https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=NickwilsoWikipedia - User contributions [en]2024-11-06T02:00:13ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.1https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hannah_Porter&diff=1149620934Hannah Porter2023-04-13T11:00:34Z<p>Nickwilso: Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox Rugby biography<br />
| image = <br />
| image_size =<br />
| caption = <br />
| birth_name = Hannah Myers<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1979|9|28|df=y}}<br />
| birth_place =<br />
| height = {{height|m=1.75}}<br />
| weight ={{cvt|73|kg|lb stlb}}<br />
| ru_position = Centre<br />
| ru_provinceyears = 2003<br>2000-2002<br />
| ru_province = [[Auckland rugby union team|Auckland]]<br>[[Otago Rugby Football Union|Otago]]<br />
| ru_provincecaps = <br />
| ru_provincepoints = <br />
| ru_nationalyears = 2000–2008<br />
| ru_nationalteam ={{nowrap|{{ruw|New Zealand}}}}<br />
| ru_nationalcaps = 22<br />
| ru_nationalpoints = (134)<br />
| medals = <br />
{{MedalCountry|{{NZL}}}}<br />
{{MedalSport|Women's [[rugby union]]}}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[Rugby World Cup (women)|Rugby World Cup]]}}<br />
{{MedalGold|[[2002 Women's Rugby World Cup|2002 Spain]]|[[2002 Women's Rugby World Cup squads#New Zealand|Team competition]]}}<br />
{{MedalGold|[[2006 Women's Rugby World Cup|2006 Canada]]|[[2006 Women's Rugby World Cup squads# New Zealand|Team competition]]}}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[Rugby World Cup Sevens|Sevens World Cup]]}}<br />
{{MedalSilver|[[2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens – Women's tournament|2009 Dubai]]|[[2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens squads – Women# New Zealand|Team competition]]}}<br />
}}<br />
'''Hannah Porter''' (''[[née]]'' '''Myers'''; b. 28 September 1979) is a former female rugby union player. She represented {{nwrut|New Zealand}} in [[Rugby union|fifteens]] and [[Rugby sevens|sevens rugby]], and played for [[Auckland rugby union team|Auckland]] and [[Otago Rugby Football Union|Otago]] provincially. She was in the squad that won the [[2002 Women's Rugby World Cup|2002]] and [[2006 Women's Rugby World Cup|2006 Rugby World Cup]]s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=17 April 2020 |title=2000 New Zealand Women's sevens team - Where Are They Now? |url=https://www.allblacks.com/news/2000-new-zealand-womens-sevens-team-where-are-they-now/ |website=All Blacks}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-07-26 |title=Black Ferns World Cup squad named |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/sport/black-ferns-world-cup-squad-named/LE6UXBHYQILKARDBWM3E35OPRE/ |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=NZ Herald |language=en-NZ}}</ref><br />
<br />
Porter was a member of the first official [[New Zealand women's national rugby sevens team|New Zealand women's sevens]] team who competed in the [[2000 Hong Kong Sevens]].<ref name=":0" /> She later captained the Black Ferns sevens at the [[2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens]] in [[Dubai]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2022-11-27 |title=New Zealand Rugby appoints former Black Fern Hannah Porter as head of women's high performance |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/women-in-sport/130600745/new-zealand-rugby-appoints-former-black-fern-hannah-porter-as-head-of-womens-high-performance |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=Stuff |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2022-11-28 |title=Hannah Porter appointed in newly formed role of Head of Women's High Performance |url=https://www.nzrugby.co.nz/news-and-events/latest-news/hannah-porter-appointed-in-newly-formed-role-of-head-of-womens-high-performance/ |access-date=2022-12-31 |website=NZ Rugby |language=en-NZ}}</ref><br />
<br />
Porter was appointed as the Black Ferns manager at the [[2010 Women's Rugby World Cup|2010 Rugby World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rwcwomens.com/news/newsid=2036578.html |title=World Cup winner to manage Black Ferns |author=IRB |date=17 March 2010 |accessdate=8 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725115658/http://www.rwcwomens.com/news/newsid=2036578.html |archive-date=25 July 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> In 2017, She was later appointed as their campaign manager at the [[2017 Women's Rugby World Cup|Rugby World Cup]] in [[Ireland]].<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
In September 2022, Porter was confirmed as the Head of Women’s High Performance at [[New Zealand Rugby]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stats.allblacks.com/asp/profile_bf.asp?BFID=5059 Black Ferns Profile]<br />
*[http://nzrugbyacademy.com/people.html NZ Rugby Academy Profile]<br />
<br />
{{Navboxes<br />
|title = Squads<br />
|list1 =<br />
{{New Zealand Women's 2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens Squad}}<br />
{{New Zealand Squad 2006 Rugby World Cup}}<br />
{{New Zealand Squad 2002 Rugby World Cup}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Porter, Hannah Porter}}<br />
[[Category:1979 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:New Zealand women's international rugby union players]]<br />
[[Category:New Zealand female rugby union players]]<br />
[[Category:Female rugby union players]]<br />
[[Category:New Zealand female rugby sevens players]]<br />
[[Category:New Zealand women's international rugby sevens players]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{NewZealand-rugbyunion-bio-1970s-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astrostole_scabra&diff=1130740720Astrostole scabra2022-12-31T18:56:13Z<p>Nickwilso: Undid revision 1090887469 by OLD FOXXY on fortnite (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Species of starfish}}<br />
{{Taxobox <br />
| image = Astrostole_scabra_sea_star.jpg<br />
| image_caption = ''Astrostole scabra''<br />
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia<br />
| phylum = [[Echinoderm]]ata<br />
| classis = [[Asteroidea]]<br />
| ordo = [[Forcipulatida]]<br />
| familia = [[Asteriidae]]<br />
| genus = ''[[Astrostole]]''<br />
| species = '''''A. scabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Astrostole scabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = Hutton, 1872<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Astrostole scabra''''', commonly called the '''seven-armed starfish''', is a [[sea star]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Asteriidae]], native to [[New Zealand]], eastern [[Australia]] and southern Australia.<ref name="marinespecies">{{cite web|url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=255045|title=WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Astrostole Fisher, 1923|publisher=marinespecies.org|accessdate=2016-08-18}}</ref><br />
A frequent inhabitant of the intertidal zone also seen attached to wharf piles, it is among the larger sea-stars found in New Zealand. Adults often pray on mussels, forcing the shells open by applying pressure for long periods with the [[tube feet]].<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
With a diameter of up to 350mm in subtidal forms, the colouration of ''A. scabra'' varies from orange through dark red to brown, or light blue to grey. The dorsal surface is covered in speckled plates, from the center of which protrude one or two short, stubby white spines which are specialised [[Ossicle (echinoderm)|ossicles]]. These spines are blunt on top, becoming sharper and sometimes longer on the sides of the arms. Spines can appear blue in juveniles.<ref name="marinelife">{{cite web|url=http://www.marinelife.ac.nz/species/720|title=Marine Life Database|publisher=University of Otago|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The [[madreporite]] is not obvious. Tube feet are a combination of off-white and bright orange.<br />
<br />
Intertidal individuals are generally smaller with thicker dermal plates, allowing them greater protection when being tossed about by waves. Despite this they are still found to be more damaged than subtidal individuals.<ref>Town, John C. (1980). "Movement, morphology, reproductive periodicity, and some factors affecting gonad production in the seastar Astrostole scabra". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 2018-02-14.</ref><br />
[[File:Astrostole scabra showing ventral surface and tube feet.jpg|thumb|''A scabra'' showing ventral surface and tube feet]]<br />
[[File:Dorsal aboral surface of Astrostole scabra.jpg|thumb|Aboral surface of central disc and arms showing single and double spines (ossicles), this specimen has an eighth arm]]<br />
<br />
== Habitat ==<br />
A common inhabitant of the rocky reef subtidal or the rocky shore intertidal, adult seven-armed seastars have been found down to 150m.<ref>Marine Life Database</ref> ''A. scabra'' has unique roaming habits – there is never a permanent home. Therefore migratory and resident ''A. scabra'' in a location all result from random movement. Juveniles are more adventurous than adults in the coastal intertidal - they show considerable movement patterns within the intertidal and shallow [[Littoral zone|sublittoral]] zones, not venturing beyond 20m in depth.<ref>Town, John, C. 1980.</ref><br />
<br />
== Breeding ==<br />
Sexual maturity is achieved when there is a decrease in overall ossicle (endoskeleton) thickness with a simultaneous radial increase to at least 110mm. ''A. scabra'' can undergo both sexual and asexual (fissiparous) processes of reproduction.<ref name="sealifebase">{{cite web|url=http://sealifebase.org/summary/Astrostole-scabra.html|last=Palomares, M.L.D.|first=Pauly, D.|title=SeaLife Base|publisher=SeaLifeBase|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> Environmental influences induce gametogenesis and gamete maturation, with water temperature a major factor.<br />
Offspring disperse through the means of larval transport or epiplanktontic drift (drift occurring between the surface and 100m in depth). This free dispersal reduces local intraspecific competition as local currents carry gametes away from the spawn site. Spawning occurs throughout late August and early September, or when plankton richness is at a local maximum. Larvae are planktotropic.<ref>Town, John, C. 1980.</ref><br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
For ''A. scabra'', individual size relates to diet composition (larger predators eat larger prey). J. C. Town (1981) found a population feeding on species of 60 different genera.<ref>Town, John C. (1981). "Prey characteristics and dietary composition in intertidal Astrostole scabra (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. Retrieved 2018-02-14.</ref><br />
Highest feeding frequencies are shown in individuals in the radius range of 10-29mm, with peaks of activity in the months of May and June. Those in the 50-89mm radius range have an eating frequency more constant than all other sizes. Not only is the frequency of foraging larger in small individuals, they also eat larger portion sizes.<br />
<br />
There are shifts in dietary composition as the species increases in size. In specimens of 10-19mm radii, [[Rissoidae|rissoid]] and [[Eatoniellidae|eatoniellid]] molluscs compose 46% of the food source, with [[Trochidae|trochids]] and [[Chiton|chitons]] a mere 10%. However, for specimens with a radius of 30-39mm, rissoids and eatoniellids only contribute 2.6% of the diet, and chitons constitute 21%. Rissoids and eatoniellids are a minor food source for all ''A. scabra'' of radius 29mm-89mm, and are completely absent from the diet of individuals with radius >89mm. Chitons and trochids remain in the diet until radius exceeds 159mm. Increased radii coincides with an increase in spiral-shell [[Gastropoda|gastropod]] and chiton consumption. These types of prey would normally be too large for a small seastar to consume. This change in diet is vital to survival and longevity because it results in little to no competition between individuals of different sizes, and may be a considerable factor in the ecological success of this starfish.<ref>Town, John, C. 1981.</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2231780}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Asteriidae]]<br />
[[Category:Animals described in 1872]]<br />
[[Category:Echinoderms of New Zealand]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astrostole_scabra&diff=1130740336Astrostole scabra2022-12-31T18:53:55Z<p>Nickwilso: Undid revision 1091073636 by OLD FOXXY on fortnite (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Species of starfish}}<br />
{{Taxobox <br />
| image = Astrostole_scabra_sea_star.jpg<br />
| image_caption = ''Astrostole scabra''<br />
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia<br />
| phylum = [[Echinoderm]]ata<br />
| classis = [[Asteroidea]]<br />
| ordo = [[Forcipulatida]]<br />
| familia = [[Asteriidae]]<br />
| genus = ''[[Astrostole]]''<br />
| species = '''''A. scabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Astrostole scabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = Hutton, 1872<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Astrostole scabra''''', commonly called the '''seven-armed starfish''', is a [[sea star]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Asteriidae]], native to [[New Zealand]], eastern [[Australia]] and southern Australia.<ref name="marinespecies">{{cite web|url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=255045|title=WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Astrostole Fisher, 1923|publisher=marinespecies.org|accessdate=2016-08-18}}</ref><br />
A frequent inhabitant of the intertidal zone also seen attached to wharf piles, it is among the larger sea-stars found in New Zealand. Adults often pray on mussels, forcing the shells open by applying pressure for long periods with the [[tube feet]].<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
With a diameter of up to 350mm in subtidal forms, the colouration of ''A. scabra'' varies from orange through dark red to brown, or light blue to grey. The dorsal surface is covered in speckled plates, from the center of which protrude one or two short, stubby white spines which are specialised [[Ossicle (echinoderm)|ossicles]]. These spines are blunt on top, becoming sharper and sometimes longer on the sides of the arms. Spines can appear blue in juveniles.<ref name="marinelife">{{cite web|url=http://www.marinelife.ac.nz/species/720|title=Marine Life Database|publisher=University of Otago|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The [[madreporite]] is not obvious. Tube feet are a combination of off-white and bright orange.<br />
<br />
Intertidal individuals are generally smaller with thicker dermal plates, allowing them greater protection when being tossed about by waves. Despite this they are still found to be more damaged than subtidal individuals.<ref>Town, John C. (1980). "Movement, morphology, reproductive periodicity, and some factors affecting gonad production in the seastar Astrostole scabra". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 2018-02-14.</ref><br />
[[File:Astrostole scabra showing ventral surface and tube feet.jpg|thumb|''A scabra'' showing ventral surface and tube feet]]<br />
[[File:Dorsal aboral surface of Astrostole scabra.jpg|thumb|Aboral surface of central disc and arms showing single and double spines (ossicles), this specimen has an eighth arm]]<br />
<br />
<br />
A Rare inhabitant of the rocky reef subtidal or the rocky shore intertidal, adult seven-armed seastars have been found down to 150m.<ref>Marine Life Database</ref> ''A. scabra'' has unique roaming habits – there is never a permanent home. Therefore migratory and resident ''A. scabra'' in a location all result from random movement. Juveniles are more adventurous than adults in the coastal intertidal - they show considerable movement patterns within the intertidal and shallow zones, not venturing beyond 20m in depth.<ref>Town, Daniel.G.Black 1988<br />
<br />
== Breeding ==<br />
Sexual maturity is achieved when there is a decrease in overall ossicle (endoskeleton) thickness with a simultaneous radial increase to at least 110mm. ''A. scabra'' can undergo both sexual and asexual (fissiparous) processes of reproduction.<ref name="sealifebase">{{cite web|url=http://sealifebase.org/summary/Astrostole-scabra.html|last=Palomares, M.L.D.|first=Pauly, D.|title=SeaLife Base|publisher=SeaLifeBase|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> Environmental influences induce gametogenesis and gamete maturation, with water temperature a major factor.<br />
Offspring disperse through the means of larval transport or epiplanktontic drift (drift occurring between the surface and 100m in depth). This free dispersal reduces local intraspecific competition as local currents carry gametes away from the spawn site. Spawning occurs throughout late August and early September, or when plankton richness is at a local maximum. Larvae are planktotropic.<ref>Town, John, C. 1980.</ref><br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
For ''A. scabra'', individual size relates to diet composition (larger predators eat larger prey). J. C. Town (1981) found a population feeding on species of 60 different genera.<ref>Town, John C. (1981). "Prey characteristics and dietary composition in intertidal Astrostole scabra (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. Retrieved 2018-02-14.</ref><br />
Highest feeding frequencies are shown in individuals in the radius range of 10-29mm, with peaks of activity in the months of May and June. Those in the 50-89mm radius range have an eating frequency more constant than all other sizes. Not only is the frequency of foraging larger in small individuals, they also eat larger portion sizes.<br />
<br />
There are shifts in dietary composition as the species increases in size. In specimens of 10-19mm radii, [[Rissoidae|rissoid]] and [[Eatoniellidae|eatoniellid]] molluscs compose 46% of the food source, with [[Trochidae|trochids]] and [[Chiton|chitons]] a mere 10%. However, for specimens with a radius of 30-39mm, rissoids and eatoniellids only contribute 2.6% of the diet, and chitons constitute 21%. Rissoids and eatoniellids are a minor food source for all ''A. scabra'' of radius 29mm-89mm, and are completely absent from the diet of individuals with radius >89mm. Chitons and trochids remain in the diet until radius exceeds 159mm. Increased radii coincides with an increase in spiral-shell [[Gastropoda|gastropod]] and chiton consumption. These types of prey would normally be too large for a small seastar to consume. This change in diet is vital to survival and longevity because it results in little to no competition between individuals of different sizes, and may be a considerable factor in the ecological success of this starfish.<ref>Town, John, C. 1981.</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2231780}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Asteriidae]]<br />
[[Category:Animals described in 1872]]<br />
[[Category:Echinoderms of New Zealand]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astrostole_scabra&diff=1130740218Astrostole scabra2022-12-31T18:53:15Z<p>Nickwilso: Undid revision 1091074380 by OLD FOXXY on fortnite (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Species of starfish}}<br />
{{Taxobox <br />
| image = Astrostole_scabra_sea_star.jpg<br />
| image_caption = ''Astrostole scabra''<br />
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia<br />
| phylum = [[Echinoderm]]ata<br />
| classis = [[Asteroidea]]<br />
| ordo = [[Forcipulatida]]<br />
| familia = [[Asteriidae]]<br />
| genus = ''[[Astrostole]]''<br />
| species = '''''A. scabra'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Astrostole scabra''<br />
| binomial_authority = Hutton, 1872<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Astrostole scabra''''', commonly called the '''seven-armed starfish''', is a [[sea star]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Asteriidae]], native to [[New Zealand]], eastern [[Australia]] and southern Australia.<ref name="marinespecies">{{cite web|url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=255045|title=WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Astrostole Fisher, 1923|publisher=marinespecies.org|accessdate=2016-08-18}}</ref><br />
A frequent inhabitant of the intertidal zone also seen attached to wharf piles, it is among the larger sea-stars found in New Zealand. Adults often pray on mussels, forcing the shells open by applying pressure for long periods with the [[tube feet]].<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
<br />
With a diameter of up to 350mm in subtidal forms, the colouration of ''A. scabra'' varies from orange through dark red to brown, or light blue to grey. The dorsal surface is covered in speckled plates, from the center of which protrude one or two short, stubby white spines which are specialised [[Ossicle (echinoderm)|ossicles]]. These spines are blunt on top, becoming sharper and sometimes longer on the sides of the arms. Spines can appear blue in juveniles.<ref name="marinelife">{{cite web|url=http://www.marinelife.ac.nz/species/720|title=Marine Life Database|publisher=University of Otago|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> <br />
<br />
The [[madreporite]] is not obvious. Tube feet are a combination of off-white and bright orange.<br />
<br />
Intertidal individuals are generally smaller with thicker dermal plates, allowing them greater protection when being tossed about by waves. Despite this they are still found to be more damaged than subtidal individuals.<ref>Town, John C. (1980). "Movement, morphology, reproductive periodicity, and some factors affecting gonad production in the seastar Astrostole scabra". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 2018-02-14.</ref><br />
[[File:Astrostole scabra showing ventral surface and tube feet.jpg|thumb|''A scabra'' showing ventral surface and tube feet]]<br />
[[File:Dorsal aboral surface of Astrostole scabra.jpg|thumb|Aboral surface of central disc and arms showing single and double spines (ossicles), this specimen has an eighth arm]]<br />
<br />
<br />
A Rare inhabitant of the rocky reef subtidal or the rocky shore intertidal, adult seven-armed seastars have been found down to 150m.<ref>Marine Life Database</ref> ''A. scabra'' has unique roaming habits – there is never a permanent home. Therefore migratory and resident ''A. scabra'' in a location all result from random movement. Juveniles are more adventurous than adults in the coastal intertidal - they show considerable movement patterns within the intertidal and shallow zones, not venturing beyond 20m in depth.<ref>Town, Daniel.G.Black 1988<br />
<br />
== Breeding ==<br />
Sexual maturity is achieved when there is a decrease in overall ossicle (endoskeleton) thickness with a simultaneous radial increase to at least 110mm. ''A. scabra'' can undergo both sexual and asexual (fissiparous) processes of reproduction.<ref name="sealifebase">{{cite web|url=http://sealifebase.org/summary/Astrostole-scabra.html|last=Palomares, M.L.D.|first=Pauly, D.|title=SeaLife Base|publisher=SeaLifeBase|accessdate=2018-02-23}}</ref> Environmental influences induce gametogenesis and gamete maturation, with water temperature a major factor.<br />
Offspring disperse through the means of larval transport or epiplanktontic drift (drift occurring between the surface and 100m in depth). This free dispersal reduces local intraspecific competition as local currents carry gametes away from the spawn site. Spawning occurs throughout late August and early September, or when plankton richness is at a local maximum. Larvae are planktotropic.<ref>Town, John, C. 1980.</ref><br />
<br />
== Diet ==<br />
For ''A. scabra'', individual size relates to diet composition (larger predators eat larger prey). J. C. Town (1981) found a population feeding on species of 60 different genera.<ref>Town, John C. (1981). "Prey characteristics and dietary composition in intertidal Astrostole scabra (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. Retrieved 2018-02-14.</ref><br />
Highest feeding frequencies are shown in individuals in the radius range of 10-29mm, with peaks of activity in the months of May and June. Those in the 50-89mm radius range have an eating frequency more constant than all other sizes. Not only is the frequency of foraging larger in small individuals, they also eat larger portion sizes.<br />
<br />
There are shifts in dietary composition as the species increases in size. In specimens of 10-19mm radii, [[Rissoidae|rissoid]] and [[Eatoniellidae|eatoniellid]] molluscs compose 46% of the food source, with [[Trochidae|trochids]] and [[Chiton|chitons]] a mere 10%. However, for specimens with a radius of 30-39mm, rissoids and eatoniellids only contribute 2.6% of the diet, and chitons constitute 21%. Rissoids and eatoniellids are a minor food source for all ''A. scabra'' of radius 29mm-89mm, and are completely absent from the diet of individuals with radius >89mm. Chitons and trochids remain in the diet until radius exceeds 159mm. Increased radii coincides with an increase in spiral-shell [[Gastropoda|gastropod]] and chiton consumption. These types of prey would normally be too large for a small seastar to consume. This change in diet is vital to survival and longevity because it results in little to no competition between individuals of different sizes, and may be a considerable factor in the ecological success of this starfish.<ref> Daniel.G.Black 1988<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2231780}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Asteriidae]]<br />
[[Category:Animals described in 1872]]<br />
[[Category:Echinoderms of New Zealand]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=T.I.&diff=1130651266T.I.2022-12-31T07:28:27Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Lil' Flip */ added reference to Beef 3 doco (2005)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|American rapper and actor from Georgia}}<br />
{{For|the New Zealand cricketer|Clifford Harris}}<br />
{{About|the rapper||TI (disambiguation)}}<br />
{{pp-blp|small=yes}}<br />
<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2019}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| name = T.I.<br />
| image = T.I. performing in concert, wearing a Phoenix Suns cap (cropped).jpg<br />
| caption = T.I. performing in 2012<br />
| birth_name = Clifford Joseph Harris Jr.<br />
| birth_date = {{nowrap|{{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1980|9|25}}}}<ref name="Allmusic">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/ti-mn0000001418|title=T.I.|website=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=April 19, 2017}}</ref><br />
| birth_place = [[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], U.S.<br />
| occupation = {{flatlist|<br />
* Rapper<br />
* songwriter <br />
* record executive<br />
* [[T.I. discography#Production discography|record producer]]<br />
* [[T.I. videography#Filmography|actor]]<br />
* stand-up comedian<br />
}}<br />
| agent = Jason Geter<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jason Geter Interview: On Managing T.I. & Career Journey - DJBooth|url=https://djbooth.net/features/2020-02-13-jason-geter-interview-ti-manager-heavy-sound-labs|access-date=2020-10-19|website=djbooth.net}}</ref><br />
| years_active = 1999–present<br />
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Tameka Cottle]]|2010}}<br />
| title = {{Indented plainlist|<br />
*Co-founder of [[A.K.O.O. Clothing]], [[Grand Hustle Records|Grand Hustle]], [[VisionMob]], Club Crucial and V Live<br />
}}<br />
| television = {{plainlist|<br />
* ''[[Rhythm + Flow]]''<br />
* ''[[The Grand Hustle]]''<br />
* ''[[T.I. & Tiny: The Family Hustle]]''<br />
* ''[[Sisterhood of Hip Hop]]''<br />
* ''[[T.I.'s Road to Redemption]]''<br />
}}<br />
| children = 6<br />
| awards = [[List of awards and nominations received by T.I.|Full list]]<br />
| module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes<br />
| origin = [[Bankhead (Atlanta)|Bankhead]], Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.<br />
| background = solo_singer<br />
| genre = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]]<br />
* [[Trap music|trap]]<br />
}}<br />
| label = {{flatlist|<br />
*[[Empire Distribution|EMPIRE]]<br />
*[[Epic Records|Epic]]<br />
*[[Grand Hustle Records|Grand Hustle]]<br />
*[[Roc Nation]]<br />
*[[Columbia Records|Columbia]]<br />
*[[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]<br />
*[[LaFace Records|LaFace]]<br />
*[[Arista Records|Arista]]<br />
*[[Kawan Prather|Ghet-O-Vision]]<br />
}}<br />
| current_member_of = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[Bankroll Mafia]]<br />
* [[PSC (group)|P$C]]<br />
* [[Smash Factory]]<br />
* [[Grand Hustle Records#Branches|Hustle Gang]]<br />
}}<br />
| website = {{URL|officialti.com}}}}<br />
| alias = {{flatlist|<br />
* Tip<br />
* T.I.P.<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Clifford Joseph Harris Jr.''' (born September 25, 1980),<ref name="Allmusic"/> better known by the stage names '''T.I.''' and '''Tip''' (often stylized as '''TIP''' or '''T.I.P.'''), is an American rapper, record executive, and actor. Born and raised in [[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], Harris is one of the highest selling hip-hop artists of all time and is also known as one of the pioneers of the hip hop subgenre [[Trap music (hip hop)|trap music]], along with fellow Atlanta-based rappers [[Jeezy]] and [[Gucci Mane]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/aug/13/trap-kings-how-hip-hop-sub-genre-dominated-decade|title=Trap kings: how the hip-hop sub-genre dominated the decade|first=Christina|last=Lee|date=August 13, 2015|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref> Harris signed his first [[Major record label|major-label]] record deal in 1999 with [[Arista Records]] subsidiary [[LaFace Records|LaFace]]. In 2001, he released ''[[I'm Serious]]'', his solo debut and only album with the label, as well as formed the [[southern hip hop]] group [[P$C]]. Upon being dropped from Arista, Harris signed to [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]] and soon co-founded his own label imprint, [[Grand Hustle Records]], which he launched in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/43637|title=ATF Agents Search Home of Atlanta Rapper T.I. During BET Awards|date=October 13, 2007|work=[[Newsweek]]|publisher=[[The Washington Post Company]]|pages=1–3|access-date=October 9, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1604545/20090208/story.jhtml|title=Grammy 2009 Winners List|author=MTV News Staff|date=February 8, 2009|work=MTV News|access-date=February 9, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Harris, a three time [[Grammy Award]] winner, has released 11 [[studio album]]s, with seven of them reaching the top five of the US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] chart. During his career, Harris has also released several highly successful singles, including [[Billboard Hot 100]] number-one hits "[[Whatever You Like]]" and "[[Live Your Life (T.I. song)|Live Your Life]]" (featuring [[Rihanna]]); the latter replaced the former atop the chart and made Harris one of the few artists who replaced themselves at number one and simultaneously occupied the top two positions. Harris began to gain major recognition in 2003 following his first high-profile feature on fellow Atlanta-based rapper [[Bone Crusher (rapper)|Bone Crusher]]'s single "[[Never Scared (song)|Never Scared]]". Harris earned more prominence with the release of ''[[Trap Muzik]]'' (2003), which included the [[Top 40]] songs "[[Rubber Band Man]]" and "[[Let's Get Away]]" (featuring [[Jazze Pha]]). The following year, Harris appeared on [[Destiny's Child]]'s international [[Hit single|hit]] "[[Soldier (Destiny's Child song)|Soldier]]" (alongside [[Lil Wayne]]), and capitalized on it with the release of his ''[[Urban Legend (album)|Urban Legend]]'' (2004) album. His subsequent albums, ''[[King (T.I. album)|King]]'' and ''[[T.I. vs. T.I.P.]]'', generated high record sales and were supported by popular singles, such as "[[What You Know (T.I. song)|What You Know]]" and "[[Big Shit Poppin' (Do It)]]", respectively.<br />
<br />
Harris' sixth album, ''[[Paper Trail]]'' (2008), became his most successful project, with the album being [[RIAA certification|certified gold]] for first-week sales of over 500,000 copies in the United States, additionally making it his third consecutive number one album. In 2013, Harris was featured on [[Robin Thicke]]'s single "[[Blurred Lines]]" (alongside [[Pharrell Williams]]), which peaked at number one on several major music charts. In November 2013, Harris announced that he had signed with [[Columbia Records]] after his 10-year contract with Atlantic came to an end. He released his Columbia debut ''[[Paperwork (T.I. album)|Paperwork]],'' in October 2014. In February 2016, Harris signed a distribution deal with [[Roc Nation]] and another deal with [[Epic Records]] in September 2018. The former served as a means to release his [[political hip hop|political]] ''[[Us or Else]]'' EP series, while the latter released his long-delayed tenth album ''[[Dime Trap]]'' in October of that year.<br />
<br />
Harris has served two terms in [[county jail]], twice for probation violations and a federal prison bid for a U.S. federal weapons charge. While serving 11 months in prison, he released his seventh studio album ''[[No Mercy (T.I. album)|No Mercy]]'' (2010). Harris branched out into entrepreneurship with his label, Grand Hustle Records, which he co-founded in 2003 with longtime business partner Jason Geter. Prominent industry acts have been signed to T.I. through the label, including [[Travis Scott]], [[B.o.B]], and [[Iggy Azalea]]. Harris has also had a successful acting career, starring in the films ''[[ATL (film)|ATL]]'', ''[[Takers]]'', ''[[Get Hard]]'', ''[[Identity Thief (film)|Identity Thief]]'', and in the [[Marvel Cinematic Universe]] films ''[[Ant-Man (film)|Ant-Man]]'' and [[Ant-Man and the Wasp|its sequel]]. He is also a published author of two novels, ''Power & Beauty'' (2011) and ''Trouble & Triumph'' (2012), both of which were released to moderate success. Harris has also starred in the American [[reality television]] series ''[[T.I.'s Road to Redemption]]'', ''[[T.I. & Tiny: The Family Hustle]]'', and ''[[The Grand Hustle]]''. In 2009, ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' ranked him as the 27th best artist of the 2000s decade.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/#/charts-decade-end/artists-of-the-decade?year=2009&begin=51&order=position|title=Best of the 2000s -Artists of the Decade – 51-60|magazine=Billboard|access-date=October 18, 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Early life ==<br />
Clifford Joseph Harris Jr. was born on September 25, 1980,<ref name="Allmusic"/> in [[Atlanta]], the son of Clifford "Buddy" Harris Sr. and Violeta Morgan.<ref>{{cite web|url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p483720|pure_url=yes}}|title=T.I. > Biography|last=Kellman|first=Andy|work=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> He was raised by his grandparents in [[Center Hill, Atlanta|Atlanta's Center Hill neighborhood]] just off [[Bankhead Highway]].<ref name="VibeTI2007">{{Citation|last=Meadows-Ingram|first=Benjamin|title=Me, Myself and I|magazine=[[Vibe (magazine)|Vibe]]|pages=80–89|date=August 2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSYEAAAAMBAJ&q=Young+Dro+bankhead&pg=PA83|access-date=February 14, 2014}}</ref><ref name="HessHipHop2009">{{cite book|last=Hess|first=Mickey|title=Hip Hop in America: A Regional Guide|isbn=978-0-313-34321-6|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|year=2009|page=469}}</ref> His father resided in New York City, and he would often go there to visit. Buddy Harris suffered from [[Alzheimer's disease]] and died from the disease.<ref name="s2s">{{cite web|url=http://s2smagazine.com/node/2769 |title=Hanging at Home with Tiny |date=April 14, 2010 |work=Sister2Sister |access-date=June 14, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620104946/http://www.s2smagazine.com/node/2769 |archive-date=June 20, 2010 }}</ref><br />
<br />
T.I. began [[rapping]] at age eight.<ref name="spotlight">{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1285/is_11_31/ai_94689990/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231040456/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1285/is_11_31/ai_94689990/|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 31, 2009|title=T.I.: before he had an album, he had a Serious record|last=Weingarten|first=Marc|date=November 1, 2001|work=[[Interview (magazine)|Interview]]|publisher=[[FindArticles]]|access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> He attended [[Douglass High School (Georgia)|Douglass High School]], but later dropped out. His [[stage name]] originally came from his childhood nickname "Tip", after his paternal great-grandfather.<ref name="Vibe">{{cite web|url=http://www.vibe.com/news/cover_stories/2007/07/ti_august_2007/ |title=T.I.: Me, Myself & I |work=[[Vibe (magazine)|Vibe]] |access-date=October 9, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224075722/http://www.vibe.com/news/cover_stories/2007/07/ti_august_2007/ |archive-date=December 24, 2007 }}</ref> He was once known as Rubber Band Man, a reference to the custom of wearing rubber bands around the wrist to denote wealth in terms of drugs or money.<ref>{{cite web|title=T.I. And Young Jeezy: Out Of The Trap |work=[[MTV]].com |url=http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/my_block/atlanta/news_feature_120505_2/index3.jhtml |access-date=December 12, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219141640/http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/my_block/atlanta/news_feature_120505_2/index3.jhtml |archive-date=December 19, 2008 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Music career==<br />
=== 1996–2000: Career beginnings ===<br />
In 1996, T.I. befriended local rapper [[Big Kuntry King]], together they sold [[mixtape]]s out of the trunk of their car. [[Kawan "KP" Prather]], a record executive, discovered T.I. and then signed him to his record label Ghet-O-Vision Entertainment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/Features/2005/may/ti/index.html|title=T.I.|last=Thompson|first=Bonsu|work=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]|publisher=[[Harris Publications]]|access-date=February 19, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081105045920/http://www.xxlmag.com/Features/2005/may/ti/index.html|archive-date=November 5, 2008 }}</ref> Upon signing with [[Arista Records]] subsidiary LaFace Records in 1999, he shortened his name from Tip to T.I., out of respect for Arista label-mate [[Q-Tip (rapper)|Q-Tip]].<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Crosley|first=Hillary|date=May 1, 2007|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1052417/its-summer-time-with-ti-tip|title=It's Summer Time With T.I., 'T.I.P.'|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|access-date=October 9, 2008}}</ref> T.I. relays the situation as:<br />
{{blockquote|text="We were both on Arista and we was trying to release my first album. The people who had to market, promote, and, you know, just spread the word on it communicated that it was somewhat difficult or confusing to have two Tips in one building. So out of respect and just the legendary reputation and career that preceded that situation, I definitely conceded. My problem, or conflict, at the time, was now this is what I've been called all my life, what do I change my name to? So, I guess, that began to hold my project up. 'What are we gonna call him?' You know what I'm saying? So at that point we had to come to some sort of a resolution. And KP, who signed me to LaFace, he just said, 'OK, look man, how about T.I.?' Cause on this one record I had, it was like, 'T-I-P.' I was like, 'Wait a minute, wait a minute. No. That was — you left out a letter still!' You know what I'm saying? He was like, "Well, listen man. You got something better?', 'No, I don't have — I don't have anything better.' 'Well, that's what we going with, man.' So it's kinda how it came about."<ref name="npr">{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/microphonecheck/2014/10/20/357643030/t-i-we-make-music-that-come-from-the-heart|title=T.I.: 'We Make Music That Come From The Heart'|last1=Kelly|first1=Frankie|last2=Muhammad|first2=Ali Shaheed|work=[[NPR Music]]|publisher=[[National Public Radio]]|date=October 21, 2014|access-date=2014-11-02}}</ref>}}<br />
<br />
=== 2001–2002: Atlantic Records deal and ''I'm Serious'' ===<br />
{{Main|I'm Serious}}<br />
<br />
T.I. released his debut album, ''[[I'm Serious]]'', in October 2001 through [[Arista Records]].<ref name="RouteBack">Soren Baker (May 12, 2005). [https://articles.latimes.com/2005/may/12/news/wk-pop12 "Taking the street route back"] ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' Retrieved in 2009.</ref> The album spawned the a single of the same name featuring [[Jamaica]]n [[reggae]] artist [[Beenie Man]] on June 26, 2001. The single received little airplay and failed to chart. The album features [[guest appearance]]s from his [[Southern hip hop]] group [[P$C]], [[Jazze Pha]], [[Too Short]], [[Bone Crusher (rapper)|Bone Crusher]], [[Lil Jon]], [[Pastor Troy]] and [[YoungBloodZ]], as well as [[Pharrell Williams]] of American record production team [[The Neptunes]] (who called him "the [[Jay-Z]] of the South").<ref>(December 21, 2004). [http://www.vibe.com/news/magazine_features/2004/12/vibe_cover_story_ti_king_south/ Vibe Cover Story: T.I. – King of the South?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206133933/http://www.vibe.com/news/magazine_features/2004/12/vibe_cover_story_ti_king_south/ |date=December 6, 2008 }} ''Vibe''. Retrieved October 9, 2008.</ref><br />
<br />
The [[Hip hop production|production]] for ''I'm Serious'', was handled by The Neptunes, [[DJ Toomp]], Madvac and The Grand Hustle Team. Despite the album's guests appearances and production team, the album peaked at number 98 and only sold 163,000 copies in the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/69375/hitmakers-the-neptunes-land-compilation-at-no-1|title=Hitmakers The Neptunes Land Compilation At No. 1|last=Martens|first=Todd|date=August 27, 2003|magazine=Billboard|access-date=February 19, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518203110/http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/69375/hitmakers-the-neptunes-land-compilation-at-no-1|archive-date=May 18, 2013 }}</ref> Critics pointed to the fact that many of the tracks sounded the same and that a few were blatant rip-offs.<ref>Jon Azpiri (October 9, 2001). [http://www.starpulse.com/Music/T.I./Discography/album/P483720/R556205/ "T.I. I'm Serious"] Retrieved on June 21, 2009.</ref> Other critics commented saying, "T.I. claims to be the king of the South, but fails to show and prove. He does, however, have potential. If his talent ever matches his confidence, he may be headed for stardom."<ref>[http://www.down-south.com/reviews/TI-ImSerious.shtml " T.I. "I'm Serious" Album Review"] Retrieved on June 21, 2009.</ref><br />
<br />
Due to the poor commercial reception of the album, T.I. was dropped from [[Arista Records]].<ref name="RouteBack" /> He then formed [[Grand Hustle Records|Grand Hustle Entertainment]] and began releasing several [[mixtapes]] with the assistance of [[DJ Drama]]. He resurfaced in mid-2003, appearing on fellow Atlanta-based rapper and former label-mate [[Bone Crusher (rapper)|Bone Crusher]]'s hit single, "[[Never Scared (song)|Never Scared]]". His mixtapes and mainstream exposure from "Never Scared", eventually recaptured major label attention and T.I. signed a [[joint venture]] deal with [[Atlantic Records]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/12/arts/music/12ti.htm|title=The Enterprising Rapper T. I. Looks Beyond Hip-Hop|last=Ogunnaike|first=Lola|date=April 12, 2006|work=[[The New York Times]]|pages=1, 2|access-date=February 19, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ti/biography|title=T.I.: Biography|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|publisher=[[Jann Wenner|Wenner Media]]|access-date=February 19, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116010131/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/ti/biography|archive-date=January 16, 2009 }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2003–2004: ''Trap Muzik'' and ''Urban Legend'' ===<br />
{{Main|Trap Muzik|Urban Legend (album)}}<br />
<br />
T.I. released his second album ''[[Trap Muzik]]'' on August 19, 2003, through [[Grand Hustle Records]]; it debuted at number four and sold 109,000 copies in its first week.<ref name="king">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/58852/ti-rules-as-king-of-album-chart|title=T.I. Rules As 'King' of Album Chart|last=Hasty|first=Katie|magazine=Billboard|date=April 5, 2006|access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> It spawned the singles "[[24's|24s]]", "[[Be Easy (T.I. Song)|Be Easy]]", "[[Rubberband Man]]" and "[[Let's Get Away]]". The album features guest appearances from [[8Ball & MJG]], [[Jazze Pha]], [[Bun B]] and [[Mac Boney]]; and was produced by Jazze Pha, [[Kanye West]], [[David Banner]], Madvac and [[DJ Toomp]]. Upon its release, ''Trap Muzik'' received generally favorable reviews from most music critics, who generally regarded it as a major improvement over his debut album, ''[[I'm Serious]]''. This included ''[[Complex (magazine)|Complex]]'' naming the album one of the classic albums of the last decade in 2012.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=T.I., Trap Muzik (2003) — 25 Rap Albums From the Past Decade That Deserve Classic Status|magazine=Complex|url=http://www.complex.com/music/2012/12/25-rap-albums-from-the-past-decade-that-deserve-classic-status/ti-trap-muzik|access-date=December 8, 2012 }}</ref> on February 20, 2013, allhiphop.com placed it as #5 as the best southern [[hip-hop]] album of all time.<br />
<br />
T.I. released his third studio album, ''[[Urban Legend (album)|Urban Legend]]'', in November 2004. It debuted at number seven on the US ''Billboard'' 200, selling 193,000 copies in its first week.<ref name="king" /> The album's [[lead single]], "[[Bring Em Out (song)|Bring Em Out]]", which was produced by [[Swizz Beatz]], was released in January 2005 and became T.I.'s first top ten hit, peaking at number nine on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]], while the second single "[[U Don't Know Me (T.I. song)|U Don't Know Me]]" peaked at number twenty-three on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100. His third single "[[ASAP (T.I. song)|ASAP]]" reached number 75 on the US charts, number 18 on the US R&B/Hip-Hop charts and number 14 on the Rap chart. T.I. filmed a dual music video for "ASAP" and "Motivation". However, "Motivation" only made it to number 62 on the US R&B/Hip-Hop singles chart.<ref name="billboard.com">[{{BillboardURLbyName|artist=arcadia|chart=all}} "Artist Chart History – T.I." on Billboard.com]{{dead link|date=July 2011}}, 2008.</ref> In 2004, T.I. was featured on [[Destiny's Child]]'s hit single "[[Soldier (Destiny's Child song)|Soldier]]", alongside [[New Orleans]]-bred rapper [[Lil Wayne]], which peaked at number three on the Hot 100 chart.<ref>{{cite web|title=Destiny's Child – Billboard Singles|url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p278369|pure_url=yes}}|website=Allmusic|year=2006|access-date=March 28, 2008}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2005–2006: P$C album, ''King'' and ''ATL'' ===<br />
{{Main|P$C|25 to Life (album)|King (T.I. album)|ATL (film)}}<br />
[[File:T.I. by Carla.jpg|thumb|left|T.I. at the [[Summer Jam (festival)|Summer Jam]] concert in [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania on July 23, 2006.]]<br />
<br />
In September 2005, T.I. teamed up with his [[P$C|Pimp $quad Click]] (P$C) cohorts, [[Big Kuntry King]], [[Mac Boney]], C-Rod and [[AK (rapper)|AK]], to release P$C's debut studio album, ''[[25 to Life (album)|25 to Life]]''. The album, which was preceded by several self-released mixtapes by P$C, peaked at No.{{nbsp}}10 on the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart. The album was supported by the lead single "I'm a King", which was also included on the [[Hustle & Flow (soundtrack)|soundtrack to the film]] ''[[Hustle & Flow]]'', a collection also released by T.I.'s label imprint Grand Hustle, under the aegis of Atlantic Records.<br />
<br />
T.I.'s fourth album, ''[[King (T.I. album)|King]]'', debuted at number one on the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] chart in the first half of 2006, selling 522,000 copies in its first week.<ref>Katie Hasty (April 5, 2006). [https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/58852/ti-rules-as-king-of-album-chart T.I. Rules As 'King' of Album Chart] ''Billboard''. Retrieved October 9, 2008.</ref> T.I. released "[[Front Back]]" and "Ride with Me" as [[promotional recording|promotional singles]] prior to the release of the album. The singles garnered little attention. The album's lead single "[[What You Know (T.I. song)|What You Know]]" became a [[Hit single|hit]] in the U.S. and helped promote not only the album, but also ''[[ATL (film)|ATL]]'', the film T.I. starred in that coincided with the album's release. The album also spawned the singles, "[[Why You Wanna]]", "[[Live in the Sky]]", and a [[remix]] of "[[Top Back]]", which was also included on the Grand Hustle [[compilation album]] ''[[Grand Hustle Presents: In da Streetz Volume 4]]''. ''King'' earned numerous awards and nominations including a Grammy Award nomination for [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best Rap Album]]. He was also featured on newly signed Grand Hustle artist [[Young Dro]]'s debut single "[[Shoulder Lean]]", which reached the top ten on the U.S. Hot 100 and #1 on the U.S. [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs]] and [[Hot Rap Tracks]].<br />
<br />
"What You Know" won a [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance]] and was nominated for [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Song|Best Rap Song]] at the [[49th Grammy Awards]].<ref name="Grammy">{{cite web|title=49th Annual Grammy Awards Winners List|work=[[Grammy Award|Grammy]]|url=http://www.grammy.com/GRAMMY_Awards/49th_Show/list.aspx|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20061220160454/http://www.grammy.com/GRAMMY_Awards/49th_Show/list.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 20, 2006|access-date=November 22, 2008}}</ref> Also that year, T.I. collaborated with [[Justin Timberlake]] for "[[My Love (Justin Timberlake song)|My Love]]", which proved to be a worldwide hit. It won a [[Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration]] with Timberlake at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards,<ref name="Grammy" /> and also won Best Male Hip-Hop Artist at the BET Awards for the second straight time. He then served as a featured performer on "[[We Takin' Over]]" by [[DJ Khaled]] also featuring [[Akon]], [[Fat Joe]], [[Rick Ross]], [[Birdman (rapper)|Birdman]] and [[Lil Wayne]].<br />
<br />
In 2006, T.I. received two [[Grammy Award]] nominations for [[Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration|Best Song Collaboration]] ("Soldier" w/ [[Destiny's Child]] & Lil Wayne) and [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance|Best Rap Solo Performance]] for "U Don't Know Me" at the [[48th Grammy Awards]] ceremony. That same year he won Rap Artist of the Year, Rap Album Of The Year, Rap Album Artist Of The Year, Rap Song Artist of the Year and Video Clip Artist of the Year on the [[Billboard Music Award]] and Best Male Hip-Hop Artist on the [[BET Awards]].<br />
<br />
=== 2007: ''T.I. vs. T.I.P.'' ===<br />
{{Main|T.I. vs. T.I.P.}}<br />
<br />
T.I. released his fifth album, ''[[T.I. vs. T.I.P.]]'', on July 3, 2007. The lead single from the album was "[[Big Shit Poppin' (Do It)]]", which was produced by [[Mannie Fresh]] and was released to radio stations on April 17, 2007. The second single, "[[You Know What It Is]]" featuring [[Wyclef Jean]], was released June 12, 2007. ''T.I. vs. T.I.P.'' sold 468,000 copies in the United States, according to [[Nielsen SoundScan]], and debuted at number one on the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] and the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It was T.I.'s second chart-topper in a row: ''[[King (T.I. album)|King]]'' opened at number one on the Billboard 200 with 522,000 copies in late March 2006.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Hasty|first=Katy|title=T.I. Is Top Dog Again On The Billboard 200|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1050989/ti-is-top-dog-again-on-the-billboard-200|magazine=Billboard magazine|date=July 11, 2007|access-date=July 11, 2007}}</ref> The album included guest performances from [[Jay-Z]], [[Busta Rhymes]], Wyclef Jean, [[Nelly]], and [[Eminem]], and production by Eminem, [[Bass Brothers|Jeff Bass]], Mannie Fresh, [[Grand Hustle Records#DJs and producers|Grand Hustle]], [[The Runners (production duo)|The Runners]], [[Just Blaze]], Wyclef Jean and [[Danja (record producer)|Danja]]. Absent from this album's production lineup was T.I.'s longtime producer DJ Toomp and The Neptunes. In October 2007, T.I. released his third single, "[[Hurt (T.I. song)|Hurt]]", featuring Busta Rhymes and Alfamega.<br />
<br />
=== 2008–2009: ''Paper Trail'' ===<br />
{{Main|Paper Trail}}<br />
In early 2008, T.I. collaborated with [[Mariah Carey]] on the "[[I'll Be Lovin' U Long Time]]" remix, peaking at number 58 on the U.S. Hot 100 and number 36 on the [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs]].<br />
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{{listen|filename=T.I. - Whatever You Like.ogg|title=Whatever You Like (2008)|description=T.I.'s second single from his sixth studio album ''Paper Trail''.}}<br />
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While under [[house arrest]], T.I. began writing lyrics down on paper for his sixth studio album.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2009/mar/06/ti-hip-hop-interview|title=Inside man|last=Macpherson|first=Alex|date=March 9, 2009|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=March 15, 2009|location=London}}</ref> The first official single from the album, titled "[[No Matter What (T.I. song)|No Matter What]]", was released in April 2008. The music video was released in June 2008 on MTV's [[FNMTV|FN Premieres]]. The official [[lead single]] was "[[Whatever You Like]]", released in July 2008, and became the most successful single of his career up until that point, breaking the record for the highest jump to number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, jumping from number 71 to number one and also becoming T.I.'s first solo number one single on the chart. The third single was "[[Swing Ya Rag]]" which featured vocals and production from [[Swizz Beatz]].<ref>[http://www.rap-up.com/2008/07/11/single-cover-ti-swing-ya-rag/ "Swing Ya Rag" single cover.]. Retrieved July 11, 2008.</ref> T.I. released his sixth album, ''[[Paper Trail]]'', in September 2008. The title of the album refers to the lyrics he had written down on paper. Like many other rappers, T.I. abandoned this style of rapping after his debut album ''[[I'm Serious]]'' by just memorizing lyrics. His representative explained that T.I. wanted to "take more time to really put something down [this time]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=16203 |title=XXLmag.com – T.I. recording new album while on house arrest (November 12, 2007) |publisher=Xxlmag.com |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090908025624/http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=16203 |archive-date=September 8, 2009 }}</ref> The album debuted at number one on the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] selling 568,000 copies in the United States.<ref name="Billboard">Katie Hasty (October 8, 2008). [https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1043841/ti-debuts-big-atop-billboard-200-hot-100 T.I. Debuts Big Atop Billboard 200, Hot 100] ''Billboard''. Retrieved October 8, 2008.</ref><br />
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The second single from the album, "[[Swagga Like Us]]", featuring [[Kanye West]], [[Jay-Z]] and [[Lil Wayne]], debuted and peaked at number five on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. With the third single "[[Live Your Life (T.I. song)|Live Your Life]]" featuring [[Rihanna]], and produced by Canei Finch and Just Blaze, T.I. broke his own record on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 when it jumped from number 80 to the number one.<ref name="Billboard" /> The fourth single "[[Dead and Gone]]", featuring [[Justin Timberlake]], peaked at number two for five weeks on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, eventually going on to be nominated during the [[52nd Grammy Awards]] for both "Best Rap/Sung Collaboration" and "Best Rap Song". During the [[51st Grammy Awards]], he was nominated for four Grammy Awards, eventually winning Best Rap Performance by a Duo Or a Group for "[[Swagga Like Us]]". "[[Remember Me (T.I. song)|Remember Me]]", featuring [[Mary J. Blige]], was released digitally on July 7, 2009. It was the planned first single from the re-release of T.I.'s sixth studio album, "Paper Trail", but the re-release was eventually shelved. The single peaked at number 29 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. On October 6, "[[Hell of a Life]]" was released digitally and went on to peak at number 54 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. In 2009, T.I. appeared as himself on an episode of ''[[Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List]]''. On the episode, he took the comedian to [[Roscoe's House of Chicken and Waffles]] in LA and gave her a lesson on how to "swagger".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://talkoffame.com/?p=1271|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811230631/http://talkoffame.com/?p=1271|url-status=dead|title=Index of /|archive-date=August 11, 2013|website=talkoffame.com}}</ref><br />
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[[File:T.I. at Bumbershoot.jpg|thumb|T.I. in 2009.]]<br />
On November 21, 2008, T.I. testified in the murder trial of a member of his entourage and a close friend, Philant Johnson (1980–2006), who was murdered in a shooting that occurred after a post-concert party at a club in Cincinnati. T.I. has dedicated several songs to Johnson, from the single version of "[[Live in the Sky]]" to "[[Dead and Gone]]" where Johnson's grave can be seen in the video.<ref>{{cite magazine|date=November 21, 2008|title=T.I. Testifies At Ohio Murder Trial|magazine=Billboard|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1043432/ti-testifies-at-ohio-murder-trial|access-date=November 21, 2008}}</ref><br />
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=== 2010–2011: ''No Mercy'' and drug charges ===<br />
{{Main|No Mercy (T.I. album)}}<br />
On March 26, 2010, T.I. was released from a [[halfway house]] where he had been serving the remainder of his prison sentence for weapons possession.<ref name="Prison release">[http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=IDSearch&needingMoreList=false&IDType=IRN&IDNumber=59458-019&x=76&y=23 Clifford shalia Harris Jr.]" [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]. Retrieved on January 6, 2010.</ref> Soon after his release he was in the studio working on his seventh studio album titled ''King Uncaged''.<ref name="BET">[http://www.bet.com/Music/news/msc_tiworkingonnewalbum_01.19.10.htm T.I. Already Working on New Album for 2010] ''BET''. Retrieved January 19, 2010.</ref> [[Jim Jonsin]], the producer who previously worked with him on his single, [[Whatever You Like (T.I. song)|"Whatever You Like"]] and R&B singer [[Trey Songz]], were scheduled to work on the project.<br />
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T.I. made his first public appearance since prison, stepping out with then fiancée [[Tameka Cottle|Tameka "Tiny" Cottle]] in support of her [[Alzheimer]]'s research fundraiser "For the Love of Our Fathers" at Atlanta's Opera venue. "I am very well, very happy to be seen," said T.I., who joined Cottle onstage at the end of the benefit.<ref name="MTV">[http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1632461/20100223/t_i_.jhtml T.I. Makes First Public Appearance Since Prison] ''MTV''. Retrieved February 23, 2010.</ref> T.I. released a new promotional single titled "[[I'm Back (song)|I'm Back]]" on March 8, 2010.<ref name="MTV.CA">[https://archive.today/20120905035413/http://www.mtv.ca/news/article.jhtml?id=24966 T.I. Announces 'I'm Back' With New Single Premiering Monday] ''MTV''. Retrieved March 6, 2010.</ref> The single peaked at No. 44 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 charts.<ref name="ussolo">{{cite magazine|url={{BillboardURLbyName|artist=t.i.|chart=all}}|title=T.I. Album & Chart History|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|publisher=[[Nielsen Company|Nielsen Business Media]]|access-date=May 18, 2010}}</ref> Around this time, he made a featured guest appearance on [[Diddy-Dirty Money]]'s single "[[Hello Good Morning]]", the single peaked at No. 27 in US and charted internationally in eight other countries.<ref name="Allmusic Diddy">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/diddy-p214335/charts-awards/billboard-singles|title=Hello Good Morning Peak Positions|website=AllMusic|access-date=December 7, 2010}}</ref><br />
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He also made a guest appearance on [[Larry King Live]] on May 13, to discuss with [[Larry King]] about his nine-month prison term on federal gun charges and other topics.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wigler|first=Josh|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1638844/20100510/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. To Appear On 'Larry King Live' – Rapper will discuss his nine months in prison during Thursday's episode; MTV News|publisher=Mtv.com|date=May 10, 2010|access-date=May 14, 2010}}</ref> T.I. released a promotional soundtrack single entitled, "[[Yeah Ya Know (Takers)]]" on May 24.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rodriguez|first=Jayson|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1639914/20100524/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. Premieres Second Single From King Uncaged-'Prison ain't change me, it made me worse,' an aggressive T.I. raps on 'Yeah Ya Know (Takers).'|publisher=MTV|date=May 24, 2010|access-date=May 27, 2010}}</ref> It peaked at number forty-four on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 and number sixty-eight on the Canadian Hot 100.<ref name="ussolo" /> T.I. released another promotional single entitled; "[[Got Your Back]]" which featured American [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]] singer [[Keri Hilson]] and peaked at number thirty-eight in the US.<ref name="ussolo" /> Later, T.I. made more featured single appearances such as Jamie Foxx's single "[[Winner (Jamie Foxx song)|Winner]]" also featuring Justin Timberlake and [[Drake (entertainer)|Drake]]'s single "[[Fancy (Drake song)|Fancy]]" also featuring Swizz Beatz. Both singles made charted on the Billboard charts peaking at the top 50.<br />
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Prior to the album's release T.I. decided to release a [[mixtape]] titled ''Fuck a Mixtape''; the move was somewhat controversial due to its title, with many feeling he was insulting the Mixtape format. T.I. has addressed the issue by stating that it was a response to all the people who told him to just focus on an album and not on a mixtape. T.I. further defended his decision to release a mixtape by saying: "I already have 60, 70 songs. A lot of these songs are period pieces that speak volumes to what's going on right now. If I hold onto them next year or the year after, they'll be dated, because my life will be in another direction. If I'm not gonna put it on the album — and they all can't make the album — then they might as well have another platform to present it to the world".<ref>{{cite web|last=Reid<br />
|first=Shaheem|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1640279/20100527/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. Explains Inspiration Behind F--- A Mixtape Title|publisher=MTV|date=May 27, 2010|access-date=May 28, 2010}}</ref><br />
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On September 1, T.I. and his wife [[Tameka Cottle|Tiny]] were arrested for drug charges.<ref name="news.blogs.cnn.com">{{cite news|url=http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2010/09/02/rapper-t-i-arrested-on-drug-charges/|work=CNN|title=Rapper T.I. arrested on drug charges}}</ref> On October 15, 2010, T.I. was sentenced to 11 months in prison for violating the terms of his probation. Following his arrest, T.I. scrapped ''King Uncaged'' as the title for his seventh studio album and renamed it ''[[No Mercy (T.I. album)|No Mercy]]'', due to his new prison sentencing. He then released the lead single from the newly titled album, "[[Get Back Up (T.I. song)|Get Back Up]]" featuring Chris Brown, on the same day that he was sentenced back to prison for violating the terms of his probation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2010/10/15/new-music-ti-f-chris-brown-get-back-up/|title=New Music: T.I. f/ Chris Brown – 'Get Back Up'|work=[[Rap-Up]]|date=October 16, 2010|access-date=October 25, 2010}}</ref> "Get Back Up" peaked at number seventy in the US.<ref name="ussolo" /> T.I. began serving his sentence in November 2010 and his date of release was set to be September 29, 2011.<ref name="bop" /><br />
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''No Mercy'' was released on December 7, 2010. The album peaked at number four in the US and it sold over 159,000 copies in its first week.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kaufman|first=Gil|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1654337/tis-no-mercy-debuts-at-4-on-billboard.jhtml|title=T.I.'s No Mercy Debuts At #4 On Billboard--Susan Boyle holds tight to #1 on next week's albums chart.|publisher=MTV|date=December 15, 2010|access-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref> RIAA certified ''No Mercy'' Gold with over 500,000 copies sold. His second and final single from the album was "[[That's All She Wrote]]" his second collaboration with [[Eminem]], and was released on December 19, peaking at number eighteen in the US.<ref name="ussolo" /><br />
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T.I. was nominated for two Grammy Awards for [[Best Rap Solo Performance]] for "I'm Back" and [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group]] (Fancy with Drake and Swizz Beatz) at the [[53rd Grammy Awards]]. He was also nominated for a [[Soul Train Music Award]] for Best Hip Hop Song of the Year for "Got Your Back" and he earned three [[BET Hip Hop Awards]] nominations for Hustler of the Year, Made You Look Award, and Best Club Banger for "Hello Good Morning".<br />
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In early June 2011, T.I. said in a letter: "I'll be releasing a record in the near future (couple of weeks tops) to hold y'all over til I get back in action." On June 30, 2011, a new song was released onto T.I.'s official website and on his official YouTube channel – titled "We Don't Get Down Like Y'all", which features fellow [[Grand Hustle]] rapper [[B.o.B]] on the hook. While commenting on the song, T.I. said in another letter; "It's a song that I did soon after my release last time. What inspired me to write this record was the differences in how we do us and how they do them suddenly became incredibly evident in just a very short period of time." It was originally only available on [[Atlantic Records]]'s online store.<ref>[http://www.trapmuzik.com/news/e75757-new-music-ti-we-dont-get-down-like-yall-feat-bob/ New Music: T.I. - We Don't Get Down Like Y'all feat. B.o.B] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703112058/http://www.trapmuzik.com/news/e75757-new-music-ti-we-dont-get-down-like-yall-feat-bob/ |date=July 3, 2011 }} on TrapMuzik.com. Retrieved June 30, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://cart.atlanticrecords.com/cart/basket.aspx?omniprod=075679967282&sys=ATL We Don't Get Down Like Y'all (feat. B.o.B.)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705070527/http://cart.atlanticrecords.com/cart/basket.aspx?omniprod=075679967282&sys=ATL |date=July 5, 2011 }} on Atlantic Records online store. Retrieved June 30, 2011.</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZmkkeVykGM T.I. - We Don't Get Down Like Y'all Ft. B.o.B (AUDIO)] on YouTube. Retrieved June 30, 2011.</ref> The song was available on iTunes and other vendors, such as Spotify on August{{nbsp}}9 and it peaked at No.{{nbsp}}78 in the US.<br />
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After being released from prison in August 2011, T.I. signed a deal with [[VH1]] for a new reality show that will follow him as he re-adjusts to life as a free man after the incarceration and he also announced he working on a novel entitled, ''Power & Beauty'' which was set to be released in October.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/t-leaves-us-prison-early-tv-book-deals-180525375.html|agency=Associated Press|title=T.I. leaves US prison early with TV, book deals|date=August 31, 2011}}</ref><br />
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=== 2011–2013: ''Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head'' ===<br />
{{Main|Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head|G.D.O.D. (Get Dough or Die)}}<br />
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On September 30, 2011, T.I. released "[[I'm Flexin']]", the first promotional single from his upcoming eighth studio album. The song features vocals and production from [[Big K.R.I.T.]] T.I. reunited with [[Young Jeezy]] on "[[F.A.M.E. (song)|F.A.M.E.]]" for Jeezy's album ''[[TM103]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Music: T.I. f/ Big K.R.I.T. – 'I'm Flexin|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/09/30/new-music-t-i-f-big-k-r-i-t-im-flexin/|work=rapup.com|publisher=rapup.com|access-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=New Music: Young Jeezy f/ T.I. –'F.A.M.E.'|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/09/29/new-music-young-jeezy-f-ti-fame/|work=rapup.com|publisher=rapup.com|access-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref> "I'm Flexin" peaked at number sixty-six on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, while "F.A.M.E." peaked at number sixty-seven on the Billboard Hip Hop/R&B chart. On October 18, T.I. made appearances on [[The Howard Stern Show]] and [[The View (U.S. TV series)|The View]] to promote his new novel, ''Power & Beauty: A Love Story of Life on the Streets'' and discuss other issues involving his time in prison. Later that day, he released the second promotional single, "[[Here Ye, Hear Ye]]" featuring [[Pharrell Williams]] under the alias ''Sk8brd''.<ref>{{cite web|title=T.I. Recalls Prison Fight on 'Howard Stern'|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/10/18/ti-recalls-prison-fight-on-howard-stern/|work=rapup.com|publisher=rapup.com|access-date=October 18, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='T.I. Shoots Down Retirement Rumors, Plays Hoops with the Ladies of 'The View'|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/10/18/ti-shoots-down-retirement-rumors-plays-hoops-with-the-ladies-of-the-view/|work=rapup.com|publisher=rapup.com|access-date=October 18, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=New Music: T.I. f/ Pharrell – 'Here Ye, Hear Ye'|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/10/18/new-music-ti-f-pharrell-here-ye-hear-ye/|work=rapup.com|publisher=rapup.com|access-date=October 18, 2011}}</ref><br />
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After his release from prison, T.I. appeared on several [[remix]]es including; "Spend It" by [[2 Chainz]], "[[Sleazy (Kesha song)|Sleazy]]" by [[Kesha]], "[[Niggas in Paris]]" with [[Jay-Z]] and [[Kanye West]], "[[Hard White (Up in the Club)]]" by [[Yelawolf]] also featuring [[Slaughterhouse (group)|Slaughterhouse]], "[[Ima Boss]]" by [[Meek Mill]] alongside a freestyle over [[Drake (entertainer)|Drake]]'s "[[Headlines (Drake song)|Headlines]]", and [[Lil Wayne]]'s "[[She Will]]". He was also featured on southern rapper [[Future (rapper)|Future]]'s second single "Magic", taken from his debut studio album ''[[Pluto (Future album)|Pluto]]'', which was the first song he hopped on after his release from prison according to Future.<br />
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T.I. revealed the title of his eighth studio album to be ''[[Trouble Man (T.I. album)|Trouble Man]]''. The title was partly inspired by [[Marvin Gaye]]'s [[Trouble Man (Marvin Gaye song)|1972 song of the same name]], he revealed on ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''. In a previous interview with ''[[Rolling Stone (magazine)|Rolling Stone]]''; he said he was debating between two titles, ''Trouble Man'' and ''Kill the King''. The third promotional single "Pyro", was released on November 21.<ref>{{cite web|title=T.I. Announces New Album Title, Single|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/11/21/ti-announces-new-album-title-single/|work=rapup.com|publisher=rapup.com|access-date=December 7, 2011}}</ref><br />
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In preparation for the album, T.I. released a mixtape entitled, ''Fuck da City Up'' on New Year's Day. Two songs off the mixtape charted on the ''Billboard'' [[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs]], "Popped Off", featuring vocals and production from [[Dr. Dre]] and "This Time of Night" featuring [[Nelly]], respectively.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Music: T.I. – 'F*ck Da City Up' [Mixtape]|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/12/31/new-music-ti-fuck-da-city-up-mixtape/|work=rapup.com|publisher=rapup.com|access-date=December 12, 2011}}</ref><br />
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While on set for the "[[Strange Clouds (song)|Strange Clouds]]" music video, [[MTV]] interviewed [[B.o.B]] and confronted him of a rumor that he and T.I. are working on a collaborative album. B.o.B responded: "The joint album, it actually started as a joke. Tip would always refer to me as 'the Martian', and in one of his lyrics, he said, 'It's the man and the Martian,' and we said, 'Man that could be an album title.' We kinda just played around with it. But it seems to be taking form in a very organic way."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1675082/ti-bob-joint-album-man-martian.jhtml|title=T.I./B.o.B Joint Album 'Started As A Joke'|publisher=MTV|date=November 29, 2011|access-date=December 7, 2011}}</ref> On December 1, 2011, B.o.B appeared on New York City's [[WQHT|Hot 97]] radio station and confirmed that he and T.I. are indeed working on a collaborative album titled ''The Man and the Martian''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2dopeboyz.com/2011/12/01/b-o-b-confirms-project-w-t-i-tentatively-titled-the-man-the-martian-video/|title=B.o.B Confirms Joint Album w/ T.I. (Video)'|publisher=2DopeBoyz|date=December 1, 2011|access-date=December 7, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/04/02/qa-bob-talks-man-and-the-martian-album-with-ti-grand-hustle-tour/|title=Q&A: B.O.B Talks 'Man And The Martian' Album With T.I., Grand Hustle Tour|magazine=[[Rap-Up]]|date=April 2, 2012|access-date=April 7, 2012}}</ref><br />
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On March 1, 2012, T.I. announced he signed [[Iggy Azalea]], [[Chipmunk (rapper)|Chipmunk]] and [[Trae Tha Truth]] to [[Grand Hustle Records]].<ref name="Rap-Up">{{cite magazine|title=T.I. Signs Iggy Azalea, Chipmunk, And Trae Tha Truth To Grand Hustle|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/03/01/ti-signs-iggy-azalea-chipmunk-and-trae-tha-truth-to-grand-hustle/|magazine=[[Rap-Up]]|date=March 1, 2012|access-date=March 1, 2012}}</ref><ref name="3LittleDigs">{{cite web|first=Lawrence |last=O'Connor |title=Studio Life: T.I. & Grand Hustle Invade 3 Little Digs Headquarters |url=http://3littledigs.com/blog/2012/02/27/studio-life-t-i-grand-hustle-invade-3-little-digs-headquarters/ |publisher=3LittleDigs |date=February 27, 2012 |access-date=March 1, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229195131/http://3littledigs.com/blog/2012/02/27/studio-life-t-i-grand-hustle-invade-3-little-digs-headquarters/ |archive-date=February 29, 2012 }}</ref> He was [[executive producer]] on Azalea's debut [[extended play]] ''[[Glory (EP)|Glory]]'' and was featured on her debut single "Murda Bizness", which premiered March 26, 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2dopeboyz.com/2012/03/26/iggy-azalea-murda-bizness-f-t-i/|title=Iggy Azalea – Murda Bizness f. T.I.|publisher=2DopeBoyz|date=March 26, 2012|access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref> On March 30, T.I. released a [[wikt:snippet|snippet]] of "[[Love This Life]]", ''Trouble Man''{{'}}s promotional single, produced by Mars of 1500 or Nothin'. The song was officially released on April 2, where the song peaked at number eight-one in the US.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2dopeboyz.com/2012/03/30/t-i-love-this-life-snippet/|title=T.I. – Love This Life (Snippet)|publisher=2DopeBoyz|date=March 30, 2012|access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref><br />
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T.I. joined singer [[Sean Kingston]] for his new single "[[Back 2 Life (Live It Up)]]". He shot the video for the track, which also sampled [[Soul II Soul]]'s 1989 chart-topping hit "[[Back to Life (However Do You Want Me)]]".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/05/17/new-music-sean-kingston-f-ti-back-2-life-live-it-up/#more-124139|title=New Music: Sean Kingston F/ T.I. – 'Back 2 Life (Live It Up)'|magazine=Rap-Up|date=May 17, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2012}}</ref> The song peaked at number fifty-two in Canada. During his visit to [[Angie Martinez]]'s radio show, he revealed that the album will be released on September 4. He recorded collaborations with [[Trey Songz]] and [[Usher (singer)|Usher]]. ''"It's just a dope, dope collabo". "Usher and Tip, two Atlanta natives,"'' [[Rico Love]] told Rap-Up.com. ''"This time I finally feel like they got a record that's gonna be a humongous hit."'' T.I.'s [[VH1]] reality show ''[[T.I. and Tiny: The Family Hustle]]'' was renewed for a second season, which aired on September 3.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/05/16/ti-announces-trouble-man-release-date/#more-123930|title=T.I. Announces 'Trouble Man' Release Date|magazine=Rap-Up|date=May 16, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2012}}</ref> T.I. released another promotional song off ''Trouble Man'' on May 15, entitled "Like That".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/05/15/new-music-ti-like-that/#more-123877|title=NEW MUSIC: T.I. – 'LIKE THAT'|magazine=Rap-Up|date=May 15, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2012}}</ref> T.I. appeared on Trey Songz's second single off his album ''[[Chapter V (Trey Songz album)|Chapter V]]'' titled "[[2 Reasons]]".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/06/11/new-music-trey-songz-f-ti-2-reasons/#more-126770|title=New Music: Trey Songz F/ T.I. – '2 Reasons'|magazine=Rap-Up|date=June 11, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2012}}</ref> The song peaked at number forty-three in the US. Another promotional single off ''Trouble Man'', entitled "[[Go Get It]]" was released on July 17. The song peaked at number seventy-seven and number eighty-six in Canada.<br />
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In September, T.I. appeared on ''[[106 & Park]]'' to promote his book "Trouble & Triumph", a sequel to his previous novel "Power & Beauty". During his visit, he announced a new release date for his album set for December 18. He revealed that the album will feature collaborations from Pharrell, [[André 3000]], [[CeeLo Green]], [[R. Kelly]], Lil Wayne, and [[ASAP Rocky]]. He also stated that he's working on a women's clothing line from [[A.K.O.O Clothing|A.K.O.O.]] He later released a new song "Trap Back Jumpin'", which he premiered during his visit on Angie Martinez's radio show.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/09/18/ti-announces-december-release-date-for-trouble-man/#more-135625|title=T.I. Announces December Release Date For 'Trouble Man'|magazine=Rap-Up|date=September 18, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/09/18/new-music-ti-trap-back-jumpin/|title=New Music: T.I. – 'Trap Back Jumpin|magazine=Rap-Up|date=September 18, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2012}}</ref> On October 9, 2012, T.I. was featured on the annual [[BET Hip Hop Awards]] cypher, alongside his Grand Hustle artists [[Iggy Azalea]], [[B.o.B]], [[Chip (rapper)|Chip]] and [[Trae tha Truth]].<ref name="cypher">{{cite web|url=http://www.bet.com/video/hiphopawards/2012/cypher/the-grand-hustle-cypher.html |title=Hip Hop Awards Exclusives: The Grand Hustle Cypher |publisher=Black Entertainment Television LLC |work=[[Black Entertainment Television|BET]] |date=October 9, 2012 |access-date=April 9, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130422040538/http://www.bet.com/video/hiphopawards/2012/cypher/the-grand-hustle-cypher.html |archive-date=April 22, 2013 }}</ref><br />
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A song titled "[[Ball (song)|Ball]]", was released on October 16, as the [[lead single]] from his upcoming eighth studio album. The song featured fellow American [[rapper]] [[Lil Wayne]] and was [[Hip hop production|produced]] by American record producer [[Rico Love]], alongside Earl & E.<ref name=RicoLoveInterview>{{cite web|title=T.I. Taps Into New Orleans Bounce on New Single with Lil Wayne|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/06/21/ti-taps-into-new-orleans-bounce-on-new-single-with-lil-wayne/|work=[[Rap-Up]]|publisher=Rap-Up|access-date=October 16, 2012}}</ref> The song peaked at number fifty in the US and number fifty-eight in the Canada. On October 23, he previewed twelve tracks from the album at its listening party in New York City, and also revealed their titles. The tracks previewed feature artists such as [[Kendrick Lamar]].<ref name=TITracksPreview>{{cite web|title=T.I. Previews 'Trouble Man' In NYC; 12 Song Titles With Features & Producers Revealed|url=http://hiphop-n-more.com/2012/10/t-i-previews-trouble-man-in-nyc-12-song-titles-with-features-producers-revealed/|work=Navjosh|publisher=HipHop-N-More|access-date=October 24, 2012|date=October 24, 2012}}</ref><br />
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In the following month, T.I. leaked the illustrated cover art from his newly named album entitled, ''[[Trouble Man: Heavy is the Head]]'' along with the track list and a few newly added features from the album. T.I. explained, "I think it's a lot more urban than ''[[Paper Trail]]'', and less apologetic than ''[[No Mercy (T.I. album)|No Mercy]]''. I think it's more diversified than ''[[T.I. vs. T.I.P.]]'' though. It's got a lotta heart, it's got a lotta edge. It's a creative album. It's probably harder than most of the shit that's coming out right now."<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2012/11/20/ti-reveals-trouble-man-cover-art-tracklisting/#more-143186|title=T.I. Reveals 'Trouble Man' Cover Art, Tracklisting|magazine=Rap-Up|date=November 20, 2012|access-date=November 28, 2012}}</ref> "Sorry" featuring Andre 3000 was released as the fifth promotional single via iTunes on November 27.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/sorry-feat.-andre-3000-single/id57883511|title=iTunes Store|publisher=itunes.apple.com|access-date=December 22, 2012}}</ref> "Sorry" peaked at number 36 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Then "Hello" featuring [[CeeLo Green]] was released to iTunes on December 11 as the sixth promotional single.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/hello-feat.-cee-lo-green-single/id582143198|title=Hello (feat. Cee Lo Green) – Single by T.I.|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|work=[[iTunes Store]]|access-date=December 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.thesource.com/articles/256782 |title=T.I. ft. Cee-Lo Green – Hello (Single Artwork) |magazine=The Source |access-date=December 22, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121213052733/http://www.thesource.com/articles/256782 |archive-date=December 13, 2012 }}</ref> The album debuted at number two on the US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]], with first-week sales of 179,000 copies in the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.22342/title.hip-hop-album-sales-the-week-ending-12-23-2012|title=Hip Hop Album Sales: The Week Ending 12/23/2012|magazine=HipHopDX|access-date=December 27, 2012|date=December 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906075815/http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.22342/title.hip-hop-album-sales-the-week-ending-12-23-2012|archive-date=September 6, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1481230/tis-trouble-man-debuts-at-no-2-on-billboard-200-taylor-swift-still-rules|title=T.I.'s 'Trouble Man' Debuts at No. 2 on Billboard 200, Taylor Swift Still Rules|magazine=Billboard|last=Caulfield|first=Keith|date=December 27, 2012|access-date=December 27, 2012}}</ref> As of September 2, 2013, it has sold 502,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.23131/title.t-i-says-trouble-man-he-who-wears-the-crown-is-60-to-70-percent-done-|title=Hiphopdx.com|work=HipHopDX|access-date=October 18, 2014|date=March 8, 2013}}</ref><br />
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Shortly before ''Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head'' was released, T.I. announced he would release the sequel as his next album, titled ''Trouble Man II: He Who Wears the Crown''. The sequel is due to T.I. recording more material than needed, being cited by T.I. as much as 120 songs.<ref>{{cite web|title=T.I. Reveals Plans For "Trouble Man" Sequel|work=HipHop DX|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.22079/title.ti-reveals-plans-for-trouble-man-sequel|access-date=December 4, 2012|date=December 3, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121206074541/http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.22079/title.ti-reveals-plans-for-trouble-man-sequel|archive-date=December 6, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> In early January 2013, [[B.o.B]] announced an upcoming Grand Hustle [[compilation album]] titled ''Hustle Gang''.<ref name="hustle gang" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allcitychessclub.net/2013/01/video-bob-speaks-on-man-martian-rock-ep.html |title=Video: B.o.B Speaks On 'The Man & The Martian' & Rock EP, Announces Hustle Gang Compilation Album |work=AllCityChessClub |date=January 9, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130221055819/http://www.allcitychessclub.net/2013/01/video-bob-speaks-on-man-martian-rock-ep.html |archive-date=February 21, 2013 }}</ref> On January 18, 2013, it was announced T.I. drew a close to his 10-year contract with Atlantic records the month before, after releasing ''Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head''.<ref name="xxl">{{cite magazine|title=T.I. Worth $75 Million|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2013/01/t-i-worth-75-million/|magazine=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]|date=January 18, 2013|access-date=January 18, 2013}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> It was reported he proposed a $75&nbsp;million deal for any label that wants to provide a home for him and his imprint. [[TMZ]] reported that T.I. has drawn up the details, which include "3 albums, 10-20 percent of publishing, touring, merchandise, film and TV rights, corporate endorsement deals, as well as exclusive signing of all Grand Hustle artists".<ref name="xxl" /> T.I. was also allegedly being coaxed by some of the biggest names in the industry. There were reports that [[Jay-Z]] was looking to sign T.I., hoping to add him to the [[Roc Nation]] roster. T.I. also had an exclusive dinner at Katana with [[Dr. Dre]], who is thought to have proposed an [[Interscope]] signing the rapper. T.I. had also met with [[Sony Music Entertainment|Sony]], who offered him $50&nbsp;million, and spoke with Universal later that week.<ref name="xxl" /><br />
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In February 2013, T.I. revealed he chose "Hello", as the third official single from ''Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hitfix.com/news/t-i-says-hes-working-on-trouble-man-sequel-but-keeping-his-focus-on-the-first|title=T.I. says he's 'working' on 'Trouble Man' sequel but keeping his focus on the first|last=Eggertsen|first=Chris|work=Hitflix|date=February 1, 2013|access-date=March 21, 2013 }}</ref> According to T.I., the CeeLo Green-featured song was selected due to its heavy radio play. On March 8, 2013, T.I. told [[Rap-Up]] that he was already 60-70% completed with ''Trouble Man II: He Who Wears the Crown''.<ref name="sequel">{{cite web|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2013/03/08/rap-up-tv-ti-talks-trouble-man-sequel-hustle-gang-compilation/|title=Rap-up.com|access-date=October 18, 2014}}</ref> He also spoke on the Grand Hustle compilation, ''Hustle Gang'', which B.o.B announced earlier in January.<ref name="hustle gang">{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2013/01/b-o-b-confirms-grand-hustle-compilation-album-on-the-way-in-2013-video/|title=B.o.B. Confirms Grand Hustle Compilation Album On The Way In 2013 [Video]|work=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]|date=January 5, 2013|access-date=March 13, 2013}}</ref><ref name="sequel" /> In March 2013, T.I. revealed he would soon be filming the music video for "Hello".<ref name="sequel" /> On March 19, 2013, T.I. performed "Hello" on ''[[Jimmy Kimmel Live!]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.2dopeboyz.com/2013/03/20/t-i-performs-hello-on-jimmy-kimmel-video/|title=T.I. Performs "Hello" On Jimmy Kimmel (Video)|publisher=Complex Music|work=2DopeBoyz|date=March 20, 2013|access-date=March 20, 2013}}</ref> In March, T.I. and [[B.o.B]] filmed the music video for "[[Memories Back Then]]", a song featuring [[Kendrick Lamar]] and Kris Stephens. The song, which was recorded for ''Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head'', originally [[Sampling (music)|sampled]] "[[Somebody That I Used to Know]]", as performed by [[Gotye]]. T.I. said to [[Rap-Up]]. Although the track failed to appear on ''Trouble Man'', due to sample-clearance issues, it was released as the lead single from the ''Hustle Gang'' compilation album.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Rap-Up TV: On Set Of 'Memories Back Then' With T.I., Kendrick Lamar, & B.O.B|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2013/03/11/rap-up-tv-on-set-of-memories-back-then-with-ti-kendrick-lamar-bob/|magazine=[[Rap-Up]]|date=March 11, 2013|access-date=March 14, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.23482/title.b-o-b-confirms-memories-back-then-with-kendrick-lamar-as-hustle-gang-ep-first-single|title=B.o.B. Confirms "Memories Back Then" With Kendrick Lamar As Hustle Gang EP First Single|publisher=Cheri Media Group|work=HipHopDX|date=April 5, 2013|access-date=April 8, 2013|last=Hunte|first=Justin|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408013513/http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.23482/title.b-o-b-confirms-memories-back-then-with-kendrick-lamar-as-hustle-gang-ep-first-single|archive-date=April 8, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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=== 2013–2016: Post Atlantic and Bankroll Mafia ===<br />
{{Main|Paperwork (T.I. album)|Da' Nic|Bankroll Mafia|Bankroll Mafia (album)}}<br />
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On March 26, 2013, T.I. appeared alongside [[Pharrell Williams|Pharrell]], on Robin Thicke's lead single "[[Blurred Lines]]" from his [[Blurred Lines (album)|album of the same name]]. The song quickly became a worldwide hit and peaked at number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, making it T.I.'s fourth number one Hot 100 single. The song has also reached number one in 13+ countries, including the United Kingdom and Germany.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1566519/robin-thickes-blurred-lines-hits-no-1-on-hot-100|title=Robin Thicke's 'Blurred Lines' Hits No. 1 on Hot 100|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|date=June 12, 2013|access-date=June 12, 2013|last=Trust|first=Gary}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1568185/robin-thicke-still-atop-hot-100-miley-cyrus-bruno-mars-reach-top-10|magazine=Billboard|title=Robin Thicke Still Atop Hot 100; Miley Cyrus, Bruno Mars Reach Top 10|last=Trust|first=Gary|date=June 26, 2013|access-date=June 26, 2013}}</ref> In March 2013, Lil Wayne announced T.I. would be co-headlining the second ''[[America's Most Wanted Tour]]''. T.I. explained that the tour would begin on July{{nbsp}}5 and go through September 1, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|last=Paine|first=Jake|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.23305/title.lil-wayne-updates-health-status-in-video-confirms-summer-tour-with-t-i-|title=Lil Wayne Updates Health Status In Video, Confirms Summer Tour With T.I. &#124; Get The Latest Hip Hop News, Rap News & Hip Hop Album Sales|publisher=HipHop DX|date=March 18, 2013|access-date=March 24, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324201707/http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.23305/title.lil-wayne-updates-health-status-in-video-confirms-summer-tour-with-t-i-|archive-date=March 24, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> American rappers [[French Montana]] and 2{{nbsp}}Chainz, were later confirmed to join the tour, among others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rapfix.mtv.com/2013/04/05/french-montana-joins-lil-waynes-americas-most-wanted-tour/#more-77188|title=French Montana Joins Lil Wayne's 'America's Most Wanted' Tour|publisher=Rapfix.mtv.com|access-date=April 7, 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408233032/http://rapfix.mtv.com/2013/04/05/french-montana-joins-lil-waynes-americas-most-wanted-tour#more-77188|archive-date=April 8, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Diep|first=Eric|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2013/05/t-i-reveals-future-will-be-replaced-by-2-chainz-for-americas-most-wanted-tour/|title=T.I. Reveals Future Will Be Replaced By 2{{nbsp}}Chainz For "America's Most Wanted" Tour – XXL|publisher=Xxlmag.com|date=May 9, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2014}}</ref> The first ''America's Most Wanted Tour'', had taken place five years prior and featured [[Young Jeezy]], [[Soulja Boy]], [[Pleasure P]], [[Jeremih]] and [[Young Money]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Kaufman|first=Gil|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1704281/lil-wayne-ti-future-tour.jhtml|title=Lil Wayne, T.I., Future Teaming Up For 'America's Most Wanted' Tour – Music, Celebrity, Artist News|publisher=MTV.com|access-date=March 26, 2013}}</ref> On May 21, 2013, T.I. released a single titled "[[Wit Me]]" featuring [[Lil Wayne]]. The song was released in promotion for the tour and peaked at number 80 on the Hot 100 chart.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/wit-me-feat.-lil-wayne-single/id649951625|title=Wit Me (feat. Lil Wayne) – Single by T.I.|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|work=[[iTunes Store]]|date=May 21, 2013|access-date=May 23, 2013}}</ref><ref>[{{BillboardURLbyName|artist=t.i.|chart=all}} Billboard]</ref><br />
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[[File:T.I 56.jpg|thumb|left|T.I. performing in 2014.]]<br />
