csa-india.org/downloads/GE/bt_brinjal_briefing_paper.pdf Briefing Paper on Bt brinjal] Centre for Sustainable Agriculture</ref>

On 9 February 2010 the Indian Environment Minister, Jairam Ramesh, imposed a moratorium on the cultivation of Bt brinjal.<ref>{{Cite news| title = India says no to first GM food crop | newspaper = Agence France-Presse (AFP) | location = New Delhi | date = 9 February 2010 | url = http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hx8gKVOxrM8-7Pkj6nWSsPwbXBIw | accessdate =  | postscript = }}</ref> His decision was made after protest from several groups responding to regulatory approval of the cultivation of Bt brinjal in October, 2009. Ramesh stated that the moratorium will last "for as long as it is needed to establish public trust and confidence".

==Synonyms==
The eggplant is quite often featured in the older scientific literature under the [[junior synonym]]s ''S. ovigerum'' and ''S. trongum''. A list of other now-invalid names have been uniquely applied to it:<ref name = ss2008>Solanaceae Source [2008]</ref>
*''Melongena ovata'' Mill.
*''Solanum album'' Noronha
*''Solanum insanum'' L.
*''Solanum longum'' Roxb.
*''Solanum melanocarpum'' Dunal
*''Solanum melongenum'' St.-Lag.
*''Solanum oviferum'' Salisb.

A number of [[subspecies]] and [[variety (botany)|varieties]] have been named, mainly by Dikii, Dunal, and (invalidly) by Sweet. Names for various eggplant types, such as ''agreste, album, divaricatum, esculentum, giganteum, globosi, inerme, insanum, leucoum, luteum, multifidum, oblongo-cylindricum, ovigera, racemiflorum, racemosum, ruber, rumphii, sinuatorepandum, stenoleucum, subrepandum, tongdongense, variegatum, violaceum and viride'', are not considered to refer to anything more than [[cultivar]] groups at best. On the other hand, ''[[Solanum incanum]]'' and [[Cockroach Berry]] (''S. capsicoides''), other eggplant-like nightshades described by [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] and [[Carlo Allioni|Allioni]] respectively, were occasionally considered eggplant varieties. But this is not correct.<ref name = ss2008 />

The eggplant has a long history of [[taxonomic]] confusion with the [[Scarlet Eggplant|Scarlet]] and [[Ethiopian eggplant]]s, known as gilo and nakati and described by Linnaeus as ''S. aethiopicum''. The eggplant was sometimes considered a variety ''violaceum'' of that species. ''S. violaceum'' of [[A. P. de Candolle|de Candolle]] applies to Linnaeus' ''S. aethiopicum''. There is an actual ''S. violaceum'', an unrelated plant described by Ortega, which used to include Dunal's ''S. amblymerum'' and was often confused with the same author's ''S. brownii''.<ref name = ss2008 />

Like the [[potato]] and ''Solanum lichtensteinii''—but unlike the [[tomato]] which back then was generally put in a different genus—the eggplant was also described as ''S. esculentum'', in this case once more in the course of [[Michel Félix Dunal|Dunal]]'s work. He also recognized varieties ''aculeatum'', ''inerme'' and ''subinerme'' at that time. Similarly, [[Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher|H.C.F. Schuhmacher]] & [[Peter Thonning]] named the eggplant as ''S. edule'', which is also a junior synonym of [[Sticky Nightshade]] (''S sisymbriifolium''). [[Giovanni Antonio Scopoli|Scopoli]]'s ''S. zeylanicum'' refers to the eggplant, that of Blanco to ''[[Solanum lasiocarpum|S. lasiocarpum]]''.<ref name = ss2008 />

==See also==
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* ''[[Solanum aethiopicum]]''
* [[Eggplant salad]]
** [[Baba ghanoush]]
** [[Salată de vinete]] ([[Romanian cuisine]])
* [[Escalivada]] ([[Catalan cuisine]])
* [[Musakka]] ([[Turkish cuisine]])
* [[Mutabbel]] (Lebanese cuisine)
* [[Thai eggplant]]
</div>

==Image gallery==
<gallery>

Image:mattigulla.jpg|Matti Gulla
Image:Japaneseeggplant.jpg|Japanese eggplant
Image:Japanese eggplant flower.jpg |Japanese eggplant flower
Image:Eggplant.JPG
Image:Eggplant (Fruit).jpg|fruit
Image:Eggplant.jpg
Image:Aubergines.jpg|Purple eggplants
Image:Aubergine.jpg|
Image:Eggplant flower.JPG|Eggplant flower
Image:Thai eggplant flowers-KayEss-2.jpeg|The flowers of the [[Thai eggplant]]
Image:Thai eggplant fruit-KayEss-2.jpeg|The fruit of the Thai eggplant. The white residue on the leaves is common.
Image:Auberginej.jpg|A long slender eggplant.
Image:Brinjal Plant.JPG|Brinjal plant from India.The green fruits turn yellow when ripe.
</gallery>
{{Clear}}

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{aut|Solanaceae Source}} [2008]: [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/research/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?taxa=3819 ''Solanum melongena'']. Retrieved 2008-SEP-25.

==External links==
{{Commons|Solanum melongena}}
{{Cookbook|Eggplant}}
*[http://www.learn2grow.com/plantdatabase/plants/PlantDetails.aspx?PlantID=1717178f-ad75-4049-835e-e94d57ad90be Growing eggplant in your garden]
*[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Solanum+melongena Aubergine]: Plants for a Future database
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/projects/solanaceaesource/taxonomy/description-detail.jsp?spnumber=3819 ''Solanum melongena'' L. on Solanaceae Source]: Images, specimens and a full list of scientific synonyms previously used to refer to the eggplant.
*[http://food.life-knowledge.com/Vegetables/eggplant.aspx Eggplant's Nutritional Values] Eggplant nutritional values and best ways to consume

[[Category:Eggplants| ]]
[[Category:Flora of the Maldives]]
[[Category:Crops originating from India]]
[[Category:Tropical fruit]]
[[Category:Fruits originating in Asia]]

[[ace:Truëng]]
[[ang:Ǣȝƿyrt]]
[[ar:باذنجان]]
[[az:Badımcan]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kiô (si̍t-bu̍t)]]
[[bi:Obesin]]
[[bo:རྡོ་ལུ་མ།]]
[[bs:Patlidžan]]
[[bg:Патладжан]]
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Benedict of Nursia

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:''"Saint Benedict" redirects here. This article is about the founder of Western monasticism; for other saints named Benedict, see [[Benedict]].''
{{Infobox Saint
|name=Saint Benedict of Nursia
|birth_date=480 [[Common Era|CE]]
|death_date=547 [[Common Era|CE]]
|feast_day=July 11 ([[Roman Catholic calendar of saints]]), ([[Anglican Communion]]) March 14 ([[Byzantine Rite]]) March 21 (on local calendars and in the [[General Roman Calendar of 1962]])
|venerated_in=[[Roman Catholic Church]] [[Anglican Communion]] [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] [[Lutheran Church]]
|image=Fra Angelico 031.jpg
|imagesize=250px
|caption=''Saint Benedict.'' Detail from a fresco by [[Fra Angelico]]
|birth_place=[[Norcia]] ([[Umbria]], [[Italy]])
|death_place=[[Monte Cassino]]
|titles=Abbot Patron of Europe
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=1220
|canonized_place=[[Rome]]
|canonized_by=[[Pope Honorius III]]
|attributes=-Bell -Broken cup -Broken cup and serpent representing poison -Broken utensil -Bush -Crosier -Man in a Benedictine cowl holding Benedict's rule or a rod of discipline -Raven
|patronage=-Against [[poison]] -Against witchcraft -Agricultural workers -Cavers -Civil engineers -[[Coppersmith]]s -Dying people -Erysipelas -[[Europe]] -Farmers -Fever -Gall stones -[[Heerdt]] ([[Germany]]) -Inflammatory diseases -Italian architects -Kidney disease -Monks -Nettle rash -[[Norcia]] ([[Italy]]) -People in religious orders -[[Schoolchildren]] -Servants who have broken their master's belongings -Speliologists -Spelunkers -Temptations
|major_shrine=[[Monte Cassino]] Abbey, with his burial 
[[Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire]], near [[Orléans]], France 
[[Sacro Speco]], at [[Subiaco, Italy]]
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}

'''Saint Benedict of Nursia''' ({{lang-it|San Benedetto da Norcia}}) (480–547) is a Christian saint, honored by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as the [[patron saint]] of Europe and students.

Benedict founded twelve communities for monks at [[Subiaco, Italy|Subiaco]], about {{convert|40|mi|km}} to the east of [[Rome]], before moving to [[Monte Cassino]] in the mountains of [[southern Italy]]. There is no evidence that he intended to found a [[Roman Catholic religious order|religious order]]. The [[Order of St Benedict]] is of modern origin and, moreover, not an "order" as commonly understood but merely a confederation of autonomous congregations.<ref>Called into existence by Pope Leo XIII's Apostolic Brief "Summum semper", 12 July 1893, see [http://www.osb-international.info/index/en.html OSB-International website]</ref>

Benedict's main achievement is his "Rule", containing [[precepts]] for his monks. It is heavily influenced by the writings of [[John Cassian]], and shows strong affinity with the [[Rule of the Master]]. But it also has a unique spirit of balance, moderation and reasonableness (ἐπιείκεια, ''epieikeia''), and this persuaded most religious communities founded throughout the Middle Ages to adopt it. As a result, the [[Rule of Benedict]] became one of the most influential religious rules in Western Christendom. For this reason Benedict is often called the founder of western Christian monasticism.

==Biography==
Apart from a short poem, attributed to Mark of Monte Cassino, the only ancient account of Benedict is found in the second volume of [[Pope Gregory I]]'s four-book ''[[Dialogues]]'', thought to have been written in 593. The authenticity of this work has been hotly disputed, especially by Dr Francis Clarke in his two volume work "The Pseudo-Gregorian Dialogues". Book Two consists of a prologue and thirty-eight succinct chapters.<ref>''Life and Miracles of St. Benedict'' (''Book II, Dialogues''), translated by Odo John Zimmerman, O.S.B. and Benedict R. Avery, O.S.B. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), p. iv.</ref>

Gregory’s account of this saint’s life is not, however, a biography in the modern sense of the word. It provides instead a spiritual portrait of the gentle, disciplined abbot. In a letter to Bishop Maximilian of Syracuse, Gregory states his intention for his ''Dialogues'', saying they are a kind of ''floretum'' (an ''anthology'', literally, ‘flowers’) of the most striking miracles of Italian holy men.<ref name="fn_4">See Ildephonso Schuster, ''Saint Benedict and His Times'', Gregory J. Roettger, trans. (London: B. Herder, 1951), p. 2.</ref>

Gregory did not set out to write a chronological, historically anchored story of St. Benedict, but he did base his anecdotes on direct testimony. To establish his authority, Gregory explains that his information came from what he considered the best sources: a handful of Benedict’s disciples who lived with the saint and witnessed his various miracles. These followers, he says, are Constantinus, who succeeded Benedict as [[Abbot]] of [[Monte Cassino]]; Valentinianus; Simplicius; and Honoratus, who was abbot of [[Subiaco, Italy|Subiaco]] when St Gregory wrote his ''Dialogues''.

In Gregory’s day, history was not recognized as an independent field of study; it was a branch of grammar or rhetoric, and ''historia'' (defined as ‘story’) summed up the approach of the learned when they wrote what was, at that time, considered ‘history.’<ref name="fn_6">See Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis, editor, ''Historiography in the Middle Ages'' (Boston: Brill, 2003), pp. 1–2.</ref> Gregory’s ''Dialogues'' Book Two, then, an authentic medieval hagiography cast as a conversation between the Pope and his deacon Peter, is designed to teach spiritual lessons.

==Early life==
Benedict was the son of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] noble of [[Nursia]], the modern Norcia, in [[Umbria]]. A tradition which [[Bede]] accepts makes him a twin with his sister [[Scholastica]]. St Gregory's narrative makes it impossible to suppose him younger than 19 or 20. He was old enough to be in the midst of his literary studies, to understand the real meaning and worth of the dissolute and licentious lives of his companions, and to have been deeply affected himself by the love of a woman (Ibid. II, 2). He was capable of weighing all these things in comparison with the life taught in the [[Gospels]], and chose the latter. He was at the beginning of life, and he had at his disposal the means to a career as a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] noble; clearly he was not a child. If we accept the date 480 for his birth, we may fix the date of his abandonment of his studies and leaving home at about 500 AD.

Benedict does not seem to have left Rome for the purpose of becoming a [[hermit]], but only to find some place away from the life of the great city. He took his old nurse with him as a servant and they settled down to live in [[Enfide]], near a church to [[Saint Peter|St Peter]], in some kind of association with "a company of virtuous men" who were in sympathy with his feelings and his views of life. Enfide, which the tradition of Subiaco identifies with the modern [[Affile]], is in the [[Monti Simbruini|Simbruini]] mountains, about forty miles from Rome and two from [[Subiaco, Italy|Subiaco]].

[[Image:Benedetto, Mauro e Placido.jpg|thumb|200px|left|St Benedict orders [[Saint Maurus]] to the rescue of [[Saint Placidus]], by [[Fra Filippo Lippi]], 1445 A.D. .]]

A short distance from Enfide is the entrance to a narrow, gloomy valley, penetrating the mountains and leading directly to Subiaco. Crossing the [[Aniene]] and turning to the right, the path rises along the left face off the ravine and soon reaches the site of [[Nero]]'s villa and of the huge mole which formed the lower end of the middle lake; across the valley were ruins of the [[Roman baths]], of which a few great arches and detached masses of wall still stand. Rising from the mole upon 25 low arches, the foundations of which can even yet be traced, was the bridge from the villa to the baths, under which the waters of the middle lake poured in a wide fall into the lake below. The ruins of these vast buildings and the wide sheet of falling water closed up the entrance of the valley to St Benedict as he came from Enfide; today the narrow valley lies open before us, closed only by the far-off mountains. The path continues to ascend, and the side of the ravine, on which it runs, becomes steeper, until we reach a cave above which the mountain now rises almost perpendicularly; while on the right, it strikes in a rapid descent down to where, in St Benedict's day, {{convert|500|ft|m}} below, lay the blue waters of the lake. The cave has a large triangular-shaped opening and is about ten feet deep.

On his way from Enfide, Benedict met a monk, [[Romanus of Subiaco]], whose monastery was on the mountain above the cliff overhanging the cave. Romanus had discussed with Benedict the purpose which had brought him to Subiaco, and had given him the monk's habit. By his advice Benedict became a hermit and for three years, unknown to men, lived in this cave above the lake.

==Later life==
St Gregory tells us little of these years. He now speaks of Benedict no longer as a youth (''puer''), but as a man (''vir'') of God. Romanus, he twice tells us, served the saint in every way he could. The monk apparently visited him frequently, and on fixed days brought him food.

During these three years of solitude, broken only by occasional communications with the outer world and by the visits of Romanus, Benedict matured both in mind and character, in knowledge of himself and of his fellow-man, and at the same time he became not merely known to, but secured the respect of, those about him; so much so that on the death of the abbot of a monastery in the neighbourhood (identified by some with [[Vicovaro]]), the community came to him and begged him to become its abbot. Benedict was acquainted with the life and discipline of the monastery, and knew that "their manners were diverse from his and therefore that they would never agree together: yet, at length, overcome with their entreaty, he gave his consent" (ibid., 3). The experiment failed; the monks tried to [[poison]] him, and he returned to his cave. The legend goes that they first tried to poison his drink. He prayed a blessing over the cup and the cup shattered. Then they tried to poison him with poisoned bread. When he prayed a blessing over the bread, a [[raven]] swept in and took the loaf away. From this time his miracles seem to have become frequent, and many people, attracted by his sanctity and character, came to Subiaco to be under his guidance. For them he built in the valley twelve monasteries, in each of which he placed a superior with twelve monks. In a thirteenth he lived with ''a few, such as he thought would more profit and be better instructed by his own presence'' (ibid., 3). He remained, however, the father, or abbot, of all. With the establishment of these monasteries began the schools for children; and among the first to be brought were [[Saint Maurus]] and [[Saint Placidus]].

==Veneration==
St. Benedict spent the rest of his life realizing the ideal of monasticism which he had drawn out in his [[Rule of St Benedict|rule]]. He died at [[Monte Cassino]], Italy, while standing in prayer to God. According to tradition, this occurred on March 21, 547. He was named patron protector of Europe by [[Pope Paul VI]] in 1964.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=556 | title=St. Bendict of Nursia | publisher=Catholic Online | accessdate=2008-07-31}}</ref>

In the [[General Roman Calendar of 1962|pre-1970 Roman Calendar]], his feast is kept on the day of his death, 21 March. Because on that date his [[liturgy|liturgical]] [[memorial (liturgy)|memorial]] would always be impeded by the observance of [[Lent]],<ref>"Calendarium Romanum" (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), pp. 97 and 119</ref> the [[Roman Catholic calendar of saints]] transferred his feast day to 11 July, the date on which some monasteries commemorated the translation of his relics to the [[Fleury Abbey|monastery of St. Benoit-sur-Loire]] in Northern France.

St. Beneict is honored with a [[feast day]] on the [[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church in the United States of America)|liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA)]] on July 11.

==Rule of St. Benedict==
{{Main|Rule of St Benedict}}
[[File:StBenedictVadeRetroSatana.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Image of Saint Benedict with a cross and a scroll stating ''[[Vade Retro Satana]]'' based on the last page of the 1415 book found in the library of [[Metten Abbey]], clarifying the initials on the St. Benedict medal.]]
[[File:2002 Austria 50 Euro Christian Religious Orders front.jpg|160px|thumb|right|[[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)#2002 coinage|Austria 50 euro 'The Christian Religious Orders' commemorative coin]]]]

Seventy-three short chapters comprise the ''Rule''. Its wisdom is of two kinds: spiritual (how to live a Christocentric life on earth) and administrative (how to run a monastery efficiently). More than half the chapters describe how to be obedient and humble, and what to do when a member of the community is not. About one-fourth regulate the work of God (the Opus Dei). One-tenth outline how, and by whom, the monastery should be managed. And two chapters specifically describe the abbot’s pastoral duties.

==The Saint Benedict Medal==
{{Main|Saint Benedict Medal}}

This medal originally came from a cross in honor of St Benedict. On one side, the medal has an image of St Benedict, holding the Holy Rule in his left hand and a cross in his right. There is a raven on one side of him, with a cup on the other side of him. Around the medal's outer margin are the words ''"Eius in obitu nostro praesentia muniamur"'' ("May we, at our death, be fortified by His presence"). The other side of the medal has a cross with the initials '''CSSML''' on the vertical bar which signify ''"Crux Sacra Sit Mihi Lux"'' ("May the Holy Cross be my light") and on the horizontal bar are the initials '''NDSMD''' which stand for ''"Non Draco Sit Mihi Dux"'' ("Let not the dragon be my overlord"). The initials '''CSPB''' stand for ''"Crux Sancti Patris Benedicti"'' ("The Cross of the Holy Father Benedict") and are located on the interior angles of the cross. Either the inscription ''"PAX"'' (Peace) or the [[Christogram]] ''"[[IHS]]"'' may be found at the top of the cross in most cases. Around the medal's margin on this side are the ''[[Vade Retro Satana]]'' initials '''VRSNSMV''' which stand for ''"Vade Retro Satana, Nonquam Suade Mihi Vana"'' ("Begone Satan, do not suggest to me thy vanities") then a space followed by the initials '''SMQLIVB''' which signify ''"Sunt Mala Quae Libas, Ipse Venena Bibas"'' ("Evil are the things thou profferest, drink thou thy own poison").<ref name="Benedict pp 60">"The Life of St Benedict," by St. Gregory the Great, Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, pp 60–62</ref>

This medal was first struck in 1880 to commemorate the fourteenth centenary of St Benedict's birth and is also called the Jubilee Medal; its exact origin, however, is unknown. In 1647, during a witchcraft trial at [[Natternberg]] near [[Metten Abbey]] in [[Bavaria]], the accused women testified they had no power over Metten, which was under the protection of the cross. An investigation found a number of painted crosses on the walls of the abbey with the letters now found on St Benedict medals, but their meaning had been forgotten. A manuscript written in 1415 was eventually found that had a picture of Saint Benedict holding a scroll in one hand and a staff which ended in a cross in the other. On the scroll and staff were written the full words of the initials contained on the crosses. Medals then began to be struck in Germany, which then spread throughout Europe. This medal was first approved by [[Pope Benedict XIV]] in his briefs of December 23, 1741, and March 12, 1742.<ref name="Benedict pp 60"/>

Saint Benedict has been also the motive of many collector's coins around the world. The [[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)#2002 coinage|Austria 50 euro 'The Christian Religious Orders']], issued in March 13, 2002 is one of them.

==The influence of St. Benedict==
{{Expand section|date=November 2008}}

The early Middle Ages have been called "the Benedictine centuries."<ref>{{Cite web| title = Western Europe in the Middle Ages | accessdate = 2008-11-17 | url = http://www.northern.edu/marmorsa/medievallec1.htm |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080602064810/http://www.northern.edu/marmorsa/medievallec1.htm  |archivedate = 2008-06-02}}</ref> In April 2008, Pope [[Benedict XVI]] discussed the influence St Benedict had on Western Europe. The pope said that “with his life and work St Benedict exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture” and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history" that followed the fall of the [[Roman empire]].<ref>Benedict XVI, "Saint Benedict of Norcia" Homily given to a general audience at St Peter's Square on Wednesday, 9 April 2008 {{Cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080409_en.html |title= ?|author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref>

To this day, The Rule of St. Benedict is the most common and influential Rule used by monasteries and monks, more than 1400 years after its writing.

The leaders of the Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, when choosing a single figure from each century of Christian History, chose Benedict of Nursia as the most important figure of the 6th Century.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9B05E3DF1239EF3ABC4D52DFB1668389639EDE |title=? |author= |date= July 15, 1922|work= |publisher=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.museumplanet.com/tour.php/nyc/sjd/106 |title=? |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref>

The influence of St Benedict produced "a true spiritual ferment" in Europe, and over the coming decades his followers spread across the continent to establish a new cultural unity based on Christian faith.

In 1964, [[Pope Paul VI]] named St Benedict as [[patron saint]] of [[Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=57724 |title=Catholic World News: St. Benedict and the key to European unity |author= |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=4 August 2010}} </ref>

==See also==
*[[Anthony the Great]]
*[[Benedictine|Benedictine Order]]
*[[Camaldolese]]
*[[Hermit]]
*[[Poustinia]]
*[[San Beneto]]
*[[Vade retro satana]]

{{Commons category|Benedict of Nursia}}{{Wikiquote}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Catholic|wstitle=St. Benedict of Nursia}}
* {{Cite book|last=Gardner|first=Edmund G. (editor)|title=[http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE9 ''The Dialogues of Saint Gregory the Great'']|publisher=Evolution Publishing|location=Merchantville, NJ|year=1911. Reprinted 2010|ISBN=9781889758947}}
*"The Life of St Benedict," by St. Gregory the Great, Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, ISBN 0-89555-512-3

==Gallery of pictures related to St Benedict==
<gallery>
Image:Melk16.jpg|St. Benedict and the cup of poison (Melk Abbey, Austria)
Image:Gold-colored_small_Saint_Benedict_crucifix.jpg|Small gold-colored St Benedict Crucifix
Image:Saint_Benedict_Rosary_Center.jpg|St Benedict Medal Rosary Center
Image:Heiligenkreuz.St. Benedict.jpg|Portrait (1926) by [[Herman Nieg]] (1849–1928); Heiligenkreuz Abbey, Austria
</gallery>

==External links==
* [http://www.reephambenefice.org.uk/christophermorgancromar.html A Benedictine Oblate Priest – The Rule in Parish Life]
* [http://www.e-benedictine.com Guide to Saint Benedict]
* [http://www.benedettini-subiaco.org/benedettini/081.htm Sacro speco, Grotta della Preghiera – general view] [http://www.benedettini-subiaco.it/inglese/PAGINE/grotta%20di%20san%20benedetto.html" – enlarged view]
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/benedict/rule2/files/rule2.html The Holy Rule of St. Benedict] – Online translation by Rev. Boniface Verheyen, OSB, of St. Benedict's Abbey
* [http://www.osb.org The Order of Saint Benedict]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=m8MPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA124&dq=inauthor:gueranger&as_brr=1#PPR7,M1 The Medal Or Cross of St. Benedict: Its Origin, Meaning, and Privileges]
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/gregory_02_dialogues_book2.htm Life and Miracles of St Benedict]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-34826}}
*{{Cite web| title = The Life of St. Benedict: Introduction | accessdate = 2008-11-17 | url = http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/whbenintro.htm }}

{{Catholicism||collapsed}}
{{Roman Catholic Theology||collapsed}}
{{History of the Catholic Church|uncollapsed}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Benedict Of Nursia
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Norcia]] ([[Umbria]], [[Italy]])
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =[[Monte Cassino]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Benedict Of Nursia}}
[[Category:480 births]]
[[Category:547 deaths]]
[[Category:History of Catholic monasticism]]
[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:Founders of Roman Catholic religious communities]]
[[Category:Benedictine spirituality]]
[[Category:Twin people]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Perugia]]
[[Category:5th-century Italian people]]
[[Category:6th-century Italian people]]
[[Category:6th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:Saints of the Golden Legend]]
[[Category:Witchcraft]]
[[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
[[Category:Benedictine saints]]
[[Category:Medieval Italian saints]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]

[[bs:Sveti Benedikt]]
[[br:Benead Norcia]]
[[bg:Бенедикт Нурсийски]]
[[ca:Benet de Núrsia]]
[[cs:Benedikt z Nursie]]
[[da:Benedikt af Nurcia]]
[[de:Benedikt von Nursia]]
[[et:Benedictus]]
[[el:Βενέδικτος της Νούρσια]]
[[es:Benito de Nursia]]
[[eo:Benedikto de Nursio]]
[[fo:Bænadikt frá Nursia]]
[[fr:Benoît de Nursie]]
[[gl:Bieito de Nursia]]
[[ko:베네딕토]]
[[hr:Sveti Benedikt]]
[[io:Benedictus di Nursia]]
[[id:Benediktus dari Nursia]]
[[is:Benedikt frá Núrsíu]]
[[it:Benedetto da Norcia]]
[[he:בנדיקטוס מנורסיה]]
[[sw:Benedikto wa Nursia]]
[[la:Benedictus de Nursia]]
[[hu:Nursiai Szent Benedek]]
[[nl:Benedictus van Nursia]]
[[ja:ヌルシアのベネディクトゥス]]
[[no:Benedikt av Nursia]]
[[pl:Benedykt z Nursji]]
[[pt:Bento de Núrsia]]
[[ro:Benedict de Nursia]]
[[ru:Бенедикт Нурсийский]]
[[sc:Benedetto dae Norcia]]
[[sq:Shën Benedikti i Nursisë]]
[[scn:San Binidittu di Nurcia]]
[[sk:Benedikt z Nursie]]
[[sr:Бенедикт Нурсијски]]
[[sh:Sveti Benedikt]]
[[fi:Benedictus Nursialainen]]
[[sv:Benedikt av Nursia]]
[[tl:Benito ng Nursia]]
[[th:เบเนดิกต์แห่งเนอร์เซีย]]
[[tr:Benedict (Norcialı)]]
[[uk:Святий Бенедикт]]
[[vec:San Benéto da Norcia]]
[[war:Benedict han Nursia]]
[[zh:圣本笃]]

Private military company

2010-10-31T09:09:24Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: pt:Empreiteira militar

{{Cleanup|date=April 2008}}
[[File:Republican Palace, Baghdad.jpg|thumb|[[Blackwater Worldwide|Blackwater Security]] guarding U.S. State Department employees at the [[Republican Palace]] in [[Baghdad]].]]
A '''private military company''' ('''PMC''') provides staff and services of a military nature. The hiring of professional soldiers is a common practice in the history of armed conflict. Historically, these soldiers are commonly known as [[Mercenary|mercenaries]]. However, modern-day PMCs prefer to call their active staff '''security contractors''', '''private military contractors''' or '''private security contractors''', and prefer to be known themselves as '''private military corporations''', '''private military firms''', '''private security providers''' or '''military service providers'''. They refer to their business generally as the '''private military industry''', in order to avoid the negative stigma often associated with mercenaries.

The services and expertise cover those typically found in governmental military or police forces, but most often on a smaller scale. While PMCs often provide services to train or supplement official [[armed forces]] in service of governments, they can also be employed by private companies to provide [[bodyguard]]s for key staff or protection of company premises, especially in hostile territories. However, contractors who use offensive force in a [[Conflict|war zone]] could be considered [[unlawful combatant]]s, thereby referring to the "concept" being implicitly mentioned in the [[Geneva Conventions]] and explicitly specified by the US [[Military Commissions Act of 2006|Military Commissions Act]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/front/la-na-blackwater15oct15,1,6804674,full.story?coll=la-headlines-frontpage&ctrack=2&cset=true
|title=America's own unlawful combatants?
|first=Julian E..
|last=Barnes
|publisher=Los Angeles Times
|date=2007-10-15}}</ref>

Private military companies carry out many different missions and jobs. These include things such as supplying bodyguards to the Afghan president [[Hamid Karzai]] and piloting reconnaissance airplanes and helicopters as a part of [[Plan Colombia]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=38576
|title=COLOMBIA-ECUADOR: Coca Spraying Makes for Toxic Relations
|first=Constanza
|last=Vieira
|publisher=IPS
|date=2007-07-17}}</ref>
<ref name="autogenerated1">''[http://www.colectivodeabogados.org/article.php3?id_article=1253 Private Security Transnational Enterprises in Colombia]'' [[José Alvear Restrepo Lawyers' Collective]] February, 2008.</ref> They are also licensed by the [[United States Department of State]], they are contracting with foreign governments, training soldiers and reorganizing militaries in [[Nigeria]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Equatorial Guinea]] <ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.informationliberation.com/?id=26599
|title=Private military companies to supersede regular armies
|first=Viktor
|last=Shishkov
|publisher=informationliberation
|date=2009-03-02}}</ref>. The PMC industry is now worth over $100 billion a year.<ref name="Soldiers of Good Fortune">{{cite news|last=Yeoman|first=Barry|title=Soldiers of Good Fortune|publisher=Mother Jones|date=2003-06-01|url=http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2003/05/ma_365_01.html|accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>

==General terms==
Private military companies are sometimes grouped into the general category of [[defense contractor]]s. However, most defense contractors supply specialized hardware and perhaps also personnel to support and service that hardware, whereas PMCs supply personnel with specialized operational and tactical skills, which often include combat experience.

The 1949 [[Third Geneva Convention]] (GCIII) does not recognize the difference between defense contractors and PMCs; it defines a category called ''supply contractors''. If the supply contractor has been issued with a valid identity card from the armed forces which they accompany, they are entitled to be treated as [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] upon capture (GCIII Article 4.1.4). If, however, the contractor engages in combat, he/she can be classified as a [[mercenary]] by the captors under the 1977 ''Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions'' ([[Protocol I]]) Article 47.c, unless falling under an exemption to this clause in Article 47. If captured contractors are found to be mercenaries, they are [[unlawful combatant]]s and lose the right to prisoner of war status. Protocol I was not ratified by the United States because, among other issues, it does not require [[insurgents]] to obey the convention in order to be granted its protections.

There are efforts by the nations and the industry itself to better regulate the duties of contracting states and the rights of the companies and their workforce. For example, there is an initiative by the [[Red Cross]], the non-binding [[Montreux Document]], and the [[International Peace Operations Association]] (IPOA) code of conduct.

==United States==
Throughout US history, civilian contractors have supported the [[US Army]] on the battlefield and have become an indispensable part of its war fighting and peacekeeping capabilities.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}

In 1985, [[LOGCAP]] was established primarily to preplan for contingencies and to leverage the existing civilian resources. However, it was not until three years later before it was first used. In support of a [[United States Army Central|United States Third Army]] mission, the United States [[Army Corps of Engineers]] (USACE) used LOGCAP to contract for the construction and maintenance of two petroleum pipelines systems in [[Southwest Asia]].

Later, USACE awarded the first contract under LOGCAP umbrella concept to Brown and Root Services (now [[KBR (company)|KBR]]) in August 1992 as a cost-plus-award-fee contract, which was used in December that year to support the [[United Nations]] forces in [[Somalia]].

Some contractors have served in advisory roles that help train local militaries to fight more than effectively instead of intervening directly. Much of the [[peacekeeper]] training the United States provides to African militaries is done by private firms, and with the increasing absence of Western military support to international peace operations, the private sector is commonly utilized to provide services to [[peace and stability operations]] from [[Haiti]] to [[Darfur]].

The [[Center for Public Integrity]] reported that since 1994, the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] entered into 3,601 contracts worth $300 billion with 12 U.S. based PMCs. Some view this as an inevitable cost cutting measure and responsible [[privatization]] of critical aspects of a military. However, many{{Who|date=July 2010}} feel this is a troubling trend, since these private companies are not directly accountable to a legislative body and may cost more than providing the same functions within the military. Seventeen of the nation's leading private military firms have contributed $12.4 million in congressional and presidential campaigns since 1999.<ref name="Soldiers of Good Fortune" />

Another issue of concern has been the recent high-profile operation of various PMCs within the [[United States]], specifically during the initial response after [[Hurricane Katrina]] in [[New Orleans]]. Supporters{{Who|date=July 2010}} are quick to point out the stabilizing influence that the operators of these companies put into place in the first few days provided, whereas detractors have levied claims of abuse and unlawful activities. Neither side has provided much proof to back their claims, however, beyond anecdotal evidence.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

Domestic operations are generally under the auspice of state or federal agencies such as the [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]] or the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] rather than the Department of Defense. Driven by increasingly greater fears of domestic [[terror attacks]] and civil unrest and disruption in the wake of disasters, more conventional security companies are moving into operations arenas that would fall within the definition of a PMC.

The [[United States State Department]] also employs several companies to provide support in danger zones that would be difficult for conventional U.S. forces.

===U.S. administration policy on PMCs===
On December 5, 2005, U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]] held a lecture dubbed "The Future of Iraq" at [[Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies]].<ref>[http://www.sais-jhu.edu/pubaffairs/media_events/Media_Advisories/MA2005/rumsfeld05.html Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld to Speak at JHU SAIS], press release December 2, 2005</ref> During a Q&A session afterwards he was asked a question by graduate student Kate Turner regarding PMCs:

<blockquote>'''Turner''': "There are currently thousands of private military contractors in Iraq and you were just speaking of [[rules of engagement]] in regards to Iraqi personnel and US personnel. Could you speak to, since the [[private contractors]] are operating outside the [[Uniform Code of Military Justice]], can you speak to what law or rules of engagement do govern their behavior and whether there has been any study showing that it is cost effective to have them in Iraq rather than [[US military personnel]]. Thank you."</blockquote>

<blockquote>'''Rumsfeld''': "Thank you. It is clearly cost-effective to have contractors for a variety of things that military people need not do, and that for whatever reason other civilians, government people, cannot be deployed to do.
There are a lot of contractors, a growing number. They come from our country but they come from all countries, and indeed sometimes the contracts are from our country or another country and they employ people from totally different countries including Iraqis and people from neighboring nations. And there are a lot of them. It's a growing number.
Of course we've got to begin with the fact that, as you point out, they're not subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice. We understand that. There are laws that govern the behavior of Americans in that country. The [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] oversees that.

There is an issue that is current as to the extent to which they can or cannot carry [[weapons]], and that's an issue. It's also an issue, of course, with the Iraqis. But if you think about it, Iraq’s a sovereign country. They have their laws and they're going to govern, the [[United Nations|UN]] resolution and the Iraqi laws, as well as U.S. procedures and laws govern behavior in that country depending on who the individual is and what he's doing. But I personally am of the view that there are a lot of things that can be done for a short time basis by contractors that advantage the United States and advantage other countries who also hire [[contractors]], and that any idea that we shouldn't have them I think would be unwise."<ref>[http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=1361 Secretary Rumsfeld's Remarks to the John Hopkins, Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies]</ref></blockquote>

===Application of UCMJ to PMCs===
The [[fiscal year|FY2007]] Defense Budget [[appropriation bill]], amended the [[Uniform Code of Military Justice|UCMJ]] to allow for prosecution of [[military contractor]]s who are deployed in a "declared war or a contingency operation."

<blockquote>"SEC. 552. CLARIFICATION OF APPLICATION OF UNIFORM CODE OF MILITARY JUSTICE DURING A TIME OF WAR.

Paragraph (10) of section 802(a) of title 10, United States Code (article 2(a) of the Uniform Code of [[Military Justice]]), is amended by striking 'war' and inserting 'declared war or a contingency operation'."
<ref>[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:h5122: Bill Number H.R.5122 for the 109th Congress]</ref><ref>[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/billtext.xpd?bill=h109-5122 H.R. 5122 109th: John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007]</ref></blockquote>

Farah Stockman of the ''[[Boston Globe]]'', (7 January 2007) wrote:<blockquote>"Previously, the code applied to 'persons serving with or accompanying an armed force in the field' only during a war, which US courts interpreted to mean a [[war]] declared by Congress. No such declaration was made in the [[Iraq War|Iraq conflict]]. Now, Congress has amended the code to apply to persons accompanying an armed force during a 'declared war or contingency operation.'

But the provision might also have [[unintended consequence]]s, if the [[military]] chooses to use its new power to court-martial civilians. For instance, the language in the law is so broad that it can be interpreted as saying that embedded [[journalists]] and contract employees from foreign countries would also be liable under the military code. Other punishable offenses under the code include disobeying an order, disrespecting an officer, and possession of pornography in a [[combat zone]]."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/news/world/middleeast/articles/2007/01/07/contractors_in_war_zones_lose_immunity/|title=Contractors in war zones lose immunity|publisher=The Boston Globe|author=Farah Stockman|date=01-07-2007}}</ref></blockquote>

===International legal issues===
In October 2007, the [[United Nations]] released a two-year study that stated, that although hired as "security guards", private contractors were performing military duties. The report found that the use of contractors such as Blackwater was a "new form of mercenary activity" and illegal under [[International law]]. Many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, are not signatories to the 1989 ''[[United Nations Mercenary Convention]]'' banning the use of mercenaries.<ref>Higgins Alexander G.[http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-10-17-3392316246_x.htm US rejects UN mercenary report] [[USA Today]], October 17, 2007 (syndicated article by [[Associated Press]])</ref>

==Recruitment==
Discharged military personnel make up the majority of Western contractors. The boom of the private security industry that took place in the 1990s can be traced back to the over 6 million military personnel that were discharged in that decade. Post Cold War military reduction has also expanded the recruiting pool for PMCs. In some cases, entire elite units, such as the South African 32nd Reconnaissance Battalion and the former Soviet “Alfa” unit have been reorganized into private military companies.<ref>Zabiki, Feliz [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=5&hid=9&sid=4d40ba1c-96af-446e-ad9b-13cd8366bc88%40sessionmgr12 "Private Military Companies: Shadow Soldiers of Neo-colonialism"], [[Capital & Class]], Summer 2007, issue 92 p1-10, Retrieved on 2010-3-22.</ref>

Some commentators have argued that there has been a recent exodus from many [[special operations forces]] across the globe towards these private military corporations. Units that have allegedly been severely affected include The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Special Air Service]],<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/02/14/nsas14.xml Crisis as SAS men quit for lucrative Iraq jobs], The Daily Telegraph article dated 15/02/2005</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/05/23/nirq123.xml Soldiers to be allowed a year off to go to Iraq to earn £500 a day as guards], The Daily Telegraph article dated 23/05/2004</ref> the [[US Special Operations Forces]] <ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/02/07/welite07.xml $150,000 incentive to stay in US elite forces], The Daily Telegraph article dated 07/02/2005</ref> and the [[Canadian Army|Canadian]] [[Joint Task Force 2]]<ref>[http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/story.html?id=1109da57-944c-45a4-962d-9f89d591341a Special forces get pay raise], [[National Post]] article dated August 26, 2006</ref>. Finding work in the industry is not difficult for most former soldiers as their personal network of fellow and ex-soldiers is enough to keep them informed of available contracts.

==PMC activities in Iraq==
In December, 2006, in [[Iraq]] there are thought to be at least 100,000 contractors working directly for the [[United States Department of Defense]] which is a tenfold increase in the use of private contractors for military operations since the [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]], just over a decade earlier.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/04/AR2006120401311.html|title=Census Counts 100,000 Contractors in Iraq|publisher=Washington Post|last=Merle|first=Renae|date=2006-12-05}}</ref> The prevalence of PMCs has led to the foundation of [[trade group]] the [[Private Security Company Association of Iraq]]. In Iraq, the issue of [[accountability]], especially in the case of contractors carrying weapons is a sensitive one. Iraqi laws do not hold over contractors. Just before leaving office as head of the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]], [[Paul Bremer]] signed [[Coalition Provisional Authority Order 17]] where it is stated that:

<blockquote>Contractors shall not be subject to Iraqi laws or regulations in matters relating to the
terms and conditions of their Contracts, including licensing and registering
employees, businesses and corporations; provided, however, that Contractors shall
comply with such applicable licensing and registration laws and regulations if
engaging in business or transactions in Iraq other than Contracts. Notwithstanding
any provisions in this Order, Private Security Companies and their employees
operating in Iraq must comply with all CPA Orders, Regulations, Memoranda, and
any implementing instructions or regulations governing the existence and activities
of Private Security Companies in Iraq, including registration and licensing of
weapons and firearms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cpa-iraq.org/regulations/20040627_CPAORD_17_Status_of_Coalition__Rev__with_Annex_A.pdf|title=Coalition Provisional Authority Order 17 (revised)|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-12-30}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref></blockquote>

PMCs supply support to U.S. military bases throughout the [[Persian Gulf]], from operating mess halls to providing security. They supply armed guards at a U.S. Army base in [[Qatar]], and they use live ammunition to train soldiers at Camp Doha in [[Kuwait]]. They maintain an array of weapons systems vital to an invasion of Iraq. They also provide bodyguards for VIPs, guard installations, and escort supply convoys from Kuwait. All these resources are called upon constantly due to the [[war in Iraq]].<ref name="Soldiers of Good Fortune" />

===Events involving PMCs in Iraq===

* Employees of private military company [[CACI]] and [[Titan Corp.]] were involved in the Iraq [[Abu Ghraib prison scandal]] in 2003, and 2004. The U.S. Army "found that contractors were involved in 36 percent of the [Abu Ghraib] proven incidents and identified 6 employees as individually culpable",<ref name=PWS>[[Peter W. Singer|P. W. Singer]] (March/April 2005) ''Outsourcing War''. [[Foreign Affairs]]. [[Council on Foreign Relations]]. New York City, NY</ref> although none have faced prosecution unlike US military personnel.<ref name=PWS/>
* On March 31, 2004, four American private contractors belonging to the company [[Blackwater USA]] were killed by [[Insurgency|insurgents]] in [[Fallujah]] as they drove through the town. They were dragged from their car in one of the most violent attacks on U.S. contractors in the conflict. Following the attack, an angry mob mutilated and burned the bodies, dragging them through the streets before they were hung on a bridge. (''See also'': [[31 March 2004 Fallujah ambush]], [[Operation Vigilant Resolve]])
* On March 28, 2005, 16 American contractors and three Iraqi aides from Zapata Engineering, under contract to the [[US Army Corps of Engineers]] to manage an ammunition storage depot, were detained following two incidents in which they allegedly fired upon [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine]] checkpoint. While later released, the contractors have levied complaints of mistreatment against the Marines who detained them.
* On June 5, 2005, Colonel [[Theodore S. Westhusing]] committed suicide, after writing a report exonerating [[US Investigations Services]] of allegations of fraud, waste and abuse he received in an anonymous letter in May.
* On October 27, 2005, a "trophy" video, complete with post-production [[Elvis Presley]] music, appearing to show private military contractors in Baghdad shooting Iraqi civilians sparked two investigations after it was posted on the Internet.<ref>[http://movies.crooksandliars.com/Aegis-PSD.mov A movieclip containing the behavior of alleged Aegis Defence Services driving in Iraq]</ref><ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/11/27/wirq27.xml&sSheet=/news/2005/11/27/ixworld.html 'Trophy' video exposes private security contractors shooting up Iraqi drivers], [[Daily Telegraph]] article from 26/11/2005.</ref><ref>[http://thedanreport.blogspot.com/2005/11/clearing-up-supposed-aegis-video.html Discussion on a blog about Aegis trophy video]</ref> The video has been linked unofficially to [[Aegis Defence Services]]. According to the posters, the man who is seen shooting vehicles on this video in Iraq was a South African employee of Aegis Victory team named [[Danny Heydenreycher]]. He served in the British military for six years. After the incident the regional director for Victory ROC tried to fire Heydenreycher, but the team threatened to resign if he did. As of December 2005, Aegis is conducting a formal inquiry into the issue, although some concerns on its impartiality have been raised.
* On September 17, 2007, the Iraqi government announced that it was revoking the license of the American security firm [[Blackwater USA]] over the firm's involvement in the deaths of eight civilians in a firefight that followed a car bomb explosion near a State Department motorcade. Blackwater is currently one of the most high-profile firms operating in Iraq, with around 1,000 employees as well as a fleet of helicopters in the country. Whether the group may be legally prosecuted is still a matter of debate.<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070917/ap_on_re_mi_ea/iraq Blackwater license being revoked in Iraq]</ref>

===Legal position===
Two days before he left Iraq, [[L. Paul Bremer]] signed "[[CPA Order 17|Order 17]]"<ref>http://www.cpa-iraq.org/regulations/20040627_CPAORD_17_Status_of_Coalition__Rev__with_Annex_A.pdf</ref> giving all Americans associated with the [[Coalition Provisional Authority|CPA]] and the American government immunity from Iraqi law.<ref name='Newsweek 2007-09-20'>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Hirch |coauthors= |title=Blackwater and the Bush Legacy |date=2007-09-20 |publisher= |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20892483/site/newsweek/ |work=Newsweek |page=2 |accessdate=2007-09-23 |language= |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071001161845/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20892483/site/newsweek/  |archivedate = 2007-10-01}}</ref> A July 2007 report from the American [[Congressional Research Service]] indicates that the Iraqi government still had no authority over private security firms contracted by the U.S. government.<ref name='CNN.com 2007-09-23'>{{cite news |first= |last= |coauthors= |title=Blackwater staff face charges |date=2007-09-23 |publisher= |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/meast/09/23/blackwater.probe/index.html |work=CNN.com |pages= |accessdate=2007-09-23 |language=}}</ref>

The new status-of-forces agreement makes it clear that Contractors are under the jurisdiction of Iraqi law.

===Plans for the future===
After the [[withdrawal of US troops from Iraq]] the [[US State Department]] is reportedly planning to more than double the number of its private security guards, up to as many as 7,000. Defending five fortified compounds across the country, the security contractors would operate radars to warn of enemy rocket attacks, search for roadside bombs, fly reconnaissance [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drones]] and even staff quick reaction forces to aid civilians in distress. The State Department plans to acquire 60 mine-resistant, ambush-protected vehicles ([[MRAP (armored vehicle)|MRAPs]]) from the US military to expand its inventory of armored cars to 1,320 and to create a mini-air fleet by buying three planes to add to its lone aircraft. Its helicopter fleet, which will be piloted by contractors, will grow to 29 from 17.
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/19/world/middleeast/19withdrawal.html?_r=1&ref=private_military_companies|title=Civilians to Take U.S. Lead as Military Leaves Iraq|author= MICHAEL R. GORDON|date= August 18, 2010|work= |publisher=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=2 September 2010}}</ref>

==PMC activities elsewhere==

* In 1994 and 1995 South African based PMC [[Executive Outcomes]] was involved in two military actions in Africa. In the first conflict, EO fought on the behalf of the Angolan government against [[UNITA]] after a UN brokered peace settlement broke down. In the second action EO was tasked with containing a guerrilla movement in [[Sierra Leone]] called the [[Revolutionary United Front]]. Both missions involved personnel from the firm training 4-5 thousand combat personnel for the Angolan government and retaking control of the diamond fields and forming a negotiated peace in Sierra Leone.
* In 1999, an incident involving [[DynCorp]] in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] was followed by a [[Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act]] (RICO) lawsuit being filed against DynCorp employees stationed in Bosnia. It alleged that: "employees and supervisors from DynCorp were engaging in perverse, illegal and inhumane behavior and were illegally purchasing women, weapons, forged passports and participating in other immoral acts."

* In 2000, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's [[ABC Television]] international affairs program "[[Foreign Correspondent (tv series)|Foreign Correspondent]]" broadcast a special report "Sierra Leone: Soldiers of Fortune", focusing on the exploits of South African pilot [[Neall Ellis]] and his [[MI-24 Hind]] gunship.<ref name= ABCFC>{{cite news| url= http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/s220036.htm | title= SL:SoF Synopsis| publisher= [[ABC Television]]| work= Foreign Correspondent}}</ref> The report also investigated the failures of the UN Peacekeeping Force, and the involvement of mercenaries/private military contractors in providing vital support to UN operations and British military Special Operations in Sierra Leone in 1999-2000.<ref name=SL:SoF>{{cite news| url= http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/stories/s433773.htm | title= Sierra Leone: Soldiers of Fortune, Script| publisher= [[ABC Television]]| work= Foreign Correspondent}}</ref>

* On April 5, 2005, Jamie Smith, CEO of [[SCG International Risk]] announced the expansion of services from the traditional roles of PMCs of protection and intelligence to military aviation support. [http://www.scgair.com/index.html SCG International Air] would provide air support, medevac (medical evacuation), rotary and fixed-wing transportation, heavy-lift cargo, armed escort and executive air travel to "any location on earth." This marks a unique addition and expansion of services to rival the capabilities of some country's armies and air forces.
* On March 27, 2006, [[J. Cofer Black]], vice chairman of [[Blackwater USA]] announced to attendees of a special operations exhibition in Jordan that his company could now provide a [[brigade]]-size force for [[low intensity conflict]]s. According to Black, "There is clear potential to conduct security operations at a fraction of the cost of NATO operations".<ref>[http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/06/front2453824.0319444444.html U.S. firm offers 'private armies' for low-intensity conflicts], WorldTribune article from March 29, 2006</ref>
* In mid-May 2006, police in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] arrested 32 alleged mercenaries of different nationalities; 19 [[South Africa]]ns, 10 [[Nigeria]]ns and three [[United States|Americans]]. Half of them worked for a South African company named [[Omega Security Solutions]] and the Americans for [[AQMI Strategy Corp]]. The men were accused of plotting to overthrow the government but charges weren't pressed. The men were deported to their home countries.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/24/AR2006052401591.html Congo Holding 3 Americans in Alleged Coup Plot], [[Washington Post]] article from May 25, 2006</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/29/AR2006052900556.html Congo Deports Nearly 3 Dozen Foreigners], Washington Post article from May 29, 2006.</ref>
* In 2006, a U.S. congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of [[Plan Colombia]]. [[DynCorp]] was among those contracted by the State Department, while others signed contracts with the Defense Department. Other companies from different countries, including [[Israel]], have also signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities.<ref name="autogenerated1" />
* In December 2009, the [[Congressional Research Service]], which provides background information to members of the [[United States Congress]], announced that the deployment of 30,000 extra U.S. troops into Afghanistan could be accompanied by a surge of "26,000 to 56,000" contractors. This would expand the presence of personnel from the U.S. private sector in Afghanistan "to anywhere from 130,000 to 160,000". The CRS study said contractors made up 69 percent of the Pentagon's personnel in Afghanistan in December 2008, a proportion that "apparently represented the highest recorded percentage of contractors used by the Defense Department in any conflict in the history of the United States." In September 2008 their presence had dropped to 62 percent, while the U.S. military troop strength increased modestly <ref>[http://www.federaltimes.com/article/20091216/DEPARTMENTS01/912160309/1009/ACQUISITION "Projected contractor surge in Afghanistan: Up to 56,000"]</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/15/AR2009121504850.html?hpid=topnews "Up to 56,000 more contractors likely for Afghanistan, congressional agency says"]</ref><ref>[http://www.federaltimes.com/article/20091216/DEPARTMENTS01/912160309/-1/ "Projected contractor surge in Afghanistan: Up to 56,000"]</ref>.
* Also in December 2009, a [[United States House of Representatives|House]] oversight subcommittee said that it had begun a wide-ranging investigation into allegations that American private security companies hired to protect Defense Department convoys in Afghanistan would be paying off warlords and the Taliban to ensure safe passage. That would mean that the United States is unintentionally and indirectly engaged in a protection racket and may be indirectly funding the very insurgents it were trying to fight. A preliminary inquiry determined that the allegations warranted a deeper inquiry, focused initially on eight trucking companies that share a $2.2 billion Defense Department contract to carry goods and material from main supply points inside Afghanistan (primarily [[Bagram air base]]) to more than 100 forward operating bases and other military facilities in the country <ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/16/AR2009121604126.html "Congress investigating charges of 'protection racket' by Afghanistan contractors"]</ref>.

== NGOs and Private Security Contractors ==
[[NGO]]s' rare use of private security contractors in dangerous regions is highly sensitive subject<ref name=ODI>Abby Stoddard, Adele Harmer and Victoria DiDomenico (2009) [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=2844&title=private-security-providers-humanitarian-operations Private security providers and services in humanitarian operations] [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref>. While rare, many NGOs have sought the services of private security contractors in dangerous areas of operation, such as [[Afghanistan]], [[Somalia]] and [[Sudan]] due to the following reasons<ref name=ODI/>:
* Lack of knowledge/skills and time to adequately meet the challenges of deteriorating security environments; and
* Administrative costs of managing security in-house and potential to outsource the liability.
Quite often the contractors hired are local companies and mostly are unarmed personnel guarding facilities, only very rarely are international contractors used or mobile armed security personnel<ref name=ODI/>.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Contracted security services used by humanitarians !! % of organizations contracting from international PSPs !! % organizations contracting from local PSPs
|-
| Unarmed guards for facilities/residences/project sites|| 29% || 77%
|-
| Physical security for premises || 31% || 55%
|-
| Security management consulting || 37% || 9%
|-
| Security training for staff || 41% || 4%
|-
| Risk assessment/threat analysis || 36% || 7%
|-
| Information services || 26% || 12%
|-
| Armed guards for facilities/residences/project sites || 17% || 14%
|-
| Standby security || 13% || 16%
|-
| Mobile escorts (armed) || 9%|| 13%
|}
However, there are a great many voices against their use who cite the following problems<ref name=ODI/>:
* Outsourcing security left NGOs reliant on contractors and unable to develop their own security thinking and make their own decisions
* Perceived association of PSPs with state security, police or military services in turn compromises the ability of NGOs to claim neutrality, leading to increased risk;
* Outsourcing may not necessarily lead to lower costs, and the cost of middlemen may result in more poorly paid and poorly trained personnel who turn over frequently and cannot adequately perform the job; and
* NGOs have obligations beyond strictly legal liability that include political, ethical and reputational implications - if the organisation’s responsibility to prevent and mitigate any possible negative outcomes is better achieved through in-house security, this should be their choice.

The result is that many NGOs are not open about their use of PSPs and researchers' at the [[Overseas Development Institute]] studies have found that sometimes statements at NGOs central headquarters contradict those given by local staff<ref name=ODI/>. This prevents informative knowledge-sharing and debate on the subject needed to improve NGOs decisions regarding this issue, though there have been some notable exceptions (Afghanistan NGO Security Office (ANSO) and the NGO Coordination Committee in Iraq (NCCI))<ref name=ODI/>.

==List of PMCs==
===U.S.A. & Inter Americans companies===
{|class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|- style="background:black;"
!Name!!HQ!!Portfolio!!Notes
|-
| [[AirScan]] || [[Titusville, FL]] || [[US Department of Defense]], [[US Air Force]], [[NASA]], [[US Forest Service]], [[National Test Pilot School]], [[National Response Corporation]], [[US Department of the Interior]], [[Bureau of Land Reclamation]], Maximum Protective Services, [[ECOPETROL]]: the national oil company of Colombia, [[Occidental Petroleum Corporation]], [[Cabinda Gulf Oil Company]] (Angola), [[SONANGOL]]: national oil company of Angola || Provides airborne surveillance and security
|-
| [[Custer Battles]] || [[McLean, VA]] || Iraq and oil sector (at present, have ceased operations in Iraq) ||Extinct?
|-
| [[Defion Internacional]] || || Peru company ||
|-
| [[DynCorp]]|| [[Falls Church, VA]] || Iraq, Afghanistan ||
|-
|-[G4S Risk Management] || [[Palm Beach Gardens, FL]] || Paramilitary security forces of DoD, Energy Department, Savannah River Nuclear Site, and others. Commonly known in the U.S. by its former name, Wackenhut Group. ||
|-
| [[GlobalEnforce, Inc.]] || [[Wilmington, DE]] || ||
|-
| [[ITT Corporation]] || [[White Plains, NY]] || [[Kosovo]] ||
|-
| [[KBR (company)|KBR]] || [[Houston, TX]] || || Formerly a Division of [[Halliburton]]
|-
| [[Military Professional Resources Inc.|MPRI, Inc.]] || [[Alexandria, VA]] || ||
|-
| [[MTCSC, Inc.]] || [[Chula Vista, CA]] || [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], [[Marine Corps Systems Command]], [[Marine Corps Intelligence Agency]], [[SPAWAR]], [[NAVSEA Warfare Centers]], [[DISA]], [[National Security Agency]] || Provides flexible engineering and systems integration services.
|-
| [[MVM, Inc.]] ||[[Vienna, VA]]|| CIA and NSA contractor ||
|-
| [[Northbridge Services Group]] || || Turkmenistan, Somalia, Nigeria || Dominican Republic, offices in United Kingdom & Ukraine
|-
| [[Northrop Grumman]] || [[Los Angeles, CA]]|| ||
|-
| [[Raytheon]] || [[Cambridge, MA]] || ||
|-
|-| [[Red Star Aviation]] || [[Quonset Point, RI]] || Military Aircraft Operator || ||
|-
| [[Triple Canopy, Inc.]]|| [[Herndon, VA]] || South America, [[Iraq]] ||
|-
| [[Sharp End International]] || || Mainly uses Australian and New Zealand ex-special forces instructors||
|-
| [[Titan Corporation]] || [[San Diego, CA]] || ||
|-
| [[Vinnell Corporation]] || [[Fairfax, VA]] || Turkey, Saudi Arabia ||
|-
| [[Versar, Inc]] || [[Springfield, VA]] || Iraq, Afghanistan ||
|-
| [[Blackwater Worldwide|Xe Services LLC]] || [[Moyock, NC]] || Iraq & Afghanistan|| Formerly Blackwater Worldwide
|-
|[[Pathfinder Security Services]] || [[Casper, WY]] || Oil, gas and mining sector; mainly in the US ||
|-
|[[IANO Group Inc]] || [[New Jersey]] || Consulting, Electronics, R & D ||
|}

===U.K. companies===
{|class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|- style="background:black;"
!Name!!HQ!!Portfolio!!Notes
|-
| [[Aegis Defence Services]] || || [[Iraq]], [[Afghanistan]], and others ||
|-
| [[ArmorGroup|ArmorGroup International]] || || || Branch of [[G4S|G4S plc]]
|-
| [[Control Risks Group]] || || || Provider of security and armed guards for British Embassies and Consulates
|-
| [[Erinys International]] || || || Joint [[South African]]-[[UK|British]] company
|-
| [[OAM]]|| || || Australia
|-
| [[Hart Security]] || || ||
|-
| [[Sandline International]]|| || || Ceased operations on April 16, 2004
|-
| [[International Intelligence Limited]]|| || || Specialist contracts
|}
Also in Operations in Afghanistan.
Tundra security(Canadian), BlueHeckle(UK), Global Security(USA), ASG(Asia Security Group), Watan Risk(Afghan owned, Western managed), Compass ISS(Swiss/US), Edinburgh Risk(UK), BlueSky(Australian),

===Others===
*[[SIRAS Group]], [[Denmark]]
*[[Executive Outcomes]], [[South Africa]] (ceased operations on January 1, 1999)
*[[Omega Group]], [[Norway]]
*[[Integrated Risk Management Services]] - [[Ireland]], protection for Shell oil in Ireland and [[Bolivia]]
*[[Unity Resources Group]], [[Australia]], based in [[Dubai]] - Special Forces and law enforcement veterans from Australia, the US, New Zealand and Great Britain

==See also==
* [[Arms trade]]
* [[Blackwater Watch]]
* [[Blackwater Worldwide]], now known as Xe Services, a private military company and security consulting firm
* ''[[Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army]]''
* [[Command responsibility]]
* [[Jus in bello]]
* [[Mercenaries]]
* [[Military-industrial complex]]
* [[Montreux Document]]
* [[Personal Security Detachment]]
* [[Private defense agency]]
* [[Privateer]]
* [[Shadow Force]]
* ''[[The End of America: Letter of Warning to a Young Patriot]]''

* [[UN Mercenary Convention]]
* [[Unlawful combatant#Mercenaries]]

==Resources==
===Academic publications===
* [http://www.humansecurity.info/#/vol-63-brooks-rathgeber/4527827401 '''Brooks, Doug/ Rathgeber, Shawn Lee: The Industry Role in Regulating Private Security Companies''', in: Canadian Consortium on Human Security - Security Privatization: Challenges and Opportunities, Vol. 6.3, University of British Columbia, March 2008.]

* ''The Market for Force: The Consequences of Privatizing Security'', by Deborah D. Avant, George Washington University, August 2005. ISBN 0-521-61535-6

* ''Armies Without States: The Privatization of Security'', by Robert Mandel, Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.

* ''Private Armies and Military Intervention'', David Shearer, April 1998. ISBN 0-19-829440-9

* ''Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry'', Peter W. Singer, Cornell University Press, March 2004. ISBN 0-8014-8915-6

*Brillstein, Arik: ''Antiterrorsystem.'' Engel Publishing 2005 - ISBN 3938547006
*[http://www.dcaf.ch/publications/kms/details.cfm?lng=en&id=18346&nav1=4 "Privatising Security: Law, Practice and Governance of Private Military and Security Companies"] by Fred Schreier and Marina Caparini, DCAF Occasional Paper 6, The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, March 2005.

* "Private Military Firms and the State: Sharing Responsibility for Violations of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law", Filipa Guinote, Collection Ricerche, "Series E.MA Awarded thesis", Vol. VII, Marsilio Editori Srl., Venice, Italy, 2006

* "Soldiers of Misfortune – Is the Demise of National Armies a Core Contributing Factor in the Rise of Private Security Companies?" by Maninger, Stephan in Kümmel, Gerhard and Jäger, Thomas (Hrsg.) ''Private Security and Military Companies: Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects'', VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden, 2007. ISBN 978-3-531-149011

* "Leashing the Corporate Dogs of War: The Legal Implications of the Modern Private Military Company" by Hin-Yan Liu, 15(1) Journal of Conflict and Security Law 141-168, 2010. (doi:10.1093/jcsl/krp025)

===Non-academic publications===

* ''Making A Killing'', James Ashcroft. Virgin Books. ISBN 1-85227-311-9

* ''Licensed to Kill : Privatizing the War on Terror'', Robert Young Pelton ISBN 1-4000-9781-9

* ''Three Worlds Gone Mad: Dangerous Journeys through the War Zones of Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific'', Robert Young Pelton, August 2006. ISBN 1-59228-100-1

* ''An Unorthodox Soldier'', Tim Spicer, September 2000. ISBN 1-84018-349-7

* ''Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army'', Jeremy Scahill, Nation Books. February 2007. ISBN 978-1560259794

* ''Guns For Hire: The Inside Story of Freelance Soldiering'', Tony Geraghty, Portrait. 2007. ISBN 978-0749951450

* ''[http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/R40991_20100107.pdf Private Security Contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan: Legal Issues]'', Jennifer K. Elsea, [[Congressional Research Service]], January 7, 2010

* ''Irak, terre mercenaire : les armées privées remplacent les troupes américaines'' [''Iraq, mercenary land: private armies replace US troops''], by Georges-Henri Bricet des Vallons, Favre (Lausanne:Switzerland), January 2010. ISBN 978-2828910952. Only in French.

==References==

{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==


* [http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/privatisation-war Privatisation of war and international humanitarian law]
*[http://www.shadowcompany.com Shadow Company] award winning documentary on PMCs with footage of Blackwater, 2007
* [http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/defense/1506812.html Riding Shotgun in Baghdad with Blackwater's Security Detail] Robert Young Pelton's article in Popular Mechanics about his month spent with Blackwater running Route Irish between the Green Zone and Baghdad International Airport.
* "''[http://www.icij.org/report.aspx?aid=177&sid=100 Making a Killing: The Business of War]''", [[Center for Public Integrity]], October 2002.
* "[http://www.dcaf.ch/publications/kms/details.cfm?lng=en&id=18405&nav1=4 The Private Military Industry and Iraq : What Have We Learned and Where To Next?]", DCAF Policy Paper 6, 2005
*[http://www.hcss.nl/en/publication/389/The-Strategic-Contractor---Iraq,-Blackwater-and-Pr.html The Strategic Contractor - op-ed 19 September 2007 by The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies]
* U.S. Army Sustainment Command. ''[http://www.aschq.army.mil/gc/battle2.asp A site to accumulate and offer materials helpful to the resolution of legal issues arising from the in-theater use of contractor support to military operations].
* The UK [[Foreign Affairs Select Committee]] agreed to the following [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmfaff/922/92202.htm (Ninth) Report: On Private Military Companies] on 23 July 2002.
* Human Rights First; [http://www.humanrightsfirst.info/pdf/08115-usls-psc-final.pdf Private Security Contractors at War: Ending the Culture of Impunity (2008)]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Private Military Company}}
[[Category:Military-industrial complex]]
[[Category:Private military contractors| ]]
[[Category:Security companies| ]]
[[Category:Types of military forces]]

[[de:Privates Sicherheits- und Militärunternehmen]]
[[es:Empresa militar privada]]
[[fr:Société militaire privée]]
[[ko:민간 군사 기업]]
[[id:Perusahaan militer swasta]]
[[it:Compagnia militare privata]]
[[nl:Particuliere militaire uitvoerder]]
[[ja:民間軍事会社]]
[[pl:Prywatna firma wojskowa]]
[[pt:Empreiteira militar]]
[[ru:Частная военная компания]]
[[sv:Militärföretag]]
[[ta:தனியார் போர்ப்படை நிறுவனம்]]

Misu

2010-10-31T08:28:34Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:미숫가루

{{one source|date=June 2010}}
'''Misu''' is a kind of Korean traditional [[drink]] made of [[grain]] [[powder (substance)|powder]].<ref name="hwachae">{{cite journal |last=Yoon|first=Sook-ja|title=Hwachae; Refreshing Beverage to Beat the Summer Heat|journal=Koreana|volume=19|url=http://koreana.kf.or.kr/viewPdf.asp?filename=2005_SUMMER_E076.pdf|year=2005|month=Summer|pages=80–83}}</ref> It is usually served in the hot [[summer]] days to quench thirst and also as an instant nutritious drink fulfilling the lost energy because of [[heat]].

In an [[ancient China|ancient Chinese]] [[culinary]] text, the drink was called ''qiu'' or stir-fried powder. In a [[Joseon Dynasty]] recipe book, misu was mentioned as stir-fried [[barley]] (''gu''). Gu was a delicacy of that time and easy to served as one went to travel.

Misu made of [[glutinous rice]] or other ingredients such as [[barley]] or [[Job’s Tears]] (yeolmu). But it is more nutritious if all the ingredients such as [[barley]], [[glutinous rice]], [[black beans]] and [[sesame seeds]] are mixed together. The mixture of grains is pounded and added with water in a bowl and stirred. [[Sugar]] can be added as sweetener.

==See also==
*[[Hwachae]]
*[[Shikhye]]
*[[Yuja cha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Korean beverages]]
{{drink-stub}}

[[ko:미숫가루]]
[[id:Misu]]

List of XML and HTML character entity references

2010-10-31T07:28:23Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: ko:문자 실체 참조

{{merge to|Character entity reference|discuss=Talk:Character entity reference#Merge discussion|date=May 2010}}
In [[SGML]], [[HTML]] and [[XML]] documents, the logical constructs known as ''character data'' and ''attribute values'' consist of sequences of [[character (computing)|character]]s, in which each character can manifest directly (representing itself), or can be represented by a series of characters called a ''character reference'', of which there are two types: a ''[[numeric character reference]]'' and a '''''[[character entity reference]]'''''. This article lists the character entity references that are valid in HTML and XML documents.

{{SpecialChars}}

==Character reference overview==

A ''numeric character reference'' refers to a character by its [[Universal Character Set]]/[[Unicode]] ''code point'', and uses the format

:<code>&#</code>''nnnn''<code>;</code>
or
:<code>&#x</code>''hhhh''<code>;</code>

where ''nnnn'' is the code point in [[decimal]] form, and ''hhhh'' is the code point in [[hexadecimal]] form. The ''x'' must be lowercase in XML documents. The ''nnnn'' or ''hhhh'' may be any number of digits and may include leading zeros. The ''hhhh'' may mix uppercase and lowercase, though uppercase is the usual style.

In contrast, a ''character entity reference'' refers to a character by the name of an ''[[SGML entity|entity]]'' which has the desired character as its ''replacement text''. The entity must either be predefined (built-in to the markup language) or explicitly declared in a [[Document Type Definition]] (DTD). The format is the same as for any entity reference:

:<code>&</code>''name''<code>;</code>

where ''name'' is the name of the entity. The semicolon is required.

==Predefined entities in XML==

The XML specification does not use the term "character entity" or "character entity reference". The XML specification defines five "predefined entities" representing special characters, and requires that all XML processors honor them. The entities can be explicitly declared in a DTD, as well, but if this is done, the replacement text must be the same as the built-in definitions. XML also allows other named entities of any size to be defined on a per-document basis.

The table below lists the five XML predefined entities. The "Name" column mentions the entity's name. The "Character" column shows the character, if it is renderable. In order to render the character, the format <code>&name;</code> is used; for example, <code>&amp;</code> renders as &. The "Unicode code point" column cites the character via standard UCS/Unicode "U+" notation, which shows the character's code point in hexadecimal. The decimal equivalent of the code point is then shown in parentheses. The "Standard" column indicates the first version of XML that includes the entity. The "Description" column cites the character via its canonical UCS/Unicode name, in English.

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Name
! Character
! Unicode code point (decimal)
! Standard
! Description
|-
| quot
| "
| U+0022 (34)
| XML 1.0
| ''(double)'' [[quotation mark]]
|-
| amp
| &
| U+0026 (38)
| XML 1.0
| [[ampersand]]
|-
| apos
| '
| U+0027 (39)
| XML 1.0
| [[apostrophe]] ''(= apostrophe-quote)''
|-
| lt
| <
| U+003C (60)
| XML 1.0
| [[less-than sign]]
|-
| gt
| >
| U+003E (62)
| XML 1.0
| [[greater-than sign]]
|}

==Character entity references in HTML==
The HTML 4 DTDs define 252 named entities, references to which act as mnemonic aliases for certain Unicode characters. The HTML 4 specification requires the use of the standard DTDs and does not allow users to define additional entities.