In a July 2013 interview, with Power 98 FM, T.I. spoke on his then-upcoming album, ''Trouble Man II: He Who Wears the Crown''. While he didn't reveal many album specifics, he did promise a project that would make whoever decides to distribute the album very "happy": "I've been working on this one since the last one dropped. I haven't decided exactly where I'm going to take [the new album] yet as far as a company for distribution, but wherever I take it, there's going to be some happy people in that building."<ref>{{cite web|title=T.I. Says He Would've Killed George Zimmerman If He Was Trayvon Martin's Father|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.24873/t-i-says-he-would-ve-killed-george-zimmerman-if-he-was-trayvon-martin-s-father/|publisher=Cheri Media Group|work=HipHOpDX|date=July 31, 2013|access-date=July 31, 2013}}</ref> In September 2013, T.I. was featured throughout Lil Wayne's twelfth solo mixtape ''[[Dedication 5]]''. On September 1, 2013, it was revealed that T.I. would be featured on American pop star [[Lady Gaga]]'s album ''[[Artpop|ARTPOP]]'', on the song "Jewels n' Drugs", alongside fellow American rappers [[Too Short]] and [[Twista]]. Another pop star, [[Britney Spears]], later announced T.I. would appear on her song "Tik Tik Boom", from her eighth studio album ''[[Britney Jean]]'' (2013). T.I. was also featured on British singer [[Cher Lloyd]]'s single "[[I Wish (Cher Lloyd song)|I Wish]]", which was released in September 2013.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop-shop/5647077/cher-lloyd-announces-i-wish-single-featuring-ti|title=Cher Lloyd Announces 'I Wish' Single Featuring T.I.|magazine=Billboard}}</ref><br />
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On November 22, 2013, T.I. announced that he had signed a deal with [[Columbia Records]], to release his upcoming ninth studio album.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harling|first=Danielle|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.26551/title.t-i-says-columbia-records-deal-is-only-for-his-next-project|title=T.I. Says Columbia Records Deal Is Only For His Next Project &#124; Get The Latest Hip Hop News, Rap News & Hip Hop Album Sales|publisher=HipHop DX|date=December 9, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224065345/http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.26551/title.t-i-says-columbia-records-deal-is-only-for-his-next-project|archive-date=February 24, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> T.I. later clarified the deal is solely for his ninth album.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/t-i-clarifies-columbia-deal-is-for-his-next-album-only-news.8474.html|title=T.I. Clarifies Columbia Deal Is For His Next Album Only|first=Rose|last=Lilah|date=December 9, 2013|work=HotNewHipHop}}</ref> T.I. revealed he recruited Pharrell Williams, who was influential in his move to Columbia, to executive produce the LP, with plans to release the album in early 2014.<ref name="colombia">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/the-juice/5800644/ti-grand-hustle-sign-to-columbia-records|title=T.I. & Grand Hustle Sign To Columbia Records --The rapper recruits Pharrell Williams to executive produce his upcoming 2014 album.|magazine=Billboard|access-date=November 22, 2013|last=Ramirez|first=Erika}}</ref> In December 2013, T.I. revealed although he had originally planned to release ''Trouble Man II'', since getting into the studio with the album's executive producer, Pharrell Williams, he had a change of heart. He stated: "Since we started working on the project and the project started has taken a different shape, I think we're going to postpone that title. We're gonna rework that. I got a couple of things in mind." He still plans to release the sequel to ''Trouble Man'', however, he said: "All I'ma say is, it's gonna be a motion picture, it's gonna be a theatrical-worthy title. Something that will definitely seem instant classic. I'm thinking something like 'Trap Champion', 'Paperwork,' but whatever it is the subtitle will be 'The Motion Picture'."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1718923/t-i-postpones-trouble-man-ii-title.jhtml|title=T.I. Postpones Trouble Man II For Something More 'Theatrical'|publisher=MTV|date=December 11, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2014}}</ref> On December 16, 2013, it was reported that T.I. decided to name it ''[[Paperwork (T.I. album)|Paperwork]]''.<ref name="rapradar.com">{{cite web|url=http://rapradar.com/2013/12/16/t-i-renames-new-album/|title=T.I. Renames New Album|publisher=Rap Radar|date=December 16, 2013|access-date=June 7, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131222074116/http://rapradar.com/2013/12/16/t-i-renames-new-album/|archive-date=December 22, 2013}}</ref><br />
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On May 9, 2014, T.I. released a music video for a song titled "Turn It", in promotion for ''Paperwork''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Frydenlund|first=Zach|title=Watch T.I.'s Video for "Turn It"|url=http://www.complex.com/music/2014/05/ti-turn-it-video|work=[[Complex (magazine)|Complex]]|publisher=[[Complex Media]]|date=May 9, 2014|access-date=May 13, 2014}}</ref> On June 3, 2014, T.I. released a song titled "[[About the Money]]", via digital distribution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/about-money-feat.-young-thug/id885621063 |title=About the Money (feat. Young Thug) – Single by T.I. |publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]] |work=[[iTunes Store]] |access-date=June 5, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009101106/https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/about-money-feat.-young-thug/id885621063 |archive-date=October 9, 2014 }}</ref> The song, which serves as the first single from ''Paperwork'', features up-and-coming Atlanta-based rapper [[Young Thug]]. The music video for "About the Money", directed by T.I. and Kennedy Rothchild, was released on June 2, 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.illroots.com/watch/ti-about-the-money-ft-young-thug-music-video|title=ILLROOTS – T.I. - About The Money (Ft. Young Thug)|work=ILLROOTS|access-date=October 18, 2014}}</ref> On June 17, 2014, T.I. release the second single from ''Paperwork'', a song titled [[No Mediocre]], which was produced by [[West Coast hip hop]] producer [[DJ Mustard]] and features a guest verse from his then protege [[Iggy Azalea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rapdose.com/2014/06/12/t-i-iggy-azalea-no-mediocre-single-cover-revealed|title=T.I. & Iggy Azalea "No Mediocre" Single Cover Revealed|last=M|first=Steve|work=Rap Dose|date=June 12, 2014|access-date=October 18, 2014}}</ref> Since its release "No Mediocre" reached number 33 on the Hot 100 chart and was certified platinum by the RIAA.<br />
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On August 20, 2014, one day after speaking out on America in his online [[treatise]] about [[Ferguson, Missouri]], in the wake of the fatal police [[shooting of Michael Brown]], T.I. released a new song titled "[[New National Anthem]]." The song, which features vocals from American singer-songwriter [[Skylar Grey]], includes socially conscious lyrics centered on racism and injustice.<ref>{{cite web|title=NEW MUSIC: T.I. F/ Skylar Grey – 'New National Anthem'|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2014/08/20/new-music-ti-f-skylar-grey-new-national-anthem/|work=[[Rap-Up]]|date=August 20, 2014|access-date=August 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bobb|first=Maurice|title=T.I. Speaks Out On Ferguson: 'America Has Created A Monster'|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1904280/t-i-speaks-out-on-ferguson-america-has-created-a-monster/|work=[[MTV]]|publisher=[[Viacom Media Networks]]|date=August 19, 2014|access-date=August 21, 2014}}</ref> On September 23, 2014, ''Paperwork'' was made available for pre-order with "New National Anthem" as the "instant gratification track". Also on September 23, the official audio for "New National Anthem" was released via T.I.'s official [[Vevo]] account.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecelebritycafe.com/feature/2014/09/ti-drops-new-single-new-national-anthem|title=T.I. drops new single 'New National Anthem'|publisher=Thecelebritycafe.com|access-date=October 22, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023053253/http://thecelebritycafe.com/feature/2014/09/ti-drops-new-single-new-national-anthem|archive-date=October 23, 2014}}</ref><br />
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T.I.'s ninth album ''Paperwork'', was released on October 21, 2014,. Upon its release, the album debuted at number two on the US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]], with first-week sales of 80,000 copies in the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/chart-beat/6296950/slipknot-scores-second-no-1-album-on-billboard-200-chart|title=Slipknot Scores Second No. 1 Album on Billboard 200 Chart|magazine=Billboard|date=October 29, 2014|access-date=November 1, 2014}}</ref> ''Paperwork'' received generally positive reviews from [[music criticism|music critics]]. At [[Metacritic]], which assigns a [[standard score|normalized]] rating out of 100 to reviews from critics, the album received an [[weighted mean|average]] score of 69, which indicates "generally favorable reviews", based on ten reviews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metacritic.com/music/paperwork/ti|title=Reviews for Paperwork by T.I. - Metacritic|publisher=Metacritic.com|access-date=October 22, 2014}}</ref><br />
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On March 11, 2015, T.I. released a single titled "Project Steps".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/project-steps-single/id975927935|title=Project Steps – Single|work=iTunes|date=March 11, 2015}}</ref> On March 24, 2015, T.I. announced his tenth album would be titled ''Trap's Open''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theboombox.com/ti-traps-open-album/|title=T.I. Announces New Album 'Trap's Open'|author=Preezy|date=March 24, 2015|work=The Boombox}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2015/03/24/ti-gets-unapologetically-gangsta-on-new-album-traps-open/|title=T.I. Gets 'Unapologetically Gangsta' on New Album 'Trap's Open'|work=Rap-Up}}</ref> In a June 2015 interview, T.I. revealed his tenth studio album was completed and awaiting release.<ref name="BRM">{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/news/2015/06/t-says-new-album-finished/|title=T.I. Says His New Album Is Finished|last=Walsh|first=Peter|date=June 8, 2015|work=XXL Mag}}</ref> He also announced he was working on a project as part of the [[hip hop collective]] [[Bankroll Mafia]], alongside [[Shad da God]] and [[Young Thug]], among others.<ref name="BRM" /> On June 26, 2015, T.I. released the music video for the single "Project Steps" and announced his tenth album's new title would be ''The Dime Trap''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2015/06/26/video-ti-project-steps/|title=Video: T.I. – 'Project Steps'|work=Rap-Up}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vh1.com/video/ti/1215862/project-steps.jhtml |title="Project Steps" by T.I. - Music Video |work=vh1.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906075253/http://www.vh1.com/video/ti/1215862/project-steps.jhtml |archive-date=September 6, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/4awu0nAbrX/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/troubleman31/1016338989742930647 |archive-date=2021-12-23 |url-access=subscription|title=TIP on Instagram: "First thing heard/seen from my 10th album "The Dime Trap".... Video jumpin off NOW on #WSHH #OnMyTrapMuzikShit #HustleGangOverErrrthang"|website=Instagram}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In July 2015, T.I. revealed ''The Dime Trap'' was being mixed and mastered; he also added that "It is a lot more urban, a lot more edgy, a lot more unapologetically ghetto than ''Paperwork''".<ref>{{cite web|last=Davis|first=Brandon|url=https://comicbook.com/2015/06/28/t-i-/|title=T.I. Talks Ant-Man, Civil War, & More|work=ComicBook.com|date=July 14, 2015|access-date=July 17, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stacksmag.net/2015/07/t-i-talks-ant-man-the-dime-trap-album.html|title=T.I. Talks Ant-Man + Preps 'The Dime Trap' Album|work=Stacks Magazine|date=July 15, 2015}}</ref><br />
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In promotion for the album, T.I. unexpectedly released an [[extended play]] (EP) titled ''[[Da' Nic]]'', on September 11, 2015. The EP contains five songs, including the singles "Project Steps" and "Check, Run It".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/stream-tis-new-ep-da-nic-news.17536.html|title=Stream T.I.'s New EP "Da' Nic"|last=Goddard|first=Kevin|date=September 11, 2015|work=HotNewHipHop}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://itunes.apple.com/us/album/da-nic-ep/id1038302466?ls=1|title=Da' Nic – EP|work=iTunes|date=September 11, 2015}}</ref> The five-track project, which includes features from Young Thug and Young Dro, as well as production from Jazz Feezy, Sho Nuff, [[League of Starz]], [[London on da Track]] and [[1500 or Nothin'|Mars]], was launched independently. It was released through San Francisco's [[Empire Distribution]] and T.I.'s King Inc. imprint,<ref>{{cite web|title=A King Bows to No One. T.I. Leaves Columbia to Go Independent|last=Bandini|url=http://ambrosiaforheads.com/2015/09/t-i-is-a-free-agent-again-confirms-columbia-records-exit/|date=September 18, 2015|access-date=May 8, 2016|publisher=Abrosia for Heads}}</ref> marking T.I.'s first ever [[Independent album|independent release]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcbayarea.com/entertainment/TI-Announces-Surprise-Release-at-Twitter-Headquarters-326520281.html|title=T.I. Announces Surprise Release at Twitter Headquarters|work=[[KNTV]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.audibletreats.com/tip_pr1/|title=T.I. Releases Surprise EP, Da' Nic|work=Audible Treats|date=September 11, 2015}}</ref> During this period, T.I. reverted to his previous pseudonym, Tip.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hiphopdx.com/news/id.35448/title.tip-explains-name-change-making-the-dime-trap-album-for-fans|title=- HipHopDX|last=Hernandez|first=Victoria|date=September 11, 2015}}</ref><br />
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On September 18, 2015, T.I. announced his departure from Columbia Records. In an interview with HitsDailyDouble.com, he addressed his situation: "Having just exited my deal at Columbia, I was a rogue artist, busting creativity, just waiting to put music in the marketplace, so while I'm sorting out my next situation, I'm blessed enough to be able to control my destiny and put music out as quickly as I want to, and was able to release a Tip album, which I had wanted to do for a long time."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/ti-no-longer-with-columbia-records-news.17664.html|title=T.I. No Longer With Columbia Records|last=Goddard|first=Kevin|date=September 18, 2015|work=HotNewHipHop}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cviddytv.com/music/hip-hop/t-i-is-no-longer-signed-to-colombia-records/|title=T.I. Is No Longer Signed To Columbia Records|work=CViddyTV.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925235742/http://www.cviddytv.com/music/hip-hop/t-i-is-no-longer-signed-to-colombia-records/|archive-date=September 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hypefreshmag.com/t-i-announces-departure-from-columbia-records/|title=T.I. Announces Departure From Columbia Records|last=Lyles|first=Jesse|work=Hypefresh®}}</ref><br />
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In October 2015, in an interview with [[MTV News]], T.I. said: "This is a perfect time to be able to call myself what I've always been known as [Tip]. Being called T.I. is very weird. It's kinda awkward to be famous for a name that you've never been called before in your life. If you want me to know that you don't know me, call me T.I. It's the weirdest most awkward thing."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/2341453/ti-da-nic-dime-trap-independence/|title=T.I.'s Da' Nic EP Was Basically A Celebration Of Independence|work=MTV News}}</ref> During the interview he also spoke on the benefit of not having to deal with a major label and how he couldn't have released ''Da' Nic'' if he wasn't independent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/ti-says-he-couldnt-have-released-da-nic-on-a-major-label-news.18004.html|title=T.I. Says He Couldn't Have Released "Da' Nic" On A Major Label|website=HotNewHipHop|date=October 5, 2015}}</ref><br />
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On February 22, 2016, before his "pop-up performance" at Greenbriar Mall in his hometown of Atlanta, T.I. announced he signed a distribution deal with Jay Z's [[Roc Nation]] for ''The Dime Trap''. T.I. also revealed he is one of the new co-owners of online streaming service, [[Tidal (service)|TIDAL]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/6882917/ti-signs-roc-nation-owner-tidal|title=T.I. Signs Distribution Deal With Roc Nation, Becomes Latest Co-Owner of Tidal|magazine=Billboard|date=February 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://www.thestate.com/entertainment/celebrities/article61914187.html]{{dead link|date=May 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref><br />
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T.I., in collaboration with a number of southern rappers, who are collectively known as [[Bankroll Mafia]], released an [[Bankroll Mafia (album)|eponymous album]] on April 22, 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/bankroll-mafia/1106709487|title=Bankroll Mafia by Bankroll Mafia|date=April 22, 2016|via=music.apple.com}}</ref> On May 16, 2016, T.I. released a single titled "Dope" which was produced by [[West Coast hip hop]] record producer [[Dr. Dre]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stereogum.com/1877353/t-i-dope-feat-marsha-ambrosius/mp3s/|title=T.I. – "Dope (Feat. Marsha Ambrosius)|date=May 16, 2016}}</ref> On May 26, 2016, four people were shot before T.I. took the stage at [[Irving Plaza]] at his scheduled concert in New York City. One of the victims died later at a hospital.<ref>{{cite news<br />
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/26/nyregion/people-are-shot-at-irving-plaza-during-ti-concert-police-say.html<br />
| title = One Fatally Shot and Three Wounded During Concert<br />
| newspaper = [[The New York Times]]<br />
| author = Christopher Mele<br />
| page = A20<br />
| date = May 26, 2016<br />
| access-date = May 26, 2016<br />
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news<br />
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/03/nyregion/gun-used-in-irving-plaza-shooting-is-found-in-troy-aves-van-police-say.html<br />
| title = Gun Used in Club Shooting Is Found in Rapper's Van, Police Say<br />
| newspaper = [[The New York Times]]<br />
| author = Ashley Southall<br />
| page = A21<br />
| date = June 3, 2016<br />
| access-date = June 3, 2016<br />
}}</ref> In early July 2016, T.I. reiterated that he would like to be known as Tip, moving forward in his career: "We made a conscious decision to have a lot more faith in the [label] operations of our art early on. But right now, just to be able to [go by Tip] and have it be significant and have people still care about the music being released, it’s incredibly flattering. I’m humbled, I appreciate all the love."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/ti-tip-name_us_57855bd6e4b03fc3ee4e687f|title=T.I. Doesn't Want To Be Called T.I. Anymore|first1=Todd Van Luling Senior Staff|last1=Writer|first2=The Huffington|last2=Post|website=[[HuffPost]]|date=July 14, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bet.com/music/2016/07/15/t-i--really-wants-us-to-stop-calling-him-t-i-.html?cid=facebook|title=T.I. Really Wants Us to Stop Calling Him T.I.|website=BET.com}}</ref><br />
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=== 2016–2019: ''Us or Else'' and ''Dime Trap'' ===<br />
{{Main|Us or Else|Us or Else: Letter to the System|Dime Trap}}<br />
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[[File:T.I. (Sister Circle Live) (cropped).png|thumb|T.I. in a 2019 interview]]<br />
On July 22, 2016, during an interview with ''Ebro in the Morning'' on [[Hot 97]], T.I. announced an EP titled ''[[Us or Else]]''. The EP "will be aimed at supporting the [[Black Lives Matter|#BlackLivesMatter movement]], and will speak explicitly about the twisted road [[Racism in the United States|race relations took in America]] to arrive at its current precarious state."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bet.com/music/2016/07/22/t-i--is-releasing-an-entire-project-dedicated-to--blacklivesmatt.html/|title=T.I. Is Releasing an Entire Project Dedicated to #BlackLivesMatter &#124; T.I. &#124; Music &#124; BET|website=www.bet.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.watchloud.com/2016/07/22/t-will-releasing-mixtape-dedicated-black-lives-matter/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thesource.com/2016/07/22/t-i-announces-new-mixtape-us-or-else-aimed-at-supporting-the-blacklivesmatter-movement/|title=T.I. Announces New Mixtape, 'Us or Else,' Aimed at Supporting the #BlackLivesMatter Movement|last=khari|date=July 22, 2016}}</ref> On August 6, 2016, T.I. released the first single for ''Us or Else'', a song titled "We Will Not", in response to the turmoil caused by the injustices going on in America, namely [[police brutality]] following the deaths of [[Shooting of Philando Castile|Philando Castile]] and [[Shooting of Alton Sterling|Alton Sterling]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/ti-we-will-not-new-song.1970877.html|title=T.I. - We Will Not|website=HotNewHipHop|date=August 6, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/music/2016/08/ti-we-will-not-premiere|title=T.I. Takes a Stand for Justice in New Video for "We Will Not"|website=Complex}}</ref> On August 31, 2016, T.I. released a new song off ''Us or Else'', titled "War Zone", exclusively through TIDAL.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/7494725/ti-warzone-us-or-else-mixtape-dime-trap|title=T.I. Tackles Police Brutality On 'Warzone'|magazine=Billboard}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://allhiphop.com/2016/08/31/t-i-drops-new-single-off-upcoming-us-or-else-ep/|title=T.I. Releases New Single "War Zone" Off Upcoming "Us or Else" EP|first=Michael|last=DeBlasio|date=August 31, 2016}}</ref> ''Us or Else'' was released exclusively through [[Tidal (service)|TIDAL]] on September 23, 2016, by Grand Hustle Records and [[Roc Nation]]. The EP, which was T.I.s first project under Roc Nation, reached number 175 on the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart.<br />
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On December 16, 2016, without prior announcement or promotion,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/ti-releases-surprise-album-us-or-else-letter-to-the-system-as-tidal-exclusive-news.26415.html|title=T.I. Releases Surprise Album "Us or Else: Letter To The System" As TIDAL Exclusive|website=HotNewHipHop|date=December 16, 2016}}</ref> T.I. released ''[[Us or Else: Letter to the System]]''.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/t-i-drops-surprise-new-lp-us-or-else-letter-to-the-system-105400/|title=T.I. Drops Surprise New LP 'Us or Else: Letter to the System'|first1=Daniel|last1=Kreps|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|date=December 17, 2016}}</ref> The project, which was also initially released exclusively through TIDAL, features [[guest appearance]]s from [[Quavo]], [[Meek Mill]], RaRa, [[Big K.R.I.T.]] and [[Killer Mike]], as well as [[Hip hop production|production]] handled by [[Nottz]], [[Mars (record producer)|Mars]] of [[1500 or Nothin']] and [[The Futuristiks|Mike & Keys]], among others. In January 2017, it was announced T.I. would host the fifth annual Global Spin Awards.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/7669115/ti-host-global-spin-awards|title=T.I. to Host Fifth Annual Global Spin Awards|magazine=Billboard}}</ref> In an October 2017 interview with [[HipHopDX]], when asked about Grand Hustle Records' upcoming albums, TIP answered with: "''[[We Want Smoke]]'' is out, and then Translee is coming out on November 27, and Booke is October 27, and you can wait until December 18 for mine. Just know that whenever you see The Chief [logo] on the project, it’s gonna be absolute pandemonium."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hiphopdx.com/news/id.44967/title.interview-t-i-doubles-down-on-trap-music-inventor-tag-talks-hustle-gang-politics|title=Interview: T.I. Doubles Down On Trap Music Inventor Tag; Talks Hustle Gang & Politics|date=October 22, 2017|website=HipHopDX}}</ref><br />
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=== 2020–present: ''The L.I.B.R.A.'' and ''Kill the King''===<br />
{{Main|The L.I.B.R.A.|Kill the King (album)}}<br />
<br />
On October 16, 2020, T.I. released his eleventh studio album, ''[[The L.I.B.R.A.]]''. The album peaked at No. 18 on the ''[[Billboard Hot 200]]'' chart and number nine on the [[Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums]] chart in the United States.<br />
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On June 9, 2021, T.I. announced via his social media page that he's working on his next album, titled ''Kill the King'' which will be his final album.<br />
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===Future projects===<br />
In February 2017, during an interview with ''[[The Breakfast Club (radio show)|The Breakfast Club]]'' radio show, T.I. revealed he would retire from making music after three more solo albums: "I'm ready to get the hell outta here, though. I got, like, two, I got, this next album and two, I got three more albums in my head, conceptualized. Once I get them out, I'm done. [Jeezy album?] We're still doing it. … [The next albums?] The next one is more like trap music. It’s ''[[Trap Muzik]]'' 2017. And the one after that, it’s gonna be more like a, uh, love as it pertains to a dope boy. And the one after that, that’s my final album. It’s called ''Kill the King.'' The last album is ''Kill the King.'' Simply because ever since my first album, I've put the title of '[[Honorific nicknames in popular music|King of the South]]' on me and to make yourself the [[king]] is to make you a target. And in [[chess]], the object is to kill the king. So ''Kill the King'' is the title of my last album. Will they kill him or will he ride into the sunset happily ever after?"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sohh.com/t-announces-final-album-title-im-ready-get-hell-outta/|title=T.I. Announces Final Album Title: "I'm Ready To Get The Hell Outta Here"|first=Biz|last=Jones|date=February 3, 2017|website=SOHH.com}}</ref><br />
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In May 2017, in an interview with ''[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]]'', when asked about collaborative albums, T.I. answered "Man, I actually have a few of them. Me and [[Jeezy]], we were supposed been did this a while ago. The project was gonna be called, ''Dope Boy Academy'', and we did like three or four songs, but we just gotta get back in and put it together. We just want to present it correctly. Also, me and [Young] [[Young Dro|Dro]] was talking about doing one. I think we was gonna call it ''Sophisticated Excellence'' or something like that…something he came up with. Me and [[B.o.B]] was supposed to do one called ''The Man and the Martian''. I’m open to all collaborations. Me and [[Trey Songz]] were supposed to do one too called ''The Lady Killers.'' All those of these projects could very well come into fruition."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.xxlmag.com/news/2017/05/t-i-interview-trey-songz-the-lady-killers/|title=T.I. and Trey Songz Have a Joint Project Called 'The Lady Killers' in the Works - XXL|first=Roger|last=Krastz|website=XXL Mag}}</ref><br />
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== Other ventures ==<br />
<br />
=== Acting career ===<br />
[[File:Joe Floccari with Rapper T.I. Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|thumb|T.I. posing with [[ABC News]] photojournalist Joe Floccari.]]<br />
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In 2006, T.I. starred in his first film, ''[[ATL (film)|ATL]]'', which was loosely based on the rapper's life growing up in [[Atlanta]] and attending a skating rink called "Cascade". The other cast members included [[Lauren London]], [[Big Boi|Antwan Patton]], [[Evan Ross]], [[Mykelti Williamson]], [[Jason Weaver]] and [[Keith David]]. ''ATL'', which was written by Tina Gordon Chism and [[Antwone Fisher]], was produced by Timothy M. Bourne, [[Tionne Watkins]] and [[Will Smith]], and was directed by [[Chris Robinson (director)|Christopher Robinson]]. T.I. played the character Rashad Swann, an orphaned 17-year-old senior in high school. In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $11.5&nbsp;million, ranking third in the United States box office, and went on to gross $21.2&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=atl.htm|title=ATL Box Office|publisher=Boxofficemojo.com|date=May 25, 2006|access-date=April 7, 2010}}</ref> In 2007, T.I. appeared in his second feature-film, the biographical crime film ''[[American Gangster (film)|American Gangster]]'', as Stevie Lucas, the nephew of drug kingpin Frank Lucas.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carroll|first=Larry|url=http://www.vh1.com/movies/news/articles/1538156/story.jhtml|title=T.I. To Star With Oscar Favorites Denzel Washington, Russell Crowe|publisher=Vh1.com|access-date=April 7, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231042840/http://www.vh1.com/movies/news/articles/1538156/story.jhtml|archive-date=December 31, 2009 }}</ref><br />
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In 2010, T.I. starred in the crime action thriller film ''[[Takers]]'' as Delonte "Ghost" Rivers. The film, directed by [[John Luessenhop]], was produced by [[William Packer (director)|William Packer]], [[Michael Ealy]], Tom Lassally, Jason Geter, [[Gary Gilbert]] and T.I. himself. The film was released on August 27, 2010, through Grand Hustle Films and Rainforest Films, distributed by [[Screen Gems]]. The cast also includes [[Chris Brown]], [[Idris Elba]], [[Matt Dillon]], [[Paul Walker]], [[Hayden Christensen]] and [[Zoe Saldana]]. ''Takers'' debuted at number one at the American box office at $20.5&nbsp;million in its opening weekend.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reid|first=Shaheem|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1646823/20100830/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. Salutes Fans For Making 'Takers' #1 -'I appreciate the people for showing up and judging for themselves,' he tells MTV News.|publisher=Mtv.com|date=August 30, 2010|access-date=August 31, 2010}}</ref> T.I. also starred in the 2013 crime comedy film ''[[Identity Thief]]'', appearing as a criminal named Julian, alongside actress [[Genesis Rodriguez]].<br />
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In 2015, T.I. starred in ''[[Get Hard]]'' alongside [[Will Ferrell]] and [[Kevin Hart]], and also appeared as himself in the ''[[Entourage (U.S. TV series)|Entourage]]'' [[Entourage (film)|movie]]. He co-starred in [[Marvel Studios|Marvel]]'s film ''[[Ant-Man (film)|Ant-Man]]'', starring [[Paul Rudd]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/ti-lands-a-role-in-marvel-s-ant-man-film-news.11720.html|title=T.I. Lands A Role In Marvel's|work=HotNewHipHop|date=August 18, 2014|access-date=October 18, 2014}}</ref> and its sequel, ''[[Ant-Man and the Wasp]]'' (2018).<ref>{{Cite web|last=McCreesh|first=Louise|date=2021-03-02|title=Ant-Man 3 will not bring back star TI|url=https://www.digitalspy.com/movies/a35689730/ant-man-3-quantumania-cast-ti-dave/|access-date=2021-03-05|website=Digital Spy|language=en-GB}}</ref> In October 2015, it was reported T.I. signed a talent holding/development deal with [[Warner Bros. Television]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/ti-signs-acting-deal-with-warner-bros-news.17960.html?image=1&gallery=0|title=T.I. Signs Acting Deal With Warner Bros.|last=Walker|first=Angus|date=October 2, 2015|work=HotNewHipHop}}</ref><br />
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=== Television career ===<br />
In 2009, T.I. created a reality show, which aired on [[MTV]], titled ''[[T.I.'s Road to Redemption]]''. The series, focusing on the 45 days before rapper T.I.'s March sentencing, hoped to encourage teenagers to avoid spending a life of crime by showing seven teenagers that there is another way.<br />
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On December 5, 2011, T.I.'s new reality show ''[[T.I. & Tiny: The Family Hustle]]'' premiered on [[Vh1]], after the first full episodes were [[Internet leak|leaked]] onto the internet.<ref>{{cite web|title=Video: 'T.I. & Tiny: The Family Hustle' [Episode 1]|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2011/11/30/video-t-i-tiny-the-family-hustle-episode-1/#more105952|work=rapup.com|access-date=December 7, 2011}}</ref><br />
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On July 19, 2018 [[BET]] premiered a show titled ''[[The Grand Hustle]]'' featuring T.I. BET described the show as "Grammy-winning recording artist/entrepreneur Tip "T.I." Harris is looking to expand his Grand Hustle business empire, so he is on the hunt for a highly skilled executive to join the team. Set in Atlanta, this reality competition series features 16 men and women competing in various challenges for the coveted position, with a six-figure salary, within Tip's multimillion-dollar company, which he built from the ground up. The hopefuls serve up big deals and even bigger doses of drama each week, en route to one being crowned the Grand Hustler."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bet.com/shows/grand-hustle.html?cid=facebook|title=Grand Hustle|website=BET.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/8308024/ti-new-bet-series-the-grand-hustle|title=T.I. Partners With BET For New Competition Series 'The Grand Hustle'|magazine=Billboard}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20180410006675/en/GRAMMY-Award-Winning-Rapper-Actor-Entrepreneur-Tip-%E2%80%9CT.I.%E2%80%9D|title=GRAMMY Award-Winning Rapper, Actor and Entrepreneur Tip "T.I." Harris Brings the Art of the Hustle to BET Networks with a New Business Competition Series "THE GRAND HUSTLE"|date=April 10, 2018|website=www.businesswire.com}}</ref><br />
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T.I., alongside [[Chance the Rapper]] and [[Cardi B]], appeared as a judge for [[Netflix]]'s ''[[Rhythm + Flow]]'', a 10-part hip-hop talent search that aired in 2019.<ref name="Hollywood Reporter">{{Cite news |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/rhythm-flow-cardi-b-chance-rapper-judge-netflix-hip-hop-competition-1160768 |title=Cardi B and Chance the Rapper Will Judge Hip-Hop Competition 'Rhythm + Flow' for Netflix |last=O'Connell |first=Michael |date=November 13, 2018 |work=The Hollywood Reporter |access-date=November 13, 2018}}</ref><br />
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=== Music and film producing ===<br />
T.I. has also served as an [[Executive producer#Music|executive producer]] for several projects other than his own, including New Orleans-based rapper [[B.G. (rapper)|B.G.]]'s tenth album ''[[Too Hood 2 Be Hollywood]]'' (2009), Atlanta-based rapper [[B.o.B]]'s debut album ''[[The Adventures of Bobby Ray]]'' (2010) and Australian rapper [[Iggy Azalea]]'s debut EP ''[[Glory (EP)|Glory]]'' (2012), among others. Additionally in 2005, T.I. had executive produced the [[Hustle & Flow (soundtrack)|soundtrack to the film]] ''[[Hustle & Flow]]'', releasing the collection through his record label, Grand Hustle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_html_b1?release_id=112209|archive-url=https://archive.today/20060318161624/http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_html_b1?release_id=112209|url-status=dead|title=PRESS RELEASE "Hustle & Flow" Earns Oscar for Original Song for "It's…|date=March 18, 2006|archive-date=March 18, 2006|website=archive.is}}</ref><ref name="Tip Goes In">{{cite web|url=http://www.vibe.com/news/news_headlines/2007/04/tip_goes_in/ |title=Tip Goes In |publisher=Vibe.com |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231044723/http://www.vibe.com/news/news_headlines/2007/04/tip_goes_in/ |archive-date=December 31, 2009 }}</ref> Furthermore, T.I. has [[hip hop production|produced]] several song recordings, including for [[Mariah Carey]], [[Cassidy (rapper)|Cassidy]], [[Rick Ross]], [[Maino (rapper)|Maino]], [[B.o.B]], [[Yung Joc]], [[Young Dro]] and himself.<ref name="Tip Goes In" /> T.I. also served as a [[ghostwriter]] and assisting songwriter, for several artists, such as [[Bow Wow (rapper)|Bow Wow]], [[Sean Combs|Sean "Diddy" Combs]], [[Dr. Dre]], [[Bun B]] and [[Keyshia Cole]]. In 2009, T.I. formed a [[record producer|record production]] team called The Smash Factory, composed of T.I., [[Lil' C (record producer)|Lil' C]] and Mars.<ref name="smashfactory">{{cite web|url=http://trackhustle.com/profiles/blogs/ti-explains-smash-factory|title=T.I. EXPLAINS SMASH FACTORY MUSIC PRODUCTION TEAM|work=TRACKHUSTLE.COM|date=October 18, 2011|access-date=March 20, 2013}}</ref><br />
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In 2006, T.I. launched his own film company, Grand Hustle Films. In late 2007, T.I. linked up with Los Angeles-based production company 828 Entertainment, to executive produce a reality show titled ''Life on Mars'', which chronicles the life of young prodigy music producer LaMar "MARS" Edwards, of production team 1500 or Nothin'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trendpimp.com/article/321/Life_On_Mars.html|title=Life On Mars|publisher=Trendpimp.com|access-date=January 14, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314065348/http://www.trendpimp.com/article/321/Life_On_Mars.html|archive-date=March 14, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/news/id.6501/title.t-i-to-executive-produce-reality-show|title=T.I. to Produce New Reality Show|publisher=Hiphopdx.com|date=March 5, 2008|access-date=April 7, 2010}}</ref> T.I. partnered 828 Entertainment with his company Grand Hustle, to produce a slate of both television and film projects.<br />
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As of June 2014, T.I. is confirmed as an executive producer for the [[Oxygen (TV channel)|Oxygen]] docu-series, ''[[Sisterhood of Hip Hop]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Corry|first=Kristin|title='Sisterhood of Hip Hop' to Debut on Oxygen This Summer|url=http://www.vibe.com/article/sisterhood-of-hip-hop-debut-oxygen-summer|work=[[Vibe (magazine)|Vibe]]|publisher=Vibe.com|date=June 9, 2014|access-date=June 14, 2014}}</ref><br />
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=== Community work ===<br />
In addition to helping with Hurricane Katrina relief efforts, T.I. worked with troubled youths at Paulding Detention Center in Atlanta, provided scholarships for single parent families at [[Boys & Girls Clubs of America|Boys and Girls Clubs]], and headlined the [[Boost Mobile (United States)|Boost Mobile]] [[Rockcorps]] concert at New York's [[Radio City Music Hall]], which featured such performers as [[Fat Joe]], [[Slim Thug]], and [[Kanye West]], and was held exclusively for community service volunteers. As part of his community service time, T.I. has come to a number of middle-grade and high schools in Georgia, where he speaks with the students in an assembly holding a positive message, while maintaining a philanthropic view about morals and growing up in the same areas as himself. In June 2005, The [[Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes]] Foundation, named for the deceased member of multi-platinum female group [[TLC (music)|TLC]], and Atlanta's [[WVEE-FM|V-103]] honored T.I. with the 2005 [[Lisa Lopes]] Award for groundbreaking achievements in music and community service which was court ordered. With this steady list of growing accomplishments T.I. was recognized as the '''"[[Jay-Z]] of the South,"''' according to [[Pharrell Williams]] of multi-platinum production team [[The Neptunes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hiphopgame.com/index2.php3?page=ti|title=T.I.'s Artist Page At Hip Hop Game|access-date=January 22, 2013|work=Hip Hop Game}}</ref><br />
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T.I.'s [[nightclub]], Club Crucial, hosted a giveaway of 200 bicycles to neighborhood children in the [[Boys & Girls Clubs of America|Boys and Girls Club]] with V-103 announcer Greg Street.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessatlanta.com/music/content/music/stories/2006/12/22/1222lvxmasbike.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120722084551/http://www.accessatlanta.com/music/content/music/stories/2006/12/22/1222lvxmasbike.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 22, 2012|title=More Good Deeds by Atlanta's T.I.|access-date=December 25, 2006|work=Access Atlanta}}</ref> Upon being asked his opinion on [[Barack Obama|Obama]] supporting gay marriage, he responded that people should be free to do what they want to do.<ref>[http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1685271/ti-obama-same-sex-marriage.jhtml T.I. Supports President Obama On Same-Sex Marriage Stance] retrieved May 19, 2012</ref><br />
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=== Business ventures ===<br />
Forbes Magazine announced its first ever Hip-Hop Cash Kings list in early 2007, listing the top 20 hip-hop earning artists for the previous business year. T.I. was listed on their list four times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hhpulse.com/news/1/ARTICLE/321/2007-08-16.html|title=Forbes Magazine Announces Top 20 HipHop Cash Kings of 2006|publisher=Hhpulse.com|access-date=April 7, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100504145810/http://www.hhpulse.com/news/1/ARTICLE/321/2007-08-16.html|archive-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://24hourhiphop.com/hip+hop+News/Forbes:+Hip-Hop+Cash+Kings+of+2008/3049/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121135011/http://24hourhiphop.com/hip+hop+News/Forbes%3A+Hip-Hop+Cash+Kings+of+2008/3049/|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 21, 2008|title=Forbes: Hip-Hop Cash Kings of 2008|publisher=24hourhiphop.com|access-date=April 7, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rap.about.com/b/2009/07/09/jay-z-tops-forbes-2009-richest-rappers-list.htm|title=Jay-Z Tops Forbes' 2009 Richest Rappers List|publisher=Rap.about.com|access-date=April 7, 2010}}</ref> As in 2015, the rapper was again included in Forbes' annual list after earning $6&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.networthofmillionaires.com/t-net-worth/|title=T.I Net Worth|publisher=N.W.O.M|access-date=May 27, 2017}}</ref><br />
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T.I. opened his own nightclub, called Club Crucial, in [[Bankhead (Atlanta)|Bankhead, Atlanta]]. It is considered one of the most popular clubs in Atlanta and features full entertainment centers with large [[flat panel display|flat-screen TVs]], [[pool (cue sports)|pool]] rooms, VIP rooms and food. Celebrities such as [[Monica (entertainer)|Monica]], [[Big Boi]], [[Mike Epps]] and [[Shawty Lo]] have made appearances there. The club also hosts weekly events such as Monday night ''Open Mic Night'', ''Free Fridays'', and ''Celebrity Saturdays'', where local hip-hop artists are known to come perform their songs at the club.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://atlanta.metromix.com/bars-and-clubs/club/club-crucial-rockdale/411353/content|title=Club Crucial – Atlanta, GA 30318 &#124; Metromix Atlanta|publisher=Atlanta.metromix.com|date=November 17, 2008|access-date=April 7, 2010}}</ref><br />
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After the release of his hit single "[[Top Back]]", [[Chevrolet]] secured an endorsement deal with T.I. earlier in 2007, to promote their line of cars, with a focus on the new [[Chevrolet Impala|Impala]]. Due to his arrest for federal gun charges, he was on the verge of losing his deal with the company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hhnlive.com/news/more/1885|title=News – Chevrolet Reviewing Endorsement Deal With T.I.|publisher=HHNLive.com|date=October 15, 2007|access-date=April 7, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306013558/http://hhnlive.com/news/more/1885|archive-date=March 6, 2012 }}</ref><br />
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T.I. had an endorsement with a [[social networking website]] focusing on the hip-hop culture named StreetCred.com. The website was founded in 2007 by investment banker Rocky D. Williform. Celebrities such as [[Sean Combs|Diddy]], [[Lil' Kim]] and [[Young Jeezy]] had accounts on the website. As of 2008, the website was temporarily shut down until further notice.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=58YcI0YmmMc |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/58YcI0YmmMc| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|title=T.I. Exclusive Statement on StreetCred|last=StreetCredcom|date=February 5, 2008|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvnYL3RDSBQ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/mvnYL3RDSBQ| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|title=TI and StreetCred.com "The Movement"|last=StreetCredcom|date=June 12, 2007|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://straightfromthea.com/2007/11/12/ti-proclaims-his-innocence-via-video-on-streetcredcom/|title=T.I. Proclaims His Innocence via Video on StreetCred.com|last=ATLien|date=November 12, 2007}}</ref><br />
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{{main|A.K.O.O. Clothing}}<br />
In 2008, T.I. announced the launch of his clothing company A.K.O.O. (an acronym for "A King Of Oneself"), focusing on urban apparel such as lightweight T-shirts, cardigans, sweaters, embroidered wovens, leather jackets and quality denim among a variety of other clothing.<ref>{{cite web|title=T.I. Markets to "Cool Kids of America"|date=May 21, 2010|url=http://straightfromthea.com/2010/05/21/t-i-markets-akoo-to-cool-kids-of-america-video/|publisher=StraightFromTheA.com|access-date=May 21, 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100526170019/http://straightfromthea.com/2010/05/21/t-i-markets-akoo-to-cool-kids-of-america-video/| archive-date= May 26, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The recently released rapper promotes his fashion line...|url=http://www.mtv.co.uk/artists/ti/news/222264-ti-talks-fashion|publisher=MTV|access-date=May 24, 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100603031808/http://www.mtv.co.uk/artists/ti/news/222264-ti-talks-fashion| archive-date= June 3, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="SoJones">{{cite web|last=Wreksono|first=Asmara|title=T.I.'s New Vid: I'm Back|date=May 5, 2010|url=http://www.sojones.com/news/1875-t-i-s-new-vid-im-back/|publisher=SoJones|access-date=May 24, 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100508004653/http://www.sojones.com/news/1875-t-i-s-new-vid-im-back/| archive-date= May 8, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="SoJones2">{{cite web|last=Rainey|first=Rodrick|title=A King Of Oneself, Rapper TI Launches AKOO Clothing Line|date=November 22, 2008|url=http://www.sojones.com/news/08/11/22/a-king-of-oneself-rapper-ti-launches-akoo-clothing-line/|publisher=SoJones|access-date=May 24, 2010}}</ref><ref name="STYLEITE">{{cite web|last=von Pfetten|first=Verena|title= WARNING: Wearing T.I.'s Clothing Line Will Lead To Threesomes|url=http://www.styleite.com/media/ti-akoo-ads/|publisher=STYLEITE|access-date=May 24, 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100525103151/http://www.styleite.com/media/ti-akoo-ads/| archive-date= May 25, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A King Of Oneself|url=http://giantmag.com/style/giant-magazine-staff/a-king-of-oneself/|publisher=Giant Mag|access-date=October 9, 2008}}</ref><br />
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On June 29, 2010, T.I. was named Global Creative Consultant of [[Rémy Martin]] [[Cognac]]. ''[[XXL (magazine)|XXL Magazine]]'' revealed that the partnership will include collaborative projects and a focus on continuing the philanthropic works of his K.I.N.G. Foundation. He also announced on ''[[Chelsea Lately]]'', that he would be releasing his own signature brand of the liquor.<ref>{{cite web|last=Gipson|first=Brooklyne|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=84019|title=T.I. Partners With Remy Martin Cognac|work=[[XXL (magazine)|XXL Magazine]]|date=June 30, 2010|access-date=June 30, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703140355/http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=84019|archive-date=July 3, 2010}}</ref><br />
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T.I. lost his endorsement deal with [[Axe (grooming product)|Axe body spray]], following his arrest for drug possession.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.tmz.com/2010/10/19/t-i-axe-body-spray-probation-violation-federal-prison-drug-possession/|title=T.I. Gets Cut by AXE|work=TMZ|date=October 19, 2010|access-date=October 25, 2010}}</ref><br />
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In May 2012, T.I. revealed he has invested money in a social marketing app called Yopima.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vibe.com/photo-gallery/ti-hosts-demo-launch-social-app-yopima-new-york|title=T.I. Hosts Demo Launch For New Social App Yopima In New York (Photos)|date=May 30, 2013|access-date=October 6, 2013|first=Desire|last=Thompson}}</ref><br />
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On February 23, 2016, T.I. announced he joined subscription-based music streaming service [[Tidal (service)|TIDAL]], as an artist-owner, making him the 19th of his kind, and in company with artists such as [[J. Cole]], [[Beyoncé]], [[Kanye West]], [[Nicki Minaj]], [[Rihanna]], [[Lil Wayne]], [[Daft Punk]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and of course, [[Jay Z]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ogdenpayne/2016/02/23/rapper-t-i-signs-distribution-deal-with-roc-nation-and-partners-with-tidal/#30362f674020|title=Rapper T.I. Signs Distribution Deal With Roc Nation And Partners With Tidal|date=February 23, 2016|work=Forbes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bet.com/news/music/2016/02/23/t-i--and-roc-nation-tidal-just-made-a-big-announcement.html|title=T.I. and Roc Nation/Tidal Just Made A Big Announcement|date=February 23, 2016|work=BET.com}}</ref><br />
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In June 2016, T.I. opened a [[strip club]] called V Live, in Atlanta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.complex.com/music/2016/06/ti-casting-call-strip-club-atlanta|title=T.I. Held a Casting Call for His New Strip Club in Atlanta|website=Complex}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tmz.com/2016/06/12/ti-vlive-atlanta-stripper-auditions/|title=T.I. -- Welcome to My Casting Call for 100 Strippers! (VIDEO)|website=TMZ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hotnewhiphop.com/ti-holds-auditions-for-his-new-strip-club-in-atlanta-news.22185.html|title=T.I. Holds Auditions For His New Strip Club In Atlanta|website=HotNewHipHop|date=June 12, 2016}}</ref><br />
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== Controversies ==<br />
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=== Ludacris ===<br />
A dispute with [[Ludacris]] started when T.I. saw [[Disturbing tha Peace]] rapper [[I-20 (rapper)|I-20]]'s video. In the video, a man wearing a shirt which said "Trap House" was being beaten. T.I. mistook the logo to refer to "Trap Muzik". [[G-Unit]] artist [[Young Buck]] asked fellow [[Southern rap]]pers T.I. and Ludacris to appear on his new record on the track "Stomp". T.I. recorded a verse which contained a line that Young Buck considered to be an underhanded snub towards Ludacris: "Me gettin' beat down? / That's ludicrous." Young Buck spoke to Ludacris about the verse, to maintain his neutrality in the controversy. Ludacris then recorded the verse that can be found on the album.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reid|first=Shaheem|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1489952/20040804/young_buck.jhtml|title=Young Buck To 'Stomp' Out Luda/ T.I. Beef On Debut Album|publisher=Mtv.com|date=August 4, 2004|access-date=April 9, 2011}}</ref> T.I's record company wanted Ludacris to change his verse before they sanctioned it but Ludacris refused and T.I. was therefore replaced by [[The Game (rapper)|The Game]] on the album version.<br />
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On June 24, 2007, at the Sunset Tower Hotel in [[West Hollywood, California]], T.I. was involved in a brawl during a luncheon held by Kevin Liles of Warner Music Group (parent company of T.I.'s label, Atlantic Records) with Ludacris' manager Chaka Zulu. According to witnesses, T.I. punched Zulu in the face and choked him and a brief melee ensued.<ref>Shaheem Reid (June 25, 2007). [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1563235/20070624/t_i_.jhtml T.I., Ludacris' Manager Get Into Scuffle At Industry Event] ''MTV''. Retrieved October 3, 2008.</ref> While accepting the award for Best Hip-Hop Artist at the 2007 [[BET Awards]] T.I. apologized for the incident, saying "they say it's a fine line between brilliance and insanity," in an apparent reference to his troublesome alter ego, T.I.P. During the broadcast, cameras showed Ludacris smiling in the audience. The audience stood up and applauded T.I.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=11125|title=T.I. Takes Home BET Award, Apologizes for Scuffle|publisher=Xxlmag.com|date=June 27, 2007|access-date=April 9, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090908030230/http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=11125|archive-date=September 8, 2009}}</ref><br />
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The two rappers have since resolved their dispute and have collaborated on two songs, "[[Wish You Would]]" on Ludacris' sixth studio album, ''[[Theater of the Mind]]'', and "On Top of the World" on T.I.'s sixth studio album, ''[[Paper Trail]]''. The original version of the latter featured [[Kanye West]].<br />
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=== Lil' Flip ===<br />
While T.I. was incarcerated in 2004, another popular southern rapper, [[Lil Flip]], took issue with him over his "King of the South" claims which launched a much publicized feud. In an October 26, 2004 interview with ''HipHopDX.com'', T.I. said he'd heard comments about Flip's "lyrical ability" for a long time but told [[music journalist]] [[Bayer Mack]] he didn't speak on it because he "wasn't raised like that". T.I. said he was also upset Lil' Flip waited until his incarceration to criticize him.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mack|first=Bayer L.|url=http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/interviews/id.333/title.ti-return-of-the-king|title=T.I.: Return Of The King &#124; Rappers Talk Hip Hop Beef & Old School Hip Hop|publisher=HipHop DX|date=November 1, 2004|access-date=June 7, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402165738/http://www.hiphopdx.com/index/interviews/id.333/title.ti-return-of-the-king|archive-date=April 2, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to [[AllHipHop]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allhiphop.com/hiphopnews/?ID=4233|title=Sources Say Lil Flip And TI Have Physical Confrontation|access-date=January 20, 2007|last=Strong|first=Nolan|work=All Hip Hop|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060321175307/http://www.allhiphop.com/hiphopnews/?ID=4233|archive-date=March 21, 2006}}</ref> T.I. and [[Lil' Flip]] had an altercation in Lil' Flip's neighborhood, the [[Cloverland, Houston, Texas|Cloverland]] section of Houston. It has been said that T.I. went there to create a DVD exposing Lil' Flip to be a fraud. When T.I. went to Cloverland with his entourage, he was met by Flip and his people. Then it was said a fight broke out with one of the members of Lil Flip's entourage started swinging at T.I. until one of T.I.'s bodyguards started shooting. The same day T.I. went on a [[Houston]], Texas radio station talking about the altercation. He revealed that he had the tape and he was going to release it with an upcoming mixtape, but that did not happen because [[James Prince]] stopped him from distributing the tape. It is unknown whether T.I. still has the tape or not. The feud was squashed by Rap-a-Lot's Prince after having them sit down and resolve their feud. The feud was documented by the [[Houston Press]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.houstonpress.com/issues/2005-04-07/music/music2.html|title=Where's the Beef? Right here in H-town|access-date=January 20, 2007|work=Houston Press|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061216184550/http://www.houstonpress.com/issues/2005-04-07/music/music2.html|archive-date=December 16, 2006 }}</ref> and extensively in the 2005 rap music doco [[Beef 3]].<ref>https://m.imdb.com/title/tt0482462/</ref><br />
<br />
=== Shawty Lo ===<br />
In 2008, T.I. was involved in a highly publicized feud with [[Shawty Lo]]. The feud was characterized by Shawty Lo's track "[[Dunn Dunn]]", and T.I.'s reply in "[[What Up, What's Haapnin]]". The song "[[Dunn Dunn]]" appears to question T.I.'s roots in Bankhead. The music video for "[[What Up, What's Haapnin]]" was shot in Shawty Lo's [[housing project]] Bowen Homes, an apparent insult towards Shawty Lo. In an interview, T.I. insisted that his song "[[No Matter What (T.I. song)|No Matter What]]" was only partially aimed at Shawty Lo.<ref name="T.I. describing lyrics of No Matter What">{{cite web|title=T.I. Insists 'No Matter What' Is Only Partly About Shawty Lo|work=[[MTV]]|publisher=mtv.com|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1586755/20080502/t_i_.jhtml|access-date=April 23, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
The feud reached its climax at the November 2008 ''Dirty Awards'' where the entourages of both artists clashed during the ceremony, forcing it to be shut down.<ref name="Dirty Awards Fight">{{cite web|title=Shawty Lo Blames T.I. For Dirty Awards Trouble|work=Daniel Melia|publisher=taletela.com|url=http://www.taletela.com/news/822/shawty-lo-blames-ti-for-dirty-awards-trouble|access-date=April 23, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130203103425/http://www.taletela.com/news/822/shawty-lo-blames-ti-for-dirty-awards-trouble|archive-date=February 3, 2013}}</ref> Two incidents forced police to use [[pepper-spray]] and evacuate the audience.<ref name="Dirty Awards Incident">{{cite web|title=Shawty Lo Blames T.I. For Dirty Awards Trouble|work=Rap Weekly|publisher=rapweekly.com|url=http://www.rapweekly.com/news.asp?id=2788|access-date=April 23, 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812004514/http://www.rapweekly.com/news.asp?id=2788|archive-date=August 12, 2013 }}</ref><br />
<br />
The feud was publicly squashed on March 7, 2009, when Shawty Lo and T.I. appeared on-stage together at Club Crucial in [[Bankhead (Atlanta)|Bankhead]], for T.I.'s farewell concert.<ref name="T.I. and Shawty Lo end beef">{{cite web|title=T.I., Shawty Lo Squash Beef, Team Up Onstage In Atlanta|work=[[MTV]]|publisher=mtv.com|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1606593/20090309/shawty_lo.jhtml|access-date=April 23, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Shawty Lo & T.I. Beef Ended">{{cite web|title=T.I. and Shawty Lo Squash Beef|work=Sandra Rose|publisher=sandrarose.com|url=http://sandrarose.com/2009/03/07/ti-and-shawty-lo-squash-beef/|access-date=April 23, 2009|date=March 8, 2009}}</ref> After this performance, T.I. gave an interview to [[MTV]], in which he stated that the feud with Shawty Lo was exaggerated by the media, and was not a 'beef'.<ref name="T.I. retrospective interview on Shawty Lo beef">{{cite web|title=T.I. Says Feud With Shawty Lo Wasn't A Beef|work=[[MTV]]|publisher=mtv.com|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1606662/20090310/t_i_.jhtml|access-date=April 23, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2016 United States presidential election ===<br />
In October 2015, T.I. received backlash when he was speaking on 2016 presidential candidate [[Hillary Clinton]]: "Not to be [[sexist]] but, I can’t vote for the leader of the free world to be a woman. Just because, every other position that exists, I think a woman could do well. But the president? It’s kinda like, I just know that women make rash decisions emotionally – they make very permanent, cemented decisions – and then later, it’s kind of like it didn’t happen, or they didn’t mean for it to happen. And I sure would hate to just set off a nuke. [Other leaders] will not be able to negotiate the right kinds of foreign policy; the world ain’t ready yet. I think you might be able to [get] the [[Loch Ness Monster]] elected before you could [get a woman]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vibe.com/2015/10/ti-hillary-clinton-woman-president/|title=T.I. On Hillary Clinton: "I Can't Vote For The Leader Of The Free World To Be A Woman"|date=October 13, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/ti-hillary-clinton-vote_us_561d2446e4b028dd7ea52be0|title=T.I.: 'I Can't Vote For The Leader Of The Free World To Be A Woman'|first1=Cavan Sieczkowski Deputy|last1=Director|last2=News|last3=Analytics|website=[[HuffPost]]|date=October 13, 2015}}</ref> Following the reaction from [[social media]], T.I. publicly apologized on Twitter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/ti-apologizes-after-saying-woman-cant-be-elected-president|title=T.I. apologizes after saying a woman can't be elected president|website=[[MSNBC]]|date=October 13, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/10/13/politics/t-i-woman-president-2016/index.html|title=Oprah and Tiny react to T.I.'s woman president comments|author1=Eugene Scott |author2=Deena Zaru|website=[[CNN]]|date=October 13, 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Virginity tests on his daughter===<br />
In November 2019, T.I. was widely criticised after telling the ''Ladies Like Us'' [[podcast]] that he annually accompanied his 18-year-old daughter Deyjah Harris to have her [[hymen]] [[gynaecology|gynaecologically]] checked to confirm her [[virginity]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/ti-daughter-virgin-test-hymen-chrissy-teigen-reactions-gynaecologist-iggy-azalea-a9193981.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/ti-daughter-virgin-test-hymen-chrissy-teigen-reactions-gynaecologist-iggy-azalea-a9193981.html |archive-date=May 26, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Celebrities call out T.I.'s "abhorrent" yearly virginity testing for his daughter|website=The Independent|access-date=27 November 2020|date=7 November 2019}}</ref><ref name=Guardian2019-11-07a>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/nov/07/ti-rapper-daughter-hymen-check-outrage|title=Outrage as US rapper TI says he has daughter's hymen checked annually|first=Ben|last=Beaumont-Thomas|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|location=London, England|date=7 November 2019|access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref> despite the fact that such tests are viewed as unreliable as the hymen can be broken by other causes. Such tests were condemned in 2018 by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UN Human Rights]] and [[UN Women]], as "medically unnecessary, and often times painful, humiliating and traumatic".<ref name=Guardian2019-11-07a/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tmz.com/2019/11/06/ti-teen-daughter-sex-doctor-gynecologist-still-virgin-hymen/|title=T.I. Says He Takes Teen Daughter to Doctor to Make Sure She's a Virgin|website=TMZ|language=en|access-date=2019-11-06}}</ref> T.I. responded by saying "I never said I was in any exam room."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/ti-daughter-deyjah-harris-virginity-tests-gynaecologist-hymen-a9217731.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/ti-daughter-deyjah-harris-virginity-tests-gynaecologist-hymen-a9217731.html |archive-date=May 26, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=TI defends himself after uproar over daughter's virginity testing: 'I never said I was in the exam room'|website=The Independent|access-date=27 November 2020|date=25 November 2019}}</ref> In June 2020, Deyjah addressed the controversy, saying that the experience was "traumatising", had negatively impacted her relationship with her father and that she wanted to be a better parent than he was.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/ti-daughter-deyjah-harris-virginity-test-hymen-episode-say-no-gynaecologist-a9570031.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/ti-daughter-deyjah-harris-virginity-test-hymen-episode-say-no-gynaecologist-a9570031.html |archive-date=May 26, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=TI's daughter Deyjah felt like she "couldn't say no" to having yearly "virginity test"|website=The Independent|access-date=27 November 2020|date=17 June 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Personal life ==<br />
<br />
=== Family ===<br />
In 2001, T.I. began a relationship with [[Xscape (group)|Xscape]] member [[Tameka Cottle|Tameka "Tiny" Cottle]].<ref name="Vibe" /> The couple married on July 30, 2010, in [[Miami Beach, Florida]].<ref>[https://www.tmz.com/2010/07/30/ti-rapper-married-wedding-miami-tameka-tiny-cottle-clifford-parish/ T.I. -- T.I.E.S. the Knot in Secret Wedding Ceremony] TMZ, July 30, 2010</ref><ref>[http://ca.eonline.com/uberblog/b193141_ti_now_living_married_life.html?sid=aolpop_news T.I. Now Living the Married Life] eOnline, July 30, 2010</ref> Together, they have two sons and one daughter.<ref name="Vibe" /><ref>{{cite magazine|title=T.I.: Me, Myself & I|magazine=[[Vibe (magazine)|Vibe]]|date=July 23, 2007|url=http://www.vibe.com/news/cover_stories/2007/07/ti_august_2007/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224075722/http://www.vibe.com/news/cover_stories/2007/07/ti_august_2007/ |archive-date=December 24, 2007 |access-date=October 31, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blackcelebkids.com/2008/05/17/rapper-ti-and-tameka-cottle-welcome-son-major-harris|title=Tameka Births Son Named Major|publisher=Blackcelebkids.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828074707/http://blackcelebkids.com/2008/05/17/rapper-ti-and-tameka-cottle-welcome-son-major-harris/ |archive-date=August 28, 2008 |access-date=April 9, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20200789,00.html|title=Rapper T.I. Welcomes His Second Son|last=Herndon|first=Jessica|date=May 16, 2008|publisher=people.com|access-date=December 12, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title= T.I. Says He Assisted Doctors With The Delivery Of His Daughter|magazine=[[Vibe (magazine)|Vibe]]|date=April 14, 2016|url=http://www.vibe.com/2016/04/ti-tiny-baby-delivery/|access-date=April 17, 2016}}</ref> In addition, T.I. has two sons with Lashon Dixon, and a daughter from a relationship with [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]] singer Ms. Niko.<ref name="People" /><ref>{{cite web|date=September 25, 2008|title=T.I. to pay ex $3,000 per month in child support|work=[[NME]]|publisher=[[Time Warner]]|url=https://www.nme.com/news/various-artists/39999|access-date=December 12, 2008}}</ref> Through his marriage to Cottle, T.I. has one stepdaughter.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_8_56/ai_75247881|title=Toni & Keril's Dream Wedding – singer Toni Braxton weds|last=Bennett Kinnon|first=Joy|date=June 2001|magazine=Ebony|access-date=December 13, 2008}}</ref> In December 2016, Tiny filed for [[divorce]] from T.I.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://people.com/music/tiny-harris-files-divorce-from-ti/|title=Tiny Harris Files for Divorce from Rapper Husband T.I. After Six Years of Marriage|date=December 28, 2016|newspaper=PEOPLE.com|language=en-US|access-date=December 28, 2016}}</ref> The couple have been working on a reconciliation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/tameka-tiny-harris-addresses-ti-reconciliation-rumors-after-divorce-filing-w505090/|title=Tameka 'Tiny' Harris Addresses T.I. Reconciliation Rumors After Divorce Filing|date=September 22, 2017}}</ref> On February 22, 2019, T.I lost his older sister Precious Harris to a car accident that put her on life support a week earlier.<ref name="tisis">{{cite web |last1=Pasquini |first1=Maria |title=T.I.'s Older Sister Precious Harris Dead at 66 Following Car Accident |url=https://people.com/music/ti-sister-precious-harris-dies/ |website=[[People Magazine]] |access-date=February 24, 2019 |date=February 22, 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Suicide interventions ===<br />
In 2006,<ref>{{cite web|title=T.I. Kept Quiet About Scott Stapp Suicide Attempt For Years|website=[[MTV]]|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1695201/ti-scott-stapp-suicide-attempt/|date=October 9, 2012}}</ref> T.I. was at the scene of American rock band [[Creed (band)|Creed]]'s lead singer, [[Scott Stapp]]'s suicide attempt. Stapp explained on [[VH1]]'s ''Big Morning Buzz Live'' that he had attempted suicide in Miami by jumping off a balcony and T.I. "took care of the situation".<ref name=suicide>{{cite web|url=https://www.mtv.com/news/i0q902/t-i-scott-stapp-creed-suicide-attempt |title=T.I. Rescued Creed's Scott Stapp After Suicide Attempt | website=[[MTV]]|publisher=[[Viacom (2005–present)|Viacom]]|location=New York City|date=October 4, 2012| first=Nadeska |last=Alexis | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140320195149/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1694936/t-i-scott-stapp-creed-suicide-attempt.jhtml | archive-date= March 20, 2014| url-status=live}}</ref> Stapp said, "I laid out there for two and a half hours and my guardian angel showed up. He immediately took care of the situation and saved my life." T.I. and Stapp met while recording songs for the ''[[Passion of the Christ]]'' soundtrack in 2004, and bonded over their shared love of [[Alabama Crimson Tide|Alabama college sports]]. Stapp stated "I found out later it was the only room left in the hotel and he came in off the street and came out, and as I'm laying on the ledge, blood fell to his feet and he looked up and he had an Alabama hat on. I said, 'roll tide,' and then he looked at me and put two and two together and really saved my life."<ref name=suicide/><br />
<br />
On October 13, 2010, T.I. convinced Joshua Starks, a 24-year-old suicidal man in [[Atlanta]], not to jump from a 22-story building.<ref name="USA Today">{{cite news|url=https://archive.ph/2013.02.05-082731/http://content.usatoday.com/communities/entertainment/post/2010/10/ti-helps-talk-suicidal-man-down-from-building-/1|title=T.I. helps talk suicidal man down from building|last=Jones|first=Brent|date=October 14, 2010|work=[[USA Today]]|publisher=Vibe Media Group|access-date=October 29, 2010}}</ref> After hearing of the situation on the radio, he drove to the scene at the 400 Colony Square Building<ref>{{cite web|last=Marikar|first=Shelia|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/rapper-ti-latest-star-stop-suicide/story?id=11879750|title=Rapper T.I. Is Latest Star to Stop Suicide-T.I. Helped Talk a Man Off a 22-Story Building Ledge|work=[[ABC News]]|date=October 14, 2010|access-date=October 15, 2010}}</ref> and asked police if he could help. T.I. then talked to the man, and convinced him not to jump. Afterwards, T.I. stated "For one, I'm not taking any credit. I didn't do it{{nbsp}}... I could've just as well came down there and it could have been resolved in another way. The fact of the matter is that God put me in a position to help, and I can't take any credit for that."<ref name="The Money Times">{{cite web|url=http://www.themoneytimes.com/featured/20101014/rapper-ti-helps-rescue-suicidal-man-id-10131747.html|title=Rapper T.I. helps rescue a suicidal man|last=James|first=Natalie|date=October 14, 2010|work=The Money Times|publisher=Vibe Media Group|location=New York City|access-date=October 29, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101016173339/http://www.themoneytimes.com/featured/20101014/rapper-ti-helps-rescue-suicidal-man-id-10131747.html|archive-date=October 16, 2010}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Legal issues ==<br />
===1994–2006: Drugs, weapons and assault===<br />
[[File:T.I. mug shot.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Mug shot]] of T.I. in September 2003]]<br />
Harris first began [[Illegal drug trade|dealing drugs]] as a teenager, and by the age of 14, he had already been arrested several times.<ref name="People">{{cite web|date=April 24, 2006|title=Hip-Hop Star & Actor T.I.|work=[[People (magazine)|People]]|url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20059205,00.html|access-date=December 12, 2008|archive-date=February 4, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204213232/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20059205,00.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/2009/05/12/2009-05-12_rapper_ti_and_al_sharpton_march_in_harlem_to_stop_gun_violence.html|title=Rapper T.I. and Al Sharpton march in Harlem to stop gun violence|newspaper=[[Daily News (New York)|New York Daily News]]|last1=Strong|first1=Samantha|last2=Hutchinson|first2=Bill|date=May 12, 2009|access-date=June 21, 2009|archive-date=May 15, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515023652/http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/2009/05/12/2009-05-12_rapper_ti_and_al_sharpton_march_in_harlem_to_stop_gun_violence.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="spotlight" /> In March 2004, a [[warrant (law)|warrant]] was issued for T.I.'s arrest after he violated his [[probation]] of a 1997 drug conviction, as well as a 1998 [[conviction]] for violating a state controlled substances act and for giving false information.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1486451/20040419/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. Hasn't Been Hiding Out Lately — He's Been in Jail|last=Patel|first=Joseph|date=April 19, 2004|work=[[MTV News]]|access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> He was sentenced to three years in prison.<ref name="three years">{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1486501/04212004/t_i_.jhtml|title='Rubber Band Man' Rapper T.I. Gets Three Years in Prison|last=Patel|first=Joseph|date=April 21, 2004|work=MTV News|access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> While imprisoned in [[Cobb County, Georgia]], he filmed an unauthorized music video.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1489317/20040709/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. Video Fallout Continues as Control of Jail Is Wrested from Sheriff|last=Patel|first=Joseph|date=July 9, 2004|work=MTV News|access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> In May 2004, he was released on probation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1488031/20040528/timberlake_justin.jhtml|title=For the Record: Quick News on Justin Timberlake and Usher, T.I., Britney Spears, Paris Hilton, The Vines & More|date=May 28, 2004|work=MTV News|access-date=October 22, 2009}}</ref> After being released, he earned a litany of probation violations in several counties around Georgia for offenses ranging from possession of a [[firearm]] to possession of [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]].<ref name="three years" /> In 2006, after appearing in an Atlanta court on (May 10) and having charges that he threatened a man outside a strip club the previous year dropped for lack of evidence, Harris was arrested on an outstanding probation violation warrant from Florida. The warrant claimed that Harris did not fulfill the required number of community service hours he was sentenced to complete for a 2003 battery of a female sheriff deputy at University Mall in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]. Harris was detained by several mall Security Guards at the time of the incident. According to [[WSB-TV]] in Atlanta, the rapper's attorney said that the problem was nothing more than a "technical matter" between [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Florida]]. The confusion arose because T.I. was also sentenced to community service in Georgia for driving with a suspended license, for which he did complete 75 hours of community service in his home state. He was released on bail shortly after being arrested, and was expected to surrender to Florida state authorities the following week to resolve the matter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://xxlmag.com/online/?p=1611|title=T.I. Briefly Jailed for Probation Violation|access-date=January 9, 2007|work=XXL}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2007–2009: Weapons conviction ===<br />
On October 13, 2007, federal authorities arrested Harris four hours before the [[BET Hip Hop Awards]] in Atlanta.<ref>{{cite news|last=McDonald |first=Ray |title=Rapper TI Arrested on Illegal Gun Possession Charge |date=October 16, 2007 |publisher=Voice of America |url=http://voanews.com/english/archive/2007-10/2007-10-16-voa38.cfm |work=VOA News |access-date=January 2, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211172115/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-10/2007-10-16-voa38.cfm |archive-date=December 11, 2008 }}</ref> He was charged with two felonies, [[National Firearms Act|possession of three unregistered machine guns and two silencers]], and [[Gun Control Act|possession of firearms by a convicted felon]]. The arrest was made in the parking lot of a downtown shopping center, which a witness identified as the [[Walgreens]] drug store at the corner of North and Piedmont Avenues. Harris was arrested after allegedly trying to purchase the guns from a "cooperating witness" with the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives]]. According to federal officials, the witness had been cooperating with authorities a few days prior to the arrest, when the cooperating witness was arrested on charges of trying to [[straw purchase|purchase guns from a federal agent]]. The witness had been working as Harris' bodyguard since July, authorities said.<ref>{{cite web|last=Quinn |first=Christopher |url=http://www.accessatlanta.com/music/content/music/stories/2007/10/13/ti_1014.html?cxntlid=homepage_tab_newstab |title=T.I. arrested in ATL on weapons charges |publisher=Accessatlanta.com |date=October 13, 2007 |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231041619/http://www.accessatlanta.com/music/content/music/stories/2007/10/13/ti_1014.html?cxntlid=homepage_tab_newstab |archive-date=December 31, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurweb.com/story/eur37599.cfm |title=Department of Justice press release: On arrest of rapper T.I. for possession of illegal firearms |publisher=Eurweb.com |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090908033138/http://www.eurweb.com/story/eur37599.cfm |archive-date=September 8, 2009 }}</ref> On October 26, 2007, Harris walked out of the United States District Court in Atlanta after appearing before U.S. Magistrate Judge Alan J. Baverman and posting a three million dollar bond (two million cash plus equity on his property). Harris was required to remain at home except for medical appointments and court appearances. The only people allowed to live with him were his girlfriend and children. Visitors were required to be approved by the court.<br />
<br />
Harris' [[Exclusionary rule|suppression hearing]] was scheduled for February 19, 2008. He later pled guilty to U.S. federal weapons charges, and was sentenced to an undefined prison sentence, a year of [[house arrest]] and 1,500 hours of [[community service]].<ref>{{cite web|title=ENTERTAINER CLIFFORD HARRIS, a/k/a "T.I.," PLEADS GUILTY TO FEDERAL FIREARMS CHARGES|date=March 27, 2008|agency=Department of Justice|url=https://www.justice.gov/archive/usao/gan/press/2008/03-27-08.pdf}}</ref> In an interview with [[MTV]] about serving prison time, Harris said ''"Presumably, while I'm there, I'll be able to strategize my comeback."'' He went on to say that he would not ''"just be sitting still doing nothing"''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reid|first=Shaheem|date=December 10, 2008|title=T.I. Gets Ready For Prison|work=[[MTV]]|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1601014/20081209/t_i_.jhtml|access-date=December 10, 2008}}</ref> On March 27, 2009, U.S. District Judge [[Charles A. Pannell Jr.]] sentenced Harris to one year and one day in prison and ordered him to pay $100,300 in fines.<ref>{{cite web|title=CLIFFORD HARRIS ("T.I.") SENTENCED TO PRISON ON FEDERAL FIREARMS CHARGES|date=March 27, 2009|agency=Department of Justice|url=https://www.justice.gov/archive/usao/gan/press/2009/03-27-09.pdf}}</ref> Harris had his sentence reduced from an original maximum ten years and a $250,000 fine with a [[plea bargain]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/article/609419|title=Rapper T.I. jailed on weapons charges|last=Landrum|first=Jonathan Jr.|work=The Toronto Star|agency=Associated Press|access-date=September 22, 2009|date=March 27, 2009}}</ref><ref name="CNN">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Music/03/27/ti.sentencing/|title=Rapper T.I. sentenced to year and a day in prison, fined|last1=Cooper|first1=Aaron|last2=Munger|first2=Lateef|date=March 27, 2009|work=[[CNN]]|access-date=April 12, 2009}}</ref> On May 26, 2009, Harris began serving his [[sentence (law)|sentence]] in [[Forrest City, Arkansas]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/268537/ti-begins-federal-prison-sentence-in-arkansas|title=T.I. Begins Federal Prison Sentence In Arkansas|date=May 26, 2009|magazine=Billboard|access-date=May 26, 2009}}</ref> Two days prior to being imprisoned, he performed a farewell concert at the [[Philips Arena]] in Atlanta.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2009/05/25/ti-says-goodbye-at-farewell-concert/|title=T.I. Says Goodbye at Farewell Concert|work=[[Rap-Up]]|access-date=May 25, 2009}}</ref> Harris was released from [[Federal Correctional Institution, Forrest City|FCI Forrest City]] on December 22, 2009<ref>[http://www.bet.com/Music/news/msc_tireleasedfromprsion_12.22.09.htm Breaking News: T.I. Released From Prison.] ''BET''. Retrieved December 22, 2009.</ref> and transferred to a [[halfway house]] in Atlanta.<ref>[http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=66274 XXcLusive: T.I. Released from Prison Today, Lawyer Confirms.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315202233/http://www.xxlmag.com/online/?p=66274 |date=March 15, 2010 }} ''[[XXL (magazine)|XXL]].''</ref> Harris had the [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]] ID 59458-019 and was released from CCM Atlanta on March 26, 2010.<ref name="bop">{{cite web|url=http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=IDSearch&needingMoreList=false&IDType=IRN&IDNumber=59458-019&x=76&y=23|title=Inmate Locator|publisher=[[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]|access-date=December 13, 2010 }}</ref> After his release from prison, he was subjected to an [[audit]] of his finances, drug counseling, [[DNA profiling|DNA testing]], and random searches of his property.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1607943/20090327/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. Sentenced To A Year And A Day In Prison|last=Rodriguez|first=Jayson|date=March 27, 2009|work=MTV News|access-date=April 12, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2010: 11 month sentence ===<br />
On September 1, 2010, T.I. and his wife [[Tameka Cottle|Tiny]] were arrested for drug charges.<ref name="news.blogs.cnn.com"/> The arrest for drug charges led to T.I. being sentenced on October 15, 2010, to 11 months in prison for violating the terms of his probation, specifically for possessing [[Ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]], testing positive for [[opiate]]s and associating with a [[convicted felon]], namely his [[P$C]] cohort [[C-Rod]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1648108/tis-arrest-companion-identified-as-convicted-felon/|title=T.I.'s Arrest Companion Identified As Convicted Felon|first=Jayson|last=Rodriguez|website=MTV News}}</ref> On October 25, the drug charges against T.I. were dropped.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/SHOWBIZ/celebrity.news.gossip/10/25/t.i.charge.dropped/index.html?hpt=T2|work=CNN|title=California drug charges against rapper T.I. dropped|date=October 25, 2010}}</ref> On November 1, T.I. reported back to the [[Federal Correctional Institution, Forrest City|Forrest City Federal Facility]] to serve his 11-month sentence.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rodriguez|first=Jayson|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1651287/20101101/t_i_.jhtml|title=T.I. Turns Himself In To Start 11-Month Prison Sentence--Rapper's recent L.A. drug arrest violated his probation.|publisher=MTV|date=November 1, 2010|access-date=November 2, 2010}}</ref> His date of release was set to be September 29, 2011.<ref name="bop" /> On August 31, 2011, T.I. was released from Forrest City at 7:29{{nbsp}}a.m. and sent to a community living facility to serve out the rest of his 11-month sentence. He then released a statement on [[Twitter]] saying: "The storm is over & da sun back out. IT'S OUR TIME TO SHINE SHAWTY!!!!! Welcome to the beginning of our Happy Ending!!!!"<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1670026/ti-released-halfway-house.jhtml|work=MTV|title=T.I. Released To Halfway House-Atlanta rapper released from prison and taken to community living facility for the last month of his sentence.|date=August 31, 2011}}</ref> He was sent back to federal custody on September 1, less than 48 hours after his release due to a dispute involving T.I. taking a luxury bus from a prison in Arkansas to a halfway house facility in Atlanta. T.I.'s attorney, Steve Sadow, told the [[Associated Press]] that the [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]] has moved T.I. to a different facility and clarified that the dispute was not drug related.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/t-i-back-in-federal-custody-after-taking-luxury-bus-to-halfway-house-20110902|magazine=Rolling Stone|title=T.I. Back in Federal Custody After Taking Luxury Bus to Halfway House-Lawyer says dispute with authorities is not drug related|date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> T.I. was later released from prison and was sent back to the [[halfway house]], where he was released on September 29, at midnight.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rapper T.I. released from halfway house|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/09/29/showbiz/t-i--release/index.html|work=cnn.com|publisher=cnn.com|access-date=September 29, 2011}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2015: Tax issues ===<br />
In August 2015, the [[IRS]] filed liens totaling more than $4.5&nbsp;million on T.I.'s property for unpaid taxes from 2012 and 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vibe.com/2015/08/ti-tax-lien-4-million?PageSpeed=noscript|title=T.I. Reportedly Owes IRS $4.5 Million, Rep Releases Statement|date=August 22, 2015|website=Vibe}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2018: Public disorder arrest ===<br />
On May 16, 2018, Harris was arrested outside of the gated community where he lives for misdemeanor charges of simple assault, disorderly conduct and public drunkenness in [[Henry County, Georgia]] after a guard allegedly refused to let Harris into the complex without a key. Harris posted bond and was released later that day.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/16/entertainment/ti-arrested/index.html|title=Rapper T.I. arrested near Georgia home|author=Lisa Respers France|website=CNN|date=May 16, 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== 2020: Crypto fraud charges ===<br />
In September 2020, Harris was charged by the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] for his involvement in two fraudulent initial coin offerings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SEC.gov {{!}} SEC Charges Film Producer, Rapper, and Others for Participation in Two Fraudulent ICOs|url=https://www.sec.gov/news/press-release/2020-207|access-date=2020-09-16|website=www.sec.gov}}</ref><br />
<br />
===2021: Sexual abuse allegations===<br />
On January 26, 2021, Sabrina Peterson, who was associated with T.I. and his family, alleged on social media that T.I. put a gun to her head and threatened to kill her in 2009. Following the post, allegations of sexual abuse by Harris and his wife Tiny appeared underneath the post.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harrison|first=Isheka N.|date=2021-03-12|title='If I Was a Prosecutor, I'd Have Brought Charges Already': Six More Accusers Come Forward with Sexual Assault Allegations Against T.I. and Tiny Harris|url=https://atlantablackstar.com/2021/03/12/if-i-was-a-prosecutor-id-have-brought-charges-already-six-more-accusers-come-forward-with-sexual-assault-allegations-against-t-i-and-tiny/|access-date=2021-03-15|website=Atlanta Black Star}}</ref><br />
<br />
By March 2021, more than 30 women and at least one man accused Harris, his wife Tiny, and their associates of "forced drugging, [[kidnapping]], [[rape]], and [[intimidation]]" in at least two states, including [[California]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], which allegedly occurred since at least 2005. An attorney for the accusers has sent letters to the state attorneys general of California and Georgia asking them to open an investigation. The accusers allege that "prior to or upon immediately entering T&T's home, hotel, or tour bus [they] were coerced by Tiny to ingest drugs or [were] unknowingly administered drugs to impair the victims' ability to consent to subsequent vile sexual acts."<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-01|title=Atlanta rapper T.I. accused of sexual assault|url=https://www.fox5atlanta.com/news/atlanta-rapper-t-i-accused-of-sexual-assault|access-date=2021-03-03|website=[[WAGA-TV]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=More accusers allege sexual misconduct against rapper T.I. and wife, Tiny|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/more-accusers-allege-sexual-misconduct-against-rapper-t-i-wife-n1260245|access-date=2021-03-15|website=NBC News}}</ref><br />
<br />
In January 2021, Harris released a video on Instagram denying the allegations, claiming that all of his sexual encounters had been consensual.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-28|title=T.I. and Wife Tiny Accused of Sexual Abuse by 11 Victims, Lawyer Seeks Investigation|url=https://www.spin.com/2021/02/t-i-tiny-sexual-assault-investigation/|access-date=2021-03-01|website=Spin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lawyer Seeks Criminal Investigation of T.I. and Tiny Amid Sexual Abuse and Assault Allegations|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/music/news/lawyer-seeks-criminal-investigation-of-ti-and-tiny-amid-sexual-abuse-and-assault-allegations/ar-BB1e6fTs|access-date=2021-03-01|website=MSN}}</ref><br />
<br />
As a result of the allegations, production of ''T.I. & Tiny: Friends & Family Hustle'' was suspended.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andreeva|first=Nellie|date=2021-02-05|title='T.I. & Tiny: Friends & Family Hustle' Suspends Production Amid Sexual Abuse Allegations Against Stars|url=https://deadline.com/2021/02/t-i-tiny-friends-family-hustle-suspends-production-sexual-abuse-allegations-1234688488/|access-date=2021-03-15|website=Deadline|language=en-US}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Discography ==<br />
{{Main|T.I. discography}}<br />
{{See also|P$C discography}}<br />
<br />
;Studio albums<br />
* ''[[I'm Serious]]'' (2001)<br />
* ''[[Trap Muzik]]'' (2003)<br />
* ''[[Urban Legend (album)|Urban Legend]]'' (2004)<br />
* ''[[King (T.I. album)|King]]'' (2006)<br />
* ''[[T.I. vs. T.I.P.]]'' (2007)<br />
* ''[[Paper Trail]]'' (2008)<br />
* ''[[No Mercy (T.I. album)|No Mercy]]'' (2010)<br />
* ''[[Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head]]'' (2012)<br />
* ''[[Paperwork (T.I. album)|Paperwork]]'' (2014)<br />
* ''[[Dime Trap]]'' (2018)<br />
* ''[[The L.I.B.R.A.]]'' (2020)<br />
* ''[[Kill the King (album)|Kill the King]]'' (2022)<br />
<br />
;Collaborative albums<br />
* ''[[25 to Life (album)|25 to Life]]'' (with [[P$C]]) (2005)<br />
* ''[[Bankroll Mafia (album)|Bankroll Mafia]]'' (with [[Bankroll Mafia]]) (2016)<br />
<br />
== Filmography ==<br />
{{See also|T.I. videography}}<br />
* ''[[ATL (film)|ATL]]'' (2006)<br />
* ''[[American Gangster (film)|American Gangster]]'' (2007)<br />
* ''[[Takers]]'' (2010)<br />
* ''[[Identity Thief]]'' (2013)<br />
* ''[[House of Lies]]'' (2013)<br />
* ''[[Get Hard]]'' (2015)<br />
* ''[[Entourage (film)|Entourage]]'' (2015)<br />
* ''[[Ant-Man (film)|Ant-Man]]'' (2015)<br />
* ''[[Roots (2016 miniseries)|Roots]]'' (2016)<br />
* ''[[Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping]]'' (2016)<br />
* ''[[Sleepless (2017 film)|Sleepless]]'' (2017)<br />
* ''[[Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Wildlands]]: War Within the Cartel'' (video game; 2017)<br />
* ''[[Krystal (film)|Krystal]]'' (2017)<br />
* ''[[Ant-Man and the Wasp]]'' (2018)<br />
* ''[[Rhythm + Flow]]'' (2019)<br />
* ''The Trap'' (2019)<br />
* ''[[Cut Throat City]]'' (2020)<br />
* ''[[Monster Hunter (film)|Monster Hunter]]'' (2020)<br />
<br />
== Awards and nominations ==<br />
{{Main|List of awards and nominations received by T.I.}}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Pharrell Williams v. Bridgeport Music]]<br />
* [[List of artists who reached number one in the United States]]<br />
* [[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Rhythmic chart]]<br />
* [[List of hip hop musicians]]<br />
* [[List of people from Atlanta]]<br />
* [[Music of Atlanta]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
* {{Official website|https://www.officialti.com}}<br />
* {{AllMusic|class=artist|id=ti-p483720}}<br />
* {{IMDb name|1939267}}<br />
* [http://www.vh1.com/celebrities/clifford-tip-harris/#cast=ti_and_tiny_the_family_hustle T.I.] Profile on [[VH1]]<br />
<br />
{{T.I.}}<br />
{{T.I. singles}}<br />
{{Navboxes<br />
|title = [[List of awards and nominations received by T.I.|Awards for T.I.]]<br />
|list =<br />
{{American Music Award for Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop Artist}}<br />
{{BET Award for Best Male Hip-Hop Artist}}<br />
{{Grammy Award for Best Melodic Rap Performance}}<br />
{{Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance}}<br />
{{NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Duo or Group}}<br />
}}<br />
{{Grand Hustle Records}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:T.I.}}<br />
[[Category:T.I.| ]]<br />
[[Category:1980 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century American rappers]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century philanthropists]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century American businesspeople]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century American male actors]]<br />
[[Category:21st-century American comedians]]<br />
[[Category:African-American businesspeople]]<br />
[[Category:African-American Christians]]<br />
[[Category:African-American film producers]]<br />
[[Category:African-American male actors]]<br />
[[Category:African-American male rappers]]<br />
[[Category:African-American record producers]]<br />
[[Category:African-American songwriters]]<br />
[[Category:American businesspeople convicted of crimes]]<br />
[[Category:American documentary filmmakers]]<br />
[[Category:American fashion businesspeople]]<br />
[[Category:American hip hop record producers]]<br />
[[Category:American male film actors]]<br />
[[Category:American film producers]]<br />
[[Category:American male television actors]]<br />
[[Category:American music industry executives]]<br />
[[Category:American reality television producers]]<br />