In the table below, the "Standard" column indicates the first version of the HTML DTD that defines the character entity reference. HTML 4.01 did not provide any new character references.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-style="background:#efefef"
! Name
! Character
! Unicode code point (decimal)
! Standard
! DTD{{ref|DTD}}
! Old ISO subset{{ref|ISOsubset}}
! Description{{ref|Description}}
|-
| quot
| "
| U+0022 (34)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| quotation mark ''(= APL quote)''
|-
| amp
| &
| U+0026 (38)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| ampersand
|-
| apos
| '
| U+0027 (39)
| XHTML 1.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| apostrophe ''(= apostrophe-quote)''; see [[#Entities representing special characters in XHTML|below]]
|-
| lt
| <
| U+003C (60)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| less-than sign
|-
| gt
| >
| U+003E (62)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| greater-than sign
|-
| nbsp
|  
| U+00A0 (160)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| no-break space ''(= [[non-breaking space]])''{{ref|spaces}}
|-
| iexcl
| ¡
| U+00A1 (161)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| inverted exclamation mark
|-
| cent
| ¢
| U+00A2 (162)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| cent sign
|-
| pound
| £
| U+00A3 (163)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| pound sign
|-
| curren
| ¤
| U+00A4 (164)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| currency sign
|-
| yen
| ¥
| U+00A5 (165)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| yen sign ''(= yuan sign)''
|-
| brvbar
| ¦
| U+00A6 (166)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| broken bar ''(= broken vertical bar)''
|-
| sect
| §
| U+00A7 (167)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| [[section sign]]
|-
| uml
| ¨
| U+00A8 (168)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOdia
| diaeresis ''(= spacing diaeresis)''; see German [[umlaut]]
|-
| copy
| ©
| U+00A9 (169)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| copyright sign
|-
| ordf
| ª
| U+00AA (170)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| feminine ordinal indicator
|-
| laquo
| «
| U+00AB (171)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| left-pointing double angle quotation mark ''(= left pointing [[guillemet]])''
|-
| not
| ¬
| U+00AC (172)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| not sign
|-
| shy
|style="background:#AAA"|  
| U+00AD (173)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| [[soft hyphen]] ''(= discretionary hyphen)''
|-
| reg
| ®
| U+00AE (174)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| registered sign ''( = registered trade mark sign)''
|-
| macr
| ¯
| U+00AF (175)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOdia
| macron ''(= spacing macron = overline = APL overbar)''
|-
| deg
| °
| U+00B0 (176)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| degree sign
|-
| plusmn
| ±
| U+00B1 (177)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| plus-minus sign ''(= plus-or-minus sign)''
|-
| sup2
| ²
| U+00B2 (178)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| superscript two ''(= superscript digit two = squared)''
|-
| sup3
| ³
| U+00B3 (179)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| superscript three ''(= superscript digit three = cubed)''
|-
| acute
| ´
| U+00B4 (180)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOdia
| acute accent ''(= spacing acute)''
|-
| micro
| µ
| U+00B5 (181)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| micro sign
|-
| para
| ¶
| U+00B6 (182)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| pilcrow sign ''( = paragraph sign)''
|-
| middot
| ·
| U+00B7 (183)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| middle dot ''(= Georgian comma = Greek middle dot)''
|-
| cedil
| ¸
| U+00B8 (184)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOdia
| cedilla ''(= spacing cedilla)''
|-
| sup1
| ¹
| U+00B9 (185)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| superscript one ''(= superscript digit one)''
|-
| ordm
| º
| U+00BA (186)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| masculine ordinal indicator
|-
| raquo
|»
| U+00BB (187)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| right-pointing double angle quotation mark ''(= right pointing guillemet)''
|-
| frac14
| ¼
| U+00BC (188)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| vulgar fraction one quarter ''(= fraction one quarter)''
|-
| frac12
| ½
| U+00BD (189)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| vulgar fraction one half ''(= fraction one half)''
|-
| frac34
| ¾
| U+00BE (190)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| vulgar fraction three quarters ''(= fraction three quarters)''
|-
| iquest
| ¿
| U+00BF (191)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| inverted question mark ''(= turned question mark)''
|-
| Agrave
| À
| U+00C0 (192)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter A with grave ''(= Latin capital letter A grave)''
|-
| Aacute
| Á
| U+00C1 (193)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter A with acute
|-
| Acirc
| Â
| U+00C2 (194)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter A with circumflex
|-
| Atilde
| Ã
| U+00C3 (195)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter A with tilde
|-
| Auml
| Ä
| U+00C4 (196)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter A with diaeresis
|-
| Aring
| Å
| U+00C5 (197)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter A with ring above ''(= Latin capital letter A ring)''
|-
| AElig
| Æ
| U+00C6 (198)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter AE ''(= Latin capital ligature AE)''
|-
| Ccedil
| Ç
| U+00C7 (199)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter C with cedilla
|-
| Egrave
| È
| U+00C8 (200)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter E with grave
|-
| Eacute
| É
| U+00C9 (201)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter E with acute
|-
| Ecirc
| Ê
| U+00CA (202)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter E with circumflex
|-
| Euml
| Ë
| U+00CB (203)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter E with diaeresis
|-
| Igrave
| Ì
| U+00CC (204)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter I with grave
|-
| Iacute
| Í
| U+00CD (205)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter I with acute
|-
| Icirc
| Î
| U+00CE (206)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter I with circumflex
|-
| Iuml
| Ï
| U+00CF (207)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter I with diaeresis
|-
| ETH
| Ð
| U+00D0 (208)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter ETH
|-
| Ntilde
| Ñ
| U+00D1 (209)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter N with tilde
|-
| Ograve
| Ò
| U+00D2 (210)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter O with grave
|-
| Oacute
| Ó
| U+00D3 (211)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter O with acute
|-
| Ocirc
| Ô
| U+00D4 (212)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter O with circumflex
|-
| Otilde
| Õ
| U+00D5 (213)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter O with tilde
|-
| Ouml
| Ö
| U+00D6 (214)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter O with diaeresis
|-
| times
| ×
| U+00D7 (215)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| multiplication sign
|-
| Oslash
| Ø
| U+00D8 (216)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter O with stroke ''(= Latin capital letter O slash)''
|-
| Ugrave
| Ù
| U+00D9 (217)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter U with grave
|-
| Uacute
| Ú
| U+00DA (218)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter U with acute
|-
| Ucirc
| Û
| U+00DB (219)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter U with circumflex
|-
| Uuml
| Ü
| U+00DC (220)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter U with diaeresis
|-
| Yacute
| Ý
| U+00DD (221)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter Y with acute
|-
| THORN
| Þ
| U+00DE (222)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin capital letter THORN
|-
| szlig
| ß
| U+00DF (223)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter sharp s ''(= ess-zed)''; see German [[Eszett]]
|-
| agrave
| à
| U+00E0 (224)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter a with grave
|-
| aacute
| á
| U+00E1 (225)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter a with acute
|-
| acirc
| â
| U+00E2 (226)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter a with circumflex
|-
| atilde
| ã
| U+00E3 (227)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter a with tilde
|-
| auml
| ä
| U+00E4 (228)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter a with diaeresis
|-
| aring
| å
| U+00E5 (229)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter a with ring above
|-
| aelig
| æ
| U+00E6 (230)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter ae ''(= Latin small ligature ae)''
|-
| ccedil
| ç
| U+00E7 (231)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter c with cedilla
|-
| egrave
| è
| U+00E8 (232)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter e with grave
|-
| eacute
| é
| U+00E9 (233)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter e with acute
|-
| ecirc
| ê
| U+00EA (234)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter e with circumflex
|-
| euml
| ë
| U+00EB (235)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter e with diaeresis
|-
| igrave
| ì
| U+00EC (236)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter i with grave
|-
| iacute
| í
| U+00ED (237)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter i with acute
|-
| icirc
| î
| U+00EE (238)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter i with circumflex
|-
| iuml
| ï
| U+00EF (239)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter i with diaeresis
|-
| eth
| ð
| U+00F0 (240)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter eth
|-
| ntilde
| ñ
| U+00F1 (241)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter n with tilde
|-
| ograve
| ò
| U+00F2 (242)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter o with grave
|-
| oacute
| ó
| U+00F3 (243)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter o with acute
|-
| ocirc
| ô
| U+00F4 (244)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter o with circumflex
|-
| otilde
| õ
| U+00F5 (245)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter o with tilde
|-
| ouml
| ö
| U+00F6 (246)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter o with diaeresis
|-
| divide
| ÷
| U+00F7 (247)
| HTML 3.2
| HTMLlat1
| ISOnum
| division sign
|-
| oslash
| ø
| U+00F8 (248)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter o with stroke ''(= Latin small letter o slash)''
|-
| ugrave
| ù
| U+00F9 (249)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter u with grave
|-
| uacute
| ú
| U+00FA (250)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter u with acute
|-
| ucirc
| û
| U+00FB (251)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter u with circumflex
|-
| uuml
| ü
| U+00FC (252)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter u with diaeresis
|-
| yacute
| ý
| U+00FD (253)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter y with acute
|-
| thorn
| þ
| U+00FE (254)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter thorn
|-
| yuml
| ÿ
| U+00FF (255)
| HTML 2.0
| HTMLlat1
| ISOlat1
| Latin small letter y with diaeresis
|-
| OElig
| Œ
| U+0152 (338)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOlat2
| Latin capital ligature oe{{ref|ligature}}
|-
| oelig
| œ
| U+0153 (339)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOlat2
| Latin small ligature oe{{ref|ligature}}
|-
| Scaron
| Š
| U+0160 (352)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOlat2
| Latin capital letter s with caron
|-
| scaron
| š
| U+0161 (353)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOlat2
| Latin small letter s with caron
|-
| Yuml
| Ÿ
| U+0178 (376)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOlat2
| Latin capital letter y with diaeresis
|-
| fnof
| ƒ
| U+0192 (402)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| Latin small letter f with hook ''(= function = florin)''
|-
| circ
| ˆ
| U+02C6 (710)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| modifier letter circumflex accent
|-
| tilde
| ˜
| U+02DC (732)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOdia
| small tilde
|-
| Alpha
| Α
| U+0391 (913)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Alpha
|-
| Beta
| Β
| U+0392 (914)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Beta
|-
| Gamma
| Γ
| U+0393 (915)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Gamma
|-
| Delta
| Δ
| U+0394 (916)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Delta
|-
| Epsilon
| Ε
| U+0395 (917)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Epsilon
|-
| Zeta
| Ζ
| U+0396 (918)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Zeta
|-
| Eta
| Η
| U+0397 (919)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Eta
|-
| Theta
| Θ
| U+0398 (920)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Theta
|-
| Iota
| Ι
| U+0399 (921)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Iota
|-
| Kappa
| Κ
| U+039A (922)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Kappa
|-
| Lambda
| Λ
| U+039B (923)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Lambda
|-
| Mu
| Μ
| U+039C (924)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Mu
|-
| Nu
| Ν
| U+039D (925)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Nu
|-
| Xi
| Ξ
| U+039E (926)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Xi
|-
| Omicron
| Ο
| U+039F (927)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Omicron
|-
| Pi
| Π
| U+03A0 (928)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Pi
|-
| Rho
| Ρ
| U+03A1 (929)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Rho
|-
| Sigma
| Σ
| U+03A3 (931)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Sigma
|-
| Tau
| Τ
| U+03A4 (932)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Tau
|-
| Upsilon
| Υ
| U+03A5 (933)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Upsilon
|-
| Phi
| Φ
| U+03A6 (934)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Phi
|-
| Chi
| Χ
| U+03A7 (935)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
|
| Greek capital letter Chi
|-
| Psi
| Ψ
| U+03A8 (936)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Psi
|-
| Omega
| Ω
| U+03A9 (937)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek capital letter Omega
|-
| alpha
| α
| U+03B1 (945)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter alpha
|-
| beta
| β
| U+03B2 (946)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter beta
|-
| gamma
| γ
| U+03B3 (947)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter gamma
|-
| delta
| δ
| U+03B4 (948)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter delta
|-
| epsilon
| ε
| U+03B5 (949)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter epsilon
|-
| zeta
| ζ
| U+03B6 (950)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter zeta
|-
| eta
| η
| U+03B7 (951)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter eta
|-
| theta
| θ
| U+03B8 (952)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter theta
|-
| iota
| ι
| U+03B9 (953)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter iota
|-
| kappa
| κ
| U+03BA (954)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter kappa
|-
| lambda
| λ
| U+03BB (955)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter lambda
|-
| mu
| μ
| U+03BC (956)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter mu
|-
| nu
| ν
| U+03BD (957)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter nu
|-
| xi
| ξ
| U+03BE (958)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter xi
|-
| omicron
| ο
| U+03BF (959)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ''NEW''
| Greek small letter omicron
|-
| pi
| π
| U+03C0 (960)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter pi
|-
| rho
| ρ
| U+03C1 (961)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter rho
|-
| sigmaf
| ς
| U+03C2 (962)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter final sigma
|-
| sigma
| σ
| U+03C3 (963)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter sigma
|-
| tau
| τ
| U+03C4 (964)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter tau
|-
| upsilon
| υ
| U+03C5 (965)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter upsilon
|-
| phi
| φ
| U+03C6 (966)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter phi
|-
| chi
| χ
| U+03C7 (967)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter chi
|-
| psi
| ψ
| U+03C8 (968)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter psi
|-
| omega
| ω
| U+03C9 (969)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek small letter omega
|-
| thetasym
| {{unicode|ϑ}}
| U+03D1 (977)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ''NEW''
| Greek theta symbol
|-
| upsih
| {{unicode|ϒ}}
| U+03D2 (978)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ''NEW''
| Greek Upsilon with hook symbol
|-
| piv
| {{unicode|ϖ}}
| U+03D6 (982)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOgrk3
| Greek pi symbol
|-
| ensp
| {{unicode|&ensp;}}
| U+2002 (8194)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| en space{{ref|spaces}}
|-
| emsp
| {{unicode|&emsp;}}
| U+2003 (8195)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| em space{{ref|spaces}}
|-
| thinsp
| {{unicode| }}
| U+2009 (8201)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| thin space{{ref|spaces}}
|-
| zwnj
|style="background:#AAA"|  
| U+200C (8204)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''NEW RFC 2070''
| [[zero-width non-joiner]]
|-
| zwj
|style="background:#AAA"|  
| U+200D (8205)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''NEW RFC 2070''
| [[zero-width joiner]]
|-
| lrm
|style="background:#AAA"|  
| U+200E (8206)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''NEW RFC 2070''
| [[left-to-right mark]]
|-
| rlm
|style="background:#AAA"|  
| U+200F (8207)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''NEW RFC 2070''
| [[right-to-left mark]]
|-
| ndash
| –
| U+2013 (8211)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| en dash
|-
| mdash
| —
| U+2014 (8212)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| em dash
|-
| lsquo
| ‘
| U+2018 (8216)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| left single quotation mark
|-
| rsquo
| ’
| U+2019 (8217)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| right single quotation mark
|-
| sbquo
| ‚
| U+201A (8218)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''NEW''
| single low-9 quotation mark
|-
| ldquo
| “
| U+201C (8220)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| left double quotation mark
|-
| rdquo
| ”
| U+201D (8221)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOnum
| right double quotation mark
|-
| bdquo
| „
| U+201E (8222)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''NEW''
| double low-9 quotation mark
|-
| dagger
| †
| U+2020 (8224)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| dagger, obelisk
|-
| Dagger
| ‡
| U+2021 (8225)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| double dagger, double obelisk
|-
| bull
| •
| U+2022 (8226)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOpub
| bullet ''(= black small circle)''{{ref|black}}
|-
| hellip
| …
| U+2026 (8230)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOpub
| horizontal ellipsis ''(= three dot leader)''
|-
| permil
| ‰
| U+2030 (8240)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ISOtech
| per mille sign
|-
| prime
| ′
| U+2032 (8242)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| prime ''(= minutes = feet)''
|-
| Prime
| ″
| U+2033 (8243)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| double prime ''(= seconds = inches)''
|-
| lsaquo
| ‹
| U+2039 (8249)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''ISO proposed''
| single left-pointing angle quotation mark{{ref|proposed}}
|-
| rsaquo
| ›
| U+203A (8250)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''ISO proposed''
| single right-pointing angle quotation mark{{ref|proposed}}
|-
| oline
| ‾
| U+203E (8254)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ''NEW''
| overline ''(= spacing overscore)''
|-
| frasl
| ⁄
| U+2044 (8260)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ''NEW''
| fraction slash ''(= [[Solidus (punctuation)|solidus]])''
|-
| euro
| €
| U+20AC (8364)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLspecial
| ''NEW''
| euro sign
|-
| image
| {{unicode|ℑ}}
| U+2111 (8465)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamso
| black-letter capital I ''(= imaginary part)''
|-
| weierp
| {{unicode|℘}}
| U+2118 (8472)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamso
| script capital P ''(= power set = [[Weierstrass]] p)''
|-
| real
| {{unicode|ℜ}}
| U+211C (8476)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamso
| black-letter capital R ''(= real part symbol)''
|-
| trade
| ™
| U+2122 (8482)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOnum
| trademark sign
|-
| alefsym
| {{unicode|ℵ}}
| U+2135 (8501)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ''NEW''
| alef symbol ''(= first transfinite cardinal)''{{ref|alefsym}}
|-
| larr
| ←
| U+2190 (8592)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOnum
| leftwards arrow
|-
| uarr
| ↑
| U+2191 (8593)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOnum
| upwards arrow
|-
| rarr
| →
| U+2192 (8594)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOnum
| rightwards arrow
|-
| darr
| ↓
| U+2193 (8595)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOnum
| downwards arrow
|-
| harr
| ↔
| U+2194 (8596)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsa
| left right arrow
|-
| crarr
| {{unicode|↵}}
| U+21B5 (8629)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ''NEW''
| downwards arrow with corner leftwards ''(= carriage return)''
|-
| lArr
| {{unicode|⇐}}
| U+21D0 (8656)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| leftwards double arrow{{ref|lArr}}
|-
| uArr
| {{unicode|⇑}}
| U+21D1 (8657)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsa
| upwards double arrow
|-
| rArr
| ⇒
| U+21D2 (8658)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOnum
| rightwards double arrow{{ref|rArr}}
|-
| dArr
| {{unicode|⇓}}
| U+21D3 (8659)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsa
| downwards double arrow
|-
| hArr
| ⇔
| U+21D4 (8660)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsa
| left right double arrow
|-
| forall
| ∀
| U+2200 (8704)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| for all
|-
| part
| ∂
| U+2202 (8706)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| partial differential
|-
| exist
| ∃
| U+2203 (8707)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| there exists
|-
| empty
| {{unicode|∅}}
| U+2205 (8709)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamso
| empty set ''(= null set = diameter)''
|-
| nabla
| ∇
| U+2207 (8711)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| nabla ''(= backward difference)''
|-
| isin
| ∈
| U+2208 (8712)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| element of
|-
| notin
| {{unicode|∉}}
| U+2209 (8713)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| not an element of
|-
| ni
| ∋
| U+220B (8715)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| contains as member
|-
| prod
| ∏
| U+220F (8719)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsb
| n-ary product ''(= product sign)''{{ref|prod}}
|-
| sum
| ∑
| U+2211 (8721)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOasmb
| n-ary summation{{ref|sum}}
|-
| minus
| −
| U+2212 (8722)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| minus sign
|-
| lowast
| {{unicode|∗}}
| U+2217 (8727)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| asterisk operator
|-
| radic
| √
| U+221A (8730)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| square root ''(= radical sign)''
|-
| prop
| ∝
| U+221D (8733)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| proportional to
|-
| infin
| ∞
| U+221E (8734)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| infinity
|-
| ang
| ∠
| U+2220 (8736)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamso
| angle
|-
| and
| ∧
| U+2227 (8743)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| logical and ''(= wedge)''
|-
| or
| ∨
| U+2228 (8744)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| logical or ''(= vee)''
|-
| cap
| ∩
| U+2229 (8745)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| intersection ''(= cap)''
|-
| cup
| ∪
| U+222A (8746)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| union (''= cup)''
|-
| int
| ∫
| U+222B (8747)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| integral
|-
| there4
| ∴
| U+2234 (8756)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| therefore
|-
| sim
| ∼
| U+223C (8764)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| tilde operator ''(= varies with = similar to)''{{ref|sim}}
|-
| cong
| {{unicode|≅}}
| U+2245 (8773)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| congruent to
|-
| asymp
| ≈
| U+2248 (8776)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsr
| almost equal to ''(= asymptotic to)''
|-
| ne
| ≠
| U+2260 (8800)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| not equal to
|-
| equiv
| ≡
| U+2261 (8801)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| identical to; sometimes used for 'equivalent to'
|-
| le
| ≤
| U+2264 (8804)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| less-than or equal to
|-
| ge
| ≥
| U+2265 (8805)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| greater-than or equal to
|-
| sub
| ⊂
| U+2282 (8834)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| subset of
|-
| sup
| ⊃
| U+2283 (8835)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| superset of{{ref|sup}}
|-
| nsub
| {{unicode|⊄}}
| U+2284 (8836)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsn
| not a subset of
|-
| sube
| ⊆
| U+2286 (8838)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| subset of or equal to
|-
| supe
| ⊇
| U+2287 (8839)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| superset of or equal to
|-
| oplus
| ⊕
| U+2295 (8853)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsb
| circled plus ''(= direct sum)''
|-
| otimes
| {{unicode|⊗}}
| U+2297 (8855)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsb
| circled times ''(= vector product)''
|-
| perp
| ⊥
| U+22A5 (8869)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| up tack ''(= orthogonal to = [[perpendicular]])''{{ref|perp}}
|-
| sdot
| {{unicode|⋅}}
| U+22C5 (8901)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsb
| dot operator{{ref|sdot}}
|-
| lceil
| {{unicode|⌈}}
| U+2308 (8968)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsc
| left ceiling ''(= APL upstile)''
|-
| rceil
| {{unicode|⌉}}
| U+2309 (8969)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsc
| right ceiling
|-
| lfloor
| {{unicode|⌊}}
| U+230A (8970)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsc
| left floor ''(= APL downstile)''
|-
| rfloor
| {{unicode|⌋}}
| U+230B (8971)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOamsc
| right floor
|-
| lang
| {{unicode|〈}}
| U+2329 (9001)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| left-pointing angle bracket ''(= bra)''{{ref|lang}}
|-
| rang
| {{unicode|〉}}
| U+232A (9002)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOtech
| right-pointing angle bracket ''(= ket)''{{ref|rang}}
|-
| loz
| ◊
| U+25CA (9674)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOpub
| lozenge
|-
| spades
| ♠
| U+2660 (9824)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOpub
| black spade suit{{ref|black}}
|-
| clubs
| ♣
| U+2663 (9827)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOpub
| black club suit ''(= shamrock)''{{ref|black}}
|-
| hearts
| ♥
| U+2665 (9829)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOpub
| black heart suit ''(= valentine)''{{ref|black}}
|-
| diams
| ♦
| U+2666 (9830)
| HTML 4.0
| HTMLsymbol
| ISOpub
| black diamond suit{{ref|black}}
|}

Notes:
* {{note|DTD}} DTD: the full public DTD name (where the character entity name is defined) is actually mapped from one of the following three defined named entities:
*; HTMLlat1: maps to:
*:* <tt>PUBLIC "-//W3C//ENTITIES Latin 1//EN//HTML"</tt> in HTML (the DTD is implicitly defined, no system URI is needed);
*:* <tt>PUBLIC "-//W3C//ENTITIES Latin 1 for XHTML//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml-lat1.ent"</tt> in XHTML 1.0;
*; HTMLsymbol: maps to:
*:* <tt>PUBLIC "-//W3C//ENTITIES Symbols//EN//HTML"</tt> in HTML (the DTD is implicitly defined, no system URI is needed);
*:* <tt>PUBLIC "-//W3C//ENTITIES Symbols for XHTML//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml-symbol.ent"</tt> in XHTML 1.0;
*; HTMLspecial: maps to:
*:* <tt>PUBLIC "-//W3C//ENTITIES Special//EN//HTML"</tt> in HTML (the DTD is implicitly defined, no system URI is needed);
*:* <tt>PUBLIC "-//W3C//ENTITIES Special for XHTML//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml-special.ent"</tt> in XHTML 1.0.
* {{note|ISOsubset}} Old ISO subset: these are old (documented) character subsets used in legacy encodings before the unification within ISO 10646.
* {{note|Description}} Description: the standard ISO 10646 and Unicode character name is displayed first for each character, with non-standard but legacy synonyms shown in italics between parentheses after an equal sign)
* {{note|spaces}} spaces: a blue background has been used in order to display each space's width.
* {{note|proposed}} ISO proposed: these characters have been standardized in ISO 10646 after the release of HTML 4.0.
* {{note|ligature}} ligature: this is a standard misnomer as this is a separate character in some languages.
* {{note|black}} black: here it seems to mean filled as opposed to hollow.
* {{note|alefsym}} <tt>alefsym</tt>: 'alef symbol' is NOT the same as U+05D0 'Hebrew letter alef', although the same glyph could be used to depict both characters.
* {{note|lArr}} <tt>lArr</tt>: ISO 10646 does not say that 'leftwards double arrow' is the same as the 'is implied by' arrow but also does not have any other character for that function. So <tt>lArr</tt> can be used for 'is implied by' as ISOtech suggests.
* {{note|rArr}} <tt>rArr</tt>: ISO 10646 does not say that 'rightwards double arrow' is the 'implies' character but does not have another character with this function so <tt>rArr</tt> can be used for 'implies' as ISOtech suggests.
* {{note|prod}} <tt>prod</tt>: 'n-ary product' is NOT the same character as U+03A0 'Greek capital letter Pi' though the same glyph might be used for both.
* {{note|sum}} <tt>sum</tt>: 'n-ary summation' is NOT the same character as U+03A3 'Greek capital letter Sigma' though the same glyph might be used for both.
* {{note|sim}} <tt>sim</tt>: 'tilde operator' is NOT the same character as U+007E 'tilde', although the same glyph might be used to represent both.
* {{note|sup}} <tt>sup</tt>: note that <tt>nsup</tt>, U+2283 'not a superset of', is not covered by the Symbol font encoding and is not included. Should it be, for symmetry? It is in the ISOamsn subset.
* {{note|perp}} <tt>perp</tt>: Unicode only defines U+22A5 as the "up tack". The Unicode symbol for "perpendicular" is U+27C2. The two symbols look similar, but are separate in Unicode. However, HTML uses U+22A5 as its "perpendicular" symbol. This is a discrepancy between HTML and Unicode. As well, the U+22A4 character (the "down tack" symbol) rendered in a browser such as [[Firefox]] 3.6 can match the [[font]] of either "up tack" or "perpendicular", but not both, depending on whether a fixed-width or a proportional font is used. When viewed in Firefox 3.6, the symbols rendered in the order U+22A5, U+22A4, U+27C2 in a proportional font: ⊥ ⊤ ⟂ and a fixed width one: <tt>⊥ ⊤ ⟂</tt>, shows that the "down tack" has a similar look to U+22A5 (HTML's "perpendicular") in the first case but matches U+27C2 in the second. This exemplifies the difficulties of the [[semiotics]] involved in interpreting [[glyphs]], [[symbols]] and [[Character (symbol)|characters]] generally.
* {{note|sdot}} <tt>sdot</tt>: 'dot operator' is NOT the same character as U+00B7 'middle dot'.
* {{note|lang}} <tt>lang</tt>: 'left-pointing angle bracket' is NOT the same character as U+003C 'less than' or U+2039 'single left-pointing angle quotation mark'.
* {{note|rang}} <tt>rang</tt>: 'right-pointing angle bracket' is NOT the same character as U+003E 'greater than' or U+203A 'single right-pointing angle quotation mark'.

==Entities representing special characters in XHTML==
The [[XHTML]] [[Document Type Definition|DTD]]s explicitly declare 253 entities (including the [[#Predefined_entities_in_XML|5 predefined entities of XML 1.0]]) whose expansion is a single character, which can therefore be informally referred to as "character entities". These (with the exception of the <code>&apos;</code> entity) have the same names and represent the same characters as the [[#Character entity references in HTML|252 character entities in HTML]]. Also, by virtue of being [[XML]], XHTML documents may reference the predefined <code>&apos;</code> entity, which is not one of the 252 character entities in HTML. Additional entities of any size may be defined on a per-document basis. However, the usability of entity references in XHTML is affected by how the document is being processed:

* If the document is read by a conforming HTML processor, then only the 252 HTML character entities can safely be used. The use of <code>&apos;</code> or custom entity references may not be supported and may produce unpredictable results.
* If the document is read by an XML [[parser]] that does not or cannot read external entities, then only the five built-in XML character entities ([[#Predefined entities in XML|see above]]) can safely be used, although other entities may be used if they are declared in the internal DTD subset.
* If the document is read by an XML parser that does read external entities, then the five built-in XML character entities can safely be used. The other 248 HTML character entities can be used as long as the XHTML DTD is accessible to the parser at the time the document is read. Other entities may also be used if they are declared in the internal DTD subset.

Because of the special <code>&apos;</code> case mentioned above, only <code>&quot;</code>, <code>&amp;</code>, <code>&lt;</code>, and <code>&gt;</code> will work in all processing situations.

==See also==
* [[Character encodings in HTML]]
* [[HTML decimal character rendering]]
* [[SGML entity]]

==References==
* [http://www.unicode.org/ Unicode Consortium]. See also: [[Unicode Consortium]]
** [http://www.unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/UnicodeData.txt UnicodeData.txt from the Unicode Consortium]
* [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium]. See also: [[World Wide Web Consortium]]
** [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml/ XML 1.0 spec]
** [http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/html-spec/html-spec_toc.html HTML 2.0 spec]
** [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html32 HTML 3.2 spec]
** [http://www.w3.org/TR/1998/REC-html40-19980424/ HTML 4.0 spec]
** [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/ HTML 4.01 spec]
** [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/ XHTML 1.0 spec]
** [http://www.w3.org/TR/xml-entity-names/ XML Entity Definitions for Characters]
* The normative reference to RFC 2070 (still found in DTDs defining the character entities for HTML or XHTML) is historic; this RFC (along with other RFC's related to different part of the HTML specification) has been deprecated in favor of the newer informational RFC 2854 which defines the "text/html" MIME type and references directly the W3C specifications for the actual HTML content.
* [[b:Unicode/Character reference/0000-0FFF|Numerical Reference of Unicode code points]] at Wikibooks

==External links==
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html Character entity references in HTML 4] at the W3C
*[http://www.seomister.com/characters Multilanguage special character entity list] - List of special characters, entities and their names.

[[Category:Lists of computer languages|XML and HTML character entity references]]
[[Category:HTML]]
[[Category:XML]]
[[Category:Unicode]]

[[eo:Listo de HTML-subtenataj signoj]]
[[ko:문자 실체 참조]]
[[ia:Tabula de symbolos]]
[[ru:Мнемоники в HTML]]

Weight

2010-10-31T06:53:33Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: vi:Tương tác hấp dẫn#Trọng lực

{{other uses}}

[[File:Weeghaak.JPG|thumb|100px|A [[spring scale]] measures the weight of an object]]

In [[physics]], there are various, nonequivalent definitions of the concept of '''weight'''.

The practical consistent definition, which also explains the condition of [[weightlessness]] is:
:''Weight is the force exerted by an object on its support.''

Standing at rest on a weighing scale at the surface of the earth, your weight equals gravitational acceleration multiplied by your mass, balanced by the supporting force of the scales. However, in a [[free fall|free falling]] elevator, the scales will indicate a zero weight, as no net force by your body is exerted on the support: you experience weightlessness. Similarly, in orbit around the earth in the [[International Space Station]], you will measure your weight again as zero while standing on scales. The gravitational force of the earth is counterbalanced by the [[centrifugal force]] on the orbiting spacecraft. However, repeating the experiment on the surface of the Moon, your weight will be approximately one sixth of your weight at rest on the earth, as the gravitational force exerted by the Moon is much smaller than that of the earth.

In one of the other more common definitions, the weight of an object, often denoted by '''W''', is defined as being equal to the [[Gravitational force|force]] exerted on it by [[gravity]]. This force is the product of the [[mass]] ''m'' of the object and the local [[gravitational acceleration]] '''g'''.<ref name="Gat">{{cite book |title=Standardization of Technical Terminology: Principles and Practice – ''second volume'' |editor=Richard Alan Strehlow |year=1988 |publisher=[[ASTM International]] |isbn=978-0-8031-1183-7 |chapter=The weight of mass and the mess of weight |last=Gat |first=Uri |pages=45–48 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CoB5w9Km0mUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45}}</ref> Expressed in a formula: {{nowrap|1='''W''' = ''m'''''g'''}}. In the [[International System of Units]], the [[unit of measurement]] for weight is the same as that for [[force (physics)|force]]: the [[newton (unit)|newton]]. This definition does not include the phenomenon of weightlessness in space or in free fall near the earth surface, where in both cases a gravitational force is present.

On the surface of the [[Earth]], the [[Earth's gravity|acceleration due to gravity]] is approximately constant; this means that the magnitude of an object's weight on the surface of the Earth is roughly proportional to its [[mass]]. In situations other than that of a constant position on the Earth, so long as the acceleration does not change, the weight of an object (the force it exerts against support in any accelerated frame) is proportional to its mass, also. In everyday practical use, therefore, including commercial use, the term "weight" is commonly used to mean "mass."<ref name="Canada">The National Standard of Canada, CAN/CSA-Z234.1-89 Canadian Metric Practice Guide, January 1989:
*'''5.7.3''' Considerable confusion exists in the use of the term "weight." In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" nearly always means mass. In science and technology "weight" has primarily meant a force due to gravity. In scientific and technical work, the term "weight" should be replaced by the term "mass" or "force," depending on the application.
*'''5.7.4''' The use of the verb "to weigh" meaning "to determine the mass o f," e.g., "I weighed this object and determined its mass to be 5 kg," is correct.</ref>

Other definitions of the physical concept are detailed below.

== Definitions ==
There are several definitions of the physical notion of weight, not all of which are equivalent.<ref name="Gat"/><ref name="King">{{cite journal |title=Weight and weightlessness |author=Allen L. King |journal=[[American Journal of Physics]] |volume=30 |page=387 |year=1963 |doi=10.1119/1.1942032}}</ref><ref name="French">{{cite journal |title=On weightlessness |author=A. P. French |journal=[[American Journal of Physics]] |volume=63 |pages=105–106 |year=1995 |doi=10.1119/1.17990}}</ref><ref name="Galili-Lehavi">{{cite journal |last1=Galili |first1=I. |last2=Lehavi |first2=Y. |year=2003 |title=The importance of weightlessness and tides in teaching gravitation |journal=[[American Journal of Physics]] |volume=71 |issue=11 |pages=1127–1135 |url=http://sites.huji.ac.il/science/stc/staff_h/Igal/Research%20Articles/Weight-AJP.pdf |doi=10.1119/1.1607336}}</ref> In a purely scientific context, the concept of weight is rarely used (except for physics textbooks); however, the use of the physical concept of weight is common enough in technology.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

Main differences are:
*whether the definition is based on the [[standard gravity]] (of the Earth), or is based on any other [[proper acceleration]] (for example, Moon's for an object on the moon);
*whether the quantity is determined directly and is thus weighing-instrument-dependent (see [[apparent weight]]), or is determined indirectly, from other measurements of mass and acceleration.
*whether the quantity is a [[Euclidean vector|vector]] or a [[Scalar (physics)|scalar]].

===Gravitational===
One of the most common definitions of weight found in introductory physics textbooks defines weight as the force exerted on a body by gravity.<ref name="Galili-Lehavi"/> This is often expressed in the formula {{nowrap|1='''W''' = ''m'''''g'''}}, where '''W''' is the weight, ''m'' the mass of the object, and '''g''' [[gravitational acceleration]].

This definition was established in Resolution 2 of the 3rd [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM) of 1901:
{{quote|"The word ''weight'' denotes a quantity of the same nature{{#tag:ref
|The phrase "quantity of the same nature" is a literal translation of the [[French (language)|French]] phrase ''grandeur de la même nature''. Although this is an authorized translation, VIM 3 of the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] recommends translating ''grandeurs de même nature'' as "quantities of the same kind".<ref name="3rdCGPM"/>
|group=Note}} as a ''force'': the weight of a body is the product of its mass and the acceleration due to gravity."<ref>{{cite book |editors=Barry N. Taylor and Ambler Thompson |title=The International System of Units (SI) |publisher=[[NIST]] |year=2008 |series=NIST Special Publication 330 |edition=2008 |page=52 |url=http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP330/sp330.pdf}}</ref>}}
This resolution defines weight as a vector, since force is a vector quantity. However, some textbooks also take weight to be a scalar by defining:
{{quote|"The weight ''W'' of a body is equal to the magnitude ''Fg'' of the gravitational force on the body."<ref name="Halliday 2007 95">{{cite book |title=Fundamentals of Physics, Volume 1 |first=David |last=Halliday |first2=Robert |last2=Resnick |first3=Jearl |last3=Walker |publisher= Wiley |year=2007 |edition=8th |page=95 |isbn= 978-0-470-04473-5}}</ref>}}

The gravitational acceleration varies from place to place. Sometimes, it is simply taken to a have a [[standard gravity|standard value]] of {{nowrap|9.80665 m/s2}}, which gives the [[standard weight]].<ref name="3rdCGPM">{{cite book
|author=Working Group 2 of the Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology (JCGM/WG 2)
|title=International vocabulary of metrology — Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM) — Vocabulaire international de métrologie — Concepts fondamentaux et généraux et termes associés (VIM)
|url=http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/documents/jcgm/JCGM_200_2008.pdf
|year=2008 |edition=3rd |type=JCGM 200:2008 |publisher=[[BIPM]]
|at=Note 3 to Section 1.2
|language=English and French
}}</ref>

===Operational===
In the operational definition, the weight of an object is the [[force]] measured by the operation of weighing it, which is the force it exerts on its support.<ref name="King"/> This can make a considerable difference, depending on the details; for example, an object in [[free fall]] exerts little force on its support, if any, a situation that is commonly referred to as [[weightlessness]]. However, being in free fall does not affect the weight according to the gravitational definition. Therefore, the operational definition is sometimes refined by requiring that the object be at rest.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} However, this raises the issue of defining "at rest" (usually being at rest with respect to the Earth is implied by using [[standard gravity]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

A minor issue with the formulation is that the operational definition, as usually given, does not take [[buoyancy]] into account. However, this is an instrument-dependent problem (since in theory, an object will always be weighed in a vacuum, with the correct instrument).<ref name="Galili-Lehavi"/>

===The ISO definition===

In the [[ISO]] International standard ISO 80000-4(2006), which is a part of the International standard [[ISO/IEC 80000]], the definition of "weight" and remarks concerning that definition are given as

" '''''F'''''g = ''m'' '''''g'''''

where ''m'' is mass and '''''g''''' is local acceleration of free fall.

It should be noted that, when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity comprises not only the local gravitational force, but also the local centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth.

The effect of atmospheric buoyancy is excluded in the weight.

In common parlance, the name "weight" continues to be used where "mass" is meant, but this practice is deprecated. "

The following points are emphasized in this definition of "weight":

* this quantity depends on the specified reference frame;

* when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity includes the gravitational force and the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Earth, but excludes the effect of the atmospheric buoyancy. It implicitly contains the fact that the local acceleration '''''g''''' differs from point to point on the Earth surface and is equal to measured values obtained by observing locally the free fall in vacuum. More generally, when the reference frame is Earth, this quantity excludes the effect of buoyancy of any fluid in which the body might be immersed.

The international standard ISO 80000-4(2006), describing the basic physical quantities and units in mechanics, cancels and replaces the second edition of ISO 31-3:1992. The major technical changes introduced in comparison with the previous standards were the following:

* the presentation of numerical statements has been changed;

* the normative references have been changed;

* quantities from analytical mechanics have been added to the list of quantities.

The new standard ISO 80000-4(2006) stresses some details concerning the definition of weight which were not clearly stated in the previous standard ISO 31-3:1992. The definition of the weight in the cancelled standard ISO 31-3:1992, with commentaries, is given in the following text.

The [[ISO]] standard [[ISO 31-3]] (1992) defines weight as follows:
{{quote|The weight of a body in a specified reference system is that force which, when applied to the body, would give it an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of free fall in that reference system.<ref name="ISO31-3">{{cite book|title=Quantities and units -- Part 3: Mechanics
|author=Technical committee 12
|publisher=[[International Standards Organization]]
|year=1992
}}</ref>
}}
This definition allows use of the formula "'''W''' = ''m'' '''g'''", with '''g''' interpreted as the local acceleration of free fall in the specified frame.<ref>{{Cite conference
| auhtor1= Normal 0 false false false MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 Wong Chee Leong
| auhtor2= Yap Kueh Chin
| title = The Semantics Problems on the Definitions of Weight
| publisher = Educational Research Association of Singapore
| date = November 2009
| booktitle = ERAS Conference 2009
| url = http://www.eras.org.sg/papers/2-4-34.doc
| accessdate = 2010-06-09
}}</ref> The definition is dependent on the chosen [[frame of reference]]. When the chosen frame is co-moving with the object in question then this definition precisely agrees with the operational definition.<ref name="French"/> If however the specified frame is the one of the surface of the Earth, then the definition agrees with the gravitational definition.

Weight here is the force necessary to put an object in an "particular reference frame," (which must be an accelerated frame if the body is to have any weight at all) into a free-fall frame, instead. If such a body is not already in free fall, and yet is stationary (as it must be in its particular reference frame, where it has weight) this requires that the body already is being acted upon by a force, which acts against its weight. This force, a supporting force, is responsible for its acceleration (which is also the acceleration of its frame). This force causes a measurable [[proper acceleration]] which is measurable by an accelerometer. This acceleration is, by definition, the acceleration of an object away from the acceleration of free fall. The object's weight must be exactly equal to this supporting force, but in the opposite direction, in order to keep the object motionless in its "particular reference frame."

For example, an object sitting on a spring-scale on a table on the surface of the Earth (an accelerated frame) is subject to a supporting-force from the scale and table, which is exactly enough to keep it from going into free fall, in the scale and table's gravitationally accelerated reference frame. This force causes the object's 1-g [[proper acceleration]], which is in a direction upward. This acceleration can be directly measured as a 1-g acceleration upward, by an accelerometer affixed to the object, or to its reference frame (see the article on [[g-force]]). In the object and table's frame, this force is balanced, by Newton's third law, by the counter-force of the object's weight, which is measured as a downward force, by the scale. If the table and scale are removed, however, the force of the object's weight is exactly enough to put it into free-fall, by the ISO definition, and it will therefore go into free-fall. At that time, an accelerometer placed on it will read zero, and it will have no weight. (Objects in a free-fall, obeying Newton's first law in an inertial frame, are [[weightlessness|weightless]]).

In a similar situation where an object is on a scale on-board a rocket accelerating at 1-g in deep-space, the weight of the object will be measured as the same as on the Earth by the scale, and an accelerometer will show the same 1-g upward [[proper acceleration]]. However, in this case the acceleration is produced by the rocket engine, and the weight of the object is provided by the [[fictitious force]] (inertial force) associated with it being in the accelerated rocket-frame, rather than the similar gravitational force which causes positionally stationary frames near a mass to appear accelerated (these frames have a proper acceleration, even if they have no coordinate acceleration). In a centrifuge, or other similar accelerated frame system, weight is due to a similar fictitious inertial force (centrifugal force), and is a function of the system's proper acceleration, which is its difference in acceleration from a free-fall reference frame.

The identical operational and the ISO definitions for weight do in themselves take into consideration the practical fact that a scale under an object cannot be expected to measure its full weight, if the object is supported, in part or in whole, by some other means which does not transfer downward weight-force to the scale. Such unmeasured support detracts from an object's weight and may give it a false [[apparent weight]]. For example, an object might be suspended over a scale by a rope from a stand, and the scale would read an apparent weight of zero. This does not mean the object's weight is zero, but merely that the scale mechanism has been circumvented, by being placed somewhere other than the structures that supply the supporting force for the object; in this case, the object's weight would be correctly reported if the scales were placed under the stand. Similarly, an object undergoing [[levitation]] in a magnetic field does not actually lose its weight; rather the full weight would be shown if the scale were placed under the structures that supply the levitating field.

In a similar fashion, the [[apparent weight]] of objects immersed in a fluid may be reported incorrectly by a scale placed immediately under the object, but this is only because the fluid, like the rope in the example above, has transferred some of the support for the object, to a surface supporting the fluid, where the scale does not measure the increase in weight. This does not happen if the entire fluid mass is supported by the scale: for example, if a beaker of water is placed upon a scale and an object dropped into the beaker, the entire weight of the object will be is shown by the scale, no matter to what extent it is supported locally by [[buoyancy]]. In a similar fashion, objects immersed in air show a slightly smaller apparent weight, but this is only because scales do not measure the increased pressure and thus weight of the entire atmosphere (which would show the weight difference from true weight, directly). Such measurements are impractical, and therefore to correct for the buoyancy of air, the apparent weight of objects weighed by a spring-scale in air must have an additional calculated measure added, using the product of the density of air and the object's volume, as described in [[Archimedes' principle]]. However, the true weight of the object in such circumstances is unchanged, just as in the other "unmeasured support" examples.

===Vector or scalar===
The definitions of the physical concept of weight given above define it as a [[vector (physics)|vector]] quantity, having both magnitude and direction. For an object at rest on the surface of the Earth, its weight is a force that points down, approximately towards the centre of the Earth. In spite of this, the vector aspect is usually ignored in common scientific discourse, and "the weight" is used to denote a [[scalar]] quantity, where, according to the definition employed, "the magnitude of the weight" would be more appropriate. Some physics textbooks define weight outright as a scalar quantity, as in the following definition:
{{quote|"The weight ''W'' of a body is equal to the magnitude ''Fg'' of the gravitational force on the body."<ref name="Halliday 2007 95"/>}}

== Weight and mass ==
{{Main|Mass versus weight}}

In modern scientific usage, weight and [[mass]] are fundamentally different quantities: mass is an intrinsic property of [[matter]], whereas weight is a ''force'' that results from the action of [[gravity]] on matter: it measures how strongly the force of gravity pulls on that matter. However, in most practical everyday situations the word "weight" is used when, strictly, "mass" is meant.<ref name="Canada"/><ref name="NIST811wt">{{cite web |author=A. Thompson and B. N. Taylor |title=The NIST Guide for the use of the International System of Units, Section 8: Comments on Some Quantities and Their Units |work=Special Publication 811 |url=http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/sec08.html#8.3 |publisher=[[NIST]] |date=July 2, 2009 (last updated: March 3, 2010) |accessdate=2010-05-22}}</ref> For example, most people would say that an object "weighs one kilogram", even though the kilogram is a unit of mass.

The scientific distinction between mass and weight is unimportant for many practical purposes because the strength of gravity is almost constant everywhere on the surface of the Earth. In a constant gravitational field, the gravitational force exerted on an object (its weight) is [[Proportionality (mathematics)|directly proportional]] to its mass. For example, object A weighs 10 times as much as object B, so therefore the mass of object A is 10 times greater than that of object B. This means that an object's mass can be measured indirectly by its weight, and so, for everyday purposes, [[weighing]] (using a [[weighing scale]]) is an entirely acceptable way of measuring mass. Conversely, a [[Weighing scale#Balance|balance]] actually measures mass, not weight (in the scientific sense), but the quantity thus determined is still called "weight" in everyday use.

The Earth's gravitational field is not actually constant but can vary by as much as 0.5%<ref>{{cite book
| last = Hodgeman
| first = Charles, Ed.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed.
| publisher = Chemical Rubber Publishing Co.
| year = 1961
| location = Cleveland, USA
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = }} p.3480-3485</ref> at different locations on Earth (see [[Earth's gravity]]). These variations alter the relationship between weight and mass, and must be taken into account in high precision weight measurements that are intended to indirectly measure mass. [[Spring scale]]s, which measure local weight, must be calibrated at the location at which the objects will be used to show this standard weight, to be legal for commerce.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010|reason=Doesn't this depend on the jurisdiction?}}

This table shows the variation of acceleration due to gravity (and hence the variation of weight) at various locations on the Earth's surface.<ref>{{cite book
|first = John B
|last = Clark
|title = Physical and Mathematical Tables
|publisher = Oliver and Boyd
|year = 1964}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Location
! Latitude
! m/s2
|-
| [[Equator]]
| 0°
| 9.7803
|-
| [[Sydney]]
| 33° 52´S
| 9.7968
|-
| [[Aberdeen]]
| 57° 9´N
| 9.8168
|-
|-
| [[North Pole]]
| 90° N
| 9.8322
|-
|}

The historic use of "weight" for "mass" also persists in some scientific terminology – for example, the [[chemistry|chemical]] terms "atomic weight", "molecular weight", and "formula weight", can still be found rather than the preferred "[[atomic mass]]" etc.

In a different gravitational field, for example, on the surface of the [[Moon]], an object can have a significantly different weight than on Earth. The gravity on the surface of the Moon is only about one-sixth as strong as on the surface of the Earth. A one-kilogram mass is still a one-kilogram mass (as mass is an intrinsic property of the object) but the downward force due to gravity, and therefore its weight, is only one-sixth of what the object would have on Earth. So a 180-pound man on Earth weighs only about 30 pounds when visiting the Moon.

== Units==
{{GravEngAbs}}
===SI units===
In most modern scientific work, physical quantities are measured in [[International System of Units|SI]] units. The SI unit of force (and hence weight in the [[mechanics]] sense) is the same as that of force: the [[newton (unit)|newton]] (N) – a derived unit which can also be expressed in [[SI base unit]]s as kg·m/s2 (kilograms times meters per second squared).<ref name=NIST811wt/>

In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" is usually used to mean mass, and the verb "to weigh" means "to determine the mass of" or "to have a mass of". Used in this sense, the proper SI unit is the [[kilogram]] (kg).<ref name=NIST811wt/>

===The pound and other non-SI units===

In [[United States customary units]], the pound can be either a unit of force or a unit of mass. Related units used in some distinct, separate subsystems of units include the [[poundal]] and the [[slug (mass)|slug]]. The poundal is defined as the force necessary to accelerate an object of one-pound mass at 1 ft/s2, and is equivalent to about 1/32.2 of a pound-force. The slug is defined as the amount of mass that accelerates at 1 ft/s2 when one pound-force is exerted on it, and is equivalent to about 32.2 pounds (mass).

The [[kilogram-force]] is a non-SI unit of force, defined as the force exerted by a one kilogram mass in standard Earth gravity (equal to 9.80665 newtons exactly). The [[dyne]] is the [[centimetre-gram-second|cgs]] unit of force and is not a part of SI, while weights measured in the cgs unit of mass, the gram, remain a part of SI.

== Sensation of weight ==
{{See also|Apparent weight}}

The sensation of weight is caused by the force exerted by fluids in the [[vestibular system]] –a three-dimensional set of tubes in the inner [[ear]].{{Dubious|Sensation of Weight|date=June 2010}} It is actually the sensation of [[g-force]], regardless of whether this is due to being stationary in the presence of gravity, or, if the person is in motion, the result of any other forces acting on the body such as in the case of acceleration or deceleration of a lift, or centrifugal forces when turning sharply.

== Measuring weight ==
{{Main|Weighing scale}}

[[File:Peso-Valdivia-dsc02545.jpg|thumb|A [[weighbridge]], used for weighing trucks]]

Weight is commonly measured using one of two methods. A [[Weighing scale#Spring scale|spring scale]] or [[Weighing scale#Hydraulic or pneumatic scale|hydraulic or pneumatic scale]] measures local weight, the local [[force]] of [[gravity]] on the object (strictly [[apparent weight|''apparent'' weight force]]). Since the local force of gravity can vary by up to 0.5% at different locations, spring scales will measure slightly different weights for the same object (the same mass) at different locations. To standardize weights, scales are always calibrated to read the weight an object would have at a nominal [[standard gravity]] of 9.80665 m/s2 (approx. 32.174 ft/s2). However, this calibration is done at the factory. When the scale is moved to another location on Earth, the force of gravity will be different, causing a slight error. So to be highly accurate, and legal for commerce, [[spring scale]]s must be re-calibrated at the location at which they will be used.

A ''[[Weighing scale#Balance|balance]]'' on the other hand, compares the weight of an unknown object in one scale pan to the weight of standard masses in the other, using a [[lever]] mechanism – a lever-balance. The standard masses are often referred to, non-technically, as "weights". Since any variations in gravity will act equally on the unknown and the known weights, a lever-balance will indicate the same value at any location on Earth. Therefore, balance "weights" are usually calibrated and marked in [[mass]] units, so the lever-balance measures mass by comparing the Earth's attraction on the unknown object and standard masses in the scale pans. In the absence of a gravitational field, away from planetary bodies (e.g. space), a lever-balance would not work, but on the Moon, for example, it would give the same reading as on Earth. Some balances can be marked in weight units, but since the weights are calibrated at the factory for standard gravity, the balance will measure standard weight, i.e. what the object would weigh at standard gravity, not the actual local force of gravity on the object.

If the actual force of gravity on the object is needed, this can be calculated by multiplying the mass measured by the balance by the acceleration due to gravity – either standard gravity (for everyday work) or the precise local gravity (for precision work). Tables of the gravitational acceleration at different locations can be found on the web.

'''Gross weight''' is a term that generally is found in commerce or trade applications, and refers to the total weight of a product and its packaging. Conversely, '''net weight''' refers to the weight of the product alone, discounting the weight of its container or packaging; and '''[[tare weight]]''' is the weight of the packaging alone.

==Relative weights on the Earth, other celestial bodies and the Moon==
{{Main|Earth's gravity}}

The table below shows comparative gravitational accelerations at the surface of the Sun, the Earth's moon, each of the planets in the solar system. The “surface” is taken to mean the cloud tops of the [[gas giants]] (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune). For the Sun, the surface is taken to mean the [[photosphere]]. The values in the table have not been de-rated for the centrifugal effect of planet rotation (and cloud-top wind speeds for the gas giants) and therefore, generally speaking, are similar to the actual gravity that would be experienced near the poles.
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Body
! Multiple of Earth gravity
! m/s2
|-
| [[Sun]]
| 27.90
| 274.1
|-
| [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
| 0.3770
| 3.703
|-
| [[Venus]]
| 0.9032
| 8.872
|-
| [[Earth (planet)|Earth]]
| 1 (by definition)
| 9.8226<ref>This value excludes the adjustment for centrifugal force due to Earth’s rotation and is therefore greater than the 9.80665 m/s2 value of [[standard gravity]].</ref>
|-
| [[Moon]]
| 0.1655
| 1.625
|-
| [[Mars]]
| 0.3895
| 3.728
|-
| [[Jupiter]]
| 2.640
| 25.93
|-
| [[Saturn]]
| 1.139
| 11.19
|-
| [[Uranus]]
| 0.917
| 9.01
|-
| [[Neptune]]
| 1.148
| 11.28
|-
|}

==See also==
Other meanings of ''weight'' are those related to health:

*[[body mass]]
*[[body mass index]]
*[[obesity]]
*[[overweight]]

==Notes==
<references group="Note"/>

==References==

{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Commerce]]
[[Category:Mass]]
[[Category:Force]]
[[Category:Physiology]]

[[af:Gewig]]
[[am:ክብደት]]
[[ar:وزن]]
[[ast:Pesu]]
[[az:Çəki (qüvvə)]]
[[bn:ওজন (ভার)]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tāng-liōng]]
[[be:Вага]]
[[bs:Težina]]
[[bg:Тегло]]
[[ca:Pes]]
[[cs:Váha]]
[[cy:Pwysau (grym)]]
[[da:Vægt (fysik)]]
[[de:Gewicht]]
[[et:Kaal]]
[[es:Peso]]
[[eo:Pezo]]
[[eu:Pisu]]
[[fa:وزن]]
[[fr:Poids]]
[[gl:Peso]]
[[gan:重量]]
[[hak:Tshûng-liông]]
[[ko:무게]]
[[hi:भार]]
[[hr:Težina]]
[[io:Pezo]]
[[id:Berat]]
[[is:Þyngd]]
[[it:Forza peso]]
[[he:משקל (פיזיקה)]]
[[kn:ತೂಕ]]
[[ht:Pwa (mezi)]]
[[ku:Giranî]]
[[la:Pondus]]
[[lv:Svars]]
[[lt:Svoris]]
[[hu:Súly]]
[[mk:Тежина]]
[[ml:ഭാരം]]
[[ms:Berat]]
[[mn:Жин]]
[[nl:Gewicht]]
[[ja:重さ]]
[[no:Tyngde]]
[[nn:Vekt]]
[[pl:Siła ciężkości]]
[[pt:Peso]]
[[ksh:Jeweech]]
[[ro:Greutate]]
[[qu:Llasaq kay]]
[[ru:Вес]]
[[sco:Wecht]]
[[stq:Gewicht]]
[[scn:Pisu]]
[[simple:Weight]]
[[sk:Gravitačná hmotnosť]]
[[sl:Teža]]
[[sr:Тежина]]
[[sh:Težina]]
[[su:Beurat]]
[[fi:Paino]]
[[sv:Tyngd]]
[[tl:Timbang]]
[[te:బరువు]]
[[th:น้ำหนัก]]
[[tr:Ağırlık]]
[[uk:Вага]]
[[vi:Tương tác hấp dẫn#Trọng lực]]
[[war:Bug-at]]
[[yi:וואג]]
[[zh:重量]]

MCM Worldwide

2010-10-31T05:35:01Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: de:Moderne Creation München, ko:모드 크리에이션 뮌헨

{{Infobox company
| company_name = Mode Creation Munich (MCM)
| company_type = [[Privately-held company|Privately held]]
| foundation = {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]] in 1976
| location = {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]] 
{{flagicon|Switzerland}}[[Zurich]], [[Switzerland]]
{{flagicon|Germany}}[[Munich]], [[Germany]]
| locations = Over 70 Worldwide boutiques
| founder = [[Michael Cromer]]
| key_people = [[Michael Cromer]], [[Entrepreneur|Founder]] [[Sung-joo Kim]], [[Stockholder]] [[Michael Michalsky]], [[Creative Director]]
| industry = [[Fashion]]
| products = [[Luxury good]]s
| net_income = 220 million $
| homepage = [http://www.mcmworldwide.com/main.htm?lang=kr MCMworldwide.com] 
[http://www.mcm-blog.com MCM Blog]
}}

'''Mode Creation Munich''' is [[Germany]]'s [[luxury brand]], founded in 1976 in [[Germany]], but now based in [[South Korea]]. '''Mode Creation Munich''' is headed by chairman and CEO [[Sung-Joo Kim]]. It now has offices in 8 countries worldwide with over 70 boutiques. 

[[Category:Companies established in 1976]]
[[Category:Clothing companies of South Korea]]
[[Category:Clothing companies of Germany]]
[[Category:Clothing brands]]
[[Category:High fashion brands]]
[[Category:Luxury brands]]

[[de:Moderne Creation München]]
[[ko:모드 크리에이션 뮌헨]]

Suidae

2010-10-31T05:21:21Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: bg:Свини

{{Taxobox
| name = Suidae
| image = Lightmatter unidentified pig-like animal.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Potamochoerus porcus]]''
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Oligocene|Recent}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = '''Suidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = Over 30 extinct genera, 6 extant, see text.
}}
'''Suidae''' is the biological [[family (biology)|family]] to which [[pig]]s and their closest relatives belong. In addition to numerous fossil species, up to sixteen [[Extant taxon|extant]] species are currently recognized, including the domestic pig ''Sus scrofa domesticus'' or ''Sus domesticus''. The extant species are classified into between four and eight [[genus|genera]]. In addition to numerous species of wild pig, these include the [[babirusa]] ''Babyrousa babyrussa'' and the [[warthog]] ''Phacochoerus aethiopicus''. All '''suids''' are native to the [[Old World]], ranging from Asia and its islands, to Europe, and Africa.

The earliest [[fossil]] suids date from the [[Oligocene]] epoch of Asia, and their descendants reached [[Europe]] during the [[Miocene]].<ref>{{cite book |editor=Palmer, D.|year=1999 |title= The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals|publisher= Marshall Editions|location=London|pages= 269|isbn= 1-84028-152-9}}</ref> Several fossil species are known, and show adaptations to a wide range of different diets, from strict herbivory to possible carrion-eating (in ''[[Tetraconodon]]'').<ref name=MamEv>{{cite book |author= Savage, RJG, & Long, MR|year=1986 |title= Mammal Evolution: an illustrated guide|publisher= Facts on File|location=New York|pages= 212–213|isbn= 0-8160-1194-X}}</ref>

==Physical characteristics==
Suids belong to the [[order_(biology)|order]] [[Artiodactyla]], and are generally regarded as the living members of that order most similar to the ancestral form. Unlike most other members of the order, they have four toes on each foot, although they walk only on the middle two digits, with the others staying clear of the ground. They also have a simple stomach, rather than the more complex, [[ruminant]], stomach found in most other Artiodactyl families.<ref name=EoM>{{cite book |editor=Macdonald, D.|author= Cumming, David|year=1984 |title= The Encyclopedia of Mammals|publisher= Facts on File|location=New York|pages= 500–503|isbn= 0-87196-871-1}}</ref>

They are small to medium animals, varying in size from {{convert|58|to|66|cm|abbr=on}} in length, and {{convert|6|to|9|kg|abbr=on}} in weight in the case of the [[Pygmy Hog]], to {{convert|130|-|210|cm|ft|abbr=on|0}} and {{convert|130|-|275|kg|abbr=on|-2}} in the [[Giant Forest Hog]]. They have large heads and short necks, with relatively small eyes and prominent ears. Their heads have a distinctive snout, ending in a disc-shaped nose. Suids typically have a bristly coat, and a short tail ending in a tassle. The males possess a [[corkscrew]]-shaped [[penis]], which fits into a similarly shaped groove in the female's [[cervix]].

Suids have a well developed sense of hearing, and are vocal animals, communicating with a series of grunts, squeals, and similar sounds. They also have an acute sense of smell. Many species are omnivorous, eating grass, leaves, roots, insects, worms, and even frogs or mice. Other species are more selective and purely herbivorous.<ref name=EoM/>

Their teeth reflect their diet, and suids retain the upper [[incisor]]s, which are lost in most other Artiodactyls. The canine teeth are enlarged to form prominent tusks, used for rooting in moist earth or undergrowth, and in fighting. They have only a short [[diastema (dentistry)|diastema]]. The number of teeth varies between species, but the general [[dentition|dental formula]] is: {{DentalFormula|upper=1-3.1.2-4.3|lower=3.1.2.3}}

==Behaviour and reproduction==
Despite their apparently 'primitive' anatomy, suids are intelligent and adaptable animals. Adult females (sows) and their young travel in a group (sounder; see [[List of animal names]]), whilst adult males are either solitary, or travel in small bachelor groups. Males generally are not territorial, and come into conflict only during the mating season.

Litter size varies between one and twelve, depending on the species. The mother prepares a grass nest or similar den, which the young leave after about ten days. Suids are [[weaning|weaned]] at around three months, and become sexually mature at 18 months. In practice, however, male suids are unlikely to gain access to sows in the wild until they have reached their full physical size, at around four years of age. In all species, the male is significantly larger than the female, and possesses more prominent tusks.<ref name=EoM/>

==Classification==
[[Image:Bearded_Pig.JPG|thumb|right|273px|Bearded Pig, ''[[Sus barbatus]]'']]
[[Image:Chleuastochoerus.JPG|thumb|''[[Chleuastochoerus]]'' fossil skull]]
The complete list of living species, and a partial list of extinct genera known from the fossil record. Extinct taxa are marked with a [[Dagger (typography)|dagger "†"]]. <ref name=MamEv/>, follows:

*Suidae
**Subfamily [[Extinction|†]][[Cainochoerinae]]
***Genus †''[[Albanohyus]]''
***Genus †''[[Cainochoerus]]''
** Subfamily †[[Hyotheriinae]]
***Genus †''[[Aureliachoerus]]''
***Genus †''[[Chicochoerus]]''
***Genus †''[[Hyotherium]]''
***Genus †''[[Nguruwe]]'' (formerly placed in Kubanochoerinae)<ref name="Maeva2009"/><ref name="Maeva2010">{{cite journal |last1=Maeva |first1=J.O. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2010 |title=Phylogenetic relationships of the Suidae (Mammalia, Cetartiodactyla): new insights on the relationships within Suoidea |journal= Zoologica Scripta |volume= 39 |issue= 4 |pages=315–330 |doi= 10.1111/j.1463-6409.2010.00431.x3}}</ref>
***Genus †''[[Xenohyus]]''
**Subfamily †[[Listriodontinae]]<ref name="Maeva2009">{{cite journal |last1=Maeva |first1=J.O. |year=2009 |title=The differentiation of bunodont Listriodontinae (Mammalia, Suidae) of Africa: new data from Kalodirr and Moruorot, Kenya |journal= Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=157 |issue= 3 |pages=653–678 |doi= 10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00525.x}}</ref>
***Tribe †[[Kubanochoerini]]
****Genus †''[[Kubanochoerus]]'' (Jr synonyms ''[[Libycochoerus]]'', ''[[Megalochoerus]]'')
***Trube †[[Listriodontini]]
****Genus †''[[Eurolistriodon]]''
****Genus †''[[Listriodon]]'' (Jr synonym ''[[Bunolistriodon]]'')
***Tribe †[[Namachoerini]]
****Genus †''[[Lopholistriodon]]''
****Genus †''[[Namachoerus]]''
***Tribe ''[[incertae sedis]]''
****Genus †''[[Dicoryphochoerus]]''
**Subfamily [[Suinae]]
***Tribe [[Babyrousini]]
****Genus ''[[Babyrousa]]'' (Pleistocene to Recent)
*****Species ''[[Babyrousa babyrussa]]'' [[Golden Babirusa]]
*****Species †''[[Babyrousa bolabatuensis]]''
*****Species ''[[Babyrousa celebensis]]'' [[Sulawesi Babirusa]]
*****Species ''[[Babyrousa togeanensis]]'' [[Togian Babirusa]]
***Tribe †[[Hippohyini]]
****Genus †''[[Hippohyus]]'' (Miocene to Pleistocene)
****Genus †''[[Sinohyus]]'' (Miocene)
****Genus †''[[Sivahyus]]'' (Miocene to Pliocene)
***Tribe [[Potamochoerini]]
****Genus †''[[Celebochoerus]]'' (Pliocene to Pleistocene)
****Genus ''[[Hylochoerus]]'' (Pleistocene to Recent)
*****Species ''[[Hylochoerus meinertzhageni]]'' [[Giant Forest Hog]]
****Genus †''[[Kolpochoerus]]'' (Miocene to Pleistocene) (Jr synonyms ''Ectopotamochoerus'', ''Mesochoerus'', ''Omochoerus'', ''Promesochoerus'')
****Genus ''[[Potamochoerus]]'' (Miocene to Recent)
*****Species ''[[Potamochoerus larvatus]]'' [[Bushpig]]
*****Species ''[[Potamochoerus porcus]]'' [[Red River Hog]]
****Genus †''[[Propotamochoerus]]'' (Miocene to Pliocene)
***Tribe [[Suini]]
****Genus †''[[Eumaiochoerus]]'' (Miocene)
****Genus †''[[Hippopotamodon]]'' (Miocene to [[Pleistocene]]) (Jr synonym ''Limnostonyx'')
****Genus †''[[Korynochoerus]]'' (Miocene to [[Pliocene]])
****Genus †''[[Microstonyx]]'' (Miocene)
****Genus ''[[Sus (genus)|Sus]]'' ([[Miocene]] to [[Recent]])
*****Species ''[[Sus ahoenobarbus]]'' [[Palawan Bearded Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus barbatus]]'' [[Bearded Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus bucculentus]]'' [[Vietnamese Warty Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus cebifrons]]'' [[Visayan Warty Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus celebensis]]'' [[Celebes Warty Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus heureni]]'' [[Flores Warty Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus oliveri]]'' [[Mindoro Warty Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus philippensis]]'' [[Sus philippensis|Philippine Warty Pig]]
*****Species ''[[Sus scrofa]]'' (also called ''S. domesticus'') [[Domestic pig]], [[wild boar]]
*****Species ''[[Sus verrucosus]]'' [[Javan Warty Pig]]
***Tribe [[Phacochoerini]]
****Genus †''[[Metridiochoerus]]'' (Pliocene to Pleistocene)
****Genus ''[[Phacochoerus]]'' (Pliocene to Recent)
*****Species ''[[Phacochoerus aethiopicus]]'' [[Desert Warthog|Cape, Somali or Desert Warthog]]
*****Species ''[[Phacochoerus africanus]]'' [[Warthog|Common Warthog]]
****Genus †''[[Potamochoeroides]]'' (Pliocene, possibly Pleistocene)
****Genus †''[[Stylochoerus]]'' (Pleistocene)
***Tribe ''incertae sedis'' <ref name="Funk2007">{{cite journal |last1=Funk |first1=S.M. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2007 |title=The pygmy hog is a unique genus: 19th century taxonomists got it right first time round |journal= Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=45 |issue= 2 |pages=427-436 |doi= 10.1016/j.ympev.2007.08.007}}</ref>
****Genus ''[[Porcula]]''
*****Species ''[[Porcula salvania]]'' [[Pygmy Hog]]
** Subfamily †[[Tetraconodontine]]
*** Genus †''[[Conohyus]]''
*** Genus †''[[Notochoerus]]''
*** Genus †''[[Nyanzachoerus]]''
*** Genus †''[[Parachleuastochoerus]]''
*** Genus †''[[Sivachoerus]]''
*** Genus †''[[Tetraconodon]]'' (Miocene, Myanmar) <ref name="Htike2005">{{cite journal |last1=Htike |first1=T. |coauthors=''et al.'' |year=2005 |title=A revision of ''Tetraconodon'' (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Suidae) from the Miocene of Myanmar and description of a new species |journal= Paleontological Research |volume=9 |issue= 3 |pages=243-254 |doi= 10.2517/prpsj.9.243}}</ref>
****Species †''Tetraconodon intermedius''
****Species †''Tetraconodon malensis''
****Species †''Tetraconodon minor''
**Subfamily ''incertae sedis''
***Genus †''[[Chleuastochoerus]]''<ref name="Maeva2010"/>
***Genus †''[[Hemichoerus]]''
***Genus †''[[Hyosus]]''
***Genus †''[[Kenyasus]]'' (formerly placed in Kubanochoerinae)<ref name="Maeva2010"/>
***Genus †''[[Schizochoerus]]''<ref name="Maeva2010"/>
***Genus †''[[Sinapriculus]]''<ref name="Maeva2010"/>

== See also ==
* [[Wild Pigs of the Philippines]]

==References==
{{wikispecies}}
{{commonscat}}
{{reflist}}

{{Artiodactyla|S.}}

[[Category:Even-toed ungulates]]
[[Category:Pigs]]

[[af:Vlakvark]]
[[an:Suidae]]
[[ast:Suidae]]
[[az:Donuzlar]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ti-kho]]
[[br:Hoc'heged]]
[[bg:Свини]]
[[ca:Suid]]
[[cv:Сысна]]
[[cs:Prasatovití]]
[[de:Echte Schweine]]
[[es:Suidae]]
[[eu:Suido]]
[[fr:Suidae]]
[[ko:멧돼지과]]
[[is:Svín (ætt)]]
[[it:Suidae]]
[[he:חזיריים]]
[[la:Suidae]]
[[lv:Cūku dzimta]]
[[lb:Echt Schwäin]]
[[lt:Kiauliniai]]
[[li:Verkes]]
[[hu:Disznófélék]]
[[mdf:Тувот]]
[[nl:Varkens]]
[[ja:イノシシ科]]
[[no:Svinefamilien]]
[[nn:Svin]]
[[oc:Suidae]]
[[pl:Świniowate]]
[[pt:Suidae]]
[[ru:Свиньи]]
[[scn:Suidae]]
[[simple:Suidae]]
[[sl:Prašiči]]
[[sr:Suidae]]
[[fi:Siat]]
[[sv:Svindjur]]
[[tr:Domuzgiller]]
[[uk:Свині]]
[[vi:Họ Lợn]]
[[fiu-vro:Tsiga]]
[[zh:猪科]]

Meguriau Sekai

2010-10-31T04:29:25Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:메구리아우 세카이

{{Infobox Single
| Name = めぐりあう世界
| Type = EP
| Longtype =
| Artist = [[S.E.S. (group)|S.E.S.]]
| Cover =
| Cover size = 150px
| Caption =
| Released = October 21, 1998
| Recorded =
| Genre = [[J-pop]], [[dance (music)|dance]]
| Length =
| Language = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
| Label =
| Producer =
| Reviews =
| Compiled by =
| Chronology =
| Last single =
| This single = '''''めぐりあう世界''''' (1998)
| Next single = ''[[I’m Your Girl]]'' (1998)
| Misc =
}}

"'''めぐりあう世界 (Meguriau Sekai)'''" is a single in 1998 by [[S.E.S. (group)|S.E.S.]]. This is S.E.S.' Japanese debut single. It sold approximately 12,000 copies.

==Track listing==
# めぐりあう世界
# Believe In Love
# めぐりあう世界 (Instrumental)

== External links ==
* {{ko icon}} [http://star.ilikepop.com/starhome/ses/ S.E.S.' Official Site]
* {{ko icon}} [http://smtown.com SM Entertainment's Official Site]
{{S.E.S. albums}}
[[Category: 1998 singles]]
[[Category:S.E.S. songs]]

[[ko:메구리아우 세카이]]

Knot theory

2010-10-31T04:01:24Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: zh:紐結理論

[[Image:Trefoil knot arb.png|thumb|A three-dimensional depiction of a thickened [[trefoil knot]], the simplest non-[[trivial knot]]]]
[[Image:TrefoilKnot 01.svg|thumb|A knot diagram of the trefoil knot]]

In [[mathematics]], '''knot theory''' is the area of [[topology]] that studies [[knot (mathematics)|mathematical knot]]s. While inspired by knots which appear in daily life in shoelaces and rope, a mathematician's knot differs in that the ends are joined together to prevent it from becoming undone. In precise mathematical language, a knot is an [[embedding]] of a [[circle]] in 3-dimensional [[Euclidean space]], '''R'''3. Two mathematical knots are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other via a deformation of '''R'''3 upon itself (known as an [[ambient isotopy]]); these transformations correspond to manipulations of a knotted string that do not involve cutting the string or passing the string through itself.

Knots can be described in various ways. Given a method of description, however, there may be more than one description that represents the same knot. For example, a common method of describing a knot is a planar diagram called a knot diagram. Any given knot can be drawn in many different ways using a knot diagram. Therefore, a fundamental problem in knot theory is determining when two descriptions represent the same knot.

A complete algorithmic solution to this problem exists, which has unknown [[computational complexity|complexity]]. In practice, knots are often distinguished by using a ''[[knot invariant]]'', a "quantity" which is the same when computed from different descriptions of a knot. Important invariants include [[knot polynomials]], [[knot group]]s, and hyperbolic invariants.

The original motivation for the founders of knot theory was to create a table of knots and [[link (knot theory)|link]]s, which are knots of several components entangled with each other. Over six billion knots and links have been tabulated since the beginnings of knot theory in the 19th century.

To gain further insight, mathematicians have generalized the knot concept in several ways. Knots can be considered in other [[3-manifold|three-dimensional spaces]] and objects other than circles can be used; see ''[[knot (mathematics)]]''. Higher dimensional knots are [[n-sphere|''n''-dimensional spheres]] in ''m''-dimensional Euclidean space.

==History==
{{main|History of knot theory}}
[[Image:KellsFol034rXRhoDet3.jpeg|thumb|upright|Intricate Celtic knotwork in the 1200 year old [[Book of Kells]]]]
Archaeologists have discovered that knot tying dates back to prehistoric times. Besides their uses such as [[khipu|recording information]] and [[knot tying|tying]] objects together, knots have interested humans for their aesthetics and spiritual symbolism. Knots appear in various forms of Chinese artwork dating from several centuries BC (see [[Chinese knotting]]). The [[endless knot]] appears in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], while the [[Borromean rings]] have made repeated appearances in different cultures, often representing strength in unity. The [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] monks who created the [[Book of Kells]] lavished entire pages with intricate [[Celtic knot]]work.

Mathematical studies of knots began in the 19th century with [[Gauss]], who defined the [[linking integral]] {{Harv|Silver|2006}}. In the 1860s, [[Lord Kelvin]]'s theory that [[atoms]] were knots in the [[Luminiferous aether|aether]] led to [[Peter Guthrie Tait]]'s creation of the first knot tables. Tabulation motivated the early knot theorists, but knot theory eventually became part of the emerging subject of [[topology]].

These topologists in the early part of the 20th century—[[Max Dehn]], [[James Waddell Alexander II|J. W. Alexander]], and others—studied knots from the point of view of the [[knot group]] and invariants from [[Homology (mathematics)|homology]] theory such as the [[Alexander polynomial]]. This would be the main approach to knot theory until a series of breakthroughs transformed the subject.
[[Image:Peter_Tait.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The first knot tabulator, [[Peter Guthrie Tait]]]]
In the late 1970s, [[William Thurston]] introduced [[hyperbolic geometry]] into the study of knots with the [[geometrization conjecture|hyperbolization theorem]]. Many knots were shown to be [[hyperbolic knot]]s, enabling the use of geometry in defining new, powerful [[knot invariant]]s. The discovery of the [[Jones polynomial]] by [[Vaughan Jones]] in 1984 {{Harv|Sossinsky|2002|p=71–89}}, and subsequent contributions from [[Edward Witten]], [[Maxim Kontsevich]], and others, revealed deep connections between knot theory and mathematical methods in [[statistical mechanics]] and [[quantum field theory]]. A plethora of knot invariants have been invented since then, utilizing sophisticated tools such as [[quantum group]]s and [[Floer homology]].

In the last several decades of the 20th century, scientists became interested in studying [[physical knot theory|physical knots]] in order to understand knotting phenomena in DNA and other polymers. Knot theory can be used to determine if a molecule is [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] (has a "handedness") or not {{Harv|Simon|1986}}. [[tangle (mathematics)|Tangle]]s, strings with both ends fixed in place, have been effectively used in studying the action of [[topoisomerase]] on DNA {{Harv|Flapan|2000}}. Knot theory may be crucial in the construction of quantum computers, through the model of [[topological quantum computation]] {{Harv|Collins|2006}}.

==Knot equivalence==
{{double image|right|unknots.svg|180|Ochiai unknot.svg|180|On the left, the unknot, and a knot equivalent to it. It can be more difficult to determine whether complex knots, such as the one on the right, are equivalent to the unknot.}}

A knot is created by beginning with a one-[[dimension]]al line segment, wrapping it around itself arbitrarily, and then fusing its two free ends together to form a closed loop {{Harv|Adams|2004}}{{Harv|Sossinsky|2002}}. When topologists consider knots and other entanglements such as [[link (knot theory)|links]] and [[Braid theory|braid]]s, they consider the space surrounding the knot as a viscous fluid. If the knot can be pushed about smoothly in the fluid, without intersecting itself, to coincide with another knot, the two knots are considered equivalent. The idea of '''knot equivalence''' is to give a precise definition of when two knots should be considered the same even when positioned quite differently in space. A formal mathematical definition is that two knots are equivalent if one can be transformed into the other via a type of deformation of '''R'''3 upon itself, known as an [[ambient isotopy]].

The basic problem of knot theory, the '''recognition problem''', is determining the equivalence of two knots. [[Algorithm]]s exist to solve this problem, with the first given by [[Wolfgang Haken]] in the late 1960s {{Harv|Hass|1998}}. Nonetheless, these algorithms can be extremely time-consuming, and a major issue in the theory is to understand how hard this problem really is {{Harv|Hass|1998}}. The special case of recognizing the [[unknot]], called the [[unknotting problem]], is of particular interest {{Harv|Hoste|2005}}.