[[Category:American people convicted of assault]]<br />
[[Category:American people convicted of drug offenses]]<br />
[[Category:American prisoners and detainees]]<br />
[[Category:Rappers from Atlanta]]<br />
[[Category:Writers from Atlanta]]<br />
[[Category:Businesspeople from Atlanta]]<br />
[[Category:Male actors from Atlanta]]<br />
[[Category:Songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)]]<br />
[[Category:Novelists from Georgia (U.S. state)]]<br />
[[Category:APRA Award winners]]<br />
[[Category:Grammy Award winners for rap music]]<br />
[[Category:Hip hop activists]]<br />
[[Category:Nightclub owners]]<br />
[[Category:Southern hip hop musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Gangsta rappers]]<br />
[[Category:Trap musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Bankroll Mafia members]]<br />
[[Category:Participants in American reality television series]]<br />
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government]]<br />
[[Category:Columbia Records artists]]<br />
[[Category:Atlantic Records artists]]<br />
[[Category:Grand Hustle Records artists]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anisochaeta_gigantea&diff=1108031424Anisochaeta gigantea2022-09-02T05:18:08Z<p>Nickwilso: Add synonym (Spenceriella gigantea)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Species of annelid worm}}<br />
{{italic title}}<br />
{{Taxobox<br />
| name = ''Anisochaeta gigantea''<br />
| image = <br />
| image_width = 250px<br />
| image_caption = <br />
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia<br />
| phylum = [[Annelida]]<br />
| classis = [[Oligochaeta]]<br />
| ordo = [[Haplotaxida]]<br />
| subordo = [[Lumbricina]]<br />
| familia = [[Megascolecidae]]<br />
| genus = ''[[Anisochaeta (annelid)|Anisochaeta]]''<br />
| species = '''''A. gigantea'''''<br />
| binomial = ''Anisochaeta gigantea''<br />
| binomial_authority = (Benham, 1906)<br />
| synonyms = * ''Diporochaeta gigantea''<br />
* ''Anisochaeta gigantea''<br />
* ''Celeriella gigantea''<br />
* ''Spenceriella gigantea''<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Anisochaeta gigantea''''' (formerly ''Spenceriella gigantea'' or ''Celeriella gigantea''),<ref name=blakemore2006>{{cite web | url=http://www.annelida.net/earthworm/Australasian%20Earthworms/NZ.pdf | title=Checklist of New Zealand earthworms updated from Lee (1959) | publisher=Annelida Website | author=Blakemore, R.J. (2006)}}</ref><ref name=blakemore2012>{{cite web | url=http://www.ndsl.kr/ndsl/commons/util/ndslOriginalView.do?dbt=JAKO&cn=JAKO201205740752567&oCn=JAKO201205740752567&pageCode=PG11&journal=NJOU00550656 | title=On Schmarda's lost earthworm and some newly found New Zealand species | publisher=Journal of Species Research 1(2): 105-132 | author=Blakemore, R.J. (2012)}}</ref><ref name=blakemore2014>{{cite web | url=http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02340/00060/pdf/EPA02340_opuscula_zoologica_2014_tom45_2_119-155.pdf| title=Miscellaneous Earthworm types in British Museum of Natural History, London | publisher=Opuscula Zoologica 45(2): 119-155 | author=Blakemore, R.J. (2014)}}</ref> commonly called the '''North Auckland worm''', is a rare giant [[annelid]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Megascolecidae]], [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to [[New Zealand]].<br />
<br />
The North Auckland worm is New Zealand's largest, reaching {{convert|1.4|m|abbr=on}} long, and {{convert|11|mm|abbr=on}} in diameter. Its burrows are up to {{convert|20|mm|abbr=on}} in diameter, and reach a depth of {{convert|3.5|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Lee">{{cite book<br />
| last = Lee<br />
| first = K. E.<br />
| title = The earthworm fauna of New Zealand<br />
| publisher = NZ Department of Scientific & Industrial Research<br />
| date = 1959<br />
| location = Wellington<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
The type locality is on [[Little Barrier Island]] on a plateau {{convert|200|m}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] in forest subsoil.<ref name="Lee"/> Under both the [[New Zealand Threat Classification System]] and [[IUCN Redlist]] it is classed a "Data Deficient".<ref name=blakemore2017>{{cite web | url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/103186227/103193410 | title=Anisochaeta gigantea | publisher=IUCN Redlist | author=Blakemore, R.J. (2017)}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wikispecies|Spenceriella gigantea}}<br />
* The North Auckland worm discussed in [[Radio New Zealand|RNZ]] ''[[Critter of the Week]]'', [https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/afternoons/audio/2018759528/critter-of-the-week-north-auckland-worm 14 Aug 2020]<br />
* [http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_80/rsnz_80_01_001240.html Royal Society of New Zealand] - ''Studies on the Earthworm Fauna of New Zealand. III''<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q4049894}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Spenceriella Gigantea}}<br />
[[Category:Megascolecidae]]<br />
[[Category:Worms of New Zealand]]<br />
[[Category:Animals described in 1906]]<br />
[[Category:Endemic fauna of New Zealand]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acute_coronary_syndrome&diff=1098412112Acute coronary syndrome2022-07-15T18:28:49Z<p>Nickwilso: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}<br />
{{MOS|date=February 2021|reason=MEDMOS}}<br />
<br />
{{Infobox medical condition (new)<br />
| name = Acute coronary syndrome<br />
| image = File:Heart attack diagram.png<br />
| caption = Blockage of a coronary artery<br />
| field = [[Cardiology]]<br />
| symptoms =<br />
| complications =<br />
| onset =<br />
| duration =<br />
| types =<br />
| causes =<br />
| risks =<br />
| diagnosis =<br />
| differential =<br />
| prevention =<br />
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}}<br />
<br />
'''Acute coronary syndrome''' ('''ACS''') is a [[syndrome]] (a set of [[signs and symptoms]]) due to decreased [[blood flow]] in the [[coronary artery|coronary arteries]] such that part of the [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] is unable to function properly or [[Necrosis|dies]].<ref name=NSTEMI2014>{{cite journal|last1=Amsterdam|first1=E. A.|last2=Wenger|first2=N. K.|last3=Brindis|first3=R. G.|last4=Casey|first4=D. E.|last5=Ganiats|first5=T. G.|last6=Holmes|first6=D. R.|last7=Jaffe|first7=A. S.|last8=Jneid|first8=H.|last9=Kelly|first9=R. F.|last10=Kontos|first10=M. C.|last11=Levine|first11=G. N.|last12=Liebson|first12=P. R.|last13=Mukherjee|first13=D.|last14=Peterson|first14=E. D.|last15=Sabatine|first15=M. S.|last16=Smalling|first16=R. W.|last17=Zieman|first17=S. J.|title=2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the Management of Patients With Non-ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines|journal=Circulation|date=23 September 2014|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000134|pmid=25249585|volume=130|issue=25|pages=e344–e426|doi-access=free}}</ref> The most common symptom is centrally located [[chest pain]], often radiating to the left shoulder<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodacre S, Pett P, Arnold J, Chawla A, Hollingsworth J, Roe D, Crowder S, Mann C, Pitcher D, Brett C |title=Clinical diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome in patients with chest pain and a normal or non-diagnostic electrocardiogram |journal=Emergency Medicine Journal |volume=26 |issue=12 |pages=866–870 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19934131 |doi=10.1136/emj.2008.064428 |url=http://emj.bmj.com/content/26/12/866.long |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405172642/http://emj.bmj.com/content/26/12/866.long |archive-date=2017-04-05 |doi-access=free }}</ref> or angle of the jaw, and associated [[nausea]] and [[diaphoresis|sweating]]. Many people with acute coronary syndromes present with symptoms other than chest pain, particularly women, older people, and people with [[diabetes mellitus]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Canto JG, Shlipak MG, Rogers WJ |title=Prevalence, Clinical Characteristics, and Mortality among Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction Presenting Without Chest Pain |journal=JAMA |volume=283 |issue=24 |pages=3223–3229, vi |date=June 2000 |pmid=10866870 |doi=10.1001/jama.283.24.3223 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Acute coronary syndrome is subdivided in three scenarios depending on the duration of symptoms, the presence of [[electrocardiogram|ECG]] changes and blood test results:<ref name="pmid12791748">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grech ED, Ramsdale DR |title=Acute coronary syndrome: unstable angina and non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction |journal=BMJ |volume=326 |issue=7401 |pages=1259–61 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12791748 |pmc=1126130 |doi=10.1136/bmj.326.7401.1259 }}</ref> [[ST elevation myocardial infarction]] (STEMI, 30%), [[non-ST elevation myocardial infarction]] (NSTEMI, 25%), or [[unstable angina]] (38%).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Torres M, Moayedi S |title=Evaluation of the acutely dyspneic elderly patient |journal=Clin. Geriatr. Med. |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=307–25, vi |date=May 2007 |pmid=17462519 |doi=10.1016/j.cger.2007.01.007 }}</ref> Generally, when symptoms occur for less than 30 minutes, it is unstable angina. When symptoms are prolonged for more than 30 minutes, the diagnosis is acute [[myocardial infarction]].<ref name="urlDorlands Medical Dictionary:acute coronary syndrome">{{cite web |url=http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/nine/14170699.htm |title=Dorlands Medical Dictionary:acute coronary syndrome |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907123027/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=%2Fppdocs%2Fus%2Fcommon%2Fdorlands%2Fdorland%2Fnine%2F14170699.htm |archive-date=2009-09-07 }}</ref><br />
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ACS should be distinguished from [[angina pectoris|''stable'' angina]], which develops during physical activity or stress and resolves at rest. In contrast with stable angina, unstable angina occurs suddenly, often at rest or with minimal exertion, or at lesser degrees of exertion than the individual's previous angina ("crescendo angina"). New-onset angina is also considered unstable angina, since it suggests a new problem in a coronary artery.<br />
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==Signs and symptoms==<br />
The cardinal symptom of critically decreased blood flow to the heart is chest pain, experienced as tightness around or over the chest and (often, but not always) radiating to the left arm and the left angle of the jaw. This may be associated with [[diaphoresis]] (sweating), [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], as well as [[dyspnea|shortness of breath]]. In many cases, the sensation is "atypical", with pain experienced in different ways or even being completely absent (which is more likely in female patients and those with [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]]). Some may report [[palpitation]]s, anxiety or a [[sense of impending doom]] ([[angor animi]]) and a feeling of being acutely ill. The description of the chest discomfort as a pressure has little utility in aiding a diagnosis as it is not [[Sensitivity and specificity|specific]] for ACS.<ref name=ER09>{{cite journal |vauthors=Woo KM, Schneider JI |title=High-risk chief complaints I: chest pain--the big three |journal=Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=685–712, x |date=November 2009 |pmid=19932401 |doi=10.1016/j.emc.2009.07.007 }}</ref><br />
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Though ACS is usually associated with [[coronary thrombosis]], it can also be associated with [[cocaine]] use.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Achar SA, Kundu S, Norcross WA |title=Diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=119–26 |year=2005 |pmid=16035692 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20050701/119.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009042441/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20050701/119.html |archive-date=2007-10-09 }}</ref> Chest pain with features characteristic of cardiac origin (angina) can also be precipitated by profound [[anemia]], [[bradycardia|brady-]] or [[tachycardia]] (excessively slow or rapid heart rate), [[hypotension|low]] or [[hypertensive crisis|high blood pressure]], severe [[aortic stenosis|aortic valve stenosis]] (narrowing of the valve at the beginning of the aorta), [[pulmonary hypertension|pulmonary artery hypertension]] and a number of other conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecardiologyadvisor.com/home/decision-support-in-medicine/cardiology/chest-pain-in-the-emergency-department-differential-diagnosis/|title=Chest Pain in the Emergency Department: Differential Diagnosis|date=2019-01-20|website=The Cardiology Advisor|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-25}}</ref><br />
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==Pathophysiology==<br />
In those who have ACS, [[atheroma]] rupture is most commonly found 60% when compared to atheroma erosion (30%), thus causes the formation of [[thrombus]] which block the coronary arteries. Plaque rupture is responsible for 60% in ST elevated [[myocardial infarction]] (STEMI) while plaque erosion is responsible for 30% of the STEMI and vice versa for Non ST elevated myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). In plaque rupture, the content of the plaque are lipid rich, collagen poor, with abundant inflammation which is [[macrophage]] predominant, and covered with a thin fibrous cap. Meanwhile, in plaque erosion, the plaque is rich with [[extracellular matrix]], [[proteoglycan]], [[glycoaminoglycan]], but without fibrous caps, no inflammatory cells, and no large lipid core. After the [[coronary arteries]] are unblocked, there is a risk of [[reperfusion injury]] due spreading inflammatory mediators throughout the body. Investigations is still underway on the role of [[Cyclophilin D]] in reducing the reperfusion injury.<ref name="Alon 2016">{{cite journal |first1=Alon |last1=Eisen |first2=Robert P |last2=Giugliano |first3=Eugene |last3=Braunwald |title=Updates on acute coronary syndrome: A review |journal=JAMA Cardiology |date=20 July 2016 |volume=1 |issue=16 |pages=718–730 |doi=10.1001/jamacardio.2016.2049 |pmid=27438381}}</ref><br />
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Other, less common, causes of acute coronary syndrome include spontaneous coronary artery dissection <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Franke |first1=Kyle B |last2=Wong |first2=Dennis TL |last3=Baumann |first3=Angus |last4=Nicholls |first4=Stephen J |last5=Gulati |first5=Rajiv |last6=Psaltis |first6=Peter J |title=Current state-of-play in spontaneous coronary artery dissection |journal=Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy |date=April 4, 2019 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=281–298 |doi=10.21037/cdt.2019.04.03 |pmid=31275818 |url=http://cdt.amegroups.com/article/view/25190/23518|pmc=6603494 }}</ref> and myocardial infarction in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease (MINOCA).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tamis-Holland |first1=JE |title=Diagnosis and Management of MINOCA Patients |journal=Circulation |date=March 27, 2019 |volume=139 |issue=18 |pages=891–908 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000670 |pmid=30913893 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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==Diagnosis==<br />
[[Image:ACS scheme.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Classification of acute coronary syndromes.<ref name="Alpert-2000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alpert JS, Thygesen K, Antman E, Bassand JP | title=Myocardial infarction redefined--a consensus document of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year=2000 | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=959–69 | pmid=10987628 | doi=10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00804-4| doi-access=free }}</ref>]]<br />
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===Electrocardiogram===<br />
In the setting of acute chest pain, the [[electrocardiogram]] is the investigation that most reliably distinguishes between various causes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chun AA, McGee SR |title=Bedside diagnosis of coronary artery disease: a systematic review |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=117 |issue=5 |pages=334–43 |year=2004 |pmid=15336583 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.03.021}}</ref> The ECG should be done as early as practicable, including in the ambulance if possible.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neumar|first1=RW|last2=Shuster|first2=M|last3=Callaway|first3=CW|last4=Gent|first4=LM|last5=Atkins|first5=DL|last6=Bhanji|first6=F|last7=Brooks|first7=SC|last8=de Caen|first8=AR|last9=Donnino|first9=MW|last10=Ferrer|first10=JM|last11=Kleinman|first11=ME|last12=Kronick|first12=SL|last13=Lavonas|first13=EJ|last14=Link|first14=MS|last15=Mancini|first15=ME|last16=Morrison|first16=LJ|last17=O'Connor|first17=RE|last18=Samson|first18=RA|last19=Schexnayder|first19=SM|last20=Singletary|first20=EM|last21=Sinz|first21=EH|last22=Travers|first22=AH|last23=Wyckoff|first23=MH|last24=Hazinski|first24=MF|title=Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=3 November 2015|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S315–67|pmid=26472989|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000252|doi-access=free}}</ref> If this indicates acute heart damage (elevation in the ''ST segment'', new [[left bundle branch block]]), treatment for a heart attack in the form of [[angioplasty]] or [[thrombolysis]] is indicated immediately (see below). In the absence of such changes, it is not possible to immediately distinguish between unstable angina and NSTEMI.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
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===Imaging and blood tests===<br />
As it is only one of the many potential causes of [[chest pain]], the patient usually has a number of tests in the [[emergency department]], such as a [[chest X-ray]], [[blood test]]s (including [[cardiac marker|myocardial markers]] such as [[troponin]] I or T, and [[Heart-type fatty acid binding protein|H-FABP]] and/or a [[D-dimer]] if a [[pulmonary embolism]] is suspected), and telemetry (monitoring of the heart rhythm).{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
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Combination of troponin levels (less than 5&nbsp;ng/l) with low [[TIMI]] scores can help to predict those with low possibility of myocardial infarction and discharge them safely from the emergency department.<ref name="Alon 2016"/> [[Coronary CT angiography]] combined with Troponin levels is also helpful to [[triage]] those who are susceptible to ACS. F-fluoride [[positron emission tomography]] is also helpful in identifying those with high risk, lipid-rich coronary plaques.<ref name="Alon 2016"/><br />
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===Prediction scores===<br />
The ACI-TIPI score can be used to aid diagnosis; using seven variables from the admission record, this score predicts crudely which patients are likely to have myocardial ischemia.<ref name="pmid2072767">{{cite journal |vauthors=Selker HP, Griffith JL, D'Agostino RB |title=A tool for judging coronary care unit admission appropriateness, valid for both real-time and retrospective use. A time-insensitive predictive instrument (TIPI) for acute cardiac ischemia: a multicenter study |journal=Medical Care |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=610–27 |year=1991 |pmid=2072767 |doi=10.1097/00005650-199107000-00002 |s2cid=31892999 }}</ref> For example, according to a [[randomized controlled trial]], males having chest pain with normal or non-diagnostic [[ECG]] are at higher risk for having acute coronary syndrome than women.<ref name="pmid19934131">{{cite journal|title=Clinical diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome in patients with chest pain and a normal or non-diagnostic electrocardiogram.|pmid=19934131|year=2009|journal=Emergency Medicine Journal |doi=10.1136/emj.2008.064428| last1=Goodacre| first1=S| last2=Pett| first2=P| last3=Arnold| first3=J| last4=Chawla| first4=A| last5=Hollingsworth| first5=J| last6=Roe| first6=D| last7=Crowder| first7=S| last8=Mann| first8=C| last9=Pitcher| first9=D| last10=Brett| first10=C| volume=26| issue=12| pages=866–70| doi-access=free}}</ref> In this study, the [[sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] was 65.2% and [[specificity (tests)|specificity]] was 44%. This particular study had an 8.4% prevalence of acute coronary syndrome, which means the [[positive predictive value]] of being a male with chest pain and having coronary syndrome is 9.6% and [[negative predictive value]] is 93.2% ( [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720105144/http://medinformatics.uthscsa.edu/calculator/calc.shtml?calc_dx_SnSp.shtml%3Fprevalence=8.4&sensitivity=65.2&specificity=44 click here] to adjust these results for people at higher or lower risk of acute coronary syndrome).{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
In a second [[cohort study]], exercise electrocardiography was similarly found to be a poor predictor of acute coronary syndrome at follow-up.<ref name="pmid19008264">{{cite journal|title=Incremental prognostic value of the exercise electrocardiogram in the initial assessment of patients with suspected angina: cohort study.|year=2008|journal=BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) |pmid=19008264|pmc=2583389|doi=10.1136/bmj.a2240| last1=Sekhri| first1=N| last2=Feder| first2=GS| last3=Junghans| first3=C| last4=Eldridge| first4=S| last5=Umaipalan| first5=A| last6=Madhu| first6=R| last7=Hemingway| first7=H| last8=Timmis| first8=AD| volume=337| pages=a2240}}</ref> Of the patients who had a coronary event at 6 years of follow up, 47% had a negative ECG at the start of the study. With an average follow up of 2.21 years the [[receiver operating characteristic]] curves gave resting ECG a score of 0.72 and exercise ECG a score of 0.74.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
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There are not only prediction scores for diagnosis of ACS, but also prognosis. Most notably, the GRACE ACS Risk and Mortality score helps diagnose, and based upon that score predicts mortality rate of a given patient. It takes into account both clinical (blood pressure, heart rate, EKG findings) and medical history in its scoring system.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fox KA, Dabbous OH, Goldberg RJ, Pieper KS, Eagle KA, Van de Werf F, Avezum A, Goodman SG, [[Marcus Flather|Flather MD]], ((Anderson FA Jr)), Granger CB | title=Prediction of risk of death and myocardial infarction in the six months after presentation with acute coronary syndrome: prospective multinational observational study (GRACE). | journal=BMJ | year=2006 | volume=333 | issue=7578| pages=1091| doi= 10.1136/bmj.38985.646481.55| pmid=17032691 | pmc=1661748}}</ref><br />
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==Prevention==<br />
Acute coronary syndrome often reflects a degree of damage to the coronaries by [[atherosclerosis]]. Primary prevention of atherosclerosis is controlling the risk factors: healthy eating, exercise, treatment for [[hypertension]] and [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], avoiding [[tobacco smoking|smoking]] and controlling [[cholesterol]] levels; in patients with significant risk factors, [[aspirin]] has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. Secondary prevention is discussed in [[myocardial infarction]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
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After a ban on smoking in all enclosed public places was introduced in Scotland in March 2006, there was a 17% reduction in hospital admissions for acute coronary syndrome. 67% of the decrease occurred in non-smokers.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1056/NEJMsa0706740| title=Smoke-free Legislation and Hospitalizations for Acute Coronary Syndrome| year=2008|vauthors=Pell JP, Haw S, Cobbe S | journal=New England Journal of Medicine| volume=359| pages=482–91| pmid=18669427| issue=5|display-authors=etal| hdl=1893/16659| url=http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/16659/1/Haw_Smoke_free_legislation_and_hospitalisations_acute_coronary_syndrome.pdf| hdl-access=free}}</ref><br />
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==Treatment==<br />
{{main|Management of acute coronary syndrome}}<br />
People with presumed ACS are typically treated with aspirin, [[clopidogrel]] or [[ticagrelor]], [[nitroglycerin]], and if the chest discomfort persists [[morphine]].<ref name=AHA10>{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Connor RE, Brady W, Brooks SC |title=Part 10: acute coronary syndromes: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care |journal=Circulation |volume=122 |issue=18 Suppl 3 |pages=S787–817 |date=November 2010 |pmid=20956226 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971028 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> Other [[analgesics]] such as [[nitrous oxide]] are of unknown benefit.<ref name=AHA10/> [[Angiography]] is recommended in those who have either new [[ST elevation]] or a new left or right [[bundle branch block]] on their ECG.<ref name=NSTEMI2014/> Unless the person has low oxygen levels additional oxygen does not appear to be useful.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neumar|first1=RW|last2=Shuster|first2=M|last3=Callaway|first3=CW|last4=Gent|first4=LM|last5=Atkins|first5=DL|last6=Bhanji|first6=F|last7=Brooks|first7=SC|last8=de Caen|first8=AR|last9=Donnino|first9=MW|last10=Ferrer|first10=JM|last11=Kleinman|first11=ME|last12=Kronick|first12=SL|last13=Lavonas|first13=EJ|last14=Link|first14=MS|last15=Mancini|first15=ME|last16=Morrison|first16=LJ|last17=O'Connor|first17=RE|last18=Samson|first18=RA|last19=Schexnayder|first19=SM|last20=Singletary|first20=EM|last21=Sinz|first21=EH|last22=Travers|first22=AH|last23=Wyckoff|first23=MH|last24=Hazinski|first24=MF|title=Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=3 November 2015|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S315–67|pmid=26472989|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000252|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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===STEMI===<br />
If the ECG confirms changes suggestive of [[myocardial infarction]] (ST elevations in specific leads, a new left bundle branch block or a true posterior MI pattern), [[thrombolytics]] may be administered or [[angioplasty|primary coronary angioplasty]] may be performed. In the former, medication is injected that stimulates [[fibrinolysis]], destroying blood clots obstructing the [[coronary artery|coronary arteries]]. In the latter, a flexible catheter is passed via the femoral or radial [[arteries]] and advanced to the heart to identify blockages in the coronaries. When occlusions are found, they can be intervened upon mechanically with [[angioplasty]] and usually [[stent]] deployment if a lesion, termed the ''culprit'' lesion, is thought to be causing myocardial damage. Data suggest that rapid [[triage]], transfer and treatment is essential.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Blankenship JC, Skelding KA |year=2008 |title=Rapid Triage, Transfer, and Treatment with Percutaneous Coronary Intervention for Patients with ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction |url=http://www.remedicajournals.com/Acute-Coronary-Syndromes/showarticleattachment.aspx?aaid=4400&PortalID=71 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715172024/http://www.remedicajournals.com/Acute-Coronary-Syndromes/showarticleattachment.aspx?aaid=4400&PortalID=71 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-15 |journal=Acute Coronary Syndromes |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=59–65 }}</ref> The time frame for door-to-needle thrombolytic administration according to [[American College of Cardiology]] (ACC) guidelines should be within 30 minutes, whereas the door-to-balloon Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI) time should be less than 90 minutes. It was found that [[thrombolysis]] is more likely to be delivered within the established ACC guidelines among patients with [[STEMI]] as compared to PCI according to a [[case control]] study.<ref name="pmid19898701">{{cite journal|title=Thrombolysis versus primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST elevation myocardial infarctions at Chilliwack General Hospital.|year=2009|journal=The Canadian Journal of Cardiology |pmid=19898701|pmc=2776568|doi=10.1016/S0828-282X(09)70165-5| last1=Janda| first1=SP| last2=Tan| first2=N| volume=25| issue=11| pages=e382–4}}</ref><br />
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===NSTEMI and NSTE-ACS===<br />
If the ECG does not show typical changes, the term "non-ST segment elevation ACS" is applied. The patient may still have had a "non-ST elevation MI" (NSTEMI). The accepted management of unstable angina and acute coronary syndrome is therefore empirical treatment with aspirin, a second [[platelet inhibitor]] such as clopidogrel, prasugrel or ticagrelor, and heparin (usually a [[low-molecular weight heparin]]), with intravenous [[Glyceryl trinitrate (pharmacology)|nitroglycerin]] and [[opioid]]s if the pain persists. The heparin-like drug known as [[fondaparinux]] appears to be better than [[enoxaparin]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bundhun|first1=PK|last2=Shaik|first2=M|last3=Yuan|first3=J|title=Choosing between Enoxaparin and Fondaparinux for the management of patients with acute coronary syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=BMC Cardiovascular Disorders|date=8 May 2017|volume=17|issue=1|pages=116|pmid=28482804|doi=10.1186/s12872-017-0552-z|pmc=5422952}}</ref><br />
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A blood test is generally performed for cardiac troponins twelve hours after onset of the pain. If this is positive, [[coronary angiography]] is typically performed on an urgent basis, as this is highly predictive of a heart attack in the near-future. If the troponin is negative, a treadmill exercise test or a thallium scintigram may be requested.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
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If there is no evidence of ST segment elevation on the [[electrocardiogram]], delaying urgent [[angioplasty]] until the next morning is not inferior to doing so immediately.<ref name="pmid19724041">{{cite journal|vauthors=Montalescot G, Cayla G, Collet JP, Elhadad S, Beygui F, Le Breton H | title=Immediate vs delayed intervention for acute coronary syndromes: a randomized clinical trial. | journal=JAMA | year= 2009 | volume= 302 | issue= 9 | pages= 947–54 | pmid=19724041 | doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1267 |display-authors=etal| doi-access=free }}</ref> Using [[statins]] in the first 14 days after ACS reduces the risk of further ACS.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vale|first1=N|last2=Nordmann|first2=AJ|last3=Schwartz|first3=GG|last4=de Lemos|first4=J|last5=Colivicchi|first5=F|last6=den Hartog|first6=F|last7=Ostadal|first7=P|last8=Macin|first8=SM|last9=Liem|first9=AH|last10=Mills|first10=EJ|last11=Bhatnagar|first11=N|last12=Bucher|first12=HC|last13=Briel|first13=M|title=Statins for acute coronary syndrome.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=1 September 2014|volume=9|issue=9|pages=CD006870|pmid=25178118|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006870.pub3}}</ref><br />
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In a [[cohort study]] comparing [[NSTEMI]] and [[STEMI]], people with NSTEMI had a similar risk of death at one year after [[Percutaneous coronary intervention|PCI]] as compared to people with STEMI (3.4% vs 4.4%).<ref name="pmid16860018">{{Cite journal | last1 = Cox | first1 = D. A. | last2 = Stone | first2 = G. W. | last3 = Grines | first3 = C. L. | last4 = Stuckey | first4 = T. | last5 = Zimetbaum | first5 = P. J. | last6 = Tcheng | first6 = J. E. | last7 = Turco | first7 = M. | last8 = Garcia | first8 = E. | last9 = Guagliumi | first9 = G. | last10 = Iwaoka | first10 = R. S. | last11 = Mehran | first11 = R. | last12 = O'Neill | first12 = W. W. | last13 = Lansky | first13 = A. J. | last14 = Griffin | first14 = J. J. | last15 = Cadillac | first15 = I. | title = Comparative Early and Late Outcomes After Primary Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in ST-Segment Elevation and Non–ST-Segment Elevation Acute Myocardial Infarction (from the CADILLAC Trial) | doi = 10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.01.102 | journal = The American Journal of Cardiology | volume = 98 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–337 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16860018}}</ref> However, NSTEMI had significantly more "major cardiac events" (death, [[myocardial infarction]], disabling [[stroke]], or requiring [[revascularization]]) at one year (24.0% vs 16.6%).{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
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[[Cocaine]]-associated ACS should be managed in a manner similar to other patients with acute coronary syndrome except [[beta blocker]]s should not be used and [[benzodiazepines]] should be administered early.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=McCord J, Jneid H, Hollander JE |title=Management of cocaine-associated chest pain and myocardial infarction: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Acute Cardiac Care Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology |journal=Circulation |volume=117 |issue=14 |pages=1897–907 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18347214 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.188950 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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==Prognosis==<br />
===TIMI score===<br />
The [[TIMI]] risk score can identify high risk patients in non-ST segment elevation MI ACS<ref name="pmid10938172">{{cite journal |vauthors=Antman EM, Cohen M, Bernink PJ |title=The TIMI risk score for unstable angina/non-ST elevation MI: A method for prognostication and therapeutic decision making |journal=JAMA |volume=284 |issue=7 |pages=835–42 |year=2000 |pmid=10938172 |doi=10.1001/jama.284.7.835|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> and has been independently validated.<ref name="pmid16365321">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pollack CV, Sites FD, Shofer FS, Sease KL, Hollander JE |title=Application of the TIMI risk score for unstable angina and non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome to an unselected emergency department chest pain population |journal=Academic Emergency Medicine |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=13–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16365321 |doi=10.1197/j.aem.2005.06.031|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid16934646">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chase M, Robey JL, Zogby KE, Sease KL, Shofer FS, Hollander JE |title=Prospective validation of the Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction Risk Score in the emergency department chest pain population |journal=Annals of Emergency Medicine |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=252–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16934646 |doi=10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.01.032}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE) score ===<br />
Based on a global registry of 102,341 patients, the [[GRACE Risk Score]] estimates in-hospital, 6 months, 1 year, and 3-year mortality risk after a heart attack. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170805140647/http://www.gracescore.org/WebSite/ GRACE Score 2.0 Calculator].<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
=== Killip class ===<br />
The [[Killip class]]ification consists of 4 classes based on clinical symptoms. It predicts 30-day mortality after myocardial infarction.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Killip|first1=Thomas|last2=Kimball|first2=John T.|title=Treatment of myocardial infarction in a coronary care unit|journal=The American Journal of Cardiology|volume=20|issue=4|pages=457–464|doi=10.1016/0002-9149(67)90023-9|pmid=6059183|year=1967}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Biomarkers for diagnosis===<br />
The aim of diagnostic markers is to identify patients with ACS even when there is no evidence of heart muscle damage.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
* Ischemia-Modified Albumin (IMA) – In cases of Ischemia – Albumin undergoes a conformational change and loses its ability to bind transitional metals (copper or cobalt). IMA can be used to assess the proportion of modified albumin in ischemia. Its use is limited to ruling out ischemia rather than a diagnostic test for the occurrence of ischemia.<br />
* [[Myeloperoxidase]] (MPO) – The levels of circulating MPO, a leukocyte enzyme, elevate early after ACS and can be used as an early marker for the condition.<br />
* Glycogen Phosphorylase Isoenzyme BB-([[GPBB]]) is an early marker of cardiac ischemia and is one of three [[isoenzymes|isoenzyme]] of Glycogen Phosphorylase.<br />
* [[Troponin]] is a late cardiac marker of ACS<br />
<br />
===Biomarkers for risk determination===<br />
The aim of prognostic markers is to reflect different components of pathophysiology of ACS. For example:{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
* Natriuretic peptide – Both B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal Pro BNP can be applied to predict the risk of death and heart failure following ACS.<br />
* Monocyte chemo attractive protein (MCP)-1 – has been shown in a number of studies to identify patients with a higher risk of adverse outcomes after ACS.<br />
<br />
===Day of admission===<br />
Studies have shown that for ACS patients, weekend admission is associated with higher mortality and lower utilization of invasive cardiac procedures, and those who did undergo these interventions had higher rates of mortality and complications than their weekday counterparts. This data leads to the possible conclusion that access to diagnostic/interventional procedures may be contingent upon the day of admission, which may impact mortality.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Khoshchehreh M, Groves EM, Tehrani D, Amin A, Patel PM, Malik S | year = 2016 | title = Changes in mortality on weekend versus weekday admissions for Acute Coronary Syndrome in the United States over the past decade | journal = Int J Cardiol | volume = 210| pages = 164–172 | doi= 10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.02.087 | pmid=26950171 | pmc=4801736}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kostis W.J. |author2=Demissie K. |author3=Marcella S.W. |author4=Shao Y.-H. |author5=Wilson A.C. |author6=Moreyra A.E. | year = 2007 | title = Weekend versus weekday admission and mortality from myocardial infarction | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 356 | issue = 11| pages = 1099–1109 | doi=10.1056/nejmoa063355 | pmid=17360988}}</ref> This phenomenon is described as [[weekend effect]].<br />
<br />
== Valvular heart disease ==<br />
[[Valvular heart disease]] is characterized by damage to or defective in one of the four [[heart valve]]s: the mitral, aortic, tricuspid or pulmonary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=[Valvular heart disease is characterized by damage to or defective in one of the four heart valves: the mitral, aortic, tricuspid or pulmonary. "Valvular Heart Disease"]|title=Valvular Heart Disease}}</ref> Some types of valvular heart disease include [[Stenosis|valvular stenosis]], valvular prolapse and regurgitation.<br />
<br />
=== Oral manifestations ===<br />
Oral infections may pose risk during postoperative period of heart valve surgery. Oral health in patients scheduled for heart valve surgery is poorer than in individuals without valve disease.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Silvestre|first1=FJ|last2=Gil-Raga|first2=I|last3=Martinez-Herrera|first3=M|last4=Lauritano|first4=D|last5=Silvestre-Rangil|first5=J|date=2017|title=Prior oral conditions in patients undergoing heart valve surgery|journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry|volume=9|issue=11|pages=e1287–e1291|doi=10.4317/jced.53902|pmid=29302279|pmc=5741840|issn=1989-5488|doi-access=free}}</ref> Most of them experience periodontitis due to high [[dental plaque]] scores, reflecting poorer dental hygiene. This situation could favour the appearance of bacteremia following tooth brushing in these individuals. [[Bacteremia]] secondary to periodontal infection is known to be one of the primary causes of [[Infective endocarditis|infectious endocarditis]], particularly in patient with heart valve disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jowett|first1=N.|last2=Cabot|first2=L.|date=2000-09-23|title=Patients with cardiac disease: considerations for the dental practitioner|journal=British Dental Journal|volume=189|issue=6|pages=297–302|doi=10.1038/sj.bdj.4800750a|pmid=11060950|issn=0007-0610}}</ref> Therefore, treatment of dental disease should be done prior to performing heart surgery. Periodontal treatment is advised in patients with advanced [[Periodontal disease|periodontitis]], followed by [[Scaling and root planing|root planing]] and [[ultrasound]] treatment. Those teeth not amenable to treatment and with poor prognosis should be removed as pre-surgical preventive measures.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Dental management ===<br />
The two main concerns during dental treatment for people of patient with valvular heart disease are the risk of infective endocarditis and bleeding in anti coagulated patients. [[Endocarditis]] is more likely to occur in patients who have previously had endocarditis and those with certain cardiac lesions. Risk of a normally functioning prosthesis being infected after a dental procedure is probably no higher than risk in patient with damaged native valves. However, [[Death|mortality]] and [[Disease|morbidity]] is much higher should prosthesis become infected. Patient with native valve disease can often stop or reduce their anticoagulants, but those with prosthetic valves should not discontinue anticoagulants without cardiological advice. Mechanical mitral valves are prone to [[thrombosis]], which cause [[Embolism|emboli]] if adequate anti-coagulation is not maintained, although short term modification may be possible.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=ROSE|first1=LOUIS F.|last2=MEALEY|first2=BRIAN|last3=MINSK|first3=LAURA|last4=COHEN|first4=D. WALTER|title=Oral care for patients with cardiovascular disease and stroke|journal=The Journal of the American Dental Association|volume=133|pages=37S–44S|doi=10.14219/jada.archive.2002.0378|issn=0002-8177|year=2002|pmid=12085723}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Heart failure ==<br />
[[Heart failure]] (HF) is defined as the incapacity of the heart to function properly, pumping insufficient blood towards the tissues and leading to fluid accumulation within the lungs, liver and peripheral tissues.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Oral manifestations ===<br />
Most if not all patients with heart failure will be undergoing drug treatments for their condition and these drugs can produce a series of oral manifestation. In this context, [[ACE inhibitor|angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors]] such as captopril and enalapril can produce burning mouth sensation [[Lichenoid reaction due to drug|lichenoid reactions]] and a loss of taste sensation, while [[diuretic]]s like furosemide can produce xerostomia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cáceres|first1=Maria Teresa Fernández|last2=Ludovice|first2=Ana Cristina P. P.|last3=Brito|first3=Fabio Sândoli de|last4=Darrieux|first4=Francisco Carlos|last5=Neves|first5=Ricardo Simões|last6=Scanavacca|first6=Mauricio Ibrahim|last7=Sosa|first7=Eduardo A.|last8=Hachul|first8=Denise Tessariol|title=Efeito de anestésicos locais com e sem vasoconstritor em pacientes com arritmias ventriculares|journal=Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia|year=2008|volume=91|issue=3|pages=128–33, 142–7|doi=10.1590/s0066-782x2008001500002|pmid=18853053|issn=0066-782X|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Dental management ===<br />
Consultation with the supervising physician is highly advised in order to understand the patient's current condition and the medication prescribed. The patient should be receiving medical care, and heart failure should be compensated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MUZYKA|first=BRIAN C.|title=Atrial Fibrillation and ITS Relationship to Dental Care|journal=The Journal of the American Dental Association|volume=130|issue=7|pages=1080–1085|doi=10.14219/jada.archive.1999.0339|issn=0002-8177|year=1999|pmid=10422402}}</ref> Dental treatment is to be limited to patients who are in stable condition, since these people are at a high risk of developing questionable arrhythmias and even sudden death secondary to cardiopulmonary arrest. [[Psychological stress|Stress]] and [[anxiety]] are to be avoided during the visits, which in turn should be brief (< 30 minutes) and are to be scheduled for the morning sessions. The patient should be seated on the chair in a semi-supine position, with control of body movements (which should be slow), to avoid [[orthostatic hypotension]]. In patients who has been administered with digitalis agents (digoxin, methyl-digoxin), the [[Vasoconstriction|vasoconstrictor]] dose should be limited to two anaesthetic carpules, since this drug combination can cause arrhythmias.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Magarakis|first1=Michael|title=Surgical Management of Cardiovascular Thrombotic Conditions|date=2018|work=Cardiovascular Thrombus|pages=367–376|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-812615-8|last2=Macias|first2=Alejandro E.|last3=Ghodsizad|first3=Ali|last4=Salerno|first4=Tomas A.|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-812615-8.00025-9}}</ref> [[Aspirin]] (acetylsalicylic acid) can lead to fluid and sodium retention, and therefore should not be prescribed in patients with heart failure.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}<br />
<br />
In emergency (i.e., [[Pulmonary edema|lung edema]]), after contacting the emergency service, the patient should be seated with the legs lowered, and receiving nasal oxygen at a rate of 4–6 liters/minute. Sublingual [[Nitroglycerin (medication)|nitroglycerin tablets]] are indicated (0.4-0.8&nbsp;mg), and the dose may be repeated every 5 or 10 minutes if blood pressure is maintained.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
== Arrhythmia ==<br />
[[Arrhythmia]]s are variations in normal heart rate due to cardiac rhythm, frequency or contraction disorders. The most common type of cardiac arrhythmia is [[atrial fibrillation]].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Oral manifestations ===<br />
Many [[Antiarrhythmic agent|anti-arrhythmic drugs]] have side effects such as gingival hyperplasia or [[xerostomia]].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Dental management ===<br />
Consultation with the supervising physician is also advised in order to understand the patient's current condition and the type of arrhythmia involved, as well as the medication prescribed. It must be checked that the patient uses the medication correctly. Stress and anxiety can be reduced with [[anxiolytic]]s. Short visits in the morning are to be preferred.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gourraud|first1=Jean-Baptiste|last2=Barc|first2=Julien|last3=Thollet|first3=Aurélie|last4=Le Marec|first4=Hervé|last5=Probst|first5=Vincent|title=Brugada syndrome: Diagnosis, risk stratification and management|journal=Archives of Cardiovascular Diseases|volume=110|issue=3|pages=188–195|doi=10.1016/j.acvd.2016.09.009|issn=1875-2136|year=2017|pmid=28139454|doi-access=free}}</ref> Patient monitoring, with recording of the pulse, is indicated before treatment. It is very important to limit the use of vasoconstrictor in [[local anesthesia]], with no more than two carpules. The treatment planned should not be too long or complicated. Although modern [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemakers]] are more resistant to electromagnetic interferences, caution is required when using electrical devices like ultrasound and electric scalpels that might interfere with pacemakers – especially the older models, since such devices developed in the last 30 years are bipolar and are generally not affected by the small electromagnetic fields generated by dental equipment. It is therefore important to know the type of pacemaker, the degree of electromagnetic protection of the generator, and the nature of the arrhythmia. If arrhythmia develops during dental treatment, the procedure should be suspended, oxygen is to be given, and the patient vital signs are to be assessed: body temperature (normal values: 35.5-37oC), pulse (normal values: 60-100 bpm), respiratory frequency (normal values in adults: 14-20 cycles or respirations per minute), blood pressure (normal values: systolic blood pressure under 140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure under 90 mmHg). Sublingual nitrites are to be administered if there is chest pain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McDonald|first=Jay R.|title=Acute Infective Endocarditis|journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America|volume=23|issue=3|pages=643–664|doi=10.1016/j.idc.2009.04.013|issn=0891-5520|pmid=19665088|pmc=2726828|year=2009}}</ref> The patient should be placed in the [[Trendelenburg position]], with vagal maneuvering where necessary ([[valsalva maneuver]], massage in the [[Common carotid artery|carotid pulse]] region).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chaudhry|first1=Swantika|last2=Jaiswal|first2=Ritika|last3=Sachdeva|first3=Surender|title=Dental considerations in cardiovascular patients: A practical perspective|journal=Indian Heart Journal|volume=68|issue=4|pages=572–575|doi=10.1016/j.ihj.2015.11.034|issn=0019-4832|year=2016|pmid=27543484|pmc=4990738|doi-access=free}}</ref> The dental team should be prepared for basic [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] and initiation of the emergency procedure for evacuation to a hospital centre, if necessary.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Allergic acute coronary syndrome]] (Kounis syndrome)<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
{{Medical resources<br />
| DiseasesDB =<br />
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|24|9|i|20}}<br />
| ICD9 =<br />
| ICDO =<br />
| OMIM =<br />
| MedlinePlus =<br />
| eMedicineSubj = emerg<br />
| eMedicineTopic = 31<br />
| MeshID = D054058<br />
}}<br />
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{{Heart diseases}}<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Acute Coronary Syndrome}}<br />
[[Category:Medical emergencies]]<br />
[[Category:Ischemic heart diseases]]<br />
[[Category:Syndromes affecting the heart]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acute_coronary_syndrome&diff=1098411981Acute coronary syndrome2022-07-15T18:27:54Z<p>Nickwilso: Illegible</p>
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<div>{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}<br />
{{MOS|date=February 2021|reason=MEDMOS}}<br />
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{{Infobox medical condition (new)<br />
| name = Acute coronary syndrome<br />
| image = File:Heart attack diagram.png<br />
| caption = Blockage of a coronary artery<br />
| field = [[Cardiology]]<br />
| symptoms =<br />
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'''Acute coronary syndrome''' ('''ACS''') is a [[syndrome]] (a set of [[signs and symptoms]]) due to decreased [[blood flow]] in the [[coronary artery|coronary arteries]] such that part of the [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] is unable to function properly or [[Necrosis|dies]].<ref name=NSTEMI2014>{{cite journal|last1=Amsterdam|first1=E. A.|last2=Wenger|first2=N. K.|last3=Brindis|first3=R. G.|last4=Casey|first4=D. E.|last5=Ganiats|first5=T. G.|last6=Holmes|first6=D. R.|last7=Jaffe|first7=A. S.|last8=Jneid|first8=H.|last9=Kelly|first9=R. F.|last10=Kontos|first10=M. C.|last11=Levine|first11=G. N.|last12=Liebson|first12=P. R.|last13=Mukherjee|first13=D.|last14=Peterson|first14=E. D.|last15=Sabatine|first15=M. S.|last16=Smalling|first16=R. W.|last17=Zieman|first17=S. J.|title=2014 AHA/ACC Guideline for the Management of Patients With Non-ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines|journal=Circulation|date=23 September 2014|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000134|pmid=25249585|volume=130|issue=25|pages=e344–e426|doi-access=free}}</ref> The most common symptom is centrally located [[chest pain]], often radiating to the left shoulder<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodacre S, Pett P, Arnold J, Chawla A, Hollingsworth J, Roe D, Crowder S, Mann C, Pitcher D, Brett C |title=Clinical diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome in patients with chest pain and a normal or non-diagnostic electrocardiogram |journal=Emergency Medicine Journal |volume=26 |issue=12 |pages=866–870 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19934131 |doi=10.1136/emj.2008.064428 |url=http://emj.bmj.com/content/26/12/866.long |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405172642/http://emj.bmj.com/content/26/12/866.long |archive-date=2017-04-05 |doi-access=free }}</ref> or angle of the jaw, and associated with [[nausea]] and [[diaphoresis|sweating]]. Many people with acute coronary syndromes present with symptoms other than chest pain, particularly women, older people, and people with [[diabetes mellitus]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Canto JG, Shlipak MG, Rogers WJ |title=Prevalence, Clinical Characteristics, and Mortality among Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction Presenting Without Chest Pain |journal=JAMA |volume=283 |issue=24 |pages=3223–3229, vi |date=June 2000 |pmid=10866870 |doi=10.1001/jama.283.24.3223 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Acute coronary syndrome is subdivided in three scenarios depending on the duration of symptoms, the presence of [[electrocardiogram|ECG]] changes and blood test results:<ref name="pmid12791748">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grech ED, Ramsdale DR |title=Acute coronary syndrome: unstable angina and non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction |journal=BMJ |volume=326 |issue=7401 |pages=1259–61 |date=June 2003 |pmid=12791748 |pmc=1126130 |doi=10.1136/bmj.326.7401.1259 }}</ref> [[ST elevation myocardial infarction]] (STEMI, 30%), [[non-ST elevation myocardial infarction]] (NSTEMI, 25%), or [[unstable angina]] (38%).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Torres M, Moayedi S |title=Evaluation of the acutely dyspneic elderly patient |journal=Clin. Geriatr. Med. |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=307–25, vi |date=May 2007 |pmid=17462519 |doi=10.1016/j.cger.2007.01.007 }}</ref> Generally, when symptoms occur for less than 30 minutes, it is unstable angina. When symptoms are prolonged for more than 30 minutes, the diagnosis is acute [[myocardial infarction]].<ref name="urlDorlands Medical Dictionary:acute coronary syndrome">{{cite web |url=http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=/ppdocs/us/common/dorlands/dorland/nine/14170699.htm |title=Dorlands Medical Dictionary:acute coronary syndrome |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907123027/http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands_split.jsp?pg=%2Fppdocs%2Fus%2Fcommon%2Fdorlands%2Fdorland%2Fnine%2F14170699.htm |archive-date=2009-09-07 }}</ref><br />
<br />
ACS should be distinguished from [[angina pectoris|''stable'' angina]], which develops during physical activity or stress and resolves at rest. In contrast with stable angina, unstable angina occurs suddenly, often at rest or with minimal exertion, or at lesser degrees of exertion than the individual's previous angina ("crescendo angina"). New-onset angina is also considered unstable angina, since it suggests a new problem in a coronary artery.<br />
<br />
==Signs and symptoms==<br />
The cardinal symptom of critically decreased blood flow to the heart is chest pain, experienced as tightness around or over the chest and (often, but not always) radiating to the left arm and the left angle of the jaw. This may be associated with [[diaphoresis]] (sweating), [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], as well as [[dyspnea|shortness of breath]]. In many cases, the sensation is "atypical", with pain experienced in different ways or even being completely absent (which is more likely in female patients and those with [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]]). Some may report [[palpitation]]s, anxiety or a [[sense of impending doom]] ([[angor animi]]) and a feeling of being acutely ill. The description of the chest discomfort as a pressure has little utility in aiding a diagnosis as it is not [[Sensitivity and specificity|specific]] for ACS.<ref name=ER09>{{cite journal |vauthors=Woo KM, Schneider JI |title=High-risk chief complaints I: chest pain--the big three |journal=Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=685–712, x |date=November 2009 |pmid=19932401 |doi=10.1016/j.emc.2009.07.007 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Though ACS is usually associated with [[coronary thrombosis]], it can also be associated with [[cocaine]] use.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Achar SA, Kundu S, Norcross WA |title=Diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=119–26 |year=2005 |pmid=16035692 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20050701/119.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009042441/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20050701/119.html |archive-date=2007-10-09 }}</ref> Chest pain with features characteristic of cardiac origin (angina) can also be precipitated by profound [[anemia]], [[bradycardia|brady-]] or [[tachycardia]] (excessively slow or rapid heart rate), [[hypotension|low]] or [[hypertensive crisis|high blood pressure]], severe [[aortic stenosis|aortic valve stenosis]] (narrowing of the valve at the beginning of the aorta), [[pulmonary hypertension|pulmonary artery hypertension]] and a number of other conditions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thecardiologyadvisor.com/home/decision-support-in-medicine/cardiology/chest-pain-in-the-emergency-department-differential-diagnosis/|title=Chest Pain in the Emergency Department: Differential Diagnosis|date=2019-01-20|website=The Cardiology Advisor|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-25}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Pathophysiology==<br />
In those who have ACS, [[atheroma]] rupture is most commonly found 60% when compared to atheroma erosion (30%), thus causes the formation of [[thrombus]] which block the coronary arteries. Plaque rupture is responsible for 60% in ST elevated [[myocardial infarction]] (STEMI) while plaque erosion is responsible for 30% of the STEMI and vice versa for Non ST elevated myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). In plaque rupture, the content of the plaque are lipid rich, collagen poor, with abundant inflammation which is [[macrophage]] predominant, and covered with a thin fibrous cap. Meanwhile, in plaque erosion, the plaque is rich with [[extracellular matrix]], [[proteoglycan]], [[glycoaminoglycan]], but without fibrous caps, no inflammatory cells, and no large lipid core. After the [[coronary arteries]] are unblocked, there is a risk of [[reperfusion injury]] due spreading inflammatory mediators throughout the body. Investigations is still underway on the role of [[Cyclophilin D]] in reducing the reperfusion injury.<ref name="Alon 2016">{{cite journal |first1=Alon |last1=Eisen |first2=Robert P |last2=Giugliano |first3=Eugene |last3=Braunwald |title=Updates on acute coronary syndrome: A review |journal=JAMA Cardiology |date=20 July 2016 |volume=1 |issue=16 |pages=718–730 |doi=10.1001/jamacardio.2016.2049 |pmid=27438381}}</ref><br />
<br />
Other, less common, causes of acute coronary syndrome include spontaneous coronary artery dissection <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Franke |first1=Kyle B |last2=Wong |first2=Dennis TL |last3=Baumann |first3=Angus |last4=Nicholls |first4=Stephen J |last5=Gulati |first5=Rajiv |last6=Psaltis |first6=Peter J |title=Current state-of-play in spontaneous coronary artery dissection |journal=Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy |date=April 4, 2019 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=281–298 |doi=10.21037/cdt.2019.04.03 |pmid=31275818 |url=http://cdt.amegroups.com/article/view/25190/23518|pmc=6603494 }}</ref> and myocardial infarction in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease (MINOCA).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tamis-Holland |first1=JE |title=Diagnosis and Management of MINOCA Patients |journal=Circulation |date=March 27, 2019 |volume=139 |issue=18 |pages=891–908 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000670 |pmid=30913893 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Diagnosis==<br />
[[Image:ACS scheme.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Classification of acute coronary syndromes.<ref name="Alpert-2000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alpert JS, Thygesen K, Antman E, Bassand JP | title=Myocardial infarction redefined--a consensus document of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year=2000 | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=959–69 | pmid=10987628 | doi=10.1016/S0735-1097(00)00804-4| doi-access=free }}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
===Electrocardiogram===<br />
In the setting of acute chest pain, the [[electrocardiogram]] is the investigation that most reliably distinguishes between various causes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chun AA, McGee SR |title=Bedside diagnosis of coronary artery disease: a systematic review |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=117 |issue=5 |pages=334–43 |year=2004 |pmid=15336583 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.03.021}}</ref> The ECG should be done as early as practicable, including in the ambulance if possible.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neumar|first1=RW|last2=Shuster|first2=M|last3=Callaway|first3=CW|last4=Gent|first4=LM|last5=Atkins|first5=DL|last6=Bhanji|first6=F|last7=Brooks|first7=SC|last8=de Caen|first8=AR|last9=Donnino|first9=MW|last10=Ferrer|first10=JM|last11=Kleinman|first11=ME|last12=Kronick|first12=SL|last13=Lavonas|first13=EJ|last14=Link|first14=MS|last15=Mancini|first15=ME|last16=Morrison|first16=LJ|last17=O'Connor|first17=RE|last18=Samson|first18=RA|last19=Schexnayder|first19=SM|last20=Singletary|first20=EM|last21=Sinz|first21=EH|last22=Travers|first22=AH|last23=Wyckoff|first23=MH|last24=Hazinski|first24=MF|title=Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=3 November 2015|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S315–67|pmid=26472989|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000252|doi-access=free}}</ref> If this indicates acute heart damage (elevation in the ''ST segment'', new [[left bundle branch block]]), treatment for a heart attack in the form of [[angioplasty]] or [[thrombolysis]] is indicated immediately (see below). In the absence of such changes, it is not possible to immediately distinguish between unstable angina and NSTEMI.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
<br />
===Imaging and blood tests===<br />
As it is only one of the many potential causes of [[chest pain]], the patient usually has a number of tests in the [[emergency department]], such as a [[chest X-ray]], [[blood test]]s (including [[cardiac marker|myocardial markers]] such as [[troponin]] I or T, and [[Heart-type fatty acid binding protein|H-FABP]] and/or a [[D-dimer]] if a [[pulmonary embolism]] is suspected), and telemetry (monitoring of the heart rhythm).{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
<br />
Combination of troponin levels (less than 5&nbsp;ng/l) with low [[TIMI]] scores can help to predict those with low possibility of myocardial infarction and discharge them safely from the emergency department.<ref name="Alon 2016"/> [[Coronary CT angiography]] combined with Troponin levels is also helpful to [[triage]] those who are susceptible to ACS. F-fluoride [[positron emission tomography]] is also helpful in identifying those with high risk, lipid-rich coronary plaques.<ref name="Alon 2016"/><br />
<br />
===Prediction scores===<br />
The ACI-TIPI score can be used to aid diagnosis; using seven variables from the admission record, this score predicts crudely which patients are likely to have myocardial ischemia.<ref name="pmid2072767">{{cite journal |vauthors=Selker HP, Griffith JL, D'Agostino RB |title=A tool for judging coronary care unit admission appropriateness, valid for both real-time and retrospective use. A time-insensitive predictive instrument (TIPI) for acute cardiac ischemia: a multicenter study |journal=Medical Care |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=610–27 |year=1991 |pmid=2072767 |doi=10.1097/00005650-199107000-00002 |s2cid=31892999 }}</ref> For example, according to a [[randomized controlled trial]], males having chest pain with normal or non-diagnostic [[ECG]] are at higher risk for having acute coronary syndrome than women.<ref name="pmid19934131">{{cite journal|title=Clinical diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome in patients with chest pain and a normal or non-diagnostic electrocardiogram.|pmid=19934131|year=2009|journal=Emergency Medicine Journal |doi=10.1136/emj.2008.064428| last1=Goodacre| first1=S| last2=Pett| first2=P| last3=Arnold| first3=J| last4=Chawla| first4=A| last5=Hollingsworth| first5=J| last6=Roe| first6=D| last7=Crowder| first7=S| last8=Mann| first8=C| last9=Pitcher| first9=D| last10=Brett| first10=C| volume=26| issue=12| pages=866–70| doi-access=free}}</ref> In this study, the [[sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]] was 65.2% and [[specificity (tests)|specificity]] was 44%. This particular study had an 8.4% prevalence of acute coronary syndrome, which means the [[positive predictive value]] of being a male with chest pain and having coronary syndrome is 9.6% and [[negative predictive value]] is 93.2% ( [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720105144/http://medinformatics.uthscsa.edu/calculator/calc.shtml?calc_dx_SnSp.shtml%3Fprevalence=8.4&sensitivity=65.2&specificity=44 click here] to adjust these results for people at higher or lower risk of acute coronary syndrome).{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
In a second [[cohort study]], exercise electrocardiography was similarly found to be a poor predictor of acute coronary syndrome at follow-up.<ref name="pmid19008264">{{cite journal|title=Incremental prognostic value of the exercise electrocardiogram in the initial assessment of patients with suspected angina: cohort study.|year=2008|journal=BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) |pmid=19008264|pmc=2583389|doi=10.1136/bmj.a2240| last1=Sekhri| first1=N| last2=Feder| first2=GS| last3=Junghans| first3=C| last4=Eldridge| first4=S| last5=Umaipalan| first5=A| last6=Madhu| first6=R| last7=Hemingway| first7=H| last8=Timmis| first8=AD| volume=337| pages=a2240}}</ref> Of the patients who had a coronary event at 6 years of follow up, 47% had a negative ECG at the start of the study. With an average follow up of 2.21 years the [[receiver operating characteristic]] curves gave resting ECG a score of 0.72 and exercise ECG a score of 0.74.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
There are not only prediction scores for diagnosis of ACS, but also prognosis. Most notably, the GRACE ACS Risk and Mortality score helps diagnose, and based upon that score predicts mortality rate of a given patient. It takes into account both clinical (blood pressure, heart rate, EKG findings) and medical history in its scoring system.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fox KA, Dabbous OH, Goldberg RJ, Pieper KS, Eagle KA, Van de Werf F, Avezum A, Goodman SG, [[Marcus Flather|Flather MD]], ((Anderson FA Jr)), Granger CB | title=Prediction of risk of death and myocardial infarction in the six months after presentation with acute coronary syndrome: prospective multinational observational study (GRACE). | journal=BMJ | year=2006 | volume=333 | issue=7578| pages=1091| doi= 10.1136/bmj.38985.646481.55| pmid=17032691 | pmc=1661748}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Prevention==<br />
Acute coronary syndrome often reflects a degree of damage to the coronaries by [[atherosclerosis]]. Primary prevention of atherosclerosis is controlling the risk factors: healthy eating, exercise, treatment for [[hypertension]] and [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], avoiding [[tobacco smoking|smoking]] and controlling [[cholesterol]] levels; in patients with significant risk factors, [[aspirin]] has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. Secondary prevention is discussed in [[myocardial infarction]].{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
<br />
After a ban on smoking in all enclosed public places was introduced in Scotland in March 2006, there was a 17% reduction in hospital admissions for acute coronary syndrome. 67% of the decrease occurred in non-smokers.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1056/NEJMsa0706740| title=Smoke-free Legislation and Hospitalizations for Acute Coronary Syndrome| year=2008|vauthors=Pell JP, Haw S, Cobbe S | journal=New England Journal of Medicine| volume=359| pages=482–91| pmid=18669427| issue=5|display-authors=etal| hdl=1893/16659| url=http://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/16659/1/Haw_Smoke_free_legislation_and_hospitalisations_acute_coronary_syndrome.pdf| hdl-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Treatment==<br />
{{main|Management of acute coronary syndrome}}<br />
People with presumed ACS are typically treated with aspirin, [[clopidogrel]] or [[ticagrelor]], [[nitroglycerin]], and if the chest discomfort persists [[morphine]].<ref name=AHA10>{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Connor RE, Brady W, Brooks SC |title=Part 10: acute coronary syndromes: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care |journal=Circulation |volume=122 |issue=18 Suppl 3 |pages=S787–817 |date=November 2010 |pmid=20956226 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.971028 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> Other [[analgesics]] such as [[nitrous oxide]] are of unknown benefit.<ref name=AHA10/> [[Angiography]] is recommended in those who have either new [[ST elevation]] or a new left or right [[bundle branch block]] on their ECG.<ref name=NSTEMI2014/> Unless the person has low oxygen levels additional oxygen does not appear to be useful.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neumar|first1=RW|last2=Shuster|first2=M|last3=Callaway|first3=CW|last4=Gent|first4=LM|last5=Atkins|first5=DL|last6=Bhanji|first6=F|last7=Brooks|first7=SC|last8=de Caen|first8=AR|last9=Donnino|first9=MW|last10=Ferrer|first10=JM|last11=Kleinman|first11=ME|last12=Kronick|first12=SL|last13=Lavonas|first13=EJ|last14=Link|first14=MS|last15=Mancini|first15=ME|last16=Morrison|first16=LJ|last17=O'Connor|first17=RE|last18=Samson|first18=RA|last19=Schexnayder|first19=SM|last20=Singletary|first20=EM|last21=Sinz|first21=EH|last22=Travers|first22=AH|last23=Wyckoff|first23=MH|last24=Hazinski|first24=MF|title=Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.|journal=Circulation|date=3 November 2015|volume=132|issue=18 Suppl 2|pages=S315–67|pmid=26472989|doi=10.1161/cir.0000000000000252|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
===STEMI===<br />
If the ECG confirms changes suggestive of [[myocardial infarction]] (ST elevations in specific leads, a new left bundle branch block or a true posterior MI pattern), [[thrombolytics]] may be administered or [[angioplasty|primary coronary angioplasty]] may be performed. In the former, medication is injected that stimulates [[fibrinolysis]], destroying blood clots obstructing the [[coronary artery|coronary arteries]]. In the latter, a flexible catheter is passed via the femoral or radial [[arteries]] and advanced to the heart to identify blockages in the coronaries. When occlusions are found, they can be intervened upon mechanically with [[angioplasty]] and usually [[stent]] deployment if a lesion, termed the ''culprit'' lesion, is thought to be causing myocardial damage. Data suggest that rapid [[triage]], transfer and treatment is essential.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Blankenship JC, Skelding KA |year=2008 |title=Rapid Triage, Transfer, and Treatment with Percutaneous Coronary Intervention for Patients with ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction |url=http://www.remedicajournals.com/Acute-Coronary-Syndromes/showarticleattachment.aspx?aaid=4400&PortalID=71 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715172024/http://www.remedicajournals.com/Acute-Coronary-Syndromes/showarticleattachment.aspx?aaid=4400&PortalID=71 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-07-15 |journal=Acute Coronary Syndromes |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=59–65 }}</ref> The time frame for door-to-needle thrombolytic administration according to [[American College of Cardiology]] (ACC) guidelines should be within 30 minutes, whereas the door-to-balloon Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI) time should be less than 90 minutes. It was found that [[thrombolysis]] is more likely to be delivered within the established ACC guidelines among patients with [[STEMI]] as compared to PCI according to a [[case control]] study.<ref name="pmid19898701">{{cite journal|title=Thrombolysis versus primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST elevation myocardial infarctions at Chilliwack General Hospital.|year=2009|journal=The Canadian Journal of Cardiology |pmid=19898701|pmc=2776568|doi=10.1016/S0828-282X(09)70165-5| last1=Janda| first1=SP| last2=Tan| first2=N| volume=25| issue=11| pages=e382–4}}</ref><br />
<br />
===NSTEMI and NSTE-ACS===<br />
If the ECG does not show typical changes, the term "non-ST segment elevation ACS" is applied. The patient may still have had a "non-ST elevation MI" (NSTEMI). The accepted management of unstable angina and acute coronary syndrome is therefore empirical treatment with aspirin, a second [[platelet inhibitor]] such as clopidogrel, prasugrel or ticagrelor, and heparin (usually a [[low-molecular weight heparin]]), with intravenous [[Glyceryl trinitrate (pharmacology)|nitroglycerin]] and [[opioid]]s if the pain persists. The heparin-like drug known as [[fondaparinux]] appears to be better than [[enoxaparin]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bundhun|first1=PK|last2=Shaik|first2=M|last3=Yuan|first3=J|title=Choosing between Enoxaparin and Fondaparinux for the management of patients with acute coronary syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=BMC Cardiovascular Disorders|date=8 May 2017|volume=17|issue=1|pages=116|pmid=28482804|doi=10.1186/s12872-017-0552-z|pmc=5422952}}</ref><br />
<br />
A blood test is generally performed for cardiac troponins twelve hours after onset of the pain. If this is positive, [[coronary angiography]] is typically performed on an urgent basis, as this is highly predictive of a heart attack in the near-future. If the troponin is negative, a treadmill exercise test or a thallium scintigram may be requested.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
<br />
If there is no evidence of ST segment elevation on the [[electrocardiogram]], delaying urgent [[angioplasty]] until the next morning is not inferior to doing so immediately.<ref name="pmid19724041">{{cite journal|vauthors=Montalescot G, Cayla G, Collet JP, Elhadad S, Beygui F, Le Breton H | title=Immediate vs delayed intervention for acute coronary syndromes: a randomized clinical trial. | journal=JAMA | year= 2009 | volume= 302 | issue= 9 | pages= 947–54 | pmid=19724041 | doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1267 |display-authors=etal| doi-access=free }}</ref> Using [[statins]] in the first 14 days after ACS reduces the risk of further ACS.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vale|first1=N|last2=Nordmann|first2=AJ|last3=Schwartz|first3=GG|last4=de Lemos|first4=J|last5=Colivicchi|first5=F|last6=den Hartog|first6=F|last7=Ostadal|first7=P|last8=Macin|first8=SM|last9=Liem|first9=AH|last10=Mills|first10=EJ|last11=Bhatnagar|first11=N|last12=Bucher|first12=HC|last13=Briel|first13=M|title=Statins for acute coronary syndrome.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=1 September 2014|volume=9|issue=9|pages=CD006870|pmid=25178118|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006870.pub3}}</ref><br />
<br />
In a [[cohort study]] comparing [[NSTEMI]] and [[STEMI]], people with NSTEMI had a similar risk of death at one year after [[Percutaneous coronary intervention|PCI]] as compared to people with STEMI (3.4% vs 4.4%).<ref name="pmid16860018">{{Cite journal | last1 = Cox | first1 = D. A. | last2 = Stone | first2 = G. W. | last3 = Grines | first3 = C. L. | last4 = Stuckey | first4 = T. | last5 = Zimetbaum | first5 = P. J. | last6 = Tcheng | first6 = J. E. | last7 = Turco | first7 = M. | last8 = Garcia | first8 = E. | last9 = Guagliumi | first9 = G. | last10 = Iwaoka | first10 = R. S. | last11 = Mehran | first11 = R. | last12 = O'Neill | first12 = W. W. | last13 = Lansky | first13 = A. J. | last14 = Griffin | first14 = J. J. | last15 = Cadillac | first15 = I. | title = Comparative Early and Late Outcomes After Primary Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in ST-Segment Elevation and Non–ST-Segment Elevation Acute Myocardial Infarction (from the CADILLAC Trial) | doi = 10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.01.102 | journal = The American Journal of Cardiology | volume = 98 | issue = 3 | pages = 331–337 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16860018}}</ref> However, NSTEMI had significantly more "major cardiac events" (death, [[myocardial infarction]], disabling [[stroke]], or requiring [[revascularization]]) at one year (24.0% vs 16.6%).{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
[[Cocaine]]-associated ACS should be managed in a manner similar to other patients with acute coronary syndrome except [[beta blocker]]s should not be used and [[benzodiazepines]] should be administered early.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=McCord J, Jneid H, Hollander JE |title=Management of cocaine-associated chest pain and myocardial infarction: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Acute Cardiac Care Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology |journal=Circulation |volume=117 |issue=14 |pages=1897–907 |date=April 2008 |pmid=18347214 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.188950 |display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Prognosis==<br />
===TIMI score===<br />
The [[TIMI]] risk score can identify high risk patients in non-ST segment elevation MI ACS<ref name="pmid10938172">{{cite journal |vauthors=Antman EM, Cohen M, Bernink PJ |title=The TIMI risk score for unstable angina/non-ST elevation MI: A method for prognostication and therapeutic decision making |journal=JAMA |volume=284 |issue=7 |pages=835–42 |year=2000 |pmid=10938172 |doi=10.1001/jama.284.7.835|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free }}</ref> and has been independently validated.<ref name="pmid16365321">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pollack CV, Sites FD, Shofer FS, Sease KL, Hollander JE |title=Application of the TIMI risk score for unstable angina and non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome to an unselected emergency department chest pain population |journal=Academic Emergency Medicine |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=13–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16365321 |doi=10.1197/j.aem.2005.06.031|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid16934646">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chase M, Robey JL, Zogby KE, Sease KL, Shofer FS, Hollander JE |title=Prospective validation of the Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction Risk Score in the emergency department chest pain population |journal=Annals of Emergency Medicine |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=252–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16934646 |doi=10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.01.032}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE) score ===<br />
Based on a global registry of 102,341 patients, the [[GRACE Risk Score]] estimates in-hospital, 6 months, 1 year, and 3-year mortality risk after a heart attack. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170805140647/http://www.gracescore.org/WebSite/ GRACE Score 2.0 Calculator].<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
=== Killip class ===<br />
The [[Killip class]]ification consists of 4 classes based on clinical symptoms. It predicts 30-day mortality after myocardial infarction.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Killip|first1=Thomas|last2=Kimball|first2=John T.|title=Treatment of myocardial infarction in a coronary care unit|journal=The American Journal of Cardiology|volume=20|issue=4|pages=457–464|doi=10.1016/0002-9149(67)90023-9|pmid=6059183|year=1967}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Biomarkers for diagnosis===<br />
The aim of diagnostic markers is to identify patients with ACS even when there is no evidence of heart muscle damage.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
* Ischemia-Modified Albumin (IMA) – In cases of Ischemia – Albumin undergoes a conformational change and loses its ability to bind transitional metals (copper or cobalt). IMA can be used to assess the proportion of modified albumin in ischemia. Its use is limited to ruling out ischemia rather than a diagnostic test for the occurrence of ischemia.<br />
* [[Myeloperoxidase]] (MPO) – The levels of circulating MPO, a leukocyte enzyme, elevate early after ACS and can be used as an early marker for the condition.<br />
* Glycogen Phosphorylase Isoenzyme BB-([[GPBB]]) is an early marker of cardiac ischemia and is one of three [[isoenzymes|isoenzyme]] of Glycogen Phosphorylase.<br />
* [[Troponin]] is a late cardiac marker of ACS<br />
<br />
===Biomarkers for risk determination===<br />
The aim of prognostic markers is to reflect different components of pathophysiology of ACS. For example:{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
* Natriuretic peptide – Both B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal Pro BNP can be applied to predict the risk of death and heart failure following ACS.<br />
* Monocyte chemo attractive protein (MCP)-1 – has been shown in a number of studies to identify patients with a higher risk of adverse outcomes after ACS.<br />
<br />
===Day of admission===<br />
Studies have shown that for ACS patients, weekend admission is associated with higher mortality and lower utilization of invasive cardiac procedures, and those who did undergo these interventions had higher rates of mortality and complications than their weekday counterparts. This data leads to the possible conclusion that access to diagnostic/interventional procedures may be contingent upon the day of admission, which may impact mortality.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Khoshchehreh M, Groves EM, Tehrani D, Amin A, Patel PM, Malik S | year = 2016 | title = Changes in mortality on weekend versus weekday admissions for Acute Coronary Syndrome in the United States over the past decade | journal = Int J Cardiol | volume = 210| pages = 164–172 | doi= 10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.02.087 | pmid=26950171 | pmc=4801736}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Kostis W.J. |author2=Demissie K. |author3=Marcella S.W. |author4=Shao Y.-H. |author5=Wilson A.C. |author6=Moreyra A.E. | year = 2007 | title = Weekend versus weekday admission and mortality from myocardial infarction | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 356 | issue = 11| pages = 1099–1109 | doi=10.1056/nejmoa063355 | pmid=17360988}}</ref> This phenomenon is described as [[weekend effect]].<br />
<br />
== Valvular heart disease ==<br />
[[Valvular heart disease]] is characterized by damage to or defective in one of the four [[heart valve]]s: the mitral, aortic, tricuspid or pulmonary.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=[Valvular heart disease is characterized by damage to or defective in one of the four heart valves: the mitral, aortic, tricuspid or pulmonary. "Valvular Heart Disease"]|title=Valvular Heart Disease}}</ref> Some types of valvular heart disease include [[Stenosis|valvular stenosis]], valvular prolapse and regurgitation.<br />
<br />
=== Oral manifestations ===<br />
Oral infections may pose risk during postoperative period of heart valve surgery. Oral health in patients scheduled for heart valve surgery is poorer than in individuals without valve disease.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Silvestre|first1=FJ|last2=Gil-Raga|first2=I|last3=Martinez-Herrera|first3=M|last4=Lauritano|first4=D|last5=Silvestre-Rangil|first5=J|date=2017|title=Prior oral conditions in patients undergoing heart valve surgery|journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry|volume=9|issue=11|pages=e1287–e1291|doi=10.4317/jced.53902|pmid=29302279|pmc=5741840|issn=1989-5488|doi-access=free}}</ref> Most of them experience periodontitis due to high [[dental plaque]] scores, reflecting poorer dental hygiene. This situation could favour the appearance of bacteremia following tooth brushing in these individuals. [[Bacteremia]] secondary to periodontal infection is known to be one of the primary causes of [[Infective endocarditis|infectious endocarditis]], particularly in patient with heart valve disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jowett|first1=N.|last2=Cabot|first2=L.|date=2000-09-23|title=Patients with cardiac disease: considerations for the dental practitioner|journal=British Dental Journal|volume=189|issue=6|pages=297–302|doi=10.1038/sj.bdj.4800750a|pmid=11060950|issn=0007-0610}}</ref> Therefore, treatment of dental disease should be done prior to performing heart surgery. Periodontal treatment is advised in patients with advanced [[Periodontal disease|periodontitis]], followed by [[Scaling and root planing|root planing]] and [[ultrasound]] treatment. Those teeth not amenable to treatment and with poor prognosis should be removed as pre-surgical preventive measures.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Dental management ===<br />
The two main concerns during dental treatment for people of patient with valvular heart disease are the risk of infective endocarditis and bleeding in anti coagulated patients. [[Endocarditis]] is more likely to occur in patients who have previously had endocarditis and those with certain cardiac lesions. Risk of a normally functioning prosthesis being infected after a dental procedure is probably no higher than risk in patient with damaged native valves. However, [[Death|mortality]] and [[Disease|morbidity]] is much higher should prosthesis become infected. Patient with native valve disease can often stop or reduce their anticoagulants, but those with prosthetic valves should not discontinue anticoagulants without cardiological advice. Mechanical mitral valves are prone to [[thrombosis]], which cause [[Embolism|emboli]] if adequate anti-coagulation is not maintained, although short term modification may be possible.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=ROSE|first1=LOUIS F.|last2=MEALEY|first2=BRIAN|last3=MINSK|first3=LAURA|last4=COHEN|first4=D. WALTER|title=Oral care for patients with cardiovascular disease and stroke|journal=The Journal of the American Dental Association|volume=133|pages=37S–44S|doi=10.14219/jada.archive.2002.0378|issn=0002-8177|year=2002|pmid=12085723}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Heart failure ==<br />
[[Heart failure]] (HF) is defined as the incapacity of the heart to function properly, pumping insufficient blood towards the tissues and leading to fluid accumulation within the lungs, liver and peripheral tissues.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Oral manifestations ===<br />
Most if not all patients with heart failure will be undergoing drug treatments for their condition and these drugs can produce a series of oral manifestation. In this context, [[ACE inhibitor|angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors]] such as captopril and enalapril can produce burning mouth sensation [[Lichenoid reaction due to drug|lichenoid reactions]] and a loss of taste sensation, while [[diuretic]]s like furosemide can produce xerostomia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cáceres|first1=Maria Teresa Fernández|last2=Ludovice|first2=Ana Cristina P. P.|last3=Brito|first3=Fabio Sândoli de|last4=Darrieux|first4=Francisco Carlos|last5=Neves|first5=Ricardo Simões|last6=Scanavacca|first6=Mauricio Ibrahim|last7=Sosa|first7=Eduardo A.|last8=Hachul|first8=Denise Tessariol|title=Efeito de anestésicos locais com e sem vasoconstritor em pacientes com arritmias ventriculares|journal=Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia|year=2008|volume=91|issue=3|pages=128–33, 142–7|doi=10.1590/s0066-782x2008001500002|pmid=18853053|issn=0066-782X|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Dental management ===<br />
Consultation with the supervising physician is highly advised in order to understand the patient's current condition and the medication prescribed. The patient should be receiving medical care, and heart failure should be compensated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=MUZYKA|first=BRIAN C.|title=Atrial Fibrillation and ITS Relationship to Dental Care|journal=The Journal of the American Dental Association|volume=130|issue=7|pages=1080–1085|doi=10.14219/jada.archive.1999.0339|issn=0002-8177|year=1999|pmid=10422402}}</ref> Dental treatment is to be limited to patients who are in stable condition, since these people are at a high risk of developing questionable arrhythmias and even sudden death secondary to cardiopulmonary arrest. [[Psychological stress|Stress]] and [[anxiety]] are to be avoided during the visits, which in turn should be brief (< 30 minutes) and are to be scheduled for the morning sessions. The patient should be seated on the chair in a semi-supine position, with control of body movements (which should be slow), to avoid [[orthostatic hypotension]]. In patients who has been administered with digitalis agents (digoxin, methyl-digoxin), the [[Vasoconstriction|vasoconstrictor]] dose should be limited to two anaesthetic carpules, since this drug combination can cause arrhythmias.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Magarakis|first1=Michael|title=Surgical Management of Cardiovascular Thrombotic Conditions|date=2018|work=Cardiovascular Thrombus|pages=367–376|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-812615-8|last2=Macias|first2=Alejandro E.|last3=Ghodsizad|first3=Ali|last4=Salerno|first4=Tomas A.|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-812615-8.00025-9}}</ref> [[Aspirin]] (acetylsalicylic acid) can lead to fluid and sodium retention, and therefore should not be prescribed in patients with heart failure.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}<br />
<br />
In emergency (i.e., [[Pulmonary edema|lung edema]]), after contacting the emergency service, the patient should be seated with the legs lowered, and receiving nasal oxygen at a rate of 4–6 liters/minute. Sublingual [[Nitroglycerin (medication)|nitroglycerin tablets]] are indicated (0.4-0.8&nbsp;mg), and the dose may be repeated every 5 or 10 minutes if blood pressure is maintained.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
== Arrhythmia ==<br />
[[Arrhythmia]]s are variations in normal heart rate due to cardiac rhythm, frequency or contraction disorders. The most common type of cardiac arrhythmia is [[atrial fibrillation]].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Oral manifestations ===<br />
Many [[Antiarrhythmic agent|anti-arrhythmic drugs]] have side effects such as gingival hyperplasia or [[xerostomia]].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Dental management ===<br />
Consultation with the supervising physician is also advised in order to understand the patient's current condition and the type of arrhythmia involved, as well as the medication prescribed. It must be checked that the patient uses the medication correctly. Stress and anxiety can be reduced with [[anxiolytic]]s. Short visits in the morning are to be preferred.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gourraud|first1=Jean-Baptiste|last2=Barc|first2=Julien|last3=Thollet|first3=Aurélie|last4=Le Marec|first4=Hervé|last5=Probst|first5=Vincent|title=Brugada syndrome: Diagnosis, risk stratification and management|journal=Archives of Cardiovascular Diseases|volume=110|issue=3|pages=188–195|doi=10.1016/j.acvd.2016.09.009|issn=1875-2136|year=2017|pmid=28139454|doi-access=free}}</ref> Patient monitoring, with recording of the pulse, is indicated before treatment. It is very important to limit the use of vasoconstrictor in [[local anesthesia]], with no more than two carpules. The treatment planned should not be too long or complicated. Although modern [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemakers]] are more resistant to electromagnetic interferences, caution is required when using electrical devices like ultrasound and electric scalpels that might interfere with pacemakers – especially the older models, since such devices developed in the last 30 years are bipolar and are generally not affected by the small electromagnetic fields generated by dental equipment. It is therefore important to know the type of pacemaker, the degree of electromagnetic protection of the generator, and the nature of the arrhythmia. If arrhythmia develops during dental treatment, the procedure should be suspended, oxygen is to be given, and the patient vital signs are to be assessed: body temperature (normal values: 35.5-37oC), pulse (normal values: 60-100 bpm), respiratory frequency (normal values in adults: 14-20 cycles or respirations per minute), blood pressure (normal values: systolic blood pressure under 140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure under 90 mmHg). Sublingual nitrites are to be administered if there is chest pain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McDonald|first=Jay R.|title=Acute Infective Endocarditis|journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America|volume=23|issue=3|pages=643–664|doi=10.1016/j.idc.2009.04.013|issn=0891-5520|pmid=19665088|pmc=2726828|year=2009}}</ref> The patient should be placed in the [[Trendelenburg position]], with vagal maneuvering where necessary ([[valsalva maneuver]], massage in the [[Common carotid artery|carotid pulse]] region).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chaudhry|first1=Swantika|last2=Jaiswal|first2=Ritika|last3=Sachdeva|first3=Surender|title=Dental considerations in cardiovascular patients: A practical perspective|journal=Indian Heart Journal|volume=68|issue=4|pages=572–575|doi=10.1016/j.ihj.2015.11.034|issn=0019-4832|year=2016|pmid=27543484|pmc=4990738|doi-access=free}}</ref> The dental team should be prepared for basic [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] and initiation of the emergency procedure for evacuation to a hospital centre, if necessary.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Allergic acute coronary syndrome]] (Kounis syndrome)<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Medical resources<br />