==Knot diagrams==
A useful way to visualise and manipulate knots is to project the knot onto a plane—think of the knot casting a shadow on the wall. A small change in the direction of projection will ensure that it is [[Injective function|one-to-one]] except at the double points, called ''crossings'', where the "shadow" of the knot crosses itself once transversely {{Harv|Rolfsen|1976}}. At each crossing, to be able to recreate the original knot, the over-strand must be distinguished from the under-strand. This is often done by creating a break in the strand going underneath.

===Reidemeister moves===
{{main article|Reidemeister move}}
In 1927, working with this diagrammatic form of knots, [[J.W. Alexander]] and G. B. Briggs, and independently [[Kurt Reidemeister]], demonstrated that two knot diagrams belonging to the same knot can be related by a sequence of three kinds of moves on the diagram, shown below. These operations, now called the '''Reidemeister moves''', are:

<ol style="list-style-type:upper-Roman">
<li> Twist and untwist in either direction.</li>
<li> Move one strand completely over another.</li>
<li> Move a strand completely over or under a crossing.</li>
</ol>

{| align="center" style="text-align:center"
|+ '''Reidemeister moves'''
|- style="padding:1em"
| [[Image:Reidemeister move 1.png|130px|]] || [[Image:Reidemeister move 2.png|210px]]
|-
| Type I || Type II
|- style="padding:1em"
| colspan="2" | [[Image:Reidemeister move 3.png|360px]]
|-
| colspan="2" | Type III
|}

The proof that diagrams of equivalent knots are connected by Reidemeister moves relies on an analysis of what happens under the planar projection of the movement taking one knot to another. The movement can be arranged so that almost all of the time the projection will be a knot diagram, except at finitely many times when an "event" or "catastrophe" occurs, such as when more than two strands cross at a point or multiple strands become tangent at a point. A close inspection will show that complicated events can be eliminated, leaving only the simplest events: (1) a "kink" forming or being straightened out; (2) two strands becoming tangent at a point and passing through; and (3) three strands crossing at a point. These are precisely the Reidemeister moves {{Harv|Sossinsky|2002| loc=ch. 3}} {{Harv|Lickorish|1997| loc=ch. 1}}.

==Knot invariants==
{{main|knot invariant}}
A knot invariant is a "quantity" that is the same for equivalent knots {{Harv|Adams|2004}}{{Harv|Lickorish|1997}}{{Harv|Rolfsen|1976}}. For example, if the invariant is computed from a knot diagram, it should give the same value for two knot diagrams representing equivalent knots. An invariant may take the same value on two different knots, so by itself may be incapable of distinguishing all knots. An elementary invariant is [[tricolorability]].

"Classical" knot invariants include the [[knot group]], which is the [[fundamental group]] of the [[knot complement]], and the [[Alexander polynomial]], which can be computed from the Alexander invariant, a module constructed from the infinite cyclic cover of the knot complement {{Harv|Lickorish|1997}}{{Harv|Rolfsen|1976}}. In the late 20th century, invariants such as "quantum" knot polynomials, [[Vassiliev invariant]]s and hyperbolic invariants were discovered. These aforementioned invariants are only the tip of the iceberg of modern knot theory.

===Knot polynomials===
{{main article|knot polynomial}}
A knot polynomial is a [[knot invariant]] that is a [[polynomial]]. Well-known examples include the [[Jones polynomial|Jones]] and [[Alexander polynomial]]s. A variant of the Alexander polynomial, the [[Alexander–Conway polynomial]], is a polynomial in the variable ''z'' with [[integer]] coefficients {{Harv|Lickorish|1997}}.

The Alexander–Conway polynomial is actually defined in terms of [[link (knot theory)|links]], which consist of one or more knots entangled with each other. The concepts explained above for knots, e.g. diagrams and Reidemeister moves, also hold for links.

Suppose there is a link diagram which is oriented, i.e. every component of the link has a preferred direction indicated by an arrow. Also suppose <math>L_+, L_-, L_0</math> are oriented link diagrams resulting from changing the diagram at a specified crossing of the diagram, as indicated in the figure: [[Image:Skein (HOMFLY).svg|200px|center]]

Then the Alexander–Conway polynomial, ''C''(''z''), is recursively defined according to the rules:

* ''C''(''O'') = 1 (where O is any diagram of the [[unknot]])
* <math>C(L_+) = C(L_-) + z C(L_0).</math>

The second rule is what is often referred to as a [[skein relation]]. To check that these rules give an invariant of an oriented link, one should determine that the polynomial does not change under the three Reidemeister moves. Many important knot polynomials can be defined in this way.

The following is an example of a typical computation using a skein relation. It computes the Alexander–Conway polynomial of the [[trefoil knot]]. The yellow patches indicate where the relation is applied.

:''C''([[Image:skein-relation-trefoil-plus-sm.png]]) = ''C''([[Image:skein-relation-trefoil-minus-sm.png]]) + ''z'' ''C''([[Image:skein-relation-trefoil-zero-sm.png]])

gives the unknot and the [[Hopf link]]. Applying the relation to the Hopf link where indicated,

:''C''([[Image:skein-relation-link22-plus-sm.png]]) = ''C''([[Image:skein-relation-link22-minus-sm.png]]) + ''z'' ''C''([[Image:skein-relation-link22-zero-sm.png]])

gives a link deformable to one with 0 crossings (it is actually the [[unlink]] of two components) and an unknot. The unlink takes a bit of sneakiness:

:''C''([[Image:skein-relation-link20-plus-sm.png]]) = ''C''([[Image:skein-relation-link20-minus-sm.png]]) + ''z'' ''C''([[Image:skein-relation-link20-zero-sm.png]])

which implies that ''C''(unlink of two components) = 0, since the first two polynomials are of the unknot and thus equal.

Putting all this together will show:

:''C''(trefoil) = 1 + z (0 + z) = 1 + z2.

Since the Alexander–Conway polynomial is a knot invariant, this shows that the trefoil is not equivalent to the unknot. So the trefoil really is "knotted".

<gallery widths="70px" heights="70px" align="right" perrow="3">
Image:Trefoil knot left.svg|The left handed trefoil knot.
Image:TrefoilKnot_01.svg|The right handed trefoil knot.
</gallery>
Actually, there are two trefoil knots, called the right and left-handed trefoils, which are [[chiral knot|mirror images]] of each other (take a diagram of the trefoil given above and change each crossing to the other way to get the mirror image). These are not equivalent to each other! This was shown by [[Max Dehn]], before the invention of knot polynomials, using group theoretical methods {{Harv|Dehn|1914}}. But the Alexander–Conway polynomial of each kind of trefoil will be the same, as can be seen by going through the computation above with the mirror image. The ''Jones'' polynomial can in fact distinguish between the left and right-handed trefoil knots {{Harv|Lickorish|1997}}.

===Hyperbolic invariants===
[[William Thurston]] proved many knots are [[hyperbolic knot]]s, meaning that the [[knot complement]], i.e. the points of 3-space not on the knot, admit a geometric structure, in particular that of [[hyperbolic geometry]]. The hyperbolic structure depends only on the knot so any quantity computed from the hyperbolic structure is then a knot invariant {{Harv|Adams|2004}}.

<div style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; ">
<gallery>
Image:BorromeanRings.svg|The [[Borromean rings]] are a link with the property that removing one ring unlinks the others.
Image:SnapPea-horocusp_view.png|[[SnapPea]]'s cusp view: the [[Borromean rings]] complement from the perspective of an inhabitant living near the red component.
</gallery>
</div>
Geometry lets us visualize what the inside of a knot or link complement looks like by imagining light rays as traveling along the [[geodesic]]s of the geometry. An example is provided by the picture of the complement of the [[Borromean rings]]. The inhabitant of this link complement is viewing the space from near the red component. The balls in the picture are views of [[horoball]] neighborhoods of the link. By thickening the link in a standard way, the horoball neighborhoods of the link components are obtained. Even though the boundary of a neighborhood is a torus, when viewed from inside the link complement, it looks like a sphere. Each link component shows up as infinitely many spheres (of one color) as there are infinitely many light rays from the observer to the link component. The fundamental parallelogram (which is indicated in the picture), tiles both vertically and horizontally and shows how to extend the pattern of spheres infinitely.

This pattern, the horoball pattern, is itself a useful invariant. Other hyperbolic invariants include the shape of the fundamental paralleogram, length of shortest geodesic, and volume. Modern knot and link tabulation efforts have utilized these invariants effectively. Fast computers and clever methods of obtaining these invariants make calculating these invariants, in practice, a simple task {{Harv|Adams|Hildebrand|Weeks|1991}}.

==Higher dimensions==

In four dimensions, any closed loop of one-dimensional string is equivalent to an unknot. This necessary deformation can be achieved in two steps. The first step is to "push" the loop into a three-dimensional subspace, which is always possible, though technical to explain. The second step is changing crossings. Suppose one strand is behind another as seen from a chosen point. Lift it into the fourth dimension, so there is no obstacle (the front strand having no component there); then slide it forward, and drop it back, now in front. An analogy for the plane would be lifting a string up off the surface.

Since a knot can be considered topologically a 1-dimensional sphere, the next generalization is to consider a [[2-sphere|two dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four dimensional sphere. Such an embedding is unknotted if there is a homeomorphism of the 4-sphere onto itself taking the 2-sphere to a standard "round" 2-sphere. [[Suspended knot]]s and [[spun knot]]s are two typical families of such 2-sphere knots.

The mathematical technique called "general position" implies that for a given ''n''-sphere in the ''m''-sphere, if ''m'' is large enough (depending on ''n''), the sphere should be unknotted. In general, [[piecewise linear manifold|piecewise-linear]] [[n-sphere|''n-''sphere]]s form knots only in (''n''+2)-space {{Harv|Zeeman|1963}}, although this is no longer a requirement for smoothly knotted spheres. In fact, there are smoothly knotted ''4k-1''-spheres in ''6k''-space, e.g. there is a smoothly knotted 3-sphere in the 6-sphere {{Harv|Haefliger|1962}}{{Harv|Levine|1965}}. Thus the codimension of a smooth knot can be arbitrarily large when not fixing the dimension of the knotted sphere; however, any smooth ''k''-sphere in an ''n''-sphere with ''2n-3k-3 > 0'' is unknotted. The notion of a knot has further generalisations in mathematics, see: [[knot (mathematics)]], [[Whitney embedding theorem#Isotopy versions|isotopy classification of embeddings]].

==Adding knots==
{{main|Knot sum}}
[[Image:Sum of knots3.svg|thumb|Adding two knots]]
Two knots can be added by cutting both knots and joining the pairs of ends. The operation is called the '''knot sum''', or sometimes the '''connected sum''' or '''composition''' of two knots. This can be formally defined as follows {{Harv|Adams|2004}}: consider a planar projection of each knot and suppose these projections are disjoint. Find a rectangle in the plane where one pair of opposite sides are arcs along each knot while the rest of the rectangle is disjoint from the knots. Form a new knot by deleting the first pair of opposite sides and adjoining the other pair of opposite sides. The resulting knot is a sum of the original knots. Depending on how this is done, two different knots (but no more) may result. This ambiguity in the sum can be eliminated regarding the knots as ''oriented'', i.e. having a preferred direction of travel along the knot, and requiring the arcs of the knots in the sum are oriented consistently with the oriented boundary of the rectangle.

The knot sum of oriented knots is [[commutative]] and [[associative]]. There is also a prime decomposition for a knot which allows a [[prime knot|prime]] or composite knot to be defined, analogous to [[prime number|prime]] and composite numbers {{Harv|Schubert|1949}}. For oriented knots, this decomposition is also unique. Higher dimensional knots can also be added but there are some differences. While you cannot form the unknot in three dimensions by adding two non-trivial knots, you can in higher dimensions, at least when one considers ''smooth'' knots in codimension at least 3.

==Tabulating knots==

{{see also|List of prime knots}}
[[Image:Knot_table.svg|thumb|350px|A table of prime knots up to seven crossings. The knots are labeled with Alexander–Briggs notation]]
Traditionally, knots have been catalogued in terms of [[crossing number (knot theory)|crossing number]]. Knot tables generally include only prime knots and only one entry for a knot and its mirror image (even if they are different) {{Harv|Hoste|Thistlethwaite|Weeks|1998}}. The number of nontrivial knots of a given crossing number increases rapidly, making tabulation computationally difficult {{Harv|Hoste|2005|p=20}}. Tabulation efforts have succeeded in enumerating over 6 billion knots and links {{Harv|Hoste|2005|p=28}}. The sequence of the number of prime knots of a given crossing number, up to crossing number 16, is 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 7, 21, 49, 165, 552, 2176, 9988, 46972, 253293, 1388705... {{OEIS|id=A002863}}. While exponential upper and lower bounds for this sequence are known, it has not been proven that this sequence is strictly increasing {{Harv|Adams|2004}}.

The first knot tables by Tait, Little, and Kirkman used knot diagrams, although Tait also used a precursor to the [[Dowker notation]]. Different notations have been invented for knots which allow more efficient tabulation {{Harv|Hoste|2005}}.

The early tables attempted to list all knots of at most 10 crossings, and all alternating knots of 11 crossings {{Harv|Hoste|Thistlethwaite|Weeks|1998}}. The development of knot theory due to Alexander, Reidemeister, Seifert, and others eased the task of verification and tables of knots up to and including 9 crossings were published by Alexander–Briggs and Reidemeister in the late 1920s.

The first major verification of this work was done in the 1960s by [[John Horton Conway]], who not only developed a new notation but also the [[Alexander–Conway polynomial]] {{Harv|Conway|1970}}{{Harv|Doll|Hoste|1991}}. This verified the list of knots of at most 11 crossings and a new list of links up to 10 crossings. Conway found a number of omissions but only one duplication in the Tait–Little tables; however he missed the duplicates called the [[Perko pair]], which would only be noticed in 1974 by Kenneth Perko {{Harv|Perko|1974}}. This famous error would propagate when Dale Rolfsen added a knot table in his influential text, based on Conway's work.

In the late 1990s Hoste, Thistlethwaite, and Weeks tabulated all the knots through 16 crossings {{Harv|Hoste|Thistlethwaite|Weeks|1998}}. In 2003 Rankin, Flint, and Schermann, tabulated the [[alternating knot]]s through 22 crossings {{Harv|Hoste|2005}}.

===Alexander–Briggs notation===
This is the most traditional notation, due to the 1927 paper of [[James Waddell Alexander II|J. W. Alexander]] and [[Garland Baird Briggs|G. Briggs]] and later extended by Dale Rolfsen in his knot table. The notation simply organizes knots by their crossing number. One writes the crossing number with a subscript to denote its order amongst all knots with that crossing number. This order is arbitrary and so has no special significance.

===Dowker notation===
{{main|Dowker notation}}
[[Image:Dowker-notation-example.svg|thumb|A knot diagram with crossings labelled for a Dowker sequence]]
The Dowker notation, also called the Dowker–Thistlethwaite notation or code, for a knot is a finite sequence of even integers. The numbers are generated by following the knot and marking the crossings with consecutive integers. Since each crossing is visited twice, this creates a pairing of even integers with odd integers. An appropriate sign is given to indicate over and undercrossing. For example, in the figure the knot diagram has crossings labelled with the pairs (1,6) (3,−12) (5,2) (7,8) (9,−4) and (11,−10). The Dowker notation for this labelling is the sequence: 6 −12 2 8 −4 −10. A knot diagram has more than one possible Dowker notation, and there is a well-understood ambiguity when reconstructing a knot from a Dowker notation.

===Conway notation===
{{main|Conway notation (knot theory)}}

The Conway notation for knots and links, named after [[John Horton Conway]], is based on the theory of [[tangle (mathematics)|tangles]] {{Harv|Conway|1970}}. The advantage of this notation is that it reflects some properties of the knot or link.

The notation describes how to construct a particular link diagram of the link. Start with a ''basic polyhedron'', a 4-valent connected planar graph with no [[digon]] regions. Such a polyhedron is denoted first by the number of vertices then a number of asterisks which determine the polyhedron's position on a list of basic polyhedron. For example, 10** denotes the second 10-vertex polyhedron on Conway's list.

Each vertex then has an [[algebraic tangle]] substituted into it (each vertex is oriented so there is no arbitrary choice in substitution). Each such tangle has a notation consisting of numbers and + or − signs.

An example is 1*2 −3 2. The 1* denotes the only 1-vertex basic polyhedron. The 2 −3 2 is a sequence describing the continued fraction associated to a [[rational tangle]]. One inserts this tangle at the vertex of the basic polyhedron 1*.

A more complicated example is 8*3.1.2 0.1.1.1.1.1 Here again 8* refers to a basic polyhedron with 8 vertices. The periods separate the notation for each tangle.

Any link admits such a description, and it is clear this is a very compact notation even for very large crossing number. There are some further shorthands usually used. The last example is usually written 8*3:2 0, where the ones are omitted and kept the number of dots excepting the dots at the end. For an algebraic knot such as in the first example, 1* is often omitted.

Conway's pioneering paper on the subject lists up to 10-vertex basic polyhedra of which he uses to tabulate links, which have become standard for those links. For a further listing of higher vertex polyhedra, there are nonstandard choices available.

==See also==
*[[Contact geometry#Legendrian submanifolds and knots]]
*[[Knots and graphs]]
*[[List of knot theory topics]]
*[[Molecular knot]]
*[[Quantum topology]]
*[[Ribbon Theory]]
*[http://www.map.him.uni-bonn.de/index.php/High_codimension_embeddings:_classification Classification of embedings.]

==References==

*{{Citation|first=Colin |last= Adams|author-link=Colin Adams (mathematician)|title=The Knot Book: An Elementary Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Knots |publisher=American Mathematical Society|year=2004|isbn=0821836781}}
*{{Citation|first=Colin|last=Adams|first2=Martin|last2=Hildebrand|first3=Jeffrey|last3=Weeks|author3-link= Jeffrey Weeks (mathematician)|title=Hyperbolic invariants of knots and links|journal=Transactions of the American Mathemathical Society|year=1991|volume=326|pages=1–56|issue=1|doi=10.2307/2001854|url=http://jstor.org/stable/2001854|publisher=Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, Vol. 326, No. 1}}
*{{Citation|first=Dror|last=Bar-Natan|title=On the Vassiliev knot invariants|journal=Topology|volume=34|date=1995|year=1995|pages=423–472|issue=2|doi=10.1016/0040-9383(95)93237-2}}
*{{Citation|first=Graham|last=Collins|periodical=Scientific American|title=Computing with Quantum Knots|month=April|year=2006}}
*{{Citation|first=John|middle=Horton|last=Conway|author-link=John Horton Conway|contribution=An enumeration of knots and links, and some of their algebraic properties|publisher=Pergamon|year=1970|pages=329–358|title=Computational Problems in Abstract Algebra (Proc. Conf., Oxford, 1967)}}
*{{Citation|first=Helmut|last=Doll|first2=Jim|last2=Hoste|title=A tabulation of oriented links. With microfiche supplement.|journal=Math. Comp.|volume=57|year=1991|pages=747–761|issue=196}}
*{{Citation|first=Erica|last=Flapan|title=When topology meets chemistry: A topological look at molecular chirality|journal=Outlooks|publisher=Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; Mathematical Association of America, Washington, DC|year=2000|date=2000|isbn=0-521-66254-0}}
*{{Citation|first=André|last=Haefliger|title=Knotted (4''k'' − 1)-spheres in 6''k''-space|journal=Annals of Mathematics (2)|publisher=The Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 75, No. 3|year=1962|volume=75|pages=452–466|doi=10.2307/1970208|url=http://jstor.org/stable/1970208|issue=3}}
*{{Citation|first=Joel|last=Hass|title=Algorithms for recognizing knots and 3-mainifolds|journal=Chaos, Solitons and Fractals|publisher=Elsevier|year=1998|pages=569–581|volume=9|doi=10.1016/S0960-0779(97)00109-4}}{{arxiv|math|9712269}}
*{{Citation|first=Jim|last=Hoste|first2=Morwen|last2=Thistlethwaite|first3=Jeffrey|last3=Weeks|title= The first 1,701,935 knots|journal=Math. Intelligencer|volume=20|year=1998|publisher=Springer|pages=33–48|doi=10.1007/BF03025227}}
*{{Citation|first=Jim|last=Hoste|contribution=The enumeration and classification of knots and links|year=2005|title=Handbook of Knot Theory|place= Amsterdam|publisher=Elsevier|url=http://pzacad.pitzer.edu/~jhoste/HosteWebPages/downloads/Enumeration.pdf}}
*{{Citation|first=Jerome|last=Levine|title=A classification of differentiable knots|journal=Annals of Mathematics (2)|year=1965|volume=1982|pages=15–50}}
*{{Citation|first=Maxim|last=Kontsevich|author-link=Maxim Kontsevich|title=Vassiliev's knot invariants|pages=137–150|journal= I. M. Gelfand Seminar, Adv. Soviet Math.|volume=16|part=2|publisher=Amer. Math. Soc.|place=Providence, RI|year=1993|date=1993}}
*{{Citation|first=W. B. Raymond|last=Lickorish|title=An Introduction to Knot Theory|publisher=Springer-Verlag|series=Graduate Texts in Mathematics|year=1997|isbn=0-387-98254-X}}
*{{Citation|first=Kenneth|last=Perko|title=On the classification of knots|journal=Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society|year=1974|volume=45|pages=262–266|doi=10.2307/2040074|url=http://jstor.org/stable/2040074|issue=2|publisher=Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, Vol. 45, No. 2}}
*{{Citation|first=Dale|last=Rolfsen|title=Knots and Links|publisher=Publish or Perish|year=1976|isbn=0-914098-16-0}}
*{{Citation|last=Schubert|first=Horst| date=1949 | year=1949 | title=Die eindeutige Zerlegbarkeit eines Knotens in Primknoten | journal = Heidelberger Akad. Wiss. Math.-Nat. Kl. | pages = 57–104 | issue = 3}}
*{{Citation|first=Dan|last=Silver|title=Knot theory's odd origins|periodical=American Scientist|volume=94|pages=158–165|year=2006|url=http://www.southalabama.edu/mathstat/personal_pages/silver/scottish.pdf|issue=2}}
*{{Citation| last=Simon|first=Jonathan| date = 1986| journal = Topology|volume = 25|pages=229–235|title=Topological chirality of certain molecules| doi=10.1016/0040-9383(86)90041-8}}
*{{Citation | last =Sossinsky | first =Alexei | date =2002 | year =2002 | title =Knots, mathematics with a twist | publisher =Harvard University Press | isbn =0-674-00944-4 }}
*{{Citation|last=Turaev|first=V. G.|title=[[Quantum invariant]]s of knots and 3-manifolds|journal= De Gruyter Studies in Mathematics|volume= 18|publisher=Walter de Gruyter & Co.|place=Berlin|date=1994|year=1994|isbn=3-11-013704-6}}
*{{Citation|last=Witten|first=Edward|author-link=Edward Witten|title=Quantum field theory and the Jones polynomial|journal=Comm. Math. Phys.|volume=121|year=1989|date=1989|pages=351–399|issue=3|doi=10.1007/BF01217730}}
*{{Citation|first=E. C.|last=Zeeman|author-link=E. C. Zeeman|title=Unknotting combinatorial balls|journal=Annals of Mathematics (2)|year=1963|volume=78|pages=501–526|doi=10.2307/1970538|url=http://jstor.org/stable/1970538|issue=3|publisher=The Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 78, No. 3}}

==Further reading==
===Introductory textbooks===
There are a number of introductions to knot theory. A classical introduction for graduate students or advanced undergraduates is Rolfsen (1976), given in the references. Other good texts from the references are Adams (2001) and Lickorish (1997). Adams is informal and accessible for the most part to high schoolers. Lickorish is a rigorous introduction for graduate students, covering a nice mix of classical and modern topics.

* [[Richard H. Crowell]] and [[Ralph Fox]],''Introduction to Knot Theory'', 1977, ISBN 0-387-90272-4
* [[Gerhard Burde]] and [[Heiner Zieschang]], ''Knots'', De Gruyter Studies in Mathematics, 1985, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-008675-1
* [[Louis H. Kauffman]], ''On Knots'', 1987, ISBN 0-691-08435-1


===Surveys===
* William W. Menasco and Morwen Thistlethwaite (editors), ''Handbook of Knot Theory'', Amsterdam : Elsevier, 2005. ISBN 0-444-51452-X
**Menasco and Thistlethwaite's handbook surveys a mix of topics relevant to current research trends in a manner accessible to advanced undergraduates but of interest to professional researchers.

===Knot theory in popular fiction===
*Felix Culp, "A Frayed Knot", 2009, Incongruous Press, ISBN 978-144-866-4290
**"A Frayed Knot" introduces Tyler Trefoil as a fraying Bowline knot and amateur Topologist investigating the brutal untying of a Clove Hitch named Tether Marlingspike. Trefoil's investigation of the citizen knots of Tide-on-the-Bight leads him to consider a dangerous knot surgery and confront a pathological Wild Knot.

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
{{Wiktionary}}
===History===
*Thomson, Sir William (Lord Kelvin), ''[http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_vortex_atoms.html On Vortex Atoms]'', Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. VI, 1867, pp. 94–105.
*Silliman, Robert H., ''William Thomson: Smoke Rings and Nineteenth-Century Atomism'', Isis, Vol. 54, No. 4. (Dec., 1963), pp. 461–474. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753%28196312%2954%3A4%3C461%3AWTSRAN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 JSTOR link]
*[http://www.southalabama.edu/mathstat/personal_pages/silver/smoke%20rings.mpg Movie] of a modern recreation of Tait's smoke ring experiment
*[http://www.maths.ed.ac.uk/~aar/knots History of knot theory] (on the home page of Andrew Ranicki)
===Knot tables and software===
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~knotinfo/ '''KnotInfo''': ''Table of Knot Invariants and Knot Theory Resources'']
* The wiki [http://katlas.math.toronto.edu/wiki/ Knot Atlas] – detailed info on individual knots in knot tables
* [http://knotplot.com/ KnotPlot] – software to investigate geometric properties of knots
[[Category:Knot theory| ]]
[[Category:Algebraic topology]]
[[Category:Geometric topology]]

[[zh:紐結理論]
A good example is Celtic knot or line work

[[ar:نظرية العقد]]
[[cs:Teorie uzlů]]
[[da:Knudeteori]]
[[de:Knotentheorie]]
[[es:Teoría de nudos]]
[[fr:Théorie des nœuds]]
[[ko:매듭 이론]]
[[is:Hnútafræði]]
[[it:Teoria dei nodi]]
[[he:תורת הקשרים]]
[[mr:गाठ सिद्धांत]]
[[nl:Knopentheorie]]
[[ja:結び目理論]]
[[pl:Teoria węzłów]]
[[pt:Teoria dos nós]]
[[ru:Теория узлов]]
[[fi:Solmuteoria]]
[[sv:Knutteori]]
[[ta:முடிச்சுக் கணிதம்]]
[[zh:紐結理論]]

Matt Anderson (volleyball)

2010-10-31T04:00:05Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: it:Matthew Anderson

{{BLP sources|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox volleyball player
| name = Matt Anderson
| image = Matt Anderson's Interview 20081228 after Victory.JPG
| fullname = Matt Anderson
| dateofbirth = {{Birth date and age|1987|04|18|fd=y}}
| placeofbirth = [[Buffalo, New York]], [[United States]]
| dateofdeath =
| placeofdeath =
| height = {{height|ft=6|in=10}}
| position = Outside hitter
| currentclub = [[Hyundai Capital Skywalkers]]
| currentnumber=
| years =
| clubs =
| nationalyears = 2007-present
| nationalteam = {{flagicon|USA}} [[United States men's national volleyball team|United States]]
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalCountry|{{USA}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Men's Pan-American Volleyball Cup]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[2008 Men's Pan-American Volleyball Cup|2008 Winnipeg]] | Team}}
}}

'''Matthew John Anderson''' (born April 18, 1987) is an [[United States|American]] professional volleyball player. Anderson was an All-American outside hitter at [[Penn State Nittany Lions men's volleyball|Penn State]] for three years.

==Personal==
Anderson was born in [[Buffalo, New York]] and graduated from [[West Seneca West High School]] in 2006. In his senior year, he led the boys volleyball team to a 17-0 regular-season record. In 2004, the team was the 2004 Division I champions. He played club volleyball for Eden Volleyball Club in [[Eden, New York]].

==Penn State==

Anderson finished his career with 1,212 kills and 82 aces, both which rank in the top 13 in Penn State history. He had a decorated career, especially in 2008 as he helped lead the Nittany Lions to their second ever [[NCAA Men's Volleyball Championship]] against [[Pepperdine]]. He was named the NCAA Championship Most Outstanding Player for his 29 kill performance against the Waves. Other awards for 2008 include [[EIVA]] Player of the Year, [[AVCA]] National Player of the Year, AVCA First Team All-America, and All-EIVA First Team.

==International competition==
*'''2009'''
**FIVB World League
*'''2008'''
**America's Cup
**Pan American Cup (Gold Medal)

==Professional==
On July 1, 2008, he announced he would forgo his 2009 senior year at [[Penn State]] and signed a professional contract with [[Hyundai Capital Skywalkers]] of the [[Korea]]n league.<ref>[http://gopsusports.cstv.com/sports/m-volley/spec-rel/070108aab.html Anderson to forego senior year; signs professional contract in Korea]</ref> In his debut season, Anderson helped the Skywalkers claim first in the regular season before losing 3-1 in the championship series.

==Records==
===Korean V-League===
He had recorded called "the Triple-crown" at [[Daejeon]] Chungmu Gymnagium on February 15, 2009. The Triple-Crown is the record that a player get more than three blocks, three back attacks, and three serve aces in a game of Korean V-league. At this game, he recorded three blocks, three back attacks, and four serve aces. So he can get the Triple-Crown award and get about 900 [[dollars]] price.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.usavolleyball.org/athlete/athlete/2373 Profile at USA Volleyball]

{{Hyundai Capital Skywalkers}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Anderson, Matt
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =April 18, 1987
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Buffalo, New York]], [[United States]]
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| PLACE OF DEATH =
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Roman Herzog

2010-10-30T23:04:20Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:로만 헤어초크

{{BLP sources|date=May 2010}}

{{Infobox Officeholder
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Roman Herzog
| honorific-suffix =
| image = Roman_Herzog.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Roman Herzog in 2006
| office = [[President of Germany|President of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
| term_start = July 1, 1994
| term_end = June 30, 1999
| chancellor = [[Helmut Kohl]] [[Gerhard Schröder]]
| predecessor = [[Richard von Weizsäcker]]
| successor = [[Johannes Rau]]
| office2 = 6th President of the [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany]]
| term_start2 = November 16, 1987
| term_end2 = June 30, 1994
| nominator2 =
| appointer2 =
| predecessor2 = [[Wolfgang Zeidler]]
| successor2 = [[Jutta Limbach]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1934|4|5}}
| birth_place = [[Landshut]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| birthname =
| nationality = [[German people|German]]
| party = [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]]
| otherparty = 
| spouse = Christiane Krauß (marr. 1959 to 2000) Alexandra Freifrau von Berlichingen
| partner = 
| relations =
| children =
| residence =
| alma_mater = [[Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich]]
| occupation =
| profession = [[Lawyer]]
| net worth =
| cabinet =
| committees =
| portfolio =
| religion = [[Evangelical Church in Germany|Protestant]]
| signature = Roman Herzog Signature.svg
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Roman Herzog''' (born 5 April 1934) is a [[Germany|German]] politician ([[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]) and was [[President of Germany]] from 1994 to 1999. He was the first President of the Federal Republic of Germany to be elected to office after the reunification of Germany that took place in 1990, and the second person to serve as all-German head of State since the end of World War II.
==Biography==
Roman Herzog was born in [[Landshut]], [[Bavaria]] in 1934 to a Protestant family.

He studied [[law (academic)|law]] in [[Munich]] and took his first juristic state exam in 1957. In 1958, he gained the title ''Doctor juris'' and worked as an assistant at the [[University of Munich]] until 1964, where he also passed his second juristic state exam. For his paper ''Die Wesensmerkmale der Staatsorganisation in rechtlicher und entwicklungsgeschichtlicher Sicht'' ("Characteristics of State Organization from a Juristic and Developmental-Historical Viewpoint"), in 1964 he was awarded the title of [[professor]], a title of academic distinction in Germany, and taught at the University of Munich until 1966. From 1966 he taught state law and [[political science]] as a full professor at the [[Free University of Berlin]] (FUB). In 1969 he accepted an administrative position at the FUB in [[Speyer]], and was the University President from 1971 to 1972.

In 1973 his political career began as a representative of the state (''Land'') of [[Rhineland-Palatinate]] with the Federal government in [[Bonn]]. He was minister for culture and sports in the [[Baden-Württemberg]] State Government from 1978. In 1980 he was elected to the State Parliament (''Landtag''), and took over the state Ministry of the Interior.

Roman Herzog has also always been active in the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]. Until 1980 he was head of the Chamber for public responsibility of this church and since 1982 he has been a member of the [[synod]] of the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]].

In 1983 he became a judge at the [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany]] (“''Bundesverfassungsgericht''”) in [[Karlsruhe]]. From 1987 until 1994, he also served as the president of this Court, until he was elected President of Germany by the Federal Assembly ([[Bundesversammlung (Germany)|Bundesversammlung]]) in 1994. He retained this position until 1999, when he was succeeded by [[Johannes Rau]].

In 1994 Herzog participated in the commemorations of the 50th anniversary of the [[Warsaw Uprising]] during the [[Nazi occupation of Poland]]. In a widely commended speech he paid tribute to the Polish fighters and people and asked Poles for "forgiveness for what has been done to you by the Germans".<ref>{{Citation |first=Włodzimierz |last=Borodziej |first2=Barbara |last2=Harshav |title=The Warsaw Uprising of 1944 |location=Madison |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=2006 |page=147 |isbn= }}.</ref>

Between December 1999 and October 2000, he was chair of the [[European Convention (1999-2000)|European Convention]] which drafted the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]].

His wife, Christiane Herzog, died on 19 June 2000. He later married Alexandra Freifrau von Berlichingen.

==References==
*{{Cite web|url= http://www.bundespraesident.de/en/dokumente/-,5.623236/Artikel/dokument.htm|title=Roman Herzog (1994 - 1999)|accessdate=2010-05-25}}
*{{Cite web|url= http://www.bundespraesident.de/Die-deutschen-Bundespraesident/-,11067/Roman-Herzog.htm|title=Roman Herzog (1994 - 1999)|language=German|accessdate=2010-05-25}}

{{Reflist}}
{{Commons category}}
{{S-start}}
{{S-off}}
{{S-bef| before=[[Richard von Weizsäcker]]}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[President of Germany]] | years=1994–1999}}
{{S-aft| after=[[Johannes Rau]]}}
{{end}}

{{GermanPresidents}}
{{Charlemagne Prize recipients}}


{{Persondata
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[President of Germany]] from 1994 to 1999
|DATE OF BIRTH=April 5, 1934
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[[Category:German Protestants]]
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[[Category:Karlspreis recipients]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav]]
[[Category:Christian Democratic Union (Germany) politicians]]
[[Category:University of Munich alumni]]
[[Category:Free University of Berlin faculty]]
[[Category:Judges of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Three Stars, 1st Class]]
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[[ja:ローマン・ヘルツォーク]]
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[[zh:罗曼·赫尔佐克]]

Leggings

2010-10-30T22:04:56Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:레깅스

[[File:Lisa Cant.jpg|thumb|200px||[[Lisa Cant]] wearing leggings on the [[catwalk]]]]

'''Leggings''' are a type of fitted [[clothing]] covering the legs, which can be worn by both men and women.

Originally leggings were two separate garments, one for each leg.

Modern leggings are typically made from a blend of [[lycra]], [[Spandex]], [[nylon]], [[cotton]], or [[polyester]] blend, but they can also be made from [[wool]], [[silk]] and other materials. Leggings are available in a multitude of colours and decorative designs.

Leggings are sometimes worn fully exposed, and are more traditionally worn partially covered by a garment such as a skirt, a large t-shirt or shorts, or fully covered by an outer garment, such as a full length skirt. Leggings are typically ankle-length, and some are stirrupped or encase the feet. Some are shorter. Leggings are worn to keep a person's legs warm, as protection from chafing during an activity such as exercise or as a decorative or fashion garment. Leggings are worn by both men and women in an exercise situation, but predominantly by women outside such situations.

In contemporary usage, ''leggings'' refers to tight, form-fitting [[trousers]] that extend from the waist to the ankles. In the United States, they are sometimes referred to as [[tights]]. However, the two words are not synonymous as the word ''tights'' refers to opaque [[pantyhose]].

==History==
[[File:Leggins Indianer.jpg|thumb|200px|Leggings of the Native Americans Karl May Museum Radebeul]]
Leggings in various forms and under various names have been worn for warmth and protection by both men and women throughout the centuries. The separate [[hose (clothing)|hose]] worn by men in Europe from the 14th to 16th centuries (the [[Renaissance]] period) were a form of leggings, as are the [[trews]] of the [[Scottish Highlands]]. Separate leggings of buckskin leather were worn by some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. These were adopted by some Long Hunters, French fur trappers, and later by [[mountain men]]. They are the ''leatherstockings'' of [[James Fenimore Cooper]]'s [[Leatherstocking Tales]]. The Buckskins, were mostly a dull grey [[Leather#Forms of leather|brain-tan]], not the bright, glossy [[Leather#Forms of leather|vegetable tanned]] leather commonly used today.

Cowboys wore leggings of buckskin to protect from chapping caused by riding, wear and tear to their pants, and bites from animals, such as snakes or insects in the scruff, such as ticks.

In many places, especially in colder countries such as [[Russia]] or [[Korea]], men and women continued to wear wool leggings into modern times, often as an additional outer layer for warmth.

The linen [[pantalettes]] worn by girls and women under [[crinoline]]s in the mid-19th century were also a form of leggings, and were originally two separate garments. Leggings became a part of fashion in the 1960s, as trousers similar to the [[capri pants|capris]] pants but much tighter. Fashion designer, [[Patricia Field]], claimed, while advertising on the [[Home Shopping Network]], that she invented the modern leggings for women in the late 1970s.

It was not until the fitness and aerobics craze in the very early 1980s that leggings became fashionable as gym-styled street wear for women. Leggings were worn in the 1980s through the mid-1990s with [[skirt]]s, and short dresses like [[babydoll]] dresses, oversized shirts, sweaters, etc., and with slouch socks and Keds.

===Military leggings===
[[Image:UnJeansLeggings.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A man in leggings]]
Since the late 19th century, soldiers of various nations, especially [[infantry]], often wore leggings to protect their lower leg, keep dirt, sand, and mud from entering their shoes, and to provide a measure of ankle support. At first, these were usually ''[[puttee]]s''—strips of thick woolen cloth resembling a large bandage—were wrapped around the leg to support the ankle. They were usually held in place by a strap attached to the cloth. Later, puttees were replaced by some armies with canvas leggings fastened with buckles or buttons, usually secured at the bottom with an adjustable stirrup that passed under the sole of the shoe, just in front of the heel. The soldier placed the leggings around his calf with the buttoned side facing out and adjusted them and the strap to achieve a proper fit. Leggings typically extended to mid-calf and had a garter strap to hold them up and were secured with a tie just below the knee. Military leggings only extended to the bottom of the knee and buttoned to the bottom button on the knee-breeches. They are sometimes confused with [[gaiters]], which only extend to the high ankle and are worn with full leg trousers.

During [[World War II]], [[United States Army]] foot soldiers were referred to as ''legs'' by [[paratroopers]] and other U.S. forces that did not wear the standard Army leggings issued with the field service shoe. Late in [[World War II]], after experimenting with general issue of high-top [[combat boot]]s and [[jump boot]]s for their soldiers, leggings began to disappear from military service. In 1943, the United States Army modified their field service shoe by adding a taller leather upper that reached to the lower calf; secured by a combination of laces and buckles, the new design was designated the Type III Field Boot. However, the [[United States Marine Corps]] retained canvas leggings throughout the war, and even used them in combat as late as the [[Korean War|Korean conflict]]; they were referred to as ''Yellow Leg'' troops by [[North Korean Army|North Korean]] and [[People's Volunteer Army|Chinese]] Communist forces.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Keene |first1=R. R. |year=June 1991 |title=Fix Bayonets: On to the Punchbowl |journal=[[Leatherneck Magazine]] |volume= |issue= |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |page=28 |url=http://www.kmike.com/Marines_In_Korea.pdf}}</ref>

By the 1960s, the old style of field shoe had given way to combat boots in most military forces, and leggings of any kind were obsolete. Leggings, usually bright white and often made of [[patent leather]] or [[buff]] are now worn primarily for ceremonial purposes..

==Modern leggings==
[[File:Luxuryleggings.jpg|thumb|200px||Women wearing modern fashion leggings]]
Leggings in the form of skin-tight trousers, a tighter version of the [[capri pants|capris]] ending at mid-calf or near ankle length, made its way into fashion in the 1960s and were worn with a large belt and slip-on high heels or [[ballet flat]]-styled shoes.

Leggings made from a nylon-lycra blend (usually 90% nylon, 10% lycra) have traditionally been worn during exercise. Nylon lycra leggings are often referred to as bicycle or running tights, and are shinier in appearance than those made from cotton. Some have racing stripes or reflective patterns to further distinguish them as athletic wear and provide extra safety. However, beginning in the 1980s exercise-style leggings have also been worn for fashion, and as street wear.

Leggings made from cotton-lycra, or a cotton-polyester-lycra combination, are more typically worn for fashion, but are also worn as exercise wear. Cotton-lycra leggings are available in many colors, prints and designs; but black, navy and various shades of gray remain the most commonly worn.

Wearing black leggings under long, often diaphanous, skirts was part of a general fashion trend of wearing gym or dance clothes as [[street wear]] that evolved along with the fitness craze and under the influence of the movie ''[[Flashdance]]'' and the long-running [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] show ''[[A Chorus Line]]''. A more recent trend has been the wearing of black leggings with [[miniskirt]]s.

Opaque leggings are sometimes worn by women without a skirt. However, unless the woman is also wearing a very long top, her [[buttocks]] will be exposed. There may be a visible [[panty line]].

By the early-1990s, leggings were actually outselling [[jeans]] in many parts of the United States.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} It was very common to see leggings worn with long oversized t-shirts, oversized sweatshirts or oversized sweaters, slouch socks and [[Keds]]. Fashion turned against leggings in the late 1990s.

In 2005, leggings made a "comeback" into [[high fashion]], particularly in indie culture, with [[Capri pants|capri]]-length leggings being worn with mini skirts and dresses. Consequently, leggings are also now popular to wear with oversized, long sweaters, denim mini skirt, plaid skirts, short dresses and even with short shorts. Ballet flats and [[Chuck Taylor All-Stars|Converse Chucks]] are common footwear with leggings. This trend towards tight pants can alternately be seen in the resurgence of [[skinny jeans]].

Men have also begun to wear leggings more frequently in recent years as long underwear, and for more casual physical activities such as walking, hiking or gardening, replacing the old standby, sweatpants. Leggings are also worn as a fashion trend by men on the London electro-music scene.

At the Marni Men's show during the Fall 2007 Fashion Week, outfits with leggings designed solely for men were introduced.<ref>{{cite news |title=Marni: Leggings are the new must-have |newspaper=[[China Daily]] |agency=Fashion Wire Daily |date=22 January 2007 |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/lifestyle/2007-01/22/content_789289.htm |accessdate=13 October 2010}}</ref>

===Shiny leggings===
Shiny leggings—leggings that have a shiny, metallic ([[Lamé (fabric)|lamé]]), or [[wetlook|wet-like]] appearance—emerged as a popular fashion trend in the late-first decade of the 21st century, particularly in 2008 as reported by Stylesignal and other trend forecasters. These leggings are most often a blend of nylon and [[spandex]] and come in a variety of colors, although most commonly in black, silver, or gold. These types of leggings are notable for their leather, or even latex-like appearance and are most often worn as evening or [[clubwear]].

Shiny leggings were featured on fashion runways by many leading designers and were further popularized by celebrities such the [[Lauren Conrad]], [[Kelly Clarkson]], [[Demi Lovato]], [[Olsen Twins]], [[Rihanna]], [[Lindsay Lohan]] and [[Frida Sanden]]. Popular makers of shiny leggings include [[Members Only]], [[Kova & T]] and [[American Apparel]].

===Jeggings===
[[Jeggings]] are a recent variant of leggings. They are leggings that take certain attributes from jeans, such as colour and style and particularly a coloured seam down the side, thus a mixture of the two and hence the adoption of the name "Jeggings". Some styles have even taken the jean-like look to such lengths as adding faux pockets and faux zip-flies to add to the look.

==Sports and leggings==
Leggings are also often worn during sporting activities. Runners, dancers, and those exercising wear them; particularly in cold weather under cheerleading skirts and under soccer and field hockey shin guards and knee socks as leggings are excellent in retaining body heat. Usually a synthetic material.

==See also==
*[[Tights]]
*[[Spandex fetishism]]
*[[United States Army uniforms in World War II]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Leggings}}

{{Hosiery}}
{{Clothing}}

[[Category:1980s fashion]]
[[Category:2000s fashion]]
[[Category:Hosiery]]
[[Category:United States Army uniforms]]
[[Category:World War II military equipment of the United States]]

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German aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin

2010-10-30T19:01:29Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: es:Graf Zeppelin (1938)

{{About|||Graf Zeppelin (disambiguation)}}
{{Dablink|"German aircraft carrier A" redirects here, for similarly named carriers, see [[German aircraft carrier I]]}}

{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
|Ship image=[[File:Graf-Zeppelin-2.jpg|300px|Graf Zeppelin]]
|Ship caption=
}}
{{Infobox ship career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=Germany
|Ship flag=[[File:War Ensign of Germany 1938-1945.svg|55px|German naval jack]]
|Ship name=Graf Zeppelin
|Ship namesake=
|Ship ordered=November 16, 1935
|Ship builder=
|Ship laid down=December 28, 1936
|Ship launched=December 8, 1938
|Ship acquired=
|Ship commissioned=
|Ship decommissioned=
|Ship in service=
|Ship out of service=
|Ship struck=
|Ship reinstated=
|Ship honours=
|Ship fate=Sunk as a target ship on August 16, 1947
|Ship status=
|Ship notes=
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=
|Ship class=
|Ship displacement=33,550 tonnes
|Ship length={{convert|262.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam={{convert|31.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|Ship draft={{convert|7.6|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
|Ship propulsion=Geared turbines, 200,000 WPS (147,000 kW), four screws
|Ship speed= {{convert|35|kn|km/h|abbr=on}}
|Ship range= {{convert|14816|km|nmi|abbr=on}} at {{convert|19|kn|km/h|abbr=on}}
|Ship complement=1,720 crew 306 flight personnel
|Ship sensors=
|Ship EW=
|Ship armament= 16 × [[15 cm SK C/28]] guns 12 × [[Flak]] (10.5 cm) 22 × [[3.7 cm SK C/30]] (AA) 28 × Flak (2.0 cm)
|Ship armor=
|Ship aircraft=Proposed complement of 42<ref name = chesneau>Chesneau (1998), pp.76-77</ref> 1930 proposal: 30 [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]] & 12 [[dive bombers]] 1939 proposal: 12 fighters & 30 dive bombers<ref name=chesneau/> See main article for details of proposed aircraft types.
|Ship notes=
}}
|}
'''''Graf Zeppelin''''' was the only [[aircraft carrier]] launched by [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] during [[World War II]] and represented part of the [[Kriegsmarine]]'s attempt to create a well-balanced oceangoing fleet, capable of projecting German naval power far beyond the narrow confines of the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[North Sea]]s. Construction was ordered on 16 November 1935 and her keel was laid down on 28 December 1936 by [[Deutsche Werke]] at [[Kiel]]. Named in honor of [[Graf]] (Count) [[Ferdinand von Zeppelin]], the ship was [[ship naming and launching|launched]] on 8 December 1938 but was not completed and was never operational.

==Planning and construction==
[[File:Bundesarchiv RM 25 Bild-13, Flugzeugträger "Graf Zeppelin", Bau.jpg|thumb|left|Construction work in Kiel, 1938]]
Wilhelm Hadeler had been Assistant to the Professor of Naval Construction at the Technical University of Berlin for nine years when he was appointed to draft preliminary designs for an aircraft carrier in April 1934.<ref name=Reynolds42>Reynolds, p.42</ref> The [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement]] signed 18 June 1935 allowed Germany to construct aircraft carriers with displacement up to 38,500 tons.<ref name=Reynolds43>Reynolds, p.43</ref> In 1935, [[Adolf Hitler]] announced that Germany would construct aircraft carriers to strengthen the ''[[Kriegsmarine]]''. A Luftwaffe officer, a naval officer and a constructor visited Japan in the autumn of 1935 to obtain flight deck equipment blueprints and inspect the [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|Japanese aircraft carrier ''Akagi'']].<ref name=Reynolds44>Reynolds, p.44</ref> The keel of ''Graf Zeppelin'' was laid down the next year. Two years later, [[Großadmiral]] (Grand Admiral) [[Erich Raeder]] presented an ambitious shipbuilding program called [[Plan Z]], in which four carriers were to be built by 1945. In 1939, he revised the plan, reducing the number to two.

The ''Kriegsmarine'' has always maintained a policy of not assigning a name to a ship until it is launched. The first German carrier, laid down as "''Flugzeugträger'' A" ("Aircraft carrier A"), was named ''Graf Zeppelin'' when launched in 1938. The second carrier — never launched — bore only the title "[[Flugzeugträger B|''Flugzeugträger'' B]]", but might, if completed, have been called [[Peter Strasser]].<ref
name=Greene/Swanborough>Greene/Swanborough</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv RM 25 Bild-27, Flugzeugträger "Graf Zeppelin", Stapellauf.jpg|thumb|right|330px|''Graf Zeppelin'' is launched, 8 December 1938]]

A review of Hitler's conferences on the German Navy, the minutes of which were captured after the fall of the Third Reich, reveals his decreasing interest in the carriers. [[Reichsmarschall]] [[Hermann Göring]], Commander of the [[Luftwaffe]], was resentful of any incursion on his authority as head of the country's air power, and he frustrated Raeder at every opportunity. Within his own service, Raeder found opposition in Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]], a submariner.

Having no experience building such ships, the Kriegsmarine had difficulty implementing advanced technologies such as aircraft catapults into the ''Graf Zeppelin''. German designers were able to study Japanese designs, but were constrained by the realities of creating a North Sea carrier vs. a "Blue Water" design. Several cruiser-type guns were envisioned to allow commerce raiding and defense against British cruisers, for example. This is in contrast to American and Japanese designs, which were more oriented toward a task-force defense, using supporting cruisers for surface firepower.

==Design==
===Hull===
''Graf Zeppelin's'' hull was divided into 19 watertight compartments, the standard division for all capital ships in the Kriegsmarine.<ref name=Breyer33>Breyer, p.33</ref> Her belt armor varied from {{convert|100|mm|abbr=on}} over the machinery spaces and aft magazines, to {{convert|60|mm|abbr=on}} over the forward magazines and tapered down to {{convert|30|mm|abbr=on}} at the bows. Stern armor was kept at {{convert|80|mm|abbr=on}} to protect the steering gear. Inboard of the main armor belt was a {{convert|20|mm|abbr=on}} anti-torpedo bulkhead.<ref name=Whitley157>Whitley, p.157</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv RM 25 Bild-62, Flugzeugträger "Graf Zeppelin", Bau.jpg|thumb|right|330px|''Graf Zeppelin'' at Kiel, June 1940, displaying her newly rebuilt bow. Notice that the photo is marked '''Secret''' (''Geheim'').]]

Horizontal armor protection against aerial bombs and plunging shellfire started with the flight deck, which acted as the main strength deck. The armor was generally {{convert|20|mm|abbr=on}} thick except for those areas around the elevator shafts and funnel uptakes where thickness increased to {{convert|40|mm|abbr=on}} in order to give the elevators necessary structural strength and the critical uptakes greater splinter protection.<ref name=Whitley157/> Beneath the lower hangar was the main armored deck (or tween deck) where armor thickness varied from {{convert|60|mm|abbr=on}} over the magazines to {{convert|40|mm|abbr=on}} over the machinery spaces. Along the peripheries, it formed a 45 degree slope where it joined the lower portion of the waterline belt armor.<ref name=Whitley157/>

''Graf Zeppelin's'' original length-to-beam ratio was 9.26:1, resulting in a slender silhouette. However, in May 1942, the accumulating top-weight of recent design changes required the addition of deep bulges to either side of her hull, decreasing that ratio to 8.33:1 and giving her the widest beam of any carrier designed prior to 1942.<ref name=Brown9>Brown, p. 9</ref> The bulges served mainly to improve ''Graf Zeppelin's'' stability but they also gave her an added degree of anti-torpedo protection and increased her operating range because selected compartments were designed to store approximately 1500 tons more fuel oil.<ref name=Whitley31>Whitley, p.31</ref>

''Graf Zeppelin's'' straight-stemmed prow was rebuilt in early 1940 with the addition of a more sharply angled "Atlantic prow", intended to improve overall seakeeping. This added {{convert|5.2|m|abbr=on}} to her overall length.<ref name=Breyer33>Breyer, p.33</ref>

===Machinery===
''Graf Zeppelin's'' power plant consisted of 16 La Mont high-pressure boilers, similar to those used in the ''[[Admiral Hipper class cruiser|Admiral Hipper]]''-class heavy cruisers. Her four sets of geared turbines, connected to four shafts, were expected to produce {{convert|200000|shp|lk=in|abbr=on}} and propel the carrier at a top speed of {{convert|35|kn|mph km/h}}. With a maximum bunkerage capacity of 5000 tons of fuel oil (prior to the addition of bulges in 1942), ''Graf Zeppelin's'' calculated radius of action was {{convert|9600|mi}} at {{convert|19|kn}}, though wartime experience on ships with similar powerplants showed such estimates were highly inaccurate. Actual operational ranges tended to be much lower.<ref name=Whitley159>Whitley, p.159</ref>

Two [[Voith Schneider Propeller|Voith-Schneider cycloidal propeller-rudders]] were installed in the forward bow of the ship along the center-line. These were intended to assist in berthing the ship in harbor and also in negotiating narrow waterways such as the [[Kiel Canal]] where, due to the carrier’s high freeboard and difficulty in maneuvering at speeds below {{convert|8|kn}}, gusting winds might push the ship into the canal sides. In an emergency, the units could have been used to steer the ship at speeds under {{convert|12|kn}} and, if the ship's main engines were rendered inoperable, could propel the vessel at a speed of {{convert|4|kn}} in calm seas. When not in use, they were to be retracted into their vertical shafts and protected by water-tight covers.<ref name=Whitley159/>

===Flight Deck & Hangars===
''Graf Zeppelin's'' steel flight deck, overlaid with wooden planking, was {{convert|242|m|abbr=on}} long by {{convert|30|m|abbr=on}} wide at its maximum. It had a slight round down right aft and overhung the main superstructure but not the stern; being supported by steel girders. At the bow, the carrier had an open forecastle and the leading edge of her flight deck was uneven (mainly due to the blunt ends of her catapult tracks), but it did not appear likely this would cause any undue air turbulence. Careful wind-tunnel studies using models confirmed this but they also revealed that her long low island structure would generate a vortex over the flight deck when the ship yawed to port. This was considered an acceptable hazard when conducting air operations.<ref name=Brown10>Brown, p.10</ref>

''Graf Zeppelin's'' upper and lower hangars were long and narrow with unarmored sides and ends. Workshops, stores and crew quarters were located outboard of the hangars, a design feature similar to that of British carriers.<ref name=Brown10/> The upper hangar measured {{convert|185|m|abbr=on}} x {{convert|16|m|abbr=on}}; the lower hangar {{convert|172|m|abbr=on}} x {{convert|16|m|abbr=on}}. The upper hangar had {{convert|6|m|abbr=on}} vertical clearance while the lower hangar had {{convert|.3|m|abbr=on}} less headroom due to the ceiling braces. Total usable hangar space was {{convert|5450|m2|abbr=on}} with stowage for 41 aircraft: 18 [[Fieseler Fi 167]] torpedo-planes in the lower hangar; 13 [[Junkers Ju 87|Junkers Ju 87C]] dive-bombers and 10 [[Messerschmitt Me 109|Messerschmitt Bf 109T]] fighters in the upper hangar.<ref name=Breyer52>Breyer, p.52</ref>

''Graf Zeppelin'' had three electrically-operated elevators positioned along the flight-deck's center-line: one near the bow, abreast the forward end of the island; one amidships; and one aft. They were octagonal in shape, measuring {{convert|13|m|abbr=on}} x {{convert|14|m|abbr=on}}, and were designed to transfer aircraft weighing up to 5.5 tons between decks.<ref name=Whitley155>Whitley, p.155</ref><ref name=Breyer54>Breyer, p.54</ref>

Two Deutsche Werke compressed air-driven [[Aircraft catapult|catapults]] were installed at the forward end of the flight deck for power-assisted launches. They were {{convert|23|m|abbr=on}} long and designed to accelerate a {{convert|2500|kg|abbr=on}} fighter to a speed of approximately {{convert|140|km/h|abbr=on}} and a {{convert|5000|kg|abbr=on}} bomber to {{convert|130|km/h|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Breyer54/>

A dual set of rails led back from the catapults to the forward and midship elevators. In the hangars, aircraft would have been hoisted by crane onto collapsible launch trollies. The aircraft/trolley combination would then have been lifted to flight deck level on the elevator and trundled forward to the catapult start points. As each plane lifted off, its launch trolley would have been caught in a metal "basket" at the end of the catapult track, lowered to the forecastle on "B" deck and rolled back into the upper hangar for re-use via a secondary set of rails. When not in use, the catapult tracks were to be covered with sheet metal farings to protect them from harsh weather.<ref name=Breyer54/>

Eighteen aircraft could theoretically be launched at a rate of one every thirty seconds before exhausting the catapult air reservoirs. It would then take 50 minutes to recharge the reservoirs. The two large cylinders holding the compressed air were housed in insulated compartments located between the two catapult tracks, below flight deck level but above the main armored deck. This positioning afforded them only light protection from potential battle damage. The insulated compartments were to be electrically heated to a temperature of {{convert|20|C}} in order to prevent ice from forming on the cylinder piping and control equipment as the compressed air was vented during launches.<ref name=Burke87>Burke, p.87</ref>

It was intended from the outset that all of ''Graf Zeppelin’s'' aircraft would normally launch via catapult. Rolling take-offs would be performed only in an emergency or if the catapults were inoperable due to battle damage or mechanical failure. Whether this practice would have been strictly adhered to or later modified, based on actual air trials and combat experience, is open to question, especially given the limited capacity of the air reservoirs and the long recharging times necessary between launches.<ref name=Breyer54/> The advantage of such a system, however, was that ''Graf Zeppelin'' could have launched her aircraft without need for turning the ship into the wind or under conditions where the prevailing winds were too light to provide enough lift for her heavier aircraft. She could also have launched and landed aircraft simultaneously.<ref name=Marshall23>Marshall, p.23</ref>

To facilitate rapid catapult launches and eliminate the necessity of time-consuming engine warm-ups, up to eight aircraft were to be kept in readiness in the hangars by the use of steam pre-heaters. These would keep the aircraft engines at an operational temperature of {{convert|70|C}}. In addition, engine oil was to be kept warmed in separate holding tanks, then added via hand-pumps to the aircraft engines shortly before launch. Once the aircraft were raised to flight deck level via the elevators, aircraft oil temperature could be maintained, if need be, through the use of electric pre-heaters plugged into power points on the flight deck. Otherwise the aircraft could have been immediately catapult-launched as their engines would already have been at or near normal operating temperature.<ref name=Burke86>Burke, p.86</ref>

Four arrester wires were positioned at the after end of the flight deck with two more emergency wires located afore and abaft of the amidships elevator. Original drawings show four additional wires fore and aft of the forward lift, possibly intended to allow recovery of aircraft over the bows, but these may have been deleted from the ship's final configuration.<ref name=Whitley155/> To assist with night landings, the arrester wires were to be illuminated with neon lights.<ref name=Marshall23/>

Two {{convert|4|m|abbr=on}} high, slitted steel wind barriers were installed afore the midships and forward elevators. These were designed to reduce wind velocity over the flight deck to a distance of approximately {{convert|40|m|abbr=on}} behind them. When not in use they would be lowered flush with the deck to allow aircraft to pass over them.<ref name=Whitley155/>

''Graf Zeppelin's'' starboard-side island housed the command and navigating bridges and charthouse. It also served as a platform for three searchlights, four domed stabilized fire-control directors and a large vertical funnel. To compensate for the weight of the island, the carrier's flight deck and hangars were offset {{convert|.5|m|abbr=on}} to port from her longitudinal axis.<ref name=Breyer33/> Design additions proposed in 1942 included a tall fighter-director tower, air search radar antennas and a curved cap for her funnel, the latter intended to keep smoke and exhaust gases away from the armored fighter-director cabin.<ref name=Breyer18>Breyer, p.18</ref>

===Armament===
''Graf Zeppelin'' was armed with separate high and low angle guns for AA and anti-ship defense at a time when most other major navies were switching to dual-purpose AA weapons and relying on escort ships to protect their carriers from surface threats.<ref name=Whitley159/> Her primary anti-shipping armament consisted of sixteen {{convert|15|cm|abbr=on}} guns paired in eight armored casemates. These were mounted, two each, at the four corners of the carrier’s upper hangar deck, positions that raised the possibility the guns would be washed out in heavy seas, especially those in the forward casemates.<ref name=Whitley159/>

Chief Engineer Hadeler had originally planned for only eight such weapons on the carrier, four on each side in single mountings. However, the Naval Armaments Office misinterpreted his proposal to save space by pairing them and instead doubled the number of guns to sixteen, resulting in a need for increased ammunition stowage and more electrically-operated hoists to service them.<ref name=Breyer43>Breyer, p.43</ref> Later in her construction, some consideration was given to deleting these guns and replacing them with {{convert|10.5|cm|abbr=on}} guns mounted on sponsons just below flight deck level. But the structural modifications needed to accommodate such a change were judged too difficult and time-consuming, requiring major changes to the ship’s design, and the matter was shelved.<ref name=Breyer44>Breyer, p.44</ref>

Primary AA protection came from twelve {{convert|10.5|cm|abbr=on}} guns, paired in six turrets positioned three afore and three aft of the carrier’s island. Potential blast damage to planes sited on the flight deck when these guns fired to port was an unavoidable risk and would have limited any flight activity during an engagement.<ref name=Brown10/>

''Graf Zeppelin’s'' secondary AA defenses consisted of eleven twin {{convert|37|mm|abbr=on}} [[3.7 cm SK C/30|SK C/30]] guns mounted on sponsons located along the flight deck edges: four on the starboard side, six to port and one mounted on the ship's forecastle. In addition, seven {{convert|20|mm|abbr=on}} MG C/30 guns were installed on single-mount platforms on either side of the carrier: four to port and three to starboard. These guns were later changed to quadruple mountings.<ref name=Breyer48>Breyer, p.48</ref>

==Testing at Travemünde==
In 1937, with ''Graf Zeppelin’s'' launch scheduled for the end of the following year, the Luftwaffe’s experimental test facility at Travemünde (''Erprobungsstelle'' See or ''E-Stelle'' See) on the Baltic coast began a lengthy program of testing prototype carrier aircraft. This included performing simulated carrier landings and take-offs and training future carrier pilots.<ref name=Reynolds46>Reynolds, p.46</ref>

The runway was painted with a contoured outline of ''Graf Zeppelin’s'' flight deck and simulated deck landings were then conducted over an arresting cable strung width-wise across the airstrip. The cable was attached to an electromechanical braking device manufactured by DEMAG. Testing began in March 1938 using the [[Heinkel He 50]], [[Arado Ar 195]] and [[Ar 197]]. Later, a stronger braking winch was supplied by Atlas-Werke of Bremen and this allowed heavier aircraft, such as the Fieseler Fi 167 and Junkers Ju 87, to be tested.<ref name=Israel66>Israel, p.66</ref> After some initial problems, Luftwaffe pilots performed 1,500 successful braked landings out of 1,800 attempted.<ref name=Breyer66>Breyer, p.66</ref>

Launches were practiced using a {{convert|20|m|abbr=on}} long barge-mounted pneumatic catapult, moored in the Trave River estuary. The Heinkel-designed catapult, built by Deutsche Werke Kiel (DWK), could accelerate aircraft to speeds of {{convert|145|km/h|abbr=on}} depending on wind conditions. Test planes were first hoisted by crane onto collapsible launch carriages in the same manner as intended on ''Graf Zeppelin''.<ref name=Breyer67>Breyer, p.67</ref>

The catapult test program began in April 1940 and, by early May, thirty-six launches had been conducted, all carefully documented and filmed for later study: seventeen by Arado Ar 197s, fifteen by modified Junkers Ju 87Bs and four using a modified Messerschmitt Bf 109D. Further testing followed and by June Luftwaffe officials were fully satisfied with the catapult system’s performance.<ref name=Israel65>Israel, p.65</ref>

==Aircraft==
''Graf Zeppelin's'' expected role was that of a sea-going scouting platform and her initial planned air group reflected that emphasis: twenty [[Fieseler Fi 167]] biplanes for scouting and torpedo attack, ten [[Messerschmitt Bf 109 variants#Bf 109T "Trägerflugzeug" (carrier aircraft)|Messerschmitt Bf 109]] fighters, and thirteen [[Junkers Ju 87]] dive-bombers.<ref name=Reynolds44/> This was later changed to thirty Bf 109 fighters and twelve Ju 87 dive-bombers as carrier doctrine in Japan, Great Britain and the United States shifted away from purely reconnaissance duties towards offensive combat missions.<ref name=Reynolds44/>

===Messerschmitt Bf 109T===
In the fall of 1938, the Technische Amt RLM (Technical Office of the ''Reichsluftfahrtministerium'' or State Ministry of Aviation) requested that Messerschmitt’s Augsburg design bureau draw up plans for a carrier-borne version of the Bf 109E fighter, to be designated Bf 109T (the "T" standing for Träger or Carrier). The resulting aircraft, nicknamed 'Toni' by its pilots,<ref name=Marshall16>Marshall, p.16</ref> was powered by a Daimler-Benz DB 601N 1,175 PS engine, giving it a maximum speed of {{convert|568|km/h|abbr=on}} at 20,000 feet. Armament comprised two fuselage-mounted {{convert|7.92|mm|abbr=on}} MG 17 machine guns with two additional MG 17s or 20mm MG FF/M cannons in the wings.<ref name=Whitley162>Whitley, p.162</ref>

Wing area was increased through the addition of two {{convert|.6|m|abbr=on}} outer panels, extending overall span to {{convert|11|m|abbr=on}}, and retractable spoilers were fitted to the upper wing surfaces. This significantly shortened the aircraft’s normal take-off and landing runs, improved low-speed stability and allowed for steeper glide angles.

Four catapult attachment points were added to the fuselage and an arrester hook to the tail.<ref name=Green550>Green, p.550</ref> The arrester hooks were later widened to minimize bending of the arresting cables when landing. The hooks also tended to bounce against the fuselage, causing dents. This problem was remedied by incorporating a metal spring into the design and adding a rubber buffer pad to the rear fuselage.<ref name=Marshall16>Marshall, p.16</ref>

An under-fuselage ETC rack was fitted for carrying a {{convert|300|L}} center-line drop-tank.<ref name=Marshall17>Marshall, p.17</ref> The undercarriage oleo legs were also strengthened to better absorb the higher descent rates and greater stresses associated with carrier landings.<ref name=Green550/> Thicker head and armrest padding in the cockpit improved pilot comfort when making catapult launches. No provision was made for wing-folding on the Bf 109T as it was considered unnecessary since the aircraft easily fit within the {{convert|14|m|abbr=on}} width of ''Graf Zeppelin's'' elevators.<ref name=Marshall16/>

After acceptance by the RLM in early 1939, the project was turned over to Fieseler-Werke for final details and the conversion of 60 Bf 109E airframes into T-1s. This order was progressively increased to 155 machines by September but, with work on ''Graf Zeppelin's'' sister carrier, ''Flugzeugträger B'', suspended that same month, planned production reverted to an initial batch of 70 aircraft. By December 1940, the RLM decided to complete only seven carrier-equipped Bf 109 T-1s and to finish the remainder as land-based T-2s since work on ''Graf Zeppelin'' had ceased back in April and there appeared to be little likelihood she would then be commissioned any time soon.<ref name=Marshall24>Marshall, p.24</ref>

Due to delays in production of the Bf 109E series in mid-1940, design alterations to the plane's wing spar and Daimler Benz's slow delivery of the promised DB 601N engines, the first Bf 109 T-1 was not delivered until January 1941. By June, however, all 70 machines were completed. One T-1 was sent to ''E-Stelle'' See in Travemünde for evaluation and six more were reserved for further testing. The remaining 63 T-2s were then ferried to Norway via Denmark and served in I/JG 77 and JGr Trondheim where their short take-off and landing characteristics made them ideally suited to that country’s small windswept airstrips.<ref name=Breyer69>Breyer, p.69</ref>

At the end of 1941, when interest in completing ''Graf Zeppelin'' revived, the surviving Bf 109 T-2s were withdrawn from front-line service in order to again prepare them for possible carrier duty. Seven T-2s were rebuilt to T-1 standards and handed over to the Kriegsmarine on 19 May 1942. By December, a total of 48 Bf 109 T-2s had been converted back into T-1s. 46 of these were stationed at Pillau in East Prussia and reserved for use aboard the carrier. By February 1943, however, all work on ''Graf Zeppelin'' had ceased and the aircraft were returned to Luftwaffe service in April.<ref name=Breyer69/>

===Fieseler Fi 167===
In competition with Arado, Fieseler Werke submitted a design in 1937 at the request of the Technische Amt for a two-seater multi-purpose carrier plane capable of performing bombing, torpedo bombing and reconnaissance duties. Fieseler’s submission, the Fieseler Fi 167 (nicknamed “Dragonfly”) was a lean-looking biplane powered by an inline 1,100 PS Daimler-Benz DB601B engine. This gave it a maximum speed of {{convert|320|km/h|abbr=on}} and a much sleeker appearance than Arado’s radial-engined entry, the Ar 195. Fieseler's plane featured folding wings for carrier stowage, an arrester hook, an enclosed cockpit for a crew of two, a fixed undercarriage (which could be jettisoned in the event of an emergency water landing by electrically triggering two sets of spring-loaded bolts)<ref name=Green169>Green, p.169</ref> and full-span automatic leading edge slats along the upper and lower wings, with the lower wings also sporting large trailing edge flaps. These latter features gave the plane unparalleled stability at low speeds.<ref name=Breyer64>Breyer, p.64</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1977-110-06, Flugzeug Fieseler Fi 167.jpg|thumb|right|330px|A Fieseler Fi 167, the fifth of twelve pre-production machines, banks through the clouds on a test flight.]]

Armament consisted of a maximum bomb load of one {{convert|1000|kg|abbr=on}} bomb or a standard {{convert|764|kg|abbr=on}} LT F 5b torpedo plus one forward-firing {{convert|7.92|mm|abbr=on}} MG 17 machine mounted over the engine cowling and one 7.92 mm MG 15 machine gun on a flexible mount in the rear cockpit to be operated by the observer/navigator. Normal operating range (with bomb load) was{{convert|1300|km|abbr=on}} but this could be extended to {{convert|1500|km|abbr=on}} for reconnaissance missions with the addition of a {{convert|300|L|abbr=on}} external drop-tank.<ref name=Green170>Green, p.170</ref>

Comparative testing at the Luftwaffe's ''Erprobungsstelle'' [[Rechlin]] test facility quickly demonstrated the Fi 167's superiority to the Ar 195 in all respects, so much so that Fieseler opted to forego constructing a third prototype in order to begin assembly of twelve pre-production machines. Since ''Graf Zeppelin'' would not be ready for sea trials until summer 1940, however, work on the pre-production order proceeded at a desultory pace and it was not until spring 1940 that the first example, Fi 167 A-01, began flight testing.<ref name=Green169/>

When work on ''Graf Zeppelin'' was suspended in May 1940, the twelve completed Fi 167s were organized into ''Erprobungsstaffel'' 167 for the purpose of conducting further operational trials. By the time work on the carrier resumed two years later in May 1942, the Fi 167 was no longer considered adequate for its intended role and the Technische Amt decided to replace it with a modified torpedo-carrying version of the Junkers Ju 87D.<ref name=Green169/>

===Junkers Ju 87C===
In 1938 the Technische Amt decided to include a squadron (''Staffel'') of dive-bombers in ''Graf Zeppelin’s'' air group, the obvious choice being the combat-proven Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. Work on converting the Ju 87B into the carrier version Ju 87C began later that year. Pre-production Ju 87Cs had manually folded wings, reducing carrier stowage width to just {{convert|5|m|abbr=on}}; production series aircraft featured an electrically-actuated wing folding mechanism. Overall wingspan was {{convert|.6|m|abbr=on}} shorter than the Ju 87B. Catapult attachment points were added to the lower fuselage and an arrester hook was installed just forward of the tail wheel. The fuselage and landing gear were also strengthened to better withstand the stresses of carrier landings. The two propeller-driven sirens normally mounted on the Stuka’s fixed undercarriage legs were deleted, which helped reduce drag.<ref name=Breyer72>Breyer, p.72</ref>

The Ju 87C’s fixed landing gear could be jettisoned via explosive charges in the event it had to ditch over water. This would help minimize the likelihood of the plane flipping over as it touched down. Flotation bags in the body and wings of the plane were installed and sealants applied to seams and openings to delay the aircraft’s sinking should it be forced to make a water landing, thereby giving the crew sufficient time to exit the cockpit and deploy the inflatable rubber dinghy stowed on board for just such emergencies.<ref name=Breyer72/>

Internal fuel stowage was increased with the addition of two auxiliary wing tanks and could be further augmented by attaching two {{convert|300|l}} external drop-tanks to the wing undersides. This extended the aircraft’s maximum range to over {{convert|1100|km}}. In an emergency, all fuel could be dumped in approximately one minute.<ref name=Breyer72/>

Powered by a Junkers Jumo 211D 1,200 PS engine, the Ju 87C had a top speed of {{convert|332|km/h|abbr=on}}. Armament comprised a maximum bomb load of {{convert|700|kg|abbr=on}}, two fixed forward-firing {{convert|7.92|mm|abbr=on}} MG 17 machine guns in the wings and one flexible 7.92 mm MG 15 machine gun mounted in the rear cockpit, manned by the navigator/radio operator.<ref name=Israel79>Israel, p.79</ref>

Ten Ju 87 C-0 pre-production aircraft were built and sent to the testing facilities at Rechlin and Travemünde where they underwent extensive service trials, including catapult launches and simulated deck landings. But of the 170 Ju 87 C-1 ordered, only a few ever saw completion, suspension of work on ''Graf Zeppelin'' in May 1940 resulting in cancellation of the entire order. Existing aircraft and those airframes in process were eventually converted back into Ju 87 B-2s.<ref name=Breyer72/>

===Junkers Ju 87E===
Work on developing a torpedo-carrying version of the Ju 87D for anti-shipping sorties in the Mediterranean had already commenced in early 1942 when the possibility again arose that ''Graf Zeppelin'' might be completed. As the Fieseler Fi 167 was now considered obsolete, the Technische Amt requested that Junkers modify the Ju 87 D-4 into a carrier-borne torpedo-bomber/recon plane to be designated Ju 87 E-1. Production aircraft would have electrically-actuated folding wings and receive the same carrier fittings as applied to the Ju 87C as well as attachment points for a {{convert|764|kg|abbr=on}} LT F 5b torpedo. Consideration was also given to fitting the aircraft with rocket-assisted take-off gear (RATOG) in order to shorten its take-off run on the carrier.<ref name=Breyer73>Breyer, p.73</ref>

Testing was conducted in the spring and summer of 1942 at ''Erprobungsstelle'' See in Travemünde and the results were sufficiently satisfactory that the RLM issued an order for 115 machines. But when all further work on ''Graf Zeppelin'' was halted for good in February 1943, the entire order was canceled. None of the Ju 87Ds converted to carry a torpedo were ever used operationally.<ref name=Breyer73/>

===Messerschmitt Me 155===
By May 1942, when work was ordered resumed on ''Graf Zeppelin'', the older Bf 109T carrier-borne fighter was considered obsolete. Consequently, the Technische Amt invited Messerschmitt A.G. to submit new design proposals for a shipboard fighter designated [[Messerschmitt Me 155|Me 155]]. Emphasis was placed on using current Bf 109 components for ease of manufacturing and to limit the workload on Messerschmitt's busy design staff. By September 1942 detailed plans were completed.<ref name=Green88>Green, p.88</ref>

The Me 155 utilized a standard Bf 109G airframe wedded to a newly-designed wing, capable of folding for carrier stowage. The wing retained the same span as that of the Bf 109G, {{convert|11|m|abbr=on}}, however the designers replaced the Bf 109G's narrow outward-retracting main landing gear with a wide-track inward-retracting undercarriage, giving the plane more stable landing characteristics. This was especially desirable in an aircraft expected to negotiate the restricted width of a pitching carrier deck. Catapult attachment points, an arrester hook and flotation gear were also added. Proposed armament consisted of an engine-mounted {{convert|20|mm|abbr=on}} MG 151 cannon plus two 20 mm MG 151s and two {{convert|13|mm|abbr=on}} MG 131 machine guns in the wings. Powered by a DB 605A-1 engine rated at 1,475 PS, the aircraft was expected to attain a top speed of {{convert|649|km/h|abbr=on}} with a calculated endurance of 1.16 hours (minus external drop-tank).<ref name=Green88/>

When it became apparent ''Graf Zeppelin'' would not be commissioned for at least another two years, Messerschmitt was unofficially told to shelve the projected fighter design. No prototype of the carrier-borne version of the plane was ever constructed.<ref name=Green88/>

==1940–1945==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 134-B0676, Flugzeugträger "Graf Zeppelin".jpg|thumb|right|330px|''Graf Zeppelin'' moored at Stettin, summer 1941. Note the improved "Atlantic prow", the two empty openings for the 15cm gun casemates (just below and forward of the funnel), the telescoping masts and the ends of the twin catapult tracks on the flight deck.]]

Construction on the Kriegsmarine's two aircraft carriers had been fitful from the start due to a shortage of welders and delays in obtaining materials. Work on ''Flugzeugträger B'' was finally halted on 19 September 1939 because, now that Germany was at war with Great Britain and France, priority had shifted to U-boat construction. The hull, completed only up to the armored deck, sat rusting on its slipway until 28 February 1940, when Admiral Raeder ordered her broken up and scrapped.<ref name=Breyer14>Breyer, p.14</ref>

Meantime, Germany’s conquest of Norway in April 1940 further eroded any chance of completing ''Flugzeugträger A'' (''Graf Zeppelin''). Now responsible for defending Norway’s long coastline and numerous port facilities, the Kriegsmarine urgently required large numbers of coastal guns and AA batteries. During a naval conference with Hitler on 29 April 1940, Admiral Raeder proposed halting all work on ''Graf Zeppelin'', arguing that even if she was commissioned by the end of 1940, final installation of her guns would require another ten months or more (her original fire control system had been sold to the Soviet Union under an earlier trade agreement).<ref name=Breyer14/> Hitler consented to the stop work order, allowing Raeder to have ''Graf Zeppelin’s'' 15 cm guns removed and transferred to Norway. The carrier’s heavy flak armament of twelve 10.5 cm guns had already been diverted elsewhere.<ref name=Whitley30>Whitley, p.30</ref>

On 12 July 1940, ''Graf Zeppelin'' was towed from Kiel to Gotenhafen (Gdynia) and remained there for nearly a year. Just prior to Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the carrier was again moved, this time to [[Szczecin|Stettin]], in order to safeguard her from Soviet air attacks. By November, the German army had pushed deep enough into Russian territory to remove any further threat of air attack and ''Graf Zeppelin'' was returned to Gotenhafen where she briefly served as a floating warehouse for the Navy's hardwood supply.<ref name=Breyer15>Breyer, p.15</ref>

By the time Admiral Raeder met with Hitler for a detailed discussion of naval strategy in April 1942, the usefulness of aircraft carriers in modern naval warfare had been amply demonstrated. British carriers had crippled the Italian fleet at [[Battle of Taranto|Taranto]] in November 1940, critically damaged the German battleship [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] in May 1941 and prevented battleship [[German battleship Tirpitz|''Tirpitz'']] from attacking two convoys bound for Russia in March 1942. In addition, a Japanese carrier raid on [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] had devastated the American battlefleet in December 1941. Raeder, anxious to secure air protection for the Kriegsmarine's heavier surface units, informed Hitler that ''Graf Zeppelin'' could be finished in about a year, with another six months required for sea trials and flight training. On 13 May 1942, with Hitler's authorization, the German Naval Supreme Command ordered work resumed on the carrier.<ref name=Reynolds47>Reynolds, p.47</ref>

But daunting technical problems remained. Raeder wanted newer planes, specifically designed for carrier use. Reichsmarshall Goering, head of the Luftwaffe, replied that the already overburdened German aircraft industry could not possibly complete the design, testing and mass production of such aircraft before 1946. Instead, he proposed converting existing aircraft (again the Junkers Ju 87 and Messerschmitt Bf 109) as a temporary solution until newer types could be developed. Training of carrier pilots at Travemünde would also resume.<ref name=Reynolds47/>

The converted carrier aircraft were heavier versions of their land-based predecessors and this required a host of changes to ''Graf Zeppelin's'' original design: the existing catapults needed modernization; stronger winches were necessary for the arresting gear; the flight deck, elevators and hangar floors also required reinforcement.<ref name=Barker283>Barker, p.283</ref> Changes in naval technology dictated other alterations as well: installation of air search radar sets and antennas; upgraded radio equipment; an armored fighter director cabin mounted on the main mast (which in turn meant a heavier sturdier mast to accommodate the cabin's added weight); extra armoring for the bridge and fire control center; a new curved funnel cap to shield the fighter director cabin from smoke; replacing the single-mount 20mm AA guns with quadruple Flakvierling 38 guns (with a corresponding increase in ammunition supply) to improve overall AA defense; and additional bulges on either side of the hull to preserve the ship's stability under all this added weight.<ref name=Whitley31/>

The German naval staff hoped all these changes could be accomplished by April 1943, with the carrier's first sea trials taking place in August that same year. Towards that end, Chief Engineer Hadeler was reassigned to oversee ''Graf Zeppelin's'' completion. Hadeler planned on getting the two inner shafts and their respective propulsion systems operational first, giving the ship an initial speed of 25-26 knots, fast enough for sea trials to commence and for conducting air training exercises. By the winter of 1943/1944 she was expected to be combat-ready.<ref name=Reynolds47/>

On the night of 27–28 August 1942, ''Graf Zeppelin'' underwent the only Allied air attack ever specifically targeting her for destruction. Nine [[RAF]] [[Lancaster bomber]]s from 106 and 97 Squadrons were despatched against Gotenhafen, each one carrying single "Capital Ship" bombs, a 5,500 lb device with a [[shaped charge]] warhead intended for armoured targets. One pilot was unable to see the carrier due to haze and instead dropped his bomb on the estimated position of the [[German battleship Gneisenau]]. Another believed he scored a direct hit on ''Graf Zeppelin'' but there is no known record of the ship suffering any damage from a bomb strike that night.<ref name=Marshall21>Marshall, p.21</ref>

On 5 December 1942, ''Graf Zeppelin'' was towed back to Kiel and placed in a floating drydock. It seemed she might well see completion after all. By late January 1943, however, Hitler had become so disenchanted with the [[Kriegsmarine]], especially with what he perceived as the poor performance of its surface fleet, that he ordered all of its larger ships taken out of service and scrapped. To [[Admiral Raeder]], who had often clashed with Hitler on naval policy, this was a stunning setback. In a long memorandum to Hitler he called the new order "the cheapest sea victory England ever won".<ref name=Breyer32>Breyer, p.32</ref> Raeder was shortly relieved of command and replaced with former Commander of Submarines Karl Dönitz. Though Admiral Dönitz eventually persuaded Hitler to void most of the order, work on all new surface ships and even those nearing completion was halted, including ''Graf Zeppelin''.<ref name=Whitley32>Whitley, p.32</ref> As of 2 February 1943, construction on the carrier ended for good.

In April 1943 ''Graf Zeppelin'' was towed eastward, first to [[Gotenhafen]], then to the roadstead at [[Swinemünde]] and finally berthed at a wharf in the [[Parnitz]] River, two miles from [[Stettin]]. There she languished for the next two years with only a 40-man custodial crew in attendance.<ref name=Reynolds48>Reynolds, p.48</ref> When [[Red Army]] forces neared the city in April 1945, the ship's [[Kingston valve]]s were opened, flooding her lower spaces and settling her firmly into the mud in shallow water. A ten-man engineering squad then rigged the vessel's interior with demolition and depth charges in order to hole the hull and destroy vital machinery. At 6pm on 25 April 1945, just as the Russians entered Stettin, commander Wolfgang Kähler radioed the squad to detonate the explosives. Smoke billowing from the carrier's funnel confirmed the charges had gone off, rendering the ship useless to her new owners for many months to come.<ref name=Breyer32/>

==Fate after the war==
[[File:Graf zeppelin flugzeugtraeger modell 02.jpg|thumb|120px|Stern view of a ''Graf Zeppelin'' model]]
[[File:Graf zeppelin flugzeugtraeger modell 01.jpg|thumb|120px|Bow view of model]]
The carrier's history and fate after Germany's surrender was unclear for decades after the war. According to the terms of the Allied Tripartite Commission, a "Category C" ship (damaged or scuttled) should have been destroyed or sunk in deep water by August 15, 1946. Instead, the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]] decided to repair the damaged ship and it was refloated in March 1946 and enlisted in the [[Baltic Fleet]] as aircraft carrier ''Zeppelin'' (''Цеппелин''). The last known photo of the carrier shows it leaving [[Świnoujście]] (before 1945 Swinemünde) on April 7, 1947 (see [http://neverhost.net/grafzeppelinn8.jpg picture]). The photo appears to show the carrier deck loaded with various containers, boxes and construction elements, hence the supposition that it was probably used to carry confiscated factory equipment from Poland and Germany to the Soviet Union.

For many years, no other information about the ship's fate was available. There was some speculation that it was very unlikely that the hull made it to [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], as it was argued that the arrival of such a large and unusual vessel would have been noticed by Western intelligence services. This seemed to imply that the hull was lost at sea during transfer between Świnoujście and Leningrad. One account concluded that it struck a mine north of [[Rügen]] on August 15, 1947, but Rügen, west of Swinemünde, is not on the sailing route to Leningrad. Further north in the [[Gulf of Finland]], a heavily-mined area difficult for Western observers to monitor, seemed more likely.

After the opening of the Soviet archives, new light was shed on the mystery. Though some believed that the carrier had been towed to Leningrad after the war, in his book "Without wings, the story of Hitler's aircraft carrier" Burke disputed this. What is known is that the carrier was known as "PB-101" (Floating Base Number 101) in February 3, 1947, until, on August 16, 1947, it was used as a practice target for Soviet ships and aircraft. Allegedly the Soviets installed aerial bombs on the flight deck, in hangars and even inside the funnels (to simulate a load of combat munitions), and then dropped bombs from aircraft and fired shells and torpedoes at it. This assault would both comply with the Tripartite mandate (albeit late) and provide the Soviets with experience in sinking an aircraft carrier. By this point, the [[Cold War]] was underway, and the Soviets were well aware of the large numbers and central importance of aircraft carriers in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]], which in the event of an actual war between the Soviet Union and the United States would be targets of high strategic importance. After being hit by 24 bombs and projectiles, the ship did not sink and had to be finished off by two torpedoes.<ref>[http://english.pravda.ru/russia/history/04-08-2006/83756-Graf_Zeppelin-0 Hitler’s last treasure belongs to Russia - Pravda.Ru]</ref> The exact position of the wreck was unknown for decades.

===Discovery in 2006===
On July 12, 2006 [[RV St. Barbara|RV ''St. Barbara'']], a ship belonging to the Polish oil company [[Petrobaltic]] found a 265 m long wreck close to the port of [[Łeba]] (a BBC report says 55 km north of [[Władysławowo]]) which they thought was most likely ''Graf Zeppelin''. On July 26, 2006 the crew of the [[Polish Navy]]'s [[survey ship]] [[ORP Arctowski|ORP ''Arctowski'']] commenced inspection of the wreckage to confirm its identity, and the following day the Polish Navy confirmed that the wreckage was indeed that of ''Graf Zeppelin.'' She rests at more than 87 meters (264 feet) below the surface.<ref name="20060728_ap_gz_found">{{cite web|last=Gera|first=Vanessa|date=July 28, 2006|url= http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060728/ap_on_re_eu/poland_nazi_shipwreck_1|title=Nazi aircraft carrier found in Baltic sea|publisher=Associated Press}}{{Dead link|date=March 2009|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060728/ap_on_re_eu/poland_nazi_shipwreck_1}}</ref><ref name="20060728_bbc_gz_found">{{Cite web|date= July 28, 2006|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5223514.stm|title='Nazi aircraft carrier' located|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>

===Diving===
In 2009 a team of [[scuba diving|scuba divers]] obtained permission from the Polish government to dive the wreck.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.unifiedteamdiving.com/profiles/blogs/graf-zeppelin-trip-report-may|title=Graf Zeppelin Trip Report - May 2009|accessdate=2010-03-05}}</ref> The depth and conditions of the wreck mean that only advanced [[technical diving|technical divers]] can realistically contemplate such a dive, but in any event, permission needs to be obtained from Polish authorities for any diving activities.

==See also==
* [[List of aircraft carriers]]
* [[List of World War II ships]]
* [[List of naval ships of Germany]]
* [[List of naval ship classes of Germany]]
* [[List of Kriegsmarine ships]]
* [[List of ship launches in 1938]]
* [[Flugzeugträger B]] - ''Graf Zeppelin'''s sister ship

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite journal|author=Barker, Lt. Cmdr Edward L. |title=War Without Aircraft Carriers |publisher=United States Naval Institute Proceedings |month=March | year=1954}}
* {{cite book|last=Breyer |first=Siegfried |title=The German Aircraft Carrier Graf Zeppelin |location=Atglen, Pennsylvania |publisher=Schiffer Publishing Ltd |year=1989}}
* {{cite book|last=Breyer |first=Siegfried |title=Encyclopedia of Warships 42: Graf Zeppelin |location=Gdansk |publisher=A.J. Press |year=2004}}
* {{cite book|last=Brown |first=David |title=WWII Fact Files: Aircraft Carriers |location=New York |publisher=Arco Publishing |year=1977}}
* {{cite book|last=Burke |first=Stephen |title=Without Wings: The Story of Hitler's Aircraft Carrier |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=Sept 2007 |isbn= 1425122167 }}{{Verify credibility|date=May 2010}}
* {{cite book | last = Chesneau | first = Roger | title = Aircraft Carriers of the World, 1914 to the Present An Illustrated Encyclopedia | publisher = Brockhampton Press | year = 1998 | location = London | pp = 288 | isbn = 1 86019 87 5 9 }}
* {{cite book|last=Green |first=William |title=The Warplanes of the Third Reich |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday and Company, Inc |year=1979}}
* {{cite book|last=Green|first=William|authorlink= |coauthors= Gordon Swanborough|title=The Complete Book of Fighters |publisher=Salamander Books |year=1994}} ISBN 0-8317-3939-8.
* {{cite book|last=Israel |first=Ulrich H.-J. |title=Graf Zeppelin: Einziger Deutscher Flugzeugträger |location=Hamburg |publisher=Verlag Koehler/Mittler |year=1994}}
* {{cite journal|author=Israel, Ulrich H.-J. |title="Flugdeck klar!" Deutsche Trägerflugzeuge bis 1945 |publisher=Flieger Revue Extra |year=2003}}
* {{cite book|last=Lake| first=Jon|title=Lancaster Squadrons 1942-43|publisher=Osprey|year=2002}} ISBN 1841763136
* {{cite book|last=Marshall |first=Francis L. |title=Sea Eagles - The Operational History of the Messerschmitt Bf 109T |location=Walton on Thames, Surrey, UK |publisher=Air Research Publications |year=1994}}
* {{cite journal|author=Reynolds, Clark G. |title=Hitler's Flattop: The End of the Beginning |publisher=United States Naval Institute Proceedings |month=January | year=1967}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith |first=Peter C. |title=Junkers Ju 87 Stuka |location=Ramsbury |publisher=The Crowood Press |year=1998}}
* {{cite journal|author=Whitley, M.J. |title=Warship 31: Graf Zeppelin, Part 1 |location=London |publisher=Conway Maritime Press Ltd |month=July | year=1984}}
* {{cite book|author=Whitley, M.J. |title=Warship 33, Vol IX: Graf Zeppelin, Part 2 |location=London |publisher=Conway Maritime Press Ltd | year=1985}}

==External links==
{{Commons|German aircraft carrier Graf Zeppelin}}
* [http://www.bundesarchiv.de/aktuelles/aus_dem_archiv/galerie/00159/index.html ''Graf Zeppelin'' images from Bundesarchiv Freiburg] (text in German but lots of images)
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/germany/pages/aircraft_carriers/graf_zeppelin.htm Maritimequest ''Graf Zeppelin'' photo gallery]
*[http://www.sedina.pl/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=672 Aerial photos of the carrier taken in 1947]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,13509-2287104,00.html "Divers find Hitler's aircraft carrier"] - Article from ''Times Online'', published July 27, 2006 (Roger Boyes)

{{Graf Zeppelin class_aircraft_carrier}}

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[[Category:Plan Z]]
[[Category:Graf Zeppelin class aircraft carriers]]
[[Category:World War II aircraft carriers of Germany]]
[[Category:Shipwrecks in the Baltic Sea]]
[[Category:Proposed aircraft carriers]]
[[Category:Germany – Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:1938 ships]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 1947]]
[[Category:Ships sunk as targets]]

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[[zh:齊柏林伯爵號航空母艦]]

Donald

2010-10-30T18:06:59Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: no:Donald (andre betydninger), pl:Donald (ujednoznacznienie)

{{about|given name}}
{{Infobox given name
| name = Donald
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
| pronunciation=DON-awld
| gender = Male
| meaning = Ruler of the world
| region =
| origin = [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish]] or [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]]
| related names = '''Domnall''', '''Domhnall''', '''Dumhnuil''', '''Dónall''', '''Donal'''
| footnotes =
}}
'''Donald''' ('''Domnall''', '''Domhnall''', '''Dumhnuil''', '''Dónall''') is an anglicized version of a [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish]] or [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]] personal name, containing the elements ''dumno'' "world" and ''val'' "rule", viz. "ruler of the world". Compare [[Dumnorix]].
{{TOCright}}
==Gaelic kings and noblemen==
'''Domnall''' or '''Domhnall''' is the name of many ancient and medieval Gaelic kings and noblemen:
*[[Domnall Brecc]], king of the Dál Riata (d. 642)
*[[Domnall mac Áedo]], High King of the [[Cenél Conaill]] and Ireland (d. 642)
*[[Domnall Midi]], High King of Clann Cholmáin and Ireland (d. 763)
*[[Donald I of Scotland]] (812–863)
*[[Donald II of Scotland]] (889–900)
*[[Domnall I of Strathclyde]] (d. 908 X 916)
*[[Domnall II of Strathclyde]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 916 X 934)
*[[Domnall III of Strathclyde]] (d. 975)
*[[Donald III of Scotland]] (1033–1099)
*[[Domhnall MacLochlainn]], High King of Ireland (1083 and 1121)
*[[Domhnall I, Earl of Mar]] (1276–1301)
*[[Domhnall Ó Néill]], King of [[Tír Eógain]] (d. 1325)
*[[Domhnall II, Earl of Mar]] (1305–1332)
*[[Domhnall, Earl of Lennox]] (1333–1365)

==Given name==

*[[Don Bertoia]], Canadian middle distance runner
*[[Donald Bailey (musician)|Donald Bailey]] (born 1934), American Jazz drummer
*[[Donald Bradman]] (1908–2001), Australian cricketer
*[[Donald Brashear]], American professional ice hockey left winger
*[[Donald Braswell II]] (born 1963), American classical crossover tenor and composer
*[[Donald Burgess]], British track cyclist
*[[Donald Cameron (waterpolo)|Donald Cameron]] (born 1954), Australian water polo player and coach
*[[Donald Crisp]] (1882–1974), filmmaker
*[[Donald "Duck" Dunn]] (*1941), American bass guitarist
*[[Don Dunstan]], Reformist Premier of South Australia
*[[Donald Izacus Panjaitan]] (1925–1965), Indonesian general
*[[Donald Knuth]], renowned computer scientist
*[[Donald F. Lach]] (1917–2000), American historian and author
*[[Donal Logue]] (born 1969), Canadian actor
*[[Donald MacCormick]] (1939–2009), British journalist
*[[Donal MacIntyre]] (born 1966), Irish investigative reporter
*[[Donald Nixon]], brother of former U.S president Richard Nixon
*[[Donald of Ogilvy]] (Saint Donald)
*[[Donald Paige]] (born 1956), American middle distance runner
*[[Donald Pleasence]] (1919–1995), English stage and screen actor
*[[Donald Rumsfeld]] (born 1932), United States Secretary of Defense
*[[Donald Sild]] (born 1968), Estonian javelin thrower
*[[Donald Sutherland]] (born 1935), Canadian actor
*[[Donald Trump]] (born 1946), American business executive, founder and CEO of Trump Organization; aka "The Donald"
*[[Donald Tsang]] (born 1944), Chief Executive of Hong Kong
*[[Donald Tusk]] (born 1957), Polish Prime Minister, politician, chairman of Civic Platform party (Platforma Obywatelska)
*[[Donald Wailan-Walalangi]] (born 1960), Indonesian tennis player
*[[Donald Whitton]], Canadian cellist, and teacher
*[[Donald Williamson]], American mayor of Flint, Michigan

===Fictional===
*Donald (see [[Donald and Douglas]]), engine number 9 in ''Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends''
*[[Donald Duck]], animated cartoon and comic-book character
*[[Donnie Darko]], protagonist of a film of the same name
*[[Donald Draper]], the protagonist of the AMC television series ''[[Mad Men]]''.

== See also ==
* [[Clan Donald]], one of the largest Scottish clans
* [[Donny (drum and bass artist)]], producer of [[drum and bass]] music
* [[Donald (surname)]]
* [[Don (disambiguation)]]

{{given name}}

[[Category:English masculine given names]]
[[Category:Irish masculine given names]]
[[Category:Scottish masculine given names]]

[[be:Імя Дональд]]
[[br:Donald]]
[[de:Donald]]
[[fr:Donald]]
[[ko:도널드]]
[[la:Donald]]
[[hu:Donald]]
[[nl:Donald]]
[[ja:ドナルド]]
[[no:Donald (andre betydninger)]]
[[pl:Donald (ujednoznacznienie)]]
[[pt:Donald]]
[[vi:Donald]]
[[zh:Donald]]

Dennis Hastert

2010-10-30T17:31:01Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: fr:Dennis Hastert

{{See|Illinois's 14th congressional district special election, 2008}}

{{Infobox Congressman
|name= Dennis Hastert
|image name= Dennis Hastert.jpg
|order= 59th
|title=[[Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives]]
|term_start= [[January 6]], [[1999]]
|term_end= [[January 3]], [[2007]]
|predecessor= [[Newt Gingrich]]
|successor= [[Nancy Pelosi]]
|state2= Illinois
|district2= [[Illinois's 14th congressional district|14th]]
|party= [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|term_start2 =[[January 6]], [[1987]]
|term_end2 =[[November 26]], [[2007]]
|preceded2= [[John E. Grotberg]]
|succeeded2= [[Bill Foster (Illinois politician)|Bill Foster]]
|date of birth= {{birth date and age|1942|1|2}}
|place of birth= [[Aurora, Illinois]]
|date of death=
|place of death=
|spouse= Jean Kahl
|current occupation=[[Mentoring]]
|religion=[[Methodist]]

}}

'''John Dennis "Denny" Hastert''' (born [[January 2]], [[1942]]) is an [[United States|American]] politician. He was a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] member of the [[United States House of Representatives]] from 1987 to 2007, representing {{ushr|Illinois|14|}}, and served as [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] from 1999 to 2007.

Originally elevated to the Speakership on [[January 6]], [[1999]], he surpassed [[Joseph Gurney Cannon]] as the longest-serving [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Speaker in history on [[June 1]], [[2006]]. Hastert was reelected to an eleventh term in Congress in the [[2006 US Senate election|2006 general election]], defeating former [[United States Navy]] intelligence analyst [[John Laesch]]. However, the Republican Party lost its majority in the House and Hastert did not seek a leadership position in the [[110th Congress]].<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/us/AP-GOP-Future.html</ref>
He resigned his seat mid-session on [[November 26]], [[2007]].<ref>[http://rollcall.com/issues/1_1/breakingnews/20539-1.html]</ref><ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070817/ap_on_re_us/hastert_s_future Yahoo News August 8, 2007]</ref><ref>[http://www.suntimes.com/news/sweet/510183,CST-NWS-hastert15.article Sun Times article]</ref> Hastert had endorsed former Massachusetts governor [[Mitt Romney]] for the 2008 Republican Presidential nomination before he withdrew from the race.

==Early life==
Hastert was born in [[Aurora, Illinois]] and grew up in [[Oswego, Illinois]]. He was the eldest of three sons of Naomi and Jack Hastert. As a young man he worked in the [[Plainfield, Illinois]], family restaurant "The Clock Tower" as a fry cook.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/govt/leadership/stories/hastert122198.htm], [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_18_18/ai_86nygvytgv868904]</ref> He graduated from [[Wheaton College, Illinois]] in 1964 and earned a master's degree in education from [[Northern Illinois University]] in 1967. Although Hastert was high school "football and wrestling star" and a wrestler at Wheaton College in the 1960s, he was later injured, and as a result never served in Vietnam.[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/govt/leadership/stories/hastert010599.htm] After a stint teaching English in [[Osaka]], [[Japan]], in the early 1970s,<ref>[http://komoriy.iza.ne.jp/blog/entry/102462]</ref> he moved to [[Yorkville, Illinois|Yorkville]] in 1964, {{convert|55|mi|km|0}} west of [[Chicago]], and took a job as a government and history teacher at [[Yorkville High School]] from 1964 to 1980. He also coached [[scholastic wrestling|wrestling]] and [[American football|football]], leading the wrestling team to a state title in 1976. His family owns the locally famous fried chicken restaurant "The White Fence Farm" in Bolingbrook, Ill.

== Illinois House of Representatives ==
In 1980, he was elected to the [[Illinois House of Representatives]] and served three terms, becoming the ranking Republican on the Appropriations Committee.

== Early congressional career==

In January, 1986, [[John E. Grotberg|John Grotberg]], the Congressman from [[Illinois's 14th congressional district]], was undergoing cancer treatment at NIH and experienced a coma that lasted five weeks. Grotberg started rehabilitation as he came out of the coma, but by June was still not well enough to run for office and withdrew his name from the ballot (He died November 15). As this was a politically unique situation, the twelve county chairmen would seek legal guidance on the correct procedure to choose his successor. DeKalb radio talk show host [[Mark J. Powell]] waged a protest write-in campaign going on the radio stations of the district telling of the GOP chairmen's plan to "hand pick" a congressional successor without the people's vote. Hastert did not live in the congressional district and had to move into it. Hastert was nominated by the Republican congressional district convention held at the Illinois Math and Science Academy in Aurora, Illinois. This convention was attended by all precinct committee members from within the represented district. Each was assigned a weighted vote based upon the total number of Republican ballots cast in their respective precincts in the most recent primary election. Dr. Verbic, a dentist from Elgin, Illinois, was the only other candidate to be nominated that day. After approximately two hours of voting, it became clear that the vast majority of votes were going toward Hastert. A motion was made to suspend voting and to nominate Hastert by acclamation. The convention acclaimed Hastert its nominee to succeed Grotberg. A few Republicans were upset at the fact that they were not going to get a chance to choose their nominee for Congress, although they had all given input to their local committee members. Hastert faced [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] Mary Lou Kearns, the [[coroner]] of [[Kane County, Illinois|Kane County]]. Hastert ran a sluggish campaign, but the district's strong Republican base enabled Hastert to win with 52 percent of the vote.

After that, he never faced another election nearly that close, especially after redistricting in the 1990s made the district even more Republican.

During his first twelve years in Congress, Hastert worked closely with Illinois Republican leaders, especially Minority Leader [[Robert Michel]]. After the Republicans took control of the House in 1995, Hastert was named Chief Deputy Whip, the highest appointed position in the House Republican caucus. In this position, he was chief vote-counter for then [[House Majority Whip|Majority Whip]] [[Tom DeLay]].

== Speaker==
[[Image:Dennis Hastert 2.jpg|thumb|200px|Hastert as Speaker during the 108th House of representatives.]]

===Election as Speaker===
In the aftermath of the [[U.S. House election, 1998|1998 midterm elections]], House Speaker [[Newt Gingrich]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] stood down for the Speakership and declined to take his seat for an 11th term. The initial Republican prospect for Gingrich's replacement was [[Bob Livingston]] of [[Louisiana]], the chairman of the [[House Appropriations Committee]], who was unanimously chosen as the Republican candidate for Speaker--and de facto Speaker-elect. However, soon thereafter, ''[[Hustler]]'' magazine detailed sexual affairs Livingston had in the past while seemingly hypocritically attacking President Bill Clinton for the Monica Lewinsky scandal; Livingston announced he wouldn't seek the Speakership and resigned from Congress.

With Livingston's departure, the leading candidates for Speaker appeared to be DeLay and [[House Majority Leader]] [[Dick Armey]], both of [[Texas]]. However, Armey had just fended off a bruising challenge to his majority leader's post from [[Steve Largent]] of [[Oklahoma]].

Both DeLay and Armey were regarded as "too nuclear to be elected Speaker following the impeachment debacle", particularly a closely divided House.<ref>http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998537,00.html</ref> The Republican caucus then turned to Hastert as a compromise candidate. He had very good relationships with moderate and conservative Republicans, as well as Democrats. Hastert was then unanimously elected as the Republican candidate for Speaker, all but assuring his formal election as Speaker on [[January 6]], [[1999]].

===Tenure as speaker===
In accepting the position, Hastert broke with tradition by delivering his acceptance speech from the floor, and by allowing [[House Minority Leader]] [[Dick Gephardt]] of [[Missouri]] to preside briefly. Hastert pledged to work for bipartisanship, saying: "Solutions to problems cannot be found in a pool of bitterness. They can be found in an environment in which we trust one another's word; where we generate heat and passion, but where we recognize that each member is equally important to our overall mission of improving the life of the American people." In November 2004, however, Hastert instituted his "majority of the majority" policy, allowing the House to vote only on bills supported by the majority of its Republican members, as opposed to a bipartisan majority<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A15423-2004Nov26.html | work=The Washington Post | title=Hastert Launches a Partisan Policy | first=Charles | last=Babington | date=November 27, 2004 | accessdate=May 1, 2010}}</ref> His policy agenda focused on [[tax]]es, [[education]], [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]], [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], and [[national defense]].

Although by tradition, Hastert was the leader of the House Republicans, he adopted a much lower profile in the media than conventional wisdom would suggest for a Speaker. This led to accusations that he was only a [[figurehead]] for DeLay. Still, in the months after the [[September 11 attacks]], he met regularly with [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]], [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]], the two Senate leaders and the House minority leader to shape the national response.

[[Image:Dick Cheney at the 2003 State of the Union.jpg|thumb|right|250px|President George W. Bush's 2003 [[State of the Union address]]. Over the President's right shoulder is [[Dick Cheney]]; over his left is Hastert.]]
As Speaker, Hastert traditionally did not serve on any committee. He usually did not participate in debate (though he had the right to do so) and almost never voted on the floor.

Hastert has been a prominent advocate of the [[FairTax]] proposal to replace the income tax with a national [[sales tax]]. He has been a strong supporter of all of the [[George W. Bush administration|Bush administration]]'s foreign and domestic policies.

On [[June 1]], [[2006]], Hastert became the longest-serving Republican Speaker of the House in history, surpassing the record previously held by fellow Illinoisan [[Joseph Gurney Cannon|Joe Cannon]], who held the post from November 1903 to March 1911.

On [[October 27]], [[2005]], Hastert became the first Speaker of the House to author a [[blog]] on his website called, the "Speaker's Journal."<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20060220235400/speaker.house.gov/journal/index.shtml]</ref> In his first post, he wrote, "This is Denny Hastert and welcome to my blog. This is new to me. I can’t say I’m much of a techie. I guess you could say my office is teaching the old guy new tricks. But I’m excited. This is the future. And it is a new way for us to get our message out."<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20060216102643/speaker.house.gov/journal/051027_firstblog.shtml]</ref>

''[[Rolling Stone]]'' rated Hastert the worst congressman in 2006, accusing him of effectively ceding his power to DeLay. It also noted that Hastert inserted $356 million for a highway that will speed the development of several acres of land that he owns.<ref>[http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/12054520/the_10_worst_congressmen]</ref>

==Controversies==

===Campaign contributors===
According to [[Federal Election Commission]] records, Hastert has received campaign contributions from numerous [[political action committee]]s and individuals. The companies include several with ties to [[Illinois]], such as [[McDonald's]], [[Caterpillar Inc.|Caterpillar]], and [[Allstate Corporation|Allstate]]. Many [[Fortune 500]] companies, medical associations, and agricultural interests have also contributed.<ref name = FEC>{{cite web | title = Dennis J. Hastert Disclosure Report | work = [[Federal Election Commission]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 | url = http://query.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/can_give/H6IL14095 }}</ref>

Hastert has declined and returned contributions from the [[National Rifle Association]]. He has also returned money from tobacco companies, including [[Lorillard Tobacco Company]] and [[R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company]].<ref name = FEC />

From 1997 to 2001, Hastert received multiple contributions from [[Enron Corporation]] and [[Arthur Andersen]]; however, the extent of their issues was not fully known at the time. Hastert accepted multiple contributions from [[Accenture]], despite the [[Government Accountability Office]] noting Accenture is incorporated in a [[tax haven]] country ([[Bermuda]]), thereby avoiding federal income tax.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03194r.pdf | format = PDF | title = GAO-03-194R Federal Contractors Incorporated Offshore | work = [[Government Accountability Office]] | date = [[2002-10-02]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

The law firm of [[Winston & Strawn]] has made multiple financial contributions. Winston and Strawn's [[CEO]] is Republican [[James R. Thompson]] who is a former Governor of Illinois.

Hastert received approximately $70,000 in contributions from clients of lobbyist [[Jack Abramoff]], who [[guilty plea|pleaded guilty]] in January 2006 to [[Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal|defrauding American Indian tribes and corrupting public officials]]. A Hastert spokesman said the money would be donated to charity; however, the charity was undisclosed.<ref>{{cite news | title = Hastert donates Abramoff-linked money | url = http://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/01/03/abramoff.fallout/?section=cnn_topstories | date = [[2006-01-03]] | publisher = [[CNN]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

=== Contact with Colombian government ===
In 1997, Hastert led a Congressional delegation to [[Colombia]]. At that time, the [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|Bill Clinton administration]] was concerned about [[human rights]] abuses by the Colombian military. Hastert urged Colombian officials to "bypass the U.S. [[executive branch]] and communicate directly with Congress."<ref>{{cite web| last =Evans| first =Michael| title =War in Colombia | publisher =[[National Security Archive|The National Security Archive]]| date =[[3 May]] 2002 | url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB69/part3.html| accessdate = 2007-04-05 }}</ref>

=== Support for Turkey ===
During his time in [[United States Congress]], critics have alleged he is too friendly with [[Turkey]] because he has not supported initiatives related to the [[Armenian genocide]] of 1915–1923. He has frequently traveled to Turkey.

In October 2000, Hastert withdrew at the last minute a promised House vote on a resolution to recognize the Armenian killings. Hastert claimed that this was prompted by a telephone conversation with then-President [[Bill Clinton]] in which "Clinton said he was 'deeply concerned' about the language in the document... Hastert said Clinton had warned of 'possible far-reaching negative consequences for the United States' if the House voted on the legislation."<ref name = "shelves genocide bill">{{cite news | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/20/us.armenia/ | title = U.S. House shelves Armenia genocide bill | publisher = CNN | date = [[2000-10-20]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> Hastert defended pulling the vote, saying:
:I believe the Armenian people suffered a historic tragedy, and that this resolution was a fitting condemnation of those events. But the president of the United States, the commander in chief of our Armed Forces, has asked us not to bring this resolution to the House floor. This is not an idle request. We all know that the situation in the Middle East is unusually tense.<ref name = "shelves genocide bill" />
He blocked similar legislation in 2004.<ref>{{cite news | title = Rene -- Hastert slices Turkey bill | url = http://www.16beavergroup.org/mtarchive/archives/001119print.html | date = [[2004-06-20]] | first = Jonathan E. | last = Kaplan | work = 16beavergroup | accessdate = 2006-08-16 }}</ref>

In August 2005, an article published in ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'' reported that [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] translator-turned-whistleblower [[Sibel Edmonds]] has sworn under oath that she listened to wiretaps in which Turkish nationals boasted that Hastert had accepted [[bribe]]s.<ref>{{cite news | title = Vanity Fair Interview with Sibel Edmonds | publisher = [[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]] | first = David | last = Rose |date=September 2005 | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> A Hastert spokesperson has denied any knowledge of these events even though a [[National Security Agency]] investigation is underway<ref>[http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0601,ridgeway,71514,6.html]</ref>.

===Remarks about George Soros===
On August 29, 2004, in a [[Fox News]] interview, Hastert said, "You know, I don't know where [[billionaire]] [[George Soros]] gets his money... if it comes overseas or from drug groups or where it comes from." Asked if he thought Soros got money from [[drug cartel]]s, Hastert responded:
:Well, that's what he's been for a number years — George Soros has been for legalizing [[illicit drugs|drugs]] in this country. So, I mean, he's got a lot of ancillary interests out there. I'm saying I don't know where groups — could be people who support this type of thing. I'm saying we don't know.<ref>{{cite news | title = Soros, Hastert Spar Over Drug Charges | url = http://www.jointogether.org/news/headlines/inthenews/2004/soros-hastert-spar-over-drug.html | date = [[2004-09-08]] | work = JoinTogether.org | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

Hastert had made similar comments in an [[August 23]], [[2004]] radio interview.<ref name = "Liar or Fool">{{cite news | url = http://slate.com/id/2106176/ | title = Dennis Hastert, Liar or Fool? | author = [[Jack Shafer|Shafer, Jack]] | publisher = [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] | date = [[2004-09-02]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wnyc.org/shows/bl/episodes/2004/08/23 | title = Half Nelson, All Politics | work = [[Brian Lehrer]] show | date = [[2004-08-24]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

On August 31, Soros, who had made his money from investments and [[currency speculation]], wrote to Hastert requesting an apology.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://craphound.com/soroshastert.pdf | format = PDF | date = [[2004-08-31]] | author = [[George Soros|Soros, George]] | title = Letter to Dennis Hastert | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> Hastert replied that Soros had "funded organizations such as [[The Drug Policy Foundation]], [[Open Society Institute|The Open Society]], The Lendesmith Center, the Andean Council of Coca Leaf Producers, and several ballot initiatives across the country to decriminalize illegal drug use"; he did not apologize. ''[[Slate.com|Slate]]'' magazine noted that "Hastert's explanation is preposterous. Soros ''gives'' money to these groups. He doesn't ''collect'' money from them."<ref name = "Liar or Fool" /> On September 1, Soros wrote a second letter, again requesting an apology.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.slate.com/features/pdf/sept_1_to_hastert.pdf | format = PDF | date = [[2004-09-01]] | author = [[George Soros|Soros, George]] | title = Letter to Dennis Haster | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

In mid-September 2004, Soros filed a complaint with the [[House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct]], charging that Hastert had [[slander]]ed him by making comments on radio and television that Soros received drug money.<ref>George Soros, [http://www.talkingpointsmemo.com/archives/003475.php Letter to House Committee on Standards of Official Conduct, September 2004], quoted in full at TalkingPointsMemo.com, September 15, 2004</ref>

===New Orleans rebuilding===
Hastert generated controversy on [[1 September]] [[2005]] when he said spending federal money to rebuild [[New Orleans]] from the devastation of [[Hurricane Katrina]] "doesn't make sense to me."<ref name = AP>{{cite news | title = Hastert: New Orleans "could be bulldozed" | url = http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002466132_kathast02.html | publisher = [[Associated Press]] | date = [[2005-09-02]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref><ref name = WashingtonPost>{{cite news | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/02/AR2005090202156.html | title = Hastert Tries Damage Control After Remarks Hit a Nerve | publisher = [[Washington Post]] | first = Charles | last = Babington | date = [[2005-09-03]] | page = A17 | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> Hastert went on to say that "It looks like a lot of that place could be bulldozed."<ref name = AP /><ref name = WashingtonPost />

Hastert's website responds to this controversy with the following statements: "It is important that when we rebuild this historic city that we consider the safety of the citizens first. I am not advocating that the city be abandoned or relocated."<ref name = WashingtonPost /><ref>{{cite web | title = Statement From House Speaker Dennis Hastert About City Of New Orleans | date = [[2005-09-01]] | url = http://www.house.gov/list/press/il14_hastert/katrinastatement9_1_05.html | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

===Connection to Jack Abramoff scandal===
Hastert, an Illinois Republican, held a fundraiser at Jack Abramoff's Signatures restaurant in Washington on [[June 3]], [[2003]], that collected at least $21,500 for his Keep Our Majority political action committee from the Abramoff's firm and tribal clients. Seven days later, Hastert wrote Interior Secretary [[Gale Norton]], urging her to reject the Jena tribe of [[Choctaw|Choctaw Indians']] request for a new casino. Hastert's three top House deputies also signed the letter, which said that approving the request would "run counter to congressional intent."

Hastert collected more than $100,000 in donations from Abramoff's firm and tribal clients. On [[May 24]], [[2006]], [[ABC News]] chief investigative reporter [[Brian Ross (journalist)|Brian Ross]] reported that the FBI has begun an investigation into Hastert's connections with Abramoff, and the June 2003 letter in particular.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2006/05/federal_officia.html | title = Officials: Hastert "In the Mix" of Congressional Bribery Investigation | author = [[Brian Ross (journalist)|Ross, Brian]] | work = The Blotter | date = [[2006-05-24]] | publisher = [[ABC News]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> The Justice Department quickly issued a denial of the ABC report: "Speaker Hastert is not under investigation by the Justice Department," DOJ Director of Public Affairs Tasia Scolinos said in a one-line statement.<ref>{{cite web | title = Hastert accuses DOJ of intimidation | url = http://www.hillnews.com/thehill/export/TheHill/News/Frontpage/052506/doj.html | date = [[2006-05-26]] | first = Susan | last = Crabtree | publisher = [[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> Hastert has strongly denied the report. ABC News later issued an updated report that stated that its sources stood by the story.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2006/05/abc_news_update.html | title = ABC News Update on Hastert Story | author = [[Brian Ross (journalist)|Ross, Brian]] | work = The Blotter | date = [[2006-05-24]] | publisher = [[ABC News]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> There have been no further developments.

=== FBI search of a Congressional office ===
Just prior to the ABC report on May 24, Hastert had been critical of the FBI for its May 20, 2006 search of Rep. [[William J. Jefferson]]'s Congressional office in a bribery investigation.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/05/23/jefferson/index.html</ref> Hastert contended that the FBI, an agency in the executive branch of the federal government, had no constitutional right to search the offices of Congress, a separate branch.<ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewNation.asp?Page=/Nation/archive/200605/NAT20060525b.html</ref> The FBI had obtained a [[search warrant|warrant]] for the search.

A number of [[conservative]] pundits have criticized Hastert's position regarding the right of the FBI probe to do such a search. These critics include ''[[Captain's Quarters]]'', contributors to ''[[National Review]]'' and ''[[Red State]]'', and [[talk show]] host [[Rush Limbaugh]]. The ''[[Washington Post]]'' published an editorial critical of Hastert's anti-FBI stance. [[Louisiana]] Republican Senator [[David Vitter]] was also sharply critical of Hastert's actions, and [[Senate Majority Leader]] [[Bill Frist]] and [[Connecticut]] Republican Rep. [[Rob Simmons]] supported the FBI search.

=== Real estate investments ===
On June 14, 2006, the [[Sunlight Foundation]] reported that Hastert has used an Illinois [[Trust company|trust]] to invest in [[real estate]] about six miles (10 km) from the proposed site of the [[Prairie Parkway]]. Hastert's financial disclosure statements did not list the trust or its value, but did list several transactions done by the trust as if Hastert had done them directly. The House Ethics manual states that "Disclosure of real property should include a description sufficient to permit its identification (e.g., street address or plat and map location)."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.house.gov/Ethics/ethicschap4.html | title = Chapter 4 FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE | work = House Ethics manual | date = [[1958-07-11]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> The use of an undisclosed trust to purchase and own land made it impossible to identify the property owned by Hastert.<ref>{{cite news | title = Dennis Hastert's Real Estate Investments | url = http://www.sunlightfoundation.com/node/793 | publisher = [[Sunlight Foundation]] | first = Bill | last = Allison | date = [[2006-06-14]] | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

In the summer of 2005, Hastert personally intervened during House and Senate negotiations over a huge transportation and infrastructure bill to secure $152 million to build the highway project and $55 million for an interchange {{convert|5.5|mi|km|1}} from his property. President George W. Bush signed the bill into law in September 2005.<ref name = "Profits Scrutinized">{{cite news | title = Lawmakers' Profits Are Scrutinized | page = A01 | date = [[2006-06-22]] | publisher = [[Washington Post]] | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/21/AR2006062102210.html | first = Jonathan | last = Weisman | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref>

On [[June 15]], [[2006]], the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' reported that Hastert and two partners had sold a {{convert|138|acre|sqkm|1|sing=on}} parcel to a developer in December 2005 for $4.99 million. The land that was sold came equally from two purchases, in August 2002 and February 2004, and had a total cost of $1.9 million.<ref>{{cite news | title = Records reveal Hastert's hand in land deal | date = [[2006-06-15]] | url = http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0606150161jun15,1,5615560,print.story? | publisher = [[Chicago Tribune]] | author = Dorning, Mike and Zajac, Andrew | accessdate = 2006-08-15 }}</ref> Hastert's share of the profits was $2.018 million.<ref name = "Profits Scrutinized" /> Critics charged that, by [[earmark]]ing money to improve the value of his land, Hastert violated House rules prohibiting taking official action for the prospect of personal gain.<ref>http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/06/22/politics/main1740900.shtml</ref>

=== 2006 House page scandal ===
{{main|Mark Foley scandal}}
In September of 2006, it was revealed that Hastert's office had been aware for over a year that Representative [[Mark Foley]] (R-[[Florida]]) had sent inappropriate e-mails to a 16-year old former congressional page in 2005. Congressman [[John Shimkus]], who chaired the three-member committee overseeing the page program, had told Foley to stop sending inappropriate emails. However, no other action had been taken, nor any further investigation made into Foley's behavior.<ref>John Bresnahan and Susan Davis, [http://www.rollcall.com/issues/1_1/breakingnews/15259-1.html "Foley Interviewed About Page Last Year; Democrats Not Told: Ethics Inquiry Ordered"], ''Roll Call'', September 29, 2006</ref>

[[Kirk Fordham]], a senior congressional aide, said he told Hastert's office about Foley's conduct toward teenage pages more than three years ago, long before officials have acknowledged becoming aware of the issue.<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20061004/ap_on_go_co/congress_pages</ref>

Hastert denied knowledge of any explicit e-mails or instant messages. In a press conference shortly after Foley's resignation, he called the emails "vile and repulsive." He also said that had Foley not resigned, he would have demanded Foley's expulsion from the House.<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/10/02/AR2006100200660.html</ref>

''[[The Washington Times]]'' called for Hastert to resign as Speaker of the House. The editorial stated, "Either he was grossly negligent... or he deliberately looked the other way in hopes that a brewing scandal would simply blow away. He gave phony answers Friday to the old and ever-relevant questions of what did he know and when did he know it? Mr. Hastert has forfeited the confidence of the public and his party, and he cannot preside over the necessary coming investigation, an investigation that must examine his own inept performance."<ref>http://www.washingtontimes.com/op-ed/20061002-102008-9058r.htm</ref>
Gingrich said that Hastert appropriately handled the aftermath of the scandal involving Foley and explicit instant messages to underage male pages. Gingrich dismissed calls for Hastert's resignation. "I do not agree with that, and I think it's very premature and very inappropriate," said Gingrich.<ref>http://www.kentucky.com/mld/kentucky/news/state/15670684.htm</ref>

[[Angela Marie Buchanan|Angela Marie "Bay" Buchanan]], a conservative activist and former [[Treasurer of the United States]], has called for Hastert to resign from Congress. Buchanan said that the email that Hastert was informed about — and described as "overly friendly" — "had predator stamped all over it. No one in the country can suggest otherwise." Buchanan said that Hastert and others "failed the parents of this country."<ref>http://thinkprogress.org/2006/10/02/buchanan-foley</ref>

On [[October 4]], [[2006]], a former aide to the House said he alerted Hastert at least three years ago before the e-mails became public.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/04/washington/04cnd-hastert.html?hp&ex=1160020800&en=a3fbb0550d8f4163&ei=5094&partner=homepage nytimes.com]</ref> Two days later, Hastert released a statement that he would not resign over the scandal.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5409892.stm]</ref>

On October 10, Hastert met with [[India]]n-born evangelist [[K.A. Paul]], who said he prayed with Hastert and attempted to get him to resign. Paul played an important role in getting embattled [[Liberia]]n president [[Charles G. Taylor|Charles Taylor]] to leave Liberia and go into exile in 2003.<ref>[http://www.suntimes.com/news/sweet/91561,CST-NWS-hastert11.article Sweet, Lynn, "Hastert duped into letting stranger inside," Chicago Sun Times, Oct. 11, 2006. viewed 10/12/2006]</ref><ref>[http://www.motherjones.com/news/update/2006/10/drkapaul.html Harkinson, Josh, "Evangelist who counseled Saddam says Hastert promised to resign," Mother Jones, Oct. 11, 2006. viewed 10/12/2006]</ref>

One effect of the controversy was to impair Hastert's ability to help Republican Congressional candidates. Some candidates "disinvited" Hastert from previously scheduled campaign appearances on their behalf.<ref>{{cite news | title = GOP hopefuls hope Hastert stays away | date = [[October 9]], [[2006]] | url = http://www.suntimes.com/news/novak/88816,CST-EDT-novak09.article
| publisher = [[Chicago Sun-Times]] | author = Novak, Robert | accessdate = 2006-10-10 }}</ref>

===Joshua Hastert===
Dennis Hastert's oldest son, Joshua, is a lobbyist for the firm PodestaMattoon.<ref>[http://www.podesta.com/biopages/JoshHastert.htm Webpage of PodestaMatton for Josh Hastert], accessed October 2, 2006</ref> Joshua Hastert is registered as a lobbyist for clients ranging from [[Amgen]], a biotech company, to [[Lockheed Martin]], a defense contractor. Such family ties are sparking debates about lobbyists. "There definitely should be restrictions" on family members, said Craig Holman, a [[Congress Watch]] official who has studied the matter. "This is family members cashing in on connections... It is an ideal opportunity for special interest groups to exploit family relationships for personal gain." Joshua Hastert says he does not lobby House Republican leaders.<ref>Michael Kranish, [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/01/28/family_ties_spark_concern_in_lobby_debate/?page=1 ""], ''Boston Globe'', January 28, 2006</ref>

===Ethan Hastert===
In March 2001, Hastert's son Ethan was arrested on charges of driving under the influence of alcohol and other traffic violations. He was cited for several offenses in the early morning hours.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9402E6DA123BF937A35750C0A9679C8B63]</ref> He worked on Dick Cheney's staff.<ref>[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&STORY=/www/story/09-19-2004/0002252935]</ref> He has since finished law school and works as an attorney for Mayer Brown.<ref>[http://www.mayerbrown.com/lawyers/profile.asp?hubbardid=H834591091]</ref>

===US Attorney controversy===
{{main|Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy}}
On March 14, 2007 Sen. [[Peter Fitzgerald]] said he believed senior Bush advisor [[Karl Rove]] was trying to influence the selection of U.S. attorneys in reaction to pressure from Hastert and allies of then-Gov. [[George Ryan]], who knew Fitzgerald was seeking someone from outside Illinois to attack political corruption.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0703140213mar14,1,2314396.story?coll=chi-newsnationworld-hed&ctrack=1&cset=true | title=Fitzgerald: Rove tried to limit choice | publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]] | date=March 14, 2007| first=Andew | last=Zajac | accessdate = 2007-03-12}}</ref>

==Post-Speakership career==
Hastert was reelected to his seat by a margin of 59.75 percent vs. 40.25 percent in the [[United States House of Representatives elections, 2006|2006 election]], but that year the Republicans lost control, and soon after, Hastert announced he would not run for the post of Minority leader. He had long made it known that the 2007-09 term ([[110th United States Congress|110th Congress]]) would be his last.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/us/AP-GOP-Future.html</ref> On June 1, 2007, State Senator [[Chris Lauzen]] declared his intention to seek the Republican nomination from Hastert's district. <ref>[http://www.suburbanchicagonews.com/beaconnews/news/409912,2_1_AU01_LAUZEN_S1.article Lauzen eyes Congress seat-Aurora Republican forming committee to explore a run in 14th District] Andre Salles, ''The Beacon News''. [[June 1]], [[2007]]. Retrieved [[June 1]], [[2007]]</ref> On July 2007, three-time statewide candidate [[Jim Oberweis]] also declared his intention to seek the Republican nomination from Hastert's district. The next month, [[Geneva, Illinois|Geneva]] mayor [[Kevin Burns (Mayor)|Kevin Burns]] became the third Republican candidate in the race to succeed Hastert.<ref>[http://www.kcchronicle.com/articles/2007/08/18/news/local/doc46c68a87ea186650961035.txt Burns joins race; campaign kickoff today] Paul Dailing, ''Kane County Chronicle''. [[August 18]], [[2007]]. Retrieved [[December 4]], [[2007]] p</ref>

On Aug. 10, 2007, Hastert's office sent letters to his supporters stating that he would announce whether he would be running for another term as congressman of the 14th district. The press conference was set to take place at the Kendall County Courthouse in [[Yorkville, Illinois]] on August 17 at 10 a.m. According to sources, Hastert usually announced his intention to run by sending out a press release. On August 14, 2007, a blog<ref>[http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2007/08/15/hastert-to-retire/ news outlets]</ref> reported that Hastert was planning to retire from politics at the end of his term.<ref>[http://www.suntimes.com/news/sweet/510183,CST-NWS-hastert15.article Sun times]</ref>

On October 17, 2007, the political newspaper [[Roll Call]] announced that Hastert would resign from the House before the end of 2007. <ref>http://rollcall.com/issues/1_1/breakingnews/20539-1.html</ref> He gave a farewell speech on the House Floor on November 15, 2007, which was followed by remarks from current Speaker [[Nancy Pelosi]].

Finally, on November 26, 2007, Hastert submitted his resignation, effective at 11:59pm that day, to [[Governor of Illinois|Illinois Governor]] [[Rod Blagojevich]], explaining that the timing allowed the governor to set the primary for the [[Illinois's 14th congressional district special election, 2008|special election]] to fill out the remainder of his term on February 5, 2008, the same day as the primary for the November general election. Gov. Blagojevich, however, chose to name a special and separate election on Saturday, March 8, 2008 for this remainder of Hastert's term. This created great controversy as the expense to the county election services involved was construed by many as being of Hastert's making, when he had purposefully resigned with adequate time to have his position filled by special ballot on the day of the regular Illinois Primary on February 5.<ref>http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5jxwYRuXjCS3Wpv07Dzp1TCxtHoOAD8T5NCK00</ref> Ultimately, the special election was held on March 8, 2008 and the Democratic candidate, [[Bill Foster (Illinois politician)|Bill Foster]], prevailed over the Republican candidate, [[Jim Oberweis]].

As ex-speaker, Hastert has spent more than $1 million on his office space and staff from 2008 to 2010. This included annual salaries of more than $100,000 each for three staff members. <ref>former house speaker Dennis Hastert’s perk costs taxpayers $1 million, Feb 18 2010, http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/ct-met-use-this-hastert-0218-20100217,0,640306.story?egovernemetn money</ref> Each month, taxpayers provide $40,000 worth of office space, cell phones, staff, and an SUV for former House Speaker Dennis Hastert, who currently works as a lobbyist for private corporations and foreign governments. <ref> Federal Spending by the Numbers 2010, http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2010/06/federal-spending-by-the-numbers-2010</ref>

In 2010 he received a [[Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun]] from the government of Japan.<ref>http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/govt-grants-decorations-to-4083-including-62-foreigners</ref>

== Hastert in fiction ==
The ''[[The West Wing (TV series)|The West Wing]]'' TV series, the powerful and very conservative [[Speaker of the House]], [[Glen Allen Walken]] (played by [[John Goodman]]) was very loosely based on Hastert. Alternatively, Hastert may have been referenced in the episode "[[War Crimes (The West Wing)|War Crimes]]" when [[Sam Seaborn]] stated that the Speaker was from Illinois; Walken, from Missouri, subsequently took over from the nameless Illinoisan Speaker.

==Electoral history==

=== Illinois House of Representatives: 39th district===
*'''1980 election''' ''(top three candidates elected)''
**Suzanne L. Deuchler (R), 34.87%
**Dennis Hastert (R), 29.06%
**Lawrence Murphy (D), 21.81%
**Dwain Givens (D), 14.26%

=== Illinois House of Representatives: 82nd district ===
*'''1982 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R), 67.84%
**James E. McCauley (D), 32.16%

*'''1984 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 100.0%

===U.S. House of Representatives: Illinois's 14th district===
*'''1986 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R), 52.36%
**Mary Lou Kearns (D), 47.64%

*'''1988 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 73.70%
**Stephen Youhanaie (D), 26.30%

*'''1990 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 66.90%
**Donald Westphal (D), 33.10%

*'''1992 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 67.32%
**Jonathan Reich (D), 32.64%
**Yvonne Dinwiddle (write-in), 0.02%

*'''1994 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 76.48%
**Steve Denari (D), 23.52%

*'''1996 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 64.39%
**Doug Mains (D), 35.60%

*'''1998 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 69.77%
**Robert A. Cozzi, Jr. (D), 30.23%

*'''2000 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 73.99%
**Vernon DelJohnson (D), 26.01%

*'''2002 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 74.14%
**Lawrence Quick (D), 25.86%

*'''2004 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 68.63%
**Ruben Zamora (D), 31.37%

*'''2006 election'''
**Dennis Hastert (R) (inc.), 59.79%
**Jonathan Laesch (D), 40.21%

==See also==
*[[Scott Palmer]]
*[[Ted Van Der Meid]]
*[[Mike Stokke]]
*[[Tim Kennedy]]
* [[Order of the Oak Crown]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
*[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0606180254jun18,1,4341439.story?coll=chi-newsnationworld-hed "How Hastert benefited from sale: Planned highway could sweeten asset near Plano"], ''Chicago Tribune'', June 18, 2006
*Mike Dorning, James Kimberly and Ray Gibson, [http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0607060318jul06,1,2703033.story?track=rss&ctrack=1&cset=true "Hastert's wealth is grounded in land: Booming suburbs yield bounty for longtime real estate investor"], ''Chicago Tribune'', July 6, 2006

==External links==
{{commons}}
*[http://www.house.gov/hastert/ U.S. Congressman Dennis Hastert], U.S. House site
{{CongLinks | congbio = h000323 | fec = H6IL14095 | opensecrets = N00004781 | votesmart = H1152103 | ontheissuespath = IL/Dennis_Hastert.htm}}
*[http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Dennis_Hastert SourceWatch Congresspedia — Dennis Hastert] profile
*[http://www.newsmeat.com/campaign_contributions_to_politicians/donor_list.php?candidate_id=H6IL14095 NewsMeat list of contributors to Hastert's campaigns]
*[http://www.hastertforcongress.org/ Hastert for Congress], Campaign site
*[http://www.beyonddelay.org/summaries/hastert.php Beyond DeLay — Rep. Dennis Hastert (R-IL)] from [[Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington]]
*[http://www.openlineblog.com OpenlineBlog.com] political blog covering 14th Congressional District

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Newt Gingrich]]}}
{{s-ttl| title=[[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives]]
| years=[[January 6]] [[1999]] – [[January 3]], [[2003]]; [[January 7]], [[2003]] – [[January 3]], [[2005]]; [[January 3]], [[2005]] – [[January 3]],[[2007]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Nancy Pelosi]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[John E. Grotberg]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[United States Congressional Delegations from Illinois|U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[Illinois' 14th congressional district]]|years=[[January 6]], [[1987]] – [[November 26]], [[2007]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Bill Foster (Illinois politician)|Bill Foster]]}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[Chief Deputy Majority Whip of the United States House of Representatives|Chief Deputy Republican Whip]]| years=1995 – 1999}}
{{s-aft|after= [[Roy Blunt]]}}
{{end}}
{{USHouseSpeaker}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hastert, Dennis}}
[[Category:American Methodists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American people of Luxembourgian descent]]
[[Category:Members of the Illinois House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois]]
[[Category:1942 births]]
[[Category:Northern Illinois University alumni]]
[[Category:Speakers of the United States House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Wheaton College (Illinois) alumni]]

[[de:Dennis Hastert]]
[[es:Dennis Hastert]]
[[fr:Dennis Hastert]]
[[ko:데니스 해스터트]]
[[lb:Dennis Hastert]]
[[mr:डेनिस हॅस्टर्ट]]
[[ja:デニス・ハスタート]]
[[pl:Dennis Hastert]]
[[fi:Dennis Hastert]]
[[sv:Dennis Hastert]]

List of South Korean idol groups

2010-10-30T17:12:23Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:대한민국의 대중 음악 아이돌 그룹 연대표

{{Orphan|date=October 2010}}

The following is a list of [[South Korean]] [[teen idol]] musical bands. This includes a list of [[boy bands]] and [[girl groups]].

==2010s==
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Debut
! Name
! Hangul/Hanja
! Number of members
! Leader
! Gender
! colspan=2 align=center | Agency/Entertainment
! Disbanded
! Notes
|-
! rowspan=12 | 2010
| align=center | [[The Boss (band)|The BOSS]]
| align=center | 대국남아 大國男兒
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Mika
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | Open World Entertainment
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[ZE:A]]
| align=center | 제국의아이들
| align=center | 9
| align=center | Moon Jun Young
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#696969 | [[Star Empire Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| 
|-
| align=center | [[F.Cuz]]
| align=center | 포커즈
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Jin On
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | CAN & J's Entertainment
| align=center |
| 
|-
| align=center | [[SISTAR]]
| align=center | 씨스타
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Hyorin
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Starship Entertainment
| align=center |
| Member Soyu was a candidate member for [[4minute]]
|-
| align=center | [[CNBLUE]]
| align=center | 씨엔블루
| align=center | 4
| align=center | [[Jung Yong Hwa]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|FNC Music]]
| align=center |
| Idol band
|-
| align=center | [[INFINITE (grou)|INFINITE]]
| align=center | 인피니트
| align=center | 7
| align=center | Sungkyu
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | Woolim Entertainment
| align=center |
| 
|-
| align=center | [[Teen Top]]
| align=center | 틴탑
| align=center | 6
| align=center | C.A.P
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | T.O.P Media
| align=center |
| 
|-
| align=center | [[miss A]]
| align=center | 미스에이
| align=center | 4
| align=center | —
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#4169E1 | [[JYP Entertainment]] AQ Entertainment
| align=center |
| Four member [[Korean]] and [[Chinese]] group
|-
| align=center | [[Girls' Day (group)|Girls' Day]]
| align=center | 걸스데이
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Sojin
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Dream Tea Entertainment
| align=center |
| Jisun and Ji-in withdrew; Yura and Hyeri were added
|-
| align=center | [[Nine Muses (group)|Nine Muses]]
| align=center | 나인뮤지스
| align=center | 9
| align=center | Rana
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#696969 | [[Star Empire Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| Jaekyung left the group to continue her modeling career; Hyuna was her replacement
|-
| align=center | [[Dalmatian (group)|Dalmatian]]
| align=center | 달마시안
| align=center | 6
| align=center | Inati
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | IS Entermedia Group
| align=center |
| Simon left before the group's original debut
|-
| align=center | [[Co-Ed School]]
| align=center | 남녀공학 男女共學
| align=center | 10
| align=center | Miso Sumi
| align=center | Co-ed
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|Core Contents Media]]
| align=center |
| Sumi left [[SeeYa]] to join Co-Ed School 
|}

==2000s==
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Debut
! Name
! Hangul/Hanja
! Number of members
! Leader
! Gender
! colspan=2 align=center | Agency/Entertainment
! Disbanded
! Notes
|-
! rowspan=10 | 2009
| align=center | [[Rainbow (Korean band)|Rainbow]]
| align=center | 레인보우
| align=center | 7
| align=center | Kim Jaekyung
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP Media]]
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[Secret (Korean band)|Secret]]
| align=center | 시크릿
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Hyo Sung
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | TS Entertainment
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[MBLAQ]]
| align=center | 엠블랙
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Seung Ho
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Rain (entertainer)|J. Tune Entertainment]]
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[Beast (South Korean band)|Beast/B2ST]]
| align=center | 비스트 B2ST
| align=center | 6
| align=center | Yoon Du Jun
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Cube Entertainment]]
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[f(x) (band)|f(x)]]
| align=center | 에프엑스
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[Victoria Song]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[T-ara]]
| align=center | 티아라
| align=center | 7
| align=center | Jeon Boram
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|Core Contents Media]]
| align=center |
| Originally to debut as a 5-member group with Ji-ae and Jiwon; however Boram, Qri, and Soyeon was added to debut as a 6-member group; it was announced in July 2010, that Boram will replace [[Ham Eun-jeong|Eunjung]] as the leader and Ryu Hwayoung will join to become a 7-member group
|-
| align=center | [[4minute]]
| align=center | 포미닛
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Nam Ji Hyun
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Cube Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| [[HyunA]] withdrew from [[Wonder Girls]] and later joined 4minute
|-
| align=center | [[2NE1]]
| align=center | 투애니원
| align=center | 4
| align=center | CL
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#000000 |[[YG Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| [[Hip-hop]] group
|-
| align=center | Jumper
| align=center | 점퍼
| align=center | 2
| align=center | Park Dongmin
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | T.O.P Media
| align=center |
| Debuted as a duo; 3 members to be added to form a 5-member group
|-
| align=center | [[After School (band)|After School]]
| align=center | 애프터스쿨|애프터 스쿨
| align=center | 8
| align=center | [[Kahi (entertainer)|Kahi]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Pledis Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| [[Uee]], Raina, Nana, and Lizzy was added to the group; Soyoung withdrew from the group
|-
! rowspan=6 | 2008
| align=center | [[U-KISS]]
| align=center | 유키스
| align=center | 7
| align=center | —
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | [[NH Media]]
| align=center |
| No leader<ref>{{ko icon}} MBC 라디오 《[[심심타파|신동, 김신영의 심심타파]]》. 2010-03-10 수요일 심야 방송.</ref>
|-
| align=center | A'st1
| align=center | 에이스타일
| align=center | 6
| align=center | Park Jungjin
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP Media]]
| align=center | 2009
|
|-
| align=center | [[2PM]]
| align=center | 투피엠
| align=center | 6
| align=center | —
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#4169E1 | [[JYP Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| In early 2010, leader [[Jaebeom]] withdrew from the group
|-
| align=center | [[2AM]]
| align=center | 투에이엠
| align=center | 4
| align=center | [[Jo Kwon]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#4169E1 | [[JYP Entertainment]] Big Hit Entertainment
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[SHINee]]
| align=center | 샤이니
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Onew
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[Davichi]]
| align=center | 다비치
| align=center | 2
| align=center | Lee Haeri
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|Core Contents Media]]
| align=center |
|
|-
! rowspan=7 | 2007
| align=center | [[Choshinsung|Choshinsung/Supernova]]
| align=center | 초신성 超新星
| align=center | 6
| align=center | Jung Yoon Hak
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C00000 | Maru Entertainment
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[Girls' Generation]]
| align=center | 소녀시대 少女時代
| align=center | 9
| align=center | [[Taeyeon]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[F.T. Island]]
| align=center | F.T 아일랜드
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[Choi Jong Hun]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|FNC Music]]
| align=center |
| Idol band, Oh Won Bin withdrew due to musical differences and Song Seung Hyun was added
|-
| align=center | [[Kara (band)|Kara]]
| align=center | 카라
| align=center | 5 
| align=center | Park Gyuri
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP Media]]
| align=center |
| Debuted as a 4-member group; Kim Sunghee withdrew from the group to focus on her studies and [[Goo Ha-ra]] and [[Kang Jiyoung]] was added to form a 5-member group
|-
| align=center | [[Wonder Girls]]
| align=center | 원더걸스|원더 걸스
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Sunye
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#4169E1 | [[JYP Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| [[HyunA]] (now a member of [[4minute]]) and [[Sunmi]] left the group; Yu-Bin and Hye-Rim (Lim) was added
|-
| align=center | [[Baby Vox Re.V]]
| align=center | 베이비 복스< 리브
| align=center | 5
| align=center |
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | DR Music
| align=center | 2008
| Remake group of [[Baby V.O.X]]; in 2007, Myung Sa Rang withdrew from the group to continue her studies in [[Singapore]]; in 2008, Oh Min Jin and Park So Ri was added; in 2009, Yang Eun Ji and An Jin Kyoung left the group; in 2010, An Jin Kyoung debuted as a solo artist
|-
| align=center | [[Black Pearl (Korena group)|Black Pearl]]
| align=center | 블랙펄
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Nami
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|Core Contents Media]]
| align=center |
| Member Mika withdrew from the group; Lee Jung Min was added
|-
! rowspan=5 | 2006
| align=center | [[Battle (Korean band)|Battle]]
| align=center | 배틀
| align=center | 5
| align=center |
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#00BFFF | [[Good Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| Originally a 6-member group chosen by [[Shinhwa]] during ''Shinhwa Battle''; Shin Ki-hyun left to pursue an acting career
|-
| align=center | [[Big Bang (Korean band)|Big Bang]]
| align=center | 빅뱅
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[G-Dragon]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#000000 | [[YG Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| [[Hip-hop]] group
|-
| align=center | [[Typhoon (Korean group)|Typhoon]]
| align=center | 타이푼
| align=center | 3
| align=center | [[Solbi]]
| align=center | Co-ed
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Trifecta Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2010
| In 2008, Solbi left the group and was replaced by Hana who withdrew from the group after 2 months; Typhoon officially disbanded in January 2010
|-
| align=center | [[SeeYa]]
| align=center | 씨야
| align=center | 2
| align=center | Lee Boram
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|Core Contents Media]]
| align=center |
| In 2009, leader [[Nam Gyuri]] left the group and was replaced by Lee Sumi; Lee Boram became the leader; Sumi was then withdrawn from SeeYa and became the leader of a 10-member mixed group [[Co-Ed School]]
|-
| align=center | [[Brown Eyed Girls]]
| align=center | 브라운 아이드 걸스
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Jea
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Nega Networks
| align=center |
|
|-
! rowspan=9 | 2005
| align=center | [[Super Junior]]
| align=center | 슈퍼주니어|슈퍼 주니어
| align=center | 13
| align=center | [[Lee Teuk]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| In 2006, [[Kyuhyun]] was added as the 13th member
|-
| align=center | [[i-13]]
| align=center | 아이써틴
| align=center | 13
| align=center | Lee Ji Eun
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Lime Entertainment
| align=center | 2006
| The first group in [[South Korea]] to have a record number of people; in 2009, Min-jung, Ji-eun and Ga-jin and formed a 3-member group called [[JQT]]
|-
| align=center | Red Sox
| align=center | 레드삭스|레드 삭스
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Chae Youngin
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2006
| 
|-
| align=center | Perfume
| align=center | 퍼퓸
| align=center | 3
| align=center | TiA
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2006
|
|-
| align=center | [[LPG (group)|LPG]]
| align=center | LPG
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Hanyoung
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Chan2 Productions
| align=center |
| In 2009, the second generation of LPG was formed; [[Trot (music)|trot]] group
|-
| rowspan=2 align=center | Soul Star
| rowspan=2 align=center | 소울 스타
| rowspan=2 align=center | 3
| rowspan=2 align=center | Lee Chang Geun
| rowspan=2 align=center | Male
| align=center style=background:#FF0000 width="100" |Sidus HQ
| width="40" | 2007–present
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center style=background:#000000 width="100" |[[YG Entertainment]]
| width="40" | 2005-06
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[SS501]]
| align=center | 더블에스오공일
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[Kim Hyun Joong]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP Media]]
| align=center |
|
|-
| align=center | [[The Grace (band)|The Grace]]
| align=center | 천상지희 더 그레이스 天上智喜 The Grace
| align=center | 4
| align=center | [[Dana (Korean singer)|Dana]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center |
|
|-
! rowspan=3 | 2004
| align=center | Heart
| align=center | 하트
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Jung Sorin
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2006
| 
|-
| align=center | [[TRAX (band)|TRAX]]
| align=center | 트랙스
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Typhoon
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| Rock band
|-
| align=center | Shyne
| align=center | 샤인
| align=center | 2
| align=center | —
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP Media]]
| align=center |
| Twin sisters duo
|-
! 2003
| align=center | [[TVXQ]]
| align=center | 동방신기 東方神起
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[U-Know|U-Know Yunho]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center |
|
|-
! rowspan=6 | 2002
| align=center | [[Isak N Jiyeon]]
| align=center | 이삭N지연
| align=center | 2
| align=center | Lee Jiyeon (now Lina of [[The Grace (band)|The Grace]])
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2004
|
|-
| align=center | [[LUV (Korean group)|LUV|]]
| align=center | 러브
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Eunbyul
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF0000 | Sidus HQ
| align=center | 2003
|
|-
| align=center | SWi.T
| align=center | 스위티
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Ahn Naeyoung
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#000000 | [[YG Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2004
| Originally a 4-member group 
|-
| align=center | [[Shinvi]]
| align=center | 신비
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Yoo Soo Jin
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2004
|
|-
| align=center | [[Black Beat]]
| align=center | 블랙 비트
| align=center | 7
| align=center | Lee So Min
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2006
|
|-
| align=center | [[Sugar (Korean band)|Sugar]]
| align=center | 슈가
| align=center | 4
| align=center | [[Hwang Jung Eum]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Star World Entertainment
| align=center | 2006
| In December 2004, Hwang Jung Eum withdrew from the group; in 2005, Lee Harin was added to the group; in 2006, Park Soo Jin withdrew from the group;
|-
! rowspan=6 | 2001
| align=center | [[jtL]]
| align=center | 제이티엘
| align=center | 3
| align=center | —
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Yejeon Media]]
| align=center | 2003
|
|-
| align=center | NAZCA
| align=center | 나스카
| align=center | 5+1
| align=center |  
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Unknown
| align=center | Unknown
| 
|
|-
| align=center | [[M.I.L.K]]
| align=center | 밀크
| align=center | 4
| align=center | [[Park Hee-bon]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2004
|
|-
| align=center | [[Kiss (Korean group)|KISS.]]
| align=center | 키스
| align=center | 3
| align=center |  
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | J-Entercom
| align=center | 2002
|
|-
| align=center | VoixCo
| align=center | 보이스코
| align=center | 4
| align=center |
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Jive Records
| align=center | 2003
| Some members became members of Swi.T
|-
| align=center | [[Jewelry (band)|Jewelry]]
| align=center | 쥬얼리
| align=center | 3
| align=center |
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#696969 | [[Star Empire Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| All original members including [[Park Jung Ah]] and [[Seo In Young]] has left the group
|-
! rowspan=5 | 2000
| align=center | To-Ya
| align=center | 투야
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Kim Ji Hye
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2001
| First debuted in [[Japan]]
|-
| align=center | [[Papaya (group)|Papaya]]
| align=center | 파파야
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Jo Hyekyung
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2001
| In 2001, Kang Kyung Ah and Hwang Yoon Mi left the group
|-
| align=center | Moon Child
| align=center | 문 차일드
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Lee Soo
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#C71585 | [[Mnet Media|GM Planning]]
| align=center |
| In 2002, they changed genre and renamed themselves [[MC the Max]] with 3 members
|-
| align=center | [[Chakra (band)|Chakra]]
| align=center | 샤크라
| align=center | 4
| align=center | [[Hwang Bo]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Kiss Entertainment
| align=center | 2006
| In 2002, Eani withdrew from the group
|-
| align=center | Ryanghyeonryangha
| align=center | 량현량하
| align=center | 2
| align=center | —
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#4169E1 | [[JYP Entertainment]]
| align=center |
| Twin brothers
|}

==1990s==
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Debut
! Name
! Hangul/Hanja
! Number of members
! Leader
! Gender
! colspan=2 align=center | Agency/Entertainment
! Disbanded
! Notes
|-
! rowspan=9 | 1999
| rowspan=2 align=center | [[Fly to the Sky]]
| rowspan=2 align=center | 플라이 투 더 스카이
| rowspan=2 align=center | 2
| rowspan=2 align=center | —
| rowspan=2 align=center | Male
| align=center style=background:# | [[PFull Entertainment]]
| 2005-09
| rowspan=2 align=center | 2009
| rowspan=2 | Temporary break
|-
| align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| 1999-04
|-
| align=center | [[As One]]
| align=center | 애즈 원
| align=center | 2
| align=center | —
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | DR Music
| align=center |  
| 
|-
| align=center | [[Click-B]]
| align=center | 클릭비
| align=center | 7
| align=center | Kim Tae Hyung
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP 미디어]]
| align=center | 2002
| 
|-
| align=center | [[T.T.MA]]
| align=center | 티티마
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Soy
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Music Factory
| align=center | 2002
| In 2000, Queena and Juhae withdrew from the group; Euni was recruited
|-
| align=center | See U
| align=center | 씨유
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Jini
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | DongA Planning
| align=center | 2000
| 
|-
| align=center | Cleo
| align=center | 클레오
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Kim Hana
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | Ho Entertainment
| align=center | 2004
| In 2000, Park Ye Eun withdrew and Han Hyun Jung was added; in 2003, Chae Eun Jung withdrew and Jung Ye Bin was added
|-
| align=center | O-24
| align=center | 오투포
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Lee Ga Hye
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2000
| During their first album, Ju Yeon Jung withdrew and the group promoted their follow-up singe "First Love" as a four member group; afterwards only 3 members were left
|-
| align=center | [[g.o.d.]]
| align=center | 지오디
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[Park Joon Hyung]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#4169E1 | [[JYP Entertainment]]
| align=center |  
| In 2005, member Yoon Kye Sang left the group
|-
! rowspan=9 | 1998
| align=center | [[1TYM]]
| align=center | 원타임
| align=center | 4
| align=center | Teddy Park
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#000000 | [[YG Entertainment]]
| align=center |  
| Hip-hop group
|-
| align=center | [[Koyote]]
| align=center | 코요태
| align=center | 3
| align=center | [[Shinji]]
| align=center | Co-Ed
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center |  
| 2000년 2집 활동 후 차승민이 탈퇴하면서 김종민을 영입하였고, 2002년 리더 김구 탈퇴 후, 김영완을 객원 멤버로 영입하였다. 2003년 OPPA 출신의 정명훈을 정식 멤버로 영입하였으나 2004년에 바로 탈퇴하였고, 대신 빽가를 영입하였다.
|-
| align=center | [[Sharp (Korean band)|S#arp]]
| align=center | 샵
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Jun
| align=center | Co-Ed
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2002
| 1998년 말 1집 Yes!로 데뷔. 후속곡 Lying 활동 때 래퍼 크리스 영입. 기존 5인조에서 6인조로 재 편성되지만 후속곡 활동 중간에 여성멤버 오희종 탈퇴. 1집 종료후 리더 존이 업타운 영입으로 탈퇴. 여성멤버 소리 영입. 2집부터 이지혜가 팀의 리더가 됨. 2집 종료 후 여성멤버 소리 탈퇴. 3집부터 5인체제에서 4인체제로 재정비 함. 2002년 5집 발표 후 활동을 하지만 여성멤버 불화로 공식 해체
|-
| align=center | Circle
| align=center | 써클
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Lee Ji Hyun
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2000
| 한•중•일 소녀들로 구성된 다국적 그룹. 1999년 말 일본인 멤버 아야꼬 탈퇴, 기존 5인조에서 4인조로 재정비함.
|-
| align=center | Han's Band
| align=center | 한스 밴드
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Kim Hanna
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center |  
| 친자매로 구성된 소녀 밴드
|-
| align=center | [[Fin.K.L.]]
| align=center | 핑클
| align=center | 4
| align=center | [[Lee Hyori]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP 미디어]]
| align=center |  
| 
|-
| rowspan=3 align=center | [[Shinhwa]]
| rowspan=3 align=center | 신화 神話
| rowspan=3 align=center | 6
| rowspan=3 align=center | [[Eric Mun]]
| rowspan=3 align=center | Male
| width="100" align=center |Open World Entertainment
| 2008-
| rowspan=3 align=center |
| <ref>뉴스엔 - 2008년 6월 기사 [http://www.newsen.com/news_view.php?uid=200806031310471002 "M 이민우 소속사, 6월부터 ‘신화’ 브랜드 상표권 보호 관리"]</ref><ref>노컷 뉴스 - 2008년 6월 기사 [http://www.cbs.co.kr/Nocut/Show.asp?IDX=843774 "‘신화’ 활동 이상 無…“멤버 간 의견차만 있었을 뿐”"]</ref><ref>[[이데일리]] - 2008년 7월 기사 [http://spn.edaily.co.kr/news/newspath.asp?newsid=01128326586472224 "옛 이름에 집착하는 스타들... 네이밍 마케팅의 허와 실"]</ref>
|-
| width="40" align=center style=background:#00BFFF | [[Good Entertainment]]
| 2003-07
| <ref>[[마이 데일리]] - 2007년 4월 기사 [http://www.mydaily.co.kr/news/read.html?newsid=200704021708481131 "신화, 소속사 대이동… 전진, 신혜성은 잔류"]</ref><ref>스포츠 칸 - 2007년 4월 기사 [http://sports.khan.co.kr/news/sk_index.html?cat=view&art_id=200704022138043&sec_id=540301 "‘신화’ 이민우 · 김동완 · 앤디, 소속사 이적, 솔로 활동 전념"]</ref>
|-
| align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| 1998-03
| <ref>http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=106&oid=001&aid=0000367160</ref><ref>http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=103&oid=001&aid=0000389657</ref>
|-
! rowspan=5 | 1997
| align=center | [[Baby V.O.X.]]
| align=center | 베이비 복스
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[Kim E-Z]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center | DR Music
| align=center | 2006
| Many members were replaced; In 2007, [[Baby V.O.X. Re.V]] was created with new members
|-
| align=center | [[S.E.S. (band)|S.E.S.]]
| align=center | 에스이에스
| align=center | 3
| align=center | [[바다 (가수)|바다]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2002
| 
|-
| align=center | [[NRG (group)|NRG]]
| align=center | 엔알지
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Lee SungJin
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center | Music Factory
| align=center |
| 2000년, [[김환성]]이 질병으로 목숨을 잃었고, 2005년, 문성훈이 탈퇴하여 3명이 되었다.
|-
| align=center | [[Diva (group)|Diva]]
| align=center | 디바
| align=center | 3
| align=center | [[Chae Ri Na]]
| align=center | Female
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2005
| [[룰라]] 출신의 [[채리나]]가 결성한 힙합 그룹. 1999년 지니가 영주권 문제로 임시 탈퇴를 하였고, 이민경을 새로 영입하였다. 2000년 리더 채리나가 탈퇴하였고 과거 임시 탈퇴했었던 지니가 복귀하였다.
|-
| align=center | [[Sechs Kies]]
| align=center | 젝스 키스
| align=center | 6
| align=center | [[Eun Ji Won]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FFA500 | [[DSP Media]]
| align=center | 2000
| In 2002, [[Jang Su Won]] and [[Kim Jae Duc]] formed [[J-Walk (Korean band)|J-Walk]]
|-
! rowspan=3 | 1996
| align=center | UP
| align=center | 유피
| align=center | 3
| align=center | Kang Hyun
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 1999
| 1997년, 리더 강현이 탈퇴하고 새 멤버 2명, 이정희, 박상후를 영입하여 4명이 되었다. 1998년, 두 번째 리더인 김용일이 탈퇴하고, 이켠을 새로 영입했다.
|-
| align=center | [[H.O.T.]]
| align=center | 에이치오티
| align=center | 5
| align=center | [[Moon Hee Jun]]
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center style=background:#FF69B4 | [[SM Entertainment]]
| align=center | 2001
| 장우혁, 토니, 이재원이 결성한 [[jtL|j.t.l.]]과 나머지 멤버들로 팀이 분리되었다.
|-
| align=center | Young Turks Club (Y.T.C.)
| align=center | 영 턱스 클럽
| align=center | 5
| align=center | Lim Sung Eun
| align=center | Male
| colspan=2 align=center |
| align=center | 2008
| 1집: 임성은,송진아,한현남,지준구,최승민. 2•3집: 송진아,한현남,지준구,최승민,박성현. 4집: 송진아,한현남,전현정,김덕현,남현준. 5집: 송진아,한현남,전현정. 6집: 송진아,한현남,지준구,최승민,박성현. 7•8집: 한현남,지준구,최승민,박성현.
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:South Korean musicians]]

[[ko:대한민국의 대중 음악 아이돌 그룹 연대표]]

Surrogate key

2010-10-30T17:03:16Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: zh:关系键

{{inline|date=July 2009}}
A '''surrogate key''' in a [[database]] is a unique identifier for either an ''entity'' in the modeled world or an ''object'' in the database. The surrogate key is ''not'' derived from application data.