| DiseasesDB =<br />
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|24|9|i|20}}<br />
| ICD9 =<br />
| ICDO =<br />
| OMIM =<br />
| MedlinePlus =<br />
| eMedicineSubj = emerg<br />
| eMedicineTopic = 31<br />
| MeshID = D054058<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Heart diseases}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Acute Coronary Syndrome}}<br />
[[Category:Medical emergencies]]<br />
[[Category:Ischemic heart diseases]]<br />
[[Category:Syndromes affecting the heart]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goon_(film)&diff=1095708669Goon (film)2022-06-29T22:11:43Z<p>Nickwilso: Undid revision 1095668338 by 2601:285:401:A590:A414:15E5:714C:9A74 (talk)</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Goon<br />
| image = Goonfinalposter.jpg<br />
| alt = Two smiling bleeding hockey players, one with a fist raised<br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| director = [[Michael Dowse]]<br />
| writer = {{Plain list |<br />
* [[Jay Baruchel]]<br />
* [[Evan Goldberg]]<br />
}}<br />
| producer = {{Plain list |<br />
* [[Don Carmody]]<br />
* [[David Gross (producer)|David Gross]]<br />
* Jesse Shapira<br />
* André Rouleau<br />
* Jay Baruchel<br />
* Ian Dimerman<br />
}}<br />
| starring = {{Plain list |<br />
* [[Seann William Scott]]<br />
* Jay Baruchel<br />
* [[Alison Pill]]<br />
* [[Marc-André Grondin]]<br />
* [[Kim Coates]]<br />
* [[Eugene Levy]]<br />
* [[Liev Schreiber]]<br />
}}<br />
| cinematography = Bobby Shore<br />
| editing = [[Reginald Harkema]]<br />
| music = [[Ramachandra Borcar]]<br />
| studio = {{ubl|[[No Trace Camping]]|Caramel Film|Don Carmody Productions|Inferno Pictures Inc.}}<br />
| distributor = [[Alliance Films]]<br />
| released = {{Film date|2011|9|10|[[2011 Toronto International Film Festival|TIFF]]|2012|2|24|Canada}}<br />
| runtime = 92 minutes<br />
| country = Canada<br />
| language = English<br />
| budget = $12 million<ref>{{cite web|title='Goon': The rowdy true story of a hockey enforcer |url=http://ew.com/article/2012/03/16/goon-rowdy-true-story-hockey-enforcer/|work=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=March 16, 2012|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref><br />
| gross = $7 million<ref>{{cite web|title=Goon (2010)|url=http://www.the-numbers.com/movie/Goon#tab=summary|publisher=[[The Numbers (website)|The Numbers]]|access-date=June 25, 2015}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Goon''''' is a 2011 Canadian [[Sports film|sports]] [[comedy film]] directed by [[Michael Dowse]],<ref>{{cite book |title=International Film Guide 2012 |first=Ian Hayden |last=Smith |year=2012 |isbn=978-1908215017 |page=83 }}</ref> written by [[Jay Baruchel]] and [[Evan Goldberg]], and starring [[Seann William Scott]], [[Liev Schreiber]], [[Jay Baruchel]], [[Alison Pill]], [[Marc-André Grondin]], [[Kim Coates]] and [[Eugene Levy]]. The film concerns the exceedingly nice but somewhat dimwitted Doug Glatt (Scott), who unexpectedly finds personal and professional fulfillment after becoming the [[Enforcer (ice hockey)|enforcer]] for a minor league [[ice hockey]] team.<br />
<br />
Despite receiving largely positive reviews, the film was a [[box office bomb]], only earning $7 million against its $12 million budget. After premiering on [[Netflix]] it became an unexpected success, leading to an increase in [[DVD]] sales and [[Video on demand|VOD]] downloads, ultimately resulting in a sequel being [[greenlit]].<ref>[https://www.cinemablend.com/news/1699280/could-goon-3-happen-heres-what-seann-william-scott-says Could Goon 3 Happen?]</ref><br />
<br />
The sequel, ''[[Goon: Last of the Enforcers]]'', was released on March 17, 2017, with Baruchel serving as director.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/jay-baruchel-direct-goon-sequel-795932|title=Jay Baruchel to Direct 'Goon' Sequel (Exclusive)}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
Doug Glatt ([[Seann William Scott]]), is a polite, kind-hearted, but [[dimwitted]] [[Bouncer (doorman)|bouncer]] at a bar in [[Massachusetts]]. Doug feels ostracized from society, especially since his father and brother are both successful [[physicians]]. Doug attends a [[minor league]] hockey game with his best friend Pat ([[Jay Baruchel]]). Pat taunts the visiting team during a [[fighting in ice hockey|fight]] and one of their players climbs into the stands, calling him a faggot. Doug, whose brother is [[gay]], steps in and easily beats up the opposing player. Soon after, Doug gets a phone call from the coach of his hometown team, who offers him a job as an [[enforcer (ice hockey)|enforcer]].<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, veteran enforcer and Doug's idol Ross "The Boss" Rhea ([[Liev Schreiber]]) is demoted to the minors after serving a 20-game suspension for slashing an opponent in the head from behind. Three years prior, Rhea hit and [[Concussion|concussed]] the highly skilled prospect Xavier Laflamme ([[Marc-André Grondin]]), who has had trouble recovering from the incident due to his fear of being hit again. As a result, Laflamme is still stuck in the minors, playing for the [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] Highlanders. As Doug's reputation grows, eventually earning the nickname "Doug the Thug," the Highlanders' coach Ronnie hires Doug to protect Laflamme and be his roommate.<br />
<br />
The Highlanders experience success with Doug as their enforcer, and he quickly becomes popular among fans and teammates, much to the chagrin of his parents and Laflamme, who loses ice time and the [[Alternate captain|alternate-captaincy]] to Doug. Meanwhile, Doug becomes romantically involved with Eva ([[Alison Pill]]), a hockey fan with a penchant for sleeping with players.<br />
<br />
With four games left on their schedule, the Highlanders need two wins to secure a playoff spot. On a road game in [[Quebec]], after an opposing player concusses Laflamme with a heavy hit, Doug savagely beats the player unconscious and is suspended for the next game against Rhea and the [[St. John's, Newfoundland|St. John's]] Shamrocks. Doug encounters Rhea at a [[diner]], where Rhea dismisses Doug's belief that he is a hockey player, insisting that they are both "goons". Though Rhea acknowledges Doug's physical prowess and gives Doug his respect, Rhea warns him that if they ever meet on the ice, he will "lay him the fuck out." The Highlanders, with Doug suspended and Laflamme hospitalized, lose to the Shamrocks. The aging captain of the Highlanders, an inexperienced fighter, challenges Ross to a fight, Ross offering a chance to back out but the player denies it, and Ross easily defeats him.<br />
<br />
Doug reaches out to Laflamme and promises him he will always protect him on the ice; the incident touches Laflamme, who reconsiders his animosity towards Doug. In their next game, the Highlanders lead 1–0 thanks to strong teamwork between Doug and Laflamme. In the final seconds, Doug blocks a slapshot with his face and his ankle is injured in the ensuing scramble. The Highlanders win, but need a win against Rhea and the Shamrocks in their last game for a playoff spot.<br />
<br />
Eva breaks up with her boyfriend to be with Doug, asserting that Doug is who she's really in love with. Doug later allows her now-ex-boyfriend to beat him up, believing that he deserves it for coming between them.<br />
<br />
After two periods, the Shamrocks are beating the Highlanders 2–0. Rhea and Doug mutually agree to fight in the third period. Although Rhea manages to knock him down when Doug re-breaks his recently injured ankle, Doug refuses to back down and eventually emerges victorious, knocking Rhea's tooth out. Ross smiles at seeing his tooth, satisfied that he lost to someone he considered a worthy opponent. Eva and his teammates help a seriously injured Doug off the ice and Laflamme, inspired by Rhea's defeat, scores a [[hat-trick#Variations|natural hat trick]], giving the Highlanders a 3–2 lead. As the game enters its final minute, Eva comforts Doug in the locker room as he comments, "I think I nailed him."<br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
{{castlist|<br />
* [[Seann William Scott]] as Doug "The Thug" Glatt<br />
* [[Liev Schreiber]] as Ross "The Boss" Rhea<br />
* [[Alison Pill]] as Eva<br />
* [[Jay Baruchel]] as Pat<br />
* [[Marc-André Grondin]] as Xavier Laflamme<br />
* [[Eugene Levy]] as Dr. Glatt<br />
* [[David Paetkau]] as Ira Glatt<br />
* [[Kim Coates]] as Coach Ronnie Hortense<br />
* [[Richard Clarkin]] as Gord Ogilvey<br />
* [[Jonathan Cherry]] as Goalie Marco "Belchie" Belchior<br />
* Ricky Mabe as John Stevenson<br />
* [[Georges Laraque]] as Huntington<br />
* [[Curt Keilback]] as Rod McCaudry<br />
* Larry Woo as Park Kim<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Production notes==<br />
[[File:Doug_Smith_today.jpg|thumb|upright|The film is an adaptation of the autobiography of [[Doug Smith (author)|Doug Smith]]]]<br />
The film is an adaptation of the book ''Goon: The True Story of an Unlikely Journey into Minor League Hockey'' by Adam Frattasio and [[Doug Smith (author)|Doug Smith]]. Footage from Smith's career as an enforcer is shown during the film's credits, and Smith said in an interview with Grantland.com that he is happy with the finished film.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grantland.com/features/a-qa-doug-smith-having-hockey-career-immortalized-film-goon/|title=Q&A: Doug Smith, Hockey Enforcer |first=Davy |last=Rothbart |date=30 March 2012 |publisher=Grantland.com}}</ref> The book was discovered by Jesse Shapira and his producing partner David Gross. Along with Baruchel and Goldberg, they developed the script and then proceeded to package and independently finance the movie. It was the first film under their [[No Trace Camping]] banner.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/movies/2012/03/30/Goon-a-comedic-love-letter-to-hockey/stories/201203300198 |title='Goon' a comedic love letter to hockey}}</ref><br />
<br />
Some scenes are based on actual incidents, such as Glatt scoring a goal off his butt. "Dangerous" Doug Mann of the [[Columbus Cottonmouths]], scored a goal in overtime of Game 5 of the [[Central Hockey League]] Eastern Conference Finals against the [[Huntsville Channel Cats]], when the puck deflected off his butt scoring the game's winning goal, sending Columbus to the Finals.<br />
<br />
Former [[National Hockey League|NHL]] enforcer [[Georges Laraque]] has a small role as an enforcer for the Albany Patriots. His character fights both Glatt and Rhea over the course of the film. He draws with Glatt and the outcome of his fight with Rhea is not shown. When Laraque's character fights Glatt, the dialogue closely resembles the dialogue used by Georges Laraque in a fight against [[Raitis Ivanāns]] in December 2006.<ref>{{cite web|title=George Laraque v Raitis Ivanans|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIf9tJATX9k}}</ref><br />
<br />
''Goon'' was filmed in [[Brandon, Manitoba|Brandon]], [[Portage la Prairie]] and [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]].<ref>{{cite web|title=IMDB Goon - Filming Locations |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1456635/locations}}</ref> Most of the hockey scenes were filmed at the [[Portage Credit Union Centre]] in Portage la Prairie, which [[Filming location|substituted]] for the [[Halifax Metro Centre]], the home arena for the Halifax Highlanders. Other hockey scenes were filmed at the [[St. James Civic Centre]] in Winnipeg and [[Keystone Centre]] in Brandon. The [[MTS Centre]] was used for the home arena of the Quebec Victoires.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rural communities are going all out to build state-of-the-art sports facilities|url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/centres-of-excellence-143939106.html |work=Winnipeg Free Press|publisher=Winnipeg Free Press|access-date=7 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="wfp032312">{{cite web|url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/centres-of-excellence-143939106.html |title=Rural communities are going all out to build state-of-the-art sports facilities|work=[[Winnipeg Free Press]]|access-date=2012-03-23}}</ref> The Hot Ice public access TV show was filmed inside Tec Voc High School's Broadcasting Media Arts department. It also featured Ricky, Bubbles and Julian from Trailer Park Boys, as control room staff.<br />
<br />
==Release==<br />
{{Anchor|Marketing}}<br />
A [[red-band trailer]] for the film was released on [[IGN]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ign.com/videos/2011/11/07/goon-red-band-trailer|title=Goon - Red Band Trailer - IGN Video|date=7 November 2011|access-date=30 April 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
In Toronto and Montreal, prior to its premiere, posters for the film were removed from city bus shelters after several complaints from the public due to Baruchel making a "sexually suggestive gesture with his tongue and fingers."<ref>{{cite news | url= https://www.thestar.com/news/article/1135495--goon-movie-poster-stripped-from-city-bus-shelters | location= Toronto | work= [[Toronto Star]] | first1= Niamh | last1= Scallan | first2= Josh | last2= Tapper | title= Goon movie poster stripped from city bus shelters | date= 22 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title={{sic|Contov|ersial|nolink=y}} 'Goon' movie poster allegedly removed from Montreal metro |url= http://newsinmontreal.com/contoversial-goon-movie-poster-allegedly-removed-from-montreal-metro/ |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120711184652/http://newsinmontreal.com/contoversial-goon-movie-poster-allegedly-removed-from-montreal-metro/ |url-status= dead |archive-date= 11 July 2012 |work= News in Montreal |access-date= 23 December 2012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
The timing of the film's release was considered controversial by some as the previous summer featured the deaths of three NHL enforcers – [[Derek Boogaard]], [[Rick Rypien]] and [[Wade Belak]] – all three of whom suffered from depression and head trauma that are believed to be factors in their deaths.<ref>{{cite web|title=Goon movie raises questions about hockey enforcers|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/story/2012/02/23/goon-hockey-enforcers.html|publisher=CBC News|access-date=4 March 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Reception==<br />
===Critical response===<br />
{{Anchor|Critics|Critical response}}<br />
On [[Rotten Tomatoes]], the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "''Goon'' is a crude slapstick comedy with well-formed characters and a surprising amount of heart."<ref>{{cite web |title= Goon |website= [[Rotten Tomatoes]] |url= https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/Goon/ |access-date= June 10, 2020 }}</ref> On [[Metacritic]] the film has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100 based on 24 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".<ref>{{cite web |title= Goon Reviews |url= http://metacritic.com/movie/goon-the-true-story-of-an-unlikely-journey-into-minor-league-hockey |publisher= [[CBS Interactive]] |website= [[Metacritic]] |access-date= June 10, 2020 }}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Roger Ebert]] of the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'' gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, and wrote: "The charm of Goon is that Doug Glatt (Scott) is a genial guy from a nice family. Just because he hands out concussions doesn't mean he dislikes anybody. He's just happy to be wearing a uniform. "<ref>{{cite web |last= Ebert |first= Roger |author-link= Roger Ebert |title= Goon movie review & film summary (2012) |url= https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/goon-2012 |website= [[Chicago Sun-Times]] |access-date= 2020-06-10 }}</ref><br />
Robert Koehler of [[Variety (magazine)|''Variety'' magazine]] praised the performances "The picture has a first-rate team of actors who visibly enjoy their roles and the sharp dialogue by Baruchel and Goldberg."<ref>{{cite web |date= 12 September 2011 |last1= Koehler |first1= Robert |title= Goon |url= https://variety.com/2011/film/markets-festivals/goon-1117946055/ |website= [[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] }}</ref><br />
Stephen Holden, writing for ''The New York Times'' gave a positive review that credits all the major performances.<ref>[https://movies.nytimes.com/2012/03/30/movies/goon-directed-by-michael-dowse.html "A Brawler with a Soft Side ‘Goon,’ Directed by Michael Dowse"], Stephen Holden, ''The New York Times'', March 29, 2012</ref><br />
<br />
===Accolades===<br />
{{Anchor|Awards|Accolades}}<br />
''Goon'' was nominated for four awards at the [[1st Canadian Screen Awards]]: [[Michael Dowse]] for Achievement In Direction, [[Jay Baruchel]] and [[Evan Goldberg]] for Best Adapted Screenplay, and [[Jay Baruchel]] and [[Kim Coates]], both for Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role.<ref name="Nominees for the Canadian Screen Awards">{{cite web |title= Nominees for the Canadian Screen Awards |url= http://www.academy.ca/awards/nominees.cfm|publisher=1st Canadian Screen Awards |access-date= 5 March 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130118172840/http://www.academy.ca/awards/nominees.cfm |archive-date= 2013-01-18 |url-status= dead }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Sequel==<br />
{{main|Goon: Last of the Enforcers}}<br />
Baruchel wrote a sequel with [[Jesse Chabot]]. Michael Dowse was slated to return to direct but it was Baruchel who directed the film, making it his directorial debut.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ropeofsilicon.com/jay-baruchel-makes-directorial-debut-goon-last-enforcers/|title=Jay Baruchel Makes His Directorial Debut With 'Goon: Last of the Enforcers' - ComingSoon.net|date=16 May 2015}}</ref> [[Evan Goldberg]] produced the sequel.<ref>{{cite web|last=Goldberg |first=Matt |url=http://collider.com/goon-2-sequel-news-evan-goldberg/ |title=Evan Goldberg Talks about GOON 2; Says They're Trying to Figure out Deals |publisher=[[Collider (website)|Collider]] |date=May 9, 2014 |access-date=May 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Connelly |first=Brendon |url=http://www.bleedingcool.com/2013/07/06/jay-baruchel-explains-plans-for-a-goon-sequel/ |title=Jay Baruchel Explains Plans for a Goon Sequel |publisher=bleedingcool.com |date=July 6, 2013 |access-date=July 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Trumbore |first=Dave |url=http://collider.com/jay-baruchel-goon-2-sequel/ |title=Jay Baruchel Tweets GOON 2 Update; Will Co-Write with Jesse Chabot and Michael Dowse Will Return to Direct; Evan Goldberg Will Produce |publisher=[[Collider (website)|Collider]] |date=September 25, 2012 |access-date=September 25, 2012}}</ref> The title of the film is ''[[Goon: Last of the Enforcers]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comingsoon.net/movies/news/448317-elisha-cuthbert-joins-seann-william-scott-in-goon-last-of-the-enforcers|title= Elisha Cuthbert Joins Seann William Scott in Goon: Last of the Enforcers |publisher=[[ComingSoon.net]] |date=8 June 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
Baruchel expressed interest in the possibility of a third film, "I don’'t want to get into trouble, and I'm not saying there's going to be a ''Goon 3''," Baruchel says, "but there's more than one way to skin a cat. We're not done in this universe yet."<ref>{{cite web |title=With Goon sequel, Jay Baruchel hopes to usher in new era of Cancon |url= https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/film/with-goon-sequel-jay-baruchel-hopes-to-usher-in-new-era-of-cancon/article34321438/ |website=The Globe and Mail |access-date=2020-06-10 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{Official website|http://www.goonthemovie.com}}<br />
* {{IMDb title|1456635|Goon}}<br />
<br />
{{Michael Dowse}}<br />
{{Seth Rogen & Evan Goldberg}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2011 films]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian sports comedy films]]<br />
[[Category:Canadian ice hockey films]]<br />
[[Category:English-language Canadian films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Michael Dowse]]<br />
[[Category:Films produced by Don Carmody]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Massachusetts]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Newfoundland and Labrador]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Nova Scotia]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Quebec City]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Manitoba]]<br />
[[Category:2010s sports comedy films]]<br />
[[Category:2011 comedy films]]<br />
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Evan Goldberg]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naproxen&diff=1094372023Naproxen2022-06-22T06:27:18Z<p>Nickwilso: Typo</p>
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<!-- Clinical data --><br />
| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|n|ə|ˈ|p|r|ɒ|k|s|ən}}<br />
| tradename = Aleve, Naprosyn, others<ref name="drugs"/><ref name="Naproxen international" /><br />
| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|naproxen}}<br />
| MedlinePlus = a681029<br />
| licence_CA = <!-- Health Canada may use generic or brand name (generic name preferred) --><br />
| licence_EU = yes<br />
| DailyMedID = Naproxen<br />
| licence_US = Naproxen<br />
| pregnancy_AU = C<br />
| pregnancy_AU_comment = <ref name="Drugs.com pregnancy">{{cite web | title=Naproxen Use During Pregnancy | website=Drugs.com | date=13 August 2019 | url=https://www.drugs.com/pregnancy/naproxen.html | access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref><br />
| pregnancy_category= <br />
| routes_of_administration = [[Oral administration|By mouth]]<br />
| class = <br />
| ATCvet = <br />
| ATC_prefix = G02<br />
| ATC_suffix = CC02<br />
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|M01|AE02}}, {{ATC|M02|AA12}}, {{ATC|M01|AE56}}, {{ATC|M01|AE52}}<br />
<br />
<!-- Legal status --><br />
| legal_AU = S2<br />
| legal_AU_comment = when in preparations that contain no more than 15 days' supply. Otherwise it is Schedule 4 (Prescription only).<ref>{{cite book|title=Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons No. 4 |work=The Poisons Standard 2013|publisher=Therapeutic Goods Administration|date=July 2013|url=http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2013L01607/229bdf2e-7014-4379-b751-0b584f55d699|format=PDF|isbn=978-1-74241-895-7|editor=Gill, A}}</ref><br />
| legal_BR = <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, D1, D2, E, F--><br />
| legal_BR_comment = <br />
| legal_CA = OTC<br />
| legal_CA_comment = <br />
| legal_DE = <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled--><br />
| legal_DE_comment = <br />
| legal_NZ = <!-- Class A, B, C --><br />
| legal_NZ_comment = <br />
| legal_UK = P (for menstrual use), otherwise POM<br />
| legal_US = OTC<br />
| legal_US_comment = /&nbsp;Rx-only<br />
| legal_UN = <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV--><br />
| legal_UN_comment = <br />
| legal_status = <!--For countries not listed above--><br />
<br />
<!-- Pharmacokinetic data --><br />
| bioavailability = 95% (by mouth)<br />
| protein_bound = 99%<br />
| metabolism = [[Liver]] (to 6-desmethylnaproxen)<br />
| metabolites = <br />
| onset = <br />
| elimination_half-life = 12–17 hours (adults)<ref name="CV Safety Review Article"/><br />
| duration_of_action = <br />
| excretion = [[Kidney]]<br />
<br />
<!-- Identifiers --><br />
| index2_label = as salt<br />
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}<br />
| CAS_number = 22204-53-1<br />
| CAS_supplemental = <br />
| PubChem = 156391<br />
| PubChemSubstance = <br />
| IUPHAR_ligand = <br />
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}<br />
| DrugBank = DB00788<br />
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}<br />
| ChemSpiderID = 137720<br />
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}<br />
| UNII = 57Y76R9ATQ<br />
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}<br />
| KEGG = D00118<br />
| KEGG2_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}<br />
| KEGG2 = D00970<br />
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}<br />
| ChEBI = 7476<br />
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}<br />
| ChEMBL = 154<br />
| NIAID_ChemDB = <br />
| PDB_ligand = NPX<br />
| synonyms =<br />
<br />
<!-- Chemical and physical data --><br />
| IUPAC_name = (+)-(''S'')-2-(6-Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)propanoic acid<br />
| C=14 | H=14 | O=3<br />
| SMILES = COc1cc2ccc(cc2cc1)[C@H](C)C(=O)O<br />
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}<br />
| StdInChI = 1S/C14H14O3/c1-9(14(15)16)10-3-4-12-8-13(17-2)6-5-11(12)7-10/h3-9H,1-2H3,(H,15,16)/t9-/m0/s1<br />
| StdInChI_comment = <br />
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}<br />
| StdInChIKey = CMWTZPSULFXXJA-VIFPVBQESA-N<br />
| density = <br />
| density_notes = <br />
| melting_point = 152-154<br />
| melting_high = <br />
| melting_notes = <br />
| boiling_point = <br />
| boiling_notes = <br />
| solubility = <br />
| sol_units = <br />
| specific_rotation = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
<!-- Definition and medical uses --><br />
'''Naproxen''', sold under the brand name '''Aleve''' or '''Apronax ''' among [[Naproxen#Brand names|others]], is a [[nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug]] (NSAID) used to treat pain, [[menstrual cramp]]s, [[inflammatory diseases]] such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[gout]] and [[fever]].<ref name=AHFS2018/> It is [[Oral administration|taken orally]].<ref name=AHFS2018/> It is available in immediate and delayed release formulations.<ref name=AHFS2018/> Onset of effects is within an hour and lasts for up to twelve hours.<ref name=AHFS2018/><br />
<br />
<!-- Side effects --><br />
Common side effects include dizziness, [[headache]], [[bruising]], allergic reactions, [[heartburn]], and stomach pain.<ref name=AHFS2018/> Severe side effects include an increased risk of [[heart disease]], [[stroke]], [[gastrointestinal bleeding]], and [[stomach ulcers]].<ref name=AHFS2018/> The heart disease risk may be lower than with other NSAIDs.<ref name=AHFS2018/> It is not recommended in people with [[kidney problems]].<ref name=AHFS2018/> Use is not recommended in the [[third trimester of pregnancy]].<ref name=AHFS2018/><br />
<br />
<!-- Mechanism --><br />
Naproxen is a nonselective [[Cyclooxygenase|COX]] inhibitor.<ref name=AHFS2018/> As an NSAID, naproxen appears to exert its anti-inflammatory action by reducing the production of inflammatory mediators called [[prostaglandins]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McEvoy GK |title=AHFS Drug Information, 2000 |date=2000 |publisher=American Society of Health-System Pharmacists |isbn=9781585280049 |page=1854 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E3iynUKXWoYC }}</ref> It is metabolized by the liver to inactive metabolites.<ref name=AHFS2018/><br />
<br />
<!-- History and culture --><br />
Naproxen was patented in 1967, and approved for medical use in the United States in 1976.<ref name="Naprosyn label">{{cite web | title=Naprosyn- naproxen tablet EC-Naprosyn- naproxen tablet, delayed release Anaprox DS- naproxen sodium tablet | website=DailyMed | date=1 July 2019 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=8bff5df5-d856-4237-b6a8-ae445b454844 | access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=AHFS2018/><ref name=Fis2006>{{cite book | vauthors = Fischer J, Ganellin CR |title=Analogue-based Drug Discovery |date=2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9783527607495 |page=520 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjKfqkaKkAAC&pg=PA520 }}</ref> In the United States it is available [[over the counter]] and as a [[generic medication]].<ref name=AHFS2018>{{cite web |title=Naproxen Monograph for Professionals |url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/naproxen.html |website=Drugs.com |publisher=AHFS |access-date=19 December 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Medicines A to Z - Naproxen |url=https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/naproxen/ |website=NHS |publisher=National Health Service |access-date=11 March 2020 |date=24 October 2018}}</ref> In 2019, it was the 61st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 11{{nbsp}}million prescriptions.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Top 300 of 2019 |url=https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx |publisher=ClinCalc |access-date=16 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Naproxen - Drug Usage Statistics | website=ClinCalc | url=https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Naproxen | access-date=16 October 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Medical uses ==<br />
Naproxen's medical uses are related to its mechanism of action as an anti-inflammatory compound.<ref name="Naprosyn label" /> Naproxen is used to treat a variety of inflammatory conditions and symptoms that are due to excessive [[inflammation]], such as [[pain]] and [[fever]] (naproxen has fever-reducing, or [[antipyretic]], properties in addition to its anti-inflammatory activity).<ref name="Naprosyn label" /> Inflammatory sources of pain that may respond to naproxen's anti-inflammatory activity are conditions such as [[migraine]], [[osteoarthritis]], [[kidney stones]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[psoriatic arthritis]], [[gout]], [[ankylosing spondylitis]], [[menstrual cramp]]s, [[tendinitis]], and [[bursitis]].<ref name="drugs" >{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/naproxen.html|title=Naproxen|publisher=Drugs.com|date=2017|access-date=7 February 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
Naproxen sodium is used as a "bridge therapy" in [[medication overuse headache|medication-overuse headache]] to slowly take patients off other medications.<ref name="Chronic HA">{{cite journal| vauthors = Garza I, Schwedt TJ |title=Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Daily Headache|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/723842_4|journal=Seminars in Neurology|year=2010|volume=30|issue=2|pages=154–66|publisher=WebMD LLC|doi=10.1055/s-0030-1249224|pmid=20352585|access-date=17 May 2017|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Available formulations===<br />
Naproxen sodium is available as both an immediate release and as an extended release tablet. The extended release formulations (sometimes called "sustained release," or "enteric coated") take longer to take effect than the immediate release formulations, and therefore are less useful when immediate pain relief is desired. Extended release formulations are more useful for the treatment of chronic, or long-lasting, conditions, in which long-term pain relief is desirable.<ref name="L490 Pill Identification"/><br />
<br />
<gallery><br />
File:Naproxen2016.jpg|250{{nbsp}}mg tablet of naproxen<br />
Image:Naproxen.JPG|220{{nbsp}}mg tablet of naproxen sodium. Imprint L490 (upside-down). Round, light blue tablet.<ref name="L490 Pill Identification">{{cite web|title=L490 (Naproxen 220 mg)|url=https://www.drugs.com/imprints/l490-13081.html|website=drugs.com|publisher=Drugs.com|access-date=17 May 2017}}</ref><br />
File:Teva-naproxen-ec-500.png|Naproxen extended release 500{{nbsp}}mg, back and front.<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
===Pregnancy and lactation===<br />
Small amounts of naproxen are excreted in breast milk.<ref name=drugs/> However, adverse effects are uncommon in infants breastfed from a mother taking naproxen.<ref name="LactMed">{{cite web|title=LACTMED: NAPROXEN|url=https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/f?./temp/~H9DD3g:1|website=TOXNET|publisher=NIH|access-date=21 July 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Adverse effects==<br />
Common adverse effects include dizziness, drowsiness, headache, rash, bruising, and gastrointestinal upset.<ref name="Naprosyn label" /><ref name=drugs/> Heavy use is associated with increased risk of end-stage renal disease and kidney failure.<ref name="Naprosyn label" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Perneger TV, Whelton PK, Klag MJ | title = Risk of kidney failure associated with the use of acetaminophen, aspirin, and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 331 | issue = 25 | pages = 1675–9 | date = December 1994 | pmid = 7969358 | doi = 10.1056/nejm199412223312502 }}</ref> Naproxen may cause [[leg cramps|muscle cramps]] in the legs in 3% of people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Allen RE, Kirby KA | title = Nocturnal leg cramps | journal = American Family Physician | volume = 86 | issue = 4 | pages = 350–5 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22963024 }}</ref><br />
<br />
In October 2020, the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) required the [[Drug labelling|drug label]] to be updated for all nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications to describe the risk of kidney problems in unborn babies that result in low amniotic fluid.<ref name="FDA PR 20201015" /><ref name="FDA safety 20201015" /> They recommend avoiding NSAIDs in pregnant women at 20 weeks or later in pregnancy.<ref name="FDA PR 20201015">{{cite press release | title=FDA Warns that Using a Type of Pain and Fever Medication in Second Half of Pregnancy Could Lead to Complications | website=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) | date=15 October 2020 | url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-using-type-pain-and-fever-medication-second-half-pregnancy-could-lead-complications | access-date=15 October 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="FDA safety 20201015">{{cite web | title=NSAIDs may cause rare kidney problems in unborn babies | website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration | date=21 July 2017 | url=https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drug-safety-and-availability/fda-recommends-avoiding-use-nsaids-pregnancy-20-weeks-or-later-because-they-can-result-low-amniotic | access-date=15 October 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Gastrointestinal===<br />
As with other non-[[COX-2]] selective NSAIDs, naproxen can cause [[gastrointestinal problem]]s, such as heartburn, constipation, diarrhea, ulcers and stomach bleeding.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0000526 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100722112536/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0000526 | archive-date = 22 July 2010 | date = 1 September 2008 | url-status=dead | title = Naproxen | website = PubMed Health }}</ref> Naproxen should be taken orally with food to decrease the risk of [[Gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal]] side effects.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}} Persons with a history of [[ulcers]] or [[inflammatory bowel disease]] should consult a doctor before taking naproxen.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}} In U.S. markets, naproxen is sold with [[boxed warning]]s about the risk of gastrointestinal ulceration or bleeding.<ref name=drugs/> Naproxen poses an intermediate risk of stomach ulcers compared with [[ibuprofen]], which is low-risk, and [[indometacin]], which is high-risk.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Richy F, Bruyere O, Ethgen O, Rabenda V, Bouvenot G, Audran M, Herrero-Beaumont G, Moore A, Eliakim R, Haim M, Reginster JY | display-authors = 6 | title = Time dependent risk of gastrointestinal complications induced by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use: a consensus statement using a meta-analytic approach | journal = Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases | volume = 63 | issue = 7 | pages = 759–66 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15194568 | pmc = 1755051 | doi = 10.1136/ard.2003.015925 }}</ref> To reduce stomach ulceration risk, it is often combined with a [[proton-pump inhibitor]] (a medication that reduces [[stomach acid]] production) during long-term treatment of those with pre-existing stomach ulcers or a history of developing stomach ulcers while on NSAIDs.<ref name="AMH">{{cite book | veditors = Rossi S | isbn = 978-0-9805790-9-3 | title = Australian Medicines Handbook | place = Adelaide | publisher = The Australian Medicines Handbook Unit Trust | year = 2013 | edition = 2013 }}</ref><ref name="BNF">{{cite book | isbn = 978-0-85711-084-8 | title = British National Formulary (BNF) | last1 = Joint Formulary Committee | year = 2013 | publisher = Pharmaceutical Press | location = London, UK | edition = 65 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bnf65britishnati0000unse/page/665 665, 673] | url = https://archive.org/details/bnf65britishnati0000unse/page/665 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Cardiovascular===<br />
[[COX-2]] selective and nonselective [[NSAIDs]] have been linked to increases in the number of serious and potentially fatal cardiovascular events, such as [[myocardial infarctions]] and [[stroke]]s.<ref name="NissenYeomans2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nissen SE, Yeomans ND, Solomon DH, Lüscher TF, Libby P, Husni ME, Graham DY, Borer JS, Wisniewski LM, Wolski KE, Wang Q, Menon V, Ruschitzka F, Gaffney M, Beckerman B, Berger MF, Bao W, Lincoff AM | display-authors = 6 | title = Cardiovascular Safety of Celecoxib, Naproxen, or Ibuprofen for Arthritis | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 375 | issue = 26 | pages = 2519–29 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27959716 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa1611593 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Naproxen is, however, associated with the smallest overall cardiovascular risks.<ref name = Trelle>{{cite journal | vauthors = Trelle S, Reichenbach S, Wandel S, Hildebrand P, Tschannen B, Villiger PM, Egger M, Jüni P | display-authors = 6 | title = Cardiovascular safety of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: network meta-analysis | journal = BMJ | volume = 342 | pages = c7086 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 21224324 | pmc = 3019238 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.c7086 | id = c7086 }}</ref><ref name=j1>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhala N, Emberson J, Merhi A, Abramson S, Arber N, Baron JA, Bombardier C, Cannon C, Farkouh ME, FitzGerald GA, Goss P, Halls H, Hawk E, Hawkey C, Hennekens C, Hochberg M, Holland LE, Kearney PM, Laine L, Lanas A, Lance P, Laupacis A, Oates J, Patrono C, Schnitzer TJ, Solomon S, Tugwell P, Wilson K, Wittes J, Baigent C | display-authors = 6 | title = Vascular and upper gastrointestinal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: meta-analyses of individual participant data from randomised trials | journal = Lancet | volume = 382 | issue = 9894 | pages = 769–79 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23726390 | pmc = 3778977 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60900-9 }}</ref> Cardiovascular risk must be considered when prescribing any nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. The drug had roughly 50% of the associated risk of stroke compared with [[ibuprofen]], and was also associated with a reduced number of myocardial infarctions compared with [[Treatment and control groups|control groups]].<ref name=Trelle/><br />
<br />
A study found that high-dose naproxen induced near-complete suppression of platelet [[thromboxane]] throughout the dosing interval and appeared not to increase [[cardiovascular disease]] (CVD) risk, whereas other non-aspirin high-dose NSAID regimens had only transient effects on platelet [[COX-1]] and were associated with a small but definite vascular hazard. Conversely, naproxen was associated with higher rates of upper gastrointestinal bleeding complications compared with other NSAIDs.<ref name=j1/><br />
<br />
== Interactions ==<br />
<br />
===Drug–drug interactions===<br />
Naproxen may [[drug interaction|interact]] with [[antidepressant]]s, [[lithium]], [[methotrexate]], [[probenecid]], [[warfarin]] and other [[blood thinners]], heart or blood pressure medications, including [[diuretic]]s, or steroid medicines such as [[prednisone]].<ref name=drugs/><br />
<br />
NSAIDs such as naproxen may interfere with and reduce the efficacy of [[SSRI]] antidepressants,<ref name="pmid21518864">{{cite journal | vauthors = Warner-Schmidt JL, Vanover KE, Chen EY, Marshall JJ, Greengard P | title = Antidepressant effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are attenuated by antiinflammatory drugs in mice and humans | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 108 | issue = 22 | pages = 9262–7 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21518864 | pmc = 3107316 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1104836108 | bibcode = 2011PNAS..108.9262W | doi-access = free }}</ref> as well as increase the risk of bleeding greater than the individual bleeding risk of either class of agent, when taken together.<ref name="SSRI Bleeding Review Article">{{cite journal | vauthors = Turner MS, May DB, Arthur RR, Xiong GL | title = Clinical impact of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors therapy with bleeding risks | journal = Journal of Internal Medicine | volume = 261 | issue = 3 | pages = 205–13 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17305643 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2006.01720.x | s2cid = 41772614 }}</ref> Naproxen is not contraindicated in the presence of SSRIs, though concomitant use of the medications should be done with caution.<ref name="SSRI Bleeding Review Article" />[[Ethanol|Alcohol]] consumption increases the risk of [[gastrointestinal bleeding]] when combined with NSAIDs like naproxen in a [[Dose–response relationship|dose-dependent]] manner (that is, the higher the dose of naproxen, the higher the risk of bleeding).<ref name="Pfau and Lichtenstein">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pfau PR, Lichenstein GR | title = NSAIDs and alcohol: never the twain shall mix? | journal = The American Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 94 | issue = 11 | pages = 3098–101 | date = November 1999 | doi = 10.1111/j.1572-0241.1999.03098.x | pmid = 10566697 | s2cid = 41310743 }}</ref> The risk is highest for people who are heavy drinkers.<ref name="Pfau and Lichtenstein" /><br />
<br />
==Pharmacology==<br />
<br />
===Mechanism of action===<br />
Naproxen works by reversibly inhibiting both the [[PTGS1|COX-1]] and [[Prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2|COX-2]] [[enzymes]] as a non-selective [[coxib]].<ref name="pmid20810665">{{cite journal | vauthors = Duggan KC, Walters MJ, Musee J, Harp JM, Kiefer JR, Oates JA, Marnett LJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Molecular basis for cyclooxygenase inhibition by the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug naproxen | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 285 | issue = 45 | pages = 34950–9 | date = November 2010 | pmid = 20810665 | pmc = 2966109 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M110.162982 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid18397691">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hinz B, Cheremina O, Besz D, Zlotnick S, Brune K | title = Impact of naproxen sodium at over-the-counter doses on cyclooxygenase isoforms in human volunteers | journal = International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 180–6 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18397691 | doi = 10.5414/CPP46180 }}</ref><ref name="pmid11028250">{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Hecken A, Schwartz JI, Depré M, De Lepeleire I, Dallob A, Tanaka W, Wynants K, Buntinx A, Arnout J, Wong PH, Ebel DL, Gertz BJ, De Schepper PJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Comparative inhibitory activity of rofecoxib, meloxicam, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen on COX-2 versus COX-1 in healthy volunteers | journal = Journal of Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 1109–20 | date = October 2000 | pmid = 11028250 | doi = 10.1177/009127000004001005 | doi-broken-date = 28 February 2022 | url = https://accp1.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1177/009127000004001005}}</ref><ref name="pmid15161995">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gross GJ, Moore J | title = Effect of COX-1/COX-2 inhibition versus selective COX-2 inhibition on coronary vasodilator responses to arachidonic acid and acetylcholine | journal = Pharmacology | volume = 71 | issue = 3 | pages = 135–42 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15161995 | doi = 10.1159/000077447 | s2cid = 34018223 }}</ref><ref name="pmid11566042">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hawkey CJ | title = COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitors | journal = Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology | volume = 15 | issue = 5 | pages = 801–20 | date = October 2001 | pmid = 11566042 | doi = 10.1053/bega.2001.0236 }}</ref> This results in the inhibition of [[prostaglandin]] synthesis. Prostaglandins act as signaling molecules in the body, inducing inflammation. Thus, by inhibiting COX-1/2, naproxen induces an anti-inflammatory effect.<br />
<br />
=== Pharmacokinetics ===<br />
Naproxen is a minor substrate of [[CYP1A2]] and [[CYP2C9]]. It is extensively metabolized in the liver to 6-O-desmethylnaproxen, and both the parent drug and the desmethyl metabolite undergo further metabolism to their respective acylglucuronide conjugated metabolites.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vree TB, van den Biggelaar-Martea M, Verwey-van Wissen CP, Vree JB, Guelen PJ | title = Pharmacokinetics of naproxen, its metabolite O-desmethylnaproxen, and their acyl glucuronides in humans | journal = Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition | volume = 14 | issue = 6 | pages = 491–502 | date = August 1993 | pmid = 8218967 | doi = 10.1002/bdd.2510140605 | s2cid = 35920001 }}</ref> An analysis of two [[clinical trials]] shows that naproxen's time to [[Cmax (pharmacology)|peak plasma concentration]] occurs between 2–4 hours after oral administration, though naproxen sodium reaches peak plasma concentrations within 1–2 hours.<ref name="CV Safety Review Article" >{{cite journal|author-link1=Dominick Angiolillo | vauthors = Angiolillo DJ, Weisman SM | title = Clinical Pharmacology and Cardiovascular Safety of Naproxen | journal = American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–107 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27826802 | pmc = 5340840 | doi = 10.1007/s40256-016-0200-5 }}</ref>{{what|date=December 2021}}<br />
<br />
=== Pharmacogenetics ===<br />
The [[pharmacogenetics]] of naproxen has been studied in an effort to better understand its adverse effects.<ref name="2C9 PK COX-i Review">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rodrigues AD | title = Impact of CYP2C9 genotype on pharmacokinetics: are all cyclooxygenase inhibitors the same? | journal = Drug Metabolism and Disposition | volume = 33 | issue = 11 | pages = 1567–75 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16118328 | doi = 10.1124/dmd.105.006452 | s2cid = 5754183 }}</ref> In 1998, a small [[pharmacokinetic]] (PK) study failed to show that differences in a patient's ability to [[Clearance (pharmacology)|clear]] naproxen from the body could account for differences in a patient's risk of experiencing the adverse effect of a serious gastrointestinal bleed while taking naproxen.<ref name="2C9 PK COX-i Review" /> However, the study failed to account for differences in the activity of [[CYP2C9]], a drug-metabolizing enzyme that is necessary for clearing naproxen.<ref name="2C9 PK COX-i Review" /> Studies on the relationship between CYP2C9 [[genotype]] and NSAID-induced gastrointestinal bleeds have shown that genetic variants in CYP2C9 that reduce the clearance of major CYP2C9 substrates (like naproxen) increase the risk of NSAID-induced gastrointestinal bleeds, especially for [[homozygous]] defective variants.<ref name="2C9 PK COX-i Review" /><br />
<br />
{{As of|October 2017}}, there were no recommendations for routine CYP2C9 testing for naproxen.<ref name="PGKB CYP2C9 Analysis">{{cite web|title=CYP2C9|url=https://www.pharmgkb.org/gene/PA126|website=pharmgkb.org|publisher=PharmGKB|access-date=17 May 2017}}</ref>{{what|date=December 2021}}<br />
<br />
== Chemistry ==<br />
Naproxen is a member of the 2-arylpropionic acid (profen) family of NSAIDs.<ref name="pmid2893700">{{cite journal | vauthors = el Mouelhi M, Ruelius HW, Fenselau C, Dulik DM | title = Species-dependent enantioselective glucuronidation of three 2-arylpropionic acids. Naproxen, ibuprofen, and benoxaprofen | journal = Drug Metabolism and Disposition | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 767–72 | year = 1987 | pmid = 2893700 }}</ref> The free acid is an odorless, white to off-white crystalline substance.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}} It is [[lipid]]-soluble and practically insoluble in water. It has a [[melting point]] of 152–155 [[Celsius|°C]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}<br />
<br />
===Synthesis===<br />
Naproxen has been industrially produced by [[Syntex]] starting from [[2-naphthol]] as follows:<ref name = Harrington>{{cite journal | journal = [[Org. Process Res. Dev.]] | year = 1997 | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 72–76 | title = Twenty Years of Naproxen Technology |vauthors=Harrington PJ, Lodewijk E | doi = 10.1021/op960009e}}</ref><br />
<br />
:[[File:Large-Scale Synthesis of S-naproxen.svg|thumb|center|500px]]<br />
<br />
==Society and culture==<br />
===Brand names ===<br />
Naproxen and naproxen sodium are marketed under various [[brand name]]s, including Accord, Aleve, Anaprox, Antalgin, Apranax, Feminax Ultra, Flanax, Inza, Maxidol, Nalgesin, Naposin, Naprelan, Naprogesic, Naprosyn, Narocin, Pronaxen, Proxen, and Soproxen.<ref name="Naproxen international">{{cite web | title=Naproxen international | website=Drugs.com | date=7 December 2020 | url=https://www.drugs.com/international/naproxen.html | access-date=3 January 2021}}</ref> It is also available as the combination [[naproxen/esomeprazole magnesium]] in delayed release tablets under the brand name Vimovo.<ref name="Naproxen international" /><ref name="Vimovo">{{cite web | title=Vimovo- naproxen and esomeprazole magnesium tablet, delayed release | website=DailyMed | date=2 August 2019 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=baa47781-7151-4c75-a9a2-d2eac0a7d55e | access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Access restrictions ===<br />
[[Syntex]] first marketed naproxen in 1976, as the [[prescription drug]] Naprosyn. They first marketed naproxen sodium under the brand name Anaprox in 1980. It remains a prescription-only drug in much of the world.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}} In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) approved it as an [[Over-the-counter drug|over-the-counter (OTC) drug]] in 1994. OTC preparations of naproxen in the U.S. are mainly marketed by [[Bayer USA|Bayer HealthCare]] under the brand name Aleve and generic [[store brand]] formulations in 220{{nbsp}}mg tablets.<ref>{{cite web | title=Aleve- naproxen sodium tablet | website=DailyMed | date=4 November 2019 | url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=00ef5b30-71d0-4cb4-84a3-48c67d1cea2a | access-date=27 December 2019}}</ref> In Australia, packets of 275{{nbsp}}mg tablets of naproxen sodium are [[Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons#Schedule 2 Pharmacy Medicine|Schedule 2 pharmacy medicines]], with a maximum daily dose of five tablets or 1375{{nbsp}}mg. In the United Kingdom, 250{{nbsp}}mg tablets of naproxen were approved for OTC sale under the brand name Feminax Ultra in 2008, for the treatment of primary [[dysmenorrhoea]] in women aged 15 to 50.<ref>{{cite press release | date = 1 April 2008 | title=Medicines regulator approves availability of a new OTC medicine for period pain | url = http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/idcplg?IdcService=GET_FILE&dDocName=CON014482&RevisionSelectionMethod=LatestReleased | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130921061443/http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/idcplg?IdcService=GET_FILE&dDocName=CON014482&RevisionSelectionMethod=LatestReleased | url-status=dead | archive-date = 21 September 2013 | format = PDF | publisher = Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) }}</ref> In the Netherlands, 220{{nbsp}}mg and 275{{nbsp}}mg tablets are available OTC in drugstores, 550{{nbsp}}mg is OTC only at pharmacies. Aleve became available over the counter in some provinces in Canada<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aleve products released in Canada|url=https://ctchealth.ca/?s=Aleve&post_type=product|url-status=live}}</ref> on 14 July 2009, but not [[British Columbia]], [[Quebec]] or [[Newfoundland and Labrador]];<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.bayer.ca/files/Aleve%20Release.July14.FINAL_.pdf|title=Aleve – Welcome to Canada, Eh!|date=14 July 2009|publisher=Bayer Health Care|access-date=24 March 2012}}</ref> it subsequently became available OTC in [[British Columbia]] in January 2010.<ref name="Press Release, January 2010">{{cite web|title=Aleve – Helping British Columbians with Joint and Arthritis Pain Get Back to Doing the Activities They Love|url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/story/703499/aleve-r-helping-british-columbians-with-joint-and-arthritis-pain-get-back-to-doing-the-activities-they-love|website=newswire.ca|date=28 January 2010|access-date=27 September 2012|archive-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060225/http://www.newswire.ca/en/story/703499/aleve-r-helping-british-columbians-with-joint-and-arthritis-pain-get-back-to-doing-the-activities-they-love|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Research==<br />
Naproxen may have antiviral activity against [[influenza]]. In laboratory research, it blocks the RNA-binding groove of the nucleoprotein of the virus, preventing formation of the ribonucleoprotein complex—thus taking the viral nucleoproteins out of circulation.<ref name="pmid23459490">{{cite journal | vauthors = Lejal N, Tarus B, Bouguyon E, Chenavas S, Bertho N, Delmas B, Ruigrok RW, Di Primo C, Slama-Schwok A | display-authors = 6 | title = Structure-based discovery of the novel antiviral properties of naproxen against the nucleoprotein of influenza A virus | journal = Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy | volume = 57 | issue = 5 | pages = 2231–42 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23459490 | pmc = 3632891 | doi = 10.1128/AAC.02335-12 | lay-url = http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013-03/asfm-prs032113.php | lay-source = EurekAlert! }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Veterinary use==<br />
===Horses===<br />
Naproxen is given by mouth to horses at a dose of 10{{nbsp}}mg/kg, and has shown to have a wide safety margin (no toxicity when given at three times the recommended dose for 42 days).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE |title=Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs |journal=Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners |volume=47 |year=2001 |pages=182–187 |issn=0065-7182 }}</ref> It is more effective for [[myositis]] than the commonly used NSAID [[phenylbutazone]], and has shown especially good results for treatment of [[equine exertional rhabdomyolysis]],<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = May SA, Lees P |chapter=Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs | veditors = McIlwraith CW, Trotter GW |title=Joint disease in the horse |location=Philadelphia |publisher=WB Saunders |year=1996 |pages=223–237 |isbn=0-7216-5135-6 }}</ref> a disease of muscle breakdown; it is less commonly used for [[musculoskeletal disease]].{{medcn|date=December 2019}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Wiktionary|naproxen}}<br />
* {{cite web| url = https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/naproxen | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine| work = Drug Information Portal| title = Naproxen }}<br />
* {{cite web| url = https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/naproxen%20sodium | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine| work = Drug Information Portal| title = Naproxen sodium }}<br />
<br />
{{Anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic products}}<br />
{{Topical products for joint and muscular pain}}<br />
{{Analgesics}}<br />
{{Prolactin inhibitors and anti-inflammatory products for vaginal administration}}<br />
{{Prostanoidergics}}<br />
{{Portal bar | Medicine}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Analgesics]]<br />
[[Category:Antipyretics]]<br />
[[Category:Bayer brands]]<br />
[[Category:Equine medications]]<br />
[[Category:Naphthol ethers]]<br />
[[Category:Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]]<br />
[[Category:Propionic acids]]<br />
[[Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bruce_(film)&diff=1085505924The Bruce (film)2022-04-30T22:39:50Z<p>Nickwilso: This movie does not star Ed Harris</p>
<hr />
<div>{{One source|date=January 2021}}<br />
{{italic title}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2016}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=April 2016}}<br />
{{Infobox film<br />
| name = The Bruce<br />
| image =<br />
| alt = <br />
| caption = <br />
| directors = [[Bob Carruthers]]<br>[[David McWhinnie]]<br />
| screenplay = Bob Carruthers<br />
| based_on = <br />
| producer = {{ubl|Bob Carruthers<br>David McWhinnie}}<br />
| starring = {{ubl|[[Brian Blessed]]|[[Richard Brimblecombe]]|[[Pavel Douglas]]|[[Dee Hepburn]]}}<br />
| cinematography = [[Chris Weaver (cinematographer)|Chris Weaver]]<br />
| editing = [[Owen Parker]]<br />
| music = {{ubl|[[Gordon Dougall]]|[[Paul Farrer]]}}<br />
| studio = [[Cromwell Productions, Ltd.]]<br />
| distributor = [[Prime Time Entertainment]]<br />
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1996|04|12}}<br />
| runtime = 107 minutes<br />
| country = United Kingdom<br />
| language = English<br />
| budget = $500,000.00<br />
| gross = <br />
}}<br />
'''''The Bruce''''' is a 1996 medieval historical film set in [[Scotland]] and [[England]]. The film focuses primarily on the rise to power of [[Robert I of Scotland]], culminating in the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in AD 1314.<br />
<br />
This film was directed by [[Bob Carruthers]] and David McWhinnie. Parts of the film were shot at [[Craigmillar Castle]] in [[Edinburgh]] and at [[Peebles]] in the [[Scottish Borders]].<ref>(2015) [http://www.filmedinburgh.org/filming/filmed_here?fh_PageIndex=11&fh_PageSize=10 Filmed here - 1996, The Bruce, Bob Carruthers, David McWhinnie] Film Edinburgh, Retrieved 20 February 2015</ref><br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
*Sandy Welch as [[Robert I of Scotland]]<br />
*[[Oliver Reed]] as [[Robert Wishart]]<br />
*[[Brian Blessed]] as [[Edward I of England]]<br />
* Richard Brindlecombe as [[Edward II of England]]<br />
*[[Pavel Douglas]] as [[John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch]]<br />
*[[Hildegarde Neil]] as [[Eleanor of Castile]]<br />
*[[Michael Van Wijk]] as [[Henry de Bohun]]<br />
*[[Dee Hepburn]] as [[Mary Bruce]]<br />
*[[Ronnie Browne]] as Maxwell<br />
*[[Barrie Ingham]] as Gloucester<br />
*[[Jake D'Arcy]] as Chief MacKenzie<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[List of historical drama films]]<br />
* [[Wars of Scottish Independence]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IMDb title|0115766|The Bruce}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bruce, The}}<br />
[[Category:1996 films]]<br />
[[Category:War films based on actual events]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in the 14th century]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Scotland]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in England]]<br />
[[Category:British biographical films]]<br />
[[Category:British films]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in Edinburgh]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in the Scottish Borders]]<br />
[[Category:British war drama films]]<br />
[[Category:Robert the Bruce]]<br />
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Edward I of England]]<br />
<br />
{{war-drama-film-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trebouxiales&diff=1079072911Trebouxiales2022-03-24T21:35:05Z<p>Nickwilso: Removed inaccurate sentence</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Order of algae}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| taxon = Trebouxiales<br />
| authority = [[Thomas Friedl|Friedl]]<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Families<br />
| subdivision = <br />
* [[Botryococcaceae]]<br />
* [[Choricystidaceae]]<br />
* [[Trebouxiaceae]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Trebouxiales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[green algae]] in the [[Class (biology)|class]] [[Trebouxiophyceae]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/?id=89578|title=Taxonomy Browser :: Algaebase|website=www.algaebase.org|access-date=2018-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vančurová|first=Lucie|last2=Peksa|first2=Ondřej|last3=Němcová|first3=Yvonne|last4=Škaloud|first4=Pavel|date=2015-07-08|title=Vulcanochloris (Trebouxiales, Trebouxiophyceae), a new genus of lichen photobiont from La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain|url=https://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/view/phytotaxa.219.2.2|journal=Phytotaxa|language=en|volume=219|issue=2|issn=1179-3163}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eol.org/pages/20362576/overview|title=Trebouxiales - Overview - Encyclopedia of Life|website=Encyclopedia of Life|language=en|access-date=2018-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=599721|title=WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Trebouxiales|website=www.marinespecies.org|language=en|access-date=2018-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=846593#null|title=ITIS Standard Report Page: Trebouxiales|website=www.itis.gov|access-date=2018-09-22}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q7837412}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Trebouxiales| ]]<br />
[[Category:Chlorophyta orders]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{green algae-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martellidendron&diff=1068532227Martellidendron2022-01-28T23:34:03Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Morphology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
|image = Horne's Pandanus - Pandanus hornei.jpg<br />
|image_caption =<br />
|taxon = Martellidendron<br />
|authority = ([[Ugolino Martelli|Martelli]]) [[Martin Wilhelm Callmander|Callm.]] & [[Philippe Chassot|Chassot]]<br />
|subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
|subdivision = See text<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Martellidendron''''' is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Pandanaceae]], native to the [[Seychelles]] and [[Madagascar]].<ref name=Callmander>{{cite journal|author1=Callmander, M.W. |author2=Chassot, P. |author3=Küpfer, P. |author4=Lowry, P.P. |year=2003|title=Recognition of ''Martellidendron'', a new genus of Pandanaceae, and its biogeographic implications|journal=Taxon|volume=52|issue=4|pages=747–762|doi=10.2307/3647349|jstor=3647349 }}</ref> <br />
They resemble [[Arecaceae|palms]], but are not closely related to palms. The genus ''Martellidendron'', previously recognized as a [[Section (botany)|section]] of the genus ''[[Pandanus]]'', was separated in 2003 on the basis of phylogenetic studies that used [[chloroplast]] [[Nucleic acid sequence|DNA sequence data]].<ref name=Callmander/><br />
<br />
''Martellidendron'' comprises seven species.<ref name=Callmander/><br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
''Martellidendron'' plants are [[dioecious]], that is, the male and female flower are on separate plants. The male flowers have many stamens (as many as 100<ref name=Callmander/>), and grow in an [[inflorescence]] that consists of spikes surrounded by [[bract]]s.<ref name=Callmander/> As the female flowers mature, they merge into an oblong or spherical [[multiple fruit]].<ref name=Callmander/> An individual fruit is a [[drupe]] with two chambers.<ref name=Callmander/><br />
<br />
==Species==<br />
*''[[Martellidendron androcephalanthos]]'' ([[Ugolino Martelli|Martelli]]) [[Callm.]] & [[Chassot]], Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron cruciatum]]'' ([[Pic.Serm.]]) Callm. & Chassot, Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron gallinarum]]'' (Callm.) Callm., Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron hornei]]'' ([[Balf.f.]]) Callm. & Chassot, Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron karaka]]'' ([[Ugolino Martelli|Martelli]]) Callm., Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron kariangense]]'' ([[Kim-Lang Huynh|Huynh]]) Callm., Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://images.google.co.uk/images?q=Martellidendron Images Google]<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q6774239}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Martellidendron| ]]<br />
[[Category:Pandanales genera]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martellidendron&diff=1068532155Martellidendron2022-01-28T23:33:24Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Morphology */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
|image = Horne's Pandanus - Pandanus hornei.jpg<br />
|image_caption =<br />
|taxon = Martellidendron<br />
|authority = ([[Ugolino Martelli|Martelli]]) [[Martin Wilhelm Callmander|Callm.]] & [[Philippe Chassot|Chassot]]<br />
|subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
|subdivision = See text<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Martellidendron''''' is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Pandanaceae]], native to the [[Seychelles]] and [[Madagascar]].<ref name=Callmander>{{cite journal|author1=Callmander, M.W. |author2=Chassot, P. |author3=Küpfer, P. |author4=Lowry, P.P. |year=2003|title=Recognition of ''Martellidendron'', a new genus of Pandanaceae, and its biogeographic implications|journal=Taxon|volume=52|issue=4|pages=747–762|doi=10.2307/3647349|jstor=3647349 }}</ref> <br />
They resemble [[Arecaceae|palms]], but are not closely related to palms. The genus ''Martellidendron'', previously recognized as a [[Section (botany)|section]] of the genus ''[[Pandanus]]'', was separated in 2003 on the basis of phylogenetic studies that used [[chloroplast]] [[Nucleic acid sequence|DNA sequence data]].<ref name=Callmander/><br />
<br />
''Martellidendron'' comprises seven species.<ref name=Callmander/><br />
<br />
==Morphology==<br />
''Martellidendron'' plants are [[dioecious]], that is, the male and female flower are on separate plants. The male flowers have many stamens (as many as 100)<ref name=Callmander/>, and grow in an [[inflorescence]] that consists of spikes surrounded by [[bract]]s.<ref name=Callmander/> As the female flowers mature, they merge into an oblong or spherical [[multiple fruit]].<ref name=Callmander/> An individual fruit is a [[drupe]] with two chambers.<ref name=Callmander/><br />
<br />
==Species==<br />
*''[[Martellidendron androcephalanthos]]'' ([[Ugolino Martelli|Martelli]]) [[Callm.]] & [[Chassot]], Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron cruciatum]]'' ([[Pic.Serm.]]) Callm. & Chassot, Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron gallinarum]]'' (Callm.) Callm., Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron hornei]]'' ([[Balf.f.]]) Callm. & Chassot, Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron karaka]]'' ([[Ugolino Martelli|Martelli]]) Callm., Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
*''[[Martellidendron kariangense]]'' ([[Kim-Lang Huynh|Huynh]]) Callm., Taxon 52: 756 (2003).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://images.google.co.uk/images?q=Martellidendron Images Google]<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q6774239}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Martellidendron| ]]<br />
[[Category:Pandanales genera]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jack_Foley_(sound_effects_artist)&diff=1066300845Jack Foley (sound effects artist)2022-01-17T18:41:10Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Early life and career */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|American sound effects developer (1891–1967)}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
|name = Jack Foley<br />
|birth_name = Jack Donovan Foley<br />
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1891|4|12|mf=y}}<br />
|birth_place = [[Yorkville, Manhattan|Yorkville, New York]]<br />
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1967|11|9|1891|4|12|mf=y}} <br />
|death_place = [[Los Angeles, California]]<br />
|nationality = American<br />
|alias = Joe Hyde ([[pen name]])<ref name="film_sound" /><br />
|occupation = [[Foley (filmmaking)|Sound effect artist]] ("Foley artist"), [[humorist]]<ref name="film_sound" /><br />
}}<br />
'''Jack Donovan Foley''' (April 12, 1891 – November 9, 1967)<ref name="vintagenews">{{cite web|last1=Chalakoski|first1=Martin|title=Jack Foley: The artist who brought natural sound into motion pictures|url=http://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/07/12/jack-foley-the-artist-who-brought-natural-sound-into-motion-pictures/|website=The Vintage News|accessdate=18 July 2017|date=Jul 12, 2017}}</ref> was an American [[sound effects]] artist who was the developer of many sound effect techniques used in [[filmmaking]]. He is credited with developing a unique method for performing sound effects live and in synchrony with the picture during a film's post-production. Accordingly, individuals engaged in this trade are called "[[Foley (filmmaking)|Foley artists]]".<br />
<br />
He worked on pictures such as ''[[Melody of Love (1928 film)|Melody of Love]]'' (1928), ''[[Show Boat (1929 film)|Show Boat]]'' (1929), ''Dat Ol' Ribber'', ''[[Dracula (1931 English-language film)|Dracula]]'', ''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'', and ''[[Operation Petticoat]]''. For his work in Hollywood, Foley received the [[Motion Picture Sound Editors]]' Golden Reel Award.<ref name="film_sound">{{cite web|url=http://www.filmsound.org/foley/jackfoley.htm|title=The Story of Jack Foley|website=FilmSound.org}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Early life and career ==<br />
Jack Foley was born on April 12, 1891, in [[Yorkville, Manhattan|Yorkville]], [[New York (state)|New York]], to Irish immigrants Margaret Donavon and Michael Foley.<ref name="vintagenews" /><ref name="film_sound" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Wolf|first=Daphne|date=February–March 2012|title=Jack Foley and the Art of Sound|url=https://www.irishamerica.com/2012/01/jack-foley-and-the-art-of-sound/|url-status=live|access-date=October 2, 2021|website=Irish America}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Jackson|first=Blair|date=September 2005|title=Foley Recording|url=https://www.proquest.com/artspremium/docview/196889867/3B48ADA0D1D443E4PQ/12?accountid=10639|url-status=live|access-date=October 2, 2021|website=Proquest}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Singer|first=Phillip|title=The Story of Jack Foley|url=http://www.marblehead.net/foley/jack.html|url-status=live|access-date=October 2, 2021|website=The Art of Foley}}</ref> Foley was raised in the area of [[Coney Island]]. Foley's parents were separated as Margaret lived with her father and four sisters. When Foley was sixteen, Margaret married Michael Gilmartin, the son of Sligo immigrants. Foley's biological father worked at the docks and was a volunteer firefighter as well as a singer and songwriter for local pubs. Foley grew up with [[James Cagney]], [[Arthur Murray]], and [[Bert Lahr]] being among his classmates. Foley's first job was as a clerk at the New York docks. During this time, Foley married Beatrice Rehm. They married in secret as Foley was [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], and Rehm was [[Protestantism|Protestant]].<ref name="film_sound" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
In 1914, Foley and his wife moved to [[Bishop, California|Bishop]], [[California]], as Foley disliked the New York weather. While in Bishop, during [[World War I]], Foley worked for the [[American Defense Society]] guarding the Los Angeles water supply to ensure the water wasn't poisoned. He also worked at a Bishop hardware store. During this time, Foley became involved in the [[theatre]] and composed a few plays. He also wrote and drew [[comics]] for the local newspaper.<ref name="vintagenews" /><ref name="film_sound" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
During the early 1920s, many farm owners began selling their land to the city of [[Los Angeles|Los Angeles]] for water rights as the city was growing at a rapid pace.<ref name="film_sound" /><ref name=":0" /> This led to a decrease in wages for many of the locals, particularly those who worked in stores. Being personally affected, Foley began contacting several people he knew in the [[film industry]]. Along with the town's storekeepers, Foley led a publicity campaign to bring the film industry to Bishop to help stimulate the local economy. This endeavor was a success for Foley as he then scouted locations for film productions. This also led to Foley eventually working for [[Universal Pictures|Universal]] in various capacities, from a [[Stunt performer|stuntman]] to a [[Silent film|silent movie]] director.<ref name="vintagenews" /><ref name="film_sound" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
By the latter half of the 1920s, sound was introduced in films. Many production companies began looking to incorporate sound in their movies. Foley became involved with this new aspect in the film industry and worked with sound for movies such as ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1925 film)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' (1925), ''[[The Jazz Singer]]'' (1927) and ''[[Tarzan the Tiger]]'' (1929), in which he voiced the first Tarzan yell.<ref name=":0" /> It wasn't until ''[[Show Boat (1929 film)|Show Boat]]'' (1929) when Foley's career took off as he helped create sound effects for the movie which led to the name [[Foley (filmmaking)|Foley effects]]. After this movie, Foley solely focused on sound for his career in the film industry. Foley worked for close to thirty years incorporating Foley sounds in movies, such as ''[[Dracula (1931 English-language film)|Dracula]]'' (1931) and ''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'' (1960). He helped bring movies to life by recording everyday sounds, such as chewing, knocking on wood, and footsteps. Foley made sound a critical aspect of movie productions.<ref name="film_sound" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Cuartas|first=Roberto|date=June 23, 2021|title=How the History of Foley Can Help Your Film|url=https://enhanced.media/blog/2021/6/24/what-you-should-know-about-the-history-of-foley|url-status=live|website=Enhanced Media}}</ref><br />
<br />
Foley won awards for his work, including the [[Golden Reel Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing – Sound Effects and Foley for Feature Film|Golden Reel Award]]. The [[Motion Picture Sound Editors]] society honored Foley after his retirement in the early 1960s. Jack Foley passed away on November 9, 1967, at the age of 76. Foley himself calculated that he had walked over {{Convert|5000|mi|km}} making sounds for films, and his work and legacy are still remembered to this day.<ref name="vintagenews" /><ref name="film_sound" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Foley (filmmaking)]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IMDb name|0284148|Jack Foley}}<br />
* [http://filmsound.org/foley/jackfoley.htm Jack Foley biography] on FilmSound.org<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Foley, Jack}}<br />
[[Category:1891 births]]<br />
[[Category:1967 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Sound effects artists]]<br />
[[Category:People from Yorkville, Manhattan]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{US-film-bio-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centaurium_erythraea&diff=1065318662Centaurium erythraea2022-01-12T23:18:37Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Distribution */Typ</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}}<br />
{{Speciesbox<br />
|image = Centaurium erythraea 220603.jpg<br />
|genus = Centaurium<br />
|species = erythraea<br />
|authority = [[Carl Gottlob Rafn|Rafn]]<br />
|synonyms_ref = <ref name="347236-1" >{{cite web |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:326619-2#synonyms |title=''Centaurium erythraea'' Rafn |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2017 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=9 December 2020 }}</ref><br />
|synonyms = {{collapsible list|<br />
*''Centaurella dichotoma'' <small>Delarbre</small><br />
*''Centaurium capitatum'' <small>(Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) Borbás</small><br />
*''Centaurium corymbosum'' <small>(Dulac) Druce</small><br />
*''Centaurium erythraea'' var. ''capitatum'' <small>(Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.) Melderis</small><br />
*''Centaurium erythraea'' var. ''fasciculare'' <small>(Duby) Ubsdell</small><br />
*''Centaurium erythraea'' var. ''latifolium'' <small>(Sm.) T.C.G.Rich</small><br />
*''Centaurium erythraea'' var. ''laxum'' <small>(Boiss.) Mouterde ex Charpin & Greuter</small><br />
*''Centaurium erythraea'' var. ''masclansii'' <small>O.Bolòs & Vigo</small><br />
*''Centaurium erythraea'' var. ''subcapitatum'' <small>(Corb.) Ubsdell</small><br />
*''Centaurium erythraea'' var. ''sublitorale'' <small>(Wheldon & Salmon) Ubsdell</small><br />
*''Centaurium latifolium'' <small>(Sm.) Druce</small><br />
*''Centaurium lomae'' <small>(Gilg) Druce</small><br />
*''Centaurium minus'' <small>Moench</small><br />
*''Centaurium minus'' var. ''austriacum'' <small>(Ronniger ex Fritsch) Soó</small><br />
*''Centaurium minus'' var. ''transiens'' <small>(Wittr.) Soó</small><br />
*''Centaurium umbellatum'' f. ''album'' <small>Sigunov</small><br />
*''Centaurium umbellatum'' var. ''fasciculare'' <small>(Duby) Gilmour</small><br />
*''Centaurium vulgare'' <small>Rafn</small><br />
*''Chironia centaurium'' <small>(L.) F.W.Schmidt</small><br />
*''Chironia centaurium'' var. ''fascicularis'' <small>Duby</small><br />
*''Chironia erythraea'' <small>Schousb.</small><br />
*''Erythraea capitata'' <small>Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.</small><br />
*''Erythraea centaurium'' <small>(L.) Pers.</small><br />
*''Erythraea centaurium'' f. ''itatiaiaensis'' <small>Dusén</small><br />
*''Erythraea corymbosa'' <small>Dulac</small><br />
*''Erythraea germanica'' <small>Hoffmanns. & Link</small><br />
*''Erythraea latifolia'' <small>Sm.</small><br />
*''Erythraea lomae'' <small>Gilg</small><br />
*''Erythraea vulgaris'' <small>Gray</small><br />
*''Gentiana centaurium'' <small>L.</small><br />
*''Gentiana gerardii'' <small>F.W.Schmidt</small><br />
*''Gentiana palustris'' <small>Lam.</small><br />
*''Gonipia linearis'' <small>Raf.</small><br />
*''Hippocentaurea centaurium'' <small>Schult.</small><br />
*''Libadion variabile'' <small>Bubani</small><br />
*''Xolemia palustris'' <small>(DC.) Raf.</small><br />
}}}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Leiden Centauria minor.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Centaurium erythraea, as depicted in 6th-century [[Leiden University Library|Leiden]] manuscript of [[Pseudo-Apuleius]]' ''Herbarius'']]<br />
'''''Centaurium erythraea''''' is a species of flowering plant in the [[Gentianaceae|gentian family]] known by the common names '''common centaury''' and '''European centaury'''.<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
This is an erect biennial herb which reaches half a meter in height. It grows from a small basal rosette and bolts a leafy, erect stem which may branch. The triangular leaves are arranged oppositely on the stem and the erect [[inflorescence]]s emerge from the stem and grow parallel to it, sometimes tangling with the foliage. Each inflorescence may contain many flowers. The petite flower is pinkish-lavender and about a centimeter across, flat-faced with yellow [[stamen|anthers]]. The fruit is a cylindrical capsule.<br />
<br />
It flowers from June until September.<br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
This centaury is a widespread plant of Europe (including Scotland, Sweden and Mediterranean countries<ref name= academia>{{cite journal |first1=Y. |last1=Kumarasamy |first2=L. |last2=Nahar |first3=P. J.|last3= Cox |first4=M. |last4=Jaspars |first5=S. D. |last5=Sarker |title=Bioactivity of secoiridoid glycosides from Centaurium erythraea |date=2003 |url= https://www.academia.edu/19680273 |journal=Phytomedicine |publisher=urbanfischer.de |volume=10 |issue= 4|pages=344–347 |doi= 10.1078/094471103322004857|pmid=12809366 |accessdate=7 November 2014}}</ref>) and parts of western Asia and northern Africa. It has also naturalised in parts of North America,<ref name= academia/> New Zealand, and eastern Australia, where it is an [[introduced species]].<br />
<br />
==Taxonomy==<br />
It is also commonly known as “feverfoullie”, “gentian” or “centaury”.<ref name= academia/><br />
<br />
==Uses==<br />
The European centaury is used as a medical [[herb]] in many parts of Europe. The herb, mainly prepared as [[tisane]], is thought{{by whom|date=January 2017}} to possess medical properties beneficial for patients with [[gastric]] and [[liver]] diseases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Herbal_-_Summary_of_assessment_report_for_the_public/2016/02/WC500201745.pdf|title=Centaury, Herbal medicine: Summary for the Public|date=2 February 2016|website=European Medicines Agency}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Chemical constituents==<br />
''C. erythraea'' contains [[phenolic acids]], including [[ferulic acid|ferulic]] and [[sinapic acid]]s, as well as [[sterols]] (as [[brassicasterol]] and [[stigmasterol]]), [[secoiridoid]] and the [[glycoside]]s, [[swertiamarin]] and [[sweroside]].<ref name= academia/>{{citation needed|date=January 2020}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?4374,4375,4378 Jepson Manual Treatment]<br />
*[http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=photos_index&where-taxon=Centaurium+erythraea Photo gallery]<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q156870}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Centaurium|erythraea]]<br />
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Africa]]<br />
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]<br />
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Europe]]<br />
[[Category:Flora of Lebanon]]<br />
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schisandraceae&diff=1062874867Schisandraceae2021-12-31T00:22:36Z<p>Nickwilso: Removed nonsense</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Family of flowering plants}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| taxon = Schisandraceae<br />
| image = Schisandra sinensis flower.jpg<br />
| authority = [[Carl Ludwig Blume|Blume]]<ref name=APGIII2009>{{Cite journal |author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
| subdivision_ranks = Genera<br />
| subdivision =<br />
*''[[Schisandra]]''<br />
*''[[Kadsura]]''<br />
*''[[Illicium]]''<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Schisandraceae''' is a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[flowering plant]]s with 3 known genera and a total of 92 known species.<ref name=APGIV/><ref name=APGIII/> Such a family has been recognized by most taxonomists, at least for the past several decades. Before that, the plants concerned were assigned to family [[Magnoliaceae]] and [[Illiciaceae]].<br />
<br />
The [[APG IV system|APG IV]] and [[APG III system]]s of taxonomy recognize this family and place it on the order [[Austrobaileyales]].<ref name=APGIV/><ref name=APGIII/><br />
<br />
The [[APG II system]], of 2003, also recognizes such a family. It places the family in order [[Austrobaileyales]], which in turn is accepted as being among the most basic lineages in the clade [[angiosperms]]. APG II assumes this to be a family of three genera, the Schisandraceae ''sensu lato''. This family consists of woody plants, containing [[essential oil]]s.<br />
<br />
However, APG II does allow the option of segregating the genus ''[[Illicium]]'' as the family [[Illiciaceae]]. This leaves only two genera in the family Schisandraceae ''sensu stricto'', consisting of ''[[Schisandra]]'' and ''[[Kadsura]]'', totalling several dozen species, which are found in tropical to temperate regions of [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]] and [[North America]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kadsura, Schisandra Distribution Pages|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/|website=Plants of the World Online|publisher=Kew Science|access-date=4 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Saunders|first1=Richard M. K.|title=Systematic Botany Monographs|journal=The American Society of Plant Taxonomists|date=March 20, 2000|volume=58|issue=Monograph of Schisandra (Schisandraceae)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Saunders|first1=Richard M. K.|title=Systematic Botany Monographs|journal=The American Society of Plant Taxonomists|date=June 22, 1998|volume=54|issue=Monograph of Kadsura (Schisandraceae)}}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[APG system]], of 1998, recognized both the families Schisandraceae ''sensu stricto'' and Illiciaceae, unplaced as to order. It regarded both families as being among the most basic lineages in the clade [[angiosperms]].<br />
<br />
The [[Cronquist system]], of 1981, treated the plants in the family (in its wider sense) as two separate families, which together constituted <br />
: the order [[Illiciales]],<br />
:: in subclass [[Magnoliidae sensu Cronquist|Magnoliidae]],<br />
::: in class [[Magnoliopsida]] [=[[dicotyledons]]], <br />
:::: of division [[Magnoliophyta]] [=[[angiosperms]]].<br />
<br />
==Genera==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Image !! Genus !! Living species<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Kadsura japonica (fruits).JPG|175px]] || ''[[Kadsura]]'' {{small|Kaempf. ex Juss., 1810}} || <br />
* ''[[Kadsura acsmithii]]'' - [[Borneo]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura angustifolia]]'' - [[Guangxi]], [[Vietnam]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura borneensis]]'' - [[Sabah]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura celebica]]'' - [[Sulawesi]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura coccinea]]'' - S [[China]], N [[Indochina]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura heteroclita]]'' - [[China]], [[Indian Subcontinent]], [[Indochina]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura induta]]'' - [[Yunnan]], [[Guangxi]], [[Vietnam]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura japonica]]'' - [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Nansei-shoto]], [[Taiwan]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura lanceolata]]'' - [[Malaysia]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Maluku (province)|Maluku]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura longipedunculata]]'' - China<br />
* ''[[Kadsura marmorata]]'' - [[Borneo]], [[Philippines]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura oblongifolia]]'' - [[Guangxi]], [[Guangdong]], [[Hainan]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura philippinensis]]'' - [[Philippines]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura renchangiana]]'' - [[Guangxi]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura scandens]]'' - [[Peninsular Malaysia|Pen Malaysia]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Bali]]<br />
* ''[[Kadsura verrucosa]]'' - [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], [[Peninsular Malaysia|Pen Malaysia]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Illicium henryi in Hackfalls Arboretum (4).jpg|175px]] || ''Illicium'' {{small|L., 1759}} || <br />
* ''[[Illicium angustisepalum]]'' - S China<br />
* ''[[Illicium anisatum]]'' – Japan, South Korea, Taiwan<br />
* ''[[Illicium arborescens]]'' - [[Taiwan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium brevistylum]]'' - [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]], [[Hunan]], [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium burmanicum]]'' - [[Yunnan]], [[Myanmar]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium cubense]]'' - [[Cuba]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium difengpi]]'' - [[Guangxi]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium dunnianum]]'' - S China<br />
* ''[[Illicium floridanum]]''- United States ([[Florida|FL]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]] [[Alabama|AL]] [[Mississippi|MS]] [[Louisiana|LA]])<br />
* ''[[Illicium griffithii]]'' - [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium guajaibonense]]'' - [[Cuba]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium henryi]]'' - S China<br />
* ''[[Illicium jiadifengpi]]'' - S China<br />
* ''[[Illicium lanceolatum]]'' - S China<br />
* ''[[Illicium leiophyllum]]'' - [[Hong Kong]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium macranthum]]'' - [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium majus]]'' - S China, [[Vietnam]], [[Myanmar]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium merrillianum]]'' - [[Yunnan]], [[Myanmar]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium mexicanum]]'' - [[Veracruz]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium micranthum]]'' - [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium modestum]]'' - [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium pachyphyllum]]'' - Guangxi<br />
* ''[[Illicium parviflorum]]'' &ndash; yellow anise - United States ([[Florida|FL]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]] [[South Carolina|SC]])<br />
* ''[[Illicium petelotii]]'' - [[Yunnan]], [[Vietnam]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium philippinense]]'' - [[Philippines]], [[Taiwan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium simonsii]]'' - S China, [[Assam]], [[Myanmar]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium tashiroi]]'' - [[Taiwan]], [[Nansei-shoto]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium tenuifolium]]'' - [[Vietnam]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium ternstroemioides]]'' - [[Fujian]], [[Hainan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium tsaii]]'' - [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium verum]]'' &ndash; star anise, Chinese star-anise, staranise tree - [[Guangxi]]<br />
* ''[[Illicium wardii]]'' - [[Yunnan]], [[Myanmar]]<br />
|-<br />
|[[File:Schisandra rubriflora.jpg|175px]] || ''[[Schisandra]]'' {{small|Michx., 1803}} || <br />
* ''[[Schisandra arisanensis]]'' - S China incl [[Taiwan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra bicolor]]'' - [[Guangxi]], [[Hunan]], [[Yunnan]], [[Zhejiang]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra chinensis]]'' - [[Russian Far East]], NE China, [[Korea]], Japan<br />
* ''[[Schisandra elongata]]'' - [[Java]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra glabra]]'' - [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], United States ([[Louisiana|LA]] [[Arkansas|AR]] [[Mississippi|MS]] [[Alabama|AL]] [[Tennessee|TN]] [[Kentucky|KY]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|GA]] [[Florida|FL]] [[South Carolina|SC]] [[North Carolina|NC]])<br />
*''[[Schisandra glaucescens]]'' - [[Chongqing]], [[Hubei]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra grandiflora]]'' - [[Tibet]], [[Sikkim]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Assam]], [[Uttarakhand]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra henryi]]'' - S China<br />
* ''[[Schisandra incarnata]]'' - [[Hubei]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra lancifolia]]'' - [[Sichuan]], [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra longipes]]'' - [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra macrocarpa]]'' - [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra micrantha]]'' - [[Manipur]], [[Yunnan]], [[Myanmar]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra neglecta]]'' - [[Sikkim]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Assam]], [[Myanmar]], [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra parapropinqua]]'' - [[Guizhou]], [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra perulata]]'' - [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra plena]]'' - [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra propinqua]]'' - China, [[Assam]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Java]], [[Bali]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra pubescens]]'' - [[Sichuan]], [[Hubei]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra pubinervis]]'' - [[Hubei]], [[Sichuan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra repanda]]'' - [[Korea]], Japan<br />
* ''[[Schisandra rubriflora]]'' - [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Yunnan]], [[Myanmar]], [[Sichuan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra sphaerandra]]'' - [[Sichuan]], [[Yunnan]]<br />
* ''[[Schisandra sphenanthera]]'' - China<br />
* ''[[Schisandra tomentella]]'' - [[Sichuan]]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Pollination==<br />
Schisandaceae are pollinated predominantly by nocturnal [[Cecidomyiidae|gall midges]] that lay their eggs in the male and female flowers (in Schisandraceae species with unisexual flowers) or the male-stage and female-stage flowers (in species with bisexual flowers). The larvae of these midges develop in the floral tissue once it has dropped to the ground, feeding on floral exudates (not ovules or pollen).<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|refs=<br />
<br />
<ref name=APGIII>{{Cite journal|author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|year=2009|title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=161|issue=2|pages=105–121|issn=0024-4074|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name=APGIV>{{Cite journal|author=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|year=2016|title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=181|issue=1|pages=1–20|issn=0024-4074|doi=10.1111/boj.12385|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/Schisand.htm Schisandraceae] [sensu stricto] in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards) ''[http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ The families of flowering plants:] descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval''. Version: 3 May 2006. http://delta-intkey.com.<br />
* Schisandraceae [sensu stricto] in the [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=10803 ''Flora of North America'']<br />
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=16733&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock NCBI Taxonomy Browser] [Schisandraceae sensu lato]<br />
* {{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=10803|title=Flora of China|chapter=Schisandraceae|author=Nianhe Xia|author2= Yuhu Liu|author3=Richard M. K. Saunders|name-list-style=amp|year=2008|editor=Wu Zhengyi (吴征镒)|editor2=Peter H. Raven|editor3=Hong Deyuan (洪德元)|volume=7|pages=39}}<br />
* Luo, S-X., L-J. Zhang, S. Yuan, Z-H. Ma, D-X. Zhang, and S. S. Renner. 2018. The largest early-diverging angiosperm family is mostly pollinated by ovipositing insects and so are most surviving lineages of early angiosperms. Proc. Roy. Soc. B 285: 20172365; {{DOI|10.1098/rspb.2017.2365}}<br />
<br />
{{Angiosperm families}}<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q282324}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Schisandraceae| ]]<br />
[[Category:Angiosperm families]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cephalopod&diff=1059820227Cephalopod2021-12-11T20:50:38Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Vision */Too many commas</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Class of mollusks}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| fossil_range = {{Geological range|Late Cambrian|Recent|earliest=Cambrian|[[Late Cambrian]] – Present;<ref name="mollusca11">{{The Mollusca|volume=11}}</ref> possible Early Cambrian presence<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1038/s42003-021-01885-w|title = A potential cephalopod from the early Cambrian of eastern Newfoundland, Canada|year = 2021|last1 = Hildenbrand|first1 = Anne|last2 = Austermann|first2 = Gregor|last3 = Fuchs|first3 = Dirk|last4 = Bengtson|first4 = Peter|last5 = Stinnesbeck|first5 = Wolfgang|journal = Communications Biology|volume = 4|issue = 1|page = 388|pmid = 33758350|pmc = 7987959}}</ref>}}<br />
| image = Cephalopoda diversity.jpg<br />
| image_upright = 1.2<br />
| image_caption = Extant and extinct cephalopods; clockwise from top-left: [[common octopus]] (''Octopus vulgaris''), [[Caribbean reef squid]] (''Sepioteuthis sepioidea''), [[chambered nautilus]] (''Nautilus pompilius''), ''[[Orthosphynctes]]'', ''[[Phragmoteuthis conocauda]]'', and [[common cuttlefish]] (''Sepia officinalis'').<br />
| taxon = Cephalopoda<br />
| authority = [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1797<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Subclasses<br />
| subdivision = *[[Orthoceratoidea]]&nbsp;†<br />
*[[Nautiloid]]ea<br />
*[[Ammonoidea]]&nbsp;†<br />
*[[Coleoidea]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
A '''cephalopod''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|f|ə|l|ə|p|ɒ|d}} is any member of the [[mollusca]]n [[Taxonomic rank|class]] '''Cephalopoda''' {{IPAc-en|s|ɛ|f|ə|ˈ|l|ɒ|p|ə|d|ə}} ([[Greek language|Greek]] plural {{lang|grc|κεφαλόποδες}}, {{transl|grc|kephalópodes}}; "head-feet")<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Queiroz | first1 = K.| last2= Cantino | first2=P. D. | last3= Gauthier | first3=J. A. |title = Phylonyms: A Companion to the PhyloCode | publisher = CRC Press | year = 2020 | page=1843 |isbn = 978-1-138-33293-5}}</ref> such as a [[squid]], [[octopus]], [[cuttlefish]], or [[nautilus]]. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by [[bilateral symmetry|bilateral body symmetry]], a prominent head, and a set of [[cephalopod arm|arms]] or [[tentacle]]s ([[muscular hydrostat]]s) modified from the рrimitive molluscan foot. Fishers sometimes call cephalopods "'''inkfish'''", referring to their common ability to squirt [[Cephalopod ink|ink]]. The study of cephalopods is a branch of [[malacology]] known as [[teuthology]].<br />
<br />
Cephalopods became dominant during the [[Ordovician]] period, represented by primitive [[nautiloid]]s. The class now contains two, only distantly related, [[Extant taxon|extant]] subclasses: [[Coleoidea]], which includes [[octopus]]es, [[squid]], and [[cuttlefish]]; and [[Nautiloid]]ea, represented by ''[[Nautilus (genus)|Nautilus]]'' and ''[[Allonautilus]]''. In the Coleoidea, the molluscan shell has been internalized or is absent, whereas in the Nautiloidea, the external shell remains. About 800 living [[species]] of cephalopods have been identified. Two important extinct [[taxon|taxa]] are the [[Ammonoidea]] (ammonites) and [[Belemnoidea]] (belemnites). Extant cephalopods range in size from the 10 mm (0.3 in) ''[[Idiosepius thailandicus]]'' to the 14 m (45.1 ft) [[colossal squid]], the largest extant [[invertebrate]].<br />
<br />
==Distribution==<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align =right<br />
| footer ='''Left:''' A pair of cuttlefish (''[[Sepia officinalis]]'') in shallow water<br>'''Right:''' An octopus (''[[Benthoctopus]]'' sp.) on the [[Davidson Seamount]] at 2,422 m depth<br />
| image1 =Sepia officinalis Linnaeus, 1758 .jpg<br />
| width1 =220<br />
| image2 =Benthoctopus sp.jpg<br />
| width2 =190<br />
}}<br />
There are over 800 [[extant species|extant]] species of cephalopod,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cephbase.eol.org/ |title=Welcome to CephBase |work=CephBase |access-date=29 January 2016}}</ref> although new species continue to be described. An estimated 11,000 extinct [[taxon|taxa]] have been described, although the soft-bodied nature of cephalopods means they are not easily fossilised.<ref name=mollusca12>{{The Mollusca|volume=12}}</ref><br />
<br />
Cephalopods are found in all the oceans of Earth. None of them can tolerate [[fresh water]], but the brief squid, ''[[Lolliguncula brevis]]'', found in [[Chesapeake Bay]], is a notable partial exception in that it tolerates [[brackish water]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bartol |first1=I. K. |last2=Mann |first2=R. |last3=Vecchione |first3=M. | year=2002 | title=Distribution of the euryhaline squid ''Lolliguncula brevis'' in Chesapeake Bay: effects of selected abiotic factors| journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series | volume=226 | pages=235–247 | doi=10.3354/meps226235 |bibcode=2002MEPS..226..235B |doi-access=free }}</ref> Cephalopods are thought to be unable to live in fresh water due to multiple biochemical constraints, and in their >400&nbsp;million year existence have never ventured into fully freshwater habitats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2013/01/16/3670198.htm |title=Are there any freshwater cephalopods? |website=ABC Science |date=16 January 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
Cephalopods occupy most of the depth of the ocean, from the [[abyssal plain]] to the sea surface. Their diversity is greatest near the equator (~40 species retrieved in nets at 11°N by a diversity study) and decreases towards the poles (~5 species captured at 60°N).<ref name=Cephalopods/><br />
<br />
==Biology==<br />
=== Nervous system and behavior ===<br />
{{See also|Cephalopod intelligence|squid giant axon|squid giant synapse|cephalopod aggression}}<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align =right<br />
| footer ='''Left:''' An octopus opening a container with a screw cap<br>'''Right:''' [[Hawaiian bobtail squid]], ''Euprymna scolopes'', burying itself in the sand, leaving only the eyes exposed<br />
| image1 =Oktopus opening a container with screw cap 01.jpg<br />
| width1 =179<br />
| image2 =Euprymna_scolopes_(Bobtail_squid)_behavior.jpg<br />
| width2 =202<br />
}}<br />
Cephalopods are widely regarded as the most intelligent of the [[invertebrate]]s, and have well developed senses and large [[brain]]s (larger than those of [[gastropod]]s).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tricarico |first1=E. |last2=Amodio |first2=P. |last3=Ponte |first3=G. |last4=Fiorito |first4=G. |year=2014 |chapter=Cognition and recognition in the cephalopod mollusc ''Octopus vulgaris'': coordinating interaction with environment and conspecifics |editor-last=Witzany|editor-first=G. |title=Biocommunication of Animals |publisher=Springer |pages=337–349 |isbn=978-94-007-7413-1}}</ref> The [[nervous system]] of cephalopods is the most complex of the invertebrates<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dW5e6FHOH-4C&pg=PA115 |chapter=The cephalopod nervous system: What evolution has made of the molluscan design |first=B. U. |last=Budelmann | title=The nervous systems of invertebrates: An evolutionary and comparative approach | isbn=978-3-7643-5076-5 | editor1-first=O. |editor1-last=Breidbach |editor2-first=W. |editor2-last=Kutsch | year=1995}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chung|first1=Wen-Sung|last2=Kurniawan|first2=Nyoman D.|last3=Marshall|first3=N. Justin|date=2020|title=Toward an MRI-Based Mesoscale Connectome of the Squid Brain|journal=iScience|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=100816|doi=10.1016/j.isci.2019.100816|pmc=6974791|pmid=31972515|bibcode=2020iSci...23j0816C}}</ref> and their brain-to-body-mass ratio falls between that of [[endotherm]]ic and [[ectotherm]]ic vertebrates.<ref name=Cephalopods/>{{Rp|14}} Captive cephalopods have also been known to climb out of their aquaria, maneuver a distance of the lab floor, enter another aquarium to feed on the crabs, and return to their own aquarium.<ref>Raven, Peter et al. (2003). ''Biology'', p.&nbsp;669. McGraw-Hill Education, New York. {{ISBN|9780073383071}}.</ref><br />
<br />
The brain is protected in a [[cartilage|cartilaginous]] cranium. The giant [[nerve]] fibers of the cephalopod [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle]] have been widely used for many years as experimental material in [[neurophysiology]]; their large diameter (due to lack of [[myelination]]) makes them relatively easy to study compared with other animals.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=I. |last1=Tasaki |first2=T. |last2=Takenaka | title=Resting and action potential of squid giant axons intracellularly perfused with sodium-rich solutions | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=50 | issue=4 | pages=619–626 | date=1963 | doi=10.1073/pnas.50.4.619|pmid=14077488 |pmc=221236 |bibcode=1963PNAS...50..619T |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Many cephalopods are social creatures; when isolated from their own kind, some species have been observed [[Shoaling and schooling|shoaling]] with fish.<ref name=Packard1972>{{cite journal| first1=A.| title=Cephalopods and fish: the limits of convergence| journal=Biological Reviews| volume=47| issue=2| last1=Packard| pages=241–307| year=1972| doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.1972.tb00975.x| s2cid=85088231}}</ref><br />
<br />
Some cephalopods are able to fly through the air for distances of up to 50&nbsp;m. While cephalopods are not particularly aerodynamic, they achieve these impressive ranges by jet-propulsion; water continues to be expelled from the funnel while the organism is in the air.<ref name="Macia-Robinson-2004">{{cite journal | last1=Macia | first1=Silvia| last2=Robinson | first2=Michael P. | last3=Craze | first3=Paul| last4=Dalton | first4=Robert | last5=Thomas | first5=James D.| title=New observations on airborne jet propulsion (flight) in squid, with a review of previous reports | doi=10.1093/mollus/70.3.297 | journal=Journal of Molluscan Studies | volume=70 | issue=3 | pages=297–299| year=2004 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The animals spread their fins and tentacles to form wings and actively control lift force with body posture.<ref name=MuramatsuEtAl2013>{{cite journal|last1=Muramatsu|first1=K.|last2=Yamamoto|first2=J.|last3=Abe|first3=T.|last4=Sekiguchi|first4=K.|last5=Hoshi|first5=N.|last6=Sakurai|first6=Y. |s2cid=84388744|year=2013 |title=Oceanic squid do fly |journal=Marine Biology |volume=160 |issue=5 |pages=1171–1175 |doi=10.1007/s00227-013-2169-9}}</ref> One species, ''[[Japanese flying squid|Todarodes pacificus]]'', has been observed spreading tentacles in a flat fan shape with a mucus film between the individual tentacles<ref name=MuramatsuEtAl2013/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2013/02/20/scientists-unravel-mystery-of-flying-squid/ |title=Scientists Unravel Mystery of Flying Squid |date=20 February 2013 |work=Ocean Views |publisher=National Geographic}}</ref> while another, ''[[Caribbean reef squid|Sepioteuthis sepioidea]]'', has been observed putting the tentacles in a circular arrangement.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jabr |first=Ferris |date=2 August 2010 | title=Fact or Fiction: Can a Squid Fly out of Water? |journal=Scientific American |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/can-squid-fly/}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Senses===<br />
Cephalopods have advanced vision, can detect gravity with [[statocyst]]s, and have a variety of chemical sense organs.<ref name=Cephalopods/>{{Rp|34}} Octopuses use their arms to explore their environment and can use them for depth perception.<ref name=Cephalopods/><br />
<br />
====Vision====<br />
{{Main|Cephalopod eye|mollusc eye}}<br />
[[File:Nautilus pompilius (head).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The primitive [[nautilus]] eye functions similarly to a [[pinhole camera]].]]<br />
[[File:Sepia eyelid shape.theora.ogv|thumb|right|250px|The W-shaped pupil of the cuttlefish expanding when the lights are turned off]]<br />
Most cephalopods rely on vision to detect predators and prey, and to communicate with one another.<ref name=Serb2008>{{cite journal | first1=J. M.| first2=D. J.| last2=Eernisse| title=Charting Evolution's Trajectory: Using Molluscan Eye Diversity to Understand Parallel and Convergent Evolution | last1=Serb | s2cid=2881223| journal=Evolution: Education and Outreach | volume=1 | issue=4| pages=439–447 | year=2008 | doi=10.1007/s12052-008-0084-1 | doi-access=free}}</ref> Consequently, cephalopod vision is acute: training experiments have shown that the [[common octopus]] can distinguish the brightness, size, shape, and horizontal or vertical orientation of objects. The morphological construction gives cephalopod eyes the same performance as shark eyes, however their construction differs, as cephalopods lack a cornea and have an everted retina.<ref name=Serb2008/> Cephalopods' eyes are also sensitive to the plane of [[Polarization (waves)|polarization]] of light.<ref>{{cite journal<br />
|title=Part M, Chapter 4: Physiology of Coleoids<br />
|journal=Treatise Online<br />
|first=Martin J.<br />
|last=Wells<br />
|place=Lawrence, Kansas, USA<br />
|url=http://129.237.145.244:591/FMPro?-db=treatiseonline&-format=treatiseonline%2fdetails.html&-lay=table&-sortfield=sortnumber&-recid=11&-findall=<br />
|year=2011<br />
|doi=10.17161/to.v0i0.4226<br />
|access-date=2013-05-10<br />
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822014821/http://129.237.145.244:591/FMPro?-db=treatiseonline&-format=treatiseonline%2fdetails.html&-lay=table&-sortfield=sortnumber&-recid=11&-findall=<br />
|archive-date=2016-08-22<br />
|url-status=dead<br />
}}{{paywall}}</ref> <br />
Unlike many other cephalopods, [[nautilus]]es do not have good vision; their eye structure is highly developed, but lacks a solid [[lens (anatomy)|lens]]. They have a simple "[[Pinhole camera|pinhole]]" eye through which water can pass. Instead of vision, the animal is thought to use [[olfaction]] as the primary sense for [[foraging]], as well as locating or identifying potential mates.<br />
<br />
[[File:Cuttlefish eye.jpg|thumb|250px|A cuttlefish with W-shaped pupils which may help them discriminate colors.]]<br />
Surprisingly, given their ability to change color, all octopuses<ref name=Boyle/> and most cephalopods<ref name="Messenger-17">{{cite book | last1=Messenger | first1=John B. |first2=Roger T. |last2=Hanlon | title=Cephalopod Behaviour | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1998 | location=Cambridge | pages=17–21 | isbn=978-0-521-64583-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chung|first1=Wen-Sung|last2=Marshall|first2=N. Justin|date=2016-09-14|title=Comparative visual ecology of cephalopods from different habitats|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=283|issue=1838|pages=20161346|doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.1346|issn=0962-8452|pmc=5031660|pmid=27629028}}</ref> are considered to be [[color blind]]. Coleoid cephalopods (octopus, squid, cuttlefish) have a single photoreceptor type and lack the ability to determine color by comparing detected photon intensity across multiple spectral channels. When [[camouflage|camouflaging]] themselves, they use their chromatophores to change brightness and pattern according to the background they see, but their ability to match the specific color of a background may come from cells such as [[iridophore]]s and [[leucophore]]s that reflect light from the environment.<ref>Hanlon and Messenger, 68.</ref> They also produce visual pigments throughout their body, and may sense light levels directly from their body.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Mäthger | first1=L.| last2=Roberts | first2=S.| last3=Hanlon | first3=R.| title=Evidence for distributed light sensing in the skin of cuttlefish, ''Sepia officinalis''| journal=Biology Letters| volume=6| issue=5| pages=600–603| year=2010| pmid=20392722| pmc=2936158| doi=10.1098/rsbl.2010.0223}}</ref> Evidence of [[color vision]] has been found in the [[sparkling enope squid]] (''Watasenia scintillans''),<ref name="Messenger-17" /><ref name=Michinomae1994>{{cite journal | last1=Michinomae | first1=M.| last2=Masuda | first2=H.| last3=Seidou | first3=M.| last4=Kito | first4=Y.| title=Structural basis for wavelength discrimination in the banked retina of the firefly squid ''Watasenia scintillans''| journal=Journal of Experimental Biology| volume=193| issue=1| pages=1–12| year=1994| doi=10.1242/jeb.193.1.1| pmid=9317205}}</ref> which achieves color vision by the use of three distinct [[retinal]] molecules: A1, most sensitive to green-blue (484&nbsp;nm); A2, to blue-green (500&nbsp;nm), and A4, to blue (470&nbsp;nm), which bind to its [[opsin]].<ref name=Seidou1990>{{cite journal | last1=Seidou | first1=M. | last2=Sugahara | first2=M. | last3=Uchiyama | first3=H. | last4=Hiraki | first4=K. | last5=Hamanaka | first5=T. | last6=Michinomae | first6=M. | last7=Yoshihara | first7=K. | last8=Kito | first8=Y. | s2cid=25707481 | title=On the three visual pigments in the retina of the firefly squid, ''Watasenia scintillans'' | journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology A | volume=166 | issue=6 | year=1990 | doi=10.1007/BF00187321}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2015, a novel mechanism for spectral discrimination in cephalopods was described. This relies on the exploitation of [[chromatic aberration]] (wavelength-dependence of focal length). Numerical modeling shows that chromatic aberration can yield useful chromatic information through the dependence of image acuity on accommodation. The unusual off-axis slit and annular pupil shapes in cephalopods enhance this ability.<ref name="Stubbs">{{cite biorxiv|last1=Stubbs |first1=A. L. |last2=Stubbs |first2=C. W.|year=2015|title=A novel mechanism for color vision: Pupil shape and chromatic aberration can provide spectral discrimination for 'color blind' organisms|biorxiv=10.1101/017756}}</ref><br />
<br />
====Photoreception====<br />
In 2015, molecular evidence was published indicating that cephalopod chromatophores are photosensitive; reverse transcription polymerase chain reactions (RT-PCR) revealed [[Primary transcript|transcripts]] encoding [[rhodopsin]] and [[retinochrome]] within the retinas and skin of the [[longfin inshore squid]] (''Doryteuthis pealeii''), and the [[common cuttlefish]] (''Sepia officinalis'') and broadclub cuttlefish (''[[Sepia latimanus]]''). The authors claim this is the first evidence that cephalopod dermal tissues may possess the required combination of molecules to respond to light.<ref name="Kingston2015">{{cite journal |last1=Kingston |first1=A. C. |last2=Kuzirian |first2=A. M. |last3=Hanlon |first3=R. T. |last4=Cronin |first4=T. W.|s2cid=25431963 |year=2015|title=Visual phototransduction components in cephalopod chromatophores suggest dermal photoreception|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=218|issue=10|pages=1596–1602|doi=10.1242/jeb.117945|pmid=25994635 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
====Hearing====<br />
<br />
Some squids have been shown to detect sound using their [[statocyst]]s,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8095000/8095977.stm | work=BBC News | title=The cephalopods can hear you | date=2009-06-15 | access-date=2010-04-28}}</ref> but, in general, cephalopods are deaf.<br />
<br />
===Use of light===<br />
[[Image:Cuttlefish color.jpg|thumb|This [[broadclub cuttlefish]] (''Sepia latimanus'') can change from camouflage tans and browns (top) to yellow with dark highlights (bottom) in less than a second.]]<br />
{{further|Counter-illumination}}<br />
<br />
Most cephalopods possess an assemblage of skin components that interact with light. These may include [[Chromatophore#Iridophores and leucophores|iridophores, leucophores]], [[chromatophore]]s and (in some species) [[photophore]]s. Chromatophores are colored pigment cells that expand and contract in accordance to produce color and pattern which they can use in a startling array of fashions.<ref name=Cephalopods/><ref name="Kingston2015" /> As well as providing camouflage with their background, some cephalopods bioluminesce, [[Counter-illumination|shining light downwards to disguise their shadows]] from any predators that may lurk below.<ref name=Cephalopods/> The [[bioluminescence]] is produced by bacterial symbionts; the host cephalopod is able to detect the light produced by these organisms.<ref>{{cite journal| last1=Tong | first1=D.| last2=Rozas | first2=S. | first3=H.| last3=Oakley| last5=Colley| last6=Mcfall-Ngai| last4=Mitchell | first4=J. | first5=J. | first6=J. | title=Evidence for light perception in a bioluminescent organ | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=106 | issue=24 | pages=9836–9841 | date=Jun 2009 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=19509343 | pmc=2700988 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0904571106 |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.9836T | doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Bioluminescence]] may also be used to entice prey, and some species use colorful displays to impress mates, startle predators, or even communicate with one another.<ref name=Cephalopods/><br />
<br />
=== Coloration ===<br />
{{further|Animal coloration|Animals that can change color}}<br />
<br />
Cephalopods can change their colors and patterns in milliseconds, whether for [[signalling theory|signalling]] (both [[sexual selection|within the species]] and for [[aposematism|warning]]) or [[active camouflage]],<ref name=Cephalopods/> as their chromatophores are expanded or contracted.<ref name=encbrit>"Integument (mollusks)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. [[Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD]].</ref> Although color changes appear to rely primarily on vision input, there is evidence that skin cells, specifically [[chromatophores]], can detect light and adjust to light conditions independently of the eyes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ramirez|first1=M. D.|last2=Oakley|first2=T. H|title=Eye-independent, light-activated chromatophore expansion (LACE) and expression of phototransduction genes in the skin of ''Octopus bimaculoides''|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|date=2015|volume=218|issue=10|pages=1513–1520|doi=10.1242/jeb.110908|pmid=25994633|url=http://jeb.biologists.org/content/jexbio/218/10/1513.full.pdf|pmc=4448664}}</ref> The octopus changes skin color and texture during quiet and active sleep cycles.<ref>{{cite journal<!--|authors=Sylvia Lima de Souza Medeiros; Mizziara Marlen Matias de Paiva; Paulo Henrique Lopes; Wilfredo Blanco; Françoise Dantas de Lima; Jaime Bruno Cirne de Oliveira; Inácio Gomes Medeiros; Eduardo Bouth Sequerra; Sandro de Souza; Tatiana Silva Leite; Sidarta Ribeiro-->|author=Sylvia Lima de Souza Medeiros|display-authors=etal|title=Cyclic alternation of quiet and active sleep states in the octopus |publisher=iScience|year=2021|doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.102223|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004221001917}}</ref><br />
<br />
Cephalopods can use chromatophores like a muscle, which is why they can change their skin hue as rapidly as they do.<br />
Coloration is typically stronger in near-shore species than those living in the open ocean, whose functions tend to be restricted to [[Camouflage#Disruptive patterning|disruptive camouflage]].<ref name=Cephalopods/>{{Rp|2}} These chromatophores are found throughout the body of the octopus, however, they are controlled by the same part of the brain that controls elongation during jet propulsion to reduce drag. As such, if jetting octopuses can turn pale because the brain is unable to achieve both controlling elongation and controlling the chromatophores.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huffard|first=Christine L.|date=2006-10-01|title=Locomotion by Abdopus aculeatus (Cephalopoda: Octopodidae):walking the line between primary and secondary defenses|url=https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.02435|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=209|issue=19|pages=3697–3707|doi=10.1242/jeb.02435|pmid=16985187|s2cid=26862414|issn=0022-0949}}</ref> Most octopuses mimic select structures in their field of view rather than becoming a composite color of their full background.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Josef|first1=Noam|last2=Amodio|first2=Piero|last3=Fiorito|first3=Graziano|last4=Shashar|first4=Nadav|date=2012-05-23|title=Camouflaging in a Complex Environment—Octopuses Use Specific Features of Their Surroundings for Background Matching|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=5|pages=e37579|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0037579|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3359305|pmid=22649542|bibcode=2012PLoSO...737579J|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Evidence of original coloration has been detected in cephalopod fossils dating as far back as the [[Silurian]]; these orthoconic individuals bore concentric stripes, which are thought to have served as camouflage.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Minute Silurian oncocerid nautiloids with unusual color patterns |last1=Manda |first1=Štěpán |last2=Turek |first2=Vojtěch |s2cid=54043278 | journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica | volume=54 | issue=3 |year=2009 |pages=503–512 | doi=10.4202/app.2008.0062|doi-access=free }}</ref> Devonian cephalopods bear more complex color patterns, of unknown function.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Colour patterns in Early Devonian cephalopods from the Barrandian Area: Taphonomy and taxonomy | first=Vojtěch |last=Turek | s2cid=55851070 |volume=54 | issue=3 |year=2009 |pages=491–502 |doi=10.4202/app.2007.0064 |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Ink===<br />
{{Main|Cephalopod ink|ink sac}}<br />
With the exception of the [[Nautilidae]] and the species of [[octopus]] belonging to the [[Order (biology)|suborder]] [[Cirrina]],<ref>{{cite book |first1=Roger T. |last1=Hanlon |first2=John B. |last2=Messenger |title=Cephalopod Behaviour |page=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64583-6}}</ref> all known cephalopods have an ink sac, which can be used to expel a cloud of dark ink to confuse [[predator]]s.<ref name=Boyle>{{cite book | isbn= 978-0-632-06048-1 | first1= Peter |last1=Boyle | first2= Paul |last2=Rodhouse | year= 2004 | publisher= Blackwell | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4UtCi2B4VnoC | doi=10.1002/9780470995310.ch2 | title= Cephalopods : ecology and fisheries }}</ref> This sac is a muscular bag which originated as an extension of the hindgut. It lies beneath the gut and opens into the anus, into which its contents – almost pure [[melanin]] – can be squirted; its proximity to the base of the funnel means the ink can be distributed by ejected water as the cephalopod uses its jet propulsion.<ref name=Boyle/> The ejected cloud of melanin is usually mixed, upon expulsion, with [[mucus]], produced elsewhere in the mantle, and therefore forms a thick cloud, resulting in visual (and possibly chemosensory) impairment of the predator, like a [[smoke screen|smokescreen]]. However, a more sophisticated behavior has been observed, in which the cephalopod releases a cloud, with a greater mucus content, that approximately resembles the cephalopod that released it (this decoy is referred to as a [[Pseudomorph#In other fields|Pseudomorph]]). This strategy often results in the predator attacking the pseudomorph, rather than its rapidly departing prey.<ref name=Boyle/> For more information, see [[Cephalopod ink#Inking behaviours|Inking behaviors]].<br />
<br />
The ink sac of cephalopods has led to a common name of "inkfish",<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=inkfish |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/inkfish |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |access-date=1 February 2018}}</ref> formerly the pen-and-ink fish.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bickerdyke |first1=John |title=Sea Fishing |date=1895 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |location=London |page=114|url=https://archive.org/stream/badmintonlibrar06watsgoog#page/n13/mode/2up/ |quote=the common squid or calamary (''Loligo vulgaris''). It is sometimes called the pen-and-ink fish, on account of its ink bag, and the delicate elongated shell which is found within it.}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
|direction=vertical<br />
|align= right<br />
|width= 250<br />
|image1= Chtenopteryx sicula2.jpg<br />
|caption1= Viscera of ''[[Chtenopteryx sicula]]''<br />
|image2= Ocythoe tuberculata viscera.jpg<br />
|caption2= Viscera of ''[[Ocythoe tuberculata]]''<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Circulatory system===<br />
Cephalopods are the only molluscs with a closed circulatory system. [[Coleoid]]s have two gill [[heart]]s (also known as [[branchial heart]]s) that move blood through the capillaries of the [[gill]]s. A single systemic heart then pumps the oxygenated blood through the rest of the body.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Wells | first=M.J. | title=Nervous control of the heartbeat in octopus | journal=Journal of Experimental Biology | volume=85 | issue=1 | pages=111–28 | date=1 April 1980| doi=10.1242/jeb.85.1.111 | url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/abstract/85/1/111 | pmid=7373208}}</ref><br />
<br />
Like most molluscs, cephalopods use [[hemocyanin]], a copper-containing protein, rather than [[hemoglobin]], to transport oxygen. As a result, their blood is colorless when deoxygenated and turns blue when exposed to air.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Ghiretti-Magaldi | first=A. | s2cid=33290596 | title=The Pre-history of Hemocyanin. The Discovery of Copper in the Blood of Molluscs | journal=Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume=48 | issue=10 | pages=971–972|date=October 1992 | doi=10.1007/BF01919143 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Respiration===<br />
Cephalopods exchange gases with the seawater by forcing water through their gills, which are attached to the roof of the organism.<ref name=Gilbert1990/>{{Rp|488}}<ref name=Schipp1979/> Water enters the mantle cavity on the outside of the gills, and the entrance of the mantle cavity closes. When the mantle contracts, water is forced through the gills, which lie between the mantle cavity and the funnel. The water's expulsion through the funnel can be used to power jet propulsion. If respiration is used concurrently with jet propulsion, large losses in speed or oxygen generation can be expected.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=M. J.|last2=O'Dor|first2=R. K.|date=1991-09-01|title=Jet Propulsion and the Evolution of the Cephalopods|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1991/00000049/f0020001/art00038#|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|volume=49|issue=1–2|pages=419–432}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Packard|first1=A.|last2=Trueman|first2=E. R.|date=October 1974|title=Muscular activity of the mantle of Sepia and Loligo (Cephalopoda) during respiratory movements and jetting, and its physiological interpretation|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4443736/|journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=61|issue=2|pages=411–419|doi=10.1242/jeb.61.2.411|issn=0022-0949|pmid=4443736}}</ref> The gills, which are much more efficient than those of other mollusks, are attached to the ventral surface of the mantle cavity.<ref name=Schipp1979>{{cite journal|title=Electron Microscopical and Histochemical Studies of Differentiation and Function of the Cephalopod Gill (''Sepia Officinalis'' L.)|doi=10.1007/BF00993999|year=1979|journal=Zoomorphologie|volume=93|issue=3|pages=193–207|last1=Schipp|first1=Rudolf|last2=Mollenhauer|first2=Stephan|last3=Boletzky|first3=Sigurd|s2cid=20214206}}</ref><br />
There is a trade-off with gill size regarding lifestyle. To achieve fast speeds, gills need to be small – water will be passed through them quickly when energy is needed, compensating for their small size. However, organisms which spend most of their time moving slowly along the bottom do not naturally pass much water through their cavity for locomotion; thus they have larger gills, along with complex systems to ensure that water is constantly washing through their gills, even when the organism is stationary.<ref name=Gilbert1990/> The water flow is controlled by contractions of the radial and circular mantle cavity muscles.<ref name=Bone1994>{{cite journal|url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/194/1/153.pdf|year=1994|journal=[[Journal of Experimental Biology]]|pages=153–165|volume=194|title=On the respiratory flow in the cuttlefish ''Sepia Officinalis'' |first1=Q. |last1=Bone |first2=E. R. |last2=Brown |first3=G. |last3=Travers |issue=1 |doi=10.1242/jeb.194.1.153|pmid=9317534}}</ref><br />
<br />
The gills of cephalopods are supported by a skeleton of robust fibrous proteins; the lack of mucopolysaccharides distinguishes this matrix from cartilage.<ref name="Cole2009">{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.zool.2008.01.003| pmid=18722759| year=2009| last1=Cole | first1=A.| last2=Hall | first2=B.<br />
| title=Cartilage differentiation in cephalopod molluscs| volume=112| issue=1| pages=2–15| journal=Zoology}}</ref><ref>See also http://tolweb.org/articles/?article_id=4200</ref> The gills are also thought to be involved in excretion, with NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup> being swapped with K<Sup>+</sup> from the seawater.<ref name=Schipp1979/><br />
<br />
=== Locomotion and buoyancy ===<br />
[[Image:Octopus3.jpg|thumb|right|Octopuses swim headfirst, with arms trailing behind]]<br />
While most cephalopods can move by [[jet (gas)|jet]] propulsion, this is a very energy-consuming way to travel compared to the tail propulsion used by fish.<ref name="mollusca12-11"/> The efficiency of a [[propeller]]-driven [[Jet (fluid)|waterjet]] (i.e. [[Propulsive efficiency#Propeller engines|Froude efficiency]]) is greater than a [[rocket]].<ref name="pmid10952883">{{cite journal | last1=Anderson | first1=E.<br />
| last2=Demont | first2=M. | title=The mechanics of locomotion in the squid ''Loligo pealei'': Locomotory function and unsteady hydrodynamics of the jet and intramantle pressure | journal=Journal of Experimental Biology | volume=203 | issue=18 | pages=2851–2863 | year=2000 | doi=10.1242/jeb.203.18.2851<br />
| pmid=10952883 | url=http://jeb.biologists.org/content/203/18/2851}}</ref> The relative efficiency of [[jet propulsion]] decreases further as animal size increases; [[paralarva]]e are far more efficient than juvenile and adult individuals.<ref name="Bartol2008">{{cite journal | last1=Bartol | first1=I. K. | last2=Krueger | first2=P. S. | last3=Thompson | first3=J. T. | last4=Stewart | first4=W. J. | title=Swimming dynamics and propulsive efficiency of squids throughout ontogeny | doi=10.1093/icb/icn043 | journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume=48 | issue=6 | pages=720–733 | year=2008 | pmid= 21669828| doi-access=free }}</ref> Since the [[Paleozoic era]], as competition with [[fish]] produced an environment where efficient motion was crucial to survival, jet propulsion has taken a back role, with [[Cephalopod fin|fins]] and [[cephalopod limb|tentacles]] used to maintain a steady velocity.<ref name="mollusca12" /><br />
Whilst jet propulsion is never the sole mode of locomotion,<ref name="mollusca12"/>{{rp|208}} the stop-start motion provided by the jets continues to be useful for providing bursts of high speed – not least when capturing [[prey]] or avoiding [[predator]]s.<ref name="mollusca12"/> Indeed, it makes cephalopods the fastest marine invertebrates,<ref name=Cephalopods>{{cite book|isbn=978-0-19-852761-9|first1=Marion |last1=Nixon |first2= J. Z. |last2=Young|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|title=The Brains and Lives of Cephalopods}}</ref>{{Rp|Preface}}<br />
and they can out-accelerate most fish.<ref name=Gilbert1990>{{cite book|title=Squid as Experimental Animals|first1=Daniel L.|last1=Gilbert|first2=William J.|last2=Adelman|first3=John M.|last3=Arnold|edition=illustrated|publisher=Springer|year=1990|isbn=978-0-306-43513-3|url=https://archive.org/details/squidasexperimen00gilb}}</ref><br />
The jet is supplemented with fin motion; in the squid, the fins flap each time that a jet is released, amplifying the thrust; they are then extended between jets (presumably to avoid sinking).<ref name="Bartol2008"/><br />
Oxygenated water is taken into the [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle cavity]] to the [[gill]]s and through muscular contraction of this cavity, the spent water is expelled through the [[hyponome]], created by a fold in the mantle. The size difference between the posterior and anterior ends of this organ control the speed of the jet the organism can produce.<ref name="Shea2002">{{cite journal| doi=10.1007/s00227-001-0772-7| title=Quantification of ontogenetic discontinuities in three species of oegopsid squids using model II piecewise linear regression| year=2002| last1=Shea | first1=E.| last2=Vecchione | first2=M.| s2cid=84822175| journal=Marine Biology| volume=140| issue=5| pages=971–979 }}</ref> The velocity of the organism can be accurately predicted for a given mass and morphology of animal.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A study in jet propulsion: an analysis of the motion of the squid, ''Loligo vulgaris'' | url=http://jeb.biologists.org/content/56/1/155 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=56|pages=155–165|issue=1972|first1=W. |last1=Johnson |first2=P. D. |last2=Soden |first3=E. R. |last3=Trueman| date=February 1972 | doi=10.1242/jeb.56.1.155 }}</ref> Motion of the cephalopods is usually backward as water is forced out anteriorly through the hyponome, but direction can be controlled somewhat by pointing it in different directions.{{sfnp|Campbell|Reece|Mitchell|1999|p=612}} Some cephalopods accompany this expulsion of water with a gunshot-like popping noise, thought to function to frighten away potential predators.<ref name="Guerra2007">{{cite journal| doi=10.1017/S0025315407058225| title=A new noise detected in the ocean| year=2007| last1=Guerra | first1=A.| last2=Martinell | first2=X.| last3=González | first3=A. F.| last4=Vecchione | first4=M.| last5=Gracia | first5=J.| last6=Martinell | first6=J.| journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom| volume=87 | issue=5| pages=1255–1256| hdl=10261/27009| s2cid=85770435| hdl-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Cephalopods employ a similar method of propulsion despite their increasing size (as they grow) changing the dynamics of the water in which they find themselves. Thus their paralarvae do not extensively use their fins (which are less efficient at low [[Reynolds number]]s) and primarily use their jets to propel themselves upwards, whereas large adult cephalopods tend to swim less efficiently and with more reliance on their fins.<ref name="Bartol2008"/><br />
<br />
[[Image:Nautilus front.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Nautilus belauensis]]'' seen from the front, showing the opening of the hyponome]]<br />
<br />
Early cephalopods are thought to have produced jets by drawing their body into their shells, as ''Nautilus'' does today.<ref name=Wells1991>{{cite journal|title=Jet Propulsion and the Evolution of the Cephalopods<br />
|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science| volume=49 |issue= 1 | date= July 1991 |pages= 419–432(14)|last1=Wells |first1=Martin J. |last2=O'Dor |first2=R. K. }}</ref> ''Nautilus'' is also capable of creating a jet by undulations of its funnel; this slower flow of water is more suited to the extraction of oxygen from the water.<ref name=Wells1991/> When motionless, ''Nautilus'' can only extract 20% of oxygen from the water.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=M. J.|last2=O'Dor|first2=R. K.|date=1991-09-01|title=Jet Propulsion and the Evolution of the Cephalopods|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1991/00000049/f0020001/art00038#|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|volume=49|issue=1–2|pages=419–432}}</ref> The jet velocity in ''Nautilus'' is much slower than in [[coleoid]]s, but less musculature and energy is involved in its production.<ref name="CHAMBERLAINJR1993">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/S0016-6995(06)80360-8 | title=Locomotion in ancient seas: Constraint and opportunity in cephalopod adaptive design | year=1993 | last1=Chamberlain | first1=J., Jr.| journal=Geobios | volume=26 | issue=Suppl. 1| pages=49–61 }}</ref> Jet thrust in cephalopods is controlled primarily by the maximum diameter of the funnel orifice (or, perhaps, the average diameter of the funnel)<ref name=oDor1988/>{{Rp|440}} and the diameter of the mantle cavity.<ref name=oDor2000>{{cite journal|last1=O'Dor |first1=R. K. |last2=Hoar |first2=J. A. |year=2000 |title=Does geometry limit squid growth?|journal=ICES Journal of Marine Science |volume=57 |pages=8–14 |doi=10.1006/jmsc.1999.0502}}</ref> Changes in the size of the orifice are used most at intermediate velocities.<ref name=oDor1988/> The absolute velocity achieved is limited by the cephalopod's requirement to inhale water for expulsion; this intake limits the maximum velocity to eight body-lengths per second, a speed which most cephalopods can attain after two funnel-blows.<ref name=oDor1988>{{cite journal|last1=O'Dor |first1=R. K. |title=The forces acting on swimming squid |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/content/137/1/421 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=137|pages=421–442|year=1988|doi=10.1242/jeb.137.1.421 }}</ref> Water refills the cavity by entering not only through the orifices, but also through the funnel.<ref name=oDor1988/> Squid can expel up to 94% of the fluid within their cavity in a single jet thrust.<ref name="pmid10952883"/> To accommodate the rapid changes in water intake and expulsion, the orifices are highly flexible and can change their size by a factor of twenty; the funnel radius, conversely, changes only by a factor of around 1.5.<ref name=oDor1988/><br />
<br />
Some octopus species are also able to walk along the seabed. Squids and cuttlefish can move short distances in any direction by rippling of a flap of [[muscle]] around the mantle.<br />
<br />
While most cephalopods float (i.e. are [[neutral buoyancy|neutrally buoyant]] or nearly so; in fact most cephalopods are about 2–3% denser than seawater<ref name=Packard1972/>), they achieve this in different ways.<ref name="mollusca12-11">{{The Mollusca|chapter=11: Evolution of Buoyancy and Locomotion in recent cephalopods|volume=12}}</ref><br />
Some, such as ''[[Nautilus]]'', allow gas to diffuse into the gap between the mantle and the shell; others allow purer water to ooze from their kidneys, forcing out denser salt water from the body cavity;<ref name="mollusca12-11"/> others, like some fish, accumulate oils in the liver;<ref name="mollusca12-11"/> and some octopuses have a gelatinous body with lighter [[chloride]] [[ion]]s replacing [[sulfate]] in the body chemistry.<ref name="mollusca12-11"/><br />
<br />
Squids are the primary sufferers of negative buoyancy in cephalopods. The negative buoyancy means that some squids, especially those whose habitat depths are rather shallow, have to actively regulate their vertical positions. This means that they must expend energy, often through jetting or undulations, in order to maintain the same depth. As such, the cost of transport of many squids are quite high. That being said, squid and other cephalopod that dwell in deep waters tend to be more neutrally buoyant which removes the need to regulate depth and increases their locomotory efficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Seibel|first1=B. A.|last2=Thuesen|first2=E. V.|last3=Childress|first3=J. J.|last4=Gorodezky|first4=L. A.|date=April 1997|title=Decline in Pelagic Cephalopod Metabolism With Habitat Depth Reflects Differences in Locomotory Efficiency|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28581868/|journal=The Biological Bulletin|volume=192|issue=2|pages=262–278|doi=10.2307/1542720|jstor=1542720|issn=1939-8697|pmid=28581868}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=M. J.|last2=O'Dor|first2=R. K.|date=1991-09-01|title=Jet Propulsion and the Evolution of the Cephalopods|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1991/00000049/f0020001/art00038#|journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|volume=49|issue=1–2|pages=419–432}}</ref><br />
<br />
The ''Macrotritopus defilippi'', or the sand-dwelling octopus, was seen mimicking both the coloration and the swimming movements of the sand-dwelling flounder ''Bothus lunatus'' to avoid predators. The octopuses were able to flatten their bodies and put their arms back to appear the same as the flounders as well as move with the same speed and movements.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hanlon|first1=Roger T.|last2=Watson|first2=Anya C.|last3=Barbosa|first3=Alexandra|date=2010-02-01|title=A 'Mimic Octopus' in the Atlantic: Flatfish Mimicry and Camouflage by ''Macrotritopus defilippi''|journal=The Biological Bulletin|volume=218|issue=1|pages=15–24|doi=10.1086/BBLv218n1p15|pmid=20203250|issn=0006-3185|hdl=1912/4811|s2cid=12935620|hdl-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Females of two species, Ocythoe tuberculata and Haliphron atlanticus, have evolved a true [[swim bladder]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44613041|title=The argonaut shell: Gas-mediated buoyancy control in a pelagic octopus}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Octopus vs. Squid Locomotion ====<br />
Two of the categories of cephalopods, octopus and squid, are vastly different in their movements despite being of the same class. Octopuses are generally not seen as active swimmers; they are often found scavenging the sea floor instead of swimming long distances through the water. Squids, on the other hand, can be found to travel vast distances, with some moving as much as 2000&nbsp;km in 2.5&nbsp;months at an average pace of 0.9&nbsp;body lengths per second.<ref name=Gosline-deMont-1985>{{cite magazine |last1=Gosline |first1=John M. |last2=de&nbsp;Mont |first2=M. Edwin |date=1985 |title=Jet-propelled swimming in squids |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24967551 |magazine=Scientific American |volume=252 |issue=1 |pages=96–103 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0185-96 |jstor=24967551 |issn=0036-8733}}</ref> There is a major reason for the difference in movement type and efficiency: anatomy.<br />
<br />
Both octopuses and squids have mantles (referenced above) which function towards respiration and locomotion in the form of jetting. The composition of these mantles differs between the two families, however. In octopuses, the mantle is made up of three muscle types: Longitudinal, radial, and circular. The longitudinal muscles run parallel to the length of the octopus and they are used in order to keep the mantle the same length throughout the jetting process. Given that they are muscles, it can be noted that this means the octopus must actively flex the longitudinal muscles during jetting in order to keep the mantle at a constant length. The radial muscles run perpendicular to the longitudinal muscles and are used to thicken and thin the wall of the mantle. Finally, the circular muscles are used as the main activators in jetting. They are muscle bands that surround the mantle and expand/contract the cavity. All three muscle types work in unison to produce a jet as a propulsion mechanism.<ref name=Gosline-deMont-1985/><br />
<br />
Squids do not have the longitudinal muscles that octopus do. Instead, they have a tunic.<ref name=Gosline-deMont-1985/> This tunic is made of layers of collagen and it surrounds the top and the bottom of the mantle. Because they are made of collagen and not muscle, the tunics are rigid bodies that are much stronger than the muscle counterparts. This provides the squids some advantages for jet propulsion swimming. The stiffness means that there is no necessary muscle flexing to keep the mantle the same size. In addition, tunics take up only 1% of the squid mantle's wall thickness, whereas the longitudinal muscle fibers take up to 20% of the mantle wall thickness in octopuses.<ref name=Gosline-deMont-1985/> Also because of the rigidity of the tunic, the radial muscles in squid can contract more forcefully. <br />
<br />
The mantle is not the only place where squids have collagen. Collagen fibers are located throughout the other muscle fibers in the mantle. These collagen fibers act as elastics and are sometimes named "collagen springs".<ref name=Gosline-deMont-1985/> As the name implies, these fibers act as springs. When the radial and circular muscles in the mantle contract, they reach a point where the contraction is no longer efficient to the forward motion of the creature. In such cases, the excess contraction is stored in the collagen which then efficiently begins or aids in the expansion of the mantle at the end of the jet. In some tests, the collagen has been shown to be able to begin raising mantle pressure up to 50ms before muscle activity is initiated.<ref name=Gosline-deMont-1985/><br />
<br />
These anatomical differences between squid and octopuses can help explain why squid can be found swimming comparably to fish while octopuses usually rely on other forms of locomotion on the sea floor such as bipedal walking, crawling, and non-jetting swimming.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huffard |first=Christine L. |date=2006-10-01 |title=Locomotion by ''Abdopus aculeatus'' (Cephalopoda: Octopodidae): Walking the line between primary and secondary defenses |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=209 |issue=19 |pages=3697–3707 |doi=10.1242/jeb.02435 |pmid=16985187 |s2cid=26862414 |issn=0022-0949}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Shell===<br />
{{See also|Cirrate shell|Cuttlebone|Gladius (cephalopod)|Mollusc shell}}<br />
{{multiple image<br />
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|image1=Spirula spirula.jpg<br />
|caption1=Cross section of ''[[Spirula spirula]]'', showing the position of the shell inside the mantle<br />
|image2=Herklots 1859 I 2 Sepia officinalis - schelp.jpg<br />
|caption2=[[Cuttlebone]] of ''[[Sepia officinalis]]''<br />
|image3=Sepioteuthis lessoniana gladius.jpg<br />
|caption3=Gladius of ''[[Sepioteuthis lessoniana]]''<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[Nautilus]]es are the only extant cephalopods with a true external shell. However, all molluscan shells are formed from the [[ectoderm]] (outer layer of the embryo); in [[cuttlefish]] (''Sepia'' spp.), for example, an invagination of the ectoderm forms during the embryonic period, resulting in a shell ([[cuttlebone]]) that is internal in the adult.<ref name="Baratte2007">{{cite journal| last1=Baratte| first1=S. |last2=Andouche |first2=A. |last3=Bonnaud| first3=L.| s2cid=22241391 | title=Engrailed in cephalopods: a key gene related to the emergence of morphological novelties| journal=Development Genes and Evolution| volume=217| issue=5| pages=353–362| year=2007| pmid=17394016| doi=10.1007/s00427-007-0147-2}}</ref> The same is true of the chitinous [[Gladius (cephalopod)|gladius]] of squid<ref name="Baratte2007"/> and octopuses.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.geobios.2003.01.009|trans-title='Nude ammonoids': a challenge to cephalopod phylogeny? |title='Ammonoïdes nus': un défi pour la phylogénie des céphalopodes ?| year=2004| last1=von Boletzky | first1=S.| journal=Geobios| volume=37| pages=117–118 }}</ref> [[Cirrina|Cirrate]] octopods have [[cirrate shell|arch-shaped cartilaginous fin supports]],<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7-TfdYeLEgC&pg=PA288|page=288|title=Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review|editor1-first=R. N.|editor1-last=Gibson|editor2-first=R. J. A.|editor2-last=Atkinson|editor3-first=J. D. M.|editor3-last=Gordon|publisher=CRC Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1420006391}}</ref> which are sometimes referred to as a "shell vestige" or "gladius".<ref>{{cite journal | year=1983 | doi=10.1098/rstb.1983.0021 |title=''Cirrothauma murrayi'' Chun, a finned octopod | last1=Aldred | first1=R. G. | last2=Nixon | first2=M. | last3=Young | first3=J. Z. | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume=301 | issue=1103 | pages=1–54|bibcode=1983RSPTB.301....1A | doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Incirrina]] have either a pair of rod-shaped [[Stylet (anatomy)|stylets]] or no vestige of an internal shell,<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Fuchs | first1=D. | last2=Ifrim | first2=C. | last3=Stinnesbeck | first3=W. | year=2008 | title=A new ''Palaeoctopus'' (Cephalopoda: Coleoidea) from the Late Cretaceous of Vallecillo, north-eastern Mexico, and implications for the evolution of Octopoda | journal=Palaeontology | volume=51 | issue=5| pages=1129–1139 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00797.x | doi-access=free }}</ref> and some squid also lack a gladius.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The terminal spine of sepiolid hatchlings: its development and functional morphology (Mollusca, Cephalopoda) |last= von Boletzky |first=Sigurd |journal=Bulletin of Marine Science|date= July 1991 |pages=107–112|volume=49}}</ref> The shelled coleoids do not form a clade or even a paraphyletic group.<ref name="Strugnell2007"/> The ''Spirula'' shell begins as an organic structure, and is then very rapidly mineralized.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1007/s10347-005-0054-9| title=''Spirula'' – a window to the embryonic development of ammonoids? Morphological and molecular indications for a palaeontological hypothesis| year=2005| last1=Warnke | first1=K.| last2=Keupp | first2=H.| s2cid=85026080| journal=Facies| volume=51| issue=1–4| pages=60–65 }}</ref> Shells that are "lost" may be lost by resorption of the calcium carbonate component.<ref>{{cite journal | first5=A.| last5=Beran | first4=M.| title=Molluscan shell evolution with review of shell calcification hypothesis| volume=154| journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B| pages=351–371| issue=3| last4=Smrz | first3=I.| last1=Furuhashi| year=2009| pmid=19665573 | first1=T.| last2=Schwarzinger| last3=Miksik | first2=C.| doi=10.1016/j.cbpb.2009.07.011}}</ref><br />
<br />
Females of the octopus genus ''[[Argonauta]]'' secrete a specialized paper-thin egg case in which they reside, and this is popularly regarded as a "shell", although it is not attached to the body of the animal and has a separate evolutionary origin.<br />
<br />
The largest group of shelled cephalopods, the [[ammonite]]s, are extinct, but their shells are very common as [[fossil]]s.<br />
<br />
The deposition of carbonate, leading to a mineralized shell, appears to be related to the acidity of the organic shell matrix (see [[Mollusc shell]]); shell-forming cephalopods have an acidic matrix, whereas the gladius of squid has a basic matrix.<ref>{{cite journal | year=1996 | last=Dauphin | first=Y. | title=The organic matrix of coleoid cephalopod shells: molecular weights and isoelectric properties of the soluble matrix in relation to biomineralization processes | journal=Marine Biology | volume=125 | issue= 3 | pages= 525–529 | doi=10.1007/BF00353265| doi-broken-date=31 October 2021 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00353265}}</ref> The basic arrangement of the cephalopod outer wall is: an outer (spherulitic) prismatic layer, a laminar (nacreous) layer and an inner prismatic layer. The thickness of every layer depends on the taxa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Les subdivisions majeures de la classe des céphalopodes : bases de la systématique actuelle : apport de l'analyse microstructurale|last=Dauphin|first=Y.|date=1983|publisher=These Doct. Etat, Université Paris Sud|oclc=972899981}}</ref> In modern cephalopods, the Ca carbonate is aragonite. As for other mollusc shells or coral skeletons, the smallest visible units are irregular rounded granules.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dauphin|first=Y.|s2cid=126900936|date=2001|title=Nanostructures de la nacre des tests de céphalopodes actuels|journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift|volume=75|issue=1|pages=113–122|doi=10.1007/bf03022601|issn=0031-0220}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align =left<br />
| footer ='''Left:''' A giant squid found in [[Logy Bay]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], in 1873. The two long feeding tentacles are visible on the extreme left and right.<br>'''Right:''' Detail of the tentacular club of ''[[Abraliopsis morisi]]''<br />
| image1 =Logy bay giant squid 1873.png<br />
| width1 =220<br />
| image2 =Tentacule Abraliopsis morisi.jpg<br />
| width2 =133<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Head appendages===<br />
{{Main|Cephalopod limb|tentacle}}<br />
Cephalopods, as the name implies, have muscular appendages extending from their heads and surrounding their mouths. These are used in feeding, mobility, and even reproduction. In [[Coleoidea|coleoids]] they number eight or ten. Decapods such as cuttlefish and squid have five pairs. The longer two, termed ''[[tentacle]]s'', are actively involved in capturing prey;<ref name="mollusca11" />{{Rp|225}} they can lengthen rapidly (in as little as 15 milliseconds<ref name="mollusca11"/>{{Rp|225}}). In [[giant squid]] they may reach a length of 8 metres. They may terminate in a broadened, sucker-coated club.<ref name="mollusca11"/>{{Rp|225}} The shorter four pairs are termed ''[[cephalopod arm|arms]]'', and are involved in holding and manipulating the captured organism.<ref name="mollusca11"/>{{Rp|225}} They too have suckers, on the side closest to the mouth; these help to hold onto the prey.<ref name="mollusca11"/>{{Rp|226}} Octopods only have four pairs of sucker-coated arms, as the name suggests, though developmental abnormalities can modify the number of arms expressed.<ref name="Toll1991">{{cite journal | last1=Toll | first1=R. B. | last2=Binger | first2=L. C. | s2cid=34858474 | title=Arm anomalies: Cases of supernumerary development and bilateral agenesis of arm pairs in Octopoda (Mollusca, Cephalopoda) | journal=Zoomorphology | volume=110 | issue=6 | pages=313–316 | year=1991 | doi=10.1007/BF01668021}}</ref><br />
<br />
The tentacle consists of a thick central nerve cord (which must be thick to allow each sucker to be controlled independently)<ref>{{cite book | year=1912 | title=Anatomy of the Common Squid}}</ref> surrounded by circular and radial muscles. Because the volume of the tentacle remains constant, contracting the circular muscles decreases the radius and permits the rapid increase in length. Typically a 70% lengthening is achieved by decreasing the width by 23%.<ref name="mollusca11"/>{{Rp|227}} The shorter arms lack this capability.<br />
<br />
The size of the tentacle is related to the size of the buccal cavity; larger, stronger tentacles can hold prey as small bites are taken from it; with more numerous, smaller tentacles, prey is swallowed whole, so the mouth cavity must be larger.<ref>Nixon 1988 in {{cite journal| first1=M. G. E.| first2=J.| title=''Allocrioceras'' from the Cenomanian (mid-Cretaceous) of the Lebanon and its bearing on the palaeobiological interpretation of heteromorphic ammonites| last1=Wippich| journal=Palaeontology| volume=47| issue=5| pages=1093–1107| year=2004| doi=10.1111/j.0031-0239.2004.00408.x| last2=Lehmann| doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Externally shelled [[Nautilidae|nautilids]] (''[[Nautilus]]'' and ''[[Allonautilus]]'') have on the order of 90 finger-like appendages, termed ''tentacles'', which lack suckers but are sticky instead, and are partly retractable.<br />
<br />
===Feeding===<br />
[[File:Architeuthis beak.jpg|thumb|The two-part beak of the [[giant squid]], ''Architeuthis'' sp.]]<br />
All living cephalopods have a two-part [[Cephalopod beak|beak]];<ref name=Cephalopods/>{{Rp|7}} most have a [[radula]], although it is reduced in most octopus and absent altogether in ''Spirula''.<ref name=Cephalopods/>{{Rp|7}}<ref>{{The Mollusca|volume=12|chapter=5}}</ref>{{rp|110}} They feed by capturing prey with their tentacles, drawing it into their mouth and taking bites from it.<ref name=Boyle/> They have a mixture of toxic digestive juices, some of which are manufactured by symbiotic algae, which they eject from their salivary glands onto their captured prey held in their mouths. These juices separate the flesh of their prey from the bone or shell.<ref name=Boyle/> The salivary gland has a small tooth at its end which can be poked into an organism to digest it from within.<ref name=Boyle/><br />
<br />
The digestive gland itself is rather short.<ref name=Boyle/> It has four elements, with food passing through the crop, stomach and caecum before entering the intestine. Most digestion, as well as the absorption of nutrients, occurs in the digestive gland, sometimes called the liver. Nutrients and waste materials are exchanged between the gut and the digestive gland through a pair of connections linking the gland to the junction of the stomach and caecum.<ref name=Boyle/> Cells in the digestive gland directly release pigmented excretory chemicals into the lumen of the gut, which are then bound with mucus passed through the anus as long dark strings, ejected with the aid of exhaled water from the funnel.<ref name=Boyle/> Cephalopods tend to concentrate ingested heavy metals in their body tissue.<ref>C.Michael Hogan. 2011. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Celtic_Sea?topic=49523 ''Celtic Sea''. eds. P.Saundry & C.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC.]</ref> However, octopus arms use a family of cephalopod-specific chemotactile receptors (CRs) to be their "taste by touch" system.<ref>{{cite news<!--|authors=Lena van Giesen; Peter B. Kilian; Corey A.H. Allard; Nicholas W. Bellono-->|author=Lena van Giesen|display-authors=etal|title=Molecular Basis of Chemotactile Sensation in Octopus|publisher=Cell|year=2020|volume=183|issue=3|pages=594–604|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.008}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Radula ====<br />
{{See also|Radula#In cephalopods}}<br />
[[File:Veined Octopus - Amphioctopus Marginatus eating a Crab.jpg|thumb|''[[Amphioctopus marginatus]]'' eating a crab]]<br />
The cephalopod radula consists of multiple symmetrical rows of up to nine teeth<ref>{{tolweb|2035|title=Cephalopod radula |first1=Richard E. |last1=Young |first2=Michael |last2=Vecchione |first3=Katharina M. |last3=Mangold}}</ref> – thirteen in fossil classes.<ref name=Nixon1995>{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1995.tb01785.x | title=A nomenclature for the radula of the Cephalopoda (Mollusca) – living and fossil | year=1995 | last1=Nixon | first1=M. | journal=Journal of Zoology | volume=236 | pages=73–81}}</ref> The organ is reduced or even vestigial in certain octopus species and is absent in ''[[Spirula]]''.<ref name=Nixon1995/> The teeth may be homodont (i.e. similar in form across a row), heterodont (otherwise), or ctenodont (comb-like).<ref name=Nixon1995/> Their height, width and number of cusps is variable between species.<ref name=Nixon1995/> The pattern of teeth repeats, but each row may not be identical to the last; in the octopus, for instance, the sequence repeats every five rows.<ref name=Nixon1995/>{{rp|79}}<br />
<br />
Cephalopod radulae are known from fossil deposits dating back to the Ordovician.<ref name="Gabbott1999">{{cite journal | last1=Gabbott | first1=S. E. | title=Orthoconic cephalopods and associated fauna from the late Ordovician Soom Shale Lagerstatte, South Africa | journal=Palaeontology | volume=42 | pages=123–148 | year=1999 | doi=10.1111/1475-4983.00065 | doi-access=free }}</ref> They are usually preserved within the cephalopod's body chamber, commonly in conjunction with the mandibles; but this need not always be the case;<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q19AwHOqOZ0C&q=fossil+cephalopod+radula&pg=PA223 | title=Cephalopods present and past: new insights and fresh perspectives | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4020-6461-6 | editor1-last=Landman | editor1-first=Neil H. | editor2-last=Davis | editor2-first=Richard Arnold | editor3-last=Mapes | editor3-first=Royal H. | year=2007}}</ref> many radulae are preserved in a range of settings in the Mason Creek.<ref>{{cite book| author=Richardson & ... | year=1977 | title=Fossils of the Mason Creek}}</ref><br />
Radulae are usually difficult to detect, even when they are preserved in fossils, as the rock must weather and crack in exactly the right fashion to expose them; for instance, radulae have only been found in nine of the 43 ammonite genera,<ref name="Kruta2011">{{cite journal | last1=Kruta | first1=I. | last2=Landman | first2=N. | last3=Rouget | first3=I. | last4=Cecca | first4=F. | last5=Tafforeau | first5=P. | s2cid=206530342 | title=The role of ammonites in the Mesozoic marine food web revealed by jaw preservation | doi=10.1126/science.1198793 | journal=Science | volume=331 | issue=6013 | pages=70–72| year=2011 | pmid= 21212354|bibcode=2011Sci...331...70K }}</ref>{{Clarify|date=March 2011}} and they are rarer still in non-ammonoid forms: only three pre-Mesozoic species possess one.<ref name="Gabbott1999" /><br />
<br />
=== <span id="Renal appendage"></span> Excretory system ===<br />
Most cephalopods possess a single pair of large [[nephridium|nephridia]]. Filtered [[nitrogenous waste]] is produced in the [[pericardium|pericardial]] cavity of the [[branchial heart]]s, each of which is connected to a nephridium by a narrow canal. The canal delivers the excreta to a bladder-like renal sac, and also resorbs excess water from the filtrate. Several outgrowths of the lateral [[vena cava]] project into the renal sac, continuously inflating and deflating as the branchial hearts beat. This action helps to pump the secreted waste into the sacs, to be released into the mantle cavity through a pore.<ref name=IZ>{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Robert D. |year=1982 |title= Invertebrate Zoology |publisher= Holt-Saunders International |location= Philadelphia, PA|pages= 450–460|isbn= 978-0-03-056747-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
''Nautilus'', unusually, possesses four nephridia, none of which are connected to the pericardial cavities.<br />
<br />
The incorporation of [[ammonia]] is important for shell formation in terrestrial molluscs and other non-molluscan lineages.<ref name=Loest1979>{{cite journal | jstor=30155937 | pages=461–469 | title=Ammonia Volatilization and Absorption by Terrestrial Gastropods_ a Comparison between Shelled and Shell-Less Species | journal=Physiological Zoology | volume=52 | issue=4 | year=1979| last1=Loest | first1=R. A.| doi=10.1086/physzool.52.4.30155937 | s2cid=87142440 }}</ref> Because [[protein]] (i.e. flesh) is a major constituent of the cephalopod diet, large amounts of [[ammonium ion]]s are produced as waste. The main organs involved with the release of this excess ammonium are the gills.<ref name="Boucher-Rodoni1994">{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/10236249409378907 | title=Ammonia production in cephalopods, physiological and evolutionary aspects | year=1994 | last1=Boucher-Rodoni | first1=R. | last2=Mangold | first2=K. | journal=Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology | volume=25 | issue=1–3 | pages=53–60}}</ref> The rate of release is lowest in the shelled cephalopods ''[[Nautilus]]'' and ''[[Sepia (genus)|Sepia]]'' as a result of their using [[nitrogen]] to fill their shells with gas to increase buoyancy.<ref name="Boucher-Rodoni1994"/> Other cephalopods use ammonium in a similar way, storing the [[ion]]s (as [[ammonium chloride]]) to reduce their overall density and increase buoyancy.<ref name="Boucher-Rodoni1994"/><br />
<br />
=== Reproduction and life cycle ===<br />
<br />
[[File:Papierboot Argonauta 200705181139.jpg|220px|thumb|Female ''[[Argonauta argo]]'' with eggcase and eggs]]<br />
[[File:Ocythoe tuberculata hectocotylus.jpg|220px|thumb|Detail of the [[hectocotylus]] of ''[[Ocythoe tuberculata]]'']]<br />
<br />
[[File: Onykia ingens with non-erect penis.jpg|250px|thumb|A dissected male specimen of ''[[Onykia ingens]]'', showing a non-erect penis (the white tubular structure located below most of the other organs)]]<br />
[[File: Onykia ingens with erect penis.jpg|250px|thumb|A specimen of the same species exhibiting an elongation of the penis to 67&nbsp;cm in length]]<br />
<br />
Cephalopods are a diverse group of species, but share common life history traits, for example, they have a rapid growth rate and short life spans.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|last1=Vidal|first1=Erica A. G.|title=Advances in Cephalopod Science: Biology, Ecology, Cultivation and Fisheries.}}</ref> Stearns (1992) suggested that in order to produce the largest possible number of viable offspring, spawning events depend on the ecological environmental factors of the organism. The majority of cephalopods do not provide parental care to their offspring, except, for example, octopus, which helps this organism increase the survival rate of their offspring.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Marine species' life cycles are affected by various environmental conditions.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last1=Rodrigues|first1=M.|last2=Guerra |last3=Troncoso |s2cid=41577834|title=The embryonic phase and its implication in the hatchling size and condition of Atlantic bobtail squid ''Sepiola Atlantica'' |journal=Helgoland Marine Research|volume=65|issue=2|pages=211–216 |doi=10.1007/s10152-010-0217-0|year=2010|bibcode=2011HMR....65..211R|doi-access=free}}</ref> The development of a cephalopod embryo can be greatly affected by temperature, oxygen saturation, pollution, light intensity, and salinity.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> These factors are important to the rate of embryonic development and the success of hatching of the embryos. Food availability also plays an important role in the reproductive cycle of cephalopods. A limitation of food influences the timing of spawning along with their function and growth.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Spawning time and spawning vary among marine species; it's correlated with temperature, though cephalopods in shallow water spawn in cold months so that the offspring would hatch at warmer temperatures. Breeding can last from several days to a month.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><br />
<br />
==== Sexual maturity ====<br />
Cephalopods that are sexually mature and of adult size begin spawning and reproducing. After the transfer of genetic material to the following generation, the adult cephalopods then die.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Sexual maturation in male and female cephalopods can be observed internally by the enlargement of gonads and accessory glands.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|last1=Arkhipkin|first1=A. I.|title=Reproductive system structure, development and function in cephalopods with a new general scale for maturity stages|journal=Journal of Northwest Atlantic Fishery Science |date=1992|volume=12|pages=63–74|doi=10.2960/j.v12.a7|doi-access=free}}</ref> Mating would be a poor indicator of sexual maturation in females; they can receive sperm when not fully reproductively mature and store them until they are ready to fertilize the eggs.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Males are more aggressive in their pre-mating competition when in the presence of immature females than when competing for a sexually mature female.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mohanty|first1=Sobhi|last2=Ojanguren|first2=Alfredo F.|last3=Fuiman|first3=Lee A.|s2cid=85256742|date=2014-07-01|title=Aggressive male mating behavior depends on female maturity in ''Octopus bimaculoides''|journal=Marine Biology|volume=161|issue=7|pages=1521–1530|doi=10.1007/s00227-014-2437-3|issn=0025-3162}}</ref> Most cephalopod males develop a hectocotylus, an arm tip which is capable of transferring their spermatozoa into the female mantel cavity. Though not all species use a hectocotylus; for example, the adult nautilus releases a spadix.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Saunders|first1=W. B|last2=Spinosa|first2=C.|title=Sexual dimorphism in ''Nautilus'' from Palau|journal=Paleobiology|date=1978|volume=4|issue=3|pages=349–358|doi=10.1017/S0094837300006047}}</ref> An indication of sexual maturity of females is the development of brachial photophores to attract mates.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Young|first1=R. B.|s2cid=145374345|title=A Systematic Approach to Planning Occupational Programs|journal=Community College Review|date=1975|pages=19–25|doi=10.1177/009155217500300204|volume=3|issue=2}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Fertilization ====<br />
Cephalopods are not [[broadcast spawner]]s. During the process of fertilization, the females use sperm provided by the male via [[external fertilization]]. [[Internal fertilization]] is seen only in octopuses.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> The initiation of copulation begins when the male catches a female and wraps his arm around her, either in a "male to female neck" position or mouth to mouth position, depending on the species. The males then initiate the process of fertilization by contracting their mantle several times to release the spermatozoa.<ref name=SquiresEtAl2013>{{cite journal|last1=Squires|first1=Z. E|last2=Norman|first2=M. D|last3=Stuart-Fox|first3=D.|title=Mating behaviour and general spawning patterns of the southern dumpling squid ''Euprymna tasmanica''|journal=Journal of Molluscan Studies|date=2013|volume=79|issue=3|pages=263–269|doi=10.1093/mollus/eyt025|doi-access=free}}</ref> Cephalopods often mate several times, which influences males to mate longer with females that have previously, nearly tripling the number of contractions of the mantle.<ref name=SquiresEtAl2013/> To ensure the fertilization of the eggs, female cephalopods release a sperm-attracting peptide through the gelatinous layers of the egg to direct the spermatozoa. Female cephalopods lay eggs in clutches; each egg is composed of a protective coat to ensure the safety of the developing embryo when released into the water column. Reproductive strategies differ between cephalopod species. In giant Pacific octopus, large eggs are laid in a den; it will often take several days to lay all of them.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Once the eggs are released and attached to a sheltered substrate, the females then die,<ref name="ReferenceC"/> making them [[semelparous]]. In some species of cephalopods, egg clutches are anchored to substrates by a mucilaginous adhesive substance. These eggs are swelled with perivitelline fluid (PVF), a hypertonic fluid that prevents premature hatching.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marthy|first1=H. J.|last2=Hauser|first2=R|last3=Scholl|first3=A.|s2cid=8693207|title=Natural tranquilizer in cephalopod eggs |journal=Nature|volume=261|issue=5560|pages=496–7|date=1976|doi=10.1038/261496a0|pmid=945466|bibcode=1976Natur.261..496M}}</ref> Fertilized egg clusters are neutrally buoyant depending on the depth that they were laid, but can also be found in substrates such as sand, a matrix of corals, or seaweed.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Because these species do not provide parental care for their offspring, egg capsules can be injected with ink by the female in order to camouflage the embryos from predators.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><br />
<br />
==== Male–male competition{{anchor|Male-male_competition}} ====<br />
<br />
Most cephalopods engage in aggressive sex: a protein in the male capsule sheath stimulates this behavior. They also engage in male–male aggression, where larger males tend to win the interactions.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> When a female is near, the males charge one another continuously and flail their arms. If neither male backs away, the arms extend to the back, exposing the mouth, followed by the biting of arm tips.<ref name=NormanEtAl1997>{{cite journal |last1=Norman |first1=M. D. |last2=Lu |first2=C. C. |title=Redescription of the southern dumpling squid ''Euprymna tasmanica'' and a revision of the genus ''Euprymna'' (Cephalopoda: Sepiolidae) |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |date=1997 |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=1109–1137 |doi=10.1017/s0025315400038662}}</ref> During mate competition males also participate in a technique called flushing. This technique is used by the second male attempting to mate with a female. Flushing removes spermatophores in the buccal cavity that was placed there by the first mate by forcing water into the cavity.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Another behavior that males engage in is sneaker mating or mimicry – smaller males adjust their behavior to that of a female in order to reduce aggression. By using this technique, they are able to fertilize the eggs while the larger male is distracted by a different male.<ref name=NormanEtAl1997/> During this process, the sneaker males quickly insert drop-like sperm into the seminal receptacle.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iwata |first1=Y. |last2=Ito |first2=K. |last3=Sakurai |first3=Y. |s2cid=43094931 |title=Effect of low temperature on mating behavior of squid ''Loligo bleekeri'' |journal=Fisheries Science |date=2008 |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=1345–1347 |doi=10.1111/j.1444-2906.2008.01664.x}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Mate choice ====<br />
Mate choice is seen in cuttlefish species, where females prefer some males over others, though characteristics of the preferred males are unknown.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> A hypothesis states that females reject males by olfactory cues rather than visual cues.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Several cephalopod species are polyandrous- accepting and storing multiple male spermatophores, which has been identified by DNA fingerprinting.<ref name=SquiresEtAl2013/> Females are no longer receptive to mating attempts when holding their eggs in their arms. Females can store sperm in two places (1) the buccal cavity where recently mated males place their spermatophores, and (2) the internal sperm-storage receptacles where sperm packages from previous males are stored.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Spermatophore storage results in sperm competition; which states that the female controls which mate fertilizes the eggs. In order to reduce this sort of competition, males develop agonistic behaviors like mate guarding and flushing.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The ''Hapalochlaena lunulata'', or the blue-ringed octopus, readily mates with both males and females.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Mary W.|last2=Caldwell|first2=Roy L.|s2cid=32899443|date=July 2000|title=Sex identification and mating in the blue-ringed octopus, ''Hapalochlaena lunulata''|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=60|issue=1|pages=27–33|doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1447|pmid=10924200|issn=0003-3472}}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Sexual dimorphism ====<br />
In a variety of marine organisms, it is seen that females are larger in size compared to the males in some closely related species. In some lineages, such as the [[blanket octopus]], males become structurally smaller and smaller resembling a term, "dwarfism" dwarf males usually occurs at low densities.<ref name="Princeton University Press">{{cite book|last1=Fairbairn|first1=D.|chapter=Blanket Octopus: Drifting Females and Dwarf Males |title=Odd couples: Extraordinary differences between the sexes in the animal kingdom|date=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=104–115}}</ref> The blanket octopus male is an example of sexual-evolutionary dwarfism; females grow 10,000 to 40,000 times larger than the males and the sex ratio between males and females can be distinguished right after hatching of the eggs.<ref name="Princeton University Press"/><br />
<br />
[[File:SquidEggCases-MontereryAquarium-April2-07.png|thumb|left|Egg cases laid by a female squid]]<br />
<br />
==== Embryology ====<br />
Cephalopod eggs span a large range of sizes, from 1 to 30&nbsp;mm in diameter.<ref name=Boletzky2009/> The fertilised [[ovum]] initially divides to produce a disc of germinal cells at one pole, with the [[yolk]] remaining at the opposite pole. The germinal disc grows to envelop and eventually absorb the yolk, forming the embryo. The tentacles and arms first appear at the hind part of the body, where the foot would be in other molluscs, and only later migrate towards the head.<ref name="IZ"/><ref name="Shigeno2008">{{cite journal| last2=Sasaki| first1=S.| last5=Vecchione | first2=T.| last4=Kasugai| last3=Moritaki | first3=T.| last6=Agata | first4=T. | first5=M. | first6=K.| title=Evolution of the cephalopod head complex by assembly of multiple molluscan body parts: Evidence from ''Nautilus'' embryonic development| journal=Journal of Morphology| volume=269| issue=1| pages=1–17| date=Jan 2008 | pmid=17654542| last1=Shigeno| doi=10.1002/jmor.10564| s2cid=13109195}}</ref><br />
<br />
The funnel of cephalopods develops on the top of their head, whereas the mouth develops on the opposite surface.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-0-306-43513-3 |first1=Daniel L. |last1=Gilbert |first2=William J. |last2=Adelman |first3=John M. |last3=Arnold |year=1990 |publisher=Plenum Press |location=New York |title=Squid as experimental animals |url=https://archive.org/details/squidasexperimen00gilb }}</ref>{{Rp|86}} The early embryological stages are reminiscent of ancestral [[gastropod]]s and extant [[Monoplacophora]].<ref name=Shigeno2008/><br />
<br />
The shells develop from the ectoderm as an organic framework which is subsequently mineralized.<ref name="Baratte2007"/> In ''Sepia'', which has an internal shell, the ectoderm forms an invagination whose pore is sealed off before this organic framework is deposited.<ref name="Baratte2007"/><br />
<br />
==== Development ====<br />
[[Image:Chtenopteryx sicula paralarvae.jpg|thumb|right|400px|''[[Chtenopteryx sicula]]'' [[paralarva]]e. '''Left:''' Two very young paralarvae. The circular [[tentacular]] clubs bear approximately 20 irregularly arranged suckers. Two [[chromatophore]]s are present on each side of the [[mantle (mollusc)|mantle]]. '''Centre:''' Ventral, dorsal and side views of a more advanced paralarva. An equatorial circulet of seven large yellow-brown chromatophores is present on the mantle. Posteriorly the expanded vanes of the gladius are visible in the dorsal view. '''Right:''' Ventral and dorsal views of a very advanced paralarva.]]<br />
{{multiple image<br />
| align =right<br />
| footer ='''Left:''' Immature specimens of ''[[Chiroteuthis veranyi]]''. In this paralarval form, known as the doratopsis stage, the pen is longer than the mantle and 'neck' combined<br><br />
'''Right:''' A mature ''[[Chiroteuthis veranyi]]''. This species has some of the longest tentacles in proportion to its size of any known cephalopod.<br />
| image1 =Chiroteuthis veranyi immature.jpg<br />
| width1 =100<br />
| image2 =Chiroteuthis_veranyi.jpg<br />
| width2 =226<br />
}}<br />
The length of time before hatching is highly variable; smaller eggs in warmer waters are the fastest to hatch, and newborns can emerge after as little as a few days. Larger eggs in colder waters can develop for over a year before hatching.<ref name="Boletzky2009">{{cite book <br />
| pmid=12846042 <br />
| isbn=978-0-12-026144-4 <br />
| year=2003 <br />
| last1=Von Boletzky | first1=S. <br />
| title=Biology of early life stages in cephalopod molluscs <br />
| volume=44 <br />
| pages=143–203 <br />
| doi=10.1016/S0065-2881(03)44003-0<br />
| series=Advances in Marine Biology <br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
The process from spawning to hatching follows a similar trajectory in all species, the main variable being the amount of yolk available to the young and when it is absorbed by the embryo.<ref name=Boletzky2009/><br />
<br />
Unlike most other molluscs, cephalopods do not have a morphologically distinct [[larva]]l stage. Instead, the juveniles are known as [[paralarvae]]. They quickly learn how to hunt, using encounters with prey to refine their strategies.<ref name=Boletzky2009/><br />
<br />
Growth in juveniles is usually [[allometric]], whilst adult growth is [[Allometry#Isometric scaling and geometric similarity|isometric]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Understanding the process of growth in cephalopods<br />
|journal=Marine and Freshwater Research |issue=4|year= 2004|first=Natalie A.|last=Moltschaniwskyj|pages=379–386|volume=55|doi=10.1071/MF03147}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Evolution ==<br />
{{main |Evolution of cephalopods }}<br />
The traditional view of cephalopod evolution holds that they evolved in the Late Cambrian from a [[monoplacophoran]]-like ancestor<ref name=Lemche1959>{{cite journal|last1=Lemche|first1=H.|last2=Wingstrand |first2=K. G. |url=http://www.zmuc.dk/inverweb/Galathea/index.html|format= Link to free full text + plates |year=1959 |title=The anatomy of ''Neopilina galatheae'' Lemche, 1957 (Mollusca, Tryblidiacea)|journal=Galathea Report|volume=3|pages=9–73}}</ref> with a curved, tapering shell,<ref name=Wingstrand1985>{{cite journal|url=http://www.zmuc.dk/inverweb/Galathea/Galathea_p5.html|format=Link to free full text + plates|last=Wingstrand|first=K. G.|year=1985|title=On the anatomy and relationships of Recent Monoplacophora|journal=Galathea Report|volume=16|pages=7–94|access-date=2009-03-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182836/http://www.zmuc.dk/inverweb/Galathea/Galathea_p5.html|archive-date=2016-03-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> which was closely related to the [[gastropod]]s (snails).<ref name='Boyle3'>{{cite book | doi=10.1002/9780470995310.ch3 | isbn=9780470995310 | title=Cephalopods | year=2005 | last1=Boyle | chapter=Origin and Evolution | first1=P. | last2=Rodhouse | first2=P. | pages=36}}</ref> The similarity of the early shelled cephalopod ''[[Plectronoceras]]'' to some gastropods was used in support of this view. The development of a [[siphuncle]] would have allowed the shells of these early forms to become gas-filled (thus buoyant) in order to support them and keep the shells upright while the animal crawled along the floor, and separated the true cephalopods from putative ancestors such as ''[[Knightoconus]]'', which lacked a siphuncle.<ref name=Boyle3/> Neutral or positive buoyancy (i.e. the ability to float) would have come later, followed by swimming in the [[Plectronocerida]] and eventually jet propulsion in more derived cephalopods.<ref name=Kroger2007>{{cite journal | last1=Kröger | first1=B. R. | title=Some Lesser Known Features of the Ancient Cephalopod Order Ellesmerocerida (Nautiloidea, Cephalopoda) | year=2007 | journal=Palaeontology | volume=50 | issue=3 | pages=565–572| doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00644.x | doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Possible early Cambrian remains have been found in the [[Avalon Peninsula]], matching genetic data for a pre-Cambrian origin.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1038/s42003-021-01885-w|title = A potential cephalopod from the early Cambrian of eastern Newfoundland, Canada|year = 2021|last1 = Hildenbrand|first1 = Anne|last2 = Austermann|first2 = Gregor|last3 = Fuchs|first3 = Dirk|last4 = Bengtson|first4 = Peter|last5 = Stinnesbeck|first5 = Wolfgang|journal = Communications Biology|volume = 4|issue = 1|page = 388|pmid = 33758350|pmc = 7987959}}</ref><br />
<br />
However, some morphological evidence is difficult to reconcile with this view, and the redescription of ''[[Nectocaris|Nectocaris pteryx]]'', which did not have a shell and appeared to possess jet propulsion in the manner of "derived" cephalopods, complicated the question of the order in which cephalopod features developed – provided ''Nectocaris'' is a cephalopod at all.<ref name=SmithAndCaron2010>{{cite journal | title=Primitive soft-bodied cephalopods from the Cambrian | last1=Smith |first1=Martin R. |last2=Caron |first2=Jean-Bernard | s2cid=205055896 | year=2010 | journal=Nature | pages=427–428 | volume=465 | pmid=20505713 | issue=7297 | doi=10.1038/465427a|bibcode=2010Natur.465..427B }}</ref><br />
<br />
Early cephalopods were likely predators near the top of the food chain.<ref name=Boyle/> After the [[Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event|late Cambrian extinction]] led to the disappearance of many [[Anomalocaridid]]s{{dn|date=September 2021}}, predatory niches became available for other animals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jain |first=Sreepat |title=Fundamentals of Invertebrate Palaeontology: Macrofossils |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTygDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 |year=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-81-322-3658-0 |page=73}}</ref> During the Ordovician period the primitive cephalopods underwent pulses of diversification<ref name="Kroger2009">{{cite journal| last2=Yun-bai| first1=B.| first2=Y. B. | title=Pulsed cephalopod diversification during the Ordovician | journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology | volume=273 | issue=1–2| pages=174–201 | year=2009| last1=Kröger | doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.12.015 | bibcode=2009PPP...273..174K}}</ref> to become diverse and dominant in the [[Paleozoic]] and [[Mesozoic]] seas.<ref name="Dzik1981">{{cite journal | last=Dzik | first= J. | year=1981 | title=Origin of the Cephalopoda | journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica | volume=26 | issue=2 | pages=161–191 | url=http://www.paleo.pan.pl/people/Dzik/Publications/Cephalopoda.pdf}}</ref><br />
<br />
In the Early Palaeozoic, their range was far more restricted than today; they were mainly constrained to sublittoral regions of shallow shelves of the low latitudes, and usually occurred in association with [[thrombolites]].<ref name="Kroger2009b">{{cite journal | year=2009 | title=The origin and initial rise of pelagic cephalopods in the Ordovician | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=4 | issue=9 | pages=e7262 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007262 | pmid=19789709 | pmc=2749442 | last1=Kröger | first=B. R. | last2=Servais | first2=T. | last3=Zhang | first3=Y. | last4=Kosnik | first4=M. |bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.7262K | doi-access=free }}</ref> A more pelagic habit was gradually adopted as the Ordovician progressed.<ref name="Kroger2009b"/> Deep-water cephalopods, whilst rare, have been found in the Lower Ordovician – but only in high-latitude waters.<ref name="Kroger2009b"/><br />
The mid-Ordovician saw the first cephalopods with septa strong enough to cope with the pressures associated with deeper water, and could inhabit depths greater than 100–200&nbsp;m.<ref name="Kroger2009" /> The direction of shell coiling would prove to be crucial to the future success of the lineages; endogastric coiling would only permit large size to be attained with a straight shell, whereas exogastric coiling – initially rather rare – permitted the spirals familiar from the fossil record to develop, with their corresponding large size and diversity.<ref name=Holland1986>{{cite journal| first1=C. H.| title=The nautiloid cephalopods: a strange success: President's anniversary address 1986| journal=Journal of the Geological Society| volume=144| issue=1| last1=Holland| s2cid=128629737| pages=1–15| year=1987| doi=10.1144/gsjgs.144.1.0001| bibcode=1987JGSoc.144....1H}}</ref> (Endogastric mean the shell is curved so as the ventral or lower side is longitudinally concave (belly in); exogastric means the shell is curved so as the ventral side is longitudinally convex (belly out) allowing the funnel to be pointed backward beneath the shell.)<ref name=Holland1986/><br />
<br />
[[File:1212amma.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|An [[ammonoid]] with the body chamber missing, showing the septal surface (especially at right) with its undulating lobes and saddles]]<br />
<br />
The ancestors of coleoids (including most modern cephalopods) and the ancestors of the modern nautilus, had diverged by the Floian Age of the Early Ordovician Period, over 470 million years ago.<ref name="Kroger2009b"/><ref name="Kröger2006">{{cite journal | last=Kröger | first=Björn<br />
| year=2006 | title=Early growth-stages and classification of orthoceridan cephalopods of the Darriwillian (Middle Ordovician) of Baltoscandia | journal=Lethaia | volume=39 | issue=2 | pages=129–139 | doi=10.1080/00241160600623749}}</ref> The [[Bactritida]], a Silurian–Triassic group of orthocones, are widely held to be paraphyletic without the coleoids and ammonoids, that is, the latter groups arose from within the Bactritida.<ref name=Young1998>{{cite journal|title=The evolution of coleoid cephalopods and their present biodiversity and ecology|last1=Young |first1=R. E. |last2=Vecchione |first2=M. |last3=Donovan |first3=D. T.|journal=South African Journal of Marine Science|volume=20|issue=1|year=1998|pages=393–420|doi=10.2989/025776198784126287}}</ref>{{rp|393}} An increase in the diversity of the coleoids and ammonoids is observed around the start of the Devonian period and corresponds with a profound increase in fish diversity. This could represent the origin of the two derived groups.<ref name=Young1998/><br />
<br />
Unlike most modern cephalopods, most ancient varieties had protective shells. These shells at first were conical but later developed into curved nautiloid shapes seen in modern [[nautilus]] species.<br />
Competitive pressure from fish is thought to have forced the shelled forms into deeper water, which provided an evolutionary pressure towards shell loss and gave rise to the modern coleoids, a change which led to greater metabolic costs associated with the loss of buoyancy, but which allowed them to recolonize shallow waters.<ref name="Boyle3"/>{{Rp|36}} However, some of the straight-shelled [[nautiloid]]s evolved into [[Belemnitida|belemnites]], out of which some evolved into [[squid]] and [[cuttlefish]].{{Verify source|date=November 2008}} The loss of the shell may also have resulted from evolutionary pressure to increase maneuverability, resulting in a more fish-like habit.<ref name="mollusca11"/>{{Rp|289}}<br />
<br />
There has been debate on the [[embryogenesis|embryological origin]] of cephalopod appendages.<ref name=Tanabe>{{cite book |title=Cephalopods – Present and Past |last=Tanabe |first=K. |publisher=Tokai University Press |year=2008 |location=Tokyo }}{{page needed|date=December 2017}}</ref> Until the mid-twentieth century, the "Arms as Head" hypothesis was widely recognized. In this theory, the arms and tentacles of cephalopods look similar to the head appendages of gastropods, suggesting that they might be [[Homology (biology)|homologous structures]]. Cephalopod appendages surround the mouth, so logically they could be derived from embryonic head tissues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Basil |first1=Jennifer |last2=Bahctinova |first2=Irina |last3=Kuroiwa |first3=Kristine |last4=Lee |first4=Nandi |last5=Mims |first5=Desiree |last6=Preis |first6=Michael |last7=Soucier |first7=Christian |s2cid=33835096 |date=2005-09-01 |title=The function of the rhinophore and the tentacles of Nautilus pompilius L. (Cephalopoda, Nautiloidea) in orientation to odor |journal=Marine and Freshwater Behaviour and Physiology |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=209–221 |doi=10.1080/10236240500310096}}</ref> However, the "Arms as Foot" hypothesis, proposed by [[Adolf Naef]] in 1928, has increasingly been favoured;<ref name=Tanabe/> for example, [[fate mapping]] of limb buds in the [[chambered nautilus]] indicates that limb buds originate from "foot" embryonic tissues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shigeno |first1=Shuichi |last2=Sasaki |first2=Takenori |last3=Moritaki |first3=Takeya |last4=Kasugai |first4=Takashi |last5=Vecchione |first5=Michael |last6=Agata |first6=Kiyokazu |date=January 2008 |title=Evolution of the cephalopod head complex by assembly of multiple molluscan body parts: Evidence from Nautilus embryonic development |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=269 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1002/jmor.10564 |pmid=17654542|s2cid=13109195 }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Genetics ===<br />