== Definition ==

Two definitions of a surrogate appear in the literature:

; Surrogate (1) : This definition is based on that given by Hall, Owlett and Todd (1976). Here a surrogate represents an ''entity'' in the outside world. The surrogate is internally generated by the system but is nevertheless visible to the user or application.
; Surrogate (2) : This definition is based on that given by Wieringa and De Jonge (1991). Here a surrogate represents an ''object'' in the database itself. The surrogate is internally generated by the system and is invisible to the user or application.

The ''surrogate (1)'' definition defines its usage in the [[data model]] rather than the [[storage model]] and is used in this article. See Date (1998).

An important distinction exists between a surrogate and a primary key, depending on whether the database is a [[current database]] or a [[temporal database]]. A ''current database'' stores only ''currently'' valid data, therefore there is a one-to-one correspondence between a surrogate in the modelled world and the primary key of some object in the database; in this case the surrogate may be used as a primary key, resulting in the term ''surrogate key''. However, in a temporal database there is a many-to-one relationship between primary keys and the surrogate. Since there may be several objects in the database corresponding to a single surrogate, we cannot use the surrogate as a primary key; another attribute is required, in addition to the surrogate, to uniquely identify each object.

Although Hall et alia (1976) say nothing about this, ''other'' authors have argued that a surrogate should have the following

* the value is unique system-wide, hence never reused;
* the value is system generated;
* the value is not manipulable by the user or application;
* the value contains no semantic meaning;
* the value is not visible to the user or application;
* the value is not composed of several values from different domains.

== Surrogates in practice ==

In a [[current database]], the surrogate key can be the [[primary key]], generated by the [[database management system]] and ''not'' derived from any application data in the database. The only significance of the surrogate key is to act as the primary key. It is also possible that the surrogate key exists in addition to the database-generated uuid (for example, an HR number for each employee besides the UUID of each employee).

A surrogate key is frequently a sequential number (e.g. a [[Adaptive Server Enterprise|Sybase]] or [[Microsoft SQL Server|SQL Server]] "identity column", a [[PostgreSQL]] <code>serial</code>, an [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] <code>SEQUENCE</code> or a column defined with <code>AUTO_INCREMENT</code> in [[MySQL]]) but doesn't have to be. Having the key independent of all other columns insulates the database relationships from changes in data values or database design (making the database more [[agile software development|agile]]) and guarantees uniqueness.

In a [[temporal database]], it is necessary to distinguish between the surrogate key and the [[primary key]]. Typically, every row would have both a primary key and a surrogate key. The primary key identifies the unique row in the database, the surrogate key identifies the unique entity in the modelled world; these two keys are not the same. For example, table ''Staff'' may contain two rows for "John Smith", one row when he was employed between 1990 and 1999, another row when he was employed between 2001 and 2006. The surrogate key is identical (non-unique) in both rows however the primary key ''will'' be unique.

Some database designers use surrogate keys systematically regardless of the suitability of other [[candidate key]]s, while others will use a key already present in the data, if there is one.

A ''surrogate key'' may also be called

* synthetic key
* entity identifier
* system-generated key
* database sequence number
* factless key
* technical key
* arbitrary unique identifier

Some of these terms describe the way of ''generating'' new surrogate values rather than the ''nature'' of the surrogate concept.

Here are some possible candidates for generating surrogates:

* [[Universally Unique Identifier]]s (UUIDs)
* [[Globally Unique Identifier]]s (GUIDs)
* [[Object identifier|Object Identifier]]s (OIDs)
* [[Adaptive Server Enterprise|Sybase]] or [[Microsoft SQL Server|SQL Server]] identity column
* [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] <code>SEQUENCE</code>
* [[PostgreSQL]] serial
* [[MySQL]] <code>AUTO_INCREMENT</code>
* AutoNumber data type in [[Microsoft Access]]
* <code>AS IDENTITY GENERATED BY DEFAULT</code> in [[IBM DB2]]

==Surrogate Key Advantages==
===Immutability===

Surrogate keys do not change while the row exists. This has the following advantages:

* Applications cannot lose their reference to a row in the database (since the identifier never changes).
* The primary key data can always be modified, even with databases that do not support cascading updates across related [[foreign key]]s.

===Requirement Changes===

Attributes that uniquely identify an entity might change, which might invalidate the suitability of the natural, compound keys. Consider the following example:

:An employee's network user name is chosen as a natural key. Upon merging with another company, new employees must be inserted. Some of the new network user names create conflicts because their user names were generated independently (when the companies were separate).

In these cases, generally a new attribute must be added to the natural key (for example, an ''original_company'' column).
With a surrogate key, only the table that defines the surrogate key must be changed. With natural keys, all tables (and possibly other, related software) that use the natural key will have to change.

Some problem domains do not clearly identify a suitable natural key. Surrogate keys avoids choosing a natural key that might be incorrect.

===Performance===

Surrogate keys tend to be a compact data type, such as a four-byte integer. This allows the database to query the single key column faster than it could multiple columns. Further:

* A non-redundant distribution of keys causes the resulting [[b-tree]] index to be completely balanced.
* Surrogate keys are less expensive to join (fewer columns to compare) than [[compound key]]s.

===Compatibility===

While using several database application development systems, drivers, and [[object-relational mapping]] systems, such as [[Ruby on Rails]] or [[Hibernate (Java)]], it is much easier to use an integer or GUID surrogate keys for every table instead of natural keys in order to support database-system-agnostic operations and object-to-row mapping.

===Uniformity===

When having a uniform surrogate key on each and every table, some tasks can be easily automated for all the tables by writing the code in a table-independent way.

==Disadvantages of Surrogate Keys==
===Disassociation===

The values of generated surrogate keys have no relationship to the real-world ''meaning'' of the data held in a row. When inspecting a row holding a foreign key reference to another table using a surrogate key, the meaning of the surrogate key's row cannot be discerned from the key itself. Every foreign key must be joined to see the related data item. This can also make auditing more difficult,{{citation needed|date=October 2010}} as incorrect data is not obvious on inspection.

Surrogate keys are unnatural for data that is exported and shared. A particular difficulty is that tables from two otherwise identical schemas (for example, a test schema and a development schema) can hold records that are equivalent in a business sense, but have a different key due to how the keys were assigned. This can be mitigated not exporting surrogate keys, except as transient data (most obviously, in executing applications that have a "live" connection to the database).

===Query Optimization===

Relational databases assume a unique [[Index (database)|index]] is applied to a table's primary key. The unique index serves two purposes: 1) to enforce entity integrity—primary key data must be unique across rows—and 2) to quickly search for rows queried. Since surrogate keys replace a table's identifying attributes—the [[natural key]]—and since the identifying attributes are likely to be those queried, then the query optimizer is forced to perform a full table scan when fulfilling likely queries. The remedy to the full table scan is to apply indexes on the identifying attributes, or sets of them. Where such sets are themselves a [[candidate key]], the index can be a unique index.

These additional indexes, however, will take up disk space and slow down inserts and deletes. Choosing what sets of attributes shall be indexed can be something of an art. It depends on what queries are typically run against a database and often on knowledge of the "real world". A [[database administrator]] (DBA) will typically monitor the performance of a working database and take note of what queries are frequently run that trigger full table scans, and add indexes accordingly.

===Normalization===

The presence of a surrogate key can result in the database administrator forgetting to establish, or accidentally removing, a secondary unique index on the natural key of the table. Without a unique index on the natural key, duplicate rows can appear and once present can be difficult to identify.

Although applications accessing the database should be free of bugs and never attempt to create rows with duplicate natural keys, nevertheless properly maintained unique keys are a vital "last line of defense" against this type of data corruption. This is particularly the case where data is sometimes mutated by user-entered SQL. Of course, due to the very fact that a well-tested and bedded down application will not attempt to introduce duplicate keys, the absence of database constraints is often not immediately apparent as a problem.

Modern databases, however, can apply [[database trigger]]s to enforce unique constraints.

===Business Process Modeling===

Because surrogate keys are unnatural, flaws can appear when modeling the business requirements. Business requirements, relying on the natural key, then need to be translated to the surrogate key. A strategy is to draw a clear distinction between the logical model (in which surrogate keys do not appear) and the physical implementation of that model, to ensure that the logical model is correct and reasonably well normalised, and to ensure that the physical model is a correct implementation of the logical model.

===Inadvertent Disclosure===

Proprietary information can be leaked if sequential key generators are used. By subtracting a previously generated sequential key from a recently generated sequential key, one could learn the number of rows inserted during that time period. This could expose, for example, the number of transactions or new accounts per period. There are a few ways to overcome this problem:

* Increase the sequential number by a random amount.
* Generate a completely random primary key. However, to prevent duplication which would cause an insert rejection, a randomly generated primary key must either be queried (to check that it is not already in use), or the key must contain enough [[Information entropy|entropy]] that one can be confident that collisions will not happen.

===Inadvertent Assumptions===

Sequentially generated surrogate keys create the illusion that events with a higher primary key value occurred after events with a lower primary key value. This illusion would appear when an event is missed during the normal data entry process and is, instead, inserted after subsequent events were previously inserted. The solution to the inadvertent assumption problem is to generate a random primary key. However, a randomly generated primary key must be queried before assigned to prevent duplication and cause an insert rejection.

==See also==
* [[Natural key]]
* [[Object identifier]]

==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Nijssen
| first = G.M.
| title = Modelling in Data Base Management Systems
| publisher = North-Holland Pub. Co.
| date = 1976
| isbn = 0-7204-0459-2
}}
* Engles, R.W.: (1972), ''A Tutorial on Data-Base Organization'', Annual Review in Automatic Programming, Vol.7, Part 1, Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 1–64.
* [[Börje Langefors|Langefors, B]] (1968). ''Elementary Files and Elementary File Records'', Proceedings of File 68, an IFIP/IAG International Seminar on File Organisation, Amsterdam, November, pp. 89–96.
*[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.16.3195&rep=rep1&type=pdf The identification of objects and roles: Object identifiers revisited] by R. Wieringa and W. de Jonge (1991).
*[http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0201398141 Relational Database Writings 1994–1997] by C.J. Date (1998), Chapters 11 and 12.
* {{cite web
| last = Carter
| first = Breck
| title = Intelligent Versus Surrogate Keys
| url = http://www.bcarter.com/intsurr1.htm
| accessdate = 2006-12-03
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Richardson
| first = Lee
| title = Create Data Disaster: Avoid Unique Indexes – (Mistake 3 of 10)
| url = http://www.nearinfinity.com/blogs/page/lrichard?entry=create_data_disaster_avoid_unique
| accessdate = 2008-01-19
}}
* {{cite web
| last = Berkus
| first = Josh
| title = Database Soup: Primary Keyvil, Part I
| url = http://blogs.ittoolbox.com/database/soup/archives/primary-keyvil-part-i-7327
| accessdate = 2006-12-03
}}

{{Databases}}
{{FOLDOC}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Surrogate Key}}
[[Category:Data modeling]]

[[de:Surrogatschlüssel]]
[[ko:대체키]]
[[ru:Суррогатный ключ]]
[[zh:关系键]]

Kim Joon

2010-10-30T10:29:42Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:김준 (가수), vi:Kim Joon

{{Korean name|Kim}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| Name = Kim Joon 김준
| Img = Kj.jpg‎
| Img_capt =
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name = Kim Hyung Joon (김형준)
| Born = {{Birth date and age|1984|2|3}}
| Origin = [[South Korea]]
| Height = 183cm
| Genre = [[K-Pop]], [[J-Pop]], [[Pop music|Pop]]
| Occupation = [[Singer]], [[Actor]], [[model (person)|Model]]
| Years_active = 2007–Present
| Label = [http://www.planet905-tmax.com/ Planet905]
| Associated_acts = T-Max [[Boys Over Flowers (TV series)|Boys Over Flowers]]
| URL =
}}

{{Infobox Korean name
| title = [[Stage name]]
| color = khaki
| hangul = 김준
| hanja = 金俊
| rr = Gim Jun
| mr = Kim Jun or Kim Chun
| hangulborn = 김형준
| hanjaborn = 金亨俊
| rrborn = Gim Hyeong Jun
| mrborn = Kim Hyŏng Jun or Kim Hyŏng Chun
}}

'''Kim Joon''' (born '''Kim Hyung Joon''' on February 3, 1984 in [[Gwacheon]], [[Gyeonggi-do]], [[South Korea]]), is a South Korean rapper, actor and model, was recently put to stardom with his portrayal as Song Woo Bin, one of the famous F4 in [[Korean Broadcasting System|KBS2's]] 2009 hit drama [[Boys Over Flowers (TV Series)|Boys Over Flowers]].

==Career==
Prior to the F4 fame, Kim Joon was already known as a member of K-pop group T-Max<ref>[[:ko:티맥스 (음악 그룹)|T-Max wiki]] ''Korean wikipedia''</ref>, who first debuted in 2007. He is the rapper of the group and also writes the raps himself. Their song entitled "Paradise" was featured in the first edition of the Boys Over Flowers' soundtrack. Other songs of T-Max that were featured in the subsequent editions of the [[Boys Over Flowers (TV Series)|Boys Over Flowers]]' Original Soundtrack were "Say Yes," "Wish You're My Love","Fight The Bad Feeling," and "Bang Bang Boom." Kim Joon also had a single in the soundtrack entitled "To Empty Out" with Kim Jo Han. He also had his solo song "Jun Be O.K.", written by himself, with [[Kim Hyun Joong]] doing a cameo appearance in the MV of the said song.

In addition after Kim Joon's stardom, T-MAX took part of many OST for dramas and movies. Since April 2009, Kim Joon is a permanent cast of “Invincible Baseball Team”<ref>[[:ko:천하무적야구단|Invincible Baseball Team wiki]] ''Korean wikipedia''</ref>, a KBS 2TV program which airs during Saturday Challenges and was chosen as MVP for several weeks. On June 2009, he took part on the Mnet variety show "Mnet Scandal", a show where a celebrity will go out with a non-celebrity for a week. Aside from guesting on several variety shows, on July 2009, he took on a theatrical role in the musical Youthful March (젊음의 행진).

Kim Joon recently starred in a mobile drama titled Pygmalion’s Love<ref>[http://pre.beetv.jp/pages/kimiboku/ Pygmalion's Love official website ] ''BeeTV''</ref> , a joint Korea-Japan production broadcasted on Japanese Mobile TV station BeeTV, which reached #1 mobile drama in Japan and was shown last March 2010. On May 2010, T-MAX had their comeback stage with "Don’t Be Rude" which was also quite popular as a song for the World Cup. "Don’t Be Rude" was the first single from their studio album "Born To The Max". "Words That I Can Say" was the song they promoted as a follow up single, with Korean actors [[Oh Ji Ho]], [[Yoon So Yi]] & Kim Joon himself starring in the MV of the song.<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2cigEcbbr3w/ T-Max - Words That I Can Say ] ''Youtube'', 2010-05-28. Retrieved May 28, 2010.</ref>

He is expected to star on a new drama on the later half of 2010 or early 2011.

==Filmography==
===TV series===
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
| '''Year''' || '''Title'''|| '''Role''' || '''Network'''
|-
| 2009 ||'''[[Boys Before Flowers (TV series)|Boys Over Flowers]]''' || Song Woo Bin ||[[Korean Broadcasting System|KBS 2TV]]
|-
| 2010 ||'''[[Pygmalion’s Love]]''' || Hyung Joon ||[[BeeTV]]
|}

===Theater===
{| border="2" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
| '''Year''' || '''Title'''|| '''Role'''
|-
| 2009 ||'''[[Youthful March]]''' ||Student teacher
|}

==Endorsements==
*[[Samsung]] Anycall Haptic with [[Kim Bum]], [[Kim Hyun Joong]], [[Lee Min Ho]] and [[Son Dam Bi]] (2009)
*Omphalos with Gook Ji Yun (2009) and Park Ha Seon (2010)
*Wuttisak with T-MAX (2010)

==Education==
* [[Divinity High School]]<ref>[[:ko:신성고등학교|Divinity High School wiki]] ''Korean wikipedia''</ref>
* [[Hankuk University of Foreign Studies]], College of Natural Science, Biological Chemistry major<ref>[http://search.nate.com/search/all.html?nq=&s=&sc=&afc=&j=&q=%B1%E8%C1%D8&x=16&y=8/ NATE Profile search]</ref>

==Trivia==
*Height: 183 cm
*Star sign: Aquarius
*Blood type: O
*Hobbies: Online games, basketball, baseball, reading
*Skills: Snowboarding
*Nickname: Mr. Bean

==Albums==
*2007 Tmax Blooming (Single)
*2007 Tmax Lion Heart (Single)
*2008 Tmax Run To You (Single)
*2009 Tmax Single Collection (EP)
*2009 Tmax Love Parade (Single)
*2010 Tmax Born To The Max (regular)

==External links==
*[http://twitter.com/kj0203 Twitter]
*[http://people.naver.com/DetailView.nhn?id=57652 Profile Nate]
*[http://planet905-tmax.com T-MAX Official Website] (Korean)
*[http://www.glory-tmax.jp T-MAX Official Website] (Japanese)
*[http://cafe.naver.com/tmax Go!T-MAX]
*[http://cafe.daum.net/fbkj Serendipity]
*[http://cafe.daum.net/TMAXLOVE T-Max Daum]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Kim, Joon
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =February 3, 1984
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kim, Joon}}
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:K-pop singers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:South Korean male singers]]
[[Category:South Korean pop singers]]

[[ko:김준 (가수)]]
[[id:Kim Joon]]
[[vi:Kim Joon]]

Kigwancha Sports Club

2010-10-30T08:40:28Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:기관차체육단

{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Locomotive S.T. 기관차 |
image = [[File:LocomotiveSG.png|200px|Logo]] |
fullname = Locomotive Sports Team 기관차체육단|
nickname = |
founded = January, 1956<ref>http://www.kcna.co.jp/calendar/2006/02/02-03/2006-0202-012.html</ref>|
ground = [[Sinuiju Stadium]]|
capacity = 17,500|
chairman = |
manager = |
league = [[DPR Korea League]] |
season = [[DPR Korea League 2006 season|2006]] |
position = |
Shirtsupplier = |
Shirtsponsors = |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=FFFFFF|rightarm1=FFFFFF|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FFFFFF|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}
'''Locomotive S.T.''' ([[Chosongul|Chosŏn'gŭl]]: 기관차체육단; [[Hanja]]: 機關車體育團; ''Kigwancha''), known as '''Sinŭiju Locomotive''' is a [[North Korea]]n football club that plays in the city of [[Sinuiju|Sinŭiju]], the capital of the area [[North Pyongan|P'yŏngan-Bukto]]. It plays in the [[DPR Korea League]]. It won several championships in the late 1990s. The team plays at the [[Sinuiju Stadium]]. The club finished third in 2006 season<ref name=spex>{{cite web |url=http://www.kc-camapa.ru/cgi-bin/prntxt.cgi?20060830,1,1,,6323-6324,6323-6324 |title=Северные корейцы учат русский, стоят на голове и ждут документы с родины |accessdate=2006-10-29 |language=Russian |publisher=Спорт-Экспресс |last=Эпштейн |first=Арнольд }}</ref>

==Achievements==
*'''[[DPR Korea League]]: 5'''
:: 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000

==Known players (including former players)==

*{{flagicon|North Korea}} [[Lee Kwan-Myong]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DPR Korea League}}

[[Category:Association football clubs established in 1956]]
[[Category:North Korean football clubs]]
[[Category:Football in North Korea]]

{{NorthKorea-footyclub-stub}}

[[ca:Kigwancha Sports Group]]
[[ko:기관차체육단]]
[[nl:Lokomotiv Sinuiju]]
[[pt:Sinŭiju Locomotive]]
[[ru:Локомотив (футбольный клуб, Синыйчжу)]]
[[zh:新义州火车头足球俱乐部]]

Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile

2010-10-30T07:14:31Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: sk:Medzinárodná automobilová federácia

{{Redirect|FIA}}
{{Infobox Organization
|name = Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile
|image =
|image_border =
|size = 180px
|caption =
|map =
|msize =
|mcaption =
|abbreviation = FIA
|motto =
|formation = 20 June 1904 (as the AIACR)
|extinction =
|type = [[Sports federation]]
|status = [[Voluntary association]]
|purpose = [[Motorist]]s' issues [[Motorsports]]
|headquarters = {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Place de la Concorde]]
|location = [[Paris, France]]
|region_served = [[International]]
|membership = 222 member organisations worldwide
|language = English French Italian
|leader_title = President
|leader_name = {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Jean Todt]]
|main_organ = General Assembly
|parent_organization =
|affiliations = [[FIA Institute]] [[FIA Foundation]] [[World Health Organization]] [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] [[World Tourism Organization]] [[UN Environment Programme]]
|num_staff =
|num_volunteers=
|budget =
|website = [http://www.fia.com www.fia.com]
|remarks =
}}

The '''Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile''', commonly referred to as the '''FIA''', is a non-profit association established as the Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus (AIACR) on 20 June 1904 to represent the interests of motoring organisations and motor car users. To the general public, the FIA is mostly known as the governing body for many [[auto racing]] events.

Headquartered at [[Place de la Concorde|8, Place de la Concorde, Paris]], the FIA consists of 213 national member organisations in 125 countries worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fia.com/en-GB/the-fia/member-clubs/ |title=FIA Homepage - FIA Member Clubs |publisher=Fia.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-28}}</ref> Its current president is [[Jean Todt]].

As is the case with football's [[FIFA]], the FIA is generally known by its French name and acronym, even in non French-speaking countries, but is occasionally rendered as ''International Automobile Federation''.

Its most prominent role is in the licencing and arbitration of [[Formula One]] motor racing. The FIA along with the [[Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme|FIM]] also certify [[land speed record]] attempts.

==History==
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
The Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus (AIACR) was founded in Paris on 20 June 1904.

In 1922, the FIA delegated the organisation of automobile racing to the Commission Sportive Internationale (CSI), an autonomous committee that later became the [[Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile]] (FISA). A restructuring of the FIA in 1993 led to the disappearance of the FISA, putting motor racing under direct management of the FIA.

== Event history ==
{{Cleanup-section|date=October 2007}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2008}}

In 1946 the true history of [[Formula One]] began with the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's (FIA's) standardisation of rules.

In [[1950 Formula One season|1950]], the FIA organised the first World Championship for Drivers, known today as the [[Formula One]] World Championship for Drivers.

In 1953, the FIA created the [[World Sportscar Championship]], the first points series for [[sports car racing]] in the world. This championship, under various names, was solely for manufacturers up to and including 1980. From 1981, a Drivers' Championship title was also awarded and from 1985 the manufacturers' title was replaced by a Teams Championship. The last World Sportscar Championship titles were awarded in 1992.

In [[1973 Formula One season|1973]], the FIA organised the first World [[Rally racing|Rally]] Championship. The [[42nd Auto Rally of Monte-Carlo]] became the first ever FIA [[World Rally Championship]] event.

In [[1987 World Touring Car Championship|1987]], the FIA sanctioned the first [[World Touring Car Championship]]. Initially a one-off series, the title was revived in [[2005 World Touring Car Championship season|2005]].

In 1993, the [[National Hot Rod Association]] was officially recognised by the [[FIA World Motor Sport Council|FIA World Motorsports Council]] and the FIA Drag Racing Commission was formed. FISA was dissolved, and its activities placed directly under the FIA.

== Organisational structure ==
The FIA General Assembly is The Federation's supreme governing body, consisting of the presidents of the FIA's numerous member clubs.

The head of the FIA and chairman of the General Assembly is the President. The President is elected to a four-year term by the FIA General Assembly, and from October 2005 onward will not be permitted to serve more than two terms. The previous President, who took office in 1993 and began his fourth term in 2005, is [[Max Mosley]]. Mosley did not stand for re-election in October 2009, with Jean Todt being elected president.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/8116756.stm |title=F1 resolution found, says Mosley |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-06-24 |accessdate=2010-08-28}}</ref>

The 10-member FIA Senate consists the President of the Senate; the current and previous Presidents of the FIA; the Deputy President for the FIA Mobility and the Automobile group; the Deputy President for FIA Sport group; and five further members elected by the General Assembly. From FIA Statue #17: "The Senate takes the decisions required by the management of the FIA when circumstances do not permit a meeting of the Committee or of the World Councils, especially in cases of emergency; decisions thus taken must be confirmed during the next meeting of the Committee or of the relevant World Council."

The Senate also makes accounting and budget decisions, preparing draft budgets for the World Councils. The Senate forms sub-Committees on subjects such as Commercial Promotions, in order to make recommendations and review proposals.

The FIA World Council for Mobility and the Automobile governs all non-sporting FIA activities, and is headed by the Deputy President for Mobility and the Automobile.

The [[FIA World Motor Sport Council]] governs all the sporting events regulated by the FIA. It is also responsible for the promotion of safety in worldwide motorsport, the encouragement of standardized regulations, and the promotion of motorsport in new markets, including developing countries. The council consists of the FIA President, and Deputy President, seven FIA vice-presidents, and 17 other members. The seventeen others must represent a national sporting authority for at least one international event.

The FIA International Court of Appeal is the final appeal tribunal for international motor sport. It resolves disputes brought before it by any of motorsport’s National Sporting Authorities worldwide, or by the President of the FIA. It can also settle non-sporting disputes brought by national motoring organizations affiliated to the FIA.

Other organisations and posts include the Mobility and Automobile commissions, sporting commissions, the FIA Deputy President for Sport, and the FIA Secretariat.

==Presidents==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! President
! Years as president
|-
| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Jehan de Rohan-Chabot]]
| 1946–1958
|-
| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Hadelin de Liedekerke Beaufort]]
| 1958–1963
|-
| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Filippo Caracciolo di Castagneto]]
| 1963–1965
|-
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Wilfrid Andrews]]
| 1965–1971
|-
| {{flagicon|BEL}} [[Amaury de Merode]]
| 1971–1975
|-
| {{flagicon|GER}} [[Paul Metternich (FIA)|Paul Metternich]]
| 1975–1985
|-
| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Jean-Marie Balestre]]
| 1985–1993
|-
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Max Mosley]]
| 1993–2009
|-
| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Jean Todt]]
| 2009-''present''
|}

<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fia.com/public/fia_structure/pres_todt.html |title=FIA President - Jean Todt |publisher=Fia.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-28}}</ref>

== Current Deputy Presidents ==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Deputy President
|-
| {{flagicon|UK}} Graham Stoker
|-
| {{flagicon|NZ}} [[Brian Gibbons]]
|}

== Current Vice Presidents ==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Vice Presidents
|-
| {{flagicon|POR}} [[Carlos Barbosa]]
|-
| {{flagicon|ITA}} Franco Lucchesi
|-
| {{flagicon|SLO}} Danijel Starman
|-
| {{flagicon|PHI}} Gus Lagman
|-
| {{flagicon|MEX}} Ignacio Gonzalez Fausto
|-
| {{flagicon|PAR}} Victor Dumot Martinez
|-
| {{flagicon|ARG}} Jorge Rosales
|-
| {{flagicon|MEX}} Jose Abed
|-
| {{flagicon|MON}} [[Michel Boeri]]
|-
| {{flagicon|NZ}} Morrie Chandler
|-
| {{flagicon|ITA}} Enrico Gelpi
|-
| {{flagicon|ESP}} Carlos Gracia Fuertes
|-
| {{flagicon|UAE}} [[Mohammed Ben Sulayem]]
|-
| {{flagicon|TAN}} Surinder Thatthi
|}

== Current Committee Members ==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Committee Members
|-
| {{flagicon|GER}} Peter Meyer
|-
| {{flagicon|SWE}} Maria Spetz
|-
| {{flagicon|ESP}} Sebastià Salvadó
|-
| {{flagicon|SWE}} Lars Österlind
|-
| {{flagicon|AUT}} Werner Kraus
|-
| {{flagicon|SUI}} Niklaus Lundsgaard Hansen
|-
| {{flagicon|NED}} Guido van Woerkom
|-
| {{flagicon|BEL}} Thierry Willemarck
|-
| {{flagicon|AUS}} Mike Harris
|-
| {{flagicon|NZ}} Geoff Lange
|-
| {{flagicon|JPN}} Setsuo Tanaka
|-
| {{flagicon|SIN}} Bernard Tay
|-
| {{flagicon|USA}} Robert Darbelnet
|-
| {{flagicon|JAM}} Earl Jarrett
|-
| {{flagicon|CAN}} Tim Shearman
|-
| {{flagicon|PER}} Iván Dibós
|-
| {{flagicon|AUS}} Garry Connelly
|-
| {{flagicon|GRE}} Vassilis Despotopoulos
|-
| {{flagicon|POR}} Luis Pinto de Freitas
|-
| {{flagicon|CRO}} Zrinko Gregurek
|-
| {{flagicon|CHN}} Wan Heping
|-
| {{flagicon|URS}} Victor Kiryanov
|-
| {{flagicon|PAR}} Hugo Mersan
|-
| {{flagicon|CZE}} Radovan Novak
|-
| {{flagicon|VEN}} Vicenzo Spano
|-
| {{flagicon|SIN}} Teng Lip Tan
|}

<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fia.com |title=Federation Internationale de l'Automobile |publisher=Fia.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-28}}</ref>

==Criticism==
In June 1999, the EU commission opened an investigation in to the FIA over anti-competitive behaviour in the protection of FIA sanctioned series. A settlement was reached in June 2001<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52001XC0613(01):EN:HTML |title=52001XC0613(01) Notice published pursuant to Article 19(3) of Council Regulation No 17 concerning Cases COMP/35.163—Notification of FIA Regulations, COMP/36.638—Notification by FIA/FOA of agreements relating to the FIA Formula One World Championship, COMP/36.776—GTR/FIA ' other |publisher=Eur-lex.europa.eu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-28}}</ref>

[[Martin Brundle]] wrote a column in the ''[[Sunday Times]]'' entitled "Witch-hunt threatens to spoil world title race" in this he accused the FIA of a witch-hunt against [[McLaren (racing)|McLaren]]. The World Motor Sport Council has responded by issuing a writ against the Sunday Times on charges of libel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planet-f1.com/story/0,18954,3213_2956296,00.html |title=WMSC charges Sunday Times with libel |publisher=Planet-f1.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-28}}</ref> Brundle hit back saying that "I have earned the right to have an opinion" and suggesting the writ was a "warning sign to other journalists".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planet-f1.com/story/0,18954,3213_2956314,00.html |title=Brundle hits back at FIA |publisher=Planet-f1.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-28}}</ref> The [[2007 Formula One espionage controversy]] involved accusations of theft made against McLaren, who was accused of stealing technological secrets from Ferrari.

In 2008, accusations surfaced that FIA President Max Mosley was involved in scandalous sexual behavior. Following a June, 2008 decision of the FIA to retain Max Mosley as president, the German branch of the FIA, the [[ADAC]] (the largest European motoring body), announced, "We view with regret and incredulity the FIA general assembly's decision in Paris, confirming Max Mosley in office as FIA president." It froze all its activities with the FIA until Max Mosley leaves office.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/7430939.stm | work=BBC News | title=Mosley stays on as FIA president | date=3 June 2008 | accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> Press reports also claimed that [[Bernie Ecclestone]] was investigating creating a rival to the Formula 1 series due to the scandal.

On 24 June 2009, following a [[FIA–FOTA dispute|dispute]] between the FIA and the newly-created [[Formula One Teams Association]] (FOTA), the parties finally came to an agreement over the future of F1, part of which is that [[Max Mosley]] stepped down as FIA President in October 2009 and will not stand for re-election. A new [[Concorde Agreement]] was subsequently signed on 31 July.<ref>{{cite web|last=Beer|first=Matt|title=New Concorde Agreement finally signed|publisher=[[Haymarket Group|Haymarket Publications]]|work=autosport.com|url=http://www.autosport.com/news/report.php/id/77481|date=1 Aug. 2009|accessdate=2 Aug. 2009}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Commons category|Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile}}
*[[List of FIA events]]
*[[List of FIA member organisations]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Autosport]]: 26 July 2007- page 8-9. World Motor Sport Council.

==External links==
* [http://www.fia.com/ The FIA's official website]
* [http://www.fiafoundation.org/50by50/pages/homepage.aspx 50by50: Global Fuel Economy Initiative]
* [http://www.nndb.com/org/249/000169739 Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile] at [[Notable Names Database]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Federation Internationale De L'automobile}}
[[Category:Auto racing organizations]]
[[Category:FIA| ]]
[[Category:Formula One]]
[[Category:International nongovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:1904 establishments]]
[[Category:International sports federations]]

[[ar:الاتحاد الدولي للسيارات]]
[[ast:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[bg:Международна автомобилна федерация]]
[[ca:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní automobilová federace]]
[[de:Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile]]
[[es:Federación Internacional del Automóvil]]
[[fr:Fédération internationale de l'automobile]]
[[gl:Federación Internacional do Automóbil]]
[[ko:국제 자동차 연맹]]
[[hr:Međunarodna automobilistička federacija]]
[[id:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[it:Federazione Internazionale dell'Automobile]]
[[lv:Starptautiskā Automobiļu federācija]]
[[lt:Tarptautinė automobilių federacija]]
[[hu:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[mk:Меѓународна федерација за автомобилизам]]
[[ms:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[nl:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[ja:国際自動車連盟]]
[[no:Det internasjonale bilsportforbundet]]
[[pl:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[pt:Federação Internacional do Automóvel]]
[[ro:Federația Internațională de Automobilism]]
[[ru:Международная автомобильная федерация]]
[[sco:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[sq:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[simple:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná automobilová federácia]]
[[sl:FIA]]
[[sr:ФИА]]
[[fi:FIA]]
[[sv:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Otomobil Federasyonu]]
[[uk:Міжнародна Автомобільна Федерація]]
[[zh:国际汽车联合会]]

Kôzô Nakamura

2010-10-30T04:37:04Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ja:中村康三, ko:고조 나카무라

{{multiple issues|orphan =May 2010|primarysources =March 2008|expand =March 2008}}

'''''Kôzô Nakamura''''' (sometimes credited as '''Keizou Nakamura''') is a [[video game]] [[composer]], who created music for most of the [[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]] games between 1989-1994. His music has also been featured in the Guitar Freaks series of video games as well as Dance Dance Revolution Supernova.

==Soundtracks==
*''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'' ([[Arcade game|Arcade]]) - 1989
*''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Arcade Game]]'' ([[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]]) - 1989
*''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III: The Manhattan Project]]'' (NES) - 1990
*''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Turtles in Time'' (Arcade) - 1991
*''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles IV: Turtles in Time]]'' ([[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]]) - 1991
*''TMNT: The Hyperstone Heist'' ([[Sega Genesis]]) - 1992
*''[[TMNT: Tournament Fighters]]'' (Multiplatform) - 1993/94

==External links==
*{{imdb|0620175}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nakamura, Kozo}}
[[Category:Japanese composers]]
[[Category:Living people]]

[[ko:고조 나카무라]]
[[ja:中村康三]]

Dynasties of ancient Egypt

2010-10-30T04:01:29Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:고대 이집트 왕조 목록

{{Egyptian Dynasty list}}

This page lists articles on [[dynasty|dynasties]] of [[Ancient Egypt]].

See also: [[List of Pharaohs]] - [[Egyptian chronology]] - [[Conventional Egyptian chronology]]

==[[Predynastic Period of Egypt|Predynastic Period]]==
*[[Protodynastic Period of Egypt]]

==[[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]]==
*[[First dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Second dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]]==
*[[Third dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Fourth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Fifth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Sixth dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]]==
*[[Seventh dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Eighth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Ninth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Tenth dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]==
*[[Eleventh dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]]==
*[[Fourteenth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Sixteenth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Seventeenth dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]==
*[[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]]==
*[[Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt]]
**[[High Priests of Amun at Thebes]]
*[[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twenty-third dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twenty-fourth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[Late Period of Egypt|Late Period]]==
*[[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twenty-seventh dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twenty-eighth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Twenty-ninth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt]]
*[[Thirty-first dynasty of Egypt]]

==[[Graeco-Roman|Graeco-Roman Period]]==
*[[Ptolemaic dynasty]]
*[[Roman Empire]]
{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
__NOTOC__

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Ancient Egyptian Dynasties}}
[[Category:Ancient Egypt-related lists|Dynasties, List of Egyptian]]
[[Category:Dynasties of ancient Egypt| ]]

[[ko:고대 이집트 왕조 목록]]
[[arz:لستة العيلات المصريه القديمه]]
[[fi:Luettelo Egyptin dynastioista]]

Georgios

2010-10-30T03:12:29Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:게오르기오스

{{TOCright}}

'''Georgios''' (Γεώργιος) is derived from the Greek word {{polytonic|γεωργός}} (''georgos'', "farmer" lit. "earth-worker"). The word {{polytonic|γεωργός}} is a [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] of {{polytonic|γῆ}} (''ge'', "earth", "soil") and {{polytonic|ἔργον}} (''ergon'', "task", "undertaking", "work").<ref>G. Babiniotis, Lexicon of New Greek Language, Lexicology Centre, Athens (2002)</ref><ref>http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=George</ref> The English name [[George (given name)|"George"]] is derived from it.

'''Georgios''' may refer to:

== Places ==
*[[Georgios Karaiskakis (municipality)]]
*[[Georgios Kamaras Stadium]]

== People ==

A
*[[Georgios Alexopoulos]]
*[[Georgios Alogoskoufis]]
*[[Georgios Anatolakis]]
*[[Georgios Anninos]]
*[[Georgios Arvanitis]]
*[[Georgios Aspiotis]]
*[[Georgios Athanasiadis-Novas]]
*[[Georgios Averoff]]
*[[Georgios Avgerinos]]
B
*[[Georgios Balakakis]]
*[[Georgios Balanos]]
*[[Georgios Bouzianis]]
C
*[[Georgios Chrisafidis]]
*[[Georgios Christakis-Zografos]]
*[[Georgios Christodoulou]]
*[[Georgios Cyprius]] (variously known as Georgius Cuprios, Georgios Cyprios, Georgii Cyprii and George of Cyprus), Byzantine geographer of the early seventh century
D
*[[Georgios Delikaris]]
*[[Georgios Diamantis]]
*[[Georgios Diamantopoulos]]
E
*[[Georgios Eleftheriou]]
F
*[[Georgios Firos]]
*[[Georgios Fotakis]]
G
*[[Georgios Galitsios]]
*[[Georgios Gazis]]
*[[Georgios Gemistos]]
*[[Georgios Gennimatas]]
*[[Georgios Georgiadis]]
*[[Georgios Gougoulias]]
*[[Georgios Grigoriou]]
*[[Georgios Grivas]]
H
*[[Georgios Hakim]]
*[[Georgios Hamartolos]]
*[[Georgios Hatzianestis]]
*[[Georgios Helakis]]
I
*[[Georgios Iacovidis]]
*[[Georgios Iacovou]]
*[[Georgios Iatridis]]
J
*[[Georgios Jakobides]]
K
*[[Georgios Kafantaris]]
*[[Georgios Kalogiannidis]]
*[[Georgios Karagounis]]
*[[Georgios Karaiskakis]]
*[[Georgios Karatzaferis]]
*[[Georgios Karayiannis]]
*[[Georgios Kasassoglou]]
*[[Georgios Katsikogiannis]]
*[[Georgios Kedrenos]]
*[[Georgios Kintis]]
*[[Georgios Kiriopoulos]]
*[[Georgios Kolanis]]
*[[Georgios Kolettis]]
*[[Georgios Kolokithas]]
*[[Georgios Kolokoudias]]
*[[Georgios Koltsidas]]
*[[Georgios Koltzos]]
*[[Georgios Kondylis]]
*[[Georgios Konstantinou Katsimpales]]
*[[Georgios Korakakis]]
*[[Georgios Kostikos]]
*[[Georgios Koudas]]
*[[Georgios Kountouriotis]]
*[[Georgios Krestenitis]]
*[[Georgios Kyriazis]]
L
*[[Georgios Ladas]]
*[[Georgios Lassanis]]
M
*[[Georgios I of Makuria]]
*[[Georgios II of Makuria]]
*[[Georgios Mavromichalis]]
*[[Georgios Melas]]
*[[Georgios Michael]]
*[[Georgios Mitrophanovic]]
*[[Georgios Mitsibonas]]
*[[Georgios Mitzou]]
*[[Georgios Monachos]]
*[[Georgios Moraitinis]]
*[[Georgios Mylonas]]
O
*[[Georgios Orfanidis]]
*[[Georgios Orphanidis]]
P
*[[Georgios Paleologos]]
*[[Georgios Panagiotopoulos]]
*[[Georgios Kyriacos Panayiotou]] (born 1963), better known as George Michael
*[[Georgios Papadopoulos]]
*[[Georgios Papandreou (junior)]]
*[[Georgios Papandreou (senior)]]
*[[Georgios Papandreou (historian)]]
*[[Georgios Papanikolaou]]
*[[Georgios Papasideris]]
*[[Georgios Papastamkos]]
*[[Georgios Parakeimenos]]
*[[Georgios Paraschos]]
*[[Georgios Paraskevopoulos]]
*[[Georgios Plitsis]]
*[[Georgios Poulos]]
R
*[[Georgios Rallis]]
*[[Georgios Roubanis]]
*[[Georgios Roufos]]
S
*[[Georgios Sakellarios]]
*[[Georgios Samaras]]
*[[Georgios Saridakis]]
*[[Georgios Seitaridis]]
*[[Georgios Siantos]]
*[[Georgios Sikalias]]
*[[Georgios Simos]]
*[[Georgios Sisinis]]
*[[Georgios Skoutarides]]
*[[Georgios Souflias]]
*[[Georgios Stanotas]]
*[[Georgios Stefanopoulos]]
T
*[[Georgios Theodoridis]]
*[[Georgios Theodoridis (footballer)]]
*[[Georgios Grivas]]
*[[Georgios Theotokas]]
*[[Georgios Theotokis]]
*[[Georgios Toubalidis]]
*[[Georgios Tsaoussis]]
*[[Georgios Tsitas]]
*[[Georgios Tsolakoglou]]
V
*[[Georgios Vakouftsis]]
*[[Georgios Vasiliou]]
*[[Georgios Voulgarakis]]
Z
*[[Georgios Zoitakis]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== See also ==
*[[Giorgos]]

{{disambig}}
[[Category:Greek masculine given names]]

[[ko:게오르기오스]]
[[ja:ゲオルギオス]]

Alexey

2010-10-24T15:47:21Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: ca:Aleix, es:Alejo

{{merge|Alexis (given name)| discuss=Talk:Alexey#Merger proposal|date=February 2009}}

{{Infobox given name
| name = Alexey
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
| pronunciation= {{IPA-ru|ɐlikˈsʲej|lang}}
| gender = [[Male]]
| meaning = [[wiktionary:Defender|Defender]]
| region =
| origin = [[Russian language|Russian]], from [[Greek language|Greek]]
| related names = [[Alexis (disambiguation)|Alexis]], [[Alexius]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Alexey''' ({{lang-ru|Алексе́й}}) is a male [[first name]] of [[Eastern-European]] and [[East Slavic]] descent, and is pronounced {{IPA-ru|ɐlikˈsʲej|}}. It is sometimes [[Romanization of Russian|romanized]] as "Alexei", "Aleksei", "Aleksey", "Alexej", "Aleksej", etc.

It has been commonly westernized as [[Alexis (disambiguation)|Alexis]] or [[Alexius]].

Common [[hypocoristic]]s are Alyosha, Alyoshka, Alyoshenka, Lyosha, Lyoshka, Lyoha, Lyoshenka ({{lang|ru|Алёша, Алёшка, Алёшенька, Лёша, Лёшка, Лёха, Лёшенька}}), sometimes rendered as Alesha/Aleshenka in English.

==Persons known by first name Alexey==
*[[Alexei Ponikarovsky]], Ukrainian-Canadian professional ice hockey player for the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]]
*[[Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia|Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich]], the son of [[Nicholas II of Russia]]
*[[Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich of Russia|Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich]], the son of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I the Great of Russia]]
*[[Aleshenka]], a rumored alien found in Russia
*[[Aleksei (Russian convert to Judaism)]]
*[[Alexei Kulechov]] (born 1979), Russian volleyball player
*[[Alexey Andreevich Anselm]], Russian theoretical physicist
*[[Alexey Goloborodko]], Russian dancing contortionist
*[[Alexey Pajitnov]], inventor of the popular puzzle game, [[Tetris]]
*[[Alexey Rykov]], a Bolshevik revolutionary and Soviet politician
*[[Alyosha Karamazov|Alexey Karamazov]], a fictional character from Fyodor Dostoyevsky's [[The Brothers Karamazov]]
*[[Aleksey Kadochnikov]], developed the Russian martial art [[Systema]]
*[[Alexei Yagudin]], Russian figure skater
*[[Alexei Shirov]], chess Grandmaster
*[[Alexei Sayle]], English comedian and author
*[[Alexey Leonov]], pioneering Russian cosmonaut, first person to conduct a space walk
*[[Rhino (comics)|Aleksei Sytsevich]], fictional character in the [[Marvel universe]] better known as Rhino.
{{See also|Alexeyev|Alexeyevsky|Alexeyevka}}

{{given name}}

[[Category:Masculine given names]]
[[Category:Russian masculine given names]]

[[bg:Алексей]]
[[ca:Aleix]]
[[cs:Alexej]]
[[de:Alexei]]
[[es:Alejo]]
[[ko:알렉세이]]
[[it:Alessio]]
[[la:Alessio]]
[[nl:Aleksej]]
[[ja:アレクセイ]]
[[pl:Aleksy]]
[[ru:Алексей]]
[[scn:Alessiu (nomu)]]
[[sk:Alexej]]
[[sl:Aleksej]]
[[sr:Алексије]]
[[fi:Aleksi]]
[[sv:Aleksej]]
[[uk:Олексій (ім'я)]]
[[zh:阿列克谢]]

Anna of Russia

2010-10-24T14:43:46Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: mk:Ана Руска

{{Expand Russian|date=January 2009}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name =Anna
| succession =[[Empress and Autocrat of All the Russias]]
| image =Annaioannovnarussia1693-2.jpg
| caption =
| reign =30 January 1730 – 28 October 1740 ({{age in years and days|1730|1|30|1740|10|28}})
| coronation =28 April 1730
| spouse =[[Frederick Wilhelm, Duke of Courland]]
| predecessor =[[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]]
| successor =[[Ivan VI of Russia|Ivan VI]]
| house =[[House of Romanov]]
| father =[[Ivan V of Russia]]
| mother =[[Praskovia Saltykova]]
| date of birth ={{Birth date|1693|2|7|df=y}}
| place of birth =[[Moscow]]
| date of death ={{Death date and age|1740|10|28|1693|2|7|df=y}}
| place of death =
| date of burial =
| place of burial =
|}}
[[Image:Ministers Cabinet of of Empress Anna Ivanovna.PNG|266px|thumb|right|Ministers Cabinet of Empress Anna Ivanovna, painting by [[Valery Jacobi]]<ref>In Jacobi's ironic and critical historical pastiche, the thoroughly Frenchified ministers, their weaknesses symbolized by crutches and a rolling invalid's chair, are dominated by the absent presence of the Empress, through her empty seat at table and her shadowed portrait looming on the wall; at right a courtier behind the screen eavesdrops on the proceedings.</ref>]]
'''Anna Ivanovna''' ({{lang-ru|Анна Иоанновна, '''Anna Ioannovna'''}}) ({{OldStyleDate|7 February|1693|28 January}}, [[Moscow]] – {{OldStyleDate|28 October|1740|17 October}}) reigned as [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia|Duchess of Courland]] from 1711 to 1730 and as [[Tsarina|Empress]] of Russia from 1730 to 1740.

==Accession to the throne==
Anna was the daughter of [[Ivan V of Russia]], as well as the niece of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]. The latter married her to [[Frederick Wilhelm, Duke of Courland|Frederick Wilhelm]], [[Duke of Courland]] in November 1710, but on the return trip from [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]] in January 1711, her husband died. Anna continued ruling as Duchess of [[Courland]] (now western [[Latvia]]) from 1711 to 1730, with the Russian resident, [[Peter Bestuzhev]], as her adviser. She never remarried after the death of her husband, but was reputed by her enemies to have indulged in a love affair with [[Ernst Johann von Biron]] for many years.

On the death of [[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]], Emperor of Russia, the Russian [[Supreme Privy Council]] under Prince [[Galitzine#Dmitriy Mikhailovich Galitzine|Dmitri Galitzine]] made Anna Empress in 1730. They had hoped that she would feel indebted to the nobles for her unexpected fortune and remain a figurehead at best, and malleable at worst. In the hope of establishing a [[constitutional monarchy]] in Russia, they convinced her to sign articles that limited her power. However, these proved a minor inconvenience to her, and soon she established herself as an autocratic ruler, using her popularity with the [[Russian Imperial Guard|imperial guards]] and lesser nobility.

==Policies of her reign==
[[Image:Icehouse 1878.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''[[Ice palace|Wedding at the House of Ice]]'' (an 1878 painting) by [[Valery Jacobi]]]]
As one of her first acts to consolidate this power she restored the [[national security|security]] [[police]], which she used to intimidate and [[state terrorism|terrorize]] those who opposed her and her policies. Although she did not move the capital back to Moscow, she spent most of her time at that city in the company of her foolish and ignorant maids. Finding delight in humiliating old nobility, she arranged the marriage of old Prince [[Galitzine]], who had incurred her displeasure by marrying a Catholic, with one of her maids (after the death of his first wife), an elderly [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyk]], dressed them as clowns, and had them spend their wedding night naked in a specially constructed [[ice palace]] during the exceptionally harsh winter of 1739–40.<ref>Farquhar, Michael (2001). ''A Treasure of Royal Scandals'', p.39. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259.</ref>

Having a distrust of Russian nobles, Anna kept them from powerful positions, instead giving those to [[Baltic Germans]]. She raised to the throne of [[Courland]] one [[Ernst Johann von Biron]], who gained her particular favour and had considerable influence over her policies. His archrival, the anti-German cabinet minister [[Artemy Petrovich Volynsky]], was executed several months before Anna's death. Biron was sufficiently prudent not to meddle with foreign affairs or with the army, and these departments were in the able hands of two other foreigners, who thoroughly identified themselves with Russia, [[Andrey Osterman]] and [[Burkhardt Munnich]]. [[Image:Jesters_of_empress_Anna_Ioanovna_by_V.Jacobi_(1872).jpg|thumb|265px|Crude court entertainments of Empress Anna (an 1872 painting) by [[Valery Jacobi]]]]

They allied the country with [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], ([[Holy Roman Emperor]] from 1711 to 1740), and committed Russia during the [[War of the Polish Succession]] (1733–1735). Afterwards, they made [[Augustus III]] the king of [[Poland]] at the expense of [[Stanisław Leszczyński]] and other candidates. In 1736 Anna declared war on the [[Ottoman Empire]], but Charles made a separate peace with the [[Porte]], forcing Russia to follow suit and to give up all recently captured territories with the exception of [[Azov]]. This war marks the beginning of that systematic struggle on the part of Russia to drive to the South which was brought to fruition by [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]]. Anna's reign saw the beginnings of Russian territorial expansion into [[Central Asia]].

==Death and succession==
Anna was famed for her big cheek, "which, as shown in her portraits", [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]] says, "was comparable to a [[Westphalia]]n ham". As her health declined she declared her grandnephew, [[Ivan VI of Russia|Ivan VI]], should succeed her. This was an attempt to secure the line of her father, [[Ivan V]], and exclude descendants of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] from inheriting the throne.

Anna died at the age of 47 of [[kidney disease]]. [[Ivan VI of Russia|Ivan VI]] was only a one-year-old baby at the time and his mother, [[Anna Leopoldovna]], was detested for her German counselors and relations. As a consequence, shortly after Anna's death [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elizabeth Petrovna]], [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]]'s legitimized daughter, managed to gain the favor of the populace, locked Ivan VI in a dungeon and exiled his mother.

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel top|width=100%}}
{{ahnentafel-compact5
|style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%;
|border=1
|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Anna of Russia'''
|2= 2. [[Ivan V of Russia]]
|3= 3. [[Praskovia Saltykova]]
|4= 4. [[Alexis of Russia]]
|5= 5. [[Maria Miloslavskaya]]
|6= 6. Fyodor Petrovich Saltykov
|7= 7. Anna Mikhailovna Tatishcheva
|8= 8. [[Michael of Russia]]
|9= 9. [[Eudoxia Streshneva]]
|10= 10. [[Ilya Miloslavsky]]
|11=
|12= 12. Pyotr Saltykov
|13=
|14= 14. Mikhail Tatishchev
|15=
|16= 16. [[Patriarch Filaret (Feodor Romanov)|Feodor Romanov]]
|17= 17. [[Xenia Shestova]]
|18= 18. Lukyan Stepanovich Streshnyov
|19= 19. Anna Konstantinovna Volkonskaya
|20= 20. Danil Miloslavsky
|21=
|22=
|23=
|24=
|25=
|26=
|27=
|28=
|29=
|30=
|31=
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{{ahnentafel bottom}}

==See also==
*[[Tsars of Russia family tree]]

==External links==
* [http://academic.shu.edu/russianhistory/index.php/The_%22Conditions%22_of_Anna_Ivanovna%27s_Accession_to_the_Throne%2C_1730]
* ''Bayov Alexei Konstantinovich'' (1906) (in Russian). [http://new.runivers.ru/lib/book3317/ Russian army in the reign of Empress Anna Ivanovna. Russia's war with Turkey in 1736-1739gg.] (Русская армия в царствование императрицы Анны Иоанновны. Война России с Турцией в 1736-1739гг.) at [[Runivers.ru]] in [[Djvu]] format

==References==
<references />

{{start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Romanov]]|name=Anna of Russia}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Russian rulers|Empress of Russia]]|before=[[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]]|after=[[Ivan VI of Russia|Ivan VI]]|years= 29 January 1730– 28 October 1740}}
{{end box}}

{{Russian emperors}}
{{Tsarevna of Russia}}
{{Russian grand duchesses}}
{{Lists of Russians}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Anna of Russia
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ivanovna, Anna
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Empress of Russia
|DATE OF BIRTH= 7 February 1693
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Moscow
|DATE OF DEATH= 28 October 1740
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anna Of Russia}}
[[Category:1693 births]]
[[Category:1740 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Moscow]]
[[Category:Russian tsarevna]]
[[Category:Russian grand duchesses]][[Category:Russian empresses]]
[[Category:House of Romanov]]
[[Category:Orthodox monarchs]]
[[Category:Burials at Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg]]
[[Category:Empresses regnant]]
[[Category:Duchesses of Courland]]
[[Category:18th-century female rulers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint Andrew the First-Called]]



[[af:Anna van Rusland]]
[[ar:آنا إيفانوفنا إمبراطورة روسيا]]
[[ba:Анна Иоанновна]]
[[be:Анна Іаанаўна, імператрыца расійская]]
[[bs:Ana, carica Rusije]]
[[br:Anna Rusia]]
[[bg:Анна (Русия)]]
[[ca:Anna Ivanovna de Rússia]]
[[cs:Anna Ivanovna]]
[[cy:Anna, tsarina Rwsia]]
[[da:Anna Ivanovna af Rusland]]
[[de:Anna (Russland)]]
[[et:Anna Ivanovna]]
[[es:Ana de Rusia]]
[[eo:Anna Ivanovna]]
[[fr:Anne Ire de Russie]]
[[ga:Áine na Rúise]]
[[gl:Ana Ivanovna]]
[[ko:안나 이바노브나]]
[[hr:Ana, ruska carica]]
[[id:Anna dari Rusia]]
[[it:Anna di Russia]]
[[he:אנה, קיסרית רוסיה]]
[[ka:ანა (რუსეთი)]]
[[lv:Anna I Romanova]]
[[hu:Anna orosz cárnő]]
[[mk:Ана Руска]]
[[nl:Anna van Rusland]]
[[ja:アンナ (ロシア皇帝)]]
[[no:Anna av Russland]]
[[pl:Anna Iwanowna]]
[[pt:Ana da Rússia]]
[[ro:Ana a Rusiei]]
[[ru:Анна Иоанновна]]
[[sr:Ана I Ивановна]]
[[sh:Ana, ruska carica]]
[[fi:Anna (Venäjä)]]
[[sv:Anna Ivanovna]]
[[tr:Anna İvanovna]]
[[uk:Анна Іванівна]]
[[zh:安娜·伊凡诺芙娜·罗曼诺娃]]

Siege of Acre

2010-10-24T13:56:16Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: pl:Oblężenie Akki

The ancient city of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]]/[[Akko]] had withstood sieges a numerous times in its history.

*[[Siege of Acre (1104)]] - following the [[First Crusade]]
*[[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)]] – during the [[Third Crusade]]
*[[Siege of Acre (1291)]] – Fall of the final Crusader city in the Levant
*[[Siege of Acre (1799)]] – during the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]
*[[Siege of Acre (1821)]] – part of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] power struggles
*[[Siege of Acre (1832)]] – by [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Belagerung von Akkon]]
[[fr:Siège de Saint-Jean-d'Acre]]
[[ko:아크레 공방전]]
[[he:המצור על עכו]]
[[nl:Beleg van Akko]]
[[pl:Oblężenie Akki]]

Ayyubid dynasty

2010-10-24T13:23:18Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: eu:Aiubtar leinua

{{good article}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = ایوبیان الأيوبيون
|conventional_long_name = Ayyubid dynasty
|common_name = Ayyubid, Sacren, Arabs
|continent = Africa and Asia
|region = Middle East
|status = Empire
|government_type = Sultanate (Principality Confederation)
|year_start = 1171
|year_end = 1341
|p1 = Fatimid Caliphate
|flag_p1 = Fatimid flag.svg
|p2 = Zengid dynasty
|flag_p2 =
|s1 = Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)
|flag_s1 = Mameluke Flag.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Ayyubid Dynasty.svg
|image_map = AyyubidGreatest.png
|image_map_caption = Greatest extent of the Ayyubid Empire under [[Saladin]] in 1188
|capital = [[Cairo]] (1171-1174) [[Damascus]] (1174-1218) [[Cairo]] (1218-1250) [[Damascus]] (1250-1260) [[Hama]] (1260-1341)1
|common_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (official)
|religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
|currency = [[Dinar]]
|leader1 = [[Saladin]] (first)
|year_leader1 = 1174-1193
|leader2 = [[Al-Afdal Muhammad|Al-Afdal]] (last reported)
|year_leader2 = 1331-13411
|title_leader = [[Sultan]]
|stat_area1 =
|stat_year1 = 1190 est.
|stat_area1 = 3750000
|stat_year2 = 12th century
|stat_pop2 = 7,200,000 (estimate)2
|footnotes = 1A branch of the Ayyubid dynasty ruled Hisn Kayfa until the early 16th century. 2 The total population of the Ayyubid territories is unknown. This population figure only includes Egypt, Syria, northern Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan. Other Ayyubid territories, including Yemen, the Hejaz, Nubia, and eastern Libya are not included.
|today = {{flag|Egypt}} {{flag|Iraq}} {{flag|Israel}} {{flag|Jordan}} {{flag|Lebanon}} {{flag|Libya}} {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} {{flag|Sudan}} {{flag|Syria}} {{flag|Tunisia}} {{flag|Turkey}} {{flag|Yemen}}
}}

The '''Ayyubids''' ([[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]:ایوبیان, Eyûbiyan) were a [[Sunni Muslim]] dynasty of [[Kurds|Kurdish]] origin <ref name="IranicaAyyubids"/><ref>Özoğlu, Hakan, ''Kurdish notables and the Ottoman state'', (State University of New York, 2004), 46.</ref>, centered in [[Cairo]] and [[Damascus]] that ruled much of the [[Middle East]] during the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Ayyubid family, under the brothers [[Najm ad-Din Ayyub|Ayyub]] and [[Asad ad-Din Shirkuh|Shirkuh]], originally served as soldiers for the [[Zengid]]s until they gradually gained independence from them under [[Saladin]], Ayyub's son. In 1171, Saladin proclaimed himself sultan of Egypt after dissolving the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] upon the death of [[al-Adid]]. The Ayyubids spent the next decade launching conquests throughout the region and by 1183, the Ayyubid state included Egypt, [[Syria]], northern [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Hejaz]], [[Yemen]], and the [[North Africa]]n coast up to the borders of modern-day [[Tunisia]]. Most of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], consisting of [[Palestine]] and [[Transjordan]] fell to the Ayyubids after their victory at the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187. However, the [[Crusades|Crusader]]s regained control of Palestine's coastline in the 1190s.

After the death of Saladin, his sons contested control over the empire, but Saladin's brother [[al-Adil]] eventually established himself as sultan in 1200. In the 1230s, the Ayyubid rulers of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian sultan [[as-Salih Ayyub]] restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding [[Aleppo]], by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hejaz, and parts of Mesopotamia. After repelling a Crusader invasion of the [[Nile Delta]], as-Salih Ayyub's [[Mamluk]] generals overthrew [[al-Mu'azzam Turanshah]] who succeeded Ayyub after his death in 1250. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt and a number of attempts by the rulers of Syria, led by [[an-Nasir Yusuf]] of Aleppo, to recover it failed. In 1260, the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after. The Mamluks, who forced out the Mongols after the destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty, maintained the Ayyubid principality of [[Hama]] until deposing its last ruler in 1341.

During their relatively short-lived tenure, the Ayyubids ushered in an era of economic prosperity in the lands they ruled and the facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in the [[Islamic world]]. This period was also marked by an Ayyubid process of vigorously strengthening [[Sunni Muslim]] dominance in the region by constructing numerous ''[[madrasa]]s'' (meaning schools) in their major cities.