The sequencing of a full Cephalopod genome has remained challenging to researchers due to the length and repetition of their DNA.<ref name="O’Brien 700">{{Cite journal|last1=O’Brien|first1=Caitlin E.|last2=Roumbedakis|first2=Katina|last3=Winkelmann|first3=Inger E.|date=2018-06-06|title=The Current State of Cephalopod Science and Perspectives on the Most Critical Challenges Ahead From Three Early-Career Researchers|journal=Frontiers in Physiology|volume=9|pages=700|doi=10.3389/fphys.2018.00700|pmid=29962956|pmc=6014164|issn=1664-042X|doi-access=free}}</ref> The characteristics of Cephalopod genomes were initially hypothesized to be the result of entire [[Gene duplication|genome duplications]]. Following the full sequencing of a [[California two-spot octopus]], the genome showed similar patterns to other marine invertebrates with significant additions to the genome assumed to be unique to Cephalopods. No evidence of full genome duplication was found.<ref name="Albertin 220–224">{{Cite journal|last1=Albertin|first1=Caroline B.|last2=Simakov|first2=Oleg|last3=Mitros|first3=Therese|last4=Wang|first4=Z. Yan|last5=Pungor|first5=Judit R.|last6=Edsinger-Gonzales|first6=Eric|last7=Brenner|first7=Sydney|last8=Ragsdale|first8=Clifton W.|last9=Rokhsar|first9=Daniel S.|date=August 2015|title=The octopus genome and the evolution of cephalopod neural and morphological novelties|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=524|issue=7564|pages=220–224|doi=10.1038/nature14668|pmid=26268193|pmc=4795812|bibcode=2015Natur.524..220A|issn=0028-0836}}</ref><br />
<br />
Within the California two-spot octopus genome there are substantial replications of two gene families. Significantly, the expanded gene families were only previously known to exhibit replicative behaviour within vertebrates.<ref name="Albertin 220–224"/> The first gene family was identified as the [[Protocadherin]]s which are attributed to neuron development. Protocadherins function as cell adhesion molecules, essential for [[Synaptogenesis|synaptic specificity]]. The mechanism for Protocadherin gene family replication in vertebrates is attributed to complex splicing, or cutting and pasting, from a locus. Following the sequencing of the California two-spot octopus, researchers found that the Prorocadherin gene family in Cephalopods has expanded in the genome due to [[Tandem exon duplication|tandem gene duplication]]. The different replication mechanisms for Protocadherin genes indicate an independent evolution of Protocadherin gene expansion in vertebrates and invertebrates.<ref name="Albertin 220–224"/> Analysis of individual Cephalopod Protocadherin genes indicate independent evolution between species of Cephalopod. A species of shore squid ''[[Longfin inshore squid|Doryteuthis pealeii]]'' with expanded Protocadherin gene families differ significantly from those of the California two-spot octopus suggesting gene expansion did not occur before [[speciation]] within Cephalopods. Despite different mechanisms for gene expansion, the two-spot octopus Protocadherin genes were more similar to vertebrates than squid, suggesting a [[convergent evolution]] mechanism. The second gene family known as C2H2 are small proteins that function as [[Zinc finger transcription factor|zinc transcription factors]]. C2H2 are understood to moderate DNA, RNA and protein functions within the cell.<ref name="O’Brien 700"/><br />
<br />
The sequenced California two spot octopus genome also showed a significant presence of [[transposable element]]s as well as transposon expression. Although the role of transposable elements in marine vertebrates is still relatively unknown, significant expression of transposons in nervous system tissues have been observed.<ref name="Gehring 117–142">{{cite book|last=Gehring|first=Mary A.|chapter=Imprinted Gene Expression and the Contribution of Transposable Elements|date=2013-02-04|title=Plant Transposons and Genome Dynamics in Evolution|pages=117–142|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781118500156.ch7|isbn=978-1-118-50015-6}}</ref> In a study conducted on vertebrates, the expression of transposons during development in the fruitfly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' activated genomic diversity between neurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Erwin|first1=Jennifer A.|last2=Marchetto|first2=Maria C.|last3=Gage|first3=Fred H.|date=August 2014|title=Mobile DNA elements in the generation of diversity and complexity in the brain|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|language=en|volume=15|issue=8|pages=497–506|doi=10.1038/nrn3730|pmid=25005482|pmc=4443810|issn=1471-003X}}</ref> This diversity has been linked to increased memory and learning in mammals. The connection between transposons and increased neuron capability may provide insight into the observed intelligence, memory and function of Cephalopods.<ref name="Gehring 117–142"/><br />
<br />
===Phylogeny===<br />
The approximate consensus of extant cephalopod phylogeny, after Strugnell ''et al''. 2007, is shown in the [[cladogram]].<ref name=Strugnell2007/> Mineralized taxa are in '''bold'''. The attachment of the clade including ''Sepia'' and ''Spirula'' is unclear; either of the points marked with an asterisk may represent the root of this clade.<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1=Cephalopoda<br />
|1= {{clade<br />
|label1= [[Nautiloid]]s &nbsp; <br />
|1= {{clade<br />
|1= '''''[[Nautilida]]''''' [[File:Nautilus Palau.JPG|70px]]<br />
}}<br />
|label2= [[Coleoid]]s<br />
|2= {{clade<br />
|1= Basal octopods (e.g. ''[[Argonautidae]]'') [[File:Papierboot Argonauta 200705181139.jpg|70px]]<br />
|2= {{clade<br />
|label1=[[Octopodiformes]] &nbsp; <br />
|1= {{clade<br />
|1= [[Vampyromorphida]] [[File:Vampire des abysses.jpg|70px]]<br />
|2= [[Octopoda]] [[File:Octopus vulgaris Merculiano.jpg |70px]]<br />
}}<br />
|label2= [[Decapodiformes]] &nbsp; <br />
|2= {{clade<br />
|1= ''[[Sepiolida]]'' (bobtail squid) [[File:Heteroteuthis hawaiiensis1.jpg|90px]]<br />
|label2= &nbsp; <big>*</big> &nbsp; <br />
|2= {{clade<br />
|1= {{clade<br />
|1= '''''[[Sepiida]]''''' (cuttlefish) [[File:Sepia officinalis 2.jpg|70px]]<br />
|2= ''[[Idiosepiidae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2= {{clade<br />
|1= ''[[Myopsida]]'' [[File:アオリイカ-Sepioteuthis lessoniana.jpg|70px]]<br />
|2= {{clade<br />
|1= '''''[[Spirulida]]''''' [[File:Spirula spirula illustration.jpg|70px]]<br />
|label2= &nbsp; <big>*</big> &nbsp; <br />
|2= Certain benthic squids (e.g. ''[[Bathyteuthoidea]]'') [[File:Bathyteuthisabyssicola.jpg|90px]]<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The internal phylogeny of the cephalopods is difficult to constrain; many molecular techniques have been adopted, but the results produced are conflicting.<ref name=Strugnell2007>{{cite journal| doi=10.1093/mollus/eym038| title=Molecular phylogeny of coleoid cephalopods (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) inferred from three mitochondrial and six nuclear loci: a comparison of alignment, implied alignment and analysis methods| year=2007| last1=Strugnell | first1=J.| last2=Nishiguchi | first2=M. K.| journal=Journal of Molluscan Studies| volume=73| issue=4| pages=399–410 | doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=Strugnell2005>{{cite journal| last1=Strugnell | first1=J.| last2=Norman | first2=M.| last3=Jackson | first3=J.| last4=Drummond | first4=A.| last5=Cooper | first5=A.| title=Molecular phylogeny of coleoid cephalopods (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) using a multigene approach; the effect of data partitioning on resolving phylogenies in a Bayesian framework| journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution| volume=37| issue=2| pages=426–441| year=2005| pmid=15935706| doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.020}}</ref> ''Nautilus'' tends to be considered an outgroup, with ''[[Vampyroteuthis]]'' forming an outgroup to other squid; however in one analysis the nautiloids, octopus and teuthids plot as a [[polytomy]].<ref name=Strugnell2007/> Some molecular phylogenies do not recover the mineralized coleoids (''Spirula'', ''Sepia'', and ''Metasepia'') as a clade; however, others do recover this more parsimonious-seeming clade, with ''Spirula'' as a sister group to ''Sepia'' and ''Metasepia'' in a clade that had probably diverged before the end of the Triassic.<ref>{{cite journal | last4=Cooper | first3=A. J. | first4=A. | journal=Cladistics | pages=89–96 | volume=22 | last3=Drummond | first2=J. | year=2006 | title=Divergence time estimates for major cephalopod groups: evidence from multiple genes | last1=Strugnell | first1=J. | last2=Jackson | doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2006.00086.x| s2cid=84743000 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026419 | pmid=10958852 | year=2000 | last1=Carlini | first1=D. B. | last2=Reece | first2=K. S. | last3=Graves | first3=J. E. | title=Actin gene family evolution and the phylogeny of coleoid cephalopods (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) | volume=17 | issue=9 | pages=1353–1370 | journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution| doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Molecular estimates for clade divergence vary. One 'statistically robust' estimate has ''Nautilus'' diverging from ''Octopus'' at {{Ma|415|error=24}}.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1007/s00239-005-0160-x| pmid=16501879| year=2006| last1=Bergmann | first1=S.| last2=Lieb | first2=B.| last3=Ruth | first3=P.| last4=Markl | first4=J.| s2cid=4389953| title=The hemocyanin from a living fossil, the cephalopod ''Nautilus pompilius'': protein structure, gene organization, and evolution| volume=62| issue=3| pages=362–374| journal=Journal of Molecular Evolution| bibcode=2006JMolE..62..362B}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Taxonomy===<br />
[[File:Nautilus pompilius 3.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Chambered nautilus]] (''Nautilus pompilius'')]]<br />
[[File:Sepia officinalis (aquarium).jpg|thumb|230px|[[Common cuttlefish]] (''Sepia officinalis'')]]<br />
[[Image:Sepiola atlantica.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Atlantic bobtail]] (''Sepiola atlantica'')]]<br />
[[Image:Loligo vulgaris.jpg|thumb|230px|[[European squid]] (''Loligo vulgaris'')]]<br />
[[Image:Octopus vulgaris2.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Common octopus]] (''Octopus vulgaris'')]]<br />
The classification presented here, for recent cephalopods, follows largely from [http://www.mnh.si.edu/cephs/newclass.pdf Current Classification of Recent Cephalopoda] (May 2001), for fossil cephalopods takes from Arkell et al. 1957, Teichert and Moore 1964, Teichert 1988, and others. The three subclasses are traditional, corresponding to the three orders of cephalopods recognized by Bather.<ref><br />
{{cite journal<br />
| last=Bather |first= F.A. | year=1888b<br />
| title=Professor Blake and Shell-Growth in Cephalopoda<br />
| journal=Annals and Magazine of Natural History<br />
| volume=1|issue= 6 |series =6 | pages=421–426<br />
| url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26195416 | doi=10.1080/00222938809460761<br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
'''Class Cephalopoda''' († indicates [[extinct]] groups)<br />
* Subclass [[Nautiloid]]ea: Fundamental ectocochliate cephalopods that provided the source for the Ammonoidea and Coleoidea.<br />
** Order † [[Plectronocerida]]: the ancestral cephalopods from the [[Cambrian]] Period<br />
** Order † [[Ellesmerocerida]] ({{Ma|500|470|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Endocerida]] ({{Ma|485|430|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Actinocerida]] ({{Ma|480|312|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Discosorida]] ({{Ma|482|392|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Pseudorthocerida]] ({{Ma|432|272|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Tarphycerida]] ({{Ma|485|386|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Oncocerida]] ({{Ma|478.5|324.0|Ma}})<br />
** Order [[Nautilida]] (extant; 410.5 Ma to present)<br />
** Order † [[Orthocerida]] ({{Ma|482.5|211.5|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Ascocerida]] ({{Ma|478|412|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Bactritida]] ({{Ma|418.1|260.5|Ma}})<br />
* Subclass † [[Ammonoidea]]: Ammonites ({{Ma|479|66|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Goniatitida]] ({{Ma|388.5|252.0|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Ceratitida]] ({{Ma|254|200|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Ammonitida]] ({{Ma|215|66|Ma}})<br />
* Subclass [[Coleoidea]] (410.0 Ma-Rec)<br />
** Cohort † [[Belemnoidea]]: Belemnites and kin<br />
*** Genus † ''[[Jeletzkya]]''<!-- Palaeontology43(5): 919-926 --><br />
*** Order † [[Aulacocerida]] ({{Ma|265|183|Ma}})<br />
*** Order † [[Phragmoteuthida]] ({{Ma|189.6|183.0|Ma}})<br />
*** Order † [[Hematitida]] ({{Ma|339.4|318.1|Ma}})<br />
*** Order † [[Belemnitida]] ({{Ma|339.4|66|Ma}})<br />
*** Genus † ''[[Belemnoteuthis]]'' ({{Ma|189.6|183.0|Ma}})<br />
** Cohort [[Neocoleoidea]]<br />
*** Superorder [[Decapodiformes]] (also known as Decabrachia or Decembranchiata)<br />
**** Order [[Spirulida]]: Ram's horn squid<br />
**** Order [[Sepiida]]: cuttlefish<br />
**** Order [[Sepiolida]]: pygmy, bobtail and bottletail squid<br />
**** Order [[Teuthida]]: squid<br />
*** Superorder [[Octopodiformes]] (also known as Vampyropoda)<br />
**** Family † [[Trachyteuthididae]]<br />
**** Order [[Vampyromorphida]]: Vampire squid<br />
**** Order [[Octopoda]]: octopus<br />
*** Superorder † [[Palaeoteuthomorpha]]<br />
**** Order † [[Boletzkyida]]<br />
<br />
Other classifications differ, primarily in how the various [[decapodiformes|decapod]] orders are related, and whether they should be orders or families.<br />
<br />
====Suprafamilial classification of the Treatise====<br />
This is the older classification that combines those found in parts K and L of the ''Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology'', which forms the basis for and is retained in large part by classifications that have come later.<br />
<br />
Nautiloids in general (Teichert and Moore, 1964) sequence as given.<br />
<br />
: Subclass † [[Endocerida|Endoceratoidea]]. Not used by Flower, e.g. Flower and Kummel 1950, interjocerids included in the Endocerida.<br />
:: Order † [[Endocerida]]<br />
:: Order † [[Intejocerida]]<br />
<br />
: Subclass † [[Actinocerida|Actinoceratoidea]] Not used by Flower, ibid<br />
:: Order † [[Actinocerida]]<br />
<br />
: Subclass [[Nautiloid]]ea Nautiloidea in the restricted sense.<br />
:: Order † [[Ellesmerocerida]] Plectronocerida subsequently split off as separate order.<br />
:: Order † [[Orthocerida]] Includes orthocerids and pseudorthocerids<br />
:: Order † [[Ascocerida]]<br />
:: Order † [[Oncocerida]]<br />
:: Order † [[Discosorida]]<br />
:: Order † [[Tarphycerida]]<br />
:: Order † [[Tarphycerida|Barrandeocerida]] A polyphyletic group now included in the Tarphycerida<br />
:: Order [[Nautilida]]<br />
<br />
: Subclass † [[Bactritida|Bactritoidea]]<br />
:: Order † [[Bactritida]]<br />
<br />
Paleozoic Ammonoidea (Miller, Furnish and Schindewolf, 1957)<br />
:: Suborder † [[Anarcestida|Anarcestina]]<br />
:: Suborder † [[Clymeniida|Clymeniina]]<br />
:: Suborder † [[Goniatitida|Goniatitina]]<br />
:: Suborder † [[Prolecanitida|Prolecanitina]]<br />
<br />
Mesozoic Ammonoidea (Arkel et al., 1957)<br />
:: Suborder † [[Ceratitida|Ceratitina]]<br />
:: Suborder † [[Phylloceratida|Phylloceratina]]<br />
:: Suborder † [[Lytoceratida|Lytoceratina]]<br />
:: Suborder † [[Ammonitida|Ammonitina]]<br />
<br />
Subsequent revisions include the establishment of three Upper Cambrian orders, the Plectronocerida, Protactinocerida, and Yanhecerida; separation of the pseudorthocerids as the Pseudorthocerida, and elevating orthoceratid as the Subclass Orthoceratoidea.<br />
<br />
==== Shevyrev classification ====<br />
Shevyrev (2005) suggested a division into eight subclasses, mostly comprising the more diverse and numerous fossil forms,<ref><br />
{{cite journal<br />
| last=Shevyrev<br />
| first=A. A.<br />
| year=2005<br />
| title=The Cephalopod Macrosystem: A Historical Review, the Present State of Knowledge, and Unsolved Problems: 1. Major Features and Overall Classification of Cephalopod Mollusks<br />
| journal=Paleontological Journal<br />
| volume=39 | issue=6 | pages=606–614}} Translated from ''Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal'' No. 6, 2005, 33–42.<br />
</ref><ref><br />
{{cite journal<br />
| last=Shevyrev<br />
| first=A. A.<br />
| s2cid=84616115<br />
| year=2006<br />
| title=The cephalopod macrosystem; a historical review, the present state of knowledge, and unsolved problems; 2, Classification of nautiloid cephalopods<br />
| journal=Paleontological Journal<br />
| volume=40<br />
| issue=1<br />
| pages=46–54<br />
| doi=10.1134/S0031030106010059<br />
}}<br />
</ref> although this classification has been criticized as arbitrary.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kroger|first=B.|title=Peer review in the Russian 'Paleontological Journal'|url=http://www.tiefes-leben.de/2009/03/peer-review-in-the-russian-paleontological-journal|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831224201/http://www.tiefes-leben.de/2009/03/peer-review-in-the-russian-paleontological-journal/|archive-date=2009-08-31}}</ref><br />
[[File:Gyronaedyceras eryx.jpg|thumb|''Gyronaedyceras eryx'', a nautiloid from the [[Devonian]] of [[Wisconsin]]]]<br />
[[File:Ammonites 180308.jpg|thumb|Various species of [[ammonite]]s]]<br />
[[File:Ostenoteuthis siroi.JPG|thumb|Holotype of ''[[Ostenoteuthis siroi]]'' from family [[Ostenoteuthidae]].]]<br />
[[File:Fossil-Belemnoidea-complete.jpg|thumb|A fossilised [[belemnite]]]]<br />
'''Class Cephalopoda'''<br />
* Subclass † [[Ellesmeroceratoidea]]<br />
**Order † [[Plectronocerida]] ({{Ma|501|490|Ma}})<br />
**Order † [[Protactinocerida]]<br />
**Order † [[Yanhecerida]]<br />
**Order † [[Ellesmerocerida]] ({{Ma|500|470|Ma}})<br />
* Subclass † [[Endocerida|Endoceratoidea]] ({{Ma|485|430|Ma}})<br />
**Order † [[Endocerida]] ({{Ma|485|430|Ma}})<br />
**Order † [[Intejocerida]] ({{Ma|485|480|Ma}})<br />
* Subclass † [[Actinocerida|Actinoceratoidea]]<br />
** Order † [[Actinocerida]] ({{Ma|480|312|Ma}})<br />
* Subclass [[Nautiloid]]ea (490.0 Ma- Rec)<br />
** Order † [[Basslerocerida]] ({{Ma|490|480|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Tarphycerida]] ({{Ma|485|386|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Lituitida]] ({{Ma|485|480|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Discosorida]] ({{Ma|482|392|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Oncocerida]] ({{Ma|478.5|324.0|Ma}})<br />
** Order [[Nautilida]] (410.5 Ma-Rec)<br />
* Subclass † [[Orthoceratoidea]] ({{Ma|482.5|211.5|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Orthocerida]] ({{Ma|482.5|211.5|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Ascocerida]] ({{Ma|478|412|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Dissidocerida]] ({{Ma|479.0|457.5|Ma}})<br />
** Order † [[Bajkaloceras|Bajkalocerida]]<br />
* Subclass † [[Bactritoidea]] ({{Ma|422|252|Ma}})<br />
* Subclass † [[Ammonoidea]] ({{Ma|410|66|Ma}})<br />
* Subclass [[Coleoidea]] (410.0 Ma-rec)<ref><br />
{{cite journal<br />
| last=Bather |first=F.A.<br />
| year=1888a<br />
| title=Shell-growth in Cephalopoda (Siphonopoda)<br />
| journal=Annals and Magazine of Natural History<br />
| volume=1 |issue=4<br />
|series =6 | pages=298–310<br />
| url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26195293<br />
| doi=10.1080/00222938809460727<br />
}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
===Cladistic classification===<br />
[[Image:Vampylarge.JPG|thumb|250px|Pyritized fossil of ''[[Vampyronassa rhodanica]]'', a [[vampyromorphida|vampyromorphid]] from the [[Callovian|Lower Callovian]] ({{Ma|Callovian}})]]<br />
Another recent system divides all cephalopods into two [[clade]]s. One includes nautilus and most fossil nautiloids. The other clade ([[Neocephalopoda]] or Angusteradulata) is closer to modern coleoids, and includes belemnoids, ammonoids, and many [[orthocerid]] families. There are also [[stem group]] cephalopods of the traditional [[Ellesmerocerida]] that belong to neither clade.<ref><br />
{{cite journal<br />
| last1=Berthold |first1=Thomas | last2= Engeser |first2=Theo | year=1987<br />
| title=Phylogenetic analysis and systematization of the Cephalopoda (Mollusca)<br />
| journal=Verhandlungen Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins in Hamburg<br />
| volume=29 | pages= 187–220<br />
}}<br />
</ref><ref><br />
{{cite web |url=http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~palaeont/fossilnautiloidea/fossnautcontent.htm |title=Fossil Nautiloidea Page |last=Engeser |first=Theo |year=1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925110442/http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~palaeont/fossilnautiloidea/fossnautcontent.htm |archive-date=2006-09-25}}<br />
</ref><br />
<br />
The coleoids, despite some doubts,<ref name="mollusca11"/>{{Rp|289}} appear from molecular data to be monophyletic.<ref name=Lindgren2004>{{cite journal| doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00032.x| title=A combined approach to the phylogeny of Cephalopoda (Mollusca)| year=2004| last1=Lindgren | first1=A. R.| last2=Giribet | first2=G.| last3=Nishiguchi | first3=M. K.| journal=Cladistics| volume=20| issue=5| pages=454–486 | citeseerx=10.1.1.693.2026| s2cid=85975284}}</ref><br />
<br />
==In culture==<br />
{{further|Cephalopods in popular culture}}<br />
[[File:Colossal octopus by Pierre Denys de Montfort.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Pen and [[Wash (visual arts)|wash]] drawing of an imagined colossal octopus attacking a ship, by the [[malacologist]] [[Pierre Denys de Montfort|Pierre de Montfort]], 1801|alt=Coloured drawing of a huge octopus rising from the sea and attacking a sailing ship's three masts with its spiraling arms]]<br />
<br />
Ancient seafaring people were aware of cephalopods, as evidenced by artworks such as a stone carving found in the archaeological recovery from Bronze Age [[Minoan civilization|Minoan Crete]] at [[Knossos]] (1900 – 1100 BC) has a depiction of a fisherman carrying an octopus.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hogan |first=C. Michael |date=22 December 2007 |url=http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes |title=Knossos fieldnotes |website=The Modern Antiquarian}}</ref> The terrifyingly powerful [[Gorgon]] of [[Greek mythology]] may have been inspired by the octopus or squid, the octopus's body representing the severed head of [[Medusa]], the beak as the protruding tongue and fangs, and its tentacles as the snakes.<ref>{{cite book | url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=OnHO4orvz18C}} | title=Medusa: Solving the Mystery of the Gorgon | last=Wilk | first=Stephen R. | date=2000 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-988773-6}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[File:NROL-39 Patch.jpg|thumb|The [[NROL-39]] mission patch, depicting the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] as an octopus with a long reach|alt=A mission badge of an octopus spanning the world against a starry background, labelled "NROL-39" and "Nothing is beyond our reach"]]<br />
The [[Kraken]] are legendary sea monsters of giant proportions said to dwell off the coasts of Norway and Greenland, usually portrayed in art as giant cephalopods attacking ships. [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] included it in the first edition of his 1735 ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=WfQTAAAAQAAJ|page=82}} | title=Caroli Linnaei Systema naturae sistens regna tria naturae | work=google.com}}</ref><ref name=metropolitana>{{cite book|first1=Edward |last1=Smedley|first2=Hugh James|last2= Rose|first3=Henry John |last3=Rose|title=Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, Or, Universal Dictionary of Knowledge: Comprising the Twofold Advantage of a Philosophical and an Alphabetical Arrangement, with Appropriate Engravings|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3X1GAQAAIAAJ|page=255}}|year=1845|publisher=B. Fellowes|pages=255–}}</ref> A Hawaiian [[creation myth]] says that the present cosmos is the last of a series which arose in stages from the ruins of the previous universe. In this account, the octopus is the lone survivor of the previous, alien universe.<ref name=Dixon>{{cite book | volume=9 | last=Dixon | first=Roland Burrage | author-link=Roland Burrage Dixon | title=Oceanic | series=The Mythology of All Races | url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=gLIIAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP2}} | date=1916 | publisher=Marshall Jones Company | pages=2–}}</ref> The [[Akkorokamui]] is a gigantic tentacled [[monster]] from [[Ainu people|Ainu]] folklore.<ref name="Batchelor">{{cite book | last = Batchelor | first = John | title = The Ainu and Their Folklore | url = https://archive.org/details/b29010664 | location = London | publisher = The Religious Tract Society | year = 1901}}</ref><br />
<br />
A battle with an octopus plays a significant role in [[Victor Hugo]]'s book ''Travailleurs de la mer'' (''[[Toilers of the Sea]]''), relating to his time in exile on [[Guernsey]].<ref>{{cite EB1911 | wstitle=Octopus}}</ref> <br />
[[Ian Fleming]]'s 1966 short story collection ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]'', and the 1983 [[Octopussy|''James Bond'' film]] were partly inspired by Hugo's book.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cohen-Vrignaud |first1=Gerard |title=On Octopussies, or the Anatomy of Female Power |journal=Differences |date=2012 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=32–61 |doi=10.1215/10407391-1533520 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Japanese erotic art, ''[[shunga]]'', includes [[ukiyo-e]] woodblock prints such as [[Katsushika Hokusai]]'s 1814 print ''Tako to ama'' ([[The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife]]), in which an [[ama diver]] is sexually intertwined with a large and a small octopus.<ref name=Helsinki>{{cite book|first1=Sointu |last1=Fritze|first2=Saara|last2= Suojoki|title=Forbidden Images: Erotic Art from Japan's Edo Period|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=QRtmAAAACAAJ|pate=23}}|year=2000|publisher=Helsingin kaupungin taidemuseo|isbn=978-951-8965-54-4| language=fi | pages=23–28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Japanese Erotic Fantasies: Sexual Imagery of the Edo Period | last=Uhlenbeck | first=Chris | author2=Margarita Winkel | author3=Ellis Tinios | author4=Amy Reigle Newland | year=2005 | publisher=Hotei | isbn=978-90-74822-66-4 | page=161}}</ref> The print is a forerunner of [[tentacle erotica]].<ref name=Briel>{{cite book | last=Briel | first=Holger | date=2010 | title=The Roving Eye Meets Traveling Pictures: The Field of Vision and the Global Rise of Adult Manga | editor1-last=Berninger | editor1-first=Mark | editor2-last=Ecke | editor2-first=Jochen | editor3-last=Haberkorn | editor3-first=Gideon | work=Comics As a Nexus of Cultures: Essays on the Interplay of Media, Disciplines |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=e-aWWTZeergC|page=203}}| publisher=McFarland | isbn=978-0-7864-3987-4 | page=203}}</ref> The biologist [[P. Z. Myers]] noted in his science blog, [[Pharyngula (blog)|Pharyngula]], that octopuses appear in "extraordinary" graphic illustrations involving women, tentacles, and bare breasts.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Myers | first1=P. Z. | author-link1=PZ Myers | title=Extraordinary Octopus Illustrations | url=http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2011/05/17/extraordinary-octopus-illustra/ | website=[[Pharyngula]] | access-date=18 March 2017 | date=17 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last1=Myers | first1=P. Z. | author-link1=PZ Myers | title=Definitely not safe for work | url=http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2006/10/29/definitely-not-safe-for-work/ | website=[[Pharyngula]] | access-date=18 March 2017 | date=29 October 2006}}</ref><br />
<br />
Since it has numerous arms emanating from a common center, the octopus is often used as a symbol for a powerful and manipulative organization, usually negatively.<ref>{{cite web | last=Smith | first=S. | url=http://www.imediaethics.org/why-mark-zuckerberg-octopus-cartoon-evokes-nazi-propaganda-german-paper-apologizes/ | title=Why Mark Zuckerberg Octopus Cartoon Evokes 'Nazi Propaganda,' German Paper Apologizes | publisher=iMediaEthics | date=26 February 2010 | access-date=31 May 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Cephalopod size]]<br />
*[[Cephalopod eye]]<br />
*[[Cephalopod intelligence]]<br />
*[[Pain in cephalopods]]<br />
*[[Kraken]]<br />
*[[List of nautiloids]]<br />
*[[List of ammonites]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{cite journal | doi=10.1134/S0031030108110014 | title=Cephalopods in the marine ecosystems of the Paleozoic | year=2008<br />
| last1=Barskov | first1=I. S. | first2=M. S. | last2=Boiko | first3=V. A. | last3=Konovalova | first4=T. B. | last4=Leonova | first5=S. V. |last5= Nikolaeva | s2cid=83608661 | journal=Paleontological Journal<br />
| volume=42 | pages=1167–1284 | issue=11 }} A comprehensive overview of Paleozoic cephalopods.<br />
* {{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Neil A. |last2=Reece |first2=Jane B. |last3=Mitchell |first3=Lawrence G. |title=Biology, fifth edition |publisher=Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. |location=Menlo Park, California |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8053-6566-5 }}<br />
* Felley, J., Vecchione, M., Roper, C. F. E., Sweeney, M. & Christensen, T., 2001–2003: ''Current Classification of Recent Cephalopoda''. [http://www.mnh.si.edu/cephs National Museum of Natural History: Department of Systematic Biology: Invertebrate Zoology: Cephalopods]<br />
* N. Joan Abbott, Roddy Williamson, Linda Maddock. ''Cephalopod Neurobiology''. Oxford University Press, 1995. {{ISBN|0-19-854790-0}}<br />
* Marion Nixon & [[John Zachary Young|John Z. Young]]. ''The brains and lives of Cephalopods''. Oxford University Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-19-852761-6}}<br />
* Hanlon, Roger T. & John B. Messenger. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nxfv6xZZ6WYC&pg=PR47#v=onepage Cephalopod Behaviour]''. Cambridge University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-521-42083-0}}<br />
* Martin Stevens & Sami Merilaita. ''Animal camouflage: mechanisms and function''. Cambridge University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|0-521-19911-5}}<br />
* {{cite journal|last1=Rodhouse|first1=P. G.|last2=Nigmatullin |first2=Ch. M.|title=Role as Consumers|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|year=1996|volume=351|issue=1343|pages=1003–1022|doi=10.1098/rstb.1996.0090}}<br />
* Classification key to modern cephalopods: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0150e/a0150e03.pdf{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wikispecies|Cephalopoda}}<br />
{{Wikibooks|Dichotomous Key|Cephalopoda}}<br />
{{EB1911 poster|Cephalopoda}}<br />
<br />
*[http://www.cco.caltech.edu/~brokawc/Bi11/cephalopods.html Fish vs. Cephalopods]<br />
*[http://www.tonmo.com/ TONMO.COM – The Octopus News Magazine Online – cephalopod articles and discussion]<br />
*[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=can-squid-fly Scientific American: Can a Squid Fly Out of the Water?]<br />
*[https://www.ibiology.org/ecology/cephalopods/ Roger Hanlon's Seminar: "Rapid Adaptive Camouflage and Signaling in Cephalopods"]<br />
*[https://www.buzzfeed.com/mattcherette/six-terrifying-close-up-photos-of-deep-sea-dwellin Deep Sea Dwelling Bristle Worms]<br />
<br />
{{Commons category|position=left|Cephalopoda|<br>Cephalopoda}}<br />
{{Mollusc}}<br />
{{taxonbar|from=Q128257}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cephalopods| ]]<br />
[[Category:Marine molluscs]]<br />
[[Category:Extant Cambrian first appearances]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ensifer_(bacterium)&diff=1058719528Ensifer (bacterium)2021-12-05T05:09:06Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Etymology */Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Genus of bacteria}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox <br />
| image = Sinorhizobium fredii strain USDA257 on TY agar (clean).JPG<br />
| image_caption = ''Sinorhizobium fredii'' strain USDA257 on an [[agar plate]].<br />
| taxon = Ensifer<br />
| authority = Chen ''et al''. 1988/Casida 1982<br />
| type_species = Ensifer adhaerens<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
| subdivision_ref = <ref name="LPSN1">{{cite web | author = Euzéby JP | url = https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/sinorhizobium | title = ''Sinorhizobium'' | access-date = 2012-05-02 | publisher = [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN) }}</ref><ref name="LPSN2">{{cite web | author = Euzéby JP | url = https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/ensifer | title = ''Ensifer'' | access-date = 2012-05-02 | publisher = [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN) }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Balkwill DL | veditors = Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT, Boone DR, De Vos P, Goodfellow M, Rainey FA, Schleifer KH | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume Two: The Proteobacteria, Part C: The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria | chapter = ''Ensifer'' Casida 1982, 343<sup>VP</sup> | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | location = New York, New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/354 354–361] | doi = 10.1007/0-387-29298-5_87 | isbn = 978-0-387-24145-6 | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/354 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kuykendall LD, Hashem FM, Wang ET | veditors = Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT, Boone DR, De Vos P, Goodfellow M, Rainey FA, Schleifer KH | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume Two: The Proteobacteria, Part C: The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria | chapter = ''Sinorhizobium'' Chen, Yan and Li 1988b, 396<sup>VP</sup> emend. de Lajudie, Willems, Pot, Dewettinck, Maestrojuan, Neyra, Collins, Dreyfus, Kersters and Gillis 1994, 732 | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | location = New York, New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/358 358–361] | doi = 10.1007/0-387-29298-5_88 | isbn = 978-0-387-24145-6 | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/358 }}</ref><br />
| subdivision =<br />
* "''Sinorhizobium abri''" <small>Ogasawara ''et al''. 2003</small><ref name=Ogasawara>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ogasawara M, Suzuki T, Mutoh I, Annapurna K, Arora NK, Nishimura Y, Maheshwari DK | title = ''Sinorhizobium indiaense'' sp. nov. and ''Sinorhizobium abri'' sp. nov. isolated from tropical legumes, ''Sesbania rostrata'' and ''Abrus precatorius'', respectively | journal = Symbiosis | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–68 | year = 2003 }}</ref><ref name=notype>Because no type strains have been submitted to international culture collections, these are not currently recognized as valid species.</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]'' <small>Casida 1982</small><ref name="Casida">{{cite journal | vauthors = Casida LE | title = ''Ensifer adhaerens'' gen. nov., sp. nov.: A bacterial predator of bacteria in soil | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 339–345 | year = 1982 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/3/339 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120712152623/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/3/339 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2012-07-12 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-32-3-339 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer alkalisoli]]'' <small>Li ''et al''. 2016</small><br />
<!-- Ensifer americanum is a misspelling of Ensifer americanus. --><br />
* ''[[Ensifer americanus]]'' <small>corrig. (Toledo ''et al''. 2004) Wang ''et al''. 2015</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Toledo I, Lloret L, Martínez-Romero E | title = ''Sinorhizobium americanus'' sp. nov., a new ''Sinorhizobium'' species nodulating native ''Acacia'' spp. in Mexico | journal = Systematic and Applied Microbiology | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–64 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12747410 | doi = 10.1078/072320203322337317 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer arboris]]'' <small>(Nick ''et al''. 1999) Young 2003</small><ref name=Nick>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nick G, de Lajudie P, Eardly BD, Suomalainen S, Paulin L, Zhang X, Gillis M, Lindström K | title = ''Sinorhizobium arboris'' sp. nov. and ''Sinorhizobium kostiense'' sp. nov., isolated from leguminous trees in Sudan and Kenya | journal = International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology | volume = 49 | issue = Pt. 4 | pages = 1359–68 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10555313 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-49-4-1359 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* "''Ensifer aridi''" <small>Le Quéré ''et al''. 2017</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Le Quéré A, Tak N, Gehlot HS, Lavire C, Meyer T, Chapulliot D, Rathi S, Sakrouhi I, Rocha G, Rohmer M, Severac D | title = Genomic characterization of ''Ensifer aridi'', a proposed new species of nitrogen-fixing rhizobium recovered from Asian, African and American deserts | journal = BMC Genomics | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 85 | pmid = 28088165 | doi = 10.1186/s12864-016-3447-y | pmc=5237526| year = 2017 }}</ref><ref name=notype/><br />
* "''Ensifer aridi''" <small>Rocha ''et al''. 2020</small><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Rocha G, Le Quere A, Medina A, Cuellar A, Contreras JL, Carreno R, Bustillos R, Munoz-Rojas J, Villegas MDC, Chaintreuil C, Dreyfus B, Munive J-A. | title = Diversity and phenotypic analyses of salt- and heat-tolerant wild bean ''Phaseolus filiformis'' rhizobia native of a sand beach in Baja California and description of ''Ensifer aridi'' sp. nov. | journal = Arch Microbiol | date = 2020 | volume = 202 | pages = 309–322 | pmid = 31659382 | pmc = 7012998 | doi = 10.1007/s00203-019-01744-7}}</ref><ref name=notype/><br />
* "''Sinorhizobium chiapanecum''" <small>Rincón-Rosales ''et al''. 2009</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rincón-Rosales R, Lloret L, Ponce E, Martínez-Romero E | title = Rhizobia with different symbiotic efficiencies nodulate ''Acaciella angustissima'' in Mexico, including ''Sinorhizobium chiapanecum'' sp. nov. which has common symbiotic genes with ''Sinorhizobium mexicanum'' | journal = FEMS Microbiology Ecology | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–17 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19120461 | pmc = 2784085 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2008.00590.x }}</ref><br />
* "''Ensifer collicola''" <small>Jang ''et al''. 2017</small><ref name=notype/><br />
* ''[[Ensifer fredii]]'' <small>(Scholla and Elkan 1984) Young 2003</small><ref name="Chen">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen WX, Yan GH, Li JL | title = Numerical taxonomic study of fast-growing soybean rhizobia and a proposal that ''Rhizobium fredii'' be assigned to ''Sinorhizobium'' gen. nov | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 38 | issue = 4 | pages = 392–397 | year = 1988 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/4/392 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130503111918/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/4/392 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2013-05-03 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-38-4-392 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer garamanticus]]'' <small>Merabet ''et al''. 2010</small><ref name=Merabet>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yan H, Yan J, Sui XH, Wang ET, Chen WX, Zhang XX, Chen WF | title = ''Ensifer glycinis'' sp. nov., an novel rhizobial species associated with ''Glycine'' spp | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 60 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 2910–6 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27125987 | doi = 10.1099/ijsem.0.001120 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer glycinis]]'' <small>Yan ''et al''. 2016</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Merabet C, Martens M, Mahdhi M, Zakhia F, Sy A, Le Roux C, Domergue O, Coopman R, Bekki A, Mars M, Willems A, de Lajudie P | title = Multilocus sequence analysis of root nodule isolates from ''Lotus arabicus'' (Senegal), ''Lotus creticus'', ''Argyrolobium uniflorum'' and ''Medicago sativa'' (Tunisia) and description of ''Ensifer numidicus'' sp. nov. and ''Ensifer garamanticus'' sp. nov | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 60 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 664–74 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 19656922 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.012088-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* "''Sinorhizobium indiaense''" <small>Ogasawara ''et all''. 2003</small><ref name="Ogasawara" /><ref name="notype" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer kostiensis]]'' <small>(Nick ''et al''. 1999) Young 2003</small><ref name="Nick" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer kummerowiae]]'' <small>(Wei ''et al''. 2002) Young 2003</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wei GH, Wang ET, Tan ZY, Zhu ME, Chen WX | title = ''Rhizobium indigoferae'' sp. nov. and ''Sinorhizobium kummerowiae'' sp. nov., respectively isolated from ''Indigofera'' spp. and ''Kummerowia stipulacea'' | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 2231–9 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12508892 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-52-6-2231 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
<!-- Ensifer maghrebium appears to be a synonym of Ensifer numidicus. --><br />
* ''[[Sinorhizobium medicae|Ensifer medicae]]'' <small>(Rome ''et al''. 1996) Young 2003</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rome S, Fernandez MP, Brunel B, Normand P, Cleyet-Marel JC | title = ''Sinorhizobium medicae'' sp. nov., isolated from annual ''Medicago'' spp | journal = International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 972–80 | date = October 1996 | pmid = 8863426 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-46-4-972 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer meliloti]]'' <small>(Dangeard 1926) Young 2003</small><ref name=Lajudie>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Lajudie P, Willems A, Pot B, Dewettinck D, Maestrojuan G, Neyra M, Collins MD, Dreyfus B, Kersters K, Gillis M | title = Polyphasic taxonomy of rhizobia: Emendation of the genus ''Sinorhizobium'' and description of ''Sinorhizobium meliloti'' comb. nov., ''Sinorhizobium saheli'' sp. nov., and ''Sinorhizobium teranga'' sp. nov | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 715–733 | year = 1994 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/4/715 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-44-4-715 | access-date = 2009-09-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080829214102/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/4/715 | archive-date = 2008-08-29 | url-status = dead | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer mexicanus]]'' <small>Lloret ''et al''. 2007</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lloret L, Ormeño-Orrillo E, Rincón R, Martínez-Romero J, Rogel-Hernández MA, Martínez-Romero E | title = ''Ensifer mexicanus'' sp. nov. a new species nodulating ''Acacia angustissima'' (Mill.) Kuntze in Mexico | journal = Systematic and Applied Microbiology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 280–90 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17293074 | doi = 10.1016/j.syapm.2006.12.002 }}</ref><br />
<!-- Ensifer morelense is a misspelling of Ensifer morelensis. --><br />
* ''[[Ensifer morelensis]]'' <small>corrig. (Wang ''et al''. 2002) Wang ''et al''. 2015</small><br />
* ''[[Ensifer numidicus]]'' <small>Merabet ''et al''. 2010</small><ref name="Merabet" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer psoraleae]]'' <small>Wang ''et al''. 2013</small><ref name="Wang">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang YC, Wang F, Hou BC, Wang ET, Chen WF, Sui XH, Chen WX, Li Y, Zhang YB | title = Proposal of ''Ensifer psoraleae'' sp. nov., ''Ensifer sesbaniae'' sp. nov., ''Ensifer morelense'' comb. nov. and ''Ensifer americanum'' comb. nov | journal = Systematic and Applied Microbiology | volume = 36 | issue = 7 | pages = 467–73 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23759600 | doi = 10.1016/j.syapm.2013.05.001 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer saheli]]'' <small>(De Lajudie ''et al''. 1994) Young 2003</small><ref name="Lajudie" /><br />
** symbiovar ''acaciae''<br />
** symbiovar ''sesbaniae''<br />
* ''[[Ensifer sesbaniae]]'' <small>Wang ''et al''. 2015</small><ref name="Wang" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer shofinae]]'' <small>Chen ''et al''. 2017</small><br />
* ''[[Ensifer sojae]]'' <small>Li ''et al''. 2011</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li QQ, Wang ET, Chang YL, Zhang YZ, Zhang YM, Sui XH, Chen WF, Chen WX | title = ''Ensifer sojae'' sp. nov., isolated from root nodules of Glycine max grown in saline-alkaline soils | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 61 | issue = Pt 8 | pages = 1981–8 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 20851917 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.025049-0 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer terangae]]'' <small>(De Lajudie ''et al''. 1994) Young 2003</small><ref name="Lajudie" /><br />
** symbiovar ''acaciae''<br />
** symbiovar ''sesbaniae''<br />
<!-- Ensifer xinjiangensis is a synonym of Ensifer fredii. --><br />
<!-- Ensifer xericitae appears to be a synonym of Ensifer garamanticus. --><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Ensifer''''' (often referred to in literature by its [[synonym (biology)|synonym]] '''''Sinorhizobium''''') is a genus of [[nitrogen fixation|nitrogen-fixing]] bacteria ([[rhizobia]]), three of which (''[[Ensifer meliloti]]'',<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Galibert F, Finan TM, Long SR, Puhler A, Abola P, Ampe F, Barloy-Hubler F, Barnett MJ, Becker A, Boistard P, Bothe G, Boutry M, Bowser L, Buhrmester J, Cadieu E, Capela D, Chain P, Cowie A, Davis RW, Dreano S, Federspiel NA, Fisher RF, Gloux S, Godrie T, Goffeau A, Golding B, Gouzy J, Gurjal M, Hernandez-Lucas I, Hong A, Huizar L, Hyman RW, Jones T, Kahn D, Kahn ML, Kalman S, Keating DH, Kiss E, Komp C, Lelaure V, Masuy D, Palm C, Peck MC, Pohl TM, Portetelle D, Purnelle B, Ramsperger U, Surzycki R, Thebault P, Vandenbol M, Vorholter FJ, Weidner S, Wells DH, Wong K, Yeh KC, Batut J | display-authors = 6 | title = The composite genome of the legume symbiont ''Sinorhizobium meliloti'' | journal = Science | volume = 293 | issue = 5530 | pages = 668–72 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11474104 | doi = 10.1126/science.1060966 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/1004 | title = NCBI Genome Page for ''Sinorhizobium meliloti'' | publisher = [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI)}}</ref> ''[[Sinorhizobium medicae|Ensifer medicae]]''<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/1412 | title = NCBI Genome Page for ''Sinorhizobium medicae'' | publisher = [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI) }}</ref> and ''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmeisser C, Liesegang H, Krysciak D, Bakkou N, Le Quéré A, Wollherr A, Heinemeyer I, Morgenstern B, Pommerening-Röser A, Flores M, Palacios R, Brenner S, Gottschalk G, Schmitz RA, Broughton WJ, Perret X, Strittmatter AW, Streit WR | title = ''Rhizobium'' sp. strain NGR234 possesses a remarkable number of secretion systems | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 75 | issue = 12 | pages = 4035–45 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19376903 | pmc = 2698369 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.00515-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/3067 | title = NCBI Genome Page for ''Sinorhizobium fredii'' | publisher = [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI) }}</ref>) have been sequenced.<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
''Ensifer'' is from the [[New Latin]] term ''ensifer'', which means "sword-bearing" or "sword-bearer".<ref name="Casida" /> The synonym ''Sinorhizobium'' is a combination of [[Medieval Latin]] ''sino'' (which means "China"), [[Greek language|Greek]] ''rhizo'' (which means "root"), and New Latin ''bios'' (which means "life"). Thus, the generic name means "a bacterium living in a root in China".<ref name="LPSN1" /><ref name="Chen"/><br />
<br />
==Proper name==<br />
The name ''Ensifer'' was published in 1982 and the name ''Sinorhizobium'' was published in 1988. By the rules of the Bacteriological Code (1990 Revision) of the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes (ICSP), the older name (''Ensifer'') has priority.<ref name="Young">{{cite journal | vauthors = Young JM | title = The genus name ''Ensifer'' Casida 1982 takes priority over ''Sinorhizobium'' Chen ''et al''. 1988, and ''Sinorhizobium morelense'' Wang ''et al''. 2002 is a later synonym of ''Ensifer adhaerens'' Casida 1982. Is the combination "''Sinorhizobium adhaerens''" (Casida 1982) Willems ''et al''. 2003 legitimate? Request for an Opinion | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 53 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 2107–10 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14657154| doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.02665-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In response to a request that the single extant species of ''Ensifer'' (''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]'') be moved to ''Sinorhizobium'', a special ICSP subcommittee was formed to evaluate the request. It was ultimately ruled that ''Ensifer'' retained priority and that all ''Sinorhizobium'' species be transferred to the genus ''Ensifer''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lindström K, Martínez-Romero ME | title = International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes Subcommittee on the taxonomy of ''Agrobacterium'' and ''Rhizobium''. Minutes of the meeting, 4 July 2001, Hamilton, Canada | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 52 | issue = 6 | pages = 2337 | year = 2002 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/52/6/2337.pdf | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.02524-0 | access-date = 6 August 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120435/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/52/6/2337.pdf | archive-date = 29 September 2007 | url-status = dead | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = ((Judicial Commission of the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes)) | title = The genus name ''Sinorhizobium'' Chen ''et al''. 1988 is a later synonym of ''Ensifer'' Casida 1982 and is not conserved over the latter genus name, and the species name 'Sinorhizobium adhaerens' is not validly published. Opinion 84 | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 58 | issue = Pt 8 | pages = 1973 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18676490 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.2008/005991-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, both terms continue to be used in published scientific literature, with ''Sinorhizobium'' being the more common.<ref>{{cite web | author = Young JPW. | url = http://rhizobium.wordpress.com/2013/02/09/from-rhizobium-to-sinorhizobium-from-sinorhizobium-to-ensifer/ | date = February 9, 2013 | title = Rhizobium: Writing about bacteria and their genomes | publisher = [[WordPress]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Deprecated species==<br />
Two species have been described which have since been reclassified into existing species: ''Sinorhizobium morelense'' (now ''Ensifer adhaerens'')<ref name="Young" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang ET, Tan ZY, Willems A, Fernández-López M, Reinhold-Hurek B, Martínez-Romero E | title = ''Sinorhizobium morelense'' sp. nov., a ''Leucaena leucocephala''-associated bacterium that is highly resistant to multiple antibiotics | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = Pt 5 | pages = 1687–93 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12361275 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.01954-0 | hdl = 10261/109835 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> and ''Sinorhizobium xinjiangense'' (now ''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peng GX, Tan ZY, Wang ET, Reinhold-Hurek B, Chen WF, Chen WX | title = Identification of isolates from soybean nodules in Xinjiang Region as ''Sinorhizobium xinjiangense'' and genetic differentiation of ''S. xinjiangense'' from ''Sinorhizobium fredii'' | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 457–62 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11931157 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-52-2-457| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martens M, Dawyndt P, Coopman R, Gillis M, De Vos P, Willems A | title = Advantages of multilocus sequence analysis for taxonomic studies: A case study using 10 housekeeping genes in the genus ''Ensifer'' (including former ''Sinorhizobium'') | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 58 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 200–14 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18175710 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.65392-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref>—though some dissent exists<ref name="Wang" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martens M, Delaere M, Coopman R, De Vos P, Gillis M, Willems A | title = Multilocus sequence analysis of ''Ensifer'' and related taxa | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 57 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 489–503 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17329774 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.64344-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref>).<br />
<br />
==Phylogeny==<br />
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN).<ref name="LPSN1"/><ref name="LPSN2"/> The following phylogeny is based on whole-genome analysis.<ref name="Hördt">{{cite journal |last1=Hördt |first1=Anton |last2=López |first2=Marina García |last3=Meier-Kolthoff |first3=Jan P. |last4=Schleuning |first4=Marcel |last5=Weinhold |first5=Lisa-Maria |last6=Tindall |first6=Brian J. |last7=Gronow |first7=Sabine |last8=Kyrpides |first8=Nikos C. |last9=Woyke |first9=Tanja |last10=Göker |first10=Markus |title=Analysis of 1,000+ Type-Strain Genomes Substantially Improves Taxonomic Classification of Alphaproteobacteria |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |date=7 April 2020 |volume=11 |pages=468 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.00468|pmid=32373076 |pmc=7179689 }}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1='''''Ensifer'''''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer arboris]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer alkalisoli]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer sojae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer saheli]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer americanus]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer glycinis]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer shofinae]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=[[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]]<br />
|2=''[[Pararhizobium]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
This phylogeny is based on a constrained analysis of the [[16S ribosomal RNA]].<ref name="Hördt"/><br />
<br />
{{Clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1='''''Ensifer'''''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer glycinis]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer shofinae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer saheli]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer alkalisoli]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer sojae]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer americanus]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer kummerowiae]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer xinjiangensis]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer arboris]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer psoraleae]]''<br />
|2=''[[Sinorhizobium medicae|Ensifer medicae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer numidicus]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer meliloti]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer kostiensis]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer garamanticus]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer terangae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer mexicanus]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer morelensis]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer sesbaniae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]''<br />
}}<br />
|label2=[[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]]<br />
|2=''[[Pararhizobium]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q26208700|from2=Q3605613}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Rhizobiaceae]]<br />
[[Category:Bacteria genera]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ensifer_(bacterium)&diff=1058719488Ensifer (bacterium)2021-12-05T05:08:35Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Etymology */Removed redundant sentence</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Genus of bacteria}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox <br />
| image = Sinorhizobium fredii strain USDA257 on TY agar (clean).JPG<br />
| image_caption = ''Sinorhizobium fredii'' strain USDA257 on an [[agar plate]].<br />
| taxon = Ensifer<br />
| authority = Chen ''et al''. 1988/Casida 1982<br />
| type_species = Ensifer adhaerens<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
| subdivision_ref = <ref name="LPSN1">{{cite web | author = Euzéby JP | url = https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/sinorhizobium | title = ''Sinorhizobium'' | access-date = 2012-05-02 | publisher = [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN) }}</ref><ref name="LPSN2">{{cite web | author = Euzéby JP | url = https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/ensifer | title = ''Ensifer'' | access-date = 2012-05-02 | publisher = [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN) }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Balkwill DL | veditors = Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT, Boone DR, De Vos P, Goodfellow M, Rainey FA, Schleifer KH | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume Two: The Proteobacteria, Part C: The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria | chapter = ''Ensifer'' Casida 1982, 343<sup>VP</sup> | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | location = New York, New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/354 354–361] | doi = 10.1007/0-387-29298-5_87 | isbn = 978-0-387-24145-6 | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/354 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kuykendall LD, Hashem FM, Wang ET | veditors = Brenner DJ, Krieg NR, Garrity GM, Staley JT, Boone DR, De Vos P, Goodfellow M, Rainey FA, Schleifer KH | title = Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume Two: The Proteobacteria, Part C: The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria | chapter = ''Sinorhizobium'' Chen, Yan and Li 1988b, 396<sup>VP</sup> emend. de Lajudie, Willems, Pot, Dewettinck, Maestrojuan, Neyra, Collins, Dreyfus, Kersters and Gillis 1994, 732 | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | location = New York, New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/358 358–361] | doi = 10.1007/0-387-29298-5_88 | isbn = 978-0-387-24145-6 | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/bergeysmanualofs00boon/page/358 }}</ref><br />
| subdivision =<br />
* "''Sinorhizobium abri''" <small>Ogasawara ''et al''. 2003</small><ref name=Ogasawara>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ogasawara M, Suzuki T, Mutoh I, Annapurna K, Arora NK, Nishimura Y, Maheshwari DK | title = ''Sinorhizobium indiaense'' sp. nov. and ''Sinorhizobium abri'' sp. nov. isolated from tropical legumes, ''Sesbania rostrata'' and ''Abrus precatorius'', respectively | journal = Symbiosis | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–68 | year = 2003 }}</ref><ref name=notype>Because no type strains have been submitted to international culture collections, these are not currently recognized as valid species.</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]'' <small>Casida 1982</small><ref name="Casida">{{cite journal | vauthors = Casida LE | title = ''Ensifer adhaerens'' gen. nov., sp. nov.: A bacterial predator of bacteria in soil | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 339–345 | year = 1982 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/3/339 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120712152623/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/3/339 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2012-07-12 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-32-3-339 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer alkalisoli]]'' <small>Li ''et al''. 2016</small><br />
<!-- Ensifer americanum is a misspelling of Ensifer americanus. --><br />
* ''[[Ensifer americanus]]'' <small>corrig. (Toledo ''et al''. 2004) Wang ''et al''. 2015</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Toledo I, Lloret L, Martínez-Romero E | title = ''Sinorhizobium americanus'' sp. nov., a new ''Sinorhizobium'' species nodulating native ''Acacia'' spp. in Mexico | journal = Systematic and Applied Microbiology | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–64 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12747410 | doi = 10.1078/072320203322337317 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer arboris]]'' <small>(Nick ''et al''. 1999) Young 2003</small><ref name=Nick>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nick G, de Lajudie P, Eardly BD, Suomalainen S, Paulin L, Zhang X, Gillis M, Lindström K | title = ''Sinorhizobium arboris'' sp. nov. and ''Sinorhizobium kostiense'' sp. nov., isolated from leguminous trees in Sudan and Kenya | journal = International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology | volume = 49 | issue = Pt. 4 | pages = 1359–68 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10555313 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-49-4-1359 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* "''Ensifer aridi''" <small>Le Quéré ''et al''. 2017</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Le Quéré A, Tak N, Gehlot HS, Lavire C, Meyer T, Chapulliot D, Rathi S, Sakrouhi I, Rocha G, Rohmer M, Severac D | title = Genomic characterization of ''Ensifer aridi'', a proposed new species of nitrogen-fixing rhizobium recovered from Asian, African and American deserts | journal = BMC Genomics | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 85 | pmid = 28088165 | doi = 10.1186/s12864-016-3447-y | pmc=5237526| year = 2017 }}</ref><ref name=notype/><br />
* "''Ensifer aridi''" <small>Rocha ''et al''. 2020</small><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Rocha G, Le Quere A, Medina A, Cuellar A, Contreras JL, Carreno R, Bustillos R, Munoz-Rojas J, Villegas MDC, Chaintreuil C, Dreyfus B, Munive J-A. | title = Diversity and phenotypic analyses of salt- and heat-tolerant wild bean ''Phaseolus filiformis'' rhizobia native of a sand beach in Baja California and description of ''Ensifer aridi'' sp. nov. | journal = Arch Microbiol | date = 2020 | volume = 202 | pages = 309–322 | pmid = 31659382 | pmc = 7012998 | doi = 10.1007/s00203-019-01744-7}}</ref><ref name=notype/><br />
* "''Sinorhizobium chiapanecum''" <small>Rincón-Rosales ''et al''. 2009</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rincón-Rosales R, Lloret L, Ponce E, Martínez-Romero E | title = Rhizobia with different symbiotic efficiencies nodulate ''Acaciella angustissima'' in Mexico, including ''Sinorhizobium chiapanecum'' sp. nov. which has common symbiotic genes with ''Sinorhizobium mexicanum'' | journal = FEMS Microbiology Ecology | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–17 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19120461 | pmc = 2784085 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2008.00590.x }}</ref><br />
* "''Ensifer collicola''" <small>Jang ''et al''. 2017</small><ref name=notype/><br />
* ''[[Ensifer fredii]]'' <small>(Scholla and Elkan 1984) Young 2003</small><ref name="Chen">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen WX, Yan GH, Li JL | title = Numerical taxonomic study of fast-growing soybean rhizobia and a proposal that ''Rhizobium fredii'' be assigned to ''Sinorhizobium'' gen. nov | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 38 | issue = 4 | pages = 392–397 | year = 1988 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/4/392 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130503111918/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/38/4/392 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2013-05-03 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-38-4-392 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer garamanticus]]'' <small>Merabet ''et al''. 2010</small><ref name=Merabet>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yan H, Yan J, Sui XH, Wang ET, Chen WX, Zhang XX, Chen WF | title = ''Ensifer glycinis'' sp. nov., an novel rhizobial species associated with ''Glycine'' spp | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 60 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 2910–6 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 27125987 | doi = 10.1099/ijsem.0.001120 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer glycinis]]'' <small>Yan ''et al''. 2016</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Merabet C, Martens M, Mahdhi M, Zakhia F, Sy A, Le Roux C, Domergue O, Coopman R, Bekki A, Mars M, Willems A, de Lajudie P | title = Multilocus sequence analysis of root nodule isolates from ''Lotus arabicus'' (Senegal), ''Lotus creticus'', ''Argyrolobium uniflorum'' and ''Medicago sativa'' (Tunisia) and description of ''Ensifer numidicus'' sp. nov. and ''Ensifer garamanticus'' sp. nov | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 60 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 664–74 | date = March 2010 | pmid = 19656922 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.012088-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* "''Sinorhizobium indiaense''" <small>Ogasawara ''et all''. 2003</small><ref name="Ogasawara" /><ref name="notype" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer kostiensis]]'' <small>(Nick ''et al''. 1999) Young 2003</small><ref name="Nick" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer kummerowiae]]'' <small>(Wei ''et al''. 2002) Young 2003</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wei GH, Wang ET, Tan ZY, Zhu ME, Chen WX | title = ''Rhizobium indigoferae'' sp. nov. and ''Sinorhizobium kummerowiae'' sp. nov., respectively isolated from ''Indigofera'' spp. and ''Kummerowia stipulacea'' | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 2231–9 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12508892 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-52-6-2231 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
<!-- Ensifer maghrebium appears to be a synonym of Ensifer numidicus. --><br />
* ''[[Sinorhizobium medicae|Ensifer medicae]]'' <small>(Rome ''et al''. 1996) Young 2003</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rome S, Fernandez MP, Brunel B, Normand P, Cleyet-Marel JC | title = ''Sinorhizobium medicae'' sp. nov., isolated from annual ''Medicago'' spp | journal = International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology | volume = 46 | issue = 4 | pages = 972–80 | date = October 1996 | pmid = 8863426 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-46-4-972 | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer meliloti]]'' <small>(Dangeard 1926) Young 2003</small><ref name=Lajudie>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Lajudie P, Willems A, Pot B, Dewettinck D, Maestrojuan G, Neyra M, Collins MD, Dreyfus B, Kersters K, Gillis M | title = Polyphasic taxonomy of rhizobia: Emendation of the genus ''Sinorhizobium'' and description of ''Sinorhizobium meliloti'' comb. nov., ''Sinorhizobium saheli'' sp. nov., and ''Sinorhizobium teranga'' sp. nov | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 715–733 | year = 1994 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/4/715 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-44-4-715 | access-date = 2009-09-01 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080829214102/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/4/715 | archive-date = 2008-08-29 | url-status = dead | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer mexicanus]]'' <small>Lloret ''et al''. 2007</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lloret L, Ormeño-Orrillo E, Rincón R, Martínez-Romero J, Rogel-Hernández MA, Martínez-Romero E | title = ''Ensifer mexicanus'' sp. nov. a new species nodulating ''Acacia angustissima'' (Mill.) Kuntze in Mexico | journal = Systematic and Applied Microbiology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 280–90 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17293074 | doi = 10.1016/j.syapm.2006.12.002 }}</ref><br />
<!-- Ensifer morelense is a misspelling of Ensifer morelensis. --><br />
* ''[[Ensifer morelensis]]'' <small>corrig. (Wang ''et al''. 2002) Wang ''et al''. 2015</small><br />
* ''[[Ensifer numidicus]]'' <small>Merabet ''et al''. 2010</small><ref name="Merabet" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer psoraleae]]'' <small>Wang ''et al''. 2013</small><ref name="Wang">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang YC, Wang F, Hou BC, Wang ET, Chen WF, Sui XH, Chen WX, Li Y, Zhang YB | title = Proposal of ''Ensifer psoraleae'' sp. nov., ''Ensifer sesbaniae'' sp. nov., ''Ensifer morelense'' comb. nov. and ''Ensifer americanum'' comb. nov | journal = Systematic and Applied Microbiology | volume = 36 | issue = 7 | pages = 467–73 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23759600 | doi = 10.1016/j.syapm.2013.05.001 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer saheli]]'' <small>(De Lajudie ''et al''. 1994) Young 2003</small><ref name="Lajudie" /><br />
** symbiovar ''acaciae''<br />
** symbiovar ''sesbaniae''<br />
* ''[[Ensifer sesbaniae]]'' <small>Wang ''et al''. 2015</small><ref name="Wang" /><br />
* ''[[Ensifer shofinae]]'' <small>Chen ''et al''. 2017</small><br />
* ''[[Ensifer sojae]]'' <small>Li ''et al''. 2011</small><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Li QQ, Wang ET, Chang YL, Zhang YZ, Zhang YM, Sui XH, Chen WF, Chen WX | title = ''Ensifer sojae'' sp. nov., isolated from root nodules of Glycine max grown in saline-alkaline soils | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 61 | issue = Pt 8 | pages = 1981–8 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 20851917 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.025049-0 }}</ref><br />
* ''[[Ensifer terangae]]'' <small>(De Lajudie ''et al''. 1994) Young 2003</small><ref name="Lajudie" /><br />
** symbiovar ''acaciae''<br />
** symbiovar ''sesbaniae''<br />
<!-- Ensifer xinjiangensis is a synonym of Ensifer fredii. --><br />
<!-- Ensifer xericitae appears to be a synonym of Ensifer garamanticus. --><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Ensifer''''' (often referred to in literature by its [[synonym (biology)|synonym]] '''''Sinorhizobium''''') is a genus of [[nitrogen fixation|nitrogen-fixing]] bacteria ([[rhizobia]]), three of which (''[[Ensifer meliloti]]'',<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Galibert F, Finan TM, Long SR, Puhler A, Abola P, Ampe F, Barloy-Hubler F, Barnett MJ, Becker A, Boistard P, Bothe G, Boutry M, Bowser L, Buhrmester J, Cadieu E, Capela D, Chain P, Cowie A, Davis RW, Dreano S, Federspiel NA, Fisher RF, Gloux S, Godrie T, Goffeau A, Golding B, Gouzy J, Gurjal M, Hernandez-Lucas I, Hong A, Huizar L, Hyman RW, Jones T, Kahn D, Kahn ML, Kalman S, Keating DH, Kiss E, Komp C, Lelaure V, Masuy D, Palm C, Peck MC, Pohl TM, Portetelle D, Purnelle B, Ramsperger U, Surzycki R, Thebault P, Vandenbol M, Vorholter FJ, Weidner S, Wells DH, Wong K, Yeh KC, Batut J | display-authors = 6 | title = The composite genome of the legume symbiont ''Sinorhizobium meliloti'' | journal = Science | volume = 293 | issue = 5530 | pages = 668–72 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11474104 | doi = 10.1126/science.1060966 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/1004 | title = NCBI Genome Page for ''Sinorhizobium meliloti'' | publisher = [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI)}}</ref> ''[[Sinorhizobium medicae|Ensifer medicae]]''<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/1412 | title = NCBI Genome Page for ''Sinorhizobium medicae'' | publisher = [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI) }}</ref> and ''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmeisser C, Liesegang H, Krysciak D, Bakkou N, Le Quéré A, Wollherr A, Heinemeyer I, Morgenstern B, Pommerening-Röser A, Flores M, Palacios R, Brenner S, Gottschalk G, Schmitz RA, Broughton WJ, Perret X, Strittmatter AW, Streit WR | title = ''Rhizobium'' sp. strain NGR234 possesses a remarkable number of secretion systems | journal = Applied and Environmental Microbiology | volume = 75 | issue = 12 | pages = 4035–45 | date = June 2009 | pmid = 19376903 | pmc = 2698369 | doi = 10.1128/AEM.00515-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/3067 | title = NCBI Genome Page for ''Sinorhizobium fredii'' | publisher = [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI) }}</ref>) have been sequenced.<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
''Ensifer'' is from the [[New Latin]] term ''ensifer'', which means "sword-bearing" or "sword-bearer".<ref name="Casida" />. The synonym ''Sinorhizobium'' is a combination of [[Medieval Latin]] ''sino'' (which means "China"), [[Greek language|Greek]] ''rhizo'' (which means "root"), and New Latin ''bios'' (which means "life"). Thus, the generic name means "a bacterium living in a root in China".<ref name="LPSN1" /><ref name="Chen"/><br />
<br />
==Proper name==<br />
The name ''Ensifer'' was published in 1982 and the name ''Sinorhizobium'' was published in 1988. By the rules of the Bacteriological Code (1990 Revision) of the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes (ICSP), the older name (''Ensifer'') has priority.<ref name="Young">{{cite journal | vauthors = Young JM | title = The genus name ''Ensifer'' Casida 1982 takes priority over ''Sinorhizobium'' Chen ''et al''. 1988, and ''Sinorhizobium morelense'' Wang ''et al''. 2002 is a later synonym of ''Ensifer adhaerens'' Casida 1982. Is the combination "''Sinorhizobium adhaerens''" (Casida 1982) Willems ''et al''. 2003 legitimate? Request for an Opinion | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 53 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 2107–10 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 14657154| doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.02665-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In response to a request that the single extant species of ''Ensifer'' (''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]'') be moved to ''Sinorhizobium'', a special ICSP subcommittee was formed to evaluate the request. It was ultimately ruled that ''Ensifer'' retained priority and that all ''Sinorhizobium'' species be transferred to the genus ''Ensifer''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lindström K, Martínez-Romero ME | title = International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes Subcommittee on the taxonomy of ''Agrobacterium'' and ''Rhizobium''. Minutes of the meeting, 4 July 2001, Hamilton, Canada | journal = Int J Syst Bacteriol | volume = 52 | issue = 6 | pages = 2337 | year = 2002 | url = http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/52/6/2337.pdf | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.02524-0 | access-date = 6 August 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120435/http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/cgi/reprint/52/6/2337.pdf | archive-date = 29 September 2007 | url-status = dead | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = ((Judicial Commission of the International Committee on Systematics of Prokaryotes)) | title = The genus name ''Sinorhizobium'' Chen ''et al''. 1988 is a later synonym of ''Ensifer'' Casida 1982 and is not conserved over the latter genus name, and the species name 'Sinorhizobium adhaerens' is not validly published. Opinion 84 | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 58 | issue = Pt 8 | pages = 1973 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18676490 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.2008/005991-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, both terms continue to be used in published scientific literature, with ''Sinorhizobium'' being the more common.<ref>{{cite web | author = Young JPW. | url = http://rhizobium.wordpress.com/2013/02/09/from-rhizobium-to-sinorhizobium-from-sinorhizobium-to-ensifer/ | date = February 9, 2013 | title = Rhizobium: Writing about bacteria and their genomes | publisher = [[WordPress]]}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Deprecated species==<br />
Two species have been described which have since been reclassified into existing species: ''Sinorhizobium morelense'' (now ''Ensifer adhaerens'')<ref name="Young" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang ET, Tan ZY, Willems A, Fernández-López M, Reinhold-Hurek B, Martínez-Romero E | title = ''Sinorhizobium morelense'' sp. nov., a ''Leucaena leucocephala''-associated bacterium that is highly resistant to multiple antibiotics | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = Pt 5 | pages = 1687–93 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12361275 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.01954-0 | hdl = 10261/109835 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> and ''Sinorhizobium xinjiangense'' (now ''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Peng GX, Tan ZY, Wang ET, Reinhold-Hurek B, Chen WF, Chen WX | title = Identification of isolates from soybean nodules in Xinjiang Region as ''Sinorhizobium xinjiangense'' and genetic differentiation of ''S. xinjiangense'' from ''Sinorhizobium fredii'' | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 457–62 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11931157 | doi = 10.1099/00207713-52-2-457| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martens M, Dawyndt P, Coopman R, Gillis M, De Vos P, Willems A | title = Advantages of multilocus sequence analysis for taxonomic studies: A case study using 10 housekeeping genes in the genus ''Ensifer'' (including former ''Sinorhizobium'') | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 58 | issue = Pt 1 | pages = 200–14 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18175710 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.65392-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref>—though some dissent exists<ref name="Wang" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martens M, Delaere M, Coopman R, De Vos P, Gillis M, Willems A | title = Multilocus sequence analysis of ''Ensifer'' and related taxa | journal = International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology | volume = 57 | issue = Pt 3 | pages = 489–503 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17329774 | doi = 10.1099/ijs.0.64344-0 | doi-access = free }}</ref>).<br />
<br />
==Phylogeny==<br />
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN).<ref name="LPSN1"/><ref name="LPSN2"/> The following phylogeny is based on whole-genome analysis.<ref name="Hördt">{{cite journal |last1=Hördt |first1=Anton |last2=López |first2=Marina García |last3=Meier-Kolthoff |first3=Jan P. |last4=Schleuning |first4=Marcel |last5=Weinhold |first5=Lisa-Maria |last6=Tindall |first6=Brian J. |last7=Gronow |first7=Sabine |last8=Kyrpides |first8=Nikos C. |last9=Woyke |first9=Tanja |last10=Göker |first10=Markus |title=Analysis of 1,000+ Type-Strain Genomes Substantially Improves Taxonomic Classification of Alphaproteobacteria |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |date=7 April 2020 |volume=11 |pages=468 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.00468|pmid=32373076 |pmc=7179689 }}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1='''''Ensifer'''''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer arboris]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer alkalisoli]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer sojae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer saheli]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer americanus]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer glycinis]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer shofinae]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|label2=[[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]]<br />
|2=''[[Pararhizobium]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
This phylogeny is based on a constrained analysis of the [[16S ribosomal RNA]].<ref name="Hördt"/><br />
<br />
{{Clade | style=font-size:75%;line-height:75%<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1='''''Ensifer'''''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer glycinis]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer shofinae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer saheli]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer alkalisoli]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer sojae]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer americanus]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer fredii]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer kummerowiae]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer xinjiangensis]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer arboris]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer psoraleae]]''<br />
|2=''[[Sinorhizobium medicae|Ensifer medicae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer numidicus]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer meliloti]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer kostiensis]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=''[[Ensifer garamanticus]]''<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer terangae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer mexicanus]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer morelensis]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer sesbaniae]]''<br />
}}<br />
|2=''[[Ensifer adhaerens]]''<br />
}}<br />
|label2=[[Outgroup (cladistics)|outgroup]]<br />
|2=''[[Pararhizobium]]''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q26208700|from2=Q3605613}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Rhizobiaceae]]<br />
[[Category:Bacteria genera]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Attenborough&diff=1058311573David Attenborough2021-12-02T19:31:49Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Life and family */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{good article}}<br />
{{Short description|British broadcaster and naturalist}}<br />
{{for|the Antarctic research vessel|RRS Sir David Attenborough}}<br />
{{pp-semi-blp|small=yes}}<br />
{{Use British English|date=March 2018}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}<br />
{{Infobox person<br />
| honorific_prefix = [[Sir]]<br />
| name = David Attenborough<br />
| honorific_suffix = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OM|GCMG|CH|CVO|CBE|FRS|FSA|FRSA|FLS|FZS|FRSGS|FRSB|HonFLI}}<br />
| image = Weston Library Opening by John Cairns 20.3.15-139 (cropped).jpg<br />
| caption = Attenborough at the opening of the [[Weston Library]] in March 2015<br />
| birth_name = David Frederick Attenborough<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1926|5|8}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Isleworth]], [[Middlesex]], England<br />
| years_active = 1951–present<br />
| alma_mater = {{Plainlist |<br />
* [[University of Cambridge]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])<br />
* [[London School of Economics]]<br />
}}<br />
| occupation = {{flatlist |<br />
* [[Broadcasting|Broadcaster]]<br />
* [[Natural history|naturalist]]<br />
* presenter}}<br />
| awards = {{Plainlist |<br />
* [[Cherry Kearton Medal and Award]] (1972)<br />
* [[BAFTA Fellowship]] (1980)<br />
* [[Kalinga Prize]] (1981)<br />
* [[Kew International Medal]] (1996)<ref name=seb>{{cite web |url=https://www.kew.org/about-our-organisation/press-media/press-releases/ethiopia%E2%80%99s-prof-sebsebe-demissew-awarded |title=Ethiopia's Prof. Sebsebe Demissew awarded prestigious Kew International Medal |website=Kew.org |access-date=16 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517100234/https://www.kew.org/about-our-organisation/press-media/press-releases/ethiopia%E2%80%99s-prof-sebsebe-demissew-awarded |archive-date=17 May 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
* [[International Cosmos Prize]] (2000)<br />
* [[RSPB Medal]] (2000)<br />
* [[Michael Faraday Prize]] (2003)<br />
* [[José Vasconcelos World Award of Education]] (2004)<br />
* [[Descartes Prize]] (2004)<br />
* [[Nierenberg Prize]] (2005)<br />
* [[Princess of Asturias Award]] (2009)<br />
* [[Fonseca Prize]] (2010)}}<br />
| title = Controller of [[BBC2]] (1965–1969)<br />President of the [[The Wildlife Trusts|Royal Society for Nature Conservation]] (1991–1996)<br />
| spouse = {{marriage|Jane Elizabeth Ebsworth Oriel|1950|1997|reason=died}}<br />
| children = 2<br />
| father = [[Frederick Attenborough]]<br />
| mother = Mary Clegg<br />
| relatives = {{ubl|[[Richard Attenborough]] (brother)|[[John Attenborough]] (brother)|[[Sheila Sim]] (sister-in-law)|[[Michael Attenborough]] (nephew)|[[Jane Attenborough]] (niece)|[[Charlotte Attenborough]] (niece)|[[Tom Attenborough]] (great-nephew)|[[Will Attenborough]] (great-nephew)}}<br />
| footnotes = <br />
| module = <center>{{Listen|embed=yes|filename=Sir David Attenborough BBC Radio4 Desert Island Discs 29 Jan 2012 b01b8yy0.flac|title=<center>David Attenborough's voice</center>|type=speech|description=<center>from the BBC Radio 4 programme ''[[Desert Island Discs]]''</center>}}</center><br />
| signature = [[File:David Attenborough's signature.svg|200px]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sir David Frederick Attenborough''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|t|ən|b|ə|r|ə}}; born 8 May 1926) is an English [[broadcasting|broadcaster]], [[natural historian]] and author. He is best known for writing and presenting, in conjunction with the [[BBC Natural History Unit]], the nine [[natural history documentary]] series forming the [[The Life Collection|''Life'' collection]], a comprehensive survey of animal and plant life on Earth.<br />
<br />
Attenborough was a [[senior manager]] at the [[BBC]], having served as controller of [[BBC Two]] and [[Director of network programming|director of programming]] for [[BBC Television]] in the 1960s and 1970s. His [[David Attenborough filmography|filmography]] as writer, presenter and narrator spans eight decades; it includes ''[[Zoo Quest]]'', [[Natural World (TV series)|''Natural World'']], ''[[Wildlife on One]]'', the [[Planet Earth (franchise)|''Planet Earth'' franchise]], ''[[The Blue Planet]]'' and [[Blue Planet II|its sequel]]. He is the only person to have won [[BAFTA]]s in all of the categories [[black and white]], [[Color television|colour]], [[High-definition video|high-definition]], [[Digital 3D|3D]] and [[4K resolution]]s.<br />
<br />
While Attenborough's earlier work focused more on the wonders of the natural world, his later work has been more vocal in support of environmental causes. He has advocated for restoring planetary [[biodiversity]], limiting [[population growth]], [[renewable energy]], [[Climate change mitigation|mitigating climate change]], [[Environmental impact of meat production|reducing meat consumption]], and setting aside more [[Protected area|areas for natural preservation]]. He has expressed unverified claims about [[human overpopulation]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Manavis |first=Sarah |date=3 November 2020 |title=David Attenborough's claim that humans have overrun the planet is his most popular comment |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/environment/2020/11/david-attenborough-s-claim-humans-have-overrun-planet-his-most-popular |url-status=live |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=New Statesman |archive-date=3 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803154828/https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/environment/2020/11/david-attenborough-s-claim-humans-have-overrun-planet-his-most-popular}}</ref> <br />
<br />
On his broadcasting and passion for nature, [[NPR]] stated he "roamed the globe and shared his discoveries and enthusiasms with his patented semi-whisper way of narrating".<ref name="NPR review">{{cite news |title=Attenborough's Journey' Salutes The Broadcaster With A Passion For Nature |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/05/07/994596345/attenboroughs-journey-salutes-the-broadcaster-with-a-passion-for-nature |access-date=3 July 2021 |publisher=NPR |archive-date=30 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630123722/https://www.npr.org/2021/05/07/994596345/attenboroughs-journey-salutes-the-broadcaster-with-a-passion-for-nature |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018 and 2019, Attenborough received [[Primetime Emmy Awards]] for [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator|Outstanding Narrator]].<ref name="2018 Emmys"/><ref name="2019 Emmys">{{cite web |url=https://www.emmys.com/awards/nominees-winners/2019/outstanding-narrator |title=Nominees/Winners &#124; Television Academy |publisher=[[Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]] |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105155628/https://www.emmys.com/awards/nominees-winners/2019/outstanding-narrator |archive-date=5 November 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> He is widely considered a [[national treasure]] in the UK, although he himself does not like the term.<ref>{{cite web |last=Waldemayer |first=Winston |url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2009/01/eye-burrowing-worms-national-t.html |title=Short Sharp Science: Eye-burrowing worms, national treasures... and creationism |work=New Scientist |date=28 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303002041/https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/shortsharpscience/2009/01/eye-burrowing-worms-national-t.html |archive-date=3 March 2009 |access-date=17 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/4413130/Sir-David-Attenborough-Man-was-given-permission-to-exploit-the-natural-world-by-the-Bible.html |title=Sir David Attenborough: 'Man was given permission to exploit the natural world by the Bible' |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=31 January 2009 |access-date=6 October 2014 |location=London |first=Paul |last=Kendall |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141003112012/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/4413130/Sir-David-Attenborough-Man-was-given-permission-to-exploit-the-natural-world-by-the-Bible.html |archive-date=3 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2982907/Margaret-Thatcher-Richard-Branson-and-Judi-Dench-picked-as-National-Treasures.html |title=Margaret Thatcher, Richard Branson and Judi Dench picked as National Treasures |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=18 September 2008 |location=London |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008095312/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2982907/Margaret-Thatcher-Richard-Branson-and-Judi-Dench-picked-as-National-Treasures.html |archive-date=8 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> He is the younger brother of the late director, producer and actor [[Richard Attenborough]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.richardattenborough.com/Biography/ |title=Richard Attenborough's official website: Biography |publisher=Richardattenborough.com |access-date=2 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715182913/http://www.richardattenborough.com/Biography/ |archive-date=15 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and older brother of the late motor executive [[John Attenborough]].<ref name=":4" /><br />
<br />
==Life and family==<br />
Attenborough was born on 8 May 1926 in [[Isleworth]], [[Middlesex]],<ref name=whoswho>{{Who's Who | author=Anon| surname = Attenborough | othernames = Sir David (Frederick) | id = U5973 | year = 2015 | edition = online [[Oxford University Press]]|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.5973}} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/42130/Sir-David-Attenborough |title=Sir David Attenborough (English broadcaster and author) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409032823/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/42130/Sir-David-Attenborough |archive-date=9 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> and grew up in College House on the campus of the [[University of Leicester|University College, Leicester]], where his father, [[Frederick Attenborough|Frederick]], was [[principal (academia)|principal]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.le.ac.uk/careers/collegehouse.html |title=History of College House |access-date=24 September 2006 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060924005526/http://www.le.ac.uk/careers/collegehouse.html |archive-date=24 September 2006}}</ref> He is the middle of three sons; his elder brother, [[Richard Attenborough|Richard]] (died in 2014), became an actor and director, and his younger brother, [[John Attenborough|John]] (died in 2012), was an executive at Italian car manufacturer [[Alfa Romeo]].<ref name=":4">{{cite web |last1=Robinson |first1=David |title=Remembering Richard Attenborough |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/remembering-richard-attenborough |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] |access-date=14 February 2017 |date=2 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051641/http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/remembering-richard-attenborough |archive-date=5 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> During the [[Second World War]], through a British volunteer network known as the [[Refugee Children's Movement]], his parents also fostered two [[Jew]]ish [[refugee]] girls from Germany.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/the-children-britain-took-to-its-heart-1.8535?highlight=attenborough |title=The children Britain took to its heart |work=The Jewish Chronicle |date=2 April 2009 |access-date=18 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818091145/https://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/the-children-britain-took-to-its-heart-1.8535?highlight=attenborough |archive-date=18 August 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
<br />
Attenborough spent his childhood collecting [[fossil]]s, stones, and natural specimens.<ref name="BAFTA Guru">{{cite web |url=http://guru.bafta.org/david-attenborough-life-television |title=David Attenborough: A Life in Television |work=[[BAFTA]] Guru |date=19 May 2009 |access-date=18 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801192215/http://guru.bafta.org/david-attenborough-life-television |archive-date=1 August 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> He received encouragement when a young [[Jacquetta Hawkes]] admired his collection.<ref name="Hitchhiker">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/plain/A20218628 |title=Sir David Attenborough – Naturalist |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328212319/http://h2g2.com/dna/h2g2/plain/A20218628 |archive-date=28 January 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> He spent much time in the grounds of the university. Aged around 11, he heard that the zoology department needed a large supply of [[newt]]s, which he offered through his father to supply for [[Threepence (British coin)|3d]] each. The source, which he did not reveal at the time, was a pond right next to the department.<ref name=merc>{{cite news |url=http://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Picture-day-12-Leicester-celebs-famous/story-20596134-detail/story.html |title=Picture of the day: Leicester celebs, before they were famous |work=Leicester Mercury |date=11 February 2014 |access-date=11 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222033240/http://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/Picture-day-12-Leicester-celebs-famous/story-20596134-detail/story.html |archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref> A year later, his adoptive sister Marianne gave him a piece of [[amber]] containing prehistoric creatures; some sixty years later, it would be the focus of his programme ''[[The Amber Time Machine]].''<ref name=amber>{{cite news |title=Jewel of the Earth |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3305_jewel.html |access-date=2 July 2021 |publisher=PBS |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603022425/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3305_jewel.html |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
In 1936, Attenborough and his brother Richard attended a lecture by [[Grey Owl]] (Archibald Belaney) at [[De Montfort Hall]], [[Leicester]], and were influenced by his advocacy of conservation. According to Richard, David was "bowled over by the man's determination to save the beaver, by his profound knowledge of the flora and fauna of the Canadian wilderness and by his warnings of ecological disaster should the delicate balance between them be destroyed. The idea that mankind was endangering nature by recklessly despoiling and plundering its riches was unheard of at the time, but it is one that has remained part of Dave's own credo to this day."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Robinson|first1=David|date=2 September 2014|title=Remembering Richard Attenborough|url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/remembering-richard-attenborough|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051641/http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/features/remembering-richard-attenborough|archive-date=5 July 2017|access-date=14 February 2017|publisher=[[British Film Institute]]}}</ref> In 1999, Richard directed a biopic of Belaney entitled ''[[Grey Owl (film)|Grey Owl]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2000/oct/27/culture.features1 |title=Animal Magic:Richard Attenborough on the Life and Times of Grey Owl |last=Attenborough |first=Richard |date=26 October 2000 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=16 July 2014 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725205221/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2000/oct/27/culture.features1 |archive-date=25 July 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
Attenborough was educated at [[Wyggeston Grammar School for Boys]] in Leicester.<ref name="Telegraph">{{cite news |author1=Rebecca Tyrrel |title=David Attenborough: in the beginning |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8090747/David-Attenborough-in-the-beginning.html |access-date=26 May 2016 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=29 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510133918/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8090747/David-Attenborough-in-the-beginning.html |archive-date=10 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> He won a scholarship to [[Clare College, Cambridge]] in 1945 to study geology and zoology and obtained a degree in [[natural science]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clarealumni.com/s/845/file_lib/1/1/clarenews11_633540413018489651.pdf |title=Cover.Qxd |access-date=4 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708163043/http://www.clarealumni.com/s/845/file_lib/1/1/clarenews11_633540413018489651.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> In 1947, he was called up for [[national service]] in the [[Royal Navy]] and spent two years stationed in [[North Wales]] and the [[Firth of Forth]].<ref name="Hitchhiker" /> In 1950, Attenborough married Jane Elizabeth Ebsworth Oriel. The couple had two children, Robert and Susan. Jane died in 1997.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rushin |first1=Tess |title=What you need to know about Sir David Attenborough |url=https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/news/celebs-tv/who-is-sir-david-attenborough-1345596 |work=LeicestershireLive |date=16 April 2018 |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822064644/https://www.leicestermercury.co.uk/news/celebs-tv/who-is-sir-david-attenborough-1345596 |url-status=live}}</ref> Robert is a senior lecturer in [[Biological anthropology|bioanthropology]] for the School of Archaeology and Anthropology at the [[Australian National University]] in [[Canberra]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr Robert Attenborough |url=https://researchers.anu.edu.au/researchers/attenborough-rd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406235803/https://researchers.anu.edu.au/researchers/attenborough-rd |archive-date=6 April 2016 |access-date=22 August 2021 |website=School of Archaeology & Anthropology – ANU |publisher=Arts.anu.edu.au}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Canberra has marvellous facilities |url=http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/canberra-has-marvellous-facilities-20130525-2n47w.html |access-date=9 July 2016 |work=The Canberra Times |date=26 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911092633/http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/canberra-has-marvellous-facilities-20130525-2n47w.html |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Susan is a former primary school headmistress.<ref name="Telegraph" /><br />
<br />
Attenborough had a [[Artificial cardiac pacemaker|pacemaker]] fitted in June 2013, as well as a double [[knee replacement]] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Murphy|first=Claire|date=6 November 2016|title=Sir David Attenborough reveals he's got a 'new lease of life' at 90|url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/sir-dave-attenborough-reveals-pacemaker-9194114|access-date=14 April 2020|website=mirror}}</ref> In September 2013 he commented: "If I was earning my money by hewing coal I would be very glad indeed to stop. But I'm not. I'm swanning round the world looking at the most fabulously interesting things. Such good fortune."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Meikle|first1=James|date=10 September 2013|title=Sir David Attenborough warns against large families and predicts things will only get worse|newspaper=The Guardian|publisher=The Guardian news group|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/sep/10/david-attenborough-human-evolution-stopped|url-status=live|access-date=11 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211131905/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/sep/10/david-attenborough-human-evolution-stopped|archive-date=11 February 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
===First years at the BBC===<br />
After leaving the Navy, Attenborough took a position editing children's science textbooks for a publishing company. He soon became disillusioned with the work and in 1950 applied for a job as a radio talk producer with the [[BBC]].<ref name="Life on Air, p.13"/> Although he was rejected for this job, his [[Curriculum vitae|CV]] later attracted the interest of [[Mary Adams (broadcaster)|Mary Adams]], head of the Talks (factual broadcasting) department of the BBC's fledgling television service.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fara |first1=Patricia |title=A Lab of One's Own: Science and Suffrage in the First World War |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=266}}</ref> Attenborough, like most Britons at that time, did not own a television, and he had seen only one programme in his life.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Attenborough, David |title=Life on Air |publisher=BBC Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-563-53461-7}} pp. 10–11.</ref> However, he accepted Adams' offer of a three-month training course, and in 1952 he joined the BBC full-time. Initially discouraged from appearing on camera because Adams thought his teeth were too big,<ref name="Life on Air, p.13">''Life on Air'', p.13.</ref> he became a producer for the Talks department, which handled all non-fiction broadcasts. His early projects included the quiz show ''Animal, Vegetable, Mineral?'' and ''Song Hunter,'' a series about [[folk music]] presented by [[Alan Lomax]].<ref name="Life on Air, p.13"/><br />
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Attenborough's association with natural history programmes began when he produced and presented the three-part series ''Animal Patterns.'' The studio-bound programme featured animals from [[London Zoo]], with the naturalist [[Julian Huxley]] discussing their use of [[camouflage]], [[aposematism]] and [[courtship display]]s. Through this programme, Attenborough met Jack Lester, the curator of the zoo's reptile house, and they decided to make a series about an animal-collecting expedition. The result was ''[[Zoo Quest]],'' first broadcast in 1954, where Attenborough became the presenter at short notice due to Lester being taken ill.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2016/05/david-attenborough-used-to-steal-the-animals-he-found-in-the-jungle-and-take-them-home/ |title=David Attenborough used to steal the animals he found in the jungle and take them home |first=James |last=Walton |date=21 May 2016 |magazine=The Spectator |access-date=8 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408234820/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2016/05/david-attenborough-used-to-steal-the-animals-he-found-in-the-jungle-and-take-them-home/ |archive-date=8 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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In 1957, the [[BBC Natural History Unit]] was formally established in [[Bristol]]. Attenborough was asked to join it, but declined, not wishing to move from London where he and his young family were settled. Instead, he formed his own department, the Travel and Exploration Unit,<ref name="Life on Air, pp.60–61">''Life on Air'', pp. 60–61.</ref> which allowed him to continue to front ''Zoo Quest'' as well as produce other documentaries, notably the ''Travellers' Tales'' and ''Adventure'' series.<ref name="Life on Air, pp.60–61"/> In the early 1960s, Attenborough resigned from the permanent staff of the BBC to study for a postgraduate degree in [[social anthropology]] at the [[London School of Economics]], interweaving his study with further filming.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wildfilmhistory.org/helpers/force-download.php?file=pdf/David_Attenborough.pdf |title=Transcript of interview with David Attenborough |access-date=4 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202034238/http://www.wildfilmhistory.org/helpers/force-download.php?file=pdf%2FDavid_Attenborough.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, he accepted an invitation to return to the BBC as controller of [[BBC Two]] before he could finish the degree.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uk.businessinsider.com/famous-alumni-from-lse-2015-10/#mick-jagger-was-studying-at-lse-when-he-began-playing-with-the-rolling-stones-in-1961-at-first-he-played-with-the-stones-just-on-weekends-and-attended-classes-during-the-week-but-he-ultimately-dropped-out-to-pursue-his-music-career-2 |title=These 18 insanely successful people all went to the London School of Economics |website=Business Insider |access-date=17 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526073843/http://uk.businessinsider.com/famous-alumni-from-lse-2015-10#mick-jagger-was-studying-at-lse-when-he-began-playing-with-the-rolling-stones-in-1961-at-first-he-played-with-the-stones-just-on-weekends-and-attended-classes-during-the-week-but-he-ultimately-dropped-out-to-pursue-his-music-career-2 |archive-date=26 May 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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===BBC administration===<br />
Attenborough became Controller of <!-- Rendering as BBC Two only dates from 1997. -->BBC 2 in March 1965, succeeding [[Michael Peacock (television executive)|Michael Peacock]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/archive/article/1965-03-05/6/1.html |title=Mr. David Attenborough is New B,B.C.-2 Head |work=The Times |date=5 March 1965 |access-date=20 June 2021 |page=6 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205850/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/archive/article/1965-03-05/6/1.html |url-status=live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> He had a clause inserted in his contract that would allow him to continue making programmes on an occasional basis. Later the same year he filmed elephants in Tanzania, and in 1969 he made a three-part series on the cultural history of the Indonesian island of [[Bali]]. For the 1971 film ''[[A Blank on the Map]]'', he joined the first Western expedition to a remote highland valley in [[New Guinea]] to seek out a [[uncontacted peoples|lost tribe]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03smb54 |title=BBC Two - Attenborough's Passion Projects, A Blank on the Map, First contact with the Biami tribe in 1971 |publisher=BBC |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822090544/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03smb54 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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BBC Two was launched in 1964, but had struggled to capture the public's imagination. When Attenborough arrived as controller, he quickly abolished the channel's quirky kangaroo mascot and shook up the schedule. With a mission to make BBC Two's output diverse and different from that offered by other networks, he began to establish a portfolio of programmes that defined the channel's identity for decades to come. Under his tenure, music, the arts, entertainment, archaeology, experimental comedy, travel, drama, sport, business, science and natural history all found a place in the weekly schedules. Often, an eclectic mix was offered within a single evening's viewing. Programmes he commissioned included ''[[Man Alive (UK TV series)|Man Alive]]'', ''[[Call My Bluff]]'', ''[[Chronicle (UK TV series)|Chronicle]]'', ''[[Match of the Day]]'', ''[[The Old Grey Whistle Test]]'', ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' and ''[[The Money Programme]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=David Attenborough: a fine specimen |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/tvandradioblog/2008/mar/03/davidattenboroughafinespec |access-date=15 September 2019 |work=The Guardian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708225157/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/tvandradioblog/2008/mar/03/davidattenboroughafinespec |archive-date=8 July 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> With the addition of [[colour television]], Attenborough brought [[snooker]] to the BBC to show the benefits of the format, as the sport uses coloured balls.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://wst.tv/wpbsa/history-of-snooker/ |title=History of Snooker |website=World Snooker |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815075857/https://wst.tv/wpbsa/history-of-snooker/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The show – ''[[Pot Black]]'' – was later credited with the boom of the sport into the 1980s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sports around the World: History, Culture, and Practice |page=191 |author=John Nauright |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2012 |isbn=978-1598843019}}</ref><br />
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One of his most significant decisions was to order a 13-part series on the [[Western art history|history of Western art]], to show off the quality of the new [[UHF#United Kingdom|UHF]] colour television service that BBC Two offered. Broadcast to universal acclaim in 1969, ''[[Civilisation (TV series)|Civilisation]]'' set the blueprint for landmark [[authored documentary|authored documentaries]], which were informally known as "sledgehammer" projects.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/oct/22/david-attenborough-climate-change-bbc |title=The real David Attenborough |date=22 October 2019 |website=The Guardian |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=23 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823195442/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/oct/22/david-attenborough-climate-change-bbc |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hearn |first=Marcus |title=Civilisation |year=2005 |location=London |publisher=BBC |oclc=778343652 |page=16}}</ref> Others followed, including [[Jacob Bronowski]]'s ''[[The Ascent of Man]]'' (also commissioned by Attenborough), and [[Alistair Cooke]]'s ''[[America: A Personal History of the United States|America]]''. Attenborough thought that the story of evolution would be a natural subject for such a series. He shared his idea with [[Christopher Parsons]], a producer at the Natural History Unit, who came up with a title ''[[Life on Earth (TV series)|Life on Earth]]'' and returned to Bristol to start planning the series. Attenborough harboured a strong desire to present the series himself, but this would not be possible so long as he remained in a management post.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chris Parsons |work=The Telegraph |access-date=22 August 2021 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1414374/Chris-Parsons.html |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822160731/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1414374/Chris-Parsons.html |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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While in charge of BBC Two, Attenborough turned down [[Terry Wogan]]'s job application to be a presenter on the channel, stating that there weren't any suitable vacancies. The channel already had an Irish announcer, with Attenborough reflecting in 2016: "To have had two Irishmen presenting on BBC Two would have looked ridiculous. This is no comment whatsoever on Terry Wogan's talents."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/television/tv-news/david-attenborough-rebuffed-terry-wogans-bbc-presenter-job-application-because-they-had-an-irish-announcer-34436348.html |title=David Attenborough 'rebuffed' Terry Wogan's BBC presenter job application because they had an Irish announcer |first=Kerri-Ann |last=Roper |work=Irish Independent |date=9 February 2016 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210093803/http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/television/tv-news/david-attenborough-rebuffed-terry-wogans-bbc-presenter-job-application-because-they-had-an-irish-announcer-34436348.html |archive-date=10 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Attenborough has also acknowledged that he sanctioned the [[wiping]] of programmes during this period to cut costs, including sketches by [[Alan Bennett]], which he later regretted.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/10784285/David-Attenborough-my-regrets-over-wiping-Alan-Bennett-dross.html |title=David Attenborough: my regrets over wiping Alan Bennett 'dross' |work=The Telegraph |date=24 April 2014 |access-date=8 April 2018 |last1=Furness |first1=Hannah |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409090437/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/10784285/David-Attenborough-my-regrets-over-wiping-Alan-Bennett-dross.html |archive-date=9 April 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1969, Attenborough was promoted to director of programmes, making him responsible for the output of both BBC channels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/nine-astonishing-ways-david-attenborough-shaped-your-world/z4k2kmn|title=Nine astonishing ways David Attenborough shaped your world|website=BBC Teach|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=31 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031201515/https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/nine-astonishing-ways-david-attenborough-shaped-your-world/z4k2kmn|url-status=live}}</ref> His tasks, which included agreeing budgets, attending board meetings and firing staff, were now far removed from the business of filming programmes. When Attenborough's name was being suggested as a candidate for the position of [[Director-General of the BBC]] in 1972, he phoned his brother Richard to confess that he had no appetite for the job. Early the following year, he left his post to return to full-time programme-making, leaving him free to write and present the planned natural history epic.<ref name="BAFTA Guru"/><br />
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After his resignation, Attenborough became a freelance broadcaster and started work on his next project, a trip to Indonesia with a crew from the Natural History Unit. It resulted in the 1973 series ''Eastwards with Attenborough'', which was similar in tone to the earlier ''Zoo Quest''; the main difference was the introduction of colour. Attenborough stated that he wanted to work in Asia, because previous nature documentaries had mostly focused on Africa.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jean-Baptiste |last=Gouyon |title=BBC Wildlife Documentaries in the Age of Attenborough |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-19981-4 |pages=201–212}}</ref> That year, Attenborough was invited to deliver the [[Royal Institution Christmas Lectures|Royal Institution Christmas Lecture]] on ''The Language of Animals''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The languages of animals |url=https://www.rigb.org/christmas-lectures/watch/1973/the-languages-of-animals |url-status=live |access-date=21 August 2021 |website=The Royal Institution |archive-date=21 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821200021/https://www.rigb.org/christmas-lectures/watch/1973/the-languages-of-animals}}</ref> After his work on ''Eastwards with Attenborough'', he began to work on the scripts for ''Life on Earth''. Due to the scale of his ambition, the BBC decided to partner with an American network to secure the necessary funding. While the negotiations were proceeding, he worked on a number of other television projects. He presented a series on [[tribal art]] (''[[The Tribal Eye]]'', 1975) and another on the voyages of discovery (''[[David Attenborough filmography#1970s|The Explorers]]'', 1975).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/individual/67588?view=credit |title=BFI Fil and TV Database Attenborough |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117024717/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/individual/67588?view=credit |archive-date=7 July 2009}}</ref> He also presented a BBC children's series about [[cryptozoology]] entitled ''Fabulous Animals'' (1975), which featured mythical creatures such as [[mermaid]]s and [[unicorn]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gately |first=Martin |url=http://www.forteantimes.com/features/articles/101/attenboroughs_fabulous_animals.html |title=Fortean Times episode guide to ''Fabulous Animals'' |publisher=Forteantimes.com |date=1 April 2006 |access-date=4 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827065546/http://www.forteantimes.com/features/articles/101/attenboroughs_fabulous_animals.html |archive-date=27 August 2009}}</ref> Eventually, the BBC signed a co-production deal with [[Turner Broadcasting]] and ''Life on Earth'' moved into production in 1976.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Life On Earth |publisher=BBC |access-date=22 August 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/anniversaries/january/life-on-earth |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109111318/https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/anniversaries/january/life-on-earth |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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=== Life series ===<br />
{{see also|The Life Collection}}<br />
Beginning with ''[[Life on Earth (TV series)|Life on Earth]]'' in 1979, Attenborough set about creating a body of work which became a benchmark of quality in wildlife film-making, and influenced a generation of documentary film-makers. The series established many of the hallmarks of the BBC's natural history output. By treating his subject seriously and researching the latest discoveries, Attenborough and his production team gained the trust of scientists, who responded by allowing him to feature their subjects in his programmes.<ref>{{cite book |author=Attenborough, David |title=Life on Air |publisher=BBC Books |year=2002 |isbn=0-563-48780-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeonair00atte}} pp. 289–291.</ref> Innovation was another factor in ''Life on Earth'''s success: new film-making techniques were devised to get the shots Attenborough wanted, with a focus on events and animals that were up till then unfilmed. International air travel enabled the series to be devised so that Attenborough visited several locations around the globe in each episode, sometimes even changing continents in one sequence. Although appearing as the on-screen presenter, he restricted his time on camera to give more time to his subjects.<ref>{{Cite AV media |people=Miles Barton (director), David Attenborough (presenter), Alastair Fothergill (executive producer) |title=Attenborough: 60 Years in the Wild, Episode 1, Life on Camera |year=2012 |publisher=BBC |format=documentary |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00zsqsz}}</ref><br />
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Five years after the success of ''Life on Earth'', the BBC released ''[[The Living Planet]]''.{{Sfn|Gouyon|2019|p=233}} This time, Attenborough built his series around the theme of ecology, the adaptations of living things to their environment. It was another critical and commercial success, generating huge international sales for the BBC. In 1990, ''[[The Trials of Life]]'' completed the original Life trilogy, looking at [[ethology|animal behaviour]] through the different stages of life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/anniversaries/october/trials-of-life |title=The Trials of Life |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417084551/https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/anniversaries/october/trials-of-life |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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In the 1990s, Attenborough continued to use the "Life" title for a succession of authored documentaries. In 1993, he presented ''[[Life in the Freezer]]'', the first television series to survey the natural history of [[Antarctica]]. Although past normal retirement age, he then embarked on a number of more specialised surveys of the natural world, beginning with plants. They proved a difficult subject for his producers, who had to deliver hours of television featuring what are essentially immobile objects. The result was ''[[The Private Life of Plants]]'' (1995), which showed plants as dynamic organisms by using [[time-lapse photography]] to speed up their growth, and went on to earn a [[Peabody Award]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/the-private-life-of-plants |title=Peabody Award Citation: The Private Life of Plants (1995) |access-date=24 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826234123/http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/the-private-life-of-plants |archive-date=26 August 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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Prompted by an enthusiastic [[ornithology|ornithologist]] at the BBC Natural History Unit, Attenborough then turned his attention to birds. As he was neither an [[Birdwatching|birdwatcher]] nor a bird expert, he decided he was better qualified to make ''[[The Life of Birds]]'' (1998) on the theme of behaviour. The documentary series won a second Peabody Award the following year.<ref>[http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/the-life-of-birds-by-david-attenborough 59th Annual Peabody Awards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131052/http://www.peabodyawards.com/award-profile/the-life-of-birds-by-david-attenborough |date=6 October 2014 }}, May 2000.</ref> The order of the remaining "Life" series was dictated by developments in camera technology. For ''[[The Life of Mammals]]'' (2002), [[low-light photography|low-light]] and [[infrared photography|infrared]] cameras were deployed to reveal the behaviour of nocturnal mammals. The series contains a number of memorable [[two shot]]s of Attenborough and his subjects, which included chimpanzees, a [[blue whale]] and a [[grizzly bear]]. Advances in [[macro photography]] made it possible to capture the natural behaviour of very small creatures for the first time, and in 2005, ''[[Life in the Undergrowth]]'' introduced audiences to the world of [[invertebrate]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Science & Nature - Life In The Undergrowth |publisher=BBC |access-date=6 September 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/lifeintheundergrowth/ |archive-date=4 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804004715/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/lifeintheundergrowth/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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At this point, Attenborough realised that he had spent 20 years unconsciously assembling a collection of programmes on all the major groups of terrestrial animals and plants – only [[reptile]]s and [[amphibian]]s were missing. When ''[[Life in Cold Blood]]'' was broadcast in 2008, he had the satisfaction of completing the set, brought together in a DVD encyclopaedia called ''[[Life on Land]]''. He commented: "The evolutionary history is finished. The endeavour is complete. If you'd asked me 20 years ago whether we'd be attempting such a mammoth task, I'd have said 'Don't be ridiculous!' These programmes tell a particular story and I'm sure others will come along and tell it much better than I did, but I do hope that if people watch it in 50 years' time, it will still have something to say about the world we live in."<ref name="rtimes2">''Radio Times'' 26 Jan–1 February 2008: "The Last Word", interview with Jeremy Paxman</ref><br />
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However, in 2010 Attenborough asserted that his ''[[First Life (TV series)|First Life]]'' – dealing with evolutionary history before ''Life on Earth'' – should be included within the "Life" series. In the documentary ''[[Attenborough's Journey]]'', he stated, "This series, to a degree which I really didn't fully appreciate until I started working on it, really completes the set."<ref>''Attenborough's Journey'', BBC Two, 24 October 2010</ref><br />
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===Beyond Life on Earth===<br />
[[File:David Attenborough NASA.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Attenborough filming commentary for a documentary at [[Kennedy Space Center]]]]<br />
Alongside the "Life" series, Attenborough continued to work on other television documentaries, mainly in the natural history genre. He wrote and presented a series on man's influence on the natural history of the [[Mediterranean Basin]], ''[[The First Eden]]'', in 1987. Two years later, he demonstrated his passion for fossils in ''[[Lost Worlds, Vanished Lives]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://topdocumentaryfilms.com/lost-worlds-vanished-lives/ |title=Lost Worlds, Vanished Lives |via=topdocumentaryfilms.com |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=23 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823194655/https://topdocumentaryfilms.com/lost-worlds-vanished-lives/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1990, he worked on the BBC's ''Prisoners of Conscience'' series where he highlighted the case of [[Mahjoub Sharif]].<ref name="Amnesty2008">{{Cite journal |date=September–October 2008 |title=Solidarity and Return to Sender |journal=Amnesty Magazine |volume=0264-3278 |issue=151 |page=24}}</ref> Attenborough narrated every episode of ''[[Wildlife on One]]'', a [[BBC One]] wildlife series that ran for 253 episodes between 1977 and 2005. At its peak, it drew a weekly audience of eight to ten million, and the 1987 episode "Meerkats United" was voted the best wildlife documentary of all time by BBC viewers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wildfilmhistory.org/film/151/Meerkats+United.html |title=Meerkats United |publisher=WildFilmistory.org |access-date=20 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204223809/http://www.wildfilmhistory.org/film/151/Meerkats+United.html |archive-date=4 February 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> He has narrated over 50 episodes of ''[[Natural World (BBC TV series)|Natural World]]'', BBC Two's flagship wildlife series. Its forerunner, ''[[The World About Us]]'', was created by Attenborough in 1969, as a vehicle for colour television.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/info/policies/madeintheuk/pdfs/5_david_attenborough_where_the_wild_things_are.pdf |title="Where the Wild Things Are" (Essay for BBC "Made in the Uk") |publisher=BBC |first=David |last=Attenborough |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805031208/http://www.bbc.co.uk/aboutthebbc/policies/madeintheuk/pdfs/5_david_attenborough_where_the_wild_things_are.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2011 |access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref> In 1997, he narrated the ''[[BBC Wildlife Specials]]'', each focussing on a charismatic species, and screened to mark the Natural History Unit's 40th anniversary.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://realscreen.com/1998/01/01/20282-19980101/ |title=Tribute to BBC Natural History Unit: Bristol's Natural Wonder |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=23 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823194908/https://realscreen.com/1998/01/01/20282-19980101/ |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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As a writer and narrator, Attenborough continued to collaborate with the BBC Natural History Unit in the new millennium. [[Alastair Fothergill]], a senior producer with whom Attenborough had worked on ''The Trials of Life'' and ''Life in the Freezer'', was making ''[[The Blue Planet]]'' (2001), the Unit's first comprehensive series on [[marine life]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2017/david-attenborough-blue-planet-ii|title=Sir David Attenborough to present Blue Planet II for BBC One|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=20 February 2017|access-date=20 February 2017|archive-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223022123/http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2017/david-attenborough-blue-planet-ii|url-status=live}}</ref> He decided not to use an on-screen presenter due to difficulties in speaking to a camera through diving apparatus, but asked Attenborough to narrate the films. The same team reunited for ''[[Planet Earth (2006 TV series)|Planet Earth]]'' (2006), the biggest nature documentary ever made for television and the first BBC wildlife series to be shot in [[high-definition video|high definition]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/18/arts/television/18slen.html|title=Alastair Fothergill - Planet Earth - TV|last=Slenske|first=Michael|date=18 March 2007|work=The New York Times|access-date=20 October 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 2009, he co-wrote and narrated ''[[Life (BBC TV series)|Life]]'', a ten-part series focussing on extraordinary animal behaviour,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/sep/21/bbc.television1 |title=Attenborough is back – again |last=Holmwood |first=Leigh |date=21 September 2007 |work=The Guardian |location=London |access-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516181655/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2007/sep/21/bbc.television1 |archive-date=16 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and narrated ''[[Nature's Great Events]]'', which showed how seasonal changes trigger major natural spectacles.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2009/01_january/05/nature.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216032713/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2009/1_january/05/nature.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 February 2009 |title=Nature's Great Events Press Pack |date=11 February 2009 |publisher=BBC Press Office |access-date=20 December 2019}}</ref> In January 2009, the BBC commissioned Attenborough to provide a series of 20 ten-minute monologues covering the history of nature. Entitled ''[[David Attenborough's Life Stories]]'', they were broadcast on [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] on Friday nights.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 January 2009 |title=Attenborough takes on Cooke's radio slot |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/broadcasting/a145070/attenborough-takes-on-cookes-radio-slot.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609170435/http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/broadcasting/a145070/attenborough-takes-on-cookes-radio-slot.html |archive-date=9 June 2009 |access-date=4 November 2009 |work=Digital Spy}}</ref><br />
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In 2011, Fothergill gave Attenborough a more prominent role in ''[[Frozen Planet]]'', a major series on the natural history of the [[Polar regions of Earth|polar regions]]; Attenborough appeared on screen and authored the final episode, in addition to performing [[Voice-over|voiceover]] duties. Attenborough introduced and narrated the Unit's first [[Ultra-high-definition television|4K]] production ''[[Life Story (TV series)|Life Story]].'' For ''[[Planet Earth II]]'' (2016), Attenborough returned as narrator and presenter, with the main theme music composed by [[Hans Zimmer]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2016/planet-earth-two |title=Sir David Attenborough to present brand new landmark natural history series for BBC One |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=22 February 2016 |access-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223204759/http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2016/planet-earth-two |archive-date=23 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02544td |title=Planet Earth II – BBC One |publisher=BBC |access-date=21 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312235701/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02544td |archive-date=12 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:David Attenborough Great Barrier Reef screening.jpg|thumb|right|Attenborough at a screening of ''[[Great Barrier Reef (2015 TV series)|Great Barrier Reef]]'' in 2015]]In October 2014, the corporation announced a trio of new one-off Attenborough documentaries as part of a raft of new natural history programmes. "Attenborough's Paradise Birds" and "Attenborough's Big Birds" was shown on BBC Two and "Waking Giants", which follows the discovery of giant dinosaur bones in South America, aired on BBC One.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-29641107 |title=David Attenborough to examine ostriches and dinosaurs |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=17 October 2014 |date=16 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016233543/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-29641107 |archive-date=16 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The BBC also commissioned [[Atlantic Productions]] to make a three-part, Attenborough-fronted series ''[[Great Barrier Reef (2015 TV series)|Great Barrier Reef]]'' in 2015. The series marked the 10th project for Attenborough and Atlantic, and saw him returning to a location he first filmed at in 1957.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2014/great-barrier-reef |title=David Attenborough to present new landmark series on the Great Barrier Reef for BBC One |publisher=BBC Media Centre |access-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001215646/http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2014/great-barrier-reef |archive-date=1 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/commissioning/sir-david-attenborough-heads-back-to-great-barrier-reef/5077382.article |title=Sir David Attenborough heads back to Great Barrier Reef |access-date=17 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024180056/http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/commissioning/sir-david-attenborough-heads-back-to-great-barrier-reef/5077382.article |archive-date=24 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> On radio, Attenborough has continued as one of the presenters of BBC Radio 4's ''[[Tweet of the Day]]'', which began a second series in September 2014.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 June 2014 |title=Michael Palin to become Radio 4 Tweet of the Day presenter |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/media/news/a579579/michael-palin-to-become-radio-4-tweet-of-the-day-presenter.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021132003/http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/media/news/a579579/michael-palin-to-become-radio-4-tweet-of-the-day-presenter.html |archive-date=21 October 2014 |access-date=17 October 2014 |work=Digital Spy}}</ref> Attenborough forged a partnership with [[Sky (United Kingdom)|Sky]], working on documentaries for the broadcaster's new 3D network, [[Sky 3D]]. Their first collaboration was ''[[Flying Monsters 3D]]'', a film about [[pterosaur]]s which debuted on Christmas Day of 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8606923.stm |title=Sir David Attenborough to front Sky 3D wildlife show |work=BBC News |date=7 April 2010 |access-date=11 May 2010 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203611/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8606923.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> A second film, ''[[The Bachelor King 3D]]'', followed a year later. His next 3D project, ''[[David Attenborough's Conquest of the Skies 3D|Conquest of the Skies]]'', made by the team behind the BAFTA-winning ''[[David Attenborough's Natural History Museum Alive]]'', aired on [[Sky 3D]] during Christmas 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.skymedia.co.uk/news/attenborough's-conquest-of-the-skies-3d.aspx |title=David Attenborough to explore the evolution of flight in Conquest of the Skies 3D, a 3 part series for broadcast on Sky 3D and in 2D on Sky 1 this Xmas. |publisher=Sky Media Centre |access-date=1 January 2015 |archive-date=2 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102081420/http://www.skymedia.co.uk/news/attenborough%27s-conquest-of-the-skies-3d.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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Attenborough has narrated three series of ''[[David Attenborough's Natural Curiosities]]'' for [[UKTV]] channel [[Watch (TV channel)|Watch]], with the third series showing in 2015. He has also narrated [[Wild Karnataka (2019 film)|''A majestic celebration: Wild Karnataka'']], India's first blue-chip natural history film, directed by [[Kalyan Varma]] and [[Amoghavarsha JS|Amoghavarsha]].<ref>[https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/a-majestic-celebration/article26429185.ece/ “Majestic celebration: Wild Karnataka”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401001041/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/a-majestic-celebration/article26429185.ece |date=1 April 2019 }}. TheHindu.com. Retrieved 20 March 2019</ref> ''[[Blue Planet II]]'' was broadcast in 2017, with Attenborough returning as presenter.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 February 2017 |title=Sir David Attenborough to present Blue Planet II for BBC One |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2017/david-attenborough-blue-planet-ii |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223022123/http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2017/david-attenborough-blue-planet-ii |archive-date=23 February 2017 |access-date=20 February 2017 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> The series was critically acclaimed and gained the highest UK viewing figure for 2017: 14.1&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 December 2017 |title=''Radio Times'' top 40 TV shows of 2017 |url=http://www.radiotimes.com/news/tv/2017-12-29/radio-times-top-40-tv-shows-of-2017-10-to-1/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122072115/http://www.radiotimes.com/news/tv/2017-12-29/radio-times-top-40-tv-shows-of-2017-10-to-1/ |archive-date=22 January 2018 |access-date=21 January 2018 |work=Radio Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Editor |first1=Graham Ruddick Media |date=6 November 2017 |title=Blue Planet II is year's most watched British TV show |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/nov/06/blue-planet-ii-years-most-watched-tv-show-david-attenborough |url-status=live |access-date=21 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122001157/https://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/nov/06/blue-planet-ii-years-most-watched-tv-show-david-attenborough |archive-date=22 January 2018}}</ref> Attenborough narrated the 2018 five part series ''[[Dynasties (2018 TV series)|Dynasties]]'', each episode dealing with one species in particular.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC – Sir David Attenborough to present BBC One's Dynasty – Media Centre |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2018/dynasty-david-attenborough |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112022513/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2018/dynasty-david-attenborough |archive-date=12 January 2019 |access-date=4 November 2018 |publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=White |first=Peter |date=25 September 2018 |title=Sir David Attenborough's Wildlife Doc Series 'Dynasties' Goes Global Via BBC Studios |work=Deadline |url=https://deadline.com/2018/09/dynasties-david-attenborough-1202470705/ |url-status=live |access-date=4 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417002123/https://deadline.com/2018/09/dynasties-david-attenborough-1202470705/ |archive-date=17 April 2019}}</ref> In 2021 he presented the three part series ''[[Life in Colour (miniseries)|Attenborough's Life in Colour]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|title=Attenborough's Life in Colour Season 1|url=https://www.radiotimes.com/programme/b-dj3d88/attenboroughs-life-in-colour-season-1/|access-date=2021-11-15|website=Radio Times|language=en}}</ref> and ''The Mating Game'', a five part series.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC One - The Mating Game|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m0010bc1|access-date=2021-11-15|website=BBC|language=en-GB}}</ref><br />
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===Environmentalist advocacy===<br />
By the turn of the millennium, Attenborough's authored documentaries were adopting a more overtly [[environmentalist]] stance. In ''[[State of the Planet]]'' (2000), he used the latest scientific evidence and interviews with leading scientists and [[conservationists]] to assess the impact of human activities on the natural world. He later turned to the issues of [[global warming]] (''[[The Truth about Climate Change]]'', 2006) and human population growth (''How Many People Can Live on Planet Earth?'', 2009). He contributed a programme which highlighted the plight of [[endangered species]] to the BBC's ''[[Saving Planet Earth]]'' project in 2007, the 50th anniversary of the Natural History Unit.<ref>{{cite news |date=21 September 2007 |title=IBC Honours BBC Natural History Unit For Contribution To Wildlife Film |publisher=4rfv.co.uk |url=http://www.4rfv.co.uk/industrynews.asp?id=66138 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108102754/http://www.4rfv.co.uk/industrynews.asp?id=66138 |archive-date=8 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=David Attenborough lays out 7 actions to save the world |work=MINDFOOD |access-date=6 September 2021 |url=https://www.mindfood.com/article/david-attenboroughs-7-actions-to-save-the-world/ |archive-date=28 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328061111/https://www.mindfood.com/article/david-attenboroughs-7-actions-to-save-the-world/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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In 2019, Attenborough narrated ''[[Our Planet]]'', an eight-part documentary series, for [[Netflix]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2018/nov/08/david-attenborough-to-present-netflix-nature-series-our-planet |title=David Attenborough to present Netflix nature series Our Planet |last=Waterson |first=Jim |date=8 November 2018 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=9 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108223343/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2018/nov/08/david-attenborough-to-present-netflix-nature-series-our-planet |archive-date=8 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast to much of his prior work for the BBC, this series emphasised the destructive role of human activities throughout the series. Before, he would often note concerns in a final section of the work.{{Sfn|Gouyon|2019|p=247–251}} He also narrated ''[[Wild Karnataka]]'', a documentary about the [[Karnataka]] forest area.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/173503/wild-karnataka-documentary-david-attenborough-kalyan-varma-india/ |title=Exclusive: The Story Behind Wild Karnataka, India's First Blue Chip Natural History Film! |date=26 February 2019 |last=Norbu Wangchuk |first=Rincehn |access-date=27 February 2019 |publisher=[[The Better India]] |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203602/https://www.thebetterindia.com/173503/wild-karnataka-documentary-david-attenborough-kalyan-varma-india/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, Attenborough's one-off film documentary about climate change for BBC One called ''[[Climate Change – The Facts]]'' was aired; the tone of the documentary was significantly graver than previous work for the BBC.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-47666007 |title=Sir David Attenborough to present climate change documentary |work=BBC News |date=22 March 2019 |access-date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323071233/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-47666007 |archive-date=23 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2019 |title=Climate Change: The Facts review – our greatest threat, laid bare |url=http://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/apr/18/climate-change-the-facts-review-our-greatest-threat-laid-bare-david-attenborough |access-date=22 August 2021 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822150927/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/apr/18/climate-change-the-facts-review-our-greatest-threat-laid-bare-david-attenborough |url-status=live}}</ref> This was followed by ''[[Extinction: The Facts]]'', which is partly based on the 2019 [[IPBES]] [[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services|report]] on the [[Biodiversity loss|decline of biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Vaughan |first=Adam |date=6 September 2020 |title=Extinction: The Facts – An Attenborough guide to nature's destruction |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2253673-extinction-the-facts-an-attenborough-guide-to-natures-destruction/ |work=[[New Scientist]] |access-date=9 September 2020 |archive-date=7 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907092915/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2253673-extinction-the-facts-an-attenborough-guide-to-natures-destruction/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-54118769 “Sir David Attenborough makes stark warning about species extinction”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928045146/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-54118769 |date=28 September 2020 }}. BBC Science. Retrieved 14 October 2020</ref><br />
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In 2020, Attenborough narrated the documentary film ''[[David Attenborough: A Life on Our Planet]]''. The film acts as Attenborough's witness statement, reflecting on his career as a naturalist and his hopes for the future.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lowry |first=Brian |date=2 October 2020 |title=David Attenborough offers his 'witness statement,' and a warning, in 'A Life on Our Planet' |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/02/entertainment/david-attenborough-a-life-on-our-planet-review/index.html |work=CNN|access-date=9 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008031049/https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/02/entertainment/david-attenborough-a-life-on-our-planet-review/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> It was released on Netflix on 4 October 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=David Attenborough: A Life on Our Planet {{!}} Netflix Official Site|url=https://www.netflix.com/title/80216393|access-date=27 March 2021|website=www.netflix.com|archive-date=12 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312003952/https://www.netflix.com/title/80216393|url-status=live}}</ref> Further work for Netflix includes the documentary titled ''[[Breaking Boundaries|Breaking Boundaries: The Science of Our Planet]]'', released on 4 June 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Breaking Boundaries: The Science of Our Planet release date - David Attenborough to narrate Netflix documentary |url=https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/documentaries/breaking-boundaries-the-science-of-our-planet-release-date-netflix/ |access-date=27 May 2021 |website=Radio Times |archive-date=4 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604102100/https://www.radiotimes.com/tv/documentaries/breaking-boundaries-the-science-of-our-planet-release-date-netflix/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2020, Attenborough began filming in Cambridge for the upcoming series ''[[The Green Planet (TV series)|The Green Planet]]''.<ref>[https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/david-attenborough-bbc-cambridge-programme-19018399 “Sir David Attenborough spotted filming in Cambridge for new series of The Green Planet”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003163816/https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/david-attenborough-bbc-cambridge-programme-19018399 |date=3 October 2020 }}. ''Cambridge News''. Retrieved 14 October 2020</ref> In 2021, Attenborough narrated ''[[A Perfect Planet]]'', a five-part [[earth science]] series for BBC One.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Marshall |first=Sarah |date=3 January 2021 |title=A Perfect Planet: Behind the scenes on David Attenborough's breathtaking new show |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/safaris-and-wildlife/perfect-planet-behind-scenes-david-attenboroughs-breathtaking/ |access-date=27 March 2021 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=5 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205141248/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/safaris-and-wildlife/perfect-planet-behind-scenes-david-attenboroughs-breathtaking/ |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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=== Cop 26 ===<br />
Attenborough was a key figure in the build up to the [[2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] (COP 26), and gave a speech at the opening ceremony.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Attenborough's full speech: 'Not fear, but hope'|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/science-environment-59121615|access-date=2021-11-05|archive-date=4 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104205855/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/science-environment-59121615|url-status=live}}</ref> In his speech he stated that humans were "the greatest problem solvers to have ever existed on Earth" and spoke of his optimism for the future, finishing by saying "In my lifetime I've witnessed a terrible decline. In yours, you could and should witness a wonderful recovery."<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-11-01|title=COP26: David Attenborough says world is looking to leaders|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-59125138|access-date=2021-11-05|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105201611/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-59125138|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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==Views and advocacy==<br />
===Environment===<br />
[[File:David Attenborough.jpg|thumb|right|Attenborough in 2003 at the launch of [[ARKive]] – a global initiative with the mission of "promoting the conservation of the world's threatened species, through the power of wildlife imagery".]]<br />
Attenborough's programmes have often included references to the [[human impact on the environment|impact of human society]] on the natural world. The last episode of ''The Living Planet'', for example, focuses almost entirely on humans' destruction of the environment and ways that it could be stopped or reversed. Despite this, he has been criticised for not giving enough prominence to environmental messages. In 2018 while promoting ''Dynasties'', he said that repeated messages on threats to wildlife in programming could be a "turn-off" to viewers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 November 2018 |title=David Attenborough: too much alarmism on environment a turn-off |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/04/attenborough-dynasties-ecological-campaign |access-date=27 August 2021 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827083303/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/nov/04/attenborough-dynasties-ecological-campaign |url-status=live}}</ref> Some environmentalists feel that programmes like Attenborough's give a false picture of idyllic wilderness and do not do enough to acknowledge that such areas are increasingly encroached upon by humans.{{refn|<br />
*<ref>James Fair, "Small Things Bright and Beautiful", BBC Wildlife Magazine, November 2005, pp. 25–26.</ref><br />
*<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2017/jan/01/planet-earth-ii-david-attenborough-martin-hughes-games-bbc-springwatch|title= Planet Earth II 'a disaster for world's wildlife' says rival nature producer|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029131211/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2017/jan/01/planet-earth-ii-david-attenborough-martin-hughes-games-bbc-springwatch |archive-date=29 October 2020 |work=The Guardian|date= January 2017}}</ref><br />
*<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2018 |title=David Attenborough has betrayed the living world he loves {{!}} George Monbiot|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/07/david-attenborough-world-environment-bbc-films|access-date=27 August 2021|website=The Guardian|archive-date=27 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827084422/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/07/david-attenborough-world-environment-bbc-films|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
*<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Julia P. G. |title=Our Planet is billed as an Attenborough documentary with a difference but it shies away from uncomfortable truths |url=http://theconversation.com/our-planet-is-billed-as-an-attenborough-documentary-with-a-difference-but-it-shies-away-from-uncomfortable-truths-114889 |access-date=27 August 2021 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902183104/https://theconversation.com/our-planet-is-billed-as-an-attenborough-documentary-with-a-difference-but-it-shies-away-from-uncomfortable-truths-114889 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} However, the increased urgency of environmental messaging in films such as ''[[Extinction: The Facts]]'', which depicts the continuing [[sixth mass extinction]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Sir David Attenborough makes stark warning about species extinction |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-54118769 |work=BBC News |date=12 September 2020 |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030072157/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-54118769 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Climate Change – The Facts]]'' and [[David Attenborough: A Life on Our Planet|''A Life on Our Planet'']] from 2019 and 2020 received praise.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Julia P. G. |title='Extinction: The Facts': Attenborough's new documentary is surprisingly radical |url=http://theconversation.com/extinction-the-facts-attenboroughs-new-documentary-is-surprisingly-radical-146127 |access-date=27 August 2021 |website=The Conversation |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827084459/https://theconversation.com/extinction-the-facts-attenboroughs-new-documentary-is-surprisingly-radical-146127 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 September 2020 |title=David Attenborough: A Life on Our Planet review – stark climate emergency warning |url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/sep/25/david-attenborough-a-life-on-our-planet-review-climate-emergency-documentary |access-date=27 August 2021 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=1 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901172325/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/sep/25/david-attenborough-a-life-on-our-planet-review-climate-emergency-documentary |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 March 2019 |title=Attenborough to front climate-change film as BBC moves from teach to preach |url=http://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/mar/22/attenborough-to-front-climate-change-film-as-bbc-moves-from-teach-to-preach |access-date=27 August 2021 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827084419/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/mar/22/attenborough-to-front-climate-change-film-as-bbc-moves-from-teach-to-preach |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 April 2019 |title=David Attenborough climate change TV show a 'call to arms' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-47988337 |access-date=27 August 2021 |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827083803/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-47988337 |url-status=live}}</ref> In ''[[Seven Worlds, One Planet]]'', Attenborough discusses the devastating impact that [[deforestation]] is having on the planet and the species.<ref>{{cite news |title='Harrowing' and 'heartbreaking': Sir David Attenborough's new documentary shocks viewers |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/tv-radio/117170122/harrowing-and-heartbreaking-sir-david-attenboroughs-new-documentary-shocks-viewers |work=Stuff.co.nz |date=5 November 2019 |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030072158/https://www.stuff.co.nz/entertainment/tv-radio/117170122/harrowing-and-heartbreaking-sir-david-attenboroughs-new-documentary-shocks-viewers |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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In 2005 and 2006, he backed a [[BirdLife International]] project to stop the killing of [[albatross]] by [[longline fishing]] boats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.savethealbatross.net/the_latest/the_latest_item.asp?newsid=24 |title=Personal plea by David Attenborough |publisher=savethealbatross.net |date=27 January 2006 |access-date=22 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061229153331/http://www.savethealbatross.net/the_latest/the_latest_item.asp?newsid=24 |archive-date=29 December 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> He gave support to [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]]'s campaign to have 220,000&nbsp;square kilometres of [[Borneo]]'s rainforest [[Heart of Borneo|designated a protected area]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wwf.org.uk/core/about/ta_0000001801.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909100837/https://www.wwf.org.uk/core/about/ta_0000001801.asp |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 December 2012 |title=Sir David Attenborough: Heart of Borneo is a global heritage |publisher=WWF-UK press release}}</ref> He serves as a vice-president of [[The Conservation Volunteers]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Governance {{!}} TCV|url=https://www.tcv.org.uk/about/governance/|url-status=live|access-date=5 September 2021|website=The Conservation Volunteers|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629031652/https://www.tcv.org.uk/about/governance/}}</ref> vice-president of [[Fauna and Flora International]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=People {{!}} Fauna & Flora International|url=https://www.fauna-flora.org/people|url-status=live|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Fauna & Flora International|archive-date=7 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007074644/http://www.fauna-flora.org/about/presidents/}}</ref> president of [[Butterfly Conservation]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our President - Sir David Attenborough |url=https://butterfly-conservation.org/about-us/our-president-sir-david-attenborough |access-date=5 September 2021 |website=butterfly-conservation.org |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306124102/https://butterfly-conservation.org/about-us/our-president-sir-david-attenborough |url-status=live}}</ref> and president emiritus of [[Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=News {{!}} Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust|url=https://www.lrwt.org.uk/news/tag/david-attenborough|access-date=5 September 2021|website=www.lrwt.org.uk|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119173754/https://www.lrwt.org.uk/news/tag/david-attenborough|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003, he launched an appeal on behalf of the [[World Land Trust]] to create a [[rainforest]] reserve in [[Ecuador]] in memory of Christopher Parsons, the producer of ''Life on Earth'' and a personal friend, who had died the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rainforest Saved in Memory of Christopher Parsons - World Land Trust |author=Farrows |work=World Land Trust |date=25 May 2021 |access-date=6 September 2021 |url=https://www.worldlandtrust.org/news/2003/09/rainforest-saved-in-memory-of-christopher-parsons/ |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225102353/https://www.worldlandtrust.org/news/2003/09/rainforest-saved-in-memory-of-christopher-parsons/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The same year, he helped to launch [[ARKive]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/conservation/story/0,,969572,00.html |title=Arkive sets sail on the web |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=20 May 2003 |location=London |first=Ashley |last=Davies |access-date=11 December 2016 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203611/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2003/may/20/conservationandendangeredspecies.uknews |url-status=live}}</ref> a global project instigated by Parsons to gather together natural history media into a digital library. ARKive is an initiative of [[Wildscreen]], of which Attenborough is a patron.<ref name="AR-2010">{{cite book |title=WildScreen Annual Review 2010 |url=http://www.wildscreen.org.uk/downloads/AnnualReview2010.pdf |access-date=11 July 2011 |publisher=[[Wildscreen]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715110342/http://www.wildscreen.org.uk/downloads/AnnualReview2010.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> He later became patron of the World Land Trust. In 2020, he backed a Fauna and Flora International campaign calling for a global moratorium on [[deep sea mining]] for its impact on marine life.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 March 2020|title=David Attenborough calls for ban on 'devastating' deep sea mining|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/12/david-attenborough-calls-for-ban-on-devastating-deep-sea-mining|access-date=7 September 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906031542/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/12/david-attenborough-calls-for-ban-on-devastating-deep-sea-mining|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Sir David Attenborough & President Obama.webm|thumb|Attenborough and US President [[Barack Obama]] discuss the natural world at the [[White House]]]]During the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], Attenborough advocated on behalf of the [[Zoological Society of London]] (ZSL) and its conservation efforts, which have been impacted by the economic fallout from the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 July 2020 |title=Attenborough warns London Zoo risks 'extinction' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-53346800 |access-date=20 July 2020 |archive-date=11 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711053503/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-53346800 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, Attenborough was named as a member of the [[Earthshot prize]] Council,<ref>{{Cite web |title=AKDN partners with Prince William in Earthshot prize |url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/science-health/akdn-partners-with-prince-william-in-earthshot-prize-2723128 |access-date=27 October 2020 |website=The East African |date=27 October 2020 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027085349/https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/science-health/akdn-partners-with-prince-william-in-earthshot-prize-2723128 |url-status=live}}</ref> an initiative of [[Prince William, Duke of Cambridge|Prince William]] to find solutions to environmental issues.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sh7bn environment 'Nobel' prize launched |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/news/sh7bn-environment-nobel-prize-launched-2461136 |access-date=14 October 2020 |website=Nation |date=9 October 2020 |archive-date=15 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015010055/https://nation.africa/kenya/news/sh7bn-environment-nobel-prize-launched-2461136 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=8 October 2020 |title=AKDN launches Earthshot Prize in partnership with Prince William |url=https://tbsnews.net/bangladesh/education/akdn-launches-earthshot-prize-partnership-prince-william-142951 |access-date=14 October 2020 |website=Business Standard |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123023553/https://tbsnews.net/bangladesh/education/akdn-launches-earthshot-prize-partnership-prince-william-142951 |url-status=live}}</ref> He is a patron of the [[Friends of Richmond Park]] and serves on the advisory board of [[BBC Wildlife|BBC Wildlife magazine]].<ref name="FRP">{{cite news |author=Christine Fleming |date=3 April 2011 |title=Sir David Attenborough steps up as Friends of Richmond Park marks golden anniversary |publisher=This is Local London (Newsquest) |url=http://www.thisislocallondon.co.uk/news/8949352.Sir_David_steps_up_at_park_party/ |url-status=dead |access-date=1 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201221605/http://www.thisislocallondon.co.uk/news/8949352.Sir_David_steps_up_at_park_party/ |archive-date=1 February 2014}}</ref><br />
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Attenborough was initially sceptical about the human influence on [[climate change]], and stated that a 2004 lecture finally convinced him humans were responsible. He remained silent on the issue until 2006.<ref>{{cite news |last=Attenborough |first=David |date=24 May 2006 |title=Climate change is the major challenge facing the world |work=[[The Independent]] |location=London |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article570935.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516005117/http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article570935.ece |archive-date=16 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hickman |first=Leo |date=13 August 2018 |title=The 2004 lecture that finally convinced David Attenborough about global warming |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/the-2004-lecture-that-finally-convinced-david-attenborough-about-global-warming |url-status=live |access-date=5 September 2021 |website=Carbon Brief |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817192300/https://www.carbonbrief.org/the-2004-lecture-that-finally-convinced-david-attenborough-about-global-warming}}</ref> Attenborough attended and spoke at [[2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference|COP26]] as the "People's Advocate" for the event, and urged world leaders to act to reduce emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 November 2021|title=The Latest: Attenborough: Earth's stable climate is breaking|url=https://apnews.com/article/science-business-boris-johnson-scotland-glasgow-05be3f0be78eeb46790168c88b453923|access-date=1 November 2021|website=AP NEWS|language=en|archive-date=1 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101101931/https://apnews.com/article/science-business-boris-johnson-scotland-glasgow-05be3f0be78eeb46790168c88b453923|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=26 October 2021|title=David Attenborough says Britain has 'moral responsibility' to 'act now' on climate|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/david-attenborough-cop26-boris-johnson-b1945431.html|access-date=1 November 2021|website=The Independent|language=en|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030043639/https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/david-attenborough-cop26-boris-johnson-b1945431.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He supported [[Glyndebourne]] in their successful application to obtain planning permission for a [[wind turbine]] in an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]], and gave evidence at the planning inquiry arguing in favour of the proposal.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gammel |first=Caroline |date=11 July 2018 |title='Giant' wind turbine for Glyndebourne |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2286858/Giant-wind-turbine-for-Glyndebourne.html |url-status=live |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311163555/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2286858/Giant-wind-turbine-for-Glyndebourne.html |archive-date=11 March 2011}}</ref> In his 2020 documentary film ''[[David Attenborough: A Life On Our Planet]]'', Attenborough advocates for people to adopt a [[vegetarian]] diet or to reduce meat consumption in order to save [[wildlife]], noting that "the planet can’t support billions of meat-eaters."<ref>{{cite news |last=Dalton |first=Jane |date=26 August 2020 |title=Go vegetarian to save wildlife and the planet, Sir David Attenborough urges |work=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/david-attenborough-vegetarian-vegan-meat-life-our-planet-netflix-wildlife-earth-a9689816.html |access-date=9 October 2020 |archive-date=5 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005110225/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/david-attenborough-vegetarian-vegan-meat-life-our-planet-netflix-wildlife-earth-a9689816.html |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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=== Human population ===<br />
Attenborough has linked anthropogenic effects on the environment with [[human population growth]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 January 2020|title=David Attenborough warns 'human beings have overrun the world' in new film|url=https://inews.co.uk/news/a-life-on-our-planet-trailer-david-attenborough-new-film-teaser-release-date-385845|access-date=7 September 2021|website=inews.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907202909/https://inews.co.uk/news/a-life-on-our-planet-trailer-david-attenborough-new-film-teaser-release-date-385845|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=sophie-morris|date=2020-01-14|title=Chris Packham thinks we might need a one-child policy to save the world|url=https://inews.co.uk/news/long-reads/chris-packham-7-7-billion-people-counting-bbc2-world-population-growth-385351|access-date=2021-11-05|website=inews.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105201612/https://inews.co.uk/news/long-reads/chris-packham-7-7-billion-people-counting-bbc2-world-population-growth-385351|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=claire-schofield|date=2020-01-21|title=Chris Packham: 7.7 Billion People and Counting: when the documentary is on TV|url=https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/chris-packham-7-7-billion-people-and-counting-documentary-when-bbc-two-date-time-387015|access-date=2021-11-05|website=inews.co.uk|language=en|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105201611/https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/chris-packham-7-7-billion-people-and-counting-documentary-when-bbc-two-date-time-387015|url-status=live}}</ref> He has attracted criticism for his views on [[human overpopulation]]<ref name=":1" /> and [[Human population planning|human population control]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Tran |first=Mark |date=18 September 2013 |title=David Attenborough: Trying to tackle famine with bags of flour is 'barmy' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/sep/18/david-attenborough-famine-population |url-status=live |website=The Guardian |access-date=23 August 2021 |archive-date=23 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823214515/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/sep/18/david-attenborough-famine-population}}</ref> His most popular comment online in a 2020 study related to the topic of overpopulation.<ref name=":1" /> He is a patron of [[Population Matters]],<ref name="popm">{{cite news |last1=Vidal |first1=John |date=14 April 2009 |title=Attenborough becomes patron for Optimum Population Trust |newspaper=The Guardian |publisher=The Guardian, UK broadsheet newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2009/apr/14/attenborough-patron-optimum-population-trust |url-status=live |access-date=11 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709001127/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2009/apr/14/attenborough-patron-optimum-population-trust |archive-date=9 July 2017}}</ref> a UK charity advocating for [[family planning]], sustainable consumption and proposed [[Sustainable population|sustainable human population]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sir David Attenborough warns against large families and predicts things will only get worse |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/sep/10/david-attenborough-human-evolution-stopped |work=The Guardian |date=10 September 2021 |access-date=11 December 2016 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211131905/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/sep/10/david-attenborough-human-evolution-stopped |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="popmat">{{cite web |title=Attenborough is new OPT patron |url=http://www.populationmatters.org/2009/press/attenborough-opt-patron/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102144305/http://www.populationmatters.org/2009/press/attenborough-opt-patron/ |archive-date=2 January 2016 |website=populationmatters.org |publisher=Population Matters, UK Charity}}</ref> In a 2013 interview with the ''[[Radio Times]]'', Attenborough described humans as a "plague on the Earth",<ref>{{cite web |date=22 January 2013 |title=David Attenborough: "Humans are a plague on the Earth" |url=http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2013-01-22/david-attenborough-humans-are-a-plague-on-the-earth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808052741/http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2013-01-22/david-attenborough-humans-are-a-plague-on-the-earth |archive-date=8 August 2014 |access-date=28 June 2014 |website=Radio Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gray |first=Louise |date=22 January 2013 |title=David Attenborough – Humans are plague on Earth |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/earthnews/9815862/Humans-are-plague-on-Earth-Attenborough.html |url-status=live |access-date=27 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120085247/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/earthnews/9815862/Humans-are-plague-on-Earth-Attenborough.html |archive-date=20 November 2016}}</ref> and described the act of [[Aid|sending food]] to [[famine]]-stricken countries as "barmy" for population reasons.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{cite news |title=David Attenborough says sending food to famine-ridden countries is 'barmy' |website=The Independent |publisher=The Independent, newsgroup |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/david-attenborough-says-sending-food-to-famineridden-countries-is-barmy-8823602.html |url-status=live |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925162536/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/david-attenborough-says-sending-food-to-famineridden-countries-is-barmy-8823602.html |archive-date=25 September 2015}}</ref> He called for more debate about human population growth,<ref name=":3" /> saying that since he "first started making programmes 60 years ago, the human population has tripled."<ref>{{cite news |title=Is population growth out of control? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24303537 |work=BBC News |date=29 September 2013 |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030113011/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-24303537 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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According to Attenborough, improving [[women's rights]] around the world is an effective way "to limit our birth rate."<ref name="Mongabay"/> He said that "anyone who thinks that you can have infinite growth in a finite environment is either a madman or an economist."<ref name="Mongabay">{{cite news |last1=Cardwell |first1=Mark Riley |title=David Attenborough: someone who believes in infinite growth is 'either a madman or an economist' |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2013/10/david-attenborough-someone-who-believes-in-infinite-growth-is-either-a-madman-or-an-economist/ |work=[[Mongabay]] |date=16 October 2013 |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030072159/https://news.mongabay.com/2013/10/david-attenborough-someone-who-believes-in-infinite-growth-is-either-a-madman-or-an-economist/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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=== Religious views ===<br />
Attenborough considers himself an [[agnostic]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/fivelive/listen/audioarchive.shtml Interview] with [[Simon Mayo]], [[BBC Radio Five Live]], 2 December 2005 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090301170556/http://www.bbc.co.uk/fivelive/listen/audioarchive.shtml |date=1 March 2009 }}</ref> When asked whether his observation of the natural world has given him faith in a creator, he generally responds with some version of this story, making reference to the ''[[Onchocerca volvulus]]'' parasitic worm:<br />
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<blockquote>My response is that when Creationists talk about God creating every individual species as a separate act, they always instance [[hummingbird]]s, or [[orchids]], sunflowers and beautiful things. But I tend to think instead of a parasitic worm that is boring through the eye of a boy sitting on the bank of a river in West Africa, [a worm] that's going to make him blind. And [I ask them], 'Are you telling me that the God you believe in, who you also say is an all-merciful God, who cares for each one of us individually, are you saying that God created this worm that can live in no other way than in an innocent child's eyeball? Because that doesn't seem to me to coincide with a God who's full of mercy'.<ref>David Attenborough, 2003. "[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/03/24/1048354544138.html Wild, wild life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211230726/http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/03/24/1048354544138.html |date=11 December 2003 }}." ''The Sydney Morning Herald'', 25 March. Attenborough has also told this story in numerous other interviews.</ref></blockquote><br />
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He has explained that he feels the evidence all over the planet clearly shows [[evolution]] to be the best way to explain the diversity of life, and that "as far as [he's] concerned, if there is a supreme being then he chose organic evolution as a way of bringing into existence the natural world". In a [[BBC Four]] interview with [[Mark Lawson]], he was asked if he at any time had any religious faith. He replied simply, "no".<ref>BBC ''Today'' programme, 31 January 2009</ref> He said "It never really occurred to me to believe in God".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/mandrake/4347954/Sir-David-Attenborough-questioned-on-faith-naturally.html |location=London |work=The Daily Telegraph |last=Walker |first=Tim |title=Sir David Attenborough questioned on faith, naturally |date=26 January 2009 |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008095309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/mandrake/4347954/Sir-David-Attenborough-questioned-on-faith-naturally.html |archive-date=8 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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In 2002, Attenborough joined an effort by leading [[Clergy|clerics]] and scientists to oppose the inclusion of [[creationism]] in the curriculum of UK state-funded independent schools which receive private sponsorship, such as the [[Emmanuel Schools Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/27/david-attenborough-science |title=Attenborough reveals creationist hate mail for not crediting God |last=Butt |first=Riazat |date=27 January 2009 |work=The Guardian |access-date=27 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905180331/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/27/david-attenborough-science |archive-date=5 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
In 2009, he stated that the [[Book of Genesis]], by saying that the world was there for people to control, had taught generations that they can "dominate" the environment, and that this has resulted in the devastation of vast areas of the environment. He further explained to the science journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', "That's why Darwinism, and the fact of evolution, is of great importance, because it is that attitude which has led to the devastation of so much, and we are in the situation that we are in".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rutherford |first1=A. |doi=10.1038/457967a |title=Q&A: Building on paradise |journal=Nature |volume=457 |issue=7232 |pages=967 |year=2009 |pmid=19225509 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..967R |doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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Also in early 2009, the BBC broadcast an Attenborough one-hour special, ''[[Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life]]''. In reference to the programme, Attenborough stated that "People write to me that evolution is only a theory. Well, it is not a theory. Evolution is as solid a historical fact as you could conceive. Evidence from every quarter. What is a theory is whether natural selection is the mechanism and the only mechanism. That is a theory. But the historical reality that dinosaurs led to birds and mammals produced whales, that's not theory."<ref name=whitworth>{{Cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article5562484.ece |title=David Attenborough on Charles Darwin – Times Online |work=The Times |access-date=14 February 2009 |author=Whitworth, Damian |date=22 January 2009 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203628/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=live}}</ref> He strongly opposes creationism and its offshoot "[[intelligent design]]", saying that the results of a survey that found a quarter of science teachers in state schools believe that creationism should be taught alongside evolution in science lessons was "really terrible".<ref name=whitworth /><br />
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In March 2009, Attenborough appeared on ''[[Friday Night with Jonathan Ross]]''. Attenborough stated that he felt evolution did not rule out the existence of a God and accepted the title of agnostic saying, "My view is: I don't know one way or the other but I don't think that evolution is against a belief in God".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvoJSlcIYmM |title=David Attenborough on ''Friday Night with Jonathan Ross'' |via=YouTube |date=31 October 2009 |access-date=4 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902110558/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SvoJSlcIYmM |archive-date=2 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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Attenborough has joined the evolutionary biologist [[Richard Dawkins]] and other top scientists in signing a campaign statement co-ordinated by the [[British Humanist Association]] (BHA). The statement calls for "creationism to be banned from the school science curriculum and for evolution to be taught more widely in schools".<ref name="The Telegraph">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8769353/David-Attenborough-joins-campaign-against-creationism-in-schools.html |title=David Attenborough joins campaign against creationism in schools |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=19 September 2011 |access-date=6 October 2014 |last=Collins |first=Nick |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008095340/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8769353/David-Attenborough-joins-campaign-against-creationism-in-schools.html |archive-date=8 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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===BBC and public service broadcasting===<br />
Attenborough is a lifelong supporter of the BBC, [[public service broadcasting]] and the [[television licence]]. He has said that public service broadcasting "is one of the things that distinguishes this country and makes me want to live here",<ref name="telegraph1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1921592/Sir-David-Attenborough-enters-political-jungle.html |title=Sir David Attenborough enters political jungle |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |first=Andrew |last=Pierce |date=2 May 2008 |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008095347/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1921592/Sir-David-Attenborough-enters-political-jungle.html |archive-date=8 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> and believes that it is not reducible to individual programmes, but "can only effectively operate as a network [...] that measures its success not only by its audience size but by the range of its schedule".<ref name="bbc.co.uk">[http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/aboutthebbc/insidethebbc/howwework/reports/pdf/attenborough_future_of_psb.pdf “The future of public service broadcasting”] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503092810/http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/aboutthebbc/insidethebbc/howwework/reports/pdf/attenborough_future_of_psb.pdf |date=3 May 2019 }}. BBC. Retrieved 15 September 2019</ref><br />
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<blockquote>... the BBC per minute in almost every category is as cheap as you can find anywhere in the world and produces the best quality. [...] The BBC has gone through swingeing staff cuts. It has been cut to the bone, if you divert licence fee money elsewhere, you cut quality and services. [...] There is a lot of people who want to see the BBC weakened. They talk of this terrible tax of the licence fee. Yet it is the best bargain that is going. Four radio channels and god knows how many TV channels. It is piffling.<ref name="telegraph1"/></blockquote><br />
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Attenborough expressed the view that there had often been people wanting to remove the BBC, adding "there's always been trouble about the licence and if you dropped your guard you could bet our bottom dollar there'd be plenty of people who'd want to take it away. The licence fee is the basis on which the BBC is based and if you destroy it, broadcasting... becomes a wasteland."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/multi-platform/news/attenborough-backs-ross/1925560.article |title=Attenborough backs Ross |website=Broadcastnow.co.uk |access-date=26 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405100046/http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/multi-platform/news/attenborough-backs-ross/1925560.article |archive-date=5 April 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> He expressed regret at some of the changes made to the BBC in the 1990s by its Director-General, [[John Birt]], who introduced an internal market at the corporation, slimmed and even closed some departments and outsourced much of the corporation's output to private production companies. Although he said Birt's policies had poor results, Attenborough also acknowledged "the BBC had to change."<ref name="new statesman 1998">{{cite web |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/199812180019 |title=The New Statesman Interview – David Attenborough |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607080949/http://www.newstatesman.com/199812180019 |archive-date=7 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/article820515.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1 |title=Interview: Marguerite Driscoll meets Sir David Attenborough: So much jollier than being DG |location=London |work=The Times |date=3 November 2002 |access-date=28 March 2010 |first=Fiona |last=Hamilton |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203604/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2008, he criticised the BBC's television schedules, positing that the two senior networks, [[BBC One]] and [[BBC Two]] – which Attenborough stated were "first set up as a partnership" – now "schedule simultaneously programmes of identical character, thereby contradicting the very reason that the BBC was given a second network."<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/><br />