==History==
{{Kurds}}

===Origins===
The progenitor of the Ayyubid dynasty was [[Najm ad-Din Ayyub|Najm ad-Din Ayyub bin Shadhi]]. He belonged to a [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] tribe whose ancestors settled in the town of [[Dvin]], in northern [[Armenia]].<ref name="IranicaAyyubids">[http://www.iranica.com/articles/ayyubids R. S. Humphreys, "Ayyubids" in Encyclopedia Iranica]</ref> He was a member of the Rawadiya clan, part of the Hadhbaniya tribe. The Rawadiya were the dominant Kurdish group in the Dvin district. They were a member of the sedentary political-military elite of the town.<ref name="IranicaAyyubids"/>

Circumstances became unfavorable in Dvin when Turkish generals seized the town from its Kurdish prince. Shadhi left for [[Iraq]] with his two sons Najm al-Din Ayyub and Asad al-Din Shirkuh.<ref name="IranicaAyyubids"/> He was welcomed by his friend [[Bihruz|Mujahed al-Din Bihruz]]—the military governor of northern Mesopotamia under the [[Seljuks]]—who appointed Shadhi as the governor of [[Tikrit]]. After Shadhi's death, Ayyub succeeded him in governance of the city with the assistance of his brother [[Shirkuh|Asad ad-Din Shirkuh]]. Together they managed the affairs of the city well, gaining them popularity from the local inhabitants.<ref name="Ali27">Ali, 1996, p.27.</ref> In the meantime, [[Zangi|Imad ad-Din Zangi]], the ruler of [[Mosul]], was defeated by the forces of the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]]s under [[al-Mustarshid]] and the forces of Bihruz. In his bid to escape the battlefield to Mosul via Tikrit, Zangi took shelter with Ayyub and sought his assistance in this task. Ayyub complied and provided Zangi and his companions boats to cross the [[Tigris]] to safely reach Mosul.<ref name="Ali28">Ali, 1996, p.28.</ref>

As a consequence for assisting Zangi, Ayyub was put to task by the Abbasid authorities, and simultaneously, in another incident, Shirkuh killed a close confidant of Bihruz on charges that he sexually assaulted a woman in Tikrit. Both Ayyub and Shirkuh were issued arrest warrants by the Abbasid court, but before they could be arrested they left Tikrit for Mosul in 1138.<ref name="Ali28"/> When they arrived there, Zangi provided them with all the facilities they needed and he recruited the brothers into his service. Ayyub was made commander of [[Ba'albek]] and Shirkuh entered the service of Zangi's son, [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur ad-Din]]. According to historian Abdul Ali, it was under the care and patronage of Zangi, that the Ayyubid family rose into prominence.<ref name="Ali28"/>

===Establishment in Egypt===
{{See also|Saladin in Egypt}}
In 1164, Nur al-Din sent Shirkuh to head an expeditionary force to prevent [[Crusades|Crusader]] dominance of an increasingly anarchical [[Egypt]]. Shirkuh, enlisted Ayyub's son, [[Saladin]], as an officer under his command.<ref name="Shillington">Shillington, 2005, p.438.</ref> They successfully drove out Dirgham, the vizier of Egypt, and reinstated his predecessor [[Shawar]]. After being reinstated, Shawar ordered Shirkuh to withdraw his forces from Egypt, but Shirkuh refused, claiming it was Nur al-Din's will.<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, p.8.</ref> For several years, the Shirkuh and Saladin would defeat the combined forces of the Crusaders and Shawar's troops, first at [[Bilbais]], then a site near [[Giza]], and [[Alexandria]] where Saladin would stay to protect while Shirkuh pursued Crusader forces in [[Lower Egypt]].<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, p.14.</ref>

Shawar died in 1169 and Shirkuh became vizier, but he too died later that year.<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, p.25.</ref> After Shirkuh's death, Saladin was appointed vizier by the [[Fatimid]] caliph [[al-Adid]] because there was "no one weaker or younger" than him, and "not one of the [[emir]]s obeyed him or served him" according to chronicler [[Ibn al-Athir]].<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, p.28.</ref> Saladin soon found himself being more independent than ever before in his career, much to the dismay of Nur al-Din who attempted to influence events in Egypt. He allowed for Saladin's elder brother [[Turan-Shah]] to supervise Saladin in order to cause dissension within the Ayyubid family, undermining its position in Egypt. Nur al-Din satisfied Saladin's request that he be joined by his father Ayyub. However, he was sent primarily to ensure that Abbasid suzerainty was proclaimed in Egypt which Saladin was reluctant to undertake since he was the vizier of the Fatimids. Although Nur al-Din failed to provoke the Ayyubids into rivalry, the extended Ayyubid family was not entirely behind Saladin, particularly a number of local governors in Syria.<ref>Lev, 1999, pp.96-97.</ref>

Saladin consolidated his control in Egypt after ordering Turan-Shah to put down a revolt in [[Cairo]] staged by the Fatimid army's 50,000-strong [[Sudanese]] regiments. After this success, Saladin began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the country and increased Sunni influence in Cairo by ordering the construction of a college for the [[Maliki]] branch of [[Sunni Islam]] in the city, as well as one for the [[Shafi'i]] denomination to which he belonged in [[al-Fustat]].<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, p.41.</ref> In 1171, al-Adid died and Saladin soon switched Egypt's allegiance to the [[Baghdad]]-based Abbasid Caliphate.<ref name="Shillington"/>

===Expansion===
====Conquest of North Africa and Nubia====
Saladin went to Alexandria in 1171-72 and was troubled by having many followers in the city, but little money. A family council was held there by the Ayyubid emirs of Egypt where it was decided that [[Al-Muzaffar Umar|al-Muzaffar Taqi al-Din Umar]], Saladin's nephew, would launch an expedition to the coastal region of [[Barqa]] ([[Cyrenaica]]) with a force of 500 cavalry. In order to justify the raid, a letter was sent to the [[Bedouin]] tribes of Barqa, rebuking them for the robberies of travelers and requiring them to pay the alms-tax (''[[zakat]]''). The latter was to be collected from their livestock.<ref name="Lev101">Lev, 1999, p.101.</ref>

In late 1172, [[Aswan]] was besieged by former Fatimid soldiers from [[Nubia]] and the governor of the city, Kanz al-Dawla—himself a former Fatimid loyalist—requested reinforcements from Saladin who complied with the request. The reinforcements had come after the Nubians departed, but under Turan-Shah they advanced and conquered northern Nubia after capturing the town of [[Qasr Ibrim|Ibrim]]. Ibrim was given to Turan-Shah and he and his Kurdish soldiers temporarily resided there. From Ibrim, they raided the surrounding region, halting their operations after being presented with an armistice from the king of Nubia based in [[Old Dongola|Dongola]]. Although Turan-Shah's initial response was militant, he later sent an envoy to Dongola who upon returning described the poverty of Nubia and the city itself. The Ayyubids required Nubia to guarantee the protection of Aswan and [[Upper Egypt]], but like their Fatimid predecessors, were discouraged from further expansion by the poverty of the region.<ref>Lev, 1999, p.100.</ref> In 1174, Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush, a commander under Taqi al-Din Umar, conquered [[Tripoli]] from the [[Normans]] with an army of [[Turkish people|Turks]] and Bedouins.<ref name="Lev101"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1894|p=75}}</ref>

====Conquest of Arabia====
In 1173, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer [[Yemen]] and the [[Hejaz]]. Muslim writers Ibn al-Athir and later [[al-Maqrizi]] wrote that the reasoning behind the conquest of Yemen was an Ayyubid fear, that should Egypt fall to Nur al-Din, they could seek refuge in a faraway territory. In May 1174, Turan-Shah first conquered [[Zabid]] from a [[Kharijites|Kharijite]] dynasty and executed its leader Mahdi Abd al-Nabi and later that year [[Aden]] was taken from the Shia Banu Karam tribe.<ref name="HandW884">Houtsma and Weinsinck, 1993, p.884.</ref> Aden became the principal maritime port of the dynasty in the [[Indian Ocean]] and the principal city of Yemen. The advent of the Ayyubids marked the beginning of a period of renewed prosperity in the city which saw the improvement of its commercial infrastructure, the establishment of new institutions, and the minting of its own coins.<ref>Margariti, 2007, p.29.</ref>

Turan-Shah drove out the [[Hamdanid]] rulers of [[Sana'a]], conquering the mountainous city in 1175.<ref name="HandW884"/> With the conquest of Yemen, the Ayyubids developed a coastal fleet, ''al-asakir al-bahriyya'', which they used to guard the sea coasts under their control and protect them from pirate raids.<ref>Abu-Lughod, Dumper, and Stanley, 2006, p.10.</ref> The conquest held great significance for Yemen because the Ayyubids managed to unite the previous three independent states (Zabid, Aden, and Sana'a) under their rule. However, when Turan-Shah was transferred from his governor post in Yemen in 1176, uprisings broke out in the territory and were not quelled until 1182 when Saladin assigned his other brother Tughtekin Sayf al-Islam as governor of Yemen.<ref name="HandW884"/>

From Yemen, as from Egypt, the Ayyubids aimed to dominate the [[Red Sea]] trade routes which Egypt depended on and so sought to tighten their grip on the Hejaz, where an important trade stop, [[Yanbu]], was located.<ref name="Salibi55"/> To favor trade in the direction of the Red Sea, the Ayyubids built facilities along the Red Sea-[[Indian Ocean]] trade routes to accompany merchants.<ref name="DandP217">Daly and Petry, 1998, pp.217-218.</ref> The Ayyubids also aspired to back their claims of legitimacy within the Caliphate by holding sovereignty over [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].<ref name="Salibi55">Salibi, 1998, p.55.</ref> The conquests and economic advancements undertaken by Saladin effectively established Egypt's hegemony in the region.<ref name="DandP217"/>

====Conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia====
[[File:Saladin2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Saladin]] founded the Ayyubid dynasty which reached its height under his reign]]

Although still a vassal of Nur al-Din, Saladin took an increasingly independent foreign policy, becoming openly so after the death of Nur al-Din in 1174.<ref name="Shillington"/> He set out to conquer Syria from the Zengids and on November 23, he was welcomed in [[Damascus]] by the governor of the city. By 1175, he had taken control of [[Hama]] and [[Homs]], but failed to take [[Aleppo]] in a siege.<ref name="LP141"/> Control of Homs was handed to the descendants of Shirkuh in 1179 and while Hama was given to Saladin's nephew, Taqi al-Din Umar.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1894|p=76}}</ref> Saladin's successes alarmed Saif al-Din of [[Mosul]], the current head of the [[Zengid]]s at the time, who regarded Syria as his family's estate and was angered that it was being usurped by a former servant of Nur al-Din. He mustered an army to face Saladin near Hama. Although heavily outnumbered, Saladin and his veteran soldiers decisively defeated the Zengids.<ref name="LP141">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=141}}</ref> After his victory, he proclaimed himself king and suppressed the name of [[as-Salih Ismail al-Malik]] (Nur al-Din's adolescent son) in [[Friday prayers]] and Islamic coinage, replacing it with his own name. The Abbasid caliph, [[al-Mustadi]], graciously welcomed Saladin's assumption of power and gave him the title of "Sultan of Egypt and Syria".<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=142–146}}</ref>

In the spring of 1176, another major confrontation occurred between the Zengids and the Ayyubids, this time at the Sultan's Mound, {{km to mi|15}} from Aleppo. Saladin again emerged victorious, but Saif al-Din managed to narrowly escape. The Ayyubids proceeded to take other Syrian cities in the north, namely [[Ma'arat al-Numan]], [[A'zaz]], Buza'a, and [[Manbij]], but failed to capture Aleppo after a second siege. An agreement was laid out, however, whereby Gumushtigin, the governor of Aleppo, and his Muslim allies at [[Hisn Kayfa]] and [[Mardin]] would recognize Saladin as the sovereign of his dominions in Syria while Saladin allowed for Gumushtigin and as-Salih to continue their rule of Aleppo.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=146–148}}</ref>

While Saladin was in Syria, his brother [[al-Adil]] ruled Egypt,<ref>Lev, 1999, p.22.</ref> and in 1174-75, Kanz al-Dawla of Aswan revolted against the Ayyubids with the intention of restoring Fatimid rule. His main backers were the local Bedouins and Nubians, but he also enjoyed the support of a multitude of other groups, including the [[Armenians|Armenian Christian]]s. Coincidental or even in coordination, was an uprising by Abbas ibn Shadi who overran [[Qus]] along the [[Nile River]] in central Egypt. Both rebellions were crushed by al-Adil.<ref>Lev, 1999, pp.100-101.</ref> For the rest of that year and in throughout early 1176, Qaraqush continued his raids in western [[North Africa]], bringing the Ayyubids into conflict with the [[Almohad]]s who ruled the [[Maghreb]].<ref name="Lev101"/>

In 1177, Saladin led a force of some 26,000 soldiers according to [[William of Tyre]] into southern [[Palestine]] after hearing that most of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]'s soldiers were besieging [[Harim]] north of Aleppo. Suddenly attacked by the [[Knights Templar|Templar]]s under [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]] near [[Ramla]], the Ayyubid army was defeated at the [[Battle of Montgisard]], with the majority its troops being killed. Saladin encamped at Homs the following year and a few skirmishes between his forces under Farrukh-Shah and the Crusaders occurred.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=155–156}}</ref> Undeterred, Saladin invaded the Crusader states from the west and won a victory over Baldwin at the [[Battle of Marj Ayyun]] in 1179. The following year, he destroyed the newly built Crusader castle of Chastellet at the [[Battle of Jacob's Ford]]. In the campaign of 1182, he sparred with Baldwin again in the inconclusive [[Battle of Belvoir Castle (1182)|Battle of Belvoir Castle]] in [[Kawkab al-Hawa]].<ref>Smail, pp.35–36.</ref> The ''[[na'ib]]'' ("deputy governor") of Yemen, Uthman al-Zandjili, conquered the greater part of [[Hadramaut]] in 1180, upon Turan-Shah's departure to Yemen.<ref name="Brice"/>

In May 1182, Saladin finally captured Aleppo after a brief siege. The new governor of the city, Imad al-Din Zangi II, was unpopular with his subjects and surrendered Aleppo after Saladin agreed to restore his previous control over [[Sinjar]], [[ar-Raqqah]], and [[Nusaybin]]—which would act as vassal territories under the Ayyubids.<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, p.195.</ref> Aleppo formally entered Ayyubid hands on June 12. The day after, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held [[Antioch]] and took hold of the city when its garrison forced out their leader, Surhak, who was then briefly detained and released by Taqi al-Din Umar.<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, pp.202-203.</ref> The surrender of Aleppo and Saladin's allegiance with Zangi had left Izz al-Din al-Mas'ud of Mosul the only major Muslim rival of the Ayyubids in the [[Middle East]]. Mosul had been subjected to a short siege in the autumn of 1182, but after mediation by the Abbasid caliph [[an-Nasir]], Saladin withdrew his forces. Mas'ud attempted to align himself with the [[Artuqid]]s of Mardin, but they became allies of Saladin instead. In 1183, [[Irbil]] too switched allegiance to the Ayyubids. Mas'ud then sought the support of Pahlawan bin Muhammad, the governor of [[Azerbaijan]], and although he did not usually intervene in the region, the possibility of it induced Saladin to be cautious about attacking Mosul.<ref name="GandB">Gibb and Bosworth, 1989, p.781.</ref>

An arrangement was made where al-Adil was to administer Aleppo in the name of Saladin's son [[al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|al-Afdal]], while Egypt was given to Taqi al-Din Umar who would hold it in the name of Saladin's other son [[al-Aziz Uthman|Uthman]]. When the two sons were to come of age they would assume power in the two territories, but if any died, one of Saladin's brothers would take their place.<ref>Lyons and Jackson, 1984, p.221.</ref> In the summer of 1183, after ravaging the eastern [[Galilee]], Saladin's raids there culminated in the [[Battle of Al-Fule (1183)|Battle of al-Fule]] in the [[Jezreel Valley]] between him and the Crusaders under [[Guy of Lusignan]]. The mostly hand-to-hand fighting ended indecisively. The two armies withdrew to a mile from each other and while the Crusaders discussed internal matters, Saladin captured the [[Golan Heights]], cutting the Crusaders off from their main supplies source. In October 1183 and then in August 13, 1184, Saladin and al-Adil besieged [[Al Karak|Karak]], but to no avail. Afterward, the Ayyubids raided [[Samaria]], burning down [[Nablus]]. Saladin returned to Damascus in September 1184 and there was generally peaceful environment between the Crusader states and the Ayyubid empire in 1184-85.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=177–181}}</ref>

Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185, hoping for an easy victory over a presumably demoralized Mas'ud, but failed due to city's unexpectedly tough resistance and a serious illness which caused him to withdraw to [[Harran]]. Upon Abbasid encouragement, Saladin and Mas'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul, but they would be obligated to supply the Ayyubids with military aid when demanded.<ref name="GandB"/>

====Conquest of Palestine and Transjordan====
[[File:Hattin.jpg|thumb|right|Virtually the entire [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] passed into Ayyubid hands after their victory against the [[Crusader]]s in the [[Battle of Hattin]] in 1187]]
Saladin besieged [[Tiberias]] in the eastern Galilee on July 3, 1187 and the Crusader army attempted to attack the Ayyubids by way of [[Kafr Kanna]]. After hearing of the Crusader march, Saladin led his guard back to their main camp at [[Kafr Sabt]], leaving a small detachment at Tiberias. Saladin with a clear view of the Crusader army ordered Taqi al-Din Umar to block them from entering [[Hittin|Hattin]] by taking a position near [[Lubya]], while Gokbori and his troops were stationed at the hill near [[al-Shajara]]. On July 4, the Crusaders advanced toward the Horns of Hattin and charged against the Muslim forces, but were overwhelmed and defeated decisively. Four days after the battle, Saladin invited al-Adil to join him in the reconquest of [[Palestine]]. On July 8, [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] was captured by Saladin, while his brigades seized [[Nazareth]] and [[Saffuriya]]; others took [[Haifa]] and [[Caesarea]], and another Ayyubid detachment took [[Sebastia, Nablus|Sebastia]] and Nablus, while al-Adil conquered [[Mirabel]] and [[Jaffa]]. On July 26, Saladin returned to the coast, and next received the surrender of [[Sarepta]], [[Sidon]], [[Beirut]], and [[Jableh]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=219}}</ref> In August, the Ayyubids conquered [[Ramla]], [[Deir al-Balah|Darum]], [[Gaza]], [[Bayt Jibrin]], and [[Latrun]]. [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]] was taken on September 4.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=223}}</ref> In September–October 1187, the Ayyubids [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|besieged Jerusalem]], taking possession of it on October 2 after negotiations with Balian of Ibelin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=230}}</ref>

Karak and [[Montreal (Crusader castle)|Mont Real]] in [[Oultrejordain]] soon fell, followed by [[Safad]] in the Galilee. By the end of that year the Ayyubids were in control of virtually the entire Crusader kingdom in the [[Levant]] with the exception of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], which held out under [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. In December, an Ayyubid army consisting of the garrisons of Saladin and his brothers from Aleppo, Hama, and Egypt besieged Tyre. Half of the Muslim naval fleet was seized by Conrad's forces on December 29, followed by an Ayyubid defeat on the shoreline of the city. On January 1, 1188, Saladin held a war council afterward where a withdrawal was agreed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=239–240}}</ref> While they fought the Crusaders in the Levant, the Ayyubids under Sharaf al-Din wrested control of [[Kairouan]] from the [[Hafsids]] in North Africa.<ref name="Lev101"/>

====Third Crusade====
[[Pope Gregory VIII]] called for a [[Third Crusade]] against the Muslims in early 1189. [[Frederick Barbarossa]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Philip Augustus]] of [[France]], and [[Richard the Lionhearted]] of [[England]] allied themselves to reconquer Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Crusaders and the Ayyubids fought near Acre that year and were joined by the reinforcements in Europe. From 1189 to 1191, Acre was besieged by the Crusaders, and despite initial Muslim successes, it fell to Richard's forces. A massacre of 2,700 [[Turkish people|Turkish]] inhabitants ensued and the Crusaders then planned to take Ascalon in the south.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=289–307}}</ref>

The Crusaders, now under the unified command of Richard, defeated Saladin at the [[Battle of Arsuf]], allowing for the Crusader conquest of [[Jaffa]] and much of coastal Palestine, but nonetheless, they were unable to recover the interior. Instead, Richard signed a treaty with Saladin in 1192, restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem to a coastal strip between Jaffa and Beirut. It was the last major effort of Saladin's career, as he died the next year, in 1193.

===Quarrels over the sultanate===
[[File:Ayyubid Dynasty.svg|thumb|right|300px|The state of the Ayyubid dynasty and its Arab divided neighbors after the death of Saladin]]

Rather than establishing a centralized empire, Saladin had established hereditary ownership throughout his lands, dividing his empire among kinsmen, with family members receiving semi-autonomous fiefs and principalities.<ref name="Shillington"/> Although these princes owed allegiance to the Ayyubid sultan, with their own territories, they were relatively independent.<ref name="MandB">Meri and Bacharach, 2006, p.84.</ref> Upon Saladin's death, [[Malik az-Zahir|az-Zahir]] took Aleppo from al-Adil per the arrangement and [[al-Aziz Uthman]] held Cairo, while his eldest son, al-Afdal retained Damascus—<ref name="RnB240">Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.240.</ref> which also included [[Palestine]] and much of [[Lebanon]].<ref name="Burns179">Burns, 2005, p.179.</ref> Al-Adil then acquired northern Mesopotamia, known as [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|al-Jazira]], where he held the Zengids of Mosul at bay. In 1193, Mas'ud of Mosul joined forces with Zangi of Sinjar and together the Zengid coalition moved to occupy as much of al-Jazira as possible. However, before any major results could be achieved, Mas'ud fell ill and returned to Mosul, and al-Adil then compelled Zangi to make a quick peace before the Zengids suffered territorial losses at the hands of the Ayyubids.<ref name="GandB"/> Al-Adil's son [[al-Mu'azzam]] took possession of Karak and [[Transjordan]].<ref name="RnB240"/>

Soon, however, Saladin's sons fell to squabbling over the division of the empire. Saladin had appointed al-Afdal the governorship of Damascus with the intention that his son should continue to see the city as his principal place of residence in order to emphasize the primacy of the ''[[jihad]]'' ("holy struggle") against the Crusader states. Al-Afdal, however, found that his attachment to Damascus contributed to his undoing. Several of his fathers subordinate ''emirs'' left the city for Cairo to lobby al-Aziz Uthman to oust him on claims he was inexperienced and had the intent to sweep out the old Ayyubid guard. Thus, in 1194, he openly demanded the sultanate—al-Adil encouraged him to act before al-Afdal's perceived incompetence put the Ayyubid empire in jeopardy. Al-Aziz Uthman's claim to the thrown was settled in a series of assaults on Damascus in 1196, forcing al-Afdal to leave for a less high-profile post at [[Salkhad]]. Al-Adil established himself in Damascus as a lieutenant of al-Aziz Uthman, but wielded much influence in the empire.<ref name="Burns179"/>

When al-Aziz Uthman died in a hunting accident near Cairo, al-Afdal was again made sultan (although al-Aziz Uthman's son al-Mansur was the nominal ruler of Egypt), al-Adil having been absent in a campaign in the northeast. He returned and managed to occupy the [[Citadel of Damascus]], but then faced a strong assault from the forces grouped under al-Afdal and his brother az-Zahir. These forces disintegrated under al-Afdal's leadership and in 1200, al-Adil returned to the offensive.<ref name="Burns180">Burns, 2005, p.180.</ref> Upon Uthman's death, two clans within the empire opposed each other; the ''mamluks'' whom Shirkuh and Saladin had enlisted—the Asadiyya and Salahiyya. The latter backed al-Adil in his struggles against al-Afdal. With their support, al-Adil conquered Cairo in 1200,<ref name="RnB241"/> and forced al-Afdal to accept internal banishment.<ref name="Burns180"/> He proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria afterward and entrusted the governance of Damascus to al-Mu'azzam and al-Jazira to his other son [[al-Kamil]].<ref name="RnB241"/> Around 1200, a ''[[sharif]]'' ("tribal head") [[Qatada ibn Idris]] seized power in Mecca and was recognized as the ''emir'' of the city by al-Adil.<ref name="Salibi55"/>

Al-Afdal strove to retrieve Damascus one last time, but failed in doing so. Al-Adil entered the city in triumph in 1201.<ref name="Burns180"/> Az-Zahir still held Aleppo and al-Afdal was given [[Samosata]] in Anatolia.<ref name="RnB241"/> Now age 60, al-Adil's line rather than Saladin's would dominate the next 50 years of Ayyubid rule.<ref name="Burns180"/> He redistributed his possessions between his sons: al-Kamil was to succeed him in Egypt, al-Ashraf received al-Jazira, and Awhad was given [[Diyar Bakr]], but the latter territory shifted to al-Ashraf's domain after Awhad died.<ref name="RnB241">Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.241.</ref>

[[File:Capturing Damiate.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Crusader ships attacking the tower of Damietta in 1218]]

Al-Adil aroused open hostility from the [[Hanbali]] "lobby" in Damascus for largely ignoring the Crusaders, having launched only one campaign against them. He felt that the Crusader army was invincible in a straight fight. Prolonged campaigns also involved the difficulties of maintaining a coherent Arab coalition. The trend under al-Adil was steady growth of the empire, mainly through the expansion of Ayyubid authority in al-Jazira and Armenia. The Abbasids eventually recognized al-Adil's role as sultan in 1207.<ref name="Burns180"/> A Crusader military campaign was launched on November 3, 1217, beginning with an offensive towards [[Transjordan]]. Al-Mu'azzam urged al-Adil to launch a counter-attack, but he refused his son's proposal.<ref>Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.297.</ref> In 1218, the fortress of [[Damietta]] in the [[Nile Delta]] was [[Siege of Damietta (1218)|besieged]] by the Crusaders. After two failed attempts, the fortress eventually capitulated on August 25. Six days later al-Adil died, reportedly of shock.<ref>Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.300.</ref>

Al-Kamil proclaimed himself sultan in Cairo, while his brother al-Mu'azzam claimed the throne in Damascus. Al-Kamil attempted to retake the fortress, but was forced back by [[John of Brienne]]. After learning of a conspiracy against him, he fled, leaving the Egyptian army leaderless. Panic ensued, but with the help of al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil regrouped his forces. By then, however, the Crusaders had seized his camp. The Ayyubids offered to negotiate for the withdrawal from Damietta, offering the restoration of Palestine to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with the exception of the forts of Mont Real and Karak.<ref>Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.301.</ref> This was refused by the leader of the [[Fifth Crusade]], [[Pelagius of Albano]] and in 1221, they were driven out of the Nile Delta after the Ayyubid victory at [[El Mansoura, Egypt|Mansura]].<ref name="Shillington"/>

===Disintegration===
====Loss of territories and ceding of Jerusalem====
[[File:Al-Kamil Muhammad al-Malik and Frederick II Holy Roman Emperor.jpg|thumb|right|[[Al-Kamil]] (right) and [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] signed a treaty restoring [[Jerusalem]] to the [[Crusader]]s for ten years]]

In the east, the [[Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty|Khwarezemids]] under [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu]] captured the town of [[Ahlat|Khilat]] from al-Ashraf,<ref>Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.315.</ref> while the [[Rasulids]], who were loyalists to the Ayyubids, began to influence their holdings in [[Arabia]]. In 1222, the Ayyubids appointed Ali Bin Rasul as governor of Mecca. Ayyubid rule in [[Yemen]] and the [[Hejaz]] was declining and the governor of Yemen, Mas'ud bin Kamil was forced to leave for Egypt in 1223. He appointed Nur ad-Din Umar as his deputy governor when he was absent.<ref name="Ali84"/> In 1224, a local dynasty, al-Yamani, gained control of [[Hadramaut]] from the Ayyubids who held it loosely due the troubled situation of their administration in Yemen proper.<ref name="Brice">Brice, 1981, p.338.</ref> Following Mas'ud's death in 1229, Nur ad-Din Umar declared himself the independent ruler of Yemen and discontinued payment of the annual tribute to the Ayyubids in Egypt.<ref name="Ali84">Ali, 1996, p.84.</ref>

Under [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], a [[Sixth Crusade]] was launched, capitalizing on an ongoing internal strife between al-Kamil and the Ayyubids of Syria and Palestine led by al-Mu'azzam.<ref name="Shillington"/> Al-Kamil, therefore, offered Jerusalem to Frederick to avoid a Syrian invasion of Egypt, but the emperor refused. His position was strengthened when al-Mu'azzam died in 1227 and was succeeded by his son [[an-Nasir Dawud]]. He continued negotiations with Frederick in Acre in 1228 leading to the establishment of a limited truce, signed in February 1229. It gave the Crusaders control over an unfortified Jerusalem for over ten years, although the Muslims would hold control over Islamic holy places in the city.<ref name="MandB"/> Although the treaty was virtually meaningless in military terms, an-Nasir Dawud used it to provoke the sentiments of Syria's citizens and a Friday sermon by a popular preacher at the [[Umayyad Mosque]] "reduced the crowd to violent sobbing and tears."<ref name="Burns184"/>

The settlement with the Crusaders was accompanied by a proposed new division of the Ayyubid principalities; Damascus and its territories would go to al-Ashraf, but clearly recognizing al-Kamil's sovereignty. An-Nasir Dawud resisted the settlement, incensed by the Ayyubid-Crusader truce.<ref name="Burns184">Burns, 2005, p.184.</ref> Al-Kamil's forces reached Damascus to enforce the proposed agreement in May 1229. The siege put great pressure on the city, but the inhabitants rallied to an-Nasir Dawud, conscious of al-Mu'azzam's stable rule and shocked at the treaty with Frederick. After one month, however, an-Nasir Dawud sued for a peaceful outcome and was given a new principality centered around Karak, while al-Ashraf—governor of the [[Diyar Bakr]]—assumed governorship of Damascus.<ref>Burns, 2005, p.185.</ref>

Meanwhile, the [[Seljuk]]s were advancing towards al-Jazira,<ref>Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.322.</ref> and the descendants of Qatada ibn Idris quarreled with their Ayyubid overlords over control of Mecca. The latter was taken advantage of by the Rasulids of Yemen who attempted to end the Ayyubid suzerainty in the Hejaz and bring the region under their control which they did in 1238 when Nur al-Din Umar captured Mecca.<ref name="Salibi55"/><ref name="Ali84"/>

====Syro-Egyptian divide====
Al-Ashraf's rule in Damascus was stable, but he and the other ''emirs'' of Syria sought to assert their independence from Cairo. In the midst of these tensions, al-Ashraf died in August 1237 after a four-month illness and was succeeded by his brother [[as-Salih Ismail]]. Two months later, al-Kamil's Egyptian army arrived and besieged Damascus, but as-Salih Ismail had laid waste the suburbs of the city to deny al-Kamil's forces shelter.<ref>Burns, 2005, p.186.</ref> In 1232, al-Kamil installed his eldest son [[as-Salih Ayyub]] to govern Hisn Kayfa, but on al-Kamil's death in 1238, as-Salih Ayyub disputed control of Egypt with his younger brother [[al-Adil II]] who had been proclaimed sultan in Cairo. As-Salih Ayyub eventually occupied Damascus in December 1238, but his uncle as-Salih Ismail took back the city in September 1239, although he himself was detained by his cousin an-Nasir Dawud in Karak in order to prevent his arrest by al-Adil. He allied with Dawud who released him the following year, allowing him to proclaim himself sultan in place of al-Adil in May 1240.

Throughout the early 1240s, as-Salih Ayyub carried out reprisals against those who supported al-Adil, and he then quarreled with an-Nasir Dawud who was reconciling with as-Salih Ismail of Damascus. The rival sultans as-Salih Ayyub and as-Salih Ismail attempted to ally with the Crusaders against the other.<ref>Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.328.</ref> In 1244, the breakaway Ayyubids of Syria allied with the Crusaders and confronted the allied forces of as-Salih Ayyub and the Khwarizmids at [[Hirbiya]], near Gaza. A large [[Battle of La Forbie|battle ensued]], resulting in a major victory for as-Salih Ayyub and the virtual collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.<ref name="RnB330"/>

====Restoration of unity====
In 1244-45, as-Salih Ayyub had seized [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]] from an-Nasir Dawud; he took possession of Jerusalem then marched on to take Damascus which fell with relative ease in October 1245.<ref name="RnB330"/> Shortly afterward, Sayf al-Din Ali surrendered his exposed principality, [[Ajlun]] and its fortress, to as-Salih Ayyub. The rupture of the alliance between the Khwarizmids and as-Salih Ayyub ended with the virtual destruction of the former by [[al-Mansur Ibrahim]], the Ayyubid ''emir'' of Homs, in October 1246.<ref name="RnB330">Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.330.</ref> With the Khwarizimid defeat, as-Salih Ayyub was able to complete the subjugation of southern Syria.<ref>Humphreys, 1977, p.288.</ref> His general Fakhr ad-Din went on to subdue an-Nasir Dawud's territories. He sacked the lower town of Karak, then besieged its fortress. Although he did not have the means to take it, an-Nasir Dawud was not strong enough to drive him away. A settlement was eventually reached whereby the latter would retain the fortress, but cede the remainder of his principality to as-Salih Ayyub. Having settled the situation in Palestine and Transjordan, Fakhr ad-Din moved north and marched to [[Bosra]], the last place still held by as-Salih Ismail. During the siege, Fakhr ad-Din fell ill, but his commanders continued the assault against the city which fell in December 1246.<ref name="Humphreys290">Humphreys, 1977, p.290.</ref>

By May 1247, as-Salih Ayyub was master of Syria south of [[Lake Homs]], having gained [[Banyas]] and Salkhad. With his fellow Ayyubid opponents subdued, except for Aleppo under [[an-Nasir Yusuf]], as-Salih Ayyub undertook a limited offensive against the Crusaders, sending Fakhr ad-Din to move against their holdings in the Galilee. [[Tiberias]] fell on June 16, followed by [[Mount Tabor]] and [[Kawkab al-Hawa]] soon thereafter. Safad with its Templar fortress seemed out of reach, so the Ayyubids marched south to Ascalon. Facing stubborn resistance from the Crusader garrison, an Egyptian flotilla was sent by as-Salih Ayyub to aid in the siege and on October 24, Fakhr ad-Din's troops stormed through a breach in the walls and killed or captured the entire garrison. The city was razed and left deserted.<ref name="Humphreys290"/>

He returned to Damascus to keep watch on developments in northern Syria. Al-Ashraf Musa of Homs had ceded the important stronghold of [[Salamiyyah]] to as-Salih Ayyub the previous winter, perhaps to underline the patron-client relationship. This troubled the Ayyubids of Aleppo who feared it would be used as a base for a military take-over of their city. An-Nasir Yusuf found this intolerable and decided to annex Homs which he did in the winter of 1248. The city surrendered in August and an-Nasir Yusuf's terms forced al-Ashraf Musa to hand over Homs, but he was allowed to retain nearby [[Palmyra]] and Tell Bashir in the [[Syrian Desert]]. As-Salih Ayyub sent Fakhr ad-Din to recapture Homs, but Aleppo countered by sending an army to Kafr Tab, just outside of the city.<ref>Humphreys, 1977, pp.293-295.</ref> An-Nasir Dawud left Karak for Aleppo to guarantee protection from an-Nasir Yusuf, but in his absence, his brothers al-Amjad Hasan and az-Zahir Shadhi detained his heir al-Mu'azzam Isa and then personally went to as-Salih Ayyub's camp at [[al-Mansourah]] in Egypt to offer him control of the Karak in return for holdings in Egypt. As-Salih Ayyub sent the eunuch Badr al-Din Sawabi to act as his governor in the city.<ref>Humphreys, 1977, p.297.</ref>

===Fall===
====Rise of the Mamluks and fall of Egypt====
In 1248, a Crusader fleet of 1,800 boats and ships arrived in [[Cyprus]] with the intent of launching a [[Seventh Crusade]] against the Muslims by conquering Egypt. Their commander, [[Louis IX]], attempted to enlist the [[Mongol]]s to launch a coordinated attack on Egypt, but when this failed to materialize, the Crusader force sailed to Damietta and the Muslims there fled as soon as they landed. When Ayyub, who was in Syria at the time, heard of this, he rushed back to Egypt, avoiding Damietta, instead reaching Mansurah. Here he organized an army and raised a commando force which harassed the Crusaders.<ref>Ali, 1996, p.35.</ref>

Ayyub was ill and his health deteriorated more due to the mounting pressure from the Crusaders. His wife [[Shajar al-Durr]] called a meeting of all the war generals and thus became commander-in-chief of the Egyptian forces. She ordered Mansurah fortified and then stored large quantities of provisions and concentrated her forces there. She also organized a fleet of war galleys and got them scattered at various strategic points along the Nile. Crusader attempts to capture Mansurah were thwarted and King Louis found himself in a critical position. He managed to cross the Nile to launch a surprise attack against Mansurah. Meanwhile, Ayyub died, but Shajar al-Durr and Ayyub's [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Mamluk]] generals, including [[Baibars]] and [[Aibek]], countered the assault and inflicted heavy losses to the Crusaders. Simultaneously, the Muslim galleys cut off the Crusader's line of supply from Damietta, preventing the arrival of reinforcements. Ayyub's son and the newly proclaimed Ayyubid sultan [[Al-Muazzam Turanshah|Al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah]] reached Mansurah at this point and intensified [[Battle of Al Mansurah|the battle]] against the Crusaders. The latter ultimately surrendered and King Louis and his companions were arrested.<ref>Ali, 1996, p.36.</ref>

Al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah alienated the Mamluks soon after their victory at Mansurah and constantly threatened them and Shajar al-Durr. Fearing for their positions of power, the Bahri Mamluks revolted against the sultan and killed him in April 1250.<ref name="MandB"/> Aibek married Shajar al-Durr and subsequently took over the government in Egypt in the name of [[al-Ashraf II]] who was now the nominal sultan.<ref>Richard and Birrell, 1999, p.349.</ref>

====Dominance of Aleppo====
Intent on restoring supremacy to the branch of the Ayyubid family that descended from Saladin,<ref name="Tabaa30"/> an-Nasir Yusuf was eventually able to enlist all of the Syria-based Ayyubid princes in a common cause against as-Salih Ayyub's Egypt. By 1250, he took Damascus with relative ease and except for Hama and Transjordan, an-Nasir Yusuf's direct authority stood unbroken from the [[Khabur River]] in northern Mesopotamia to the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. In December 1250, he attacked Egypt after hearing of al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's death and the ascension of Shajar al-Durr. An-Nasir Yusuf's army was much larger and better-equipped than that of the Egyptian army, consisting of the forces of Aleppo, Homs, Hama, and those of Saladin's only surviving sons, Nusrat ad-Din and Turan-Shah ibn Salah ad-Din.<ref>Humphreys, 1977, p.316.</ref> Nonetheless, it suffered a major defeat by Aibek. He subsequently returned to Syria which was slowly slipping out of his control.<ref name="Tabaa30">Tabaa, 1997, pp.29-30.</ref>

The Mamluks forged an alliance with the Crusaders in March 1252 and agreed to jointly launch a campaign against an-Nasir Yusuf. King Louis, who had been released after al-Mu'azzam Turan-Shah's murder, led his army to Jaffa, while Aibek intended to send his forces to [[Gaza]]. Upon hearing of the alliance, an-Nasir Yusuf immediately dispatched an advanced force to [[Tell al-Ajjul]], just outside Gaza, in order to prevent the junction of the Mamluk and Crusader armies. Meanwhile, the rest of the Ayyubid army was stationed in the [[Jordan Valley (Middle East)|Jordan Valley]]. Realizing that a war between them would greatly benefit the Crusaders, Aibek and an-Nasir Yusuf accepted mediation by Najm ad-Din al-Badhirai on behalf of the Abbasids. In April 1253, a treaty was signed whereby the Mamluks would retain all of Egypt and Palestine up to (but not including) Nablus, while an-Nasir Yusuf would be confirmed as the ruler of Muslim Syria. Thus, Ayybid rule was officially ended in Egypt.<ref>Humphreys, 1977, pp.322-323.</ref> After conflict arose between the Mamluks and the Ayyubids again, al-Badhirai again arranged a treaty, this time giving an-Nasir Yusuf control of the previous Mamluk territories in Palestine. Instead of placing Ayyubids in charge, however, an-Nasir Yusuf handed Jerusalem to a Mamluk named Kutuk while Nablus and [[Jenin]] were given to [[Baibars|Rukn al-Din Baybars]].<ref name="Humphreys328">Humphreys, 1977, p.328.</ref>

For over a year after the settlement with Mamluks, calm settled over an-Nasir Yusuf's reign, but on December 11, 1256 he sent two envoys to the Abbasids in Baghdad seeking formal investiture from the caliph, [[al-Musta'sim]], for his role as "Sultan". This request was connected to an-Nasir's rivalry with Aibek, as the title would be useful in future disputes with the Mamluks. However, the Mamluks had sent their envoys to Baghdad previously to precisely ensure that an-Nasir Yusuf would not gain the title, putting al-Musta'sim in a difficult position.<ref name="Humphreys328"/>

In early 1257, Aibek was killed in a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his 15-year-old son, [[al-Mansur Ali]], while [[Qutuz|Saif ad-Din Qutuz]] held an influential position. Soon after al-Mansur Ali's ascendancy rumors of another conspiracy to which an-Nasir Yusuf had an alleged connection emerged. The accused conspirator, al-Mansur Ali's vizier Sharaf ad-Din al-Fa'izi, was strangled by Egyptian authorities. The Bahri Mamluks in Syria led by Baibars pressured an-Nasir Yusuf to intervene by invading Egypt, but he would not act, fearing the Bahri dyansty would usurp his throne if they gained Egypt.

====Karak asserts independence====
[[File:Ayyubids 1257.png|thumb|right|200px|Ayyubid territories in 1257. Area in bright red controlled by [[an-Nasir Yusuf]], while the area under dark red was under the nominal control of al-Mughith Umar of Kerak]]

Relations between an-Nasir Yusuf and the Bahri grew tense after the former refused to invade Egypt. In October 1257, Baibars and his fellow Mamluks left Damascus or were expelled from the city and together they moved south to Jerusalem. When the governor Kutuk refused to aid them against an-Nasir Yusuf, Baibars deposed him and had al-Mugith Umar, the emir of Karak, pronounced in the ''[[khutba]]'' at the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]]; al-Mugith Umar had allowed the political dissidents of Cairo and Damascus, who sought protection from the Mamluk and Ayyubid authorities, a safehaven within his territories.<ref name="Humphreys330-31"/>

Soon after gaining Jerusalem, Baibars conquered Gaza and an-Nasir Yusuf sent his army to Nablus in response. A battle ensued and the Mamluks ultimately fled across the [[Jordan River]] to the [[Balqa]] area. From there they reached [[Zoara|Zughar]] at the southern tip of the [[Dead Sea]] where they sent their submission to Karak. Al-Mughith Umar's new relationship with Baibars solidified his independence from an-Nasir Yusuf's Syria. To ensure his independence, al-Mughith Umar began to distribute the territories of Palestine and Transjordan among the Mamluks.<ref name="Humphreys330-31">Humphreys, 1977, pp.330-331.</ref>

The new allies assembled a small army and headed for Egypt. In spite of initial gains in Palestine and [[al-Arish]], they withdrew after seeing how overwhelmingly outnumbered they were by the Egyptian army. Al-Mughith Umar and Baibars were not discouraged, however, and launched an army 1,500 regular cavalry to Sinai at the beginning of 1258, but again were defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt.<ref>Humphreys, 1977, pp.332.</ref>

====Mongol invasion and fall of the empire====
[[File:Mongol raids in Syria and Palestine 1260.svg|thumb|right|250px|The Mongol conquest of Ayyubid Syria]]
The Ayyubids had been under the nominal sovereignty of the [[Mongol Empire]] after a Mongol force targeted Ayyubid territories in Anatolia in 1244. An-Nasir Yusuf sent an embassy to the Mongol capital [[Karakorum]] in 1250, shortly after assuming power. These understandings did not last, however, and the Mongol Great Khan, [[Mongke]], issued a directive to his brother [[Hulegu]] to extend the realms of the empire to the Nile River. The latter raised an army of 120,000 and in 1258, sacked Baghdad and slaughtered its inhabitants, including the Abbasid caliph and most of his family after the Ayyubids failed to assemble an army to protect the city.<ref>Burns, 2005, pp.195-196.</ref> That same year the Ayyubids lost Diyar Bakr to the Mongols.<ref>Abu-Lughod, Dumper, Stanley, 2006, p.128.</ref>

An-Nasir Yusuf sent a delegation to Hulegu afterward, repeating his protestations to submission. Hulegu refused to accept the terms and so an-Nasir Yusuf called on Cairo for aid. This plea coincided with a successful coup by the Cairo-based Mamluks against the remaining symbolic Ayyubid leadership in Egypt, with strongman [[Qutuz]] officially taking power. Meanwhile, an Ayyubid army was assembled at Birze, just north of Damascus to defend the city against the Mongols who were now marching towards northern Syria. Aleppo was soon besieged by and within a week, in January 1260, it fell in Mongol hands. The [[Great Mosque of Aleppo|Great Mosque]] and the [[Citadel of Aleppo]] were razed and most of the inhabitants were killed or sold into slavery.<ref name="Burns197"/> The sack of Aleppo caused panic in Muslim Syria; The Ayyubid emir of Homs, al-Ashraf Musa, offered to ally with Mongols at the approach of their army and was allowed to continue governance of the city by Hulegu. Hama also capitulated without resisting, but did not join forces with the Mongols.<ref name="Grousset">Grousset, 1988, p.362.</ref> An-Nasir Yusuf opted to flee Damascus to seek protection in Gaza.<ref name="Burns197">Burns, 2005, p.197.</ref>

Hulegu had decided to leave the front for Karakorum and left [[Kitbugha]], a [[Nestorian Christian]] general, to continue the conquest. Damascus capitulated after the arrival of the Mongol army, but was not sacked like other captured Muslim cities. However, from Gaza, an-Nasir Yusuf managed to induce the small garrison he left in the Citadel of Damascus to rebel against the Mongol occupation. The Mongols retaliated by launching a massive artillery assault on the citadel and when it became apparent that an-Nasir Yusuf was unable to relieve the city with a newly assembled army, the garrison surrendered.<ref name="Burns197"/>

The Mongols proceeded by conquering Samaria, killing most of the Ayyubid garrison in Nablus, and then advanced south, as far as Gaza, unhindered. An-Nasir Yusuf was soon captured by the Mongols and used to persuade the garrison at Ajlun to capitulate. Afterward, the junior Ayyubid governor of [[Banias]] allied with the Mongols,<ref name="Grousset"/> who had now gained control of most of Syria and al-Jazira, effectively ending Ayyubid power in the region. On September 3, 1260, the Egypt-based Mamluk army led by Qutuz and [[Baibars]] challenged Mongol authority and decisively defeated their forces in the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]], outside of [[Zir'in]] in the [[Jezreel Valley]]. Five days later, the Mamluks took Damascus and within a month, most of Syria was in Mamluk hands.<ref name="Burns197"/> Meanwhile, an-Nasir Yusuf was killed under captivity.<ref name="AMF616">Abulafia, McKitteric, and Fouracre, 2005, p.616.</ref>

===Remnants of the dynasty===
Many of the Ayyubid ''emirs'' of Syria were discredited by Qutuz for collaborating with the Mongols, but since al-Ashraf Musa defected to the Mamluks at Ain Jalut, he was allowed to continue his rule over Homs. Al-Mansur of Hama had fought alongside the Mamluks from the start of their conquest and because of this,<ref name="AMF616"/> Hama continued to be ruled by the Ayyubid descendants of Muzaffar ad-Din Umar. After al-Ashraf Musa's death in 1262, the new Mamluk sultan, Baibars, annexed Homs. The next year, al-Mughith Umar was tricked into surrendering Karak to Baibars and was executed soon after for having previously sided with the Mongols.<ref name="AMF616"/>

The last Ayyubid ruler of Hama died in 1299 and Hama briefly passed through direct Mamluk suzerainty. However, in 1310, under the patronage of the Mamluk sultan [[al-Nasir Muhammad]], Hama again came under Ayyubid governance in the person of the well-known geographer and author [[Abu al-Fida]]. The latter died in 1331 and was succeeded by his son [[Al-Afdal Muhammad]] who eventually lost the favor of his Mamluk overlords. He was removed from his post in 1341 and Hama was formally placed under Mamluk rule.<ref>Abu-Lughod, Dumper, and Stanley, 2006, p.163.</ref>

In southeastern Anatolia, the Ayyubids continued to rule the principality of [[Hisn Kayfa]] and managed to remain an autonomous entity, independent of the Mongol [[Ilkhanate]] which ruled northern Mesopotamia until the 1330s. After the breakup of the Ilkhanate, their former vassals in the area, the [[Artukid]]s waged war against the Ayyubids of Hisn Kayfa in 1334, but were decisively defeated, with the Ayyubids gaining their possessions on the left bank of the [[Tigris River]].<ref>Singh, 2000, pp.203-204.</ref> In the 14th century, the Ayyubids rebuilt the castle of Hisn Kayfa which served as their stronghold until they were supplanted by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the early 16th century.<ref>Ayliffe, Dubin, Gawthrop, Richardson, 2003, p.913.</ref>

==Culture==
===Government===
====Structure====
Saladin structured the Ayyubid empire around the concept of collective sovereignty i.e. confederation of principalities held together by the idea of family rule. Under this arrangement there existed numerous "petty sultans" while one family member, ''as-Sultan al-Mu'azzam'' reigned supreme. After the death of Saladin, this coveted position became open to whomever was strong enough to seize it. Subsequent rivalry between the Ayyubids of Syria and Egypt reached a point where the rulers of each territory would at times collude with Crusaders against the other.<ref name="Jackson36"/> Ayyubid rule differed in these two regions. In Syria, each major city was ruled as a relatively independent principality under an Ayyubid family member, while in Egypt the long tradition of centralized rule enabled the Ayyubids to maintain direct control over the province from Cairo.<ref>Hourani and Ruthven, 2002, p.131.</ref> It was [[Baghdad]], seat of the [[Caliphate]], however, that exercised cultural and political hegemony over the Ayyubid territories, particularly those in [[Southwest Asia]]. For instance, the ''[[qadi]]'' ("chief justice") of Damascus was still appointed by the Abbasids during Ayyubid rule.<ref name="Jackson36">Jackson, 1997, p.36.</ref>

Political power was concentrated in the Ayyubid household which was not necessarily characterized only by blood relation; slaves and intimates could acquire great, and even supreme power within it. It was a common occurrence for the mothers of young Ayyubid rulers to act as independent powers or in a few cases, rulers in their own right. [[Eunuch (court official)|Eunuchs]] exercised substantial power under the Ayyubids, serving as attendants and [[atabeg]]s within the household or as ''emirs'', governors, and army commanders outside the household. One of Saladin's most important supporters was the eunuch [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad]] who helped him depose the Fatimids, dispossess their properties, and construct the wall of Cairo's citadel. Following the death of al-Aziz Uthman, he became the regent of his son al-Mansur and effectively ruled over Egypt for a short while before the arrival of al-Adil. Later sultans appointed eunuchs as deputy sultans and even awarded them sovereignty over certain cities, such as Shams al-Din Sawab who was given the cities of [[Amid]] and Diyar Bakr in 1239.<ref>Petry and Daly, 1998, pp.239-240.</ref>

The Ayyubids had three principal means of recruiting the learned elites whom they needed to rule their cities and towns. Some of these local leaders, known as ''[[shaykh]]s'', entered the service of an Ayyubid ruling household and thus their bids for power were supported out of Ayyubid household revenues and influence. Others were paid directly out of revenues made from the ''[[divan|diwan]]'', a high governmental body of the state. The third method was the assigning to ''shaykhs'' of the revenues of charitable endowments, known as ''[[waqf]]s''.<ref name="Petry and Daly, 1998, p.231">Petry and Daly, 1998, p.231.</ref> The Ayyubids, like their various predecessors in the region, had relatively few state agencies by which they could penetrate their cities and towns. To link themselves with the learned elite of their cities, they relied on the political usage of patronage practices. The assignment of ''waqf'' revenue to the learned was similar to the assignment of fiefs (''iqta'at'') to the commanders and generals of the army. In both cases, it enabled the Ayyubids to recruit a dependent, but not administratively subordinate elite.<ref>Petry and Daly, 1998, p.232.</ref>

====Seat of government====
The seat of Ayyubid government from Saladin's rule from the 1170s up to al-Adil's reign in 1218 had been Damascus. The city provided a strategic advantage in the constant war with the Crusaders and allowed the sultan to keep an eye on his relatively ambitious vassals in Syria and al-Jazira. Cairo was too remote to serve as a base of operations, but had always served as the economic foundation of the empire. This rendered the city a critical constituent in the repertoire of the Ayyubid possessions.<ref name="Jackson36"/> When Saladin was proclaimed sultan in Cairo in 1171, he chose the Fatimid-built Lesser Western Palace (part of a larger palace complex in Cairo isolated from the urban sprawl) as the seat of government. Saladin himself resided in the former Fatimid vizier palace, Turan-Shah took up a former Fatimid prince's living quarter, and their father occupied the Pearl Pavilion which was situated outside of Cairo overlooking the city's canal. The successive Ayyubid sultans of Egypt would live in the Lesser Western Palace.<ref>Lev, 1999, p.11.</ref>

After al-Adil I seized the throne in Cairo and with it the sultanate of the Ayyubid oligarchy, the period of rivalry between Damascus and Cairo to become capital of the Ayyubid empire commenced. Under al-Adil and al-Kamil, Damascus continued as an autonomous province whose ruler reserved the right to designate his own heir, but during as-Salih Ayyub's rule, military campaigns against Syria reduced Damascus to a vassal of Cairo.<ref>Jackson, 1997, p.37.</ref> In addition, Ayyub established new rules both in administration and government in order to centralize his regime; he conferred the most prominent positions of the state to his close confidants, instead of his Ayyubid relatives. His wife Shajar al-Durr, for example, managed the affairs of Egypt while he was in Syria. Ayyub officially delegated his authority to his dead son Khalil and made al-Durr act formally on Khalil's behalf.<ref>Vermeulen, De Smet, and Van Steenbergen, 2001, pp.211-212.</ref>

===Demographics===
====Religion and ethnicity====
[[File:Minaret of the Aleppo Citadel Mosque Aleppo Syria.jpg|thumb|right|Minaret of the Great Mosque of the Aleppo Citadel, built by [[az-Zahir Ghazi]] in 1214]]

By the 12th century, [[Islam]] was the dominant religion in the Middle East. It is not certain, however, if it was the religion of the majority outside the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Arabic was the language of high culture and of the urban population, but other native languages continued to be used in some rural communities throughout the Ayyubid territories.<ref name="HandR">Hourani and Ruthven, 2002, pp.96-97.</ref>

The majority of Syria's population in the 12th century consisted of [[Sunni Muslim]]s, typically from Arab or Kurdish backgrounds. There were also sizable Muslim communities of [[Twelver Shia]]s, [[Druze]]s, and [[Nusayri]]s. The presence of the [[Ismaili]]s was small and most were of [[Persian people|Persian]] origin, having migrated from [[Alamut]]. They mostly resided in the mountainous area near the northern Syrian coastline.<ref>Willey and Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2005, p.41.</ref> Large Christian communities existed in northern Syria, Palestine, and northern Mesopotamia. They were Arabic-speaking and indigenous to the area, mostly belonging to the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]. They lived in villages of Christian or mixed Christian and Muslim population, monasteries, and in small towns where they appear to have been on friendly terms with their Muslim neighbors. Ideologically, they were ruled by the [[Patriarch of Antioch]].<ref>Baer, 1989, pp.2-3.</ref>

In Yemen and Hadramaut, much of the population adhered to [[Shia Islam]] in its [[Zaydi]] form. The inhabitants of northern Mesopotamia were made up of Sunni Muslim Kurds and Turks, although there was a significant [[Yazidi]] minority in that region as well. [[Jew]]s were spread throughout the [[Islamic world]] and most Ayyubid cities had Jewish communities due to the important roles they played in trade, manufacture, finance, and medicine. In Yemen and some parts of the Levant, Jews also lived in rural towns. The Ayyubid ''emir'' of Yemen in 1197-1202, al-Malik Mu'izz Isma'il attempted to forcibly convert the Jews of Aden, but this process did not take effect after his death in 1202. Within the Jewish community, particularly in Egypt and Palestine, there existed a minority of [[Karaite Judaism|Karaites]].<ref name="HandR"/>

In Egypt, there were large communities of [[Coptic Christian]]s, [[Melkite]]s, [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Armenians]], and [[Black African]]s—the latter two groups had a large presence in [[Upper Egypt]]. Under the Fatimids, non-Muslims in Egypt generally lived in prosperity, with the exception of caliph [[al-Hakim]]'s reign. However, with Shirkuh's ascendancy to the vizier position, a number edicts were enacted against the non-Muslim population. With the advent of the Syrian expeditionary force (consisting of [[Oghuz Turks|Ghuzz]] and [[Kurds]]) into Egypt, waves of maltreatment of minorities occurred, irrespective of religion.<ref name="Lev192"/> These incidents occurred while Shirkuh and Saladin were viziers to the Fatimid caliph.<ref name="Lev192"/>

At the beginning of Saladin's reign as sultan in Egypt, upon the encouragement of his adviser, Qadi al-Fadil, Christians were prohibited from employment in the fiscal administration, but various Ayyubid emirs continued to allow Christian to serve in their posts. A number of other regulations were imposed, including the ban on alcohol consumption, religious processions, and the ringing of church bells. Conversion of formerly high-ranking Christians and their families to Islam took place throughout the early period of Ayyubid rule.<ref>Lev, 1999, pp.187-189.</ref> According to historian Yaakov Lev, the persecution of non-Muslims had some permanent effects on them, but nonetheless, the effects were local and contained.<ref name="Lev192">Lev, 1999, p.192.</ref> To manage Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids permitted [[Europe]]ans—mainly [[Italian people|Italian]]s, but also [[French people|French]] and [[Catalan people|Catalan]]s—to settle in [[Alexandria]] in large numbers. However, in the aftermath of [[Fifth Crusade]], 3,000 merchants from the area were arrested or expelled.<ref name="Petry and Daly, 1998, p.231"/>

The Ayyubids generally employed Kurds, Turks, and people from the [[Caucasus]] for the higher-ranking posts of the military and bureaucratic fields. Not much is known about the foot soldiers of the Ayyubid army, but the numbers of cavalrymen are known to have fluctuated between 8,500 and 12,000. The cavalry was largely composed of free-born Kurds, Turks, and [[Turkoman]]s who Ayyubid ''emirs'' and sultans purchased as slaves (''mamluks''). In addition, there existed Arab auxiliaries, former Fatimid units such as the [[Nubian]]s, and separate Arab contingents—notably from the Kinaniyya tribe, who were largely devoted to the defense of Egypt. Rivalry between Kurdish and Turkish troops occurred occasionally when leading positions were at stake and towards the end of Ayyubid rule, Turks outnumbered Kurds in the army. Despite their Kurdish background, the sultans remained impartial to both groups.<ref>Petry and Daly, 1998, p.226.</ref>

====Population====
There is no accurate figure for the population of the various territories under Ayyubid rule. Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones suggest that in the 12th century, Syria had a population of 2.7 million, Palestine and Transjordan had 500,000 inhabitants, and Egypt had a population of under 5 million.<ref>Shatzmiller, 1994, pp.57-58.</ref> Josiah C. Russel states that in this same period there were 2.4 million people in the [[Levant]] living in 8,300 villages leaving a population of 230,000-300,000 living in ten cities, eight of which were Muslim cities under Ayyubid control. The largest were [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] (pop. 24,000), Damascus (pop. 15,000), Aleppo (pop. 14,000), and Jerusalem (pop. 10,000). Smaller cities included Homs, Hama, Gaza, and [[Hebron]].<ref name="Shatzmiller59"/>

Russel estimated the Egyptian village population to be 3,300,000 in 2,300 villages, a high density for rural populations in the time period. He attributes it to the high productivity of Egyptian soil which allowed for increased agricultural growth. The urban population was much lower, 233,100, consisting of 5.7% of the total Egyptian population. The largest cities were Cairo (pop. 60,000), Alexandria (pop. 30,000), [[Qus]] (pop. 25,000), Damietta (pop. 18,000), [[Fayyum]] (pop. 13,000), and [[Bilbeis]] (10,000). Numerous smaller cities dotted the Nile River, among them were [[Damanhur]], [[Asyut]], and [[Tanta]]. Cities in Egypt were also densely populated, mainly because of greater urbanization and industrialization than elsewhere.<ref name="Shatzmiller59">Shatzmiller, 1994, pp.59-60.</ref>

===Economy===
[[File:Egyptian vase MBA Lyon 1939-10.jpg|thumb|right|An example of Ayyubid pottery from Egypt]]
Having pushed the Crusaders out of most of Syria, the Ayyubids generally adopted a policy of peace with them. The war with the Crusaders did not prevent Muslims under Ayyubid governance from developing good commercial relations with [[Europe]]an states. This led to fruitful interaction between both sides in different fields of economic activity, particularly in agriculture and trade.<ref name="Ali">Ali, 1996, p.37.</ref>

Numerous measures were undertaken by the Ayyubids to increase agricultural production. Canals were dug to facilitate the irrigation of agricultural lands throughout the empire. Cultivation of [[sugarcane]] was officially encouraged to meet the great demand of it by both the local inhabitants and the Europeans. Several new plants were introduced to Europe in trade with both the Zengids and Ayyubids, including [[sesame]], [[carob]], millet, rice, lemons, melons, [[apricot]]s, and shallots.<ref name="Ali"/>

The main factor which boosted industry and trade under the Ayyubids was the new interests Europeans developed when they came into contact with the Muslims. Commodities included incense, scents, fragrant oils, and aromatic plants from [[Arabia]] and [[India]], as well as ginger, [[alum]], and [[aloe]]s. Likewise, Europeans developed new tastes in the matter of fashions, clothing, and home furnishing. Rugs, carpets, and tapestries manufactured in the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]] were introduced to the [[West]] through Crusader-Ayyubid interaction. Christian pilgrims visiting Jerusalem returned with Arab reliquaries for the keeping of relics. In addition, eastern works of art in glass, pottery, gold, silver, etc., were highly prized in Europe.<ref name="Ali"/>

The European demand for agricultural products and industrial commodities stipulated maritime activity and international trade to an unprecedented extent. The Ayyubids played a leading role in this as they controlled sea-trade routes which passed through the ports of Yemen and Egypt via the [[Red Sea]].<ref name="Ali"/> The trade policy of the Ayyubids placed them in a position of great advantage; although they cooperated with the [[Genoa]]ns and [[Venetia (region)|Venetia]]ns in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], they prevented them from having access to the Red Sea. Thus, they kept the trade of the [[Indian Ocean]] exclusively in their hands. In the Mediterranean trade, the Ayyubids drew large benefits in the form of taxes and commissions which they learned from the [[Italians]].<ref name="Ali38">Ali, 1996, p.38.</ref>

Upon the development of international trade, the elementary principles of credit and banking were developed. Both [[Jew]]ish and Italian merchants had regular banking agents in Syria, who transacted business on behalf of their masters. Bills of exchange were also used by them in their dealings with one another and money was deposited in various banking centers throughout Syria. The encouragement of trade and industry provided the Ayyubid sultans with the funds needed for military expenditure as well as for developmental and everyday lifestyle works. Special attention was made to the economic state of the empire under al-Adil and al-Kamil. The latter maintained a strict control over expenditure; it is said that on his death he left a treasury which was equivalent to the budget of one full year.<ref name="Ali38"/>

===Education===
Being well-educated themselves, the Ayyubid rulers became munificent patrons of learning and educational activity. Different ''[[madrasa]]''-type schools were built by them throughout the empire, not only for education, but also to popularize knowledge of Sunni Islam. According to [[Ibn Jubayr]], under Saladin, Damascus had 20 schools, 100 baths, and a large number of [[Sufi]] ''[[dervish]]'' monasteries. He also built several schools in Aleppo, Jerusalem, Cairo, Alexandria, and in various cities in the Hejaz. Similarly, many schools were built by his successors also. Their wives and daughters, commanders, and nobles established and financed numerous educational institutions as well.<ref name="Ali38"/>

Although the Ayyubids were from the [[Shafi'i]] denomination, they built schools for imparting instruction in all four of the Sunni systems of religious-juridical thought. Before the Ayyubid takeover, there were no schools for the Hanbali and Maliki denominations in Syria, but the Ayyubids founded separate schools for them. In the mid-13th century, [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Ibn Shaddad]] counted in Damascus 40 Shafi'i, 34 [[Hanafi]], 10 Hanbali, and three Maliki schools.<ref name="Ali39">Ali, 1996, p.39.</ref>

When Saladin restored Sunni orthodoxy in Egypt, 10 ''madrasas'' were established during his reign, and an additional 25 during the entire Ayyubid period of rule. Each of their locations had religious, political, and economic significance, in particular those in al-Fustat. Most of the schools were dedicated to the Shafi'i denomination, but others belonged to the Maliki and Hanafi ''[[madhab]]s''. The ''madrasas'' built near the tomb of [[Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i|Imam al-Shafi'i]] were located adjacent to the important centers of pilgrimage and were a major focus of Sunni devotion.<ref name="Yeomans111">Yeomans, 2006, p.111.</ref> About 26 schools were built in Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus by men of high rank in the government, and unusual of the time, common people founded in Egypt about 18 schools, including two medical institutions.<ref name="Ali39"/>

Most schools were residential whereby both teachers and students resided as a rule. The teachers appointed were jurists, theologians, and traditionalists who received their salary from endowments to the institutions they taught in. Each student was offered a lodging where he would resort, a teacher to instruct him in whatever art he requested, and regular grants to cover all his needs. ''Madrasas'' were considered prestigious institutions in society. Under the Ayyubids, it was not possible to obtain a job in the government without receiving an education from a ''madrasa''.<ref name="Ali39"/>

===Science and medicine===
The facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to a resurgence in intellectual activity in different branches of knowledge and learning throughout the territories they controlled. They took special interest in the fields of medicine, pharmacology, and botany. Saladin built and maintained two hospitals in Cairo emulating the well-known Nuri Hospital in Damascus which not only treated patients, but also provided medical schooling. Many scientists and physicians flourished in this period in Egypt, Syria, and [[Iraq]]. Among them were [[Maimonides]], [[Ibn Jami]], [[Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)|Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi]], [[al-Dakhwar]], [[Rashidun al-Suri]], and [[Ibn al-Baitar]]. Some of these scholars served the Ayyubid household directly, becoming the personal physicians of sultans.<ref>Ali, 1996, pp.39-41.</ref>

===Architecture===
[[File:Firdaws Madrasa Courtyard.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Firdaws Madrasa]] was built in 1236 under the patronage of [[Dayfa Khatun]]]]
[[File:Ayyubid Wall Al-Azhar Park Cairo 01-2006.jpg|thumb|right|The Ayyubid wall in Cairo, uncovered during construction of [[Al-Azhar Park]], January 2006]]

Military architecture was the supreme expression of the Ayyubid period, as well as an eagerness to fortify the restoration of Sunni Islam, especially in a previously [[Shia]]-dominated Egypt by constructing Sunni ''madrasas''. The most radical change Saladin implemented in Egypt was the enclosure of Cairo and al-Fustat within one city wall.<ref name="Yeomans"/> Some of the techniques of fortification were learned from the Crusaders, such as curtain walls following the natural topography. Many were also inherited from the Fatimids like machicolations and round towers, while other techniques were developed simultaneously by the Ayyubids, particularly concentric planning.<ref>Peterson, 1996, p.26.</ref>

Muslim women, particularly those from the Ayyubid family, the families of local governors, and the families of the ''[[ulema]]'' ("religious scholars") took an active role in Ayyubid architecture. Damascus witnessed the most sustained patronage of religious architecture by women. They were responsible for the construction of 15 ''madrasas'', six Sufi hospices, and 26 religious and charitable institutions. In Aleppo, the [[Firdaws Madrasa]], known as the most impressive Ayyubid building in Syria, had regent queen [[Dayfa Khatun]] as its patron.<ref>Necipoğlu, 1994, pp.35-36.</ref>

In September 1183, construction of the [[Citadel of Cairo|Cairo Citadel]] began under Saladin's orders. According to [[al-Maqrizi]], Saladin chose the Muqattam Hills to build the citadel because the air there was fresher than anywhere else in the city, but its construction was not so much determined by the salubrious atmosphere; rather it was out of defensive necessity and example of existing fortresses and citadels in Syria. The walls and towers of the northern section of the citadel are largely the works of Saladin and al-Kamil.<ref name="Yeomans">Yeomans, 2006, pp.104-105.</ref> Two of Saladin's towers were totally encased by semi-circular units. Al-Kamil completed the citadel; he strengthened and enlarged some of the existing towers, and also added a number of square towers which served as self-contained keeps. According to Richard Yeomans, the most impressive of al-Kamil's structures was the series of massive rectangular keeps which straddled the walls of the northern enclosure.<ref>Yeomans, 2006, pp.109-110.</ref> All of al-Kamil's fortifications can be identified by their embossed, rusticated masonry, whereas Saladin's towers have smooth dressed stones. This heavier rustic style became a common feature in other Ayyubid fortifications, and can be seen in the [[Citadel of Damascus]] and that of [[Bosra]] in Syria.<ref name="Yeomans111"/>

[[File:Ayyubid wall cyark 2.jpg|thumb|left|Isometric [[3D Scanner|laser scan]] data image of the Bab al-Barqiyya Gate in the 12th century Ayyubid Wall that borders [[Al-Azhar Park]]. This fortified gate was constructed with interlocking volumes that surrounded the entrant in such a way as to provide greater security and control than typical city wall gates.]]

Aleppo underwent major transformations in the Ayyubid period, specifically during the reign of [[Malik az-Zahir|az-Zahir Ghazi]]. Ayyubid architectural achievements focused on four areas: the [[Citadel of Aleppo|citadel]], the waterworks, fortifications, and the extramural developments. The total rebuilding of the city enclosure began when az-Zahir Ghazi removed the [[vallum]] of Nur ad-Din—which by then outlived its temporary need—and rebuilt the northern and northwestern walls—the most susceptible to outside attack—from [[Bab al-Jinan]] to [[Bab al-Nasr]]. He parceled out the building of the towers on this stretch of the wall to his princes and military officers; each tower was identified with a particular prince who inscribed his name into it. Later, az-Zahir Ghazi extended the eastern wall to the south and east, reflecting his desire to incorporate a dilapidated fortress, Qala'at al-Sharif, outside the city into Aleppo's enclosure.<ref>Tabaa, 1997, p.19.</ref> [[Bab Qinnasrin]] was completely rebuilt by an-Nasir Yusuf in 1256. This gate stands today as a masterpiece of medieval Syrian military architecture.<ref>Tabaa, 1997, pp.21-22.</ref> Cumulatively, Ayyubid architecture left a lasting impression in Aleppo. The citadel was rebuilt, the water network was expanded, and streets and quarters were provided fountains and baths. In addition, dozens of shrines, mosques, ''madrasas'', and mausoleums were built throughout the city.<ref>Tabaa, 1997, p.26.</ref>

The Ayyubid period in Jerusalem following its conquest by Saladin was marked by a huge investment in the construction of houses, markets, public bathes, and pilgrim hostels. Numerous works were undertaken at the [[Temple Mount]].<ref>Abu-Lughod and Dumper, 2007, p.209.</ref> Saladin ordered all the inner walls and pillars of the [[Dome of the Rock]] to be covered in [[marble]] and he instigated the renovation of the mosaics on the dome's drum. The ''[[mihrab]]'' of the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] was repaired and in 1217, al-Mu'azzam Isa built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates.<ref>Ma'oz and Nusseibeh, 2000, pp.137-138.</ref> The [[Dome of the Ascension]] was also built and restoration work was done to the existing free-standing domes of the Temple Mount.<ref>le Strange, 1890, pp.154-155.</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Ayyubid rulers]]
*[[List of Sunni Muslim dynasties]]

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

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{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/ayyubids.html Ayyubids Dynasty]
*[http://archive.cyark.org/bab-albarqiyya-info Fatimid-era Ayyubid Wall of Cairo Digital Media Archive] ([[creative commons]]-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a [[Aga Khan Foundation]]/[[CyArk]] research partnership

{{Ayyubid dynasty}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ayyubid Dynasty}}
[[Category:States and territories established in 1171]]
[[Category:Ayyubid dynasty| ]]
[[Category:1341 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Muslim dynasties]]
[[Category:Kurdish dynasties]]
[[Category:History of the Kurdish people]]

[[ar:أيوبيون]]
[[ca:Dinastia aiúbida]]
[[cs:Ajjúbovci]]
[[da:Ayyubide-dynastiet]]
[[de:Ayyubiden]]
[[es:Dinastía ayubí]]
[[eu:Aiubtar leinua]]
[[fa:ایوبیان]]
[[fr:Ayyoubides]]
[[ko:아이유브 왕조]]
[[id:Dinasti Ayyubiyyah]]
[[it:Ayyubidi]]
[[he:השושלת האיובית]]
[[ku:Dewleta Eyûbiyan]]
[[arz:الايوبيين]]
[[mzn:ایوبیون]]
[[ms:Dinasti Ayubiyyah]]
[[nl:Ajjoebiden]]
[[ja:アイユーブ朝]]
[[no:Ajjubide-dynastiet]]
[[pl:Ajjubidzi]]
[[pt:Aiúbidas]]
[[ru:Айюбиды]]
[[simple:Ayyubid dynasty]]
[[sl:Ajubidi]]
[[sr:Ајубиди]]
[[fi:Aijubidit]]
[[sv:Ayyubiderna]]
[[tr:Eyyubiler]]
[[ur:ایوبی سلطنت]]
[[zh:阿尤布王朝]]

Adrian

2010-10-24T10:47:37Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: da, ja, ko, uk Removing: en

{{Infobox given name
| name = Adrian
| image = Bust Hadrian Musei Capitolini MC817.jpg
| imagesize=
| caption = Bust of Hadrian
| pronunciation=
| gender = [[Male]]
| meaning = From Hadria
| region =
| origin = [[Latin]]
| related names = [[Adriaan]], [[Adriano]], [[Adrien]], [[Jadranko]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Adrian''' is the form of the [[Latin language|Latin]] [[given name]] ''Hadrianus'' (see [[Hadrian]]). Several [[saints]] and six popes have borne this name, including the only English pope, Adrian IV, and the only Dutch pope, Adrian VI. As an English name, it has been in use since the Middle Ages, though it was not popular until modern times.

'''Adrian''' may refer to:
* [[Adrian Aucoin]], Canadian professional ice hockey
* [[Adrian Belew]], American guitarist, singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and record producer
* [[Adrian Boult]], English conductor
* [[Adrian Chiles]], British television and radio presenter
* [[Adrian Cioroianu]], Romanian historian, politician, journalist, and essayist
* [[Adrian Cristea]], Romanian footballer
* [[Adrian Cruciat]], Romanian tennis player
* [[Adrian Diaconu]], Romanian professional boxer
* [[Adrian Edmondson]], English actor, comedian, director, writer and musician
* [[Adrian Erlandsson]], Swedish heavy metal drummer
* [[Adrian Fulford]], British judge
* [[Adrian Grenier]], American actor, musician and director
* [[Adrian Hardy Haworth]], English entomologist, botanist and carcinologist
* [[Adrian Heath]], English football manager and former player
* [[Adrian Johns]], Governor of Gibraltar and a former senior officer in the Royal Navy
* [[Adrian Knox]], Australian judge
* [[Adrian Lester]], British actor
* [[Adrian Legg]], English guitar player who has been called "impossible to categorize"
* [[Adrian Lyne]], English filmmaker and producer
* [[Adrian Mitchell]], English poet, novelist and playwright
* [[Adrian Morley]], English professional rugby
* [[Adrian Mutu]], Romanian footballer
* [[Adrian Năstase]], Romanian politician
* [[Adrian Pasdar]], American actor and film director
* [[Adrian Paul]], English actor
* [[Adrian Peterson]], American football running back
* [[Adrian Purtell]], Australian rugby
* [[Adrian Quist]], Australian male tennis player
* [[Adrian Rogers]], American pastor, conservative, author
* [[Adrian Rollini]], multi-instrumentalist best known for his jazz music
* [[Adrian Ropotan]], Romanian footballer
* [[Adrian Sanders]], Liberal Democrat politician in the United Kingdom
* [[Adrian Schultheiss]], Swedish figure skater
* [[Adrian Smith]], English musician and one of three guitarists/songwriters in the English band Iron Maiden
* [[Adrian Sutil]], German Formula One racing driver
* [[Adrian Truss]], Actor, Voice actor and Television writer
* [[Adrian Vandenberg]], Dutch rock guitarist
* [[Adrian Willaert]], Flemish composer of the Renaissance and founder of the Venetian School
* [[Adrian Young]], drummer for the rock band, No Doubt
* [[Adrian Zmed]], Romanian-American television personality and film actor

'''Papacy'''
* [[Pope Adrian I]] (died 795)
* [[Pope Adrian II]] (792–872)
* [[Pope Adrian III]] (died 885)
* [[Pope Adrian IV]] (c. 1100–1159), English pope
* [[Pope Adrian V]] (c. 1205–1276)
* [[Pope Adrian VI]] (1459–1523), Dutch pope

'''Religious figures'''
* [[Adrian of Nicomedia]] Herculian Guard of the Roman Emperor Galerius Maximian
* [[Adrian of Canterbury]] (died 710), scholar and the Abbot of St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury
* [[Adrian of Poshekhon]] (died 1550), Russian Orthodox saint, hegumen of Dormition monastery in Yaroslavl region
* [[Adrian of Ondrusov]] (died 1549), Russian Orthodox saint and wonder-worker
* [[San Adrian (tunnel)]] and hermitage, a landmark in the Way of St. James

'''See also'''
* [[Adriaan]]
* [[Adriano]]
* [[Adrien]]
* [[Jadranko]]

{{surname}}
[[Category:Given names]]

[[bg:Адриан (име)]]
[[ca:Adrià (nom)]]
[[cs:Adrián]]
[[da:Adrian (drengenavn)]]
[[de:Adrian]]
[[es:Adrián]]
[[eo:Adrian]]
[[gl:Hadrián]]
[[ko:아드리안]]
[[is:Adrían]]
[[it:Adriano (nome)]]
[[hu:Adrián]]
[[nl:Adriaan (voornaam)]]
[[ja:エイドリアン]]
[[no:Adrian]]
[[nn:Hadrian]]
[[pl:Adrian (imię)]]
[[sk:Adrián]]
[[sl:Adrian]]
[[sv:Adrian]]
[[uk:Адріан (ім'я)]]

Simone (given name)

2010-10-24T08:13:47Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: nl:Jimena

{{Infobox given name
| name = Simone
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| pronunciation =
| gender =
| meaning =
| region =
| language =
| origin =
| alternative spelling =
| nickname =
| variant forms = Jimena, Simona, Ximena
| related names =
| name day =
| derived =
| popularity =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Simone''' is a female given name derived from [[Simon (disambiguation)|Simon]], Hebrew [[Simeon]], meaning "one who hears". It first appears in Iberia from the 10th century, as ''Jimena'', ''Ximena'', feminine eponym of [[Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona|Jimeno (Simeon) II of Pamplona]], founder of the [[Jiménez dynasty]]. ''Simone'' itself is the French spelling.

''Simone'' - pronounced see-MAW-ne - is also the Italian spelling of the male given name, [[Simon (disambiguation)|Simon]]; the Italian feminine form is ''Simona''.

Modernly, it is a female name quite used in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], both in the South-American and in the European variants.

In [[Romania]] the feminine form ''Simona'' is widely spread whereas the masculine ''Simon'' is very rare.

{{TOCright}}
== Given name ==
===Jimena===
* Dona Jimena, mother of [[Bernardo del Carpio]] (8th century, legendary)
* Jimena of Cea (10th century), wife of [[García Sánchez II of Pamplona]] (great-grandson of Jimeno II)
* Jimena, daughter of [[Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona]] (11th century)
* Jimena, daughter of [[Alfonso V of León]] (11th century)
* [[Jimena (singer)]], (born 1980) Mexican singer
* [[Jimena Díaz]], wife of [[El Cid]] (11th century)
* [[Jimena Elías]] (born 1989), Miss Peru
* Jimena Munoz, mistress of [[Alfonso VI of León and Castile]] (11th century)
* [[María Jimena Piccolo]], (born 1985) Argentine TV actress

===Simona===
* [[Simona Bourne]], American Achiever
* [[Simona Fusco Stratten]] (born 1978), Italian model<ref>[http://www.askmen.com/celebs/women/actress/simona-fusco-stratten/index.html Simona Fusco Stratten Photos, Gossip, Bio & Reviews - AskMen.com]</ref>
* [[Simona Galikova]] (born 1975), Slovakian former tennis player
* [[Simona Halep]] (born 1991), Romanian tennis player
* [[Simona Koch]] (born 1968), German diver
* [[Simona Orinska]], Latvian butoh artist
* [[Simona Ventura]] (born 1965), Italian TV hostess

===Simone===
* [[Simone de Beauvoir]] (1908–1986), French author and philosopher
* [[Simone Beck]] (1904-1991), French cookbook author and cooking teacher
* [[Simone Bittencourt de Oliveira]], Brazilian popular music (MPB) singer
* [[Simone Bolelli]], Italian tennis player
* [[Simone Cercato]], Italian swimmer
* [[Simone Melchior]] (1919–1990), wife and business partner of undersea explorer Jacques-Yves Cousteau
* [[Simone Denny]], Canadian pop/dance vocalist
* [[Simone (singer)|Simone Egeriis]], Danish singer
* [[Simone Favaro]], Italian rugby union player
* [[Simone Goldstone]], a Canadian soccer player
* [[Simone Gomes Jatobá]], Brazilian footballer
* [[Simone Guimarães]], Brazilian popular music (MPB) singer
* [[Simone Inzaghi]], Italian footballer
* [[Simone Kuhn]] (born 1980), Swiss beach volleyball player
* [[Simone Loria]], Italian football (soccer) player
* [[Simone Maludrottu]], Italian boxer
* [[Simone Martini]], Italian painter
* [[Simone Mathes]] (born 1975), German hammer thrower
* [[Simone de Oliveira]], Portuguese singer and TV actress
* [[Simone Perrotta]], Italian footballer
* [[Simona Richter]] (born 1972), Romanian judoka
* [[Simona Rinieri]] (born 1977), Italian volleyball player
* [[Simone Signoret]] (1921–1985), Jewish-French actress
* [[Simone Simon]] (1910–2005), French film actress
* [[Simone Simons]] (born 1985), Dutch mezzo-soprano singer
* [[Simone Thust]] (born 1971), German race walker
* [[Simone Weil]] (1909-1943), French philosopher and activist
* [[Simone Kylstra]] (born 1997), 13 year old trumpet player

===Ximena===
* [[Ximena Huilipán]], Chilean-Mapuche model and actress
* [[Ximena Sariñana]], (born 1985) Mexican singer
* [[Ximena Navarrete]], (born 1988) Mexican model and Beauty Queen

== Surname ==
* [[Afric Simone]] (born 1956), Mozambique singer and musician
* [[Albert J. Simone]] (born 1935), former president of the Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York
* [[Andrew Simone]] (born 1938), Canadian dermatologist
* [[Domonique Simone]] (born 1971), American adult actress
* [[Gail Simone]] (born 1974), American comic book writer
* [[Hannah Simone]] (born 1980), Canadian television host
* [[Kirsten Simone]], Danish ballerina
* [[Marco Simone]] (born 1969), Italian former footballer
* [[Mark Simone]], American radio personality
* [[Nina Simone]] (1933 - 2003), American singer/songwriter
* Rabbi [[Simuna|Simona]] (or [[Simuna]]) - A Jewish [[Talmud]]ist [[Savora]] sage.

== Fictional characters and pseudonyms ==
* Simone, the pet dog in the ''[[The Partridge Family]]'' TV series
* [[Simone Deveaux]], a fictional character on the TV show ''Heroes'' (2006-2007)
* Simone, a fictional character on the 2002 film ''[[S1m0ne]]'', played by Rachel Roberts
* Simone Lenoir, a cartoon character from the 1998 film "[[Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island]]", voiced by Adrienne Barbeau

== See also ==
* {{Lookfrom}}
* {{Intitle}}
* [[Jimena (disambiguation)]]
* [[Tropical Storm Simone]]
* ''[[S1m0ne]]'', film
* [[1033 Simona]] asteroid

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{given name}}
[[Category:Surnames]]
[[Category:English given names]]
[[Category:French feminine given names]]
[[Category:Italian masculine given names]]
[[Category:Spanish feminine given names]]

[[cs:Simona]]
[[de:Simone]]
[[es:Jimena]]
[[fr:Simone]]
[[ko:시모네 (동음이의)]]
[[it:Simona]]
[[hu:Szimóna]]
[[nl:Jimena]]
[[ja:シモーヌ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[no:Simone]]
[[pl:Ksymena]]
[[sk:Simona]]
[[sl:Simona]]
[[sv:Simone]]

Stephanie

2010-10-24T07:09:33Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: la:Stephania

{{Infobox given name
| name = Stephanie
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
| pronunciation = ''STEFF-a-nee''
| gender = Female
| origin = Greek
| related names = [[Stéphanie]], Stephannie, Stefny, Stephenie, Stefanie, Stefani, Stefany, Estephany, Stephany, Steph, Stephi, Steffi, Stefana, Stephie, Stephie Gee, Stephy, Stef, Stepha, Stepharoni, Stephan, Steve, Stevie, Stepho, Stephie, Steffani, Stefano, Stephano, Shtephhanie}}
[[Image:Stephanie Napoleon.jpg|thumb|Painting of Stéphanie Anne Donnell de Beauharnais by [[François Pascal Simon, Baron Gérard]] (1806)]]

'''Stephanie''' is a female name that comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] name "Stefanos" (Στέφανος) meaning "crown".<ref>H. G. Liddell, Robert Scott – Abridged Greek-English Lexicon</ref> The male form is [[Stephen]]. Forms of Stephanie in other languages include the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Stefania'', the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''Estefânia'', and the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Estefanía''. The form Stéphanie is from the French language, but Stephanie is now widely used in both English speaking cultures and Spanish speaking cultures.
Stephanie - (Greek) "Crowned one" Also, Stephania, Etienette, Stefa, Stefania, Stefanie, Stefanina, Steffie, Stepania, Stepanie, Stephana, Stevena, Teena, and Tiennette.<ref>Noel Higgins & Jeanne Goldner, ''Names, Names, Names, A Book for You'' (Middletown, Connecticut: Weekly Reader Books, 1986), page 51-p.</ref>

== Given names ==
===Royalty===
*[[Stéphanie de Beauharnais]] (1789–1860), French consort of Karl Ludwig Friedrich, Grand Duke of Baden....
*[[Stéphanie of Belgium|Princess Stéphanie of Belgium]] (Stéphanie Clotilde Louise Herminie Marie Charlotte of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) (1864–1945), wife of Crown Prince Rudolf, heir to the Austrian imperial throne, daughter of King Léopold II of Belgium
*[[Stephanie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen|Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]] (1837-1859), Consort queen of [[Portugal]], married to King [[Pedro V of Portugal|Pedro V]]
*[[Stephanie of Milly]] (died 1197), lady of Oultrejordain and an influential figure in the Kingdom of Jerusalem
*[[Stephanie, Princess zu Windisch-Graetz|Princess Stephanie of Windisch-Graetz]] (1909-2005), Austrian artist, daughter of Elisabeth Marie Henriette, Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria, daughter of Crown Prince Rudolf
*[[Princess Stéphanie of Monaco]] (born 1965), youngest child of Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier of Monaco

===Others===
*[[Stephanie (singer)|Stephanie]] (born 1987), Japanese singer-songwriter
*[[Saint Stephanie]], virgin and martyr in Amalfi, Italy, honored on September 18
*[[Stephanie Abrams]], on-camera meteorologist on The Weather Channel
*[[Stephanie Adams]] (born 1970), American model and author, Playboy Playmate of the Month, November 1992
*[[Stephanie Arnold]], American athlete
*[[Stephanie Beacham]] (born 1947), British actress
*[[Stephanie Beard]], a.k.a. Sugar and Suga BayBee (born 1980), Canadian actress, voice actress and television and radio personality
*[[Stephanie Bellars]], a.k.a. Gorgeous George and George Frankenstein (born 1976), American professional wrestling valet
*[[Stephanie Berto]] (born 1953), Canadian track and field athlete
*[[Stephanie Bendixsen]] (born 31 March, 1985), Australian television presenter and video game reviewer
*[[Stephanie Birkitt]], assistant to David Letterman on ''The Late Show with David Letterman''
*[[Stephanie J. Block]], American actress and singer
*[[Stephanie Cheng]] (born 1984), singer and starlet in Hong Kong
*[[Stephanie Cole]] (born 1941), British actress
*[[Stephanie Dosen]], American singer
*[[Stephanie Fearon]] (born 1989), British singer and actress
*[[Stéphanie Félicité Ducrest de St-Albin, comtesse de Genlis]] (1746–1830), French writer and educator
*[[Stephanie Finochio]], a.k.a. Trinity (born 1971), American stuntwoman and professional wrestling valet
*[[Stephanie Forrester (athlete)|Stephanie Forrester]], British triathlete at the 2000 Summer Olympics
*[[Stefani Germanotta]], a.k.a. Lady Gaga American recording artist
*[[Steffi Graf|Stefanie Maria “Steffi” Graf]] (born 1969), German tennis player, former World No. 1 woman tennis player
*[[Stephanie Graf]], former Austrian middle distance athlete, competed in the 2000 Olympics
*[[Stephanie Herseth Sandlin]] (born 1970), American lawyer and politician, U.S. representative from South Dakota
*[[Stephanie Horner]] (born 1989), Canadian swimmer
*[[Stephanie Hwang]], a.k.a. Tiffany (born 1989), Korean-American singer, a member of Korean pop group [[Girls' Generation]].
*[[Stephanie Jaramillo]] (born 1982), American Professional Boxer (retired),
*[[Stephanie Tubbs Jones]] (1949-2008), American politician, representative from Ohio
*[[Stephanie Kim]] (born 1987), Korean singer, a member of [[The Grace]].
*[[Stephanie Kwolek]] (born 1923), Polish-American chemist and the inventor of Kevlar
*[[Stéphanie Lapointe]] (born 1984), Quebec singer and actress
*[[Stefanie Lawton]] (née Stefanie Miller), Canadian curler from Saskatchewan
*[[Stephanie Luzie]], German gothic metal singer
*[[Stephanie March]] (born 1974), American actress
*[[Stephanie Pace Marshall]], American educator and founder of the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy
*[[Stephenie Meyer]], American author of the ''Twilight'' series
*[[Stephanie McIntosh]] (born 1985), Australian actress
*[[Stephanie McMahon]] (born 1976), daughter of World Wrestling Entertainment Chairman Vince McMahon, former in-ring performer
*[[Stephanie McMichael]] (born 1989), Big Brother 2008 contestant
*[[Stephanie Miller]] (born 1961), American actress and radio talk show host
*[[Stephanie Mills]] (born 1957), American R&B and soul singer and former Broadway star
*[[Stefani Morgan]]
*Stephanie Nicks, also known as [[Stevie Nicks]] (born 1948), American singer and songwriter member of Fleetwood Mac.
*[[Stephanie Pakrul]], a.k.a. StephTheGeek (born 1982), American blogger
*[[Stephanie Pohl]] (born 1978), German beach volleyball player
*[[Stefanie Powers]] (born 1942), American actress
*[[Stephanie Rice]] (born 1988), Australian swimmer
*[[Stefanie Ridel]], American singer with the band Wild Orchid
*[[Stephanie Romanov]] (born 1969), model and actress
*[[Stephanie Seymour]], supermodel
*[[Stephanie Storp]] (born 1968), German shot putter
*[[Stefanie Sun]] (born 1978), Singaporean popular singer
*[[Stephanie Wilson]], (born 1966), American astronaut
*[[Stephanie Zimbalist]] (born 1956), American actress, daughter of Efrem Zimbalist, Jr.

===Fictional persons===
*''Stephanie Brown,'' a.k.a. [[Spoiler (comics character)|Spoiler]], costumed hero in DC Comics, part of the Batman Family
*[[Stephanie Forrester (B&B)|Stephanie Forrester]], character on the soap opera ''The Bold and the Beautiful''
*[[Stephanie Tanner]], character on the American TV series ''Full House''
*[[Stephanie (LazyTown)|Stephanie of LazyTown]] is a fictional character in the children's TV show LazyTown
*Stephanie Vandergosh of ''[[Better Luck Tomorrow]]''
*[[Stephanie Plum]] bounty hunter and title character from the [[Janet Evanovich]] series
*Stephanie Speck from the movie ''[[Short Circuit]]''
*Stephanie Scully from Australian TV drama ''[[Neighbours]]''
*Stephanie Crawford from [[To Kill a Mockingbird]] by [[Harper Lee]]
*Stephanie Zinone (played by [[Michelle Pfeiffer]]), the leading female character in the American movie, ''[[Grease 2]]''
*Stephanie Vanderkellen from the TV show ''[[Newhart]]''
*Stephanie Dufresne from [[Princess to Prince]], the leading female role
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{given name|cat=feminine given names}}

[[cs:Štěpánka]]
[[da:Stephanie]]
[[de:Stefanie]]
[[fr:Stéphanie]]
[[ko:스테파니]]
[[it:Stefania]]
[[la:Stephania]]
[[hu:Stefánia]]
[[nl:Stefanie]]
[[ja:ステファニー]]
[[pl:Stefania]]
[[pt:Stephanie]]
[[ru:Стефания]]
[[sk:Štefánia]]
[[uk:Стефанія]]

Superstar (disambiguation)

2010-10-24T06:08:32Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:슈퍼스타 (동음이의)

'''Superstar''' may refer to:
__NOTOC__
==Word==
* [[Superstar]], a term used to refer to a widely acclaimed celebrity

==People==
* [[Rajesh Khanna]], Indian actor,referred as the first Superstar of Indian Cinema
* [[Amitabh Bachchan]], Indian actor referred to as the Superstar of Millennium
* [[Rajnikanth]], actor from Tamil Nadu, commonly referred as Superstar Rajnikanth.
* [[Warhol Superstar]], associates of Andy Warhol
* [[List of World Wrestling Entertainment employees]], the name given to a wrestler of World Wrestling Entertainment
* [[Princess Superstar]] (aka Concetta Kirschner), an Italian-American rapper
* [[Har Mar Superstar]], a musician from Minnesota

==Music==
* [[Superstar (band)]], a Scottish indie pop band led by Joe McAlinden

===Albums===
* [[Super Star (S.H.E album)|''Super Star'' (S.H.E album)]], an album by girl group S.H.E and its title track
* ''[[Ghetto Supastar]]'', a 1998 album by Pras
* ''[[Superstar Car Wash]]'', an album by the Goo Goo Dolls
* ''[[Antichrist Superstar]]'', an album by The Marilyn Manson band
* ''[[The Superstars]]'', a 1982 album by Stars on 45

===Songs===
* [[Superstars (song)|"Superstars" (song)]], a 2007 song by David Fonsenca
* [[Superstar (Delaney and Bonnie song)|"Superstar" (Delaney & Bonnie song)]], a 1969 song, notably recorded by [[The Carpenters]] and [[Luther Vandross]]
* "[[Superstar (Remember How You Got Where You Are)]]", a 1971 song by The Temptations
* [[Superstar (Saliva song)|"Superstar" (Saliva song)]], a 2001 song by the rock band Saliva
* [[Superstar (Christine Milton song)|"Superstar" (Christine Milton song)]], a 2003 R&B song by singer Christine Milton, later covered by Jamelia
* [[Superstar (Jade MacRae song)|"Superstar" (Jade MacRae song)]], a song by the Australian R&B singer Jade MacRae
* [[Superstar (Lupe Fiasco song)|"Superstar" (Lupe Fiasco song)]], a 2007 song by hip-hop artist Lupe Fiasco
*[[Super Star (Holly Valance song)|"Super Star" (Holly Valance song)]]
* "Superstar", a 2004 song by German rock band Böhse Onkelz, from the album ''[[Adios (Böhse Onkelz album)|Adios]]''
* "Superstar", a 2005 song by Geri Halliwell, from the album ''[[Passion (Geri Halliwell album)|Passion]]''
* "SuperStar", a 2009 song by hip-hop artist Ya Boy
* "[[Ghetto Supastar (That Is What You Are)]]", song by Pras
* "[[Süper Star]]", a song by Sibel Tüzün

==Jesus Christ Superstar==
* ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]'', a rock opera by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber
** [[Jesus Christ Superstar (album)|''Jesus Christ Superstar'' (album)]], the rock opera's soundtrack
** [[Jesus Christ Superstar (film)|''Jesus Christ Superstar'' (film)]], film based on the musical
** [[Superstar (Jesus Christ Superstar song)|"Superstar" (Jesus Christ Superstar song)]], a well-known song from the musical

==Films or television programs==
* ''[[Superstar: The Karen Carpenter Story]]'', a short film using Barbie dolls to tell the story of pop singer Karen Carpenter
* [[Superstar (film)|''Superstar'' (film)]], a Saturday Night Live-based movie starring Molly Shannon as her popular character, Mary Katherine Gallagher
* [[SuperStar (2008 film)|''SuperStar'' (2008 film)]], a Bollywood Drama Film starring Kunal Khemu
* [[Superstars]], a made for television sports competition
* ''[[Superstar USA]]'', an American reality television series
* ''[[Super Star (Arabic television show)]]'', the Arabic version of Pop Idol
* ''[[SuperStar KZ]]'', a reality television show in Kazakhstan based on Pop Idol
* ''[[Slovensko hľadá SuperStar]]'', the Slovak version of Pop Idol
* ''[[Česko hledá SuperStar]]'', the Czech version of Pop Idol
* [[Superstar (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)|"Superstar" (''Buffy the Vampire Slayer'')]] the 17th episode in the 4th season of ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''
* [[Superstar (Goodies episode)|"Superstar" (''Goodies'' episode)]], an episode of ''The Goodies''
* ''[[WWE Superstars]]'', a syndicated television show produced by the [[World Wrestling Entertainment]].
* ''[[WWF Superstars of Wrestling]]'' (Later known as WWF Superstars), a syndicated television show produced by the World Wrestling Federation (now [[World Wrestling Entertainment]]).
* '' [[Superstars of Dance]] '' an international dance competition on NBC

==Miscellaneous==
* ''[[The Sims]]'', an expansion for ''The Sims'' PC game
* [[Adidas Superstar]], the name of a sneaker
* [[Warhol Superstar]]
* [[Kirby Super Star]], a Kirby game for the SNES
* [[Guitar Superstar]], a yearly guitar competition by Guitar Player magazine

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Superstar]]
[[de:Superstar]]
[[fr:Superstar]]
[[ko:슈퍼스타 (동음이의)]]
[[it:Superstar]]
[[ja:スーパースター]]
[[sk:Superstar]]
[[sv:Superstars]]

Suphan Buri

2010-10-24T05:38:08Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:수판부리

{{About|the town Suphanburi}}
[[File:Lakmueangsuphanburi06.jpg|thumb|The ''City Pillar'' is housed in a Chinese temple]]
'''Suphan Buri''' is a town (''[[thesaban mueang]]'') in central [[Thailand]], capital of the [[Suphan Buri Province]]. It covers the whole ''[[tambon]]'' Tha Philiang and parts of the ''tambon'' Rua Yai and Tha Rahat, all within the [[Amphoe Mueang Suphanburi|Mueang Suphan Buri district]]. As of 2006 it has a population of 26,656.
This is the city where [[luk thung]] superstar [[Pumpuang Duangjan]] is buried and is sometimes called the Thai [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]].

==External links==
*http://www.suphancity.com (Thai)

{{Suphanburi-geo-stub}}

{{coord|14|28|3|N|100|07|01|E|region:TH_type:city(26000)|display=title}}

[[Category:Suphanburi Province]]
[[Category:Populated places in Thailand]]

[[de:Suphanburi]]
[[fr:Suphanburi]]
[[ko:수판부리]]
[[nl:Suphanburi (stad)]]
[[no:Suphanburi]]
[[th:เทศบาลเมืองสุพรรณบุรี]]

Social network game

2010-10-24T04:20:53Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: ko:소셜 네트워크 게임

A '''social network game''' is a type of [[browser game]] that is distributed primarily through [[social networks]], and typically features [[multiplayer]] and [[asynchronous]] gameplay mechanics.<ref>Chen, Sande (April 29, 2009), The Social Network Game Boom, http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/4009/the_social_network_game_boom.php</ref><ref>Radoff, Jon (May 24, 2010), History of Social Games, http://radoff.com/blog/2010/05/24/history-social-games/</ref><ref>Grossman, Lev (Nov. 16, 2009), The Odd Popularity of Mafia Wars, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1935113,00.html</ref><ref>Järvinen, Aki (2009),
Workshop: Game Design for Social Networks, Proceedings of the 13th International MindTrek Conference: Everyday Life in the Ubiquitous Era, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1935113,00.html
</ref> Social network games are amongst the most popular games played in the world, with several products with tens of millions of players.<ref>Kleinman, Zoe (Nov. 2009), BBC News, "Social network games catch the eye of computer giants," http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8376392.stm</ref> ''[[Top Eleven Football Manager]]'', ''[[FarmVille]]'' and ''[[Dawn of the Dragons (video game)|Dawn of the Dragons]]'' are examples of popular social network games.

==References==
<references/>

{{Online-game-stub}}

[[Category:Online games]]
[[Category:Social networks]]

[[ko:소셜 네트워크 게임]]

Sergei Ignashevich

2010-10-24T03:04:56Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: tr:Sergey İgnaşeviç

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Sergei Ignashevich
| image = [[Image:Ignashevich.JPG|150px]]
| fullname = Sergei Nikolaevich Ignashevich
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1979|7|14}}
| cityofbirth = [[Moscow]]
| countryofbirth = [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
| height = {{convert|1.86|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| weight = {{convert|82|kg|stlb|abbr=on}}
| currentclub = [[PFC CSKA Moscow|CSKA Moscow]]
| clubnumber = 4
| position = [[Centre back]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 1999 1999–2000 2001–2003 2004–''present''
| clubs = [[FC Znamya Truda Orekhovo-Zuyevo|Znamya Truda]] [[FC Krylia Sovetov Samara|Krylia Sovetov]] [[FC Lokomotiv Moscow|Lokomotiv Moscow]] [[PFC CSKA Moscow|CSKA Moscow]]
| caps(goals) = {{0}}17 {{0}}(0) {{0}}31 {{0}}(2) {{0}}75 {{0}}(4) 173 (20)
| nationalyears = 2002–''present''
| nationalteam = [[Russia national football team|Russia]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = {{0}}61 {{0}}(4)
| pcupdate = 13:46, 17 October 2010 (UTC)
| ntupdate = 12:18, 13 October 2010 (UTC)
}}
'''Sergei Nikolaievich Ignashevich''' ({{lang-ru|Сергей Николаевич Игнашевич}}; born 14 July 1979) is a [[Russia]]n professional [[association football|footballer]] who currently plays for [[PFC CSKA Moscow|CSKA Moscow]] and the [[Russia national football team|Russian national team]]. He has also played for [[Lokomotiv Moscow]] in his career.

Ignashevich is often considered one of the highest skilled defenders in the [[Russian Premier League]] while playing alongside fellow Russian international defenders and twin brothers [[Aleksei Berezutskiy|Aleksei]] and [[Vasili Berezutskiy]]. Ignashevich is married and has three children.<ref>[http://www.peoples.ru/sport/football/sergey_ignashevich/ Сергей Николаевич Игнашевич / Sergey Ignashevich: МОЛЧИТ И ДЕЛАЕТ СВОЕ ДЕЛО]</ref>

Both Ignashevich and Aleksei Berezutskiy were provisionally suspended after both players' A samples revealed the presence of a prohibited substance following a random doping test after CSKA's [[UEFA Champions League]] match at [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] on 3 November.<ref>[http://www1.uefa.com/magazine/edition=932550/newsid=932702/index.html?emv_mid=1104014600&emv_rid=1000856306155]</ref> It was later revealed that they had taken a cold medicine which had not been reported, and both players were suspended for one game, which was applied retroactively.

==Honors==
*[[UEFA Cup]] (1): [[2005 UEFA Cup Final|2005]]
*[[Russian Premier League]] (3): [[Russian Premier League 2002|2002]], [[Russian Premier League 2005|2005]], [[Russian Premier League 2006|2006]]
*[[Russian Cup (football)|Russian Cup]] (5): 2001, 2005, 2006, [[Russian Cup 2007-08|2008]], [[2008–09 Russian Cup|2009]]
*[[Russian Super Cup]] (5): [[2003 Russian Super Cup|2003]], [[2004 Russian Super Cup|2004]], [[2006 Russian Super Cup|2006]], [[2007 Russian Super Cup|2007]], [[2009 Russian Super Cup|2009]]

===Career statistics===

{{updated|8 December 2009}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Div
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="2"|League
!colspan="2"|Cup
!colspan="2"|Europe
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
|rowspan="2" valign="center"|{{flagicon|Russia}} [[FC Znamya Truda Orekhovo-Zuyevo|Znamya Truda]]
|rowspan="1"| [[Russian First Division|D2]]
|[[Russian First Division 1999|1999]]
|17||1||1||0||colspan="2"|-||18||1
|-
!colspan="2"|Total!!17!!1!!1!!0!!0!!0!!18!!1
|-
|rowspan="3" valign="center"|{{flagicon|Russia}} [[FC Krylya Sovetov Samara|Krylya Sovetov]]
|rowspan="2"| [[Russian Premier League|RFPL]]
|[[Russian Premier League 1999|1999]]
|6||1||1||0||colspan="2"|-||7||1
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2000|2000]]
|25||1||2||0||colspan="2"|-||27||1
|-
!colspan="2"|Total!!31!!2!!3!!0!!0!!0!!34!!2
|-
|rowspan="4" valign="center"|{{flagicon|Russia}} [[FC Lokomotiv Moscow|Lokomotiv Moscow]]
|rowspan="3"| [[Russian Premier League|RFPL]]
|[[Russian Premier League 2001|2001]]
|23||0||1||0||10||1||34||1
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2002|2002]]
|29||1||1||0||14||2||44||3
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2003|2003]]
|25||3||2||0||8||2||35||5
|-
!colspan="2"|Total!!77!!4!!4!!0!!32!!5!!113!!9
|-
|rowspan="7" valign="center"|{{flagicon|Russia}} [[PFC CSKA Moscow|CSKA Moscow]]
|rowspan="6"| [[Russian Premier League|RFPL]]
|[[Russian Premier League 2004|2004]]
|22||1||9||0||16||2||47||3
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2005|2005]]
|22||5||5||1||7||0||34||6
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2006|2006]]
|26||2||4||0||8||0||38||2
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2007|2007]]
|26||3||4||1||5||0||35||4
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2008|2008]]
|28||4||2||0||6||0||36||4
|-
|[[Russian Premier League 2009|2009]]
|29||3||4||0||5||0||38||3
|-
!colspan="2"|Total!!153!!18!!28!!2!!47!!2!!228!!22
|-
!colspan="3"|Career total
!278!!25!!36!!2!!79!!7!!393!!34
|}

===International goals===
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
!#
!Date
!Venue
!Opponent
!Score
!Result
!Competition
{{Ig match
| n =1
| d=2003-06-07
| st=St. Jakob-Park | ci=Basel| co=Switzerland
| o=Switzerland
| sc='''1''' – 2
| fr=2–2
| comp=[[UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying]]}}
{{Ig match
| n =2
| d=2003-06-07
| st=St. Jakob-Park | ci=Basel| co=Switzerland
| o=Switzerland
| sc='''2''' – 2
| fr=2–2
| comp=[[UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying]]}}
{{Ig match
| n =3
| d=2003-09-06
| st=Lansdowne Road | ci=Dublin| co=Ireland
| o=Republic of Ireland
| sc='''1''' – 1
| fr=1–1
| comp=[[UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying]]}}
{{Ig match
| n =4
| d=2009-09-09
| st1=[[Millennium Stadium]]| ci=Cardiff| co=Wales
| o=Wales
| sc='''2''' – 1
| fr=3–1
| comp=[[2010 FIFA World Cup Qualifying]]}}
{{Ig footer}}

==Links==
* [http://www.ignashevich.com/ Official site]

==References==
{{reflist}}

* [http://www.transfermarkt.co.uk/en/sergey-ignashevich/profil/spieler_9644.html Transfermarkt.co.uk profile]

{{Russia Squad 2008 Euro}}
{{CSKA Moscow squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ignashevich, Sergei}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Moscow]]
[[Category:Russian footballers]]
[[Category:Russia international footballers]]
[[Category:FC Krylia Sovetov Samara players]]
[[Category:FC Lokomotiv Moscow players]]
[[Category:PFC CSKA Moscow players]]
[[Category:Russian Premier League players]]
[[Category:UEFA Euro 2008 players]]

{{Russia-footy-defender-1970s-stub}}

[[ar:سيرجي إيغناشيفيتش]]
[[bg:Сергей Игнашевич]]
[[de:Sergei Nikolajewitsch Ignaschewitsch]]
[[es:Sergéi Ignashévich]]
[[fr:Sergueï Ignachevitch]]
[[ko:세르게이 이그나셰비치]]
[[it:Sergej Ignaševič]]
[[nl:Sergej Ignasjevitsj]]
[[ja:セルゲイ・イグナシェヴィッチ]]
[[no:Sergej Ignasjevitsj]]
[[nn:Sergej Ignasjevitsj]]
[[pl:Siergiej Ignaszewicz]]
[[pt:Sergey Ignashevich]]
[[ru:Игнашевич, Сергей Николаевич]]
[[fi:Sergei Ignaševitš]]
[[tr:Sergey İgnaşeviç]]
[[vi:Sergei Nikolaievich Ignashevich]]

Saladin

2010-10-23T16:11:58Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: bs:Salahudin

{{Dablink|For other uses see [[Saladin (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Monarch
| name= Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb
| title=[[Sultan]] of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]]
| image = [[File:Standbeeld Saladin Damascus.JPG|240px]]
| caption = [[Statue of Saladin]] in Damascus.
| reign=1174-1193
| coronation=1174, [[Cairo]]
| Religion=[[Muslim]]
| full name=Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb
| predecessor=[[Nur ad-Din Zangi]]
| successor=[[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|Al-Afdal]] (Syria) [[Al-Aziz Uthman]] (Egypt)
| dynasty=[[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]]
| father=[[Najm ad-Din Ayyub|Najm ad-Dīn Ayyūb]]
| date of birth=c. 1137–1138
| place of birth=[[Tikrit]], [[Iraq]]<ref>[http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=221342 History – Saladin]</ref>
| date of death=March 4, 1193 CE (aged 55–56)
| place of death=[[Damascus]], [[Syria]]
| place of burial=[[Umayyad Mosque]], [[Damascus]], [[Syria]]
| religion= [[Sunni Islam]]
|}}

'''Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb''' ({{lang-ar|صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب}}, Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb, [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]: سه‌لاحه‌دین ئه‌یوبی, Selah'edînê Eyubî) (c. 1138 – March 4, 1193), better known in the Western world as '''Saladin''', was a [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]]<ref name="Encyclopedia of World Biography on Saladin">{{cite web|url=http://www.bookrags.com/biography/saladin/|title=Encyclopedia of World Biography on Saladin|accessdate=2008-08-20}}</ref><ref name="Minorsky">A number of contemporary sources make note of this. The biographer [[Ibn Khallikan]] writes, "Historians agree in stating that [Saladin's] father and family belonged to Duwin <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Dvin]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>....They were Kurds and belonged to the Rawādiya (sic), which is a branch of the great tribe al-Hadāniya": Minorsky (1953), p. 124. The medieval historian [[Ibn Athir]] relates a passage from another commander: "...both you and Saladin are Kurds and you will not let power pass into the hands of the Turks": Minorsky (1953), p. 138.</ref> [[Muslim]], who became the first [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] Sultan of [[Egypt]] and [[Greater Syria|Syria]]. He led Islamic opposition to the [[Franks]] and other European [[Crusaders]] in the [[Levant]]. At the height of his power, he ruled over Egypt, Syria, [[Mesopotamia]], [[Hejaz]], and [[Yemen]]. He led the Muslims against the Crusaders and eventually recaptured [[Palestine]] from the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] after his victory in the [[Battle of Hattin]]. As such, he is a notable figure in [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]], [[Arab]], and [[Islamic Golden Age|Muslim culture]]. Saladin was a strict adherent of [[Sunni Islam]] and a disciple of the [[Qadiri]] [[Sufi]] order.<ref>''Moors' Islamic Cultural Home souvenir III, 1970–1976‎'' Islamic Cultural Home, 1978, p. 7.</ref> His [[chivalry|chivalrous]] behavior was noted by Christian chroniclers, especially in the accounts of the siege of [[Kerak in Moab#Castle|Kerak in Moab]], and despite being the [[Archenemy|nemesis]] of the Crusaders he won the respect of many of them, including [[Richard the Lionheart]]; rather than becoming a hated figure in Europe, he became a celebrated example of the principles of chivalry.

==Sources==
There are many contemporary and near-contemporary sources available for Saladin's career. Among Saladin's admirers who produced personal biographies are the historians: [[Qadi al-Fadil]] from Ascalon; [[Imad al-Din al-Isfahani]], and [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Ibn Shaddad]], a jurist from Mosul. [[Ibn al-Athir]] (d. 1233), on the other hand, produced a more hostile picture.

==Early life==
[[File:Saladin2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Artistic representation of Saladin.]]
Saladin was born in [[Tikrit, Iraq|Tikrit]], Iraq. His family was of [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] background and ancestry,<ref name="Encyclopedia of World Biography on Saladin"/><ref name="Minorsky"/> and had originated from the city of [[Dvin]], in [[medieval Armenia]].<ref>Bahā' al-Dīn (2002), p 17.</ref><ref name="Ter-Ghevondyan">{{Harvnb|Ter-Ghevondyan|1965|p=218}}</ref> His father, [[Najm ad-Din Ayyub]], was banished from Tikrit and in 1139, he and his uncle [[Asad al-Din Shirkuh]], moved to [[Mosul]]. He later joined the service of [[Imad ad-Din Zengi]] who made him commander of his fortress in [[Baalbek]]. After the death of Zengi in 1146, his son, [[Nur ad-Din Zangi|Nur ad-Din]], became the regent of [[Aleppo]] and the leader of the [[Zengid]]s.<ref name="Lyons">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=3}}</ref>

Saladin, who now lived in [[Damascus]], was reported to have a particular fondness of the city, but information on his early childhood is scarce. About education, Saladin wrote "children are brought up in the way in which their elders were brought up." According to one of his biographers, al-Wahrani, Saladin was able to answer questions on [[Euclid]], the [[Almagest]], arithmetic, and law, but this was an academic ideal and it was study of the [[Qur'an]] and the "sciences of religion" that linked him to his contemporaries.<ref name="Lyons"/> Several sources claim that during his studies he was more interested in religion than joining the military.<ref name="Who2 Biography: Saladin, Sultan/Military Leader">{{cite web|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/saladin|title=Who2 Biography: Saladin, Sultan / Military Leader |publisher=Answers.com|accessdate=2008-08-20}}</ref> Another factor which may have affected his interest in religion was that during the [[First Crusade]], [[Jerusalem]] was [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|taken]] in a surprise attack by the [[Christians]].<ref name="Who2 Biography: Saladin, Sultan/Military Leader"/> In addition to Islam, Saladin had a knowledge of the genealogies, biographies, and histories of the [[Arab]]s, as well as the bloodlines of [[Arabian horse]]s. More significantly, he knew the ''[[Hamasah]]'' of [[Abu Tammam]] by heart.<ref name="Lyons"/>

==Early expeditions==
Saladin's military career began under the tutelage of his uncle [[Shirkuh|Asad al-Din Shirkuh]], an important [[military commander]] under Nur ad-Din. In 1163, the vizier to the [[Fatimid]] caliph [[al-Adid]], [[Shawar]], had been driven out of Egypt by rival Dirgham, a member of the powerful Banu Ruzzaik tribe. He asked for military backing from Nur ad-Din, who complied and in 1164, sent Shirkuh to aid Shawar in his expedition against Dirgham. Saladin, at age 26, went along with them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=6–7}}</ref> After Shawar was successfully reinstated as vizier, he demanded that Shirkuh withdraw his army from Egypt for a sum of 30,000 [[dinar]]s, but he refused insisting it was Nur ad-Din's will that he remain. Saladin's role in this expedition was minor, and it is known that he was ordered by Shirkuh to collect stores from [[Bilbais]] prior to its siege by a [[Crusader invasions of Egypt|combined force of Crusaders]] and Shawar's troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=8}}</ref>

[[Image:CrusadersThrowingHeadsOfMuslimsOverRamparts.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Crusaders]] hurling the heads of slain [[Muslims]] over ramparts during a siege]]

After the sacking of Bilbais, the Crusader-Egyptian force and Shirkuh's army were to engage in a battle on the desert border of the [[Nile River]], just west of [[Giza]]. Saladin played a major role, commanding the right wing of the Zengid army, while a force of [[Kurd]]s commanded the left, and Shirkuh stationed in the center. Muslim sources at the time, however, put Saladin in the "baggage of the center" with orders to lure the enemy into a trap by staging a false retreat. The Crusader force enjoyed early success against Shirkuh's troops, but the terrain was too steep and sandy for their horses, and commander Hugh of Caesarea was captured while attacking Saladin's unit. After scattered fighting in little valleys to the south of the main position, the Zengid central force returned to the offensive; Saladin joined in from the rear.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=14}}</ref>

The battle ended in a Zengid victory, and Saladin is credited to have helped Shirkuh in one of the "most remarkable victories in recorded history", according to [[Ibn al-Athir]], although more of Shirkuh's men were killed and the battle is considered by most sources as not a total victory. Saladin and Shirkuh moved towards [[Alexandria]] where they were welcomed, given money, arms, and provided a base.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=15}}</ref> Faced by a superior Crusader-Egyptian force who attempted to besiege the city, Shirkuh split his army. He and the bulk of his force withdrew from Alexandria, while Saladin was left with the task of guarding the city.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=16}}</ref>

==In Egypt==
{{Main|Saladin in Egypt}}

===Vizier of Egypt===
[[File:Saladin in Egypt Conquest.png|thumb|right|250px|Saladin's battles in [[Egypt]]]]

Shirkuh engaged in a power struggle over Egypt with [[Shawar]] and [[Amalric I of Jerusalem|Amalric I]] of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], in which Shawar requested Amalric's assistance. In 1169, Shawar was reportedly assassinated by Saladin, and Shirkuh died later that year.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=25}}</ref> Nur ad-Din chose a successor for Shirkuh, but al-Adid appointed Saladin to replace Shawar as vizier.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=28}}</ref>

The reasoning behind the [[Shia]] al-Adid's selection of Saladin, a Sunni, varies. [[Ibn al-Athir]] claims that the caliph chose him after being told by his advisers that "there is no one weaker or younger" than Saladin, and "not one of the emirs obeyed him or served him." However, according to this version, after some bargaining, he was eventually accepted by the majority of ''emirs''. Al-Adid's advisers were also suspected of attempting to split the Syria-based Zengid ranks. Al-Wahrani wrote that Saladin was selected because of the reputation of his family in their "generosity and military prowess." [[Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani|Imad ad-Din]] wrote that after the brief mourning period of Shirkuh, during which "opinions differed", the Zengid ''[[emir]]s'' decided upon Saladin and forced the caliph to "invest him as vizier." Although positions were complicated by rival Muslim leaders, the bulk of the Syrian rulers supported Saladin due to his role in the Egyptian expedition, in which he gained a record of impeccable military qualifications.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=28–29}}</ref>

Inaugurated as vizier on March 26, Saladin repented "wine-drinking and turned from frivolity to assume the dress of religion." Having gained more power and independence than ever before in his career, he still faced the issue of ultimate loyalty between al-Adid and Nur ad-Din. The latter was rumored to be clandestinely hostile towards Saladin's appointment and was quoted as saying, "how dare he [Saladin] do anything without my orders?" He wrote several letters to Saladin, who dismissed them without abandoning his allegiance to Nur ad-Din.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=32–33}}</ref>

Later in the year, a group of Egyptian soldiers and ''emirs'' attempted to assassinate Saladin, but having already known of their intentions, he had the chief conspirator, Mu'tamin al-Khilafa—the civilian controller of the Fatimid Palace—killed. The day after, 50,000 black African soldiers from the [[regiment]]s of the Fatimid army opposed to Saladin's rule along with a number of Egyptian ''emirs'' and commoners staged a revolt. By August 23, Saladin had decisively quelled the uprising, and never again had to face a military challenge from [[Cairo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=34, 36}}</ref>

Towards the end of 1169, Saladin—with reinforcements from Nur ad-Din—defeated a massive Crusader-[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] force near [[Damietta]]. Afterward, in the spring of 1170, Nur ad-Din sent Saladin's father to Egypt in compliance with Saladin's request, as well as encouragement from the [[Baghdad]]-based [[Abbasid]] caliph, [[al-Mustanjid]], who aimed to pressure Saladin in deposing his rival caliph, al-Adid.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=38}}</ref> Saladin himself had been strengthening his hold on Egypt and widening his support base there. He began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the region and increased Sunni influence in Cairo; he ordered the construction of a college for the [[Maliki]] branch of Sunni Islam in the city, as well as one for the [[Shafi'i]] denomination to which he belonged in [[al-Fustat]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=41}}</ref>

After establishing himself in Egypt, Saladin launched a campaign against the Crusaders, besieging [[Deir al-Balah|Darum]] in 1170.<ref name="LnY2">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=43}}</ref> Amalric withdrew his [[Knights Templars|Templar]] garrison from [[Gaza]] to assist him in defending Darum, but Saladin evaded their force and fell on Gaza instead. He destroyed the town built outside the city's castle and killed most of its inhabitants after they were refused entry into the castle.<ref>Pringle, 1993, p.208.</ref> It is unclear exactly when, but during that same year, he attacked and captured the Crusader castle of [[Eilat]], built on an island off the head of the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. It did not pose a threat to the passage of the Muslim navy, but could harass smaller parties of Muslim ships and Saladin decided to clear it from his path.<ref name="LnY2"/>

===Sultan of Egypt===
[[Image:Dirham Saladin.jpg|thumb|right|Saladin as depicted on a [[Dirham]] coin, Circa. 1190.|left]]
According to Imad ad-Din, Nur ad-Din wrote to Saladin in June 1171, telling him to reestablish the Abbasid caliphate in Egypt, which Saladin coordinated two months later after additional encouragement by Najm ad-Din al-Khabushani, the Shafi'i ''[[faqih]]'', who vehemently opposed Shia rule in the country. Several Egyptian ''emirs'' were thus killed, but al-Adid was told that they were killed for rebelling against him. He then fell ill, or was poisoned according to one account. While ill, he asked Saladin to pay him a visit to request that he take care of his young children, but Saladin refused, fearing treachery against the Abbasids, and is said to have regretted his action after realizing what al-Adid had wanted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=45}}</ref> He died on September 13 and five days later, the Abbasid ''[[khutba]]'' was pronounced in Cairo and al-Fustat, proclaiming [[al-Mustadi]] as caliph.<ref name="Lyons46">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=46–47}}</ref>

On September 25, Saladin left Cairo to take part in a joint attack on [[Kerak]] and [[Montreal (Crusader castle)|Montreal]], the desert castles of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], with Nur ad-Din who would attack from Syria. Prior to arriving at Montreal, Saladin withdrew, realizing that if he met Nur ad-Din at Shaubak, he would be refused return to Egypt because of Nur ad-Din's reluctance to consolidate such massive territorial control to Saladin. Also, there was a chance that the Crusader kingdom—which acted as a [[buffer state]] between Syria and Egypt—could have collapsed had the two leaders attacked it from the east and the coast. This would have given Nur ad-Din the opportunity to annex Egypt. Saladin claimed he withdrew amid Fatimid plots against him, but Nur ad-Din did not accept "the excuse."<ref name="Lyons46"/>

During the summer of 1172, a [[Nubia]]n army along with a contingent of [[Armenia]]n refugees were reported on the Egyptian border, preparing for a siege against [[Aswan]]. The ''emir'' of the city had requested Saladin's assistance and was given reinforcements under [[Turan-Shah]]—Saladin's brother. Consequently, the Nubians departed, but returned in 1173 and were again driven off. This time Egyptian forces advanced from Aswan and captured the Nubian town of [[Qasr Ibrim|Ibrim]]. Seventeen months after al-Adid's death, Nur ad-Din had not taken any action regarding Egypt, but expected some return for the 200,000 dinars he had allocated to Shirkuh's army which seized the country. Saladin paid this debt with 60,000 dinars, "wonderful manufactured goods", some jewels, an ass of the finest breed, and an elephant. While transporting these goods to Damascus, Saladin took the opportunity to ravage the Crusader countryside. He did not press an attack against the desert castles, but attempted to drive out the Muslim Bedouins who lived in Crusader territory with the aim of depriving the Franks of guides.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=60–62}}</ref>

On July 31, 1173, Saladin's father Ayyub was wounded in a horse-riding accident, ultimately causing his death on August 9.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=64}}</ref> In 1174, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer [[Yemen]] to allocate it and its port [[Aden]] to the territories of the [[Ayyubid Dynasty]]. Yemen also served as an emergency territory, to which Saladin could flee in the event of an invasion by Nur ad-Din.

==Acquisition of Syria==
===Capture of Damascus===
In the early summer of 1174, Nur ad-Din was mustering an army, sending summons to [[Mosul]], [[Diyarbakir]], and [[al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|al-Jazira]] in an apparent preparation of attack against Saladin's Egypt. The Ayyubid dynasty held a council upon the revelation of his preparations to discuss the possible threat and Saladin collected his own troops outside Cairo. On May 15, Nur ad-Din died after being poisoned the previous week and his power was handed to his eleven-year-old son [[as-Salih Ismail al-Malik]]. His death left Saladin with political independence and in a letter to as-Salih, he promised to "act as a sword" against his enemies and referred to the death of his father as an "earthquake shock."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=73–74}}</ref>

In the wake of Nur ad-Din's death, Saladin faced a difficult decision; he could move his army against the Crusaders from Egypt or wait until invited by as-Salih in Syria to come to his aid and launch a war from there. He could also take it upon himself to annex Syria before it could possibly fall into the hands of a rival, but feared that attacking a land that formerly belonged to his master—which is forbidden in the Islamic principles he followed—could portray him as hypocritical and thus, unsuitable for leading the "holy war" against the Crusaders. Saladin saw that in order to acquire Syria, he either needed an invitation from as-Salih or warn him that potential anarchy and danger from the Crusaders could rise.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=74–75}}</ref>

When as-Salih was removed to [[Aleppo]] in August, Gumushtigin, the ''emir'' of the city and a captain of Nur ad-Din's veterans assumed guardianship over him. The ''emir'' prepared to unseat all of his rivals in Syria and al-Jazira, beginning with Damascus. In this emergency, the ''emir'' of Damascus appealed to [[Ghazi II Saif ud-Din|Saif al-Din]] (a cousin of Gumushtigin) of [[Mosul]] for assistance against Aleppo, but he refused, forcing the Syrians to request the aid of Saladin who complied.<ref name="Lane-Poole">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=136}}</ref> Saladin rode across the desert with 700 picked horsemen, passing through al-Kerak then reaching [[Bosra]] and according to him, was joined by "''emirs'', soldiers, Kurds, and Bedouins—the emotions of their hearts to be seen on their faces."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=81}}</ref> On November 23, he arrived in Damascus amid general acclamations and rested at his father's old home there, until the gates of the [[Citadel of Damascus]] were opened to him four days later. He installed himself in the castle and received the homage and salutations of the citizens.<ref name="Lane-Poole"/>

===Further conquests===
Leaving his brother Tughtigin as Governor of Damascus, Saladin proceeded to reduce other cities that had belonged to Nur ad-Din, but were now practically independent. He gained [[Hamah]] with relative ease, but avoided [[Homs]] because of the strength of its citadel.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=13}}</ref> Then he moved north towards Aleppo, besieging it on December 30 after Gumushtigin refused to abdicate his throne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=137}}</ref> As-Salih, afraid of Saladin, came out of the palace and appealed to the inhabitants not to surrender him and the city to the invading force. One of Saladin's chroniclers claimed "the people came under his spell."<ref name="LJ3">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=87}}</ref>

Gumushtigin requested from [[Rashid ad-Din Sinan]], grand-master of the [[Hashshashin|Assassins]] who were already at odds with Saladin since he replaced the Fatimids of Egypt, to assassinate Saladin in his camp.<ref name="LP3">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=138}}</ref> A group of thirteen Assassins easily gained admission into Saladin's camp, but were detected immediately before they carried out their attack. One was killed by a general of Saladin and the others were slain while trying to escape.<ref name="LJ3"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=139}}</ref> To make the situation more difficult for him, [[Raymond of Tripoli]] gathered his forces by [[Nahr al-Kabir]] where he was well-placed for an attack on Muslim territory. He later moved toward Homs, but retreated after being told a relief force was being sent to the city by Saif al-Din.<ref name="LJ4"/>

Meanwhile, Saladin's rivals in Syria and Jazira waged a propaganda war, claiming he had "forgotten his own condition [servant of Nur ad-Din]" and showed no gratitude for his old master by besieging his son, rising "in rebellion against his Lord." Saladin aimed to counter this propaganda by departing the siege to claim he was defending Islam from the Crusaders; his army returned to Hama to engage a Crusader force there. The Crusaders withdrew beforehand and Saladin proclaimed it "a victory opening the gates of men's hearts."<ref name="LJ4">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=88–89}}</ref> Soon after, Saladin entered Homs and captured its citadel in March 1175, after stubborn resistance from its defenders.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=140}}</ref>

Saladin's successes alarmed Saif al-Din. As head of the descendants of [[Zengid]], including Gumushtigin, he regarded Syria and [[Mesopotamia]] as his family estate and was angered when Saladin attempted to usurp their holdings. Saif al-Din mustered a large army and dispatched it to Aleppo whose defenders anxiously had awaited them. The combined forces of Mosul and Aleppo marched against Saladin in Hama. Heavily outnumbered, he initially attempted to make terms with the Zengids by abandoning all conquests north of the [[Jund Dimashq|Damascus province]], but they refused, insisting he return to Egypt. Seeing that a confrontation was unavoidable, Saladin prepared for battle, taking up a superior position on the hills by the gorge of the [[Orontes River]]. On April 13, 1175, the Zengid troops marched to attack his forces, but soon found themselves surrounded by Saladin's Ayyubid veterans who annihilated them. The battle ended in a decisive victory for Saladin who pursued the Zengid fugitives to the gates of Aleppo, forcing as-Salih's advisers to recognize his control of the provinces of Damascus, Homs, and Hama, as well as a number of towns outside Aleppo such as [[Ma'arat al-Numan]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=141}}</ref>

After his victory against the Zengids, Saladin proclaimed himself king and suppressed the name of as-Salih in the [[Friday prayer]]s and Islamic coinage. From then on, he ordered prayers in all the mosques of Syria and Egypt as the sovereign king and he issued at the Cairo mint gold coins bearing his name—''al-Malik an-Nasir Yusuf Ayyub, ala ghaya'' "the King Strong to Aid, Joseph son of Job; exalted be the standard." The Abbasid caliph in Baghdad graciously welcomed Saladin's assumption of power and declared him "Sultan of Egypt and Syria."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=141–142}}</ref>

The Battle of Hama did not end the contest for power between the Ayyubids and the Zengids, the final confrontation occurring in the spring of 1176. Saladin had brought up his forces from Egypt and Saif al-Din was levying troops among the minor states of [[Diyarbakir]] and al-Jazira.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=143}}</ref> When Saladin crossed the Orontes, leaving Hama, the sun was eclipsed and despite viewing this as an omen, he continued his march north. He reached the Sultan's Mound, {{mi to km|15}} from Aleppo, where his forces encountered Saif al-Din's army. A hand-to-hand fight ensued and the Zengids managed to overthrow Saladin's left wing, driving it before him, when he himself charged at the head of the Zengid guard. The Zengid forces panicked and most of Saif al-Din's officers were killed or captured—he himself narrowly escaped. The Zengid army's camp, horses, baggage, tents, and stores were taken by the Ayyubids. The Zengid prisoners, however, were given gifts and freed by Saladin and all of the booty of his victory were handed to the army, not keeping a thing for himself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=144}}</ref>

He continued towards Aleppo which still closed its gates to him, halting before the city. On the way, his army took Buza'a, then captured [[Manbij]]. From there they headed west to besiege the fortress of [[A'zaz]] on May 15. A few days later, while Saladin was resting in one of his captain's tents, an assassin rushed forward at him and struck at his head with a knife. The cap of his head armor was not penetrated and he managed to grip the assassin's hand—the dagger only slashing his [[gambeson]]—and the assailant was soon killed. Saladin was unnerved at the attempt on his life whom he accused Gumushtugin and the Assassins of plotting, and so increased his efforts in the siege.<ref name="LP7"/>

A'zaz capitulated on June 21, and Saladin then hurried his forces to Aleppo to punish Gumushtigin. His assaults were again resisted, but he managed to secure not only a truce, but a mutual alliance with Aleppo, in which Gumushtigin and as-Salih were allowed to continue their hold on the city and in return, they recognized Saladin as the sovereign over all the dominions he conquered. The ''emirs'' of [[Mardin]] and Keyfa, the Muslim allies of Aleppo, also recognized Saladin as the King of Syria. When the treaty was concluded, the younger sister of as-Salih came to Saladin and requested the return of the Fortress of A'zaz; he complied and escorted her back to the gates of Aleppo with numerous gifts.<ref name="LP7">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=144–146}}</ref>

===Campaign against Assassins===
Saladin had by now agreed truces with his Zengid rivals and the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] (summer of 1175), but faced a threat from the [[Hashshashin]] sect (from which the word [[Assassination|assassin]] is said to originate) led by [[Rashid ad-Din Sinan]]. Based in the [[al-Nusayri Mountains]], they had nine fortresses atop high elevations. As soon as he dismissed the bulk of his troops to Egypt, Saladin led his army into al-Nusayri range in August 1176, but retreated the same month, after laying waste to the countryside, but failing to conquer any of the forts. Most Muslim historians claim that Saladin's uncle mediated a peace agreement between him and Sinan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=148}}</ref> However, the latter's [[panegyrist]] claims Saladin departed due to fears for his own life at the hands of the Assassins. He had chalk and cinders strewed around his tent outside [[Masyaf]]—which he laid a siege against—to detect any footsteps by the Assassins and had his guards supplied with link lights.<ref name="LP4">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=149–150}}</ref>

[[File:Mameluk Dynasty, Folio From a Copy of Al-Jaziri's Treatise Automata (1206 CE), early 14th century copy.jpg|600×928|thumb|[[Al-Jaziri]]'s Treatise Automata (1206 AD)]]

According to his version, one night, Saladin's guards noticed a spark glowing down the hill of Masyaf and then vanishing among the Ayyubid tents. Presently, Saladin awoke from his sleep to find a figure leaving the tent. He then saw that the lamps were displaced and beside his bed laid hot scones of the shape peculiar to the Assassins with a note at the top pinned by a poisoned dagger. The note threatened that he would be killed if he didn't withdraw from his assault. Saladin gave a loud cry, exclaiming that Sinan himself was the figure that left the tent. As such, Saladin told his guards to settle an agreement with Sinan.<ref name="LP4"/> Realizing he was unable to subdue the Assassins, he sought to align himself with them, consequently depriving the Crusaders of a secret weapon.<ref name="LP5">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=151}}</ref>

[[File:Saladin the Victorious.jpg|thumb|left|19th century depiction of a victorious Saladin.]]

==Return to Cairo and forays in Palestine==
After leaving the al-Nusayri Mountains, Saladin returned to Damascus and had his Syrian soldiers return home. He left Turan Shah in command of Syria, and left for Egypt with only his personal followers, reaching Cairo on September 22. Having been absent roughly two years, he had much to organize and supervise in Egypt, namely fortifying and reconstructing Cairo. The city walls were repaired and their extensions laid out, while the construction of the [[Cairo Citadel]] was commenced.<ref name="LP5"/> The {{ft to m|280}} deep Bir Yusuf ("Joseph's Well") was built on Saladin's orders. The chief public work he commissioned outside of Cairo was the large bridge at [[Giza]], which intended to form an outwork of defense against a potential [[Moorish]] invasion.<ref name="LP6">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=153}}</ref>

Saladin remained in Cairo supervising its improvements, building colleges such as the Madrasa of the Sword Makers and ordering the internal administration of the country. In November 1177, he set out upon a raid into Palestine; the Crusaders had recently forayed into the territory of Damascus and so Saladin saw the truce was no longer worth preserving. The Christians sent a large portion of their army to besiege the fortress of [[Harem, Syria|Harim]] north of Aleppo and so southern Palestine bared few defenders.<ref name="LP6"/> Saladin found the situation ripe, and so marched to [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]], which he referred to as the "Bride of Syria." [[William of Tyre]] recorded that the Ayyubid army consisted of {{formatnum:26000}} soldiers, of which 8,000 were elite forces and {{formatnum:18000}} were black slave soldiers from the [[Sudan]]. This army proceeded to raid the countryside, sack [[Ramla]] and [[Lod]], and dispersed themselves as far as the [[Old City (Jerusalem)#Gates|Gates of Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=154}}</ref>

===Battles and truce with Baldwin===
The Ayyubids did allow [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|King Baldwin]] to enter Ascalon with his Gaza-based [[Knights Templar|Templars]] without taking any precautions against a sudden attack. Although the Crusader force consisted only of 375 knights, Saladin hesitated to ambush them due to the presence of highly skilled generals. On November 25, while the greater part of the Ayyubid army was absent, Saladin and his men were surprised at [[Gezer|Tell Jezer]], near Ramla. Before they could form up, the Templar force hacked the Ayyubid army down. Initially, Saladin attempted to organize his men into battle order, but as his bodyguards were being killed, he saw that defeat was inevitable and so with a small remnant of his troops mounted a swift [[camel]], riding all the way to the territories of Egypt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=155}}</ref>

Not discouraged by his defeat at Tell Jezer, Saladin was prepared to fight the Crusaders once again. In the spring of 1178, he was encamped under the walls of Homs and a few skirmishes occurred between his generals and the Crusader army. His forces in Hama won a victory over their enemy and brought the spoils, together with many [[prisoners of war]] to Saladin who ordered the captives to be [[decapitation|beheaded]] for "plundering and laying waste the lands of the Faithful." He spent the rest of the year in Syria without a confrontation with his enemies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=156}}</ref>

Saladin's intelligence services reported to him that the Crusaders were planning a raid into Syria. As such, he ordered one of his generals, Farrukh-Shah, to guard the Damascus frontier with a thousand of his men to watch for an attack, then to retire avoiding battle and lighting warning beacons on the hills on which Saladin would march out. In April 1179, the Crusaders led by King Baldwin expected no resistance and waited to launch a surprise attack on Muslim herders grazing their herds and flocks east of the [[Golan Heights]]. Baldwin advanced too rashly in pursuit of Farrukh-Shah's force which was concentrated southeast of [[Quneitra]] and was subsequently defeated by the Ayyubids. With this victory, Saladin decided to call in more troops from Egypt; he requested 1,500 horsemen to be sent by [[al-Adil]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=136}}</ref>
[[Image:JacobsFordBattlefield.jpg|thumb|Jacob's Ford Battlefield, looking from the west bank to the east bank of the Jordan River.]]

In the summer of 1179, King Baldwin had set up an outpost on the road to Damascus and aimed to fortify a passage over the [[Jordan River]], known as [[Jacob's Ford]], that commanded the approach to the [[Banias]] plain (the plain was divided by the Muslims and the Christians). Saladin had offered 100,000 [[gold]] pieces for Baldwin to abandon the project which was peculiarly offensive to the [[Muslim]]s, but to no avail. He then resolved to destroy the fortress, moving his headquarters to Banias. As the Crusaders hurried down to attack the Muslim forces, they fell into disorder, with the infantry falling behind. Despite early success, they pursued the Muslims far enough to become scattered and Saladin took advantage by rallying his troops and charged at the Crusaders. The engagement ended in a decisive Ayyubid victory and many high-ranking knights were captured. Saladin then moved to [[Battle of Jacob's Ford|besiege the fortress]] which fell on August 30, 1179.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=157–159}}</ref>

In the spring of 1180, while Saladin was in the area of [[Safad]], anxious to commence a vigorous campaign against the Kingdom of Jerusalem, King Baldwin sent messengers to him with proposals of peace. Due to droughts and bad harvests hampering his [[commissariat]], Saladin agreed to a truce. [[Raymond of Tripoli]] denounced the truce, but was compelled to accept after an Ayyubid raid in his territory in May and upon the appearance of Saladin's naval fleet off the port of [[Tartus]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=160–161}}</ref>

==Domestic issues==
[[File:Salah ad-Din Jusuf ibn Ajub.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Image of a figurine on a concept of a waterclock by al-Jazarî in an Arabian manuscript of 15th century.]]
In June 1180, Saladin held a reception for Nur al-Din Muhammad, the [[Artuqid]] ''emir'' of [[Hasankeyf|Keyfa]], at [[Geuk Su]], in which he presented him and his brother Abu Bakr gifts, valued at over 100,000 dinars according to Imad al-Din. This was intended to cement an alliance with Artuqids and to impress other ''emirs'' in Mesopotamia and [[Anatolia]]. Previously, Saladin offered to mediate relations between Nur al-Din and [[Kilij Arslan II]]—the [[Seljuk]] Sultan of [[Sultanate of Rum|Rum]]—after the two came into conflict. The latter demanded Nur al-Din return the lands given to him as a [[dowry]] for marrying his daughter when he received reports that she was being abused by him and was used to gain to Seljuk territory. Nur al-Din requested assistance from Saladin, but Arslan refused.<ref name="LY4">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=148}}</ref>

After Nur al-Din and Saladin met at Geuk Su, the top Seljuk ''emir'', Ikhtiyar al-Din al-Hasan, confirmed Arslan's submission, after which an agreement was drawn up. Saladin was enraged to receive a message from Arslan soon after, complaining of more abuses against his daughter. He threatened to attack the city of [[Malatya]], saying, "it is two days march for me and I shall not dismount [my horse] until I am in the city."<ref name="LY4"/> Alarmed at the threat, the Seljuks pushed for negotiations. Saladin felt the Arslan was right to care for his daughter, but Nur al-Din had taken refuge with him, and therefore he could not betray him. It was finally agreed that the woman would be sent away for a year and that if Nur al-Din failed to comply, Saladin would abandon his support for him.<ref name="LY4"/>

Leaving Farrukh-Shah in charge of Syria, Saladin returned to Cairo at the beginning of 1181; According to Abu-Shama, he intended to spend the fast of [[Ramadan]] in Egypt and then make the ''[[hajj]]'' pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]. For an unknown reason he apparently changed his mind about the pilgrimage and was seen inspecting the [[Nile River]] banks in June. He was again embroiled with the Bedouin; he removed two-thirds of their fiefs to use as compensation for the fief-holders at [[Fayyum]] which he intended to take over. The Bedouin were also accused of trading with the Crusaders and so their grain was confiscated and they were forced to move westward. Later, warships were waged against Bedouin river pirates who were plundering the shores of Lake Tanis.<ref name="LJ156">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=156}}</ref>

In the summer of 1181, Saladin's former palace administrator Qara-Qush led a force to arrest Majd al-Din—a former deputy of Turan-Shah in the town of [[Zabid]] in Yemen—while he was entertaining [[Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani|Imad ad-Din]] at his estate in Cairo. Saladin's intimates accused him of misappropriating the revenues of Zabid, but Saladin himself replied there was no evidence against him. He realized the mistake and had Majd al-Din released in return for a payment of 80,000 dinars to him and other sums to Saladin's brothers al-Adil and Taj al-Muluk Bari. The controversial detainment of Majd al-Din was a part of the larger discontent associated with the aftermath of Turan-Shah's departure from Yemen; although his deputies continued to send him revenues from the province, centralized authority was lacking and internal quarrel arose between the Izz al-Din Uthman of [[Aden]] and Hittan of Zabid. Saladin wrote in a letter to al-Adil: "this Yemen is a treasure house ... We conquered it, but up to this day we have had no return and no advantage from it. There have been only innumerable expenses, the sending out of troops ... and expectations which did not produce what was hoped for in the end."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=158–159}}</ref>

==Empire expansions==
===Conquest of Mesopotamian hinterland===
Saif al-Din had died earlier in June 1181 and his brother [[Izz ad-Din Mas'ud|Izz al-Din]] inherited leadership of Mosul.<ref name="Lyons149">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=149}}</ref> On December 4, the crown-prince of the Zengids, as-Salih, died in Aleppo. Prior to his death, he had his chief officers swear an oath of loyalty to Izz al-Din, as he was the only Zengid ruler strong enough to oppose Saladin. Izz al-Din was welcomed in Aleppo, but possessing it and Mosul put too great of a strain on his abilities. He thus, handed Aleppo to his brother Imad al-Din Zangi, in exchange for [[Sinjar]]. Saladin offered no opposition to these transactions in order to respect the treaty he previously made with the Zengids.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=164–165}}</ref>

On May 11, 1182, Saladin along with half of the Egyptian Ayyubid army and numerous non-combatants left Cairo for Syria. On the evening before he departed, he sat with his companions and the tutor of one of his sons quoted a line of poetry: "enjoy the scent of the ox-eye plant of [[Najd]], for after this evening it will come no more." Saladin took this as an evil omen and he never saw Egypt again.<ref name="Lyons149"/> Knowing that Crusader forces were massed upon the frontier to intercept him, he took the desert route across the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to [[Ailah]] at the head of the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. Meeting no opposition, Saladin ravaged the countryside of [[Montreal (Crusader castle)|Montreal]], whilst Baldwin's forces watched on, refusing to intervene.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=167}}</ref> He arrived in Damascus in June to learn that Farrukh-Shah had attacked the [[Galilee]], sacking [[Daburiyya]] and capturing Habis Jaldek, a fortress of great importance to the Crusaders. In July, Saladin dispatched Farrukh-Shah to attack [[Kawkab al-Hawa]]. Later, in August, the Ayyubids launched a naval and ground assault to capture [[Beirut]]; Saladin led his army in the [[Bekaa Valley]]. The assault was leaning towards failure and Saladin abandoned the operation to focus on issues in [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=168–169}}</ref>

Kukbary, the ''emir'' of [[Harran]], invited Saladin to occupy the Jazira region, making up northern Mesopotamia. He complied and the truce between him and the Zengids officially ended in September 1182.<ref name="LP9"/> Prior to his march to Jazira, tensions had grown between the Zengid rulers of the region, primarily concerning their unwillingness to pay deference to Mosul.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=164}}</ref> Before he crossed the [[Euphrates River]], Saladin besieged Aleppo for three days, signaling that the truce was over.<ref name="LP9"/>

Once he reached Bira, near the river, he was joined by Kukbary and Nur al-Din of Hisn Kayfa and the combined forces captured the cities of Jazira, one after the other. First, [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] fell, followed by [[Saruj]], then [[ar-Raqqah]], Karkesiya and [[Nusaybin]].<ref name="LP9"/> Ar-Raqqah was an important crossing point and held by Qutb al-Din Inal, who had lost Manbij to Saladin in 1176. Upon seeing the large size of Saladin's army, he made little effort to resist and surrendered on the condition that he would retain his property. Saladin promptly impressed the inhabitants of the town by publishing a decree that ordered a number of taxes to be canceled and erased all mention of them from treasury records, stating "the most miserable rulers are those whose purses are fat and their people thin." From ar-Raqqah, he moved to conquer al-Fudain, al-Husain, Maksim, Durain, 'Araban, and Khabur—all of which swore allegiance to him.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=176}}</ref>

Saladin proceeded to take Nusaybin which offered no resistance. A medium-sized town, Nusaybin was not of great importance, but it was located in a strategic position between Mardin and Mosul and within easy reach of Diyarbakir.<ref name="LY8">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=177}}</ref> In the midst of these victories, Saladin received word that the Crusaders were raiding the villages of Damascus. He replied "Let them... whilst they knock down villages, we are taking cities; when we come back, we shall have all the more strength to fight them."<ref name="LP9">{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=169–170}}</ref> Meanwhile, in Aleppo, the ''emir'' of the city Zangi raided Saladin's cities to the north and east, such as Balis, Manbij, Saruj, Buza'a, al-Karzain. He also destroyed his own citadel at A'zaz to prevent it from being used by the Ayyubids if they were to conquer it.<ref name="LY8"/>

===Possession of Aleppo===
Saladin turned his attention from Mosul to Aleppo, sending his brother Taj al-Mulk Buri to capture Tell Khalid, {{mi to km|80}} northeast of the city. A siege was set, but the governor of Tell Khalid surrendered upon the arrival of Saladin himself on May 17 before a siege could take place. According to Imad ad-Din, after Tell Khalid, Saladin took a detour northwards to Ain Tab, but he gained possession of it when his army turned towards it, allowing to quickly move backward another {{mi to km|60}} towards Aleppo. On May 21, he camped outside the city, positioning himself east of the [[Citadel of Aleppo]], while his forces encircles the suburb of Banaqusa to the northeast and Bab Janan to the west. He stationed his men dangerously close to the city, hoping for an early success.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=195}}</ref>

Zangi did not offer long resistance. He was unpopular with his subjects and wished to return to his Sinjar, the city he governed previously. An exchange was negotiated where Zangi would hand over Aleppo to Saladin in return for the restoration of his control of Sinjar, Nusaybin, and ar-Raqqa. Zangi would hold these territories as Saladin's vassals on terms of military service. On June 12, Aleppo was formally placed in Ayyubid hands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|pp=172–173}}</ref> The people of Aleppo had not known about these negotiations and were taken by surprise when Saladin's standard was hoisted over the citadel. Two ''emir''s, including an old friend of Saladin, Izz al-Din Jurduk, welcomed and pledged their service to him. Saladin replaced the [[Hanafi]] courts with Shafi'i administration, despite a promise he would not interfere in the religious leadership of the city. Although he was short of money, Saladin also allowed the departing Zangi to take all the stores of the citadel that he could travel with and to sell the remainder—which Saladin purchased himself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=198–199}}</ref>

In spite of his earlier hesitation to go through with the exchange, he had no doubts about his success, stating that Aleppo was "the key to the lands" and "this city is the eye of Syria and the citadel is its pupil."<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=199}}</ref> For Saladin, the capture of the city marked the end of over eight years of waiting since he told Farrukh-Shah "we have only to do the milking and Aleppo will be ours." From his standpoint, he could now threaten the entire Crusader coast.<ref name="LY201">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=201}}</ref>

After spending one night in Aleppo's citadel, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held [[Antioch]]. The city was held by Surhak, a "minor ''[[mamluk]]''." Saladin offered him the city of Busra and property in Damascus in exchange for Harim, but when Surhak asked for more, his own garrison in Harim forced him out.<ref name="LY201"/> He was then arrested by Saladin's deputy Taqi al-Din on allegations that he was planning to cede Harim to [[Bohemond III, Prince of Antioch|Bohemond III of Antioch]]. When Saladin received its surrender, he proceeded to arrange the defense of Harim from the Crusaders. He reported to the caliph and his own subordinates in Yemen and [[Baalbek]] that was going to attack the [[Armenia]]ns. Before he could move, however, there were a number of administrative details to be settled. Saladin agreed to a truce with Bohemond in return for Muslim prisoners being held by him and then he gave A'zaz to Alam ad-Din Suleiman and Aleppo to Saif al-Din al-Yazkuj—the former was an ''emir'' of Aleppo who joined Saladin and the latter was a former ''mamluk'' of Shirkuh who helped rescue him from the assassination attempt at A'zaz.<ref name="Lyons202">{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=202–203}}</ref>

===Fight for Mosul===
As Saladin approached Mosul, he faced the issue of taking over a large city and justifying the action.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=178}}</ref> The Zengids of Mosul appealed to [[an-Nasir]], the Abbasid caliph at Baghdad whose vizier favored them. An-Nasir sent Badr al-Badr (a high-ranking religious figure) to mediate between the two sides. Saladin arrived at the city on November 10, 1182. Izz al-Din would not accept his terms because he considered them disingenuous and extensive, and Saladin immediately laid siege to the heavily fortified city.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=179}}</ref>

After several minor skirmishes and a stalemate in the siege that was initiated by the caliph, Saladin intended to find a way to withdraw from the siege without damage to his reputation while still keeping up some military pressure. He decided to attack Sinjar which was now held by Izz al-Din's brother Sharaf al-Din. It fell after a 15-day siege on December 30.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=180–181}}</ref> Saladin's commanders and soldiers broke their discipline, plundering the city; Saladin only managed to protect the governor and his officers by sending them to Mosul. After establishing a garrison at Sinjar, he awaited a coalition assembled by Izz al-Din consisting of his forces, those from Aleppo, Mardin, and [[Armenia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lane-Poole|1906|p=171}}</ref> Saladin and his army met the coalition at Harran in February 1183, but on hearing of his approach, the latter sent messengers to Saladin asking for peace. Each force returned to their cities and al-Fadil writes "They [Izz al-Din's coalition] advanced like men, like women they vanished."

On March 2, al-Adil from Egypt wrote to Saladin that the Crusaders had struck the "heart of Islam." Raynald de Châtillon had sent ships to from the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] to raid towns and villages off the coast of the [[Red Sea]]. It was not an attempt to extend the Crusader influence into that sea or to capture its trade routes, but merely a piratical move.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=184}}</ref> Nonetheless, Imad al-Din writes the raid was alarming to the Muslims because they were not accustomed to attacks on that sea and Ibn al-Athir adds that the inhabitants had no experience with the Crusaders either as fighters or traders.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=185}}</ref>

[[Ibn Jubair]] was told that sixteen Muslim ships were burnt by the Crusaders who then captured a pilgrim ship and caravan at [[Aidab]]. He also reported they intended to attack [[Medina]] and remove [[Muhammad]]'s body. [[Al-Maqrizi]] added to the rumor by claiming Muhammad's tomb was going to be relocated Crusader territory so Muslims would make pilgrimages there. Fortunately for Saladin, al-Adil had his warships moved from Fustat and Alexandria to the Red Sea under the command of an Armenian mercenary Lu'lu. They broke the Crusader blockade, destroyed most of their ships, and pursued and captured those who anchored and fled into the desert.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=186}}</ref> The surviving Crusaders, numbered at 170, were ordered to be killed by Saladin in various Muslim cities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=187}}</ref>

From Saladin's own point of view, in terms of territory, the war against Mosul was going well, but he still failed to achieve his objectives and his army was shrinking; Taqi al-Din took his men back to Hama, while Nasir al-Din Muhammad and his forces had left. This encouraged Izz al-Din and his allies to take the offensive. The previous coalition regrouped at Harzam some {{mi to km|90}} from Harran. In early April, without waiting for Nasir al-Din, Saladin and Taqi al-Din commenced their advance against the coalition, marching eastward to Ras al-Ein unhindered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=188}}</ref> By late April, after three days of "actual fighting" according to Saladin, the Ayyubids had captured [[Amid]]. He handed the city Nur al-Din Muhammad together with its stores—which consisted of 80,000 candles, a tower full of arrowheads, and 1,040,000 books. In return for a diploma granting him the city, Nur al-Din swore allegiance to Saladin, promising to follow him in every expedition in the war against the Crusaders and repairing damage done to the city. The fall of Amid, in addition to territory, convinced Il-Ghazi of Mardin to enter the service of Saladin, weakening Izz al-Din's coalition.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=191}}</ref>

Saladin attempted to gain the Caliph an-Nasir's support against Izz al-Din by sending him a letter requesting a document that would give him legal justification for taking over Mosul and its territories. Saladin aimed to persuade the caliph claiming that while he conquered Egypt and Yemen under the flag of the Abbasids, the Zengids of Mosul openly supported the Seljuks (rivals of the caliphate) and only came to the caliph when in need. He also accused Izz al-Din's forces of disrupting the Muslim "Holy War" against the Crusaders, stating "they are not content not to fight, but they prevent those who can." Saladin defended his own conduct claiming that he had come to Syria to fight the Crusaders, end the heresy of the Assassins, and to end the wrong-doing of the Muslims. He also promised that if Mosul was given to him, it would lead to the capture of Jerusalem, [[Constantinople]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and the lands of the [[Almohad]]s in the [[Maghreb]], "until the word of God is supreme and the Abbasid caliphate has wiped the world clean, turning the churches into mosques." Saladin stressed that all this would happen by the will of God and instead of asking for financial or military support from the caliph, he would capture and give the caliph the territories of [[Tikrit]], [[Daquq]], [[Khuzestan]], [[Kish Island]], and [[Oman]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=192–194}}</ref>

==Wars against Crusaders==
[[File:Saladin and Guy.jpg|thumb|Saladin and [[Guy of Lusignan]] after [[Battle of Hattin]]]]

On September 29, Saladin crossed the [[Jordan River]] to attack [[Beisan]] which was found to be empty. The next day his forces sacked and burned the town and moved westwards. They intercepted Crusader reinforcements from Karak and [[Shaubak]] along the [[Nablus]] road and took a number of prisoners. Meanwhile, the main Crusader force under [[Guy of Lusignan]] moved from [[Tzippori|Sepphoris]] to [[Afula|al-Fula]]. Saladin sent out 500 skirmishers to harass their forces and he himself marched to [[Ain Jalut]]. When the Crusader force—reckoned to be the largest the kingdom ever produced from its own resources, but still outmatched by the Muslims—advanced, the Ayyubids unexpectedly moved down the stream of Ain Jalut. After a few Ayyubid raids—including attacks on [[Zir'in]], [[Taibe, Galilee|Forbelet]], and [[Mount Tabor]]—the Crusaders still were not tempted to [[Battle of Al-Fule (1183)|attack their main force]], and Saladin led his men back across the river once provisions and supplies ran low.<ref name="Lyons202"/>

However, Crusader attacks provoked further responses by Saladin. [[Raynald of Châtillon]], in particular, harassed Muslim [[Trade|trading]] and [[pilgrimage]] routes with a fleet on the [[Red Sea]], a water route that Saladin needed to keep open. In response, Saladin built a fleet of 30 galleys to attack [[Beirut]] in 1182. Raynald threatened to attack the holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. In retaliation, Saladin twice [[Siege of Kerak|besieged Kerak]], Raynald's fortress in [[Oultrejordain]], in 1183 and 1184. Raynald responded by looting a caravan of pilgrims on the [[Hajj]] in 1185. According to the later thirteenth century ''Old French Continuation of William of Tyre'', Raynald captured Saladin's sister in a raid on a caravan, although this claim is not attested in contemporary sources, Muslim or Frankish, instead stating that Raynald had attacked a preceding caravan, and Saladin set guards to ensure the safety of his sister and her son, who came to no harm.

Following the failure of his Kerak sieges, Saladin temporarily turned his attention back to another long-term project and resumed attacks on the territory of ʻIzz ad-Dīn (Masʻūd ibn Mawdūd ibn Zangi), around [[Mosul]], which he had begun with some success in 1182. However, since then, Masʻūd had allied himself with the powerful governor of [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Jibal]], who in 1185 began moving his troops across the [[Zagros Mountains]], causing Saladin to hesitate in his attacks. The defenders of Mosul, when they became aware that help was on the way, increased their efforts, and Saladin subsequently fell ill, so in March 1186 a peace treaty was signed.<ref>Bosworth, 1989, p. 781</ref>

In July 1187 Saladin captured most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. On July 4, 1187, at the [[Battle of Hattin]], he faced the combined forces of [[Guy of Lusignan]], [[King Consort]] of Jerusalem and [[Raymond III of Tripoli]]. In this battle alone the Crusader army was largely annihilated by the motivated army of Saladin. It was a major disaster for the Crusaders and a turning point in the history of the Crusades. Saladin captured Raynald de Châtillon and was personally responsible for his [[execution]] in retaliation for his attacking Muslim caravans. The members of these caravans had, in vain, besought his mercy by reciting the truce between the Muslims and the Crusaders, but he ignored this and insulted their prophet Muhammad before murdering and torturing a number of them. Upon hearing this, Saladin swore an oath to personally execute Raynald.<ref>''Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf'' by Beha Ed-din, Baha' Al-Din Yusuf Ib Ibn Shaddad, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p.42, p.114</ref>

Guy of Lusignan was also captured. Seeing the execution of Raynald, he feared he would be next. But his life was spared by Saladin with the words, talking about Raynald:

{{bquote|It is not the wont of kings, to kill kings; but that man had transgressed all bounds, and therefore did I treat him thus.<ref>''Saladin Or What Befell Sultan Yusuf'' by Beha Ed-din, Baha' Al-Din Yusuf Ib Ibn Shaddad, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p.115.</ref>}}

===Capture of Jerusalem===
Saladin had captured almost every Crusader city. [[Jerusalem]] capitulated to his forces on October 2, 1187, after a [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|siege]]. Before the siege, Saladin had offered generous terms of surrender, which were rejected. After the siege had started, he was unwilling to promise terms of quarter to the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem#Population|Frankish]] inhabitants of Jerusalem until [[Balian of Ibelin]] threatened to kill every Muslim hostage, estimated at 5000, and to destroy Islam's holy shrines of the [[Dome of the Rock]] and the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] if quarter was not given. Saladin consulted his council and these terms were accepted. Ransom was to be paid for each Frank in the city whether man, woman or child. Saladin allowed many to leave without having the required amount for ransom for others,<ref>Runciman (1990), p 465.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&pg=PA1101&dq=saladin+balian+jerusalem+siege+-wikipedia+-%22Kingdom+of+Heaven%22+destroy+temple+mount&sig=lu0RI7bOVMyPYmxqHXVUiaWTkkw|title=E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 | isbn=9789004097902 | year=1993 | publisher=Brill}}</ref> but most of the foot soldiers were sold into [[slavery]].<ref name=Saladin>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/144695/Crusades/25607/The-Crusader-states-to-1187 The era of the Second and Third Crusades » The Crusader states to 1187], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin summoned the Jews and permitted them to resettle in the city.<ref>Scharfstein and Gelabert, 1997, p. 145.</ref> In particular, the residents of Ashkelon, a large Jewish settlement, responded to his request.<ref>Rossoff, 2001, p. 6.</ref>

[[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], on the coast of modern-day [[Lebanon]], was the last major Crusader city that was not captured by Muslim forces (strategically, it would have made more sense for Saladin to capture Tyre before Jerusalem—however, Saladin chose to pursue Jerusalem first because of the importance of the city to Islam). The city was now commanded by [[Conrad of Montferrat]], who strengthened Tyre's defences and withstood two sieges by Saladin. In 1188, at Tortosa, Saladin released Guy of Lusignan and returned him to his wife, Queen [[Sibylla of Jerusalem]]. They went first to Tripoli, then to [[Antioch]]. In 1189, they sought to reclaim Tyre for their kingdom, but were refused admission by Conrad, who did not recognize Guy as king. Guy then set about [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|besieging Acre]].

===Third Crusade===
{{Quote box
| quote = It is equally true that his generosity, his piety, devoid of fanaticism, that flower of liberality and courtesy which had been the model of our old chroniclers, won him no less popularity in Frankish Syria than in the lands of Islam.
| source = ''René Grousset (writer)''<ref name="Grousset">Grousset (1970).</ref>
| width = 25em
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}}
[[Hattin]] and the fall of Jerusalem prompted the [[Third Crusade]], financed in England by a special "[[Saladin tithe]]". [[Richard I of England]] (Richard the Lionheart) led Guy's siege of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], conquered the city and executed 3000 Muslim prisoners including women and children.<ref>[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lionheart.htm Richard The Lionheart Massacres The Saracens, 1191], [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad|Beha-ed-Din]], his account appears in Archer, T.A., The Crusade of Richard I (1889); Gillingham, John, The Life and Times of Richard I (1973).</ref> Saladin retaliated by killing all Franks captured from August 28 – September 10. Bahā' ad-Dīn writes, "Whilst we were there they brought two Franks to the Sultan (Saladin) who had been made prisoners by the advance guard. He had them beheaded on the spot."<ref>Bahā' al-Dīn (2002) pp 169–170</ref>

The armies of Saladin engaged in combat with the army of King Richard at the [[Battle of Arsuf]] on September 7, 1191, at which Saladin was defeated. All attempts made by Richard the Lionheart to re-take Jerusalem failed. However, Saladin's relationship with Richard was one of chivalrous mutual respect as well as military rivalry. When Richard became ill with fever, Saladin offered the services of his personal physician. Saladin also sent him fresh fruit with snow, to chill the drink, as treatment. At Arsuf, when Richard lost his horse, Saladin sent him two replacements. Richard suggested to Saladin that Palestine, Christian and Muslim, could be united through the marriage of his sister [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily]], to Saladin's brother, and that Jerusalem could be their wedding gift.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}} However, the two men never met face to face and communication was either written or by messenger.

As leaders of their respective factions, the two men came to an agreement in the [[Treaty of Ramla]] in 1192, whereby Jerusalem would remain in Muslim hands but would be open to Christian [[pilgrimage]]s. The treaty reduced the Latin Kingdom to a strip along the coast from Tyre to [[Jaffa]]. This treaty was supposed to last three years.

==Death==
{{Quote box |
| quote = A Knight without fear or blame who often had to teach his opponents the right way to practice chivalry.
| source = An inscription written by [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm II]] on a wreath he laid on Saladin's Tomb.<ref name="Grousset"/>
| width = 25em
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}}

Saladin died of a fever on March 4, 1193, at [[Damascus]], not long after Richard's departure. Since Saladin had given most of his possessions and money away for charity, when they opened his treasury, they found there was not enough money to pay for his funeral.<ref>Bahā' al-Dīn (2002) pp 25 & 244.</ref> He was buried in a [[Mausoleum of Saladin|mausoleum]] in the garden outside the [[Umayyad Mosque]] in [[Damascus]], [[Syria]].

Seven centuries later, Emperor [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] of Germany donated a new [[marble]] [[sarcophagus]] to the mausoleum. Saladin was, however, not placed in it. Instead the [[mausoleum]], which is open to visitors, now has two [[sarcophagi]]: one, empty made of marble and the original, which holds Saladin, which is made of wood.

==Family==
According to Imad al-Din, Saladin had fathered five sons before he left Egypt in 1174. Saladin's eldest son, [[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|al-Afdal]] was born in 1170 and [[Al-Aziz Uthman|Uthman]] was born in 1172 to Shamsa who accompanied Saladin to Syria. Al-Afdal's mother bore Saladin another child in 1177. A letter preserved by Qalqashandi records that a twelfth son was born in May 1178, while on Imad al-Din's list, he appears as Saladin's seventh son. Mas'ud was born in 1175 and Yaq'ub in 1176, the latter to Shamsa. Nur al-Din's widow, [[Ismat al-Din Khatun]], remarried to Saladin in September 1176. Ghazi and Da'ud were born to the same mother in 1173 and 1178, respectively, and the mother of Ishaq who was born in 1174 also gave birth to another son in July 1182.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=135}}</ref>

==Recognition and legacy==
===Western world===

[[Image:Damascus-SaladinTomb.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Mausoleum of Saladin|Saladin's tomb]], near [[Umayyad Mosque]]'s [[northwestern|NW]] corner.]]
[[Image:Graf Saladin Damascus.JPG|thumb|left|180px|Saladin's tomb in [[Damascus]], [[Syria]].]]

His fierce struggle against the crusaders was where Saladin achieved a great reputation in Europe as a [[Chivalry|chivalrous]] [[knight]], so much so that there existed by the fourteenth century an [[epic poem]] about his exploits. Though Saladin faded into history after the [[Middle Ages]], he appears in a sympathetic light in Sir [[Walter Scott]]'s novel ''The Talisman'' (1825). It is mainly from this novel that the contemporary view of Saladin originates. According to [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]], Scott's portrayal of Saladin was that of a "modern [19th Century] liberal European gentlemen, beside whom medieval Westerners would always have made a poor showing."<ref>Riley Smith, Jonathan, "The Crusades, Christianity and Islam", (Columbia 2008), p. 67</ref> Despite the Crusaders' slaughter when they originally conquered Jerusalem in 1099, Saladin granted amnesty and free passage to all common [[Catholics]] and even to the defeated Christian army, as long as they were able to pay the aforementioned ransom (the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] Christians were treated even better, because they often opposed the western Crusaders). An interesting view of Saladin and the world in which he lived is provided by [[Tariq Ali]]'s novel ''The Book of Saladin''.<ref>(London: Verso, 1998)</ref> Though contemporary views on Saladin are often positive, Saladin's qualities are often exaggerated, mainly under influence of the image created during the 19th century.

Notwithstanding the differences in beliefs, the Muslim Saladin was respected by Christian lords, Richard especially. Richard once praised Saladin as a great prince, saying that he was without doubt the greatest and most powerful leader in the Islamic world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=357}}</ref> Saladin in turn stated that there was not a more honorable Christian lord than Richard. After the treaty, Saladin and Richard sent each other many gifts as tokens of respect, but never met face to face.

In April 1191, a Frankish woman's three month old baby had been stolen from her camp and had been sold on the market. The Franks urged her to approach Saladin herself with her grievance. According to Bahā' al-Dīn, Saladin used his own money to buy the child back:

{{bquote|He gave it to the mother and she took it; with tears streaming down her face, and hugged it to her breast. The people were watching her and weeping and I (Ibn Shaddad) was standing amongst them. She suckled it for some time and then Saladin ordered a horse to be fetched for her and she went back to camp.<ref>Bahā' al-Dīn (2002), pp. 147–148.; {{Harvnb|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=325–326}}</ref>}}

According to the some sources, British Commander General [[Edmund Allenby]] during World War I, proudly declared "today the wars of the Crusaders are completed " by rising up his sword towards statue of Saladin after capture of Damascus from [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Turkish troops]]. This quotation is incorrectly attributed to Allenby, as throughout his life he vehemently protested against his conquest of Palestine in 1917 being called a "Crusade". In 1933 Allenby reiterated this stance by saying: "The importance of Jerusalem lay in its strategic importance, there was no religious impulse in this campaign".<ref>Jonathan Phillips, Holy Warriors: a modern History of the Crusades (London,2009),pp.327–331.</ref> As well British press celebrated his victory with cartoons of Richard the Lion-Hearted looking down at Jerusalem above the caption "At last my dream come true."<ref>http://www.submission.org/christians/crusades.html</ref><ref>http://blog.milliyet.com.tr/Blog.aspx?BlogNo=225248</ref> After French General [[Henri Gouraud]] entered the city in July 1920 and kicking Saladin's tomb, Gouraud exclaimed, "Awake Saladin, we have returned. My presence here consecrates the victory of the Cross over the Crescent."<ref>http://worldpolicy.org/journal/articles/wpj06-1/coda.html</ref>

===Muslim world===
[[Image:Coat of arms of Egypt.svg|143px|thumb|right|The Eagle of Saladin in the [[Coat of arms of Egypt|Egyptian coat of arms]]]]

In 1898 [[German Emperor]] [[Wilhelm II]] visited Saladin's tomb to pay his respects. The visit, coupled with anti-colonial sentiments, led nationalist Arabs to reinvent the image of Saladin and portray him as a hero of the struggle against the West. The image of Saladin they used was the romantic one created by [[Walter Scott]] and other Europeans in the West at the time, as Saladin had been a figure entirely forgotten in the Muslim world{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}. This was mainly because of Saladin's short-lived "quasi-empire" and evident lack of commitment to religion{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}, plus his eclipse by more successful figures such as [[Baybars]] of Egypt.<ref>Riley Smith, Jonathan, "The Crusades, Christianity and Islam", (Columbia 2008), p. 63-66</ref>

Modern Arab states have sought to commemorate Saladin through various measures, often based on the image created of him in the 19th century west{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}. A [[Governorates of Iraq|governorate]] centered around Tikrit and [[Samarra]] in modern-day [[Iraq]], [[Salah ad Din Governorate]], is named after him, as is [[Salahaddin University]] in [[Arbil]],the largest city of [[Iraqi Kurdistan]]. A suburb community of [[Arbil]], Masif Salahaddin, is also named after him.

Few structures associated with Saladin survive within modern cities. Saladin first fortified the [[Cairo Citadel|Citadel of Cairo]] (1175–1183), which had been a domed pleasure pavilion with a fine view in more peaceful times. In Syria, even the smallest city is centred on a defensible [[citadel]], and Saladin introduced this essential feature to Egypt.

Among the forts he built was [[Qalaat al-Gindi]], a mountaintop [[fortress]] and [[caravanserai]] in the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]. The fortress overlooks a large [[wadi]] which was the convergence of several caravan routes that linked Egypt and the Middle East. Inside the structure are a number of large vaulted rooms hewn out of rock, including the remains of shops and a water cistern. A notable archaeological site, it was investigated in 1909 by a French team under [[Jules Barthoux]].<ref name="Schreurs_Saladin">{{cite web | url = http://home.hetnet.nl/~lilian_jan_schreurs/news/saladin.htm | title = Saladin | accessdate = 2007-03-17 | last = Schreurs | first = J. | year = 2001 | month = February}}</ref>

Although the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] that he founded would only outlive him by 57 years, the legacy of Saladin within the [[Arab World]] continues to this day. With the rise of [[Arab nationalism]] in the Twentieth Century, particularly with regard to the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], Saladin's heroism and leadership gained a new significance. Saladin's liberation of Palestine from the [[Crusaders|European Crusaders]] was put forth the inspiration for the modern-day Arabs' opposition to [[Zionism]].

Moreover, the glory and comparative unity of the Arab World under Saladin was seen as the perfect symbol for the new unity sought by Arab nationalists, such as [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. For this reason, the [[Coat of arms of Egypt|Eagle of Saladin]] became the symbol of revolutionary Egypt, and was subsequently adopted by several other Arab states ([[Coat of arms of Iraq|Iraq]], the [[Coat of arms of Palestine|Palestinian Territory]], and [[Coat of arms of Yemen|Yemen]]).

==See also==
*[[Islam]]
*[[List of rulers of Damascus]]
*[[List of rulers of Egypt]]
*[[History of Kurdish people]]
*[[Baibars]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|3}}

==Bibliography==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite book|author= Bahā' al-Dīn Ibn Shaddād |authorlink= Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad |year= 2002 |title= The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin |publisher= Ashgate |isbn= 978-0-7546-3381-5 }}
*{{cite book|author= [[Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani]] |editor= C. Landberg|year= 1888 |title= Conquête de la Syrie et de la Palestine par Salâh ed-dîn |publisher= Brill |language= French }}

===Secondary sources===
*{{cite book|last= Bosworth|first=Clifford|editor1-last=Van Donzel|editor1-first=E.|editor2-last=Heinrichs|editor2-first=W. P.|editor3-last=Pellat|editor3-first=Ch.|title=Mahk-Mid|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PvwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA781&lpg=PA781&dq=%22Salah+al-Din%22+pahlavan+OR+pahlawan&source=web&ots=vLzdvFPf4b&sig=_3D6G6BCDM3V6Sg4siHpW_8SuG0&hl=en|accessdate=2008-05-18|series=The Encyclopaedia of Islam|volume= VI |year= 1989 |publisher= E. J. Brill |isbn= 9004081127 }}
*{{cite book|last= Gabrieli |first= Francesco |coauthor= Costello, E. J. |title= Arab historians of the crusades |publisher= Routledge & Kegan |location= London |year= 1984 |pages= 362 |isbn= 978-0-7102-0235-2 }}
*{{cite book|last= Gillingham |first= John |title= Richard I |publisher= Yale University Press |location= New Haven |year= 1999 |series= Yale English Monarchs|pages=378|isbn=978-0-300-07912-8}}
*{{cite book|last= Grousset |first= René |others= tr. Lindsay, Noël |title= The epic of the Crusades |publisher= Orion Press |location= New York |year= 1970 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lane-Poole |first= Stanley |authorlink= Stanley Lane-Poole |title= Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem |publisher= [[G. P. Putnam's Sons]] |location= London |year= 1906 |series= Heroes of the Nations |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C |ref= CITEREFLane-Poole1906 }}
*{{cite book|last1= Lyons |first1= M. C. |last2= Jackson |first2= D.E.P. |year= 1982 |title= Saladin: the Politics of the Holy War |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-521-31739-9 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=hGR5M0druJIC |ref= CITEREFLyonsJackson1982 }}
*{{cite book|last=Minorsky|first= Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Minorsky|year=1953|title=Studies in Caucasian history|location=London|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Rossoff|first=Dovid|title= Where heaven touches earth : Jewish life in Jerusalem from medieval times to the present |editor= Linas, Eli |publisher= Guardian |location= Jerusalem |year= 2001 |isbn= 9780873068796 }}
*{{cite book|last= Runciman |first= Steven |authorlink= Steven Runciman |title= A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East 1100–1187 |publisher= Penguin |location= London |year= 1990 |edition= 2nd ed. |volume= 2 |isbn= 978-0-14-013704-0 }}
*{{hy icon}} {{cite book |last = Ter-Ghevondyan|first = Aram N.|authorlink = Aram Ter-Ghevondyan|title = Արաբական Ամիրայությունները Բագրատունյաց Հայաստանում (The Arab Emirates in Bagratuni Armenia)|publisher = Armenian Academy of Sciences|location= Yerevan|year = 1965|ref= CITEREFTer-Ghevondyan1965}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last= Bowman |first= Alan K. |title= Egypt after the pharaohs 332 BC-AD 642 : from Alexander to the Arab conquest |publisher= University of California Press |location= Berkeley |year= 1986 |isbn= 978-0-520-05930-6 }}
*{{cite book|last=Gibb|first= H.A.R.|year=1973|title=The Life of Saladin: From the Works of Imad ad-Din and Baha ad-Din|publisher= [[Clarendon Press]]|isbn=978-0-86356-928-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Hindley|first=Geoffrey|year=2007|title=Saladin: Hero of Islam|publisher=Pen & Sword|isbn=1-84415-499-8}}
*{{cite book|last= Husain |first= Shahnaz |title= Muslim heroes of the crusades : Salahuddin and Nuruddin|publisher= Ta-Ha |location= London |year= 1998 |isbn= 978-1-897940-71-6 }}
*{{cite book|last=Reston|first=James|year=2001|title=Warriors of God: Richard the Lionheart and Saladin in the Third Crusade |location= New York |publisher= Anchor Books |isbn= 0-385-49562-5 }}
*{{cite book|last=Scharfstein|first=Sol|coauthors=Gelabert, Dorcas|title= Chronicle of Jewish history : from the patriarchs to the 21st century |publisher= Hoboken, N.J. : KTAV Pub. House |year= 1997 |isbn= 0881256064 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.third-millennium-library.com/readinghall/GalleryofHistory/Saladin/LIFE-DOOR.html Stanley Lane-Poole, "The Life of Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem", in "btm" format]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=17 Richard and Saladin: Warriors of the Third Crusade]
* [http://www.medievalist.globalfolio.net/eng/r/rosebault_saladin/_content.php Rosebault Ch.J. Saladin. Prince of Chivalri]
* [http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost12/Libellus/lib_expu.html#1 De expugnatione terrae sanctae per Saladinum] A European account of Saladin's conquests of the Crusader states. {{la icon}}
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/9465.html Saladin: The Sultan and His Times, 1138–1193]

*Saladin Grave on www.findagrave.com http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=8092624

{{Commons category|Saladin}}

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{{Succession box|title=[[List of rulers of Egypt|Sultan of Egypt]]|before=[[Al-'Āḍid]] [[Fatimid|Fatimid Caliph of Egypt]]|years=1171–1193|after=[[Al-Aziz Uthman]]}}
{{Succession box|title=[[List of rulers of Damascus|Emir of Damascus]]|before=[[As-Salih Ismail al-Malik]]|years=1174–1186|after=[[Al-Afdal ibn Salah al-din]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Ayyubid dynasty}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Ayyūb, Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Yūsuf ibn
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
|DATE OF BIRTH=c. 1137–1138
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Tikrit]], [[Iraq]]
|DATE OF DEATH=March 4, 1193 AD (aged 55–56)
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Damascus]], [[Syria]]
}}

[[Category:1130s births]]
[[Category:1193 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Tikrit]]
[[Category:Ayyubid dynasty]]
[[Category:Muslim generals]]
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:Muslims of the Third Crusade]]
[[Category:Kurdish people]]
[[Category:History of Kurdish people]]
[[Category:History of Iraq]]
[[Category:History of the Levant]]
[[Category:Sultans of Egypt]]
[[Category:History of Syria]]
[[Category:Fertile Crescent]]

{{Link FA|ur}}
{{Link GA|ca}}

[[als:Saladin]]
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[[zh:萨拉丁]]

Arithmetic logic unit

2010-10-23T15:52:56Z

Nallimbot: robot Modifying: ar:وحدة الحساب والمنطق

[[Image:ALU symbol.svg|right|thumb|Arithmetic Logic Unit schematic symbol]]
[[Image:KL Texas Instruments ALU SN74AS888.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Cascadable 8 Bit ALU Texas Instruments SN74AS888]]
In [[computing]], an '''arithmetic logic unit''' ('''ALU''') is a [[digital circuit]] that performs [[arithmetic]] and [[logical]] operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the [[central processing unit]] (CPU) of a computer, and even the simplest [[microprocessor]]s contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers. The processors found inside modern CPUs and graphics processing units ([[Graphics processing unit|GPUs]]) accommodate very powerful and very complex ALUs; a single component may contain a number of ALUs.

Mathematician [[John von Neumann]] proposed the ALU concept in 1945, when he wrote a report on the foundations for a new computer called the [[EDVAC]]. Research into ALUs remains an important part of [[computer science]], falling under '''Arithmetic and logic structures''' in the [[ACM Computing Classification System]].

==Early development==
In 1946, von Neumann worked with his colleagues in designing a computer for the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (IAS) in [[Princeton, New Jersey]]. The [[IAS computer]] became the prototype for many later computers. In the proposal, von Neumann outlined what he believed would be needed in his machine, including an ALU.

von Neumann stated that an ALU is a necessity for a computer because it is guaranteed that a computer will have to compute basic mathematical operations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

==Numerical systems==
An ALU must process numbers using the same format as the rest of the digital circuit. The format of modern processors is almost always the [[two's complement]] binary number representation. Early computers used a wide variety of number systems, including [[Signed number representations#Ones' complement|one's complement]], [[Signed number representations#Sign-and-magnitude|sign-magnitude]] format, and even true decimal systems, with ten tubes per digit.

ALUs for each one of these numeric systems had different designs, and that influenced the current preference for two's complement, as this is the representation that makes it easier for the ALUs to calculate additions and subtractions.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}

The two's-complement number system allows for subtraction to be accomplished by adding the negative of a number in a very simple way which negates the need for specialised circuits to do subtraction.

==Practical overview==

Most of a processor's operations are performed by one or more ALUs. An ALU loads data from [[processor register|input register]]s, an external [[Control Unit]] then tells the ALU what operation to perform on that data, and then the ALU stores its result into an output register. Other mechanisms move data between these registers and memory.

===Simple operations===
[[Image:2-bit ALU.png|right|thumb|A simple example arithmetic logic unit (2-bit ALU) that does AND, OR, XOR, and addition]]
Most ALUs can perform the following operations:

*[[Integer (computer science)|Integer]] arithmetic operations ([[addition]], [[subtraction]], and sometimes [[multiplication]] and [[Division (mathematics)|division]], though this is more expensive)
*[[Bitwise operation|Bitwise logic operations]] ([[AND gate|AND]], [[NOT gate|NOT]], [[OR gate|OR]], [[XOR gate|XOR]])
*[[Bitwise operation#Bit shifts|Bit-shifting]] operations (shifting or rotating a word by a specified number of bits to the left or right, with or without [[sign extension]]). Shifts can be interpreted as multiplications by 2 and divisions by 2.

===Complex operations===

Engineers can design an Arithmetic Logic Unit to calculate any operation. The more complex the operation, the more expensive the ALU is, the more space it uses in the processor, the more power it dissipates. Therefore, engineers compromise. They make the ALU powerful enough to make the processor fast, but yet not so complex as to become prohibitive. For example, computing the square root of a number might use :

# '''Calculation in a single clock''' Design an extraordinarily complex ALU that calculates the square root of any number in a single step.
# '''Calculation pipeline''' Design a very complex ALU that calculates the square root of any number in several steps. The intermediate results go through a series of circuits arranged like a factory production line. The ALU can accept new numbers to calculate even before having finished the previous ones. The ALU can now produce numbers as fast as a single-clock ALU, although the results start to flow out of the ALU only after an initial delay.
# '''interactive calculation''' Design a complex ALU that calculates the square root through several steps. This usually relies on control from a complex [[control unit]] with built-in [[microcode]].
# '''Co-processor''' Design a simple ALU in the processor, and sell a separate specialized and costly processor that the customer can install just beside this one, and implements one of the options above.
# '''Software libraries''' Tell the programmers that there is no [[co-processor]] and there is no [[emulator|emulation]], so they will have to write their own algorithms to calculate square roots by software.
# '''Software emulation''' [[Emulate]] the existence of the [[co-processor]], that is, whenever a program attempts to perform the square root calculation, make the processor check if there is a [[co-processor]] present and use it if there is one; if there isn't one, [[interrupt]] the processing of the program and invoke the [[operating system]] to perform the square root calculation through some software algorithm.

The options above go from the fastest and most expensive one to the slowest and least expensive one. Therefore, while even the simplest computer can calculate the most complicated formula, the simplest computers will usually take a long time doing that because of the several steps for calculating the formula.

Powerful processors like the [[Intel Core]] and [[AMD64]] implement option #1 for several simple operations, #2 for the most common complex operations and #3 for the extremely complex operations.

===Inputs and outputs===
The inputs to the ALU are the data to be operated on (called [[operand]]s) and a code from the [[control unit]] indicating which operation to perform. Its output is the result of the computation.

In many designs the ALU also takes or generates as inputs or outputs a set of condition codes from or to a [[status register]]. These codes are used to indicate cases such as [[carry (arithmetic)|carry]]-in or carry-out, [[arithmetic overflow|overflow]], [[division by zero|divide-by-zero]], etc.

===ALUs vs. FPUs===
A [[Floating Point Unit]] also performs arithmetic operations between two values, but they do so for numbers in [[floating point]] representation, which is much more complicated than the [[two's complement]] representation used in a typical ALU. In order to do these calculations, a [[Floating Point Unit|FPU]] has several complex circuits built-in, including some internal ALUs.

In modern practice, engineers typically refer to the ALU as the circuit that performs integer arithmetic operations (like [[two's complement]] and [[Binary-coded decimal|BCD]]). Circuits that calculate more complex formats like [[floating point]], [[complex numbers]], etc. usually receive a more specific name such as FPU.

==See also==
*[[7400 series]]
*[[74181]]
*[[adder (electronics)]]
*[[multiplication ALU]]
*[[digital circuit]]
*[[division (electronics)]]
*[[Control Unit]]

==References==

{{reflist}}
*{{cite book | first=Enoch| last=Hwang| year=2006| title=Digital Logic and Microprocessor Design with VHDL| publisher=Thomson| isbn=0-534-46593-5| url=http://faculty.lasierra.edu/~ehwang/digitaldesign| authorlink=Enoch Hwang}}
*{{cite book | first=William| last=Stallings| year=2006| title=Computer Organization & Architecture: Designing for Performance 7th ed| publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall| isbn=0-13-185644-8| url=http://williamstallings.com/COA/COA7e.html| authorlink=William Stallings}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/loadFile.do?objectId=12762&objectType=FILE A Simulator of Complex ALU in MATLAB]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LGkkyKZVzug&objectType=FILE An ALU implemented in Minecraft]

[[Category:Digital circuits]]
[[Category:Central processing unit]]
[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]

{{CPU technologies}}

[[ar:وحدة الحساب والمنطق]]
[[bg:ALU]]
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Deer

2010-10-23T14:44:37Z

Nallimbot: robot Adding: sah:Табатыҥылар кэргэннэрэ

{{About|the ruminant animal}}
{{redirect4|Fawn|Stag}}

{{Taxobox
|name = Deer
|fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Early Oligocene|Recent}}
|image=Red_deer_stag_2009_denmark.jpg
|image_width=250px
|image_caption=Male ([[Deer#Terminology|Stag]] [[Red deer]])
|regnum = [[Animal]]ia
|phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
|classis = [[Mammal]]ia
|infraclassis = [[Eutheria]]
|ordo = [[Even-toed ungulate|Artiodactyla]]
|subordo = [[Ruminantia]]
|infraordo = [[Pecora]]
|familia = '''Cervidae'''
|familia_authority = [[Georg August Goldfuss|Goldfuss]], 1820
|subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
|subdivision =[[Capreolinae]]/Odocoileinae Cervinae [[Water deer|Hydropotinae]] [[Muntjac|Muntiacinae]]}}

[[Image:Deer grazing at RMNP, CO IMG_5306.JPG|242px|right|thumb|Deer grazing at [[Rocky Mountain National Park]] in [[Colorado]]]]

'''Deer''' (singular and plural) are the [[ruminant]] [[mammal]]s forming the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Cervidae'''. They include for example [[Moose]], [[Red Deer]], [[Reindeer]], [[roe deer|Roe]] and [[Chital]]. Male deer, of all species but the Chinese [[Water deer]], and female reindeer grow and shed new [[antler]]s each year. In this they differ from permanently [[horn (anatomy)|horn]]ed animals such as [[antelope]]; these are in the same order as deer and may bear a superficial resemblance. The [[musk deer]] of Asia and [[Water Chevrotain]] (or Mouse Deer) of tropical African and Asian forests are not usually regarded as true deer and form their own families, [[Moschidae]] and [[Chevrotain|Tragulidae]], respectively.

==Terminology==
The word "deer" was originally quite broad in meaning, but became more specific over time. In [[Middle English]] ''der'' ([[Old English|O.E.]] ''dēor'') meant a wild animal of any kind (as opposed to ''[[cattle]]'', which then meant any domestic livestock, from the idea of ownership and related to ''chattle'' and ''capital'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/75/D0087500.html|title=www.bartleby.com|publisher=www.bartleby.com| accessdate=2009-04-05}}</ref> This general sense gave way to the modern sense by the end of the Middle English period, around 1500. Cognates of English "deer" in several other languages still have the general sense of "animal" – for example [[German language|German]] ''Tier'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''dier'', and [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian]] ''djur'', ''dyr'', ''dýr''. "Deer" is the same in the plural as in the singular.

For most deer the male is called a ''buck'' and the female is a ''doe'', but the terms vary with dialect, and especially according to the size of the species. For many larger deer the male is a ''stag'' and the female a ''hind'', while for other larger deer the same words are used as for [[cattle]]: ''bull'' and ''cow''. Terms for young deer vary similarly, with that of most being called a ''fawn'' and that of the larger species ''[[calf]]''; young of the smallest kinds may be a ''kid''. A group of deer of any kind is a ''herd''. The [[Adjective#Adjectives of relation|adjective of relation]] pertaining to deer is ''[[Wiktionary:cervine|cervine]]''; like the family name "''Cervidae''" this is from {{lang-la|cervus}}, "deer".

The word '[[hart (deer)|hart]]' is an old alternative word for "stag", related to the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''hert'' and the [[German language|German]] ''Hirsch''. It is especially used in a (British) [[Medieval hunting]] context.

==Habitat==

[[File:Sambar deer Cervus unicolor.jpg|thumb|[[Sambar (deer)|Sambar]] in Bangalore]]
[[File:Reindeer in Kebnekaise.jpg|thumb|right|[[Reindeer]] in Sweden]]
[[File:White-tail deer.jpg|thumb|right|[[White-tailed deer]] in [[Toronto]], Canada]]
[[File:Cervus Mariannus.jpg|thumb|right|[[Philippine Deer]] in [[Luzon]], Philippines]]
Deer are widely distributed, and [[hunting|hunted]], with indigenous representatives in all continents except Antarctica and Australia, though Africa has only one native species, the [[Red Deer]], confined to the [[Atlas Mountains]] in the northwest of the continent.

Deer live in a variety of [[biome]]s ranging from [[tundra]] to the [[tropical rainforest]]. While often associated with forests, many deer are [[ecotone]] species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets (for cover) and prairie and savanna (open space). The majority of large deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest, and savanna habitats around the world. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the [[understory]] and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, and herbs to grow that deer like to eat. Additionally, access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. However, adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow and thrive.

Small species of [[brocket deer]] and [[pudú]]s of Central and South America, and [[muntjac]]s of Asia generally occupy dense forests and are less often seen in open spaces, with the possible exception of the [[Indian Muntjac]]. There are also several species of deer that are highly specialized, and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps, and "wet" savannas, or riparian corridors surrounded by deserts. Some deer have a circumpolar distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the [[Reindeer|caribou]] that live in Arctic tundra and taiga (boreal forests) and [[moose]] that inhabit [[taiga]] and adjacent areas. Huemul Deer ([[taruca]] and [[South Andean Deer|Chilean Huemul]]) of South America's [[Andes]] fill an ecological niche of the [[ibex]] or [[Wild Goat]], with the fawns behaving more like goat kids.

The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate North America lies in the Canadian Rocky Mountain and Columbia Mountain Regions between Alberta and British Columbia where all five North American deer species ([[White-tailed deer]], [[Mule deer]], [[reindeer|Caribou]], [[Elk]], and [[Moose]]) can be found. This region has several clusters of national parks including [[Mount Revelstoke National Park]], [[Glacier National Park (Canada)]], [[Yoho National Park]], and [[Kootenay National Park]] on the British Columbia side, and [[Banff National Park]], [[Jasper National Park]], and [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)]] on the Alberta and Montana sides. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry subalpine/pine forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain ranges provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at higher altitudes in the subalpine meadows and alpine tundra areas of some of the mountain ranges. Elk and Mule Deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region. Elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. The White-tailed deer have recently expanded their range within the foothills and river valley bottoms of the Canadian Rockies owing to conversion of land to cropland and the clearing of coniferous forests allowing more deciduous vegetation to grow up the mountain slopes. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, where they share habitat with the [[moose]]. The adjacent [[Great Plains]] grassland habitats are left to herds of [[Elk]], [[American Bison]], and [[pronghorn]] antelope.
[[File:Daněk 3.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Fallow Deer|Fallow buck]] in the [[Czech Republic]]]]
The [[Eurasia]]n Continent (including the Indian Subcontinent) boasts the most species of deer in the world, with most species being found in Asia. Europe, in comparison, has lower diversity in plant and animal species. However, many national parks and protected reserves in Europe do have populations of [[Red Deer]], [[Roe Deer]], and [[Fallow Deer]]. These species have long been associated with the continent of Europe, but also inhabit [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]], the [[Caucasus Mountains]], and Northwestern [[Iran]]. "European" Fallow Deer historically lived over much of Europe during the Ice Ages, but afterwards became restricted primarily to the [[Anatolia]]n Peninsula, in present-day [[Turkey]]. Present-day Fallow deer populations in Europe are a result of historic man-made introductions of this species first to the Mediterranean regions of Europe, then eventually to the rest of Europe. They were initially park animals that later escaped and reestablished themselves in the wild. Historically, Europe's deer species shared their deciduous forest habitat with other herbivores such as the extinct [[Equus ferus ferus|tarpan]] (forest horse), extinct [[aurochs]] (forest ox), and the endangered [[wisent]] (European bison). Good places to see deer in Europe include the [[Scottish Highlands]], the Austrian [[Alps]], and the wetlands between Austria, Hungary, and Czech Republic. Some fine National Parks include [[Doñana National Park]] in Spain, the [[Veluwe]] in the Netherlands, the [[Ardennes]] in Belgium, and [[Białowieża Forest|Białowieża National Park]] of Poland. Spain, Eastern Europe, and the [[Caucasus Mountains]] still have virgin forest areas that are not only home to sizable deer populations but also for other animals that were once abundant such as the wisent, [[Eurasian Lynx]], [[Iberian Lynx|Spanish lynx]], wolves, and [[Brown Bear]]s.
[[File:Magdalen Deer.jpg|thumb|The deer in the Grove of [[Magdalen College, Oxford]].]]
[[File:Deer track.JPG|thumb|Walking tracks of a white-tail deer with clear dew claw marks]]
The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous forests, and taiga bordering North Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern China), and the Ussuri Region (Russia). These are among some of the richest deciduous and coniferous forests in the world where one can find [[Siberian Roe Deer]], [[Sika Deer]], [[Elk]], and [[Moose]]. Asian Caribou occupy the northern fringes of this region along the Sino-Russian border.

Deer such as the [[Sika Deer]], [[Thorold's deer]], [[Central Asian Red Deer]], and [[Elk]] have historically been farmed for their antlers by [[Han Chinese]], [[Turkic peoples]], [[Tungusic people]]s, [[Mongolia]]ns, and [[Koreans]]. Like the [[Sami people]] of Finland and [[Scandinavia]], the [[Tungusic people]]s, [[Mongolia]]ns, and [[Turkic peoples]] of Southern Siberia, Northern Mongolia, and the Ussuri Region have also taken to raising semi-domesticated herds of Asian Caribou.

The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in Southern Asia in Northern India's Indo-Gangetic Plain Region and Nepal's Terai Region. These fertile plains consist of tropical seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and wet savannas that are home to [[Chital]], [[Hog Deer]], [[Barasingha]], Indian [[Sambar (deer)|Sambar]], and [[Indian Muntjac]]. Grazing species such as the endangered [[Barasingha]] and very common [[Chital]] are gregarious and live in large herds. Indian [[Sambar (deer)|Sambar]] can be gregarious but are usually solitary or live in smaller herds. [[Hog Deer]] are solitary and have lower densities than Indian Muntjac. Deer can be seen in several national parks in India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka of which [[Kanha National Park]], [[Dudhwa National Park]], and [[Chitwan National Park]] are most famous. Sri Lanka's [[Wilpattu National Park]] and [[Yala National Park]] have large herds of Indian Sambar and Chital. The Indian sambar are more gregarious in Sri Lanka than other parts of their range and tend to form larger herds than elsewhere.

The Chao Praya River Valley of Thailand was once primarily tropical seasonal moist deciduous forest and wet savanna that hosted populations of [[Hog Deer]], the now-extinct [[Schomburgk's Deer]], the [[Eld's Deer]], Indian Sambar, and [[Indian Muntjac]]. Both the [[Hog Deer]] and [[Eld's Deer]] are rare, whereas Indian Sambar and [[Indian Muntjac]] thrive in protected national parks such as [[Khao Yai National Park|Khao Yai]].

Many of these South Asian and Southeast Asian deer species also share their habitat with various [[herbivory|herbivores]] such as [[Asian Elephant]]s, various Asian rhinoceros species, various antelope species (such as [[nilgai]], [[Four-horned Antelope]], [[blackbuck]], and [[Chinkara|Indian gazelle]] in India), and wild oxen (such as [[Wild Asian Water Buffalo]], [[gaur]], [[banteng]], and [[kouprey]]). How different herbivores can survive together in a given area is each species have different food preferences, although there may be some overlap.

Australia has six [[introduced species]] of deer that have established sustainable wild populations from [[acclimatisation society]] releases in the 19th century. These are [[Fallow Deer]], [[Red Deer]], [[Sambar (deer)|Sambar Deer]], [[Hog Deer]], [[Javan Rusa|Rusa deer]], and [[Chital]]. Red Deer introduced into New Zealand in 1851 from English and Scottish stock were domesticated in [[deer farm]]s by the late 1960s and are common farm animals there now. Seven other species of deer were introduced into New Zealand but none are as widespread as Red Deer.<ref name="DeerInNewZealand">[http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/M/MammalsIntroduced/Deer/en "Deer"] ''Te Ara: An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand'' 1966.</ref>
{{-}}

==Biology==
[[File:Baby fawn's first steps.ogv|thumb|Baby fawn's first steps]]
Deer weights generally range from 40 to 200 kilograms. They generally have lithe, compact bodies and long, powerful legs suited for rugged woodland terrain. Deer are also excellent jumpers and swimmers. Deer are [[ruminant]]s, or cud-chewers, and have a four-chambered stomach. The teeth of deer are adapted to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upper [[incisor]]s, instead having a tough pad at the front of their upper jaw. Some deer, such as those on the island of [[Rùm]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/08/0825_030825_carnivorousdeer.html|title=Scottish Deer Are Culprits in Bird Killings|last=Owen|first=James|date=August 25, 2003|publisher=National Geographic News |accessdate=2009-06-16}}</ref> do consume meat when it is available.<ref name="carniDeer">{{cite magazine|first=Michael|last=Dale| title=Carnivorous Deer| magazine=Omni Magazine|year=1988|month=April|page=31}}</ref>
The Chinese water deer, Tufted deer and [[muntjac]] have enlarged upper [[canine tooth|canine teeth]] forming sharp tusks, while other species often lack upper canines altogether. The cheek teeth of deer have crescent ridges of enamel, which enable them to grind a wide variety of vegetation.<ref name=EoM>{{cite book |editor=Macdonald, D.|author= Cockerill, Rosemary|year=1984 |title= The Encyclopedia of Mammals|publisher= Facts on File|location=New York|pages= 520–529|isbn= 0-87196-871-1}}</ref> The [[dentition|dental formula]] for deer is:{{dentition2|0.0-1.3.3|3.1.3.3}}

Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each eye. The gland contains a strongly scented [[pheromone]], used to mark its home range. Bucks of a wide range of species open these glands wide when angry or excited. All deer have a [[liver]] without a [[gallbladder]]. Deer also have a [[tapetum lucidum]] which gives them sufficiently good [[night vision]].
[[File:Wapiti (01) 2006-09-19.JPG|left|thumb|Female [[Elk]] nursing young]]

Nearly all cervids are so-called [[uniparental]] species: the fawns are cared for by the mother only. A doe generally has one or two fawns at a time (triplets, while not unknown, are uncommon). The gestation period is anywhere up to ten months for the European [[Roe Deer]]. Most fawns are born with their fur covered with white spots, though in many species they lose these spots by the end of their first winter. In the first twenty minutes of a fawn's life, the fawn begins to take its first steps. Its mother licks it clean until it is almost free of scent, so predators will not find it. Its mother leaves often, and the fawn does not like to be left behind. Sometimes its mother must gently push it down with her foot.<ref>[http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/content/animals/animals/mammals/deer.htm Deer - info and games] Sheppard Software.</ref> The fawn stays hidden in the grass for one week until it is strong enough to walk with its mother. The fawn and its mother stay together for about one year. A male usually never sees his mother again, but females sometimes come back with their own fawns and form small herds.
[[File:Fawn in Forest edit.jpg|right|thumb|[[Fawn]]]]

Deer are selective feeders. They are usually [[herbivory|browsers]], and primarily feed on [[leaf|leaves]]. They have small, unspecialized [[stomach]]s by [[ruminant]] standards, and high nutrition requirements. Rather than attempt to digest vast quantities of low-grade, fibrous food as, for example, [[domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]] do, deer select easily digestible shoots, young leaves, fresh [[poaceae|grasses]], soft [[twig]]s, [[fruit]], [[fungus|fungi]], and [[lichen]]s.

===Antlers===
With the exception of the [[Chinese Water Deer]], which have tusks, all male deer have [[antler]]s. Sometimes a female will have a small stub. The only female deer with antlers are [[Reindeer]] (Caribou). Antlers grow as highly vascular spongy tissue covered in a skin called velvet. Before the beginning of a species' mating season, the antlers calcify under the velvet and become hard bone. The velvet is then rubbed off leaving dead bone which forms the hard antlers. After the mating season, the pedicle and the antler base are separated by a layer of softer tissue, and the antler falls off.[[File:White-tailed deer.jpg|thumb|right|[[White-tailed deer]]]]

One way that many hunters are able to track main paths that the deer travel on is because of their "rubs". A rub is used to deposit scent from glands near the eye and forehead and physically mark territory.

During the mating season, bucks use their antlers to fight one another for the opportunity to attract mates in a given herd. The two bucks circle each other, bend back their legs, lower their heads, and charge.

Each species has its own characteristic antler structure – for example white-tailed deer antlers include a series of tines sprouting upward from a forward-curving main beam, while [[Fallow Deer]] and [[Moose]] antlers are ''palmate'', with a broad central portion. Mule deer (and [[Black-tailed Deer]]), species within the same genus as the white-tailed deer, instead have bifurcated (or branched) antlers—that is, the main beam splits into two, each of which may split into two more.<ref>[http://www.dfw.state.or.us/resources/hunting/big_game/regulations/2009biggameregsweb.pdf Oregon Big Game Regulations].</ref> Young males of many deer, and the adults of some species, such as [[brocket deer]] and [[pudu]]s, have antlers which are single spikes.

[[File:Cervoceros novorossiae.jpg|thumb|right|''Cervocerus novorossiae'']]

===Colour===
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2009}}
====Piebald deer====
A [[piebald]] deer is a deer with a brown and white spotting pattern which is not caused by parasites or diseases. They can appear to be almost entirely white. In addition to the non-standard coloration, other differences have been observed: bowing or [[Roman nose]], overly arched spine ([[scoliosis]]), long tails, short legs, and [[underbites]].[[File:Piebald deer.JPG|thumb|Piebald doe]][[File:PiebaldFawn.jpg|thumb|Piebald fawn]]

====White deer====
[[Seneca County, New York]] maintains the largest herd of white deer. White pigmented [[White-tailed Deer]] began populating the deer population in the area now known as the Conservation Area of the former Seneca Army Depot. The [[U.S. Army]] gave the white deer protection while managing the normal colored deer through hunting. The white deer coloration is the result of a recessive gene.

===Evolution===
The earliest fossil deer including ''[[Heteroprox]]'' date from the [[Oligocene]] of Europe, and resembled the modern [[muntjac]]s. Later species were often larger, with more impressive antlers. They rapidly spread to the other continents, even for a time occupying much of northern Africa, where they are now almost wholly absent. Some extinct deer had huge antlers, larger than those of any living species. Examples include ''[[Eucladoceros]]'', and the giant deer ''[[Megaloceros]]'', whose antlers stretched to 3.5 metres across.
{{clr}}

==Economic significance==
[[File:Lucas Cranach the Elder Stag Hunt.jpg|thumb|"The Stag Hunt of [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony]]" by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]]]
[[File:Mavrogheni trasura cerbi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nicholas Mavrogenes]], [[Phanariotes|Phanariote]] [[List of rulers of Wallachia|Prince]] of [[Wallachia]], riding through [[Bucharest]] in a deer−drawn carriage (late 1780s)]]
Deer have long had economic significance to humans. Deer meat, for which they are hunted and farmed, is called [[venison]]. Deer organ meat is called ''humble''. See [[humble pie]].

The [[Sami people|Sami]] of [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Kola Peninsula]] of Russia and other nomadic peoples of northern Asia use [[reindeer]] for food, clothing, and transport.

The caribou in North America is not domesticated or herded as is the case of reindeer (the same species), reindeer are often found in colder regions in Europe, but is important as a quarry animal to the [[Inuit]]. Most commercial venison in the United States is imported from New Zealand.

Deer were originally brought to New Zealand by European settlers, and the deer population rose rapidly. This caused great environmental damage and was controlled by hunting and poisoning until the concept of deer farming developed in the 1960s. Deer farming has advanced into a significant economic activity in New Zealand with more than 3,000 farms running over 1 million deer in total. Deer products are exported to over 50 countries around the world, with New Zealand becoming well recognised as a source of quality venison and co-products.

Automobile collisions with deer can impose a significant cost on the economy. In the U.S., about 1.5 million deer-vehicle collisions occur each year, according to the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]. Those accidents cause about 150 human deaths and $1.1 billion in property damage annually.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/AUTOS/11/14/deer_crash/index.html |title=Worst states for auto-deer crashes |publisher=CNN.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-05}}</ref>

Deer hunting is a popular activity in the U.S. that generates revenue for states and the federal government from the sales of licenses, permits and tags. The 2006 survey by the [http://www.fws.gov U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service] estimates that license sales generate approximately $700 million annually. This revenue generally goes to support conservation efforts in the states where the licenses are purchased. Overall, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that big game hunting for deer and elk generates approximately $11.8 billion annually in hunting-related travel, equipment and related expenditures.<ref>[http://library.fws.gov/pubs/nat_survey2006_final.pdf U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. 2006 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation.]</ref>

==Taxonomy==
Note that the terms indicate the origin of the groups, not their modern distribution: the [[water deer]], for example, is a New World species but is found only in China and [[Korea]].

It is thought that the new world group originates from the forests of North America and [[Siberia]], the old world deer in Asia.

===Subfamilies, genera and species===
The family Cervidae is organized as follows:
* Subfamily Muntiacinae ([[Muntjac]]s)
** Genus ''Muntiacus'':
*** [[Southern Red Muntjac]] or Indian Muntjac (''Muntiacus muntjak'')
*** [[Reeves's Muntjac]] or Chinese Muntjac (''Muntiacus reevesi'')
*** [[Hairy-fronted Muntjac]] or Black Muntjac (''Muntiacus crinifrons'')
*** [[Fea's Muntjac]] (''Muntiacus feae'')
*** [[Bornean Yellow Muntjac]] (''Muntiacus atherodes'')
*** [[Roosevelt's muntjac]] (''Muntiacus rooseveltorum'')
*** [[Gongshan muntjac]] (''Muntiacus gongshanensis'')
*** [[Giant Muntjac]] (''Muntiacus vuquangensis'')
*** [[Truong Son Muntjac]] (''Muntiacus truongsonensis'')
*** [[Leaf muntjac]] (''Muntiacus putaoensis'')
*** [[Sumatran Muntjac]] (''Muntiacus montanum'')
*** [[Pu Hoat Muntjac]] (''Muntiacus puhoatensis'')
** Genus ''Elaphodus'':
*** [[Tufted deer]] (''Elaphodus cephalophus'')
* Subfamily Cervinae (True Deer, Old World Deer):
** Genus ''Cervus'':
*** European [[Red Deer]] (''Cervus elaphus'')
*** [[Central Asian Red Deer]] (''Cervus wallichi'')
*** [[Elk]] (''Cervus canadensis'') (North American and Asian Elk; second largest deer in world; not to be confused with Moose, known as Elk in Europe)
*** [[Sika Deer]] (''Cervus nippon'')
** Genus ''[[Przewalskium]]'':
*** [[Thorold's deer]], or white-lipped deer (''Przewalskium albirostris'')
** Genus ''[[Rucervus]]'':
*** [[Barasingha]] (''Rucervus duvaucelii'')
*** [[Schomburgk's Deer]] (''Rucervus schomburgki'') ([[Extinction|extinct]], 1938)
*** [[Eld's Deer]] or Thamin (''Rucervus eldii'')
** Genus ''[[Rusa (genus)|Rusa]]'':
*** [[Sambar (deer)|Sambar]] (''Rusa unicolor'')
*** [[Javan Rusa|Sunda Sambar]] or Rusa Deer (''Rusa timorensis'')
*** [[Philippine Deer|Philippine Sambar]] (''Rusa mariannus'')
*** Philippine Spotted Deer or [[Visayan Spotted Deer]] (''Rusa alfredi'') (smallest Old World deer)
** Genus ''Axis'':
*** Subgenus ''Axis'':
**** [[Chital]] or Axis deer (''Axis axis'')
*** Subgenus ''Hyelaphus'':
**** [[Hog Deer]] (''Axis porcinus'')
**** [[Calamian Deer]] (''Axis calamianensis'')
**** [[Bawean Deer]] (''Axis kuhlii'')
** Genus ''Elaphurus'':
*** [[Père David's Deer]] (''Elaphurus davidianus'')
** Genus ''Dama'':
*** [[Fallow Deer]] (''Dama dama'')
*** [[Persian fallow deer]] (''Dama mesopotamica'')
*** Sicilian fallow deer (''Dama carburangelensis'') †
** Genus ''Megaloceros'':
*** [[Irish Elk|Giant Deer]] (''Megaloceros giganteus'') †<ref name=giant_deer>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7069/abs/nature04134.html The phylogenetic position of the 'giant deer' Megaloceros giganteus.] Letter in ''Nature'' 438, 850–853 (2005-12-08).</ref>
*** Sardinian dwarf deer (''Megaloceros cazioti'') †
[[File:Pudu pudu AB.jpg|thumb|[[Pudú]], the smallest species of deer]]
* Subfamily Hydropotinae (Water Deer)
** Genus ''Hydropotes'':
*** Chinese [[water deer]] (''Hydropotes inermis'')
* Subfamily Odocoileinae/Capreolinae (New World Deer)
** Genus ''Odocoileus'':
*** [[White-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'')
*** [[Mule deer]], or Black-tailed deer (''Odocoileus hemionus'')
** Genus ''Blastocerus'':
*** [[Marsh Deer]] (''Blastocerus dichotomus'')
** Genus ''Ozotoceros'':
*** [[Pampas deer]] (''Ozotoceros bezoarticus'')
** Genus ''Mazama'':
*** [[Red Brocket]] (''Mazama americana'')
*** [[Merida Brocket]] (''Mazama bricenii'')
*** [[Dwarf Brocket]] (''Mazama chunyi'')
*** [[Gray Brocket]] (''Mazama gouazoubira'')
*** [[Pygmy Brocket]] (''Mazama nana'')
*** [[Yucatan Brown Brocket]] (''Mazama pandora'')
*** [[Little Red Brocket]] (''Mazama rufina'')
** Genus ''Pudu'':
*** [[Northern Pudu]] (''Pudu mephistophiles'') (smallest deer in the world)
*** Southern [[Pudú]] (''Pudu pudu'')
** Genus ''Hippocamelus'':
*** [[Taruca]] or North Andean Deer (''Hippocamelus antisensis'')
*** Chilean Huemul or [[South Andean Deer]] (''Hippocamelus bisulcus'')
** Genus ''Capreolus'':
*** European [[Roe Deer]] (''Capreolus capreolus'')
*** [[Siberian Roe Deer]] (''Capreolus pygargus'')
** Genus ''Rangifer'':
*** [[Reindeer|Caribou/Reindeer]] (''Rangifer tarandus'')
** Genus ''Alces'':
*** [[Moose]] (''Alces alces''; called "Elk" outside North America) (largest deer in the world)
** Genus ''Cervalces''
*** [[Stag-moose]] (''Cervalces scotti'') †
[[File:Bigbullmoose.jpg|thumb|[[Moose]], the largest species of deer]]
* Unplaced
** Genus †''[[Dicrocerus]]'' (Oligocene)
** Genus †''[[Euprox]]'' (Oligocene)
** Genus †''[[Heteroprox]]'' (Oligocene)

===Hybrid deer===
In ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' (1859), [[Charles Darwin]] wrote "Although I do not know of any thoroughly well-authenticated cases of perfectly fertile hybrid animals, I have some reason to believe that the hybrids from Cervulus vaginalis and Reevesii [...] are perfectly fertile." These two varieties of muntjac are currently considered the same species.

A number of deer hybrids are bred to improve meat yield in farmed deer. American Elk (or Wapiti) and Red Deer from the Old World can produce fertile offspring in captivity, and were once considered one species. Hybrid offspring, however, must be able to escape and defend themselves against predators, and these hybrid offspring are unable to do so in the wild state. Recent [[DNA]], animal behavior studies, and morphology and antler characteristics have shown there are not one but three species of Red Deer: European [[Red Deer]], [[Central Asian Red Deer]], and American Elk or Wapiti. The European Elk is a different species and is known as [[moose]] in North America. The hybrids are about 30% more efficient in producing antlers by comparing velvet to body weight. Wapiti have been introduced into some European Red Deer herds to improve the Red Deer type, but not always with the intended improvement.

In New Zealand, where deer are introduced species, there are hybrid zones between Red Deer and North American Wapiti populations and also between Red Deer and Sika Deer populations. In New Zealand, Red Deer have been artificially hybridized with Pere David Deer in order to create a farmed deer which gives birth in spring. The initial hybrids were created by artificial insemination and back-crossed to Red Deer. However, such hybrid offspring can only survive in captivity free of predators.

In Canada, the farming of European Red Deer and Red Deer hybrids is considered a threat to native Wapiti. In Britain, the introduced Sika Deer is considered a threat to native Red Deer. Initial Sika Deer/Red Deer hybrids occur when young Sika stags expand their range into established red deer areas and have no Sika hinds to mate with. They mate instead with young Red hinds and produce fertile hybrids. These hybrids mate with either Sika or Red Deer (depending which species is prevalent in the area), resulting in mongrelization. Many of the Sika Deer which escaped from British parks were probably already hybrids for this reason. These hybrids do not properly inherit survival strategies and can only survive in either a captive state or when there are no predators.

In captivity, Mule Deer have been mated to White-tail Deer. Both male Mule Deer/female White-tailed Deer and male White-tailed Deer/female Mule Deer matings have produced hybrids. Less than 50% of the hybrid fawns survived their first few months. Hybrids have been reported in the wild but are disadvantaged because they don't properly inherit survival strategies. Mule Deer move with bounding leaps (all 4 hooves hit the ground at once, also called "stotting") to escape predators. Stotting is so specialized that only 100% genetically pure Mule Deer seem able to do it. In captive hybrids, even a one-eighth White-tail/seven-eighths Mule Deer hybrid has an erratic [[escape response|escape behaviour]] and would be unlikely to survive to breeding age. Hybrids do survive on game ranches where both species are kept and where predators are controlled by man.

==Cultural significance==
===Heraldry===
Deer are represented in heraldry by the ''stag'' or ''hart'', or less often, by the ''hind'', and the ''brocket'' (a young stag up to two years), respectively. Stag's heads and [[antler]]s also appear as [[charge (heraldry)|charges]]. The old name for deer was simply cerf, and it is chiefly the head which appears on the ancient arms. Examples of deer in [[heraldry]] can be found in the arms of [[Hertfordshire]], England and its county town of [[Hertford]]; both are examples of [[canting arms]].

Several Norwegian municipalities have a stag or stag's head in their arms: [[Gjemnes]], [[Hitra]], [[Hjartdal]], [[Rendalen]] and [[Voss]]. A deer appears on the arms of the [[Israel]]i Postal Authority (see [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] Wikipedia page.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%93%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8 |title=דואר ישראל – ויקיפדיה |language={{he icon}} |publisher=He.wikipedia.org |date= |accessdate=2009-04-05}}</ref>

<gallery perrow="5">
File:Blason Raon aux bois.svg|<center>Arms of [[Raon-aux-Bois]], [[France]]
File:Wappen Dotternhausen.svg|<center>Arms of [[Dotternhausen]], [[Germany]]
File:Thierachern-coat of arms.svg|<center>Arms of [[Thierachern]], [[Switzerland]]
File:Wappen Friolzheim.png|<center>Arms of [[Friolzheim]], Germany
File:Bauen-coat of arms.svg|<center>Arms of [[Bauen]], Switzerland
File:Wappen Albstadt.svg|<center>Arms of [[Albstadt]], Germany
File:Earl Bathurst coa.png|<center>Arms of the [[Earls Bathurst]]
File:Gjemnes_komm.png|<center>Arms of [[Gjemnes]], [[Norway]]
File:Hitra_komm.png|<center>Arms of [[Hitra]], Norway
File:Hjartdal_komm.png|<center>Arms of [[Hjartdal]], Norway
File:Voss_komm.png|<center>Arms of [[Voss]], [[Norway]]
File:Rendalen_komm.png|<center>Arms of [[Rendalen]], Norway
File:Coat of Arms of Balakhna (Nizhny Novgorod oblast) (1781).png|Arms of [[Balakhna]], Russia
File:Aland coat of arms.svg|Arms of the province of [[Aland]], Finland
File:POL Jelenia Góra COA.svg|Arms of the city [[Jelenia Gora]], Poland
File:Southampton_crest.png|Arms of the [[University of Southampton]], [[UK]]
</gallery>

[[File:Nature and Appearance of Deer and how they can be hunted with Dogs Fac simile of a Miniature in the Livre du Roy Modus Manuscript of the Fourteenth Century National Library of Paris.png|thumb|right|180px|"Nature and Appearance of Deer, and how they can be hunted with dogs", taken from ''Livre du Roy Modus'', created in the 14th century]]

===Literature and art===
[[File:Greek Gilt-silver Rhyton (Libation Vessel) In the Form of a Stag's Head.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] gilt-silver [[rhyton]], 4th century BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city.]]
[[File:MocheStag.jpg|thumb|upright|Resting Deer. [[Moche]] Culture ([[Peru]]) [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection]]]]
[[File:Mosaic of a deer, Apamea.jpg|thumb|Mosaic of a deer in [[Apamea]] Museum in [[Syria]]]]
[[File:Bydand.gif|thumb|Cap Badge of the [[Gordon Highlanders]]]]
* For the role of deer in [[mythology]], see [[Deer (mythology)|deer in mythology]].
* The ''[[Golden Hind]]'' was an English [[galleon]] best known for its global circumnavigation between 1577 and 1580, captained by Sir [[Francis Drake]].
* The deer plays a large role in [[Scottish Gaelic]] poetry (''fiadh'') of the Highlands of [[Scotland]], where it is seen as a noble creature, and ofter used as a flattering simile or metaphor when used in comparison to a famous warrior, hero or chief. Other animals include the [[salmon]] and [[golden eagle]]. In ''Cead deirranach nam beinn'' by [[Duncan MacIntyre]], the [[bard]] has a feeling of sadness due to the fact that the slopes upon which he had hunted the noble deer had gone ''fo chaoraibh'' (under sheep: become sheep grazing hills, a animal of derision and metaphor since it was the [[sheep]] which replaced many [[Scottish Highlander]]s in the glens and straths).
* The fiction book ''[[Fire Bringer]]'' is about a young fawn who is born and goes on a quest to save the deer kind who are called the Herla in the novel.
* In [[Christmas]] lore (such as in the narrative poem "[[A Visit from St. Nicholas]]"), [[reindeer]] are often depicted pulling the [[sleigh]] of [[Santa Claus]].
* One famous fictional deer is ''Bambi''. In the [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] film ''[[Bambi]]'', he is a [[white-tailed deer]], while in [[Felix Salten]]'s original book ''[[Bambi, A Life in the Woods]]'', he is a [[roe deer]].
* The [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning 1938 novel ''[[The Yearling]]'', written by [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]], was about a boy's relationship with a baby deer, later [[The Yearling (film)|adapted to a children's film]] that was nominated for an [[Academy Award for Best Picture]].
* Saint [[Hubertus]] saw a stag with a [[crucifix]] between its antlers while hunting on [[Good Friday]] and was converted to [[Christianity]] by the vision. This story was transferred to Hubert from [[St Eustace]], of whom it was originally told.
* In ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'', the first book in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' series, the adult Pevensies, now kings and queens of [[Narnia]], chase the White Stag on a hunt, as the Stag is said to grant its captor a wish. The hunt is key in returning the Pevensies to their home in England.
* In the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series, the [[Patronus Charm]] that [[Harry Potter (character)|Harry Potter]] conjures to repel [[Dementors]] is a silver stag. [[James Potter (character)|James Potter]], Harry's father, had an [[Animagus]] form as a stag. Also, Harry's mother [[Lily Potter]], and subsequently [[Severus Snape]]'s, Patronus form was a doe.
* In one of the stories of [[Baron Münchhausen]], the baron encounters a stag while eating cherries and without ammunition, fires the cherry-pits at the stag with his musket, but it escapes. The next year, the baron encounters a stag with a [[cherry tree]] growing from its head; presumably this is the animal he had shot at the previous year.
* A [[Samurai]] warrior named [[Honda Tadakatsu]] famously adorned deer antlers on his helmet.
* Deer have been a subject in [[Chinese painting]]s numerous times as a tranquility symbol.
* In ''[[The Animals of Farthing Wood]]'', a deer called [[The Great White Stag (Farthing Wood)|The Great White Stag]] is the leader of all the animal residents of the [[nature reserve]] White Deer Park.
* In ''[[The Queen (film)|The Queen]]'', a 14 point "Imperial" stag plays a role in the film.
* The [[Yaqui]] deer song (maso bwikam) accompanies the deer dance which is performed by a pascola [from the Spanish 'pascua', Easter] dancer (also known as a deer dancer). Pascolas will perform at religio-social functions many times of the year, but especially during Lent and Easter.
* Deer are depicted in many materials by various pre-Hispanic civilizations in the Andes.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref>
* Several German towns are called "[[Hirschberg]]", a name composed of ''[[Hirsch]]'' (deer) and ''[[Alban Berg|Berg]]'' (hill or mountain).
* The given name "[[Oscar (given name)|Oscar]]" is considered to be derived from [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]], meaning "deer lover."
* Among [[East European]] [[Jew]]s, "Hirsh"—[[Yiddish]] for "stag"—was a common male name, and was among other others the name of several prominent [[Rabbi]]s; in this community there was, however, no equivalent female name. In contemporary [[Israel]], several [[Hebrew]] names for this animal are commonly used as both male and female names. These include "Tzvi" (צבי) and "Eyal"(אייל)—two synonymous words for "stag"; "Tzviya" (צביה) and "Ayala" (איילה)—the respective parallel words for "Hind" or "Doe"; as well as "Ofer" (עופר) and "Ofra"(עפרה), respectively the male and female words for the young of this animal—which are all commonly used as first names among the Israeli population. In addition, there are Israelis having as their first name "[[Bambi]]", derived from the well-known [[Disney]] animated film.

*Among the native Tlingit of southeast Alaska the deer is a symbol of peace, because a deer does not bite, get angry and is gentle. When peace was to be made a "hostage" from opposing clans would be taken to the opposite clan of those making peace and each opposing faction would have a hostage, called ''Ghuwukaan'' in a ceremony lasting several months. The name for [Sitka Blacktail] deer is ''Ghuwukaan''. Making peace is called Ghuwukaan Khuwdzitee or "there will be a peace party." A name given to the "hostage" by his captors would be with the term "ghuwukaan" added such as Aank'weiyi Ghuwukaan (Flag Deer) or Dzagitgayaa Ghuwukaan (Hummingbird Deer).<ref>Haa Khusteeyi-Our Culture; Dauenhauer & Dauenhauer, 1994, UW Press.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Deer forest]]
* [[Deer hunting]]
*[[Deer penis]]
* [[Animal repellent]]
* [[Deer rub]]
* [[Reindeer hunting in Greenland]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons|Cervidae}}
{{wikispecies|Cervidae}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cervidae.html Family Cervidae] at the [[Animal Diversity Web]]
* [http://www.dnr.state.md.us/wildlife/cwdinformation.asp Chronic Wasting Disease Information]
* [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/D/DE004.html Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Deer]

{{Artiodactyla|R.1}}
{{Heraldic creatures}}

[[Category:Deer| ]]

{{Link FA|hu}}

[[koi:Кöр]]

[[als:Hirsche]]
[[ar:أيل]]
[[gn:Guasu]]
[[ay:Taruka]]
[[az:Marallar]]
[[bn:হরিণ]]
[[zh-min-nan:Lo̍k-kho]]
[[bo:ཤ་བ།]]
[[bs:Jelen]]
[[br:Karveged]]
[[bg:Еленови]]
[[ca:Cérvol]]
[[cs:Jelenovití]]
[[cy:Carw]]
[[da:Hjorte]]
[[pdc:Hasch]]
[[de:Hirsche]]
[[nv:Bįįh]]
[[el:Ελάφι]]
[[es:Cervidae]]
[[eo:Cervedoj]]
[[eu:Orein]]
[[fa:آهو]]
[[fr:Cervidae]]
[[ga:Fia]]
[[gv:Feeaih]]
[[gd:Fiadh]]
[[gl:Cervo (animal)]]
[[hak:Lu̍k-é]]
[[ko:사슴과]]
[[ha:Dabbar rendiya]]
[[hi:हिरण]]
[[hr:Jeleni]]
[[io:Cervo]]
[[id:Rusa]]
[[is:Hjartardýr]]
[[it:Cervidae]]
[[he:אייליים]]
[[kn:ಜಿಂಕೆ]]
[[kv:Кӧр]]
[[ht:Sèf]]
[[ku:Pezkovî]]
[[la:Cervidae]]
[[lv:Briežu dzimta]]
[[lt:Elniniai]]
[[hu:Szarvasfélék]]
[[mk:Елен]]
[[ml:മാൻ]]
[[mr:सारंग हरीण]]
[[ms:Rusa]]
[[my:ဒရယ်]]
[[nah:Mazātl]]
[[nl:Hertachtigen]]
[[ne:जरायो]]
[[ja:シカ]]
[[ce:Сай]]
[[no:Hjortedyr]]
[[nn:Hjortedyr]]
[[oc:Cervidae]]
[[pl:Jeleniowate]]
[[pt:Cervídeos]]
[[ro:Cerb]]
[[qu:Luwichu]]
[[ru:Оленевые]]
[[sah:Табатыҥылар кэргэннэрэ]]
[[sco:Deer]]
[[stq:Harte]]
[[simple:Deer]]
[[sl:Jeleni]]
[[so:Deero]]
[[sr:Јелен]]
[[sh:Jeleni]]
[[fi:Hirvieläimet]]
[[sv:Hjortdjur]]
[[ta:மான்]]
[[th:กวาง]]
[[tg:Гавазн]]
[[chr:ᎠᏫ]]
[[chy:Vaotseva]]
[[tr:Geyik]]
[[uk:Оленеві]]
[[ur:ہرن]]
[[vi:Họ Hươu nai]]
[[wa:Ciervidîs]]
[[war:Bugsók]]
[[zh:鹿科]]