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===Politics===<br />
In 1998, Attenborough described himself as "a standard, boring left-wing liberal" and expressed the view that the [[market economy]] was "misery".<ref name="new statesman 1998"/> In 2013, Attenborough joined rock guitarists [[Brian May]] and [[Slash (musician)|Slash]] in opposing the government's policy on the [[Badger culling in the United Kingdom|cull of badgers in the UK]] by participating in a song dedicated to badgers.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/jun/04/slash-david-attenborough-brian-may-badger-swagger |title=Slash and David Attenborough join Brian May in pro-badger supergroup |newspaper=The Guardian |date=4 June 2013 |access-date=16 June 2013 |last1=Michaels |first1=Sean |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827184207/http://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/jun/04/slash-david-attenborough-brian-may-badger-swagger |archive-date=27 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Attenborough was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to ''[[The Guardian]]'' expressing their hope that [[Scotland]] would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in the 2014 [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|referendum on that issue]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/aug/07/celebrities-open-letter-scotland-independence-full-text |title=Celebrities' open letter to Scotland – full text and list of signatories &#124; Politics |newspaper=The Guardian |date=7 August 2014 |access-date=26 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817131736/http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2014/aug/07/celebrities-open-letter-scotland-independence-full-text |archive-date=17 August 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Prior to the [[2015 United Kingdom general election|2015 UK general election]], Attenborough was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the [[Green Party of England and Wales|Green Party]]'s [[Caroline Lucas]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/apr/24/celebrities-sign-statement-support-caroline-lucas-not-green-party |title=Celebrities sign statement of support for Caroline Lucas – but not the Greens |work=The Guardian |location=London |first=Jessica |last=Elgot |date=24 April 2015 |access-date=22 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324092533/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/apr/24/celebrities-sign-statement-support-caroline-lucas-not-green-party |archive-date=24 March 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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In a 2020 interview, Attenborough criticised excess [[capitalism]] as a driver of ecological imbalance, stating "the excesses the capitalist system has brought us, have got to be curbed somehow", and that "greed does not actually lead to joy", although he added "That doesn't mean to say that capitalism is dead".<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 October 2020 |title=Attenborough: 'Curb excess capitalism' to save nature |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-54268038 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008143757/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-54268038 |url-status=live}}</ref> He also lamented the lack of [[Politics of climate change|international cooperation on climate change]], and said "there should be no dominant nation on this planet."<ref>{{cite news |last=Blum |first=Jeremy |date=10 October 2020 |title=David Attenborough Calls Out The 'Excesses' Of Capitalism In A World Facing Climate Change |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/david-attenborough-covid-19-excesses-capitalism_n_5f81e2f8c5b6e6d033a3302d |work=[[HuffPost]] |access-date=12 October 2020 |archive-date=11 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011234922/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/david-attenborough-covid-19-excesses-capitalism_n_5f81e2f8c5b6e6d033a3302d |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, Attenborough told the leaders of the [[47th G7 summit]] that "tackling climate change was now as much a political challenge as it was a scientific or technological one" and urged more action.<ref>{{cite news |title=Environmentalist Attenborough tells G7: We need the will to tackle climate change |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/environmentalist-attenborough-tells-g7-we-need-will-tackle-climate-change-2021-06-13/ |access-date=13 June 2021 |work=Reuters |date=13 June 2021 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613112925/https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/environmentalist-attenborough-tells-g7-we-need-will-tackle-climate-change-2021-06-13/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Attenborough also stated that "(we) are on the verge of destabilising the entire planet."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lee |first1=Dulcie |last2=Lee |first2=Joseph |title=G7 to agree tough measures on burning coal to tackle climate change |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-57456641 |access-date=13 June 2021 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=13 June 2021 |archive-date=12 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612222526/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-57456641 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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==Achievements, awards and recognition==<br />
{{quote box<br />
| quote = He roamed the globe and shared his discoveries and enthusiasms with his patented semi-whisper way of narrating. He talks like he's revealing secrets and draws you in using such simple language that he's instantly understood, making his sense of wonder infectious. And when he goes on site to share the screen with one of his subjects, it's magical.<br />
| source = —[[NPR]] review of ''Attenborough's Journey' Salutes The Broadcaster With A Passion For Nature''.<ref name="NPR review"/><br />
| width = 25em<br />
| align = right<br />
| style = padding:10px;<br />
}}<br />
Attenborough's contribution to broadcasting and wildlife film-making has brought him international recognition. He has been called "the great communicator, the peerless educator"<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4729076/What-comes-naturally.html |title=What comes naturally |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=31 December 2001 |location=London |first=Giles |last=Smith |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402132845/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4729076/What-comes-naturally.html |archive-date=2 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and "the greatest broadcaster of our time."<ref name=whitworth /> His programmes are often cited as an example of what public service broadcasting should be, even by critics of the BBC, and have influenced a generation of wildlife film-makers.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/tvandradioblog/2008/mar/03/davidattenboroughafinespec |title=David Attenborough: a fine specimen |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=3 March 2008 |location=London |first=James |last=Donaghy |access-date=11 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220045749/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/tvandradioblog/2008/mar/03/davidattenboroughafinespec |archive-date=20 December 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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===Honorary titles===<br />
By January 2013, Attenborough had collected 32 honorary degrees from British universities,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/7920613/Sir-David-Attenborough-heads-lists-of-most-honoured-by-Britains-universities.html |title=Sir David Attenborough heads lists of most honoured by Britain's universities |last=Howie |first=Joshi Eichner Herrmann, Jack Rivlin and Michael |website=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=6 April 2016 |date=August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925000818/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/7920613/Sir-David-Attenborough-heads-lists-of-most-honoured-by-Britains-universities.html |archive-date=25 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> more than any other person.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fergus |first=Lindsay |title=David Attenborough: The man with the most honorary degrees in UK gets one more from Queen's University |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/education/david-attenborough-the-man-with-the-most-honorary-degrees-in-uk-gets-one-more-from-queenrsquos-university-16261947.html |newspaper=The Belfast Telegraph |date=16 January 2013 |access-date=4 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120100329/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/education/david-attenborough-the-man-with-the-most-honorary-degrees-in-uk-gets-one-more-from-queenrsquos-university-16261947.html |archive-date=20 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/23144921 |title=David Attenborough receives '32nd' honorary degree – CBBC Newsround |publisher=BBC |access-date=6 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125071812/http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/23144921 |archive-date=25 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1980, he was honoured by the [[Open University]], with which he has had a close association throughout his career. He has honorary [[Doctor of Science]] degrees from [[Durham University]] (1982)<ref>{{cite web |title=Honorary Degrees |url=https://www.dur.ac.uk/university.calendar/volumei/honorary_degrees/ |website=[[Durham University]] |access-date=13 October 2020 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801035252/https://www.dur.ac.uk/university.calendar/volumei/honorary_degrees/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[University of Cambridge]] (1984)<ref name=":0" /> and honorary [[Doctor of Philosophy]] degrees from the [[University of Oxford]] (1988)<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.wwf.org.uk/about_wwf/more_about_wwf/wwf_uk_council_of_ambassadors/sir_david_attenborough.cfm |title=WWF Council of Ambassadors – Sir David Attenborough |publisher=WWF-UK |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006123048/http://www.wwf.org.uk/about_wwf/more_about_wwf/wwf_uk_council_of_ambassadors/sir_david_attenborough.cfm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and the [[University of Ghent]] (1997).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ugent.be/nl/univgent/voorzieningen/collecties/archief/geschiedenis/overzichten/eredoctoren.htm |title=Overzicht eredoctoraten – Universiteit Gent |language=nl |publisher=Universiteit Gent |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106010813/http://www.ugent.be/nl/univgent/bronnen/archief/geschiedenis/overzichten/eredoctoren.htm/#1990_-_1999 |archive-date=6 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2006, the two eldest Attenborough brothers returned to their home city to receive the title of Distinguished Honorary Fellows of the University of Leicester, "in recognition of a record of continuing distinguished service to the University."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/Sky-News-Archive/Article/200806413532577 |title=British Icons Pick Up Uni Honours |publisher=Sky News |date=13 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110619215858/http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/Sky-News-Archive/Article/200806413532577 |archive-date=19 June 2011}}</ref> David Attenborough was previously awarded an honorary [[Doctor of Letters]] degree by the university in 1970, and was made an honorary [[Freedom of the City|Freeman of the City]] of Leicester in 1990. In 2013, he was made an Honorary Freeman of the City of Bristol.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.bristol.gov.uk/press/sir-david-attenborough-receive-freedom-city |title=Sir David Attenborough to receive Freedom of the City |publisher=Bristol City Council |access-date=4 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504154019/http://www.bristol.gov.uk/press/sir-david-attenborough-receive-freedom-city |archive-date=4 May 2015}}</ref> In 2010, he was awarded Honorary Doctorates from [[Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University]] and [[Nottingham Trent University]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://alumni.mandela.ac.za/Honorary-Doctorates |title=Honorary Doctorates - Alumni Relations |access-date=21 August 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214341/https://alumni.mandela.ac.za/Honorary-Doctorates |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Honorary graduates {{!}} 2010 {{!}} Sir David Attenborough|url=https://www.ntualumni.org.uk/your_alumni_association/notable_alumni/honorary_graduates/david_attenborough|url-status=live|access-date=21 August 2021|website=Nottingham Trent University|archive-date=21 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821201548/https://www.ntualumni.org.uk/your_alumni_association/notable_alumni/honorary_graduates/david_attenborough}}</ref><br />
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Attenborough has received the title Honorary Fellow from Clare College, Cambridge (1980),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.clare.cam.ac.uk/Honorary-Fellows/|title=Honorary Fellows - Clare College Cambridge|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=31 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031213651/https://www.clare.cam.ac.uk/Honorary-Fellows/|url-status=live}}</ref> the Zoological Society of London (1998),<ref>[https://www.zsl.org/sites/default/files/media/2020-11/ZSL%2520Honorary%2520Fellows_2019.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwi0oeTEzfXzAhVRilwKHX_nDK4QFnoECAQQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1Xe21o52RMolfyZJC-7MUs] {{dead link|date=November 2021}}</ref> the [[Linnean Society]] (1999),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linnean.org/our-fellows/royal-patrons-and-honorary-fellows|title=Royal Patrons and Honorary Fellows|website=The Linnean Society|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027015832/https://www.linnean.org/our-fellows/royal-patrons-and-honorary-fellows|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Institute of Biology]] (Now the [[Royal Society of Biology]]) (2000),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/attenborough-prize/|title=Royal Society David Attenborough Award and Lecture &#124; Royal Society|website=royalsociety.org|access-date=31 October 2021|archive-date=31 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031213651/https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/attenborough-prize/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Society of Antiquaries of London|Society of Antiquaries]] (2007). He is Honorary Patron of the [[North American Native Plant Society]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nanps.org/index.php/contact-us/nanps-board |title=North American Native Plant Society – NANPS Board |publisher=Nanps.org |access-date=28 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001042/http://www.nanps.org/index.php/contact-us/nanps-board |archive-date=31 December 2013}}</ref> and was elected as a Corresponding Member of the [[Australian Academy of Science]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Corresponding Members |url=https://www.science.org.au/corresponding-members?name=&field_d_year_of_election_value[min][year]=&field_d_year_of_election_value[max][year]=2015 |publisher=Australian Academy of Science |access-date=22 September 2015}}{{dead link|date=September 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><br />
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===Recognition===<br />
[[File:Weston Library Opening by John Cairns 20.3.15-139.jpg|thumb|right|University of Oxford librarian [[Richard Ovenden]], Professor [[Stephen Hawking]] and David Attenborough at the official opening of the [[Weston Library]], Oxford in March 2015. Ovenden awarded the [[Bodley Medal]] to Attenborough and Hawking as part of the ceremony]]<br />
Attenborough has been featured as the subject of a number of BBC television programmes. ''Life on Air'' (2002) examined the legacy of his work, and ''Attenborough the Controller'' (2002) focused on his time in charge of BBC Two. He was also featured prominently in ''The Way We Went Wild'' (2004), a series about natural history television presenters, and ''100 Years of Wildlife Films'' (2007), a programme marking the centenary of the nature documentary. In 2006, British television viewers were asked to vote for their ''[[Favourite Attenborough Moments]]'' for a UKTV poll to coincide with the broadcaster's 80th birthday. The winning clip showed Attenborough observing the [[mimicry]] skills of the [[superb lyrebird]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=West |first=Dave |date=7 May 2006 |title=Impression bird is voted Sir Dave fave |url=http://www.digitalspy.com/tv/a32656/impression-bird-is-voted-sir-dave-fave/ |access-date=28 August 2021 |website=Digital Spy |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203606/https://www.digitalspy.com/tv/a32656/impression-bird-is-voted-sir-dave-fave/ |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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Attenborough was named the most trusted celebrity in the UK in a 2006 ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' poll,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/Columnists/Column/0,5673,1696927,00.html |title=In David we trust ... but not Peter |work=[[The Guardian]] |last=Hoggart |first=Simon |date=28 January 2006 |location=London |access-date=11 December 2016 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203606/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2006/jan/28/politicalcolumnists.politics |url-status=live}}</ref> and in 2007 he won ''[[The Culture Show]]'''s Living Icon Award.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/livingicons/bio01.shtml |title=Living Icons – David Attenborough |publisher=BBC |access-date=31 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427151844/http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/livingicons/bio01.shtml |archive-date=27 April 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> He has been named among the [[100 Greatest Britons]] in a 2002 BBC poll and is one of the top ten "Heroes of Our Time" according to ''[[New Statesman]]'' magazine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016 |title=Heroes of our time – the top 50 |work=New Statesman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428104750/http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016 |archive-date=28 April 2011}}</ref> In September 2009, London's [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] opened the Attenborough Studio, part of its Darwin Centre development.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/8254804.stm |title=Prince opens £78m Darwin Centre |work=BBC News |date=14 September 2009}}</ref><br />
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In 2012, Attenborough was among the [[List of cultural icons of the United Kingdom|British cultural icons]] selected by artist Sir [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]] to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life.<ref>{{cite news |title=New faces on Sgt Pepper album cover for artist Peter Blake's 80th birthday |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/apr/02/peter-blake-sgt-pepper-cover-revisited |work=The Guardian |date=5 October 2016 |access-date=5 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105095109/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2012/apr/02/peter-blake-sgt-pepper-cover-revisited |archive-date=5 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The same year, Attenborough featured in the BBC Radio 4 series ''[[The New Elizabethans]]'' to mark the [[diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II]]. A panel of seven academics, journalists and historians named him among the group of people in the UK "whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01jxs2c/features/about |publisher=BBC |title=The New Elizabethans – David Attenborough |access-date=30 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125012450/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01jxs2c/features/about |archive-date=25 November 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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A British polar research ship was named [[RRS Sir David Attenborough|RRS ''Sir David Attenborough'']] in his honour. While an Internet poll suggesting the name of the ship had the most votes for ''[[Boaty McBoatface]]'', Science Minister [[Jo Johnson]] said there were "more suitable names", and the official name was eventually picked up from one of the more favoured choices. However, one of its research sub-sea vehicles was named "Boaty" in recognition of the public vote.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-36225652 |title='Boaty McBoatface' polar ship named after Attenborough |newspaper=BBC News |date=6 May 2016 |access-date=6 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506121010/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-36225652 |archive-date=6 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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====Species named after Attenborough====<br />
[[File:Trigonopterus attenboroughi holotype - ZooKeys-467-011.tif|thumb|upright|''[[Trigonopterus attenboroughi]]'' ]]<br />
At least 20 species and genera, both living and extinct, have been named in Attenborough's honour.<ref name="Dijkstra2016">{{cite journal |last=Dijkstra |first=Klaas-Douwe B. |year=2016 |title=Natural history: Restore our sense of species |journal=Nature |volume=533 |issue=7602 |pages=172–174 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/533172a |pmid=27172032 |bibcode=2016Natur.533..172D |doi-access=free}}</ref> Plants named after him include an alpine hawkweed (''[[Hieracium attenboroughianum]]'') discovered in the [[Brecon Beacons]],<ref>{{cite web |author=BSBI |title=Hawkweed named for Sir David Attenborough |url=http://bsbipublicity.blogspot.co.uk/2014/12/hawkweed-named-for-sir-david.html |date=24 December 2014 |access-date=24 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224172836/http://bsbipublicity.blogspot.co.uk/2014/12/hawkweed-named-for-sir-david.html |archive-date=24 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}, {{cite journal |date=December 2014 |title=''Hieracium attenboroughianum'' (Asteraceae), a new species of hawkweed |author=T. C. G. Rich |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=172–178 |journal=New Journal of Botany |doi=10.1179/2042349714Y.0000000051 |s2cid=84969327 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/15032 |access-date=29 August 2019 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203612/https://zenodo.org/record/15032/preview/Hieracium_attenboroughianum_njb91.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> a species of Ecuadorian flowering tree (''[[Blakea attenboroughi]]''), one of the world's largest-pitchered carnivorous plants (''[[Nepenthes attenboroughii]]''), along with a genus of flowering plants (''[[Sirdavidia]]'').<ref name="Couvreur2015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Couvreur TL, Niangadouma R, Sonké B, Sauquet H |title=Sirdavidia, an extraordinary new genus of Annonaceae from Gabon |journal=PhytoKeys |year=2015 |issue=46 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.3897/phytokeys.46.8937 |pmid=25878546 |pmc=4391954}}</ref> <br />
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Several Arthropods are named after Attenborough including a butterfly, Attenborough's black-eyed satyr (''[[Euptychia attenboroughi]]''),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20151202-rare-amazonian-butterfly-named-after-sir-david-attenborough |title=Rare Amazonian butterfly named after Sir David Attenborough |work=BBC Earth |date=3 December 2015 |access-date=6 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826050500/http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20151202-rare-amazonian-butterfly-named-after-sir-david-attenborough |archive-date=26 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> a dragonfly, Attenborough's pintail (''[[Acisoma attenboroughi]]''),<ref name="DA90">{{Cite episode |title=Attenborough at 90 |series=Attenborough at 90 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03qxjzj |access-date=8 May 2016 |network=[[BBC Television]] |date=8 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425135009/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03qxjzj |archive-date=25 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> a millimetre-long goblin spider (''[[Prethopalpus attenboroughi]]''), an ornate [[Caribbean]] smiley-faced spider (''[[Spintharus davidattenboroughi]]''),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/182/4/758/4222834?redirectedFrom=fulltext |title=Agnarsson et al. 2018. A radiation of the ornate Caribbean 'smiley-faced spiders', with descriptions of 15 new species (Araneae: Theridiidae, Spintharus) |publisher=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 182: 758–790 |date=26 September 2017 |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224161948/https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/182/4/758/4222834?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sci-news.com/biology/fifteen-new-species-smiley-faced-spiders-05260.html |title=Fifteen New Species of 'Smiley-Faced' Spiders Discovered |publisher=Sci News |date=27 September 2017 |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117172915/http://www.sci-news.com/biology/fifteen-new-species-smiley-faced-spiders-05260.html |url-status=live}}</ref> an Indonesian flightless weevil (''[[Trigonopterus attenboroughi]]''),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/following-a-plant-and-a-spider-sir-david-attenborough-now-has-a-beetle-named-after-him-9941035.html |title=Following a plant and a spider, Sir David Attenborough now has a beetle named after him |last=Bawden |first=Tom |date=22 December 2014 |website=[[The Independent]] |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231035227/http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/following-a-plant-and-a-spider-sir-david-attenborough-now-has-a-beetle-named-after-him-9941035.html |archive-date=31 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://entertainment.ie/life/David-Attenborough-is-getting-a-beetle-named-after-him/325920.htm |title=David Attenborough is getting a beetle named after him |last=Collins |first=Adrian |date=23 December 2014 |website=[[entertainment.ie]] |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205093941/http://entertainment.ie/life/David-Attenborough-is-getting-a-beetle-named-after-him/325920.htm |archive-date=5 February 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> a Madagascan ghost shrimp (''[[Ctenocheloides attenboroughi]]''), and a soil snail (''Palaina attenboroughi'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greķe |first=Kristīne |year=2017 |editor-last=Telnov |editor-first=Dmitry |title=Taxonomic review of Diplommatinidae (Caenogastropoda: Cyclophoroidea) from Wallacea and the Papuan Region |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320921280 |journal=Biodiversity, Biogeography and Nature Conservation in Wallacea and New Guinea |volume=3 |pages=151–316, pls 19–47 |access-date=13 January 2018 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203637/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320921280_Taxonomic_review_of_Diplommatinidae_Caenogastropoda_Cyclophoroidea_from_Wallacea_and_the_Papuan_Region |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Monogenea]]n ''[[Cichlidogyrus attenboroughi]]'', a [[fish parasite|parasite]] from a deep-sea fish in the [[Lake Tanganyika]], is probably the only parasite species named after him.<ref name="KmentováGelnar2016">{{cite journal |last1=Kmentová |first1=Nikol |last2=Gelnar |first2=Milan |last3=Koblmüller |first3=Stephan |last4=Vanhove |first4=Maarten P. M. |title=Deep-water parasite diversity in Lake Tanganyika: description of two new monogenean species from benthopelagic cichlid fishes |journal=Parasites & Vectors |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=426 |year=2016 |issn=1756-3305 |doi=10.1186/s13071-016-1696-x |doi-access=free |pmid=27488497 |pmc=4972994}}</ref> Vertebrates have also been named after Attenborough, including a Namibian lizard (''[[Platysaurus]] attenboroughi''),<ref name="Slate_14species" /> a bird (''[[Polioptila]] attenboroughi''),<ref name="Slate_14species" /> a Peruvian frog (''[[Pristimantis attenboroughi]]''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lehr |first1=Edgar |last2=von May |first2=Rudolf |title=A new species of terrestrial-breeding frog (Amphibia, Craugastoridae, ''Pristimantis'') from high elevations of the Pui Pui Protected Forest in central Peru |journal=ZooKeys |year=2017 |issue=660 |pages=17–42 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.660.11394 |pmid=28794672 |pmc=5549528 |doi-access=free}}</ref> a Madagascan [[Stumpffia|stump-toed frog]] (''Stumpffia davidattenboroughi''),<ref name="Rakoto17">{{cite journal |last1=Rakotoarison |first1=A. |last2=Scherz |first2=M.D. |last3=Glaw |first3=F. |last4=Köhler |first4=J |last5=Andreone |first5=F. |last6=Franzen |first6=M. |last7=Glos |first7=J. |last8=Hawlitschek |first8=O. |last9=Jono |first9=T.|last10=Mori|first10=A. |last11=Ndriantsoa |first11=S.H. |last12=Raminosoa Rasoamampionona |first12=N. |last13=Riemann |first13=J.C. |last14=Rödel |first14=M.-O. |last15=Rosa |first15=G.M. |last16=Vieites |first16=D.R. |last17=Crottini |first17=A. |last18=Vences |first18=M. |title=Describing the smaller majority: Integrative fast-track taxonomy reveals twenty-six new species of tiny microhylid frogs (genus ''Stumpffia'') from Madagascar |journal=Vertebrate Zoology |year=2017 |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=271–398}}</ref> and one of only four species of long-beaked echidna (''[[Zaglossus attenboroughi]]'').<ref name="InPics">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardin.com/environment/gallery/2014/jul/31/species-named-after-sir-david-attenborough-in-pictures |title=Species named after Sir David Attenborough – in pictures |date=31 July 2014 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=1 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805203411/https://www.theguardin.com/environment/gallery/2014/jul/31/species-named-after-sir-david-attenborough-in-pictures |archive-date=5 August 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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[[File:Sitana attenboroughii David Raju.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Sitana attenboroughii]]'']]<br />
In 1993, after discovering that the [[Mesozoic]] reptile ''Plesiosaurus conybeari'' did not belong to the genus ''Plesiosaurus'', the palaeontologist [[Robert Bakker]] renamed the species ''[[Attenborosaurus]] conybeari''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/names/ples.html |title=Plesiosauria Translation and Pronunciation Guide |publisher=Dinosauria.com |access-date=4 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001060613/http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/names/ples.html |archive-date=1 October 2009}}</ref> A fossilised armoured fish discovered in Western Australia in 2008 was named ''[[Materpiscis]] attenboroughi'', after Attenborough had filmed at the site and highlighted its scientific importance in ''Life on Earth''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/05/080528-mother-fossil.html |title=Oldest Live-Birth Fossil Found; Fish Had Umbilical Cord |publisher=National Geographic News |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=29 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530065627/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/05/080528-mother-fossil.html |archive-date=30 May 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ''Materpiscis'' fossil is believed to be the earliest organism capable of internal fertilisation. A miniature marsupial lion, ''[[Microleo attenboroughi]]'', was named in his honour in 2016.<ref name="Gough2016">{{cite news |last1=Gough |first1=Myles |title=Kitten-sized extinct 'lion' named after David Attenborough |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-37182388 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=29 August 2016 |date=25 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829000904/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-37182388 |archive-date=29 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="GillespieEtAL2016">{{cite journal |last1=Gillespie |first1=Anna K. |last2=Archer |first2=Michael |last3=Hand |first3=Suzanne J. |title=A tiny new marsupial lion (Marsupialia, Thylacoleonidae) from the early Miocene of Australia |journal=Palaeontologia Electronica |year=2016 |volume=19 |issue=2.26A |pages=1–26 |url=http://palaeo-electronica.org/content/pdfs/632.pdf |access-date=29 August 2016 |doi=10.26879/632 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911054640/http://palaeo-electronica.org/content/pdfs/632.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref> The fossil grasshopper ''[[Electrotettix attenboroughi]]'' was named after Attenborough. In March 2017, a 430&nbsp;million year old tiny [[crustacean]] was named after him. Called ''Cascolus ravitis'', the first word is a [[Latin]] translation of the root meaning of "Attenborough", and the second is based on a description of him in Latin.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39348150 |title=Fossil named after Sir David Attenborough |work=BBC News |date=22 March 2017 |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717085303/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39348150 |archive-date=17 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2017/03/whats-in-a-name-sir-david-attenborough-creatures/ |title=What's in a name? |website=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=4 April 2017 |date=22 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404045459/https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2017/03/whats-in-a-name-sir-david-attenborough-creatures/ |archive-date=4 April 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In July 2017, the Caribbean [[bat]] ''[[Myotis attenboroughi]]'' was named after him.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317381815 |title=Caribbean Myotis (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae), with description of a new species from Trinidad and Tobago |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=994–1008 |access-date=23 October 2018 |doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyx062 |year=2017 |last1=Moratelli |first1=Ricardo |last2=Wilson |first2=Don E. |last3=Novaes |first3=Roberto L. M. |last4=Helgen |first4=Kristofer M. |last5=Gutiérrez |first5=Eliécer E. |doi-access=free |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203611/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317381815_Caribbean_Myotis_Chiroptera_Vespertilionidae_with_description_of_a_new_species_from_Trinidad_and_Tobago |url-status=live}}</ref> A new species of fan-throated lizard from coastal [[Kerala]] in [[India|southern India]] was named ''[[Sitana attenboroughii]]'' in his honour when it was described in 2018.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sadasivan |first1=Kalesh |last2=Ramesh |first2=M. B. |last3=Palot |first3=Muhamed Jafer |last4=Ambekar |first4=Mayuresh |last5=Mirza |first5=Zeeshan A. |title=A new species of fan-throated lizard of the genus Sitana Cuvier, 1829 from coastal Kerala, southern India |journal=Zootaxa |date=21 January 2018 |volume=4374 |issue=4 |pages=545–564 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4374.4.5 |pmid=29689791 |url=http://www.mapress.com/j/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4374.4.5 |issn=1175-5334 |access-date=23 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122181628/http://www.mapress.com/j/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4374.4.5 |archive-date=22 January 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
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In 2018, a new species of [[phytoplankton]], ''[[Syracosphaera azureaplaneta]]'', was named to honour ''The Blue Planet'', the TV documentary presented by Attenborough, and to recognise his contribution to promoting understanding of the oceanic environment.<ref>{{cite web |title=New ocean plankton species named after BBC's Blue Planet series |url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0418/170418-Syracosphaera-azureaplaneta |publisher=University College London |access-date=17 April 2018 |date=17 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420044837/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0418/170418-Syracosphaera-azureaplaneta |archive-date=20 April 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> The same year, Attenborough was also commemorated in the name of the scarab beetle ''Sylvicanthon attenboroughi''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vaz-de-Mello |first1=Fernando Z. |last2=Cupello |first2=Mario |title=A monographic revision of the Neotropical dung beetle genus ''Sylvicanthon'' Halffter & Martínez, 1977 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae: Deltochilini), including a reappraisal of the taxonomic history of 'Canthon sensu lato' |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |year=2018 |issue=467 |url=http://www.europeanjournaloftaxonomy.eu/index.php/ejt/article/view/598/1378 |issn=2118-9773 |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210111101/http://www.europeanjournaloftaxonomy.eu/index.php/ejt/article/view/598/1378 |archive-date=10 December 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2021 an extinct species of horseshoe crab was named ''[[Attenborolimulus| Attenborolimulus superspinosus]].''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bicknell |first1=Russell D. C. |last2=Shcherbakov |first2=Dmitry E. |date=30 June 2021 |title=New austrolimulid from Russia supports role of Early Triassic horseshoe crabs as opportunistic taxa |url=https://peerj.com/articles/11709 |journal=PeerJ |volume=9 |pages=e11709 |doi=10.7717/peerj.11709 |pmid=34249518 |pmc=8254475 |issn=2167-8359 |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822151714/https://peerj.com/articles/11709/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bicknell |first=Russell Dean Christopher |date=30 June 2021 |title=We discovered a new fossil species of horseshoe crab (and named it after David Attenborough) |url=http://theconversation.com/we-discovered-a-new-fossil-species-of-horseshoe-crab-and-named-it-after-david-attenborough-163086 |url-status=live |access-date=29 October 2021 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822153232/https://theconversation.com/we-discovered-a-new-fossil-species-of-horseshoe-crab-and-named-it-after-david-attenborough-163086}}</ref><br />
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===Awards===<br />
[[File:Bærekraftsprisen 2018.jpg|thumb|Sir David Attenborough in 2018 receiving an honorary award for his sustainability work from [[Bergen]] Business Council and Fana Sparebank]]<br />
[[File:LI Awards 2019 270 N762.jpg|alt=award, Landscape architecture, sustainable, Landscape Architect, LI, Landscape Institute|thumb|Attenborough receiving the [[Landscape Institute]] Medal for Lifetime Achievement, and becoming an Honorary Fellow of the Landscape Institute in 2019]]<br />
{|class="sortable wikitable"<br />
!scope="col"|Year<br />
!scope="col"|Award<br />
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{H:title|References|Refs.}}<br />
|-<br />
|1972 || [[Royal Geographical Society]]'s [[Cherry Kearton Medal and Award]]||<ref name="RGS">{{cite web |url=http://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/5733E422-4831-4451-B7D8-052E80E8CD75/0/MedalWinners19702012.pdf |title=Medals and Awards |publisher=[[Royal Geographical Society]] |access-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002055718/http://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/5733E422-4831-4451-B7D8-052E80E8CD75/0/MedalWinners19702012.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2013}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1974 || Appointed [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] (CBE) for services to nature conservation in the [[1974 Birthday Honours]] || <ref>{{London Gazette |issue=46310 |date=7 June 1974 |page=6799 |supp=y}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1980 || [[BAFTA Fellowship]] ||<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of television |first=Horace |last=Newcomb |isbn=1-57958-394-6 |page=157 |publisher=Routledge |edition=2 |date=7 October 2004}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1981 || [[Kalinga Prize|Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science]] from [[UNESCO]] ||<ref>{{cite web |title=UNESCO Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/global-focus/science-popularization/prizes/kalinga-prize/kalinga-winners/laureates-89-70/ |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=15 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416191624/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/global-focus/science-popularization/prizes/kalinga-prize/kalinga-winners/laureates-89-70/ |archive-date=16 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1983 || [[List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1983|Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)]] ||<ref name=frs>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151014064120/https://royalsociety.org/people/david-attenborough-11015/ |url-status=live |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=14 October 2015 |url=https://royalsociety.org/people/david-attenborough-11015/ |title=Sir David Attenborough OM CH CVO CBE FRS Statute 12 |publisher=[[Royal Society]] |location=London}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1985 || [[Knight Bachelor]] in the [[1985 Birthday Honours]] || <ref>{{London Gazette|issue=50154 |date=15 June 1985 |page=1 |supp=y}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1991 || [[Royal Victorian Order|Commander of the Royal Victorian Order]] (CVO) for producing Queen [[Elizabeth II]]'s [[Royal Christmas Message|Christmas broadcast]] for a number of years from 1986 in the [[1991 Birthday Honours]] || <ref>{{London Gazette |issue=52563 |date=14 June 1991 |page=4 |supp=y}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1991 || Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] ||<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web |title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A |url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=27 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510021801/http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 1996 || [[Kew International Medal]] || <ref name=seb/><br />
|-<br />
|1996 || [[Order of the Companions of Honour|Companion of Honour]] (CH) for services to nature broadcasting in the [[1996 New Year Honours]]||<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=54255 |date=29 December 1995 |page=5 |supp=y}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|1998 || [[International Cosmos Prize]] ||<ref>{{cite news |title=Conservation and biodiversity research wins international prize for British scientist |url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/14094/conservation-biodiversity-research-wins-international-prize/ |access-date=12 March 2019 |agency=Imperial College London |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905203614/https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/14094/conservation-biodiversity-research-wins-international-prize/ |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2000 ||[[RSPB Medal]] ||<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rspb.org.uk/our-work/rspb-news/news/408162-stanley-johnson-awarded-rspb-medal |title=Gifted naturalist is awarded prestigious RSPB medal |date=10 October 2015 |publisher=[[RSPB]] |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-date=6 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906110056/http://ww2.rspb.org.uk/our-work/rspb-news/news/408162-stanley-johnson-awarded-rspb-medal |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2003 || [[Michael Faraday Prize]] awarded by the [[Royal Society]]|| <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/rtdinfo/44/article_2024_en.html |title=Research - RTD info -N° 44 - February 2005 - European science – from Nobel to Descartes |date=14 February 2010 |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=14 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214141107/http://ec.europa.eu/research/rtdinfo/44/article_2024_en.html |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2004 || [[Descartes Prize]] for Outstanding Science Communication Actions || <ref>{{Cite journal |title=Descartes' Europe: one good revolution deserves another |first=Andrew |last=Moore |date=5 February 2005 |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=110–113 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7400340 |pmid=15689937 |pmc=1299250}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2004 || [[Caird Medal]] of the [[National Maritime Museum]] || <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.captaincooksociety.com/vol27no4.pdf |title=Cook's Log v27 no. 4 |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=30 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830225748/https://www.captaincooksociety.com/vol27no4.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2004 || [[José Vasconcelos World Award of Education]] awarded by the [[World Cultural Council]] || <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/winners-education-davidattenborough.php |title=World Cultural Council / Winners - Education - Sir David Attenborough |date=29 October 2013 |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=29 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202032/http://www.consejoculturalmundial.org/winners-education-davidattenborough.php |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2005 || [[Order of Merit]] (OM) || <ref>{{London Gazette |issue=57645 |date=20 May 2005 |page=6631}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2005 || [[Nierenberg Prize]] for Science in the Public Interest ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nierenberg Prize for Science in the Public Interest |url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/about/awards/nierenberg |access-date=6 September 2021 |work=Scripps Institution of Oceanography |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414085833/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/about/awards/nierenberg |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2006 || [[National Television Awards]] Special Recognition Award || <ref>{{Cite web|last=Awards|first=National Television|title=Winners {{!}} National Television Awards|url=https://www.nationaltvawards.com/winners|access-date=6 September 2021|work=nationaltvawards.com|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111215721/https://www.nationaltvawards.com/winners|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2006 || [[Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management]] ||<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieem.net |title=Welcome to IEEM |publisher=IEEM |access-date=31 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105172744/http://www.ieem.net/ |archive-date=5 November 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2006 || ''[[The Culture Show]]'' British Icon Award || <ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC - Culture Show - Living Icons |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/livingicons/ |access-date=6 September 2021 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125015313/http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/livingicons/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2007 || [[British Naturalists' Association]] [[British Naturalists' Association#Peter Scott Memorial Award|Peter Scott Memorial Award]] || <ref>{{Cite web |title=Peter Scott award – British Naturalists' Association |url=https://bna-naturalists.org/scott-prize/ |access-date=6 September 2021 |work=bna-naturalists.org |archive-date=28 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228002452/https://bna-naturalists.org/scott-prize/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2007 || Fellowship of [[Society of Antiquaries of London|Society of Antiquaries]] || <ref>{{Cite web |title=About the Fellowship - Society of Antiquaries of London |url=https://www.sal.org.uk/our-fellows/about-the-fellowship/ |access-date=6 September 2021 |work=Society of Antiquaries of London |archive-date=18 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618020027/https://www.sal.org.uk/our-fellows/about-the-fellowship/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2008 || The [[Royal Photographic Society]] Progress medal and Honorary Fellowship || <ref>{{Cite web |title=Progress Medal |url=https://rps.org/about/awards/history-and-recipients/progress-medal/ |access-date=6 September 2021 |work=The RPS |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507040456/https://rps.org/about/awards/history-and-recipients/progress-medal |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2009 || [[Prince of Asturias Award]] ||<ref name="Asturias">{{cite web |url=http://fundacionprincipedeasturias.org/en/awards/2009/david-attenborough-1/ |title=Prince of Asturias Awards 2009 |access-date=4 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726071526/http://fundacionprincipedeasturias.org/en/awards/2009/david-attenborough-1/ |archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2010 || [[Fonseca Prize]] || <ref>{{Cite web |title=Fonseca Prize 2010 - ConCiencia Programme - USC |url=https://www.usc.gal/en/cursos/conciencia/premio_fonseca2010.html |access-date=6 September 2021 |work=usc.gal |archive-date=6 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906110020/https://www.usc.gal/en/cursos/conciencia/premio_fonseca2010.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2010 ||[[Queensland Museum]] Medal || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/About+Us/News/Media+Releases/2010/01/Sir+David+Attenborough+honoured+by+Qld+Museum |title=Sir David Attenborough honoured by Qld Museum |publisher=Queensland Government |date=20 January 2010 |access-date=15 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110330164328/http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/About%2BUs/News/Media%2BReleases/2010/01/Sir%2BDavid%2BAttenborough%2Bhonoured%2Bby%2BQld%2BMuseum |archive-date=30 March 2011}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2011 || [[Society for the History of Natural History]] Founders' Medal || <ref>{{Cite web |title=Sir David Attenborough OM CH FRS is awarded the SHNH - Society for the History of Natural History Founders' Medal. - Society for the History of Natural History |url=https://shnh.org.uk/news/sir-david-attenborough-om-ch-frs-is-awarded-the-shnh-society-for-the-history-of-natural-history-fo/ |access-date=6 September 2021 |work=Society for the History of Natural History |archive-date=6 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906110019/https://shnh.org.uk/news/sir-david-attenborough-om-ch-frs-is-awarded-the-shnh-society-for-the-history-of-natural-history-fo/ |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2011 || [[Association for International Broadcasting]] International TV Personality of the year || <ref>{{Cite web|title=AIB announces Winners of 2011 AIBs International Media Awards {{!}} AIB|url=https://aib.org.uk/aib-announces-winners-of-2011-aibs-international-media-awards/|access-date=6 September 2021|work=aib.org.uk|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906110021/https://aib.org.uk/aib-announces-winners-of-2011-aibs-international-media-awards/|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2012 || [[IUCN]] Phillips Memorial Medal for outstanding service in international conservation || <ref>{{cite web |last=Cole |first=Alan |title=Sir David Attenborough: IUCN award |url=http://www.xperedon.com/news_1676 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130210111220/http://www.xperedon.com/news_1676 |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 February 2013 |publisher=Xperedon Charity News |access-date=15 September 2012}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2015 || Individual [[Peabody Award]] || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://grady.uga.edu/naturalist-sir-david-attenborough-awarded-individual-peabody/ |title=Naturalist Sir David Attenborough Awarded Individual Peabody |website=uga.grady.edu |date=14 April 2015 |access-date=24 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825060258/http://grady.uga.edu/naturalist-sir-david-attenborough-awarded-individual-peabody/ |archive-date=25 August 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2017 || [[Britain-Australia Society]] Award for outstanding contribution to strengthening British/Australian bilateral understanding and relations ||<ref>{{cite web |url=http://britain-australia.org.uk/events/event/the-britain-australia-society-award-2017/ |title=BritainAustralia Society Award 2017 |publisher=Britain-Australia Society |date=4 January 2018 |access-date=13 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413190447/http://britain-australia.org.uk/events/event/the-britain-australia-society-award-2017/ |archive-date=13 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2017 || Honorary Member of the [[Moscow Society of Naturalists]] ||<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moip.msu.ru/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/poch-chlen-02.doc |title=Moscow Society of Naturalists official site |language=ru |website=Moip.msu.ru |access-date=16 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416013525/http://www.moip.msu.ru/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/poch-chlen-02.doc |archive-date=16 April 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
| 2017 || Gold Medal of the [[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] ||<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rcgs.org/awards/gold_medal/previous_winners.asp |title=Gold Medal-Award Recipients since its inception in 1972 |publisher=RCGS |access-date=20 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106221951/http://www.rcgs.org/awards/gold_medal/previous_winners.asp |archive-date=6 November 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2018 || [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator]] ||<ref name="2018 Emmys">{{Cite web |url=http://www.emmys.com/awards/nominees-winners/2018/outstanding-narrator |title=Nominees/Winners |website=Television Academy |access-date=17 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119122915/http://www.emmys.com/awards/nominees-winners/2018/outstanding-narrator |archive-date=19 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2018 || [[The Perfect World Foundation]] Award ||<ref>{{cite web |title=The Perfect World Award |url=https://www.theperfectworld.com/the-perfect-world-award/ |website=The Perfect World Foundation |access-date=22 August 2021 |archive-date=22 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822152104/https://www.theperfectworld.com/the-perfect-world-award/ |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2019 || Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator ||<ref name="2019 Emmys"/><br />
|-<br />
|2019 || [[Landscape Institute]] Medal for Lifetime Achievement ||<ref name="2019 LI">{{cite news |title=LI to honour Sir David Attenborough with the Landscape Institute Medal |url=https://www.landscapeinstitute.org/news/li-to-honour-sir-david-attenborough-with-the-landscape-institute-medal/ |access-date=2 November 2019 |agency=Landscape Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202212313/https://www.landscapeinstitute.org/news/li-to-honour-sir-david-attenborough-with-the-landscape-institute-medal/ |archive-date=2 December 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2019 || Landscape Institute Honorary Fellow (HonFLI) ||<ref name="2019 LI"/><br />
|-<br />
|2019 || Crystal Award at the [[World Economic Forum]] in [[Davos, Switzerland]] ||<ref>{{cite web |title=Davos 2019: Meet the Crystal Award winners |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/12/davos-2019-meet-the-crystal-award-winners/ |website=World Economic Forum |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120183442/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/12/davos-2019-meet-the-crystal-award-winners/ |archive-date=20 November 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=David Attenborough: 'The Garden of Eden is no more'. Read his Davos speech in full |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/david-attenborough-transcript-from-crystal-award-speech/ |website=World Economic Forum |access-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213091400/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/david-attenborough-transcript-from-crystal-award-speech |archive-date=13 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2019 || [[Indira Gandhi Prize|Indira Gandhi Peace Prize]]|| <ref>{{Cite news |title=British broadcaster Sir David Attenborough awarded Indira Gandhi Peace Prize at online event |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/british-broadcaster-sir-david-attenborough-awarded-indira-gandhi-peace-prize-at-online-event/articleshow/77993456.cms |access-date=14 May 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514032707/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/british-broadcaster-sir-david-attenborough-awarded-indira-gandhi-peace-prize-at-online-event/articleshow/77993456.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
|-<br />
|2020 || [[Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]] (GCMG) in the [[2020 Birthday Honours]] for services to television broadcasting and to conservation. ||<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/attenborough-gets-a-second-knighthood-6hzp527r7 |title=Attenborough gets a second knighthood |last=Low |first=Valentine |date=10 October 2020 |newspaper=The Times |access-date=10 October 2020 |type=subscription |archive-date=10 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010070123/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/attenborough-gets-a-second-knighthood-6hzp527r7 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette|issue=63135|supp=y|page=B3|date=10 October 2020}}</ref><br />
|}<br />
In addition, he is the only person to have won [[BAFTA]]s for programmes in [[black and white]], [[Color television|colour]], high-definition, [[Digital 3D|3D]], and [[4K resolution|4K]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sir David Attenborough: Bafta TV awards 2014 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2014/may/11/tv-baftas-2014-observer-portfolio |work=The Guardian |date=3 December 2017 |access-date=3 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204114534/https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2014/may/11/tv-baftas-2014-observer-portfolio |archive-date=4 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sir David Attenborough: BAFTA Awards |url=http://awards.bafta.org/keyword-search?keywords=david_attenborough |website=Awards.bafta.org |publisher=BAFTA |access-date=3 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204224430/http://awards.bafta.org/keyword-search?keywords=david_attenborough |archive-date=4 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
{{Main|David Attenborough filmography}}<br />
David Attenborough's television credits span eight decades and his association with natural history programmes dates back to ''The Pattern of Animals'' and ''Zoo Quest'' in the early 1950s. His most influential work, 1979's ''Life on Earth'', launched a strand of nine authored documentaries with the BBC Natural History Unit which shared the ''Life'' strand name and spanned 30 years. He narrated every episode of the long-running BBC series ''Wildlife on One'' and in his later career has voiced several high-profile BBC wildlife documentaries, among them ''The Blue Planet'' and ''Planet Earth''. He became a pioneer in the 3D documentary format with ''Flying Monsters'' in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rotten Tomatoes: David Attenborough |work=Rotten Tomatoes |access-date=6 September 2021 |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/david_attenborough |archive-date=21 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621153753/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/david_attenborough |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
David Attenborough's work as an author has strong parallels with his broadcasting career. In the 1950s and 1960s, his published work included accounts of his animal collecting expeditions around the world, which became the ''Zoo Quest'' series. He wrote an accompanying volume to each of his nine ''Life'' documentaries, along with books on tribal art and [[Bird-of-paradise|birds of paradise]]. His autobiography, ''Life on Air'', was published in 2002, revised in 2009 and is one of a number of his works which is available as a self-narrated [[audiobook]]. Attenborough has also contributed forewords and introductions to many other works, notably those accompanying ''Planet Earth'', ''Frozen Planet'', ''Africa'' and other BBC series he has narrated.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.waterstones.com/author/sir-david-attenborough/4330 |title=Sir David Attenborough |publisher=Waterstones |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817202741/https://www.waterstones.com/author/sir-david-attenborough/4330 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biblio.co.uk/david-attenborough/author/21689|title=David Attenborough Books - Biography and List of Works - Author of 'Life On Earth - a Natural History'|website=biblio.co.uk}}</ref><br />
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}<br />
* ''[[Zoo Quest#Books|Zoo Quest to Guyana]]'' (1956)<br />
* ''[[Zoo Quest#Books|Zoo Quest for a Dragon]]'' (1957) – republished in 1959 to include an additional 85 pages titled ''Quest for the Paradise Birds''<br />
* ''[[Zoo Quest#Books|Zoo Quest in Paraguay]]'' (1959)<br />
* ''[[Zoo Quest#Books|Quest in Paradise]]'' (1960)<br />
* ''People of Paradise'' (1960)<br />
* ''[[Zoo Quest#Books|Zoo Quest to Madagascar]]'' (1961)<br />
* ''[[Zoo Quest#Books|Quest Under Capricorn]]'' (1963)<br />
* ''Fabulous Animals'' (1975)<br />
* ''The Tribal Eye'' (1976)<br />
* ''[[Life on Earth (TV series)|Life on Earth]]'' (1979)<br />
* ''Discovering Life on Earth'' (1981)<br />
* ''[[The Living Planet]]'' (1984)<br />
* ''The First Eden: The Mediterranean World and Man'' (1987)<br />
* ''The Atlas of the Living World'' (1989)<br />
* ''[[The Trials of Life]]'' (1990)<br />
* ''[[The Private Life of Plants]]'' (1994)<br />
* ''[[The Life of Birds]]'' (1998)<br />
* ''[[The Life of Mammals]]'' (2002)<br />
* ''Life on Air: Memoirs of a Broadcaster'' (2002) – autobiography, revised in 2009<br />
* ''[[Life in the Undergrowth]]'' (2005)<br />
* ''Amazing Rare Things: The Art of Natural History in the Age of Discovery'' (2007) – with Susan Owens, Martin Clayton and Rea Alexandratos<br />
* ''[[Life in Cold Blood]]'' (2007)<br />
* ''David Attenborough's Life Stories'' (2009)<br />
* ''David Attenborough's New Life Stories'' (2011)<br />
* ''Drawn From Paradise: The Discovery, Art and Natural History of the Birds of Paradise'' (2012) – with [[Errol Fuller]]<br />
* ''Adventures of a Young Naturalist: The Zoo Quest Expeditions'' (2017)<br />
* ''Journeys to the Other Side of the World: Further Adventures of a Young Naturalist'' (2018)<br />
* ''Dynasties: The Rise and Fall of Animal Families'' with [[Stephen Moss]] (2018)<br />
* ''[[A Life on Our Planet: My Witness Statement and a Vision for the Future]]'' (2020)<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|refs =<br />
<ref name="Slate_14species">{{cite news |last1=Laskow |first1=Sarah |title=All the Creatures Named After David Attenborough |date=12 January 2016 |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/atlas_obscura/2016/01/12/here_s_every_living_or_extinct_creature_named_after_naturalist_david_attenborough.html |access-date=10 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831140156/http://www.slate.com/blogs/atlas_obscura/2016/01/12/here_s_every_living_or_extinct_creature_named_after_naturalist_david_attenborough.html |archive-date=31 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
* {{CC-notice |cc=by4 |url=https://royalsociety.org/people/david-attenborough-11015/}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140810122408/http://www.davidattenborough.co.uk/ BBC Books David Attenborough website]<br />
* [https://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba11e009b David Attenborough] at the [[British Film Institute]]<br />
* {{IMDb name|id=0041003|name=David Attenborough}}<br />
*[https://attenboroughfilm.com/ David Attenborough: A Life On Our Planet]<br />
* [http://www.wildfilmhistory.org/person/85/David+Attenborough.html Wildfilmhistory.org biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728190930/http://www.wildfilmhistory.org/person/85/David+Attenborough.html |date=28 July 2011 }}<br />
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501235151/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/attenboroughd1.shtml |date=1 May 2012 |title=BBC interviews with Attenborough in 1976 and 1998 }}<br />
* [https://www.pbs.org/lifeofbirds/sirdavid/index.html PBS interview with Attenborough in 1998]<br />
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fK0rXRmC4DQ#t=100 People and Planet: David Attenborough], video of the 2011 [[Royal Society of Arts|RSA]] President's Lecture<br />
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00942qy David Attenborough] interview on BBC Radio 4 ''[[Desert Island Discs]]'', 27 December 1998<br />
*[http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2016-10-13/david-attenborough-humanity-must-come-to-its-senses-or-face-environmental-disaster David Attenborough: humanity must come to its senses or face environmental disaster]. ''[[Radio Times]]''. 13 October 2016.<br />
<br />
{{S-start}}<br />
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{{S-bef|before=[[Michael Peacock (television executive)|Michael Peacock]]}}<br />
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{{s-ttl|title=President Emeritus of the [[Royal Society for Nature Conservation]]|years=2012–Present}}<br />
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[[Category:Social critics]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haptophyte&diff=1058307087Haptophyte2021-12-02T18:56:36Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Significance */Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Type of algae}}<br />
{{Taxobox<br />
| name = Haptophytes<br />
| image = Coccolithus pelagicus.jpg<br />
| image_caption = [[Coccolithophore]] (''[[Coccolithus pelagicus]]'')<br />
| domain = [[Eukaryota]]<br />
| unranked_superregnum = [[Diaphoretickes]]<br />
| unranked_subregnum = [[Hacrobia]]<br />
| unranked_phylum = '''Haptophyta'''<br />
| unranked_phylum_authority = Hibberd 1976 sensu Ruggerio et al. 2015<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Classes & Orders<br />
| subdivision = <br />
* [[Rappephyceae]]<br />
** [[Rappemonadales]]<br />
* [[Pavlovophyceae]]<br />
** [[Pavlovales]]<br />
* [[Prymnesiophyceae]] ''[[sensu|s.s.]]'' (= Haptophyceae ''s.s.'')<br />
** †[[Discoasterales]]<br />
** [[Phaeocystales]]<br />
** [[Prymnesiales]]<br />
** [[Isochrysidales]]<br />
** [[Stephanolithiales]]<br />
** [[Coccolithales]]<br />
** †[[Eiffellithales]]<br />
** [[Syracosphaerales]]<br />
** †[[Arkhangelskiales]]<br />
** †[[Podorhabdales]]<br />
| synonyms = <br />
* Prymnesiophyta <small>Green & Jordan, 1994</small><br />
* Prymnesiophyceae ''[[sensu|s.l.]]'' <small>Casper, 1972, ex Hibberd, 1976</small><br />
* Haptophyceae ''s.l.'' <small>Christensen, 1962 ex Silva, 1980</small><br />
* Haptophytina <small>Cavalier-Smith 2015 </small><br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''haptophytes''', classified either as the '''Haptophyta''', '''Haptophytina''' or '''Prymnesiophyta''' (named for ''[[Prymnesium]]''), are a [[clade]] of [[algae]].<br />
<br />
The names '''Haptophyceae''' or '''Prymnesiophyceae''' are sometimes used instead.<ref name="urlwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=2830&lvl=2 |title= Haptophyta | work = NCBI taxonomy database | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine }}</ref><ref name="pmid18830665">{{cite journal | vauthors = Satoh M, Iwamoto K, Suzuki I, Shiraiwa Y | title = Cold stress stimulates intracellular calcification by the coccolithophore, Emiliania huxleyi (Haptophyceae) under phosphate-deficient conditions | journal = Marine Biotechnology | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 327–33 | year = 2009 | pmid = 18830665 | doi = 10.1007/s10126-008-9147-0 | url = https://tsukuba.repo.nii.ac.jp?action=repository_uri&item_id=18688 | hdl-access = free | s2cid = 18014503 | hdl = 2241/104412 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=2136 |title=ITIS Standard Report |access-date=19 July 2014}}</ref> This ending implies classification at the [[class (biology)|class]] [[Taxonomic rank|rank]] rather than as a division. Although the [[phylogenetics]] of this group has become much better understood in recent years, there remains some dispute over which rank is most appropriate.<br />
<br />
==Characteristics==<br />
[[File:Haptophyta cell scheme.svg|thumb|left|Cell scheme. 1-[[haptonema]], 2-[[flagella]], 3-[[mitochondrion]], 4-[[Golgi apparatus]], 5-[[cell nucleus|nucleus]], 6-scales, 7-[[chrysolaminarin]] [[vacuole]], 8-[[plastid]], 9-[[ribosome]]s, 10-[[Eyespot apparatus|stigma]], 11-[[endoplasmic reticulum]], 12-chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum, 13-[[pyrenoid]], 14-[[thylakoid]]s.]]<br />
<br />
The [[chloroplast]]s are pigmented similarly to those of the [[heterokont]]s,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Andersen RA | title = Biology and systematics of heterokont and haptophyte algae | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 91 | issue = 10 | pages = 1508–22 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 21652306 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.91.10.1508 }}</ref> but the structure of the rest of the cell is different, so it may be that they are a separate line whose chloroplasts are derived from similar [[red algae|red algal]] endosymbionts.<br />
<br />
The cells typically have two slightly unequal [[flagellum|flagella]], both of which are smooth, and a unique organelle called a ''[[haptonema]]'', which is superficially similar to a flagellum but differs in the arrangement of [[microtubule]]s and in its use. The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''hapsis'', touch, and ''nema'', thread. The [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] have tubular [[crista]]e.<br />
<br />
==Significance==<br />
<br />
The best-known haptophytes are [[coccolithophore]]s, which make up 673 of the 762 described haptophyte species,<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.algaebase.org/pub_taxonomy/?id=97244 | title = Haptophyta | work = Algaebase }}</ref> and have an exoskeleton of calcareous plates called [[coccolith]]s. Coccolithophores are some of the most abundant marine [[phytoplankton]], especially in the open ocean, and are extremely abundant as microfossils, forming [[chalk]] deposits. Other planktonic haptophytes of note include ''[[Chrysochromulina]]'' and ''[[Prymnesium]]'', which periodically form toxic marine [[algal bloom]]s, and ''[[Phaeocystis]]'', blooms of which can produce unpleasant foam which often accumulates on beaches.<ref name=Cuvelier/><br />
<br />
Haptophytes are economically important, as species such as ''[[Pavlova (algae)|Pavlova lutheri]]'' and ''[[Isochrysis]] sp.'' are widely used in the [[aquaculture]] industry to feed [[oyster]] and [[shrimp]] larvae. They contain a large amount of [[polyunsaturated fatty acid]]s such as [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA), [[stearidonic acid]] and [[alpha-linolenic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Renaud SM, Zhou HC, Parry DL, Thinh LV, Woo KC |doi=10.1007/BF00003948 |title=Effect of temperature on the growth, total lipid content and fatty acid composition of recently isolated tropical microalgae Isochrysis sp., Nitzschia closterium, Nitzschia paleacea, and commercial species Isochrysis sp. (clone T.ISO) |journal=Journal of Applied Phycology |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=595–602 |year=1995 |s2cid=206766536 }}</ref> ''Tisochrysis lutea'' contains betain lipids and [[phospholipid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kato M, Sakai M, Adachi K, Ikemoto H, Sano H |doi=10.1016/0031-9422(96)00115-X |title=Distribution of betaine lipids in marine algae |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=1341–5 |year=1996 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Classification==<br />
{{Further|Wikispecies:Haptophyta}}<br />
The haptophytes were first placed in the class [[Chrysophyceae]] (golden algae), but ultrastructural data have provided evidence to classify them separately.<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-6542-3_11 | title=Phylogenetic relationships of the 'golden algae' (haptophytes, heterokont chromophytes) and their plastids | journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |volume = 11| pages=187–219 | year=1997 | vauthors = Medlin LK |isbn = 978-3-211-83035-2| url=http://epic.awi.de/2100/1/Med1997c.pdf }}</ref> Both molecular and morphological evidence supports their division into five orders; coccolithophores make up the Isochrysidales and Coccolithales. Very small (2-3μm) uncultured pico-prymnesiophytes are ecologically important.<ref name=Cuvelier>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cuvelier ML, Allen AE, Monier A, McCrow JP, Messié M, Tringe SG, Woyke T, Welsh RM, Ishoey T, Lee JH, Binder BJ, DuPont CL, Latasa M, Guigand C, Buck KR, Hilton J, Thiagarajan M, Caler E, Read B, Lasken RS, Chavez FP, Worden AZ | display-authors = 6 | title = Targeted metagenomics and ecology of globally important uncultured eukaryotic phytoplankton | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 107 | issue = 33 | pages = 14679–84 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 20668244 | pmc = 2930470 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1001665107 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..10714679C | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Haptophytes was discussed to be closely related to [[cryptomonad]]s.<ref name="pmid19398025">{{cite journal | vauthors = Reeb VC, Peglar MT, Yoon HS, Bai JR, Wu M, Shiu P, Grafenberg JL, Reyes-Prieto A, Rümmele SE, Gross J, Bhattacharya D | display-authors = 6 | title = Interrelationships of chromalveolates within a broadly sampled tree of photosynthetic protists | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 202–11 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19398025 | doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2009.04.012 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Haptophytes are closely related to the [[SAR supergroup|SAR]] clade.<ref name="pmid21810989">{{cite journal | vauthors = Parfrey LW, Lahr DJ, Knoll AH, Katz LA | title = Estimating the timing of early eukaryotic diversification with multigene molecular clocks | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 108 | issue = 33 | pages = 13624–9 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21810989 | pmc = 3158185 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1110633108 | bibcode = 2011PNAS..10813624P | doi-access = free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Subphylum Haptophytina <small>Cavalier-Smith 2015</small> [Haptophyta <small>Hibberd 1976 sensu Ruggerio et al. 2015</small>]<ref>{{citation | vauthors = Guiry MD |date=2016| title =AlgaeBase |publisher=World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway| url=http://www.algaebase.org/browse/taxonomy/?id=97244 |access-date=25 October 2016}}</ref><br />
* Clade [[Rappemonada]] <small>Kim et al. 2011</small><br />
** Class [[Rappephyceae]] <small>Cavalier-Smith 2015</small><br />
*** Order [[Rappemonadales]]<br />
**** Family [[Rappemonadaceae]]<br />
* Clade [[Haptomonada]] <small>(Margulis & Schwartz 1998)</small> [Haptophyta Hibberd 1976 emend. Edvardsen & Eikrem 2000; Prymnesiophyta <small>Green & Jordan, 1994</small>; Prymnesiomonada; Prymnesiida Hibberd 1976; Haptophyceae Christensen 1962 ex Silva 1980; Haptomonadida; Patelliferea Cavalier-Smith 1993]<br />
** Class [[Pavlovophyceae]] <small>Cavalier-Smith 1986</small> [Pavlovophycidae <small>Cavalier-Smith 1986</small>]<br />
*** Order [[Pavlovales]] <small>Green 1976</small><br />
**** Family [[Pavlovaceae]] <small>Green 1976</small><br />
** Class [[Prymnesiophyceae]] <small>Christensen 1962 emend. Cavalier-Smith 1996</small> [Haptophyceae s.s.; Prymnesiophycidae <small>Cavalier-Smith 1986</small>; Coccolithophyceae <small>Casper 1972 ex Rothmaler 1951</small>]<br />
*** Family †[[Eoconusphaeraceae]] <small>Kristan-Tollmann 1988</small> [Conusphaeraceae]<br />
*** Family †[[Goniolithaceae]] <small>Deflandre 1957</small><br />
*** Family †[[Lapideacassaceae]] <small>Black, 1971</small><br />
*** Family †[[Microrhabdulaceae]] <small>Deflandre 1963</small><br />
*** Family †[[Nannoconaceae]] <small>Deflandre 1959</small><br />
*** Family †[[Polycyclolithaceae]] <small>Forchheimer 1972 emend Varol, 1992</small><br />
*** Family †[[Lithostromationaceae]] <small>Deflandre 1959</small><br />
*** Family †[[Rhomboasteraceae]] <small>Bown, 2005</small><br />
*** Family [[Braarudosphaeraceae]] <small>Deflandre 1947</small><br />
*** Family [[Ceratolithaceae]] <small>Norris 1965 emend Young & Bown 2014</small> [Triquetrorhabdulaceae <small>Lipps 1969 - cf Young & Bown 2014</small>]<br />
*** Family [[Alisphaeraceae]] <small>Young et al., 2003</small><br />
*** Family [[Papposphaeraceae]] <small>Jordan & Young 1990 emend Andruleit & Young 2010</small><br />
*** Family [[Umbellosphaeraceae]] <small>Young et al., 2003</small> [Umbellosphaeroideae]<br />
*** Order †[[Discoasterales]] <small>Hay 1977</small><br />
**** Family †[[Discoasteraceae]] <small>Tan 1927</small><br />
**** Family †[[Heliolithaceae]] <small>Hay & Mohler 1967</small><br />
**** Family †[[Sphenolithaceae]] <small>Deflandre 1952</small><br />
**** Family †[[Fasciculithaceae]] <small>Hay & Mohler 1967</small><br />
*** Order [[Phaeocystales]] <small>Medlin 2000</small><br />
**** Family [[Phaeocystaceae]] <small>Lagerheim 1896</small><br />
*** Order [[Prymnesiales]] <small>Papenfuss 1955 emend. Edvardsen and Eikrem 2000</small><br />
**** Family [[Chrysochromulinaceae]] <small>Edvardsen, Eikrem & Medlin 2011</small><br />
**** Family [[Prymnesiaceae]] <small>Conrad 1926 ex Schmidt 1931</small><br />
*** Subclass [[Calcihaptophycidae]]<br />
**** Order [[Isochrysidales]] <small>Pascher 1910</small> [Prinsiales <small>Young & Bown 1997</small>]<br />
***** Family †[[Prinsiaceae]] <small>Hay & Mohler 1967 emend. Young & Bown, 1997</small><br />
***** Family [[Isochrysidaceae]] <small>Parke 1949</small> [Chrysotilaceae; Marthasteraceae <small>Hay 1977</small>]<br />
***** Family [[Noëlaerhabdaceae]] <small>Jerkovic 1970 emend. Young & Bown, 1997</small> [Gephyrocapsaceae <small>Black 1971</small>]<br />
**** Order †[[Eiffellithales]] <small>Rood, Hay & Barnard 1971</small> (loxolith; imbricating murolith)<br />
***** Family †[[Chiastozygaceae]] <small>Rood, Hay & Barnard 1973</small> [Ahmuellerellaceae <small>Reinhardt, 1965</small>]<br />
***** Family †[[Eiffellithaceae]] <small>Reinhardt 1965</small><br />
***** Family †[[Rhagodiscaceae]] <small>Hay 1977</small><br />
**** Order [[Stephanolithiales]] <small>Bown & Young 1997</small> (protolith; non-imbrication murolith)<br />
***** Family [[Parhabdolithaceae]] <small>Bown 1987</small><br />
***** Family †[[Stephanolithiaceae]] <small>Black 1968 emend. Black 1973</small><br />
**** Order [[Zygodiscales]] <small>Young & Bown 1997</small> [Crepidolithales]<br />
***** Family [[Helicosphaeraceae]] <small>Black 1971</small><br />
***** Family [[Pontosphaeraceae]] <small>Lemmermann 1908</small><br />
***** Family †[[Zygodiscaceae]] <small>Hay & Mohler 1967</small><br />
**** Order [[Syracosphaerales]] <small>Ostenfeld 1899 emend. Young et al., 2003</small> [Rhabdosphaerales <small>Ostenfeld 1899</small>]<br />
***** Family [[Calciosoleniaceae]] <small>Kamptner 1927</small><br />
***** Family [[Syracosphaeraceae]] <small>Lohmann, 1902</small> [Halopappiaceae <small>Kamptner 1928</small>] (caneolith & cyrtolith; murolith)<br />
***** Family [[Rhabdosphaeraceae]] <small>Haeckel, 1894</small> (planolith)<br />
**** Order †[[Watznaueriales]] <small>Bown 1987</small> (imbricating placolith)<br />
***** Family †[[Watznaueriaceae]] <small>Rood, Hay & Barnard 1971</small><br />
**** Order †[[Arkhangelskiales]] <small>Bown & Hampton 1997</small><br />
***** Family †[[Arkhangelskiellaceae]] <small>Bukry 1969</small><br />
***** Family †[[Kamptneriaceae]] <small>Bown & Hampton 1997</small><br />
**** Order †[[Podorhabdales]] <small>Rood 1971</small> [Biscutales <small>Aubry 2009</small>; Prediscosphaerales <small>Aubry 2009</small>] (non-imbricating or radial placolith)<br />
***** Family †[[Axopodorhabdaceae]] <small>Wind & Wise 1977</small> [Podorhabdaceae <small>Noel 1965</small>]<br />
***** Family †[[Biscutaceae]] <small>Black, 1971</small><br />
***** Family †[[Calyculaceae]] <small>Noel 1973</small><br />
***** Family †[[Cretarhabdaceae]] <small>Thierstein 1973</small><br />
***** Family †[[Mazaganellaceae]] <small>Bown 1987</small><br />
***** Family †[[Prediscosphaeraceae]] <small>Rood et al., 1971</small> [Deflandriaceae <small>Black 1968</small>]<br />
***** Family †[[Tubodiscaceae]] <small>Bown & Rutledge 1997</small><br />
**** Order [[Coccolithales]] <small>Schwartz 1932</small> [Coccolithophorales]<br />
***** Family [[Reticulosphaeraceae]] <small>Cavalier-Smith 1996</small> [Reticulosphaeridae]<br />
***** Family [[Calcidiscaceae]] <small>Young & Bown 1997</small><br />
***** Family [[Coccolithaceae]] <small>Poche 1913 emend. Young & Bown, 1997</small> [Coccolithophoraceae]<br />
***** Family [[Pleurochrysidaceae]] <small>Fresnel & Billard 1991</small><br />
***** Family [[Hymenomonadaceae]] <small>Senn 1900</small> [Ochrosphaeraceae <small>Schussnig 1930</small>]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Commons category|Haptophyta}}<br />
{{Wikispecies|Haptophyta}}<br />
<br />
{{Eukaryota classification}}<br />
{{Cryptophyta and haptophyta}}<br />
{{Life on Earth}}<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q500531}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Algal taxonomy]]<br />
[[Category:Haptophytes|*]]<br />
[[Category:Bikont phyla]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alternanthera_philoxeroides&diff=1056849529Alternanthera philoxeroides2021-11-23T23:01:22Z<p>Nickwilso: Nt</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Species of aquatic plant}}<br />
{{Speciesbox<br />
|image = Alternanthera philoxeroides NRCS-1.jpg<br />
|genus = Alternanthera<br />
|species = philoxeroides<br />
|authority = ([[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius|Mart.]]) [[August Heinrich Rudolf Grisebach|Griseb.]]<ref>{{IPNI | accessdate=2019-01-21}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Alternanthera philoxeroides''''', commonly referred to as '''alligator weed''', is a native species to the temperate regions of [[South America]], which includes [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]] and [[Uruguay]].<ref name=":0">http://bugwoodcloud.org/ibiocontrol/proceedings/pdf/12_435-442.pdf</ref> Argentina alone hosts around 27 species that fall within the range of the genus ''[[Alternanthera]]''.<ref name=":0" /> Its geographic range once used to cover only the [[Paraná River|Parana River]] region of South America, but it has since expanded, having been introduced to over 30 countries, such as the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[China]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and many more.<ref name=":6" /> This [[invasive species]] is believed to have been accidentally introduced to these non-native regions through sediments trapped by, or attached to, tanks and cargo of ships travelling from South America to these various areas.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
''Alternanthera philoxeroides'' can thrive in both dry and aquatic environments<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.texasinvasives.org/plant_database/detail.php?symbol=ALPH|title=Texas Invasives|website=www.texasinvasives.org|access-date=2017-09-14}}</ref> and is characterized by whitish, papery flowers along its short stalks, irregular, or sprawling hollow stems, and simple and opposite leaf pattern sprouting from its nodes.<ref name=":6" /> The species is [[Dioecy|dioecious]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.aspx?speciesID=227|title=alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides) - FactSheet|website=nas.er.usgs.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-09-14}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=December 2017}} It is also considered a [[herbaceous plant]] due to its short-lived shoot system.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/alternanthera_philoxeroides.htm|title=Alternanthera philoxeroides|website=www.sms.si.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-09-14}}</ref> It produces horizontal stems, otherwise known as [[stolon]]s, that can sprout up to {{ convert | 10 | m | ft | 0 }} in length and thanks to its hollow stems, floats easily. This results in large clusters of stem amassing and create dense mats along the surface.<ref name=":1" /> The plant flowers from December to April and usually grows around {{ convert | 13 | mm | in | frac=32 }} in diameter and tend to be papery and ball-shaped.<ref name=":1" /> The weed's intricate root system can either allow them to hang free in the water to absorb nutrients or directly penetrate the soil/sediment and pull their nutrients from below.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
== Invasive species - negative impacts ==<br />
''Alternanthera philoxeroides'' is considered a major threat to ecosystems because of the adverse effects it poses on both aquatic and terrestrial environments, as well as the negative influence it has on society.<ref name=":2" /> The species features on the list of invasive alien species of Union Concern since 2017. This means that import and trade of this species is forbidden in the whole of the European Union.<ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2021|title=European IAS Regulation|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32014R1143|url-status=live}}</ref> <br />
<br />
=== Impacts on vegetation ===<br />
The presence of this invasive species disrupts the natural flow of water due to the dense mats created by its clusters of stems.<ref name=":2" /> It out competes the native vegetation for space and solar energy through these dense mats because they form large clusters and limit the amount of light that submerged vegetation receives.<ref name=":1" /> These compact clusters of stems also disturb the regular exchange of gases that occurs underneath the surface that directly influences aerobic processes, such as [[photosynthesis]].<ref name=":6" /> Aside from driving down the population of native aquatic vegetation, ''A. philoxeroides'' can also influence the growth and yield of crops in pastures and fields.<ref name=":3">https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/67831/IPA-Alligator-Weed-Risk-Assessment.pdf</ref> These dense mats can affect the natural flow of water that is used in irrigation systems and as well as affect the quality of the water by increasing the sedimentation present in the water.<ref name=":2" /> Both of these factors must remain undisturbed for crops to grow well, and thus to provide a healthy yield for farmers, which will be discussed in the later section on its impacts on society. On top of this, the likelihood of flooding is higher due to the impaired drainage caused by the dense mats, which in turn can also damage crops.<ref name=":2" /> This invasive species also has other negative impacts on the environment.<ref name=":6" /><!-- {{Cn|date=May 2021}} --><br />
<br />
=== Impacts on animals ===<br />
As mentioned, the compact mats formed by this species can drive down the population of native vegetation in the environments it invades. This then becomes a major issue for native herbivores because their food source declines.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/alternanthera-philoxeroides|title=details|website=www.tsusinvasives.org|language=en|access-date=2017-09-14}}</ref> In addition, the dense mats present a challenge for the native wildlife by acting as a barrier between them and natural water sources.<ref name=":4" /> However, even if they can reach the water, they are still at risk because the water quality can be contaminated by the increased sediments.<ref name=":2" /> Thus, just as it did with the native vegetation, ''A. philoxeroides'' is also driving down the populations of the native wildlife as well.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Roberts LIN |author2=Sutherland ORW |authorlink1=Roberts LIN |authorlink2=Sutherland ORW |editor1-link=Hill RL |editor2-link=Bain J |editor3-link=Thomas WP |editor4-link=Cameron PJ |title=Alternanthera philoxeroides (C. Martius) Grisebach, Alligator weed (Amaranthaceae) |date=1986 |publisher=CAB |location=UK |isbn=0851986455 |pages=325–330 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268811836 |accessdate=22 January 2019 |chapter=A Review of Biological Control of Invertebrates Pests and Weeds in new Zealand 1874 to 1987}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Impacts on society ===<br />
Dense mats formed by this species influence the natural flow of water, which can impede various recreational activities, such as boating and fishing.<ref name=":2" /> The disruption of flow can also have a negative impact on infrastructure when it comes to energy, such as the use of hydro-electric dams to power generators. The dense mats also present suitable ecological conditions that mosquitoes can thrive off of.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aquaticbiologists.com/algae--nuisance-plant-control/algae--weed-id/emergent--terristrial-weeds/alligator-weed|title=Management and Control of Alligator Weed in Ponds and Lakes › Aquatic Biologists|website=www.aquaticbiologists.com|language=en|access-date=2017-09-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914125001/http://www.aquaticbiologists.com/algae--nuisance-plant-control/algae--weed-id/emergent--terristrial-weeds/alligator-weed|archive-date=2017-09-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> This is a [[commensalism|commensal relationship]] between mosquitoes and ''A. philoxeroides'' because mosquitoes receive a breeding ground and the plant gains nothing nor loses anything. The increased population of mosquitoes can bring an increased risk of [[mosquito-borne disease]]s in humans.<ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, the dense mats produced by ''A. philoxeroides'' may not present suitable ecological conditions for native species or humans to thrive off.{{cn|date=May 2021}}<br />
<br />
== Reproduction and dispersal ==<br />
This invasive plant depends solely on vegetative means to reproduce and disperse itself in the area it has invaded and established its roots. In its native geographic range, the species spreads to through means of producing viable seeds; however, it has been observed within its non-native ranges that it rarely produces viable seeds.<ref name=":3" /> To accommodate this, the ''A. philoxeroides'' reproduces through fragmentation;<ref name=":3" /> the plant can regenerate itself from small portions of stems or small leaf cuttings.<ref name=":4" /> These small fragments of the plant can then be dispersed through human means and natural means; once it is dispersed, the fragments can then find suitable ecological conditions and root themselves and regenerate.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=http://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/Details/7|title=NSW WeedWise|website=weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au|access-date=2021-11-23}}</ref><!-- {{cn|date=May 2021}} --><br />
<br />
=== Human dispersal ===<br />
In effort to eradicate the species by manual means, such as mulching or pulling them out, if not removed efficiently, small stem fragments can be displaced to new areas.<ref name=":2" /> Soil movement caused by earthmoving machinery is another example of how humans influence the dispersal of the plant.<ref name=":3" /><br />
<br />
=== Natural dispersal ===<br />
In aquatic environments, the ''A. philoxeroides'' can easily disperse its fragments by being sucked into the path of the waterways.<ref name=":3" /> In terrestrial environments, the small fragments of stems and leaf cuttings can be dispersed through the natural movement of soil caused by erosion.<ref name=":6" /> Thus, the geographic range of this invasive species can easily be expanded by any means necessary due to its ability to regenerate from practically nothing.{{Cn|date=May 2021}}<br />
<br />
== Methods of control ==<br />
<br />
=== Preventive measures ===<br />
Early detection is the best bet to ensure that the invasive species does not successfully colonize a non-native region because of its ability to regenerate and propagate from small portions of its stem or leaf cuttings. However, when that is not possible, the best that can be done is to limit and control the presence of ''A. philoxeroides'' in an area. ''Alternanthera philoxeroides'' can only establish itself in shallow waters no deeper than {{ convert | 2 | m | yd | abbr=off | 0 }}, so one method of control is to erect barriers in shallower areas to limit the amount of suitable space the plant has.<ref name=":2" /> When it comes to terrestrial environments, overpopulating the area with native species can limit the suitable space available for it.<ref name=":2" /> However, this method is only effective before the invasive plant has asserted itself in an area. Lastly, as previously mentioned, this plant is only able to produce viable seeds in its native geographic range and not in the areas it has invaded. Learning why that is - what ecological conditions make it produce only sterile seeds - could be key to developing further preventative measures against it.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
=== Biological measures ===<br />
Insects have been released for the biological control of ''A. philoxeroides''. The most successful and widely used is ''[[Agasicles hygrophila]]'' commonly called the alligator weed flea beetle; it has been released for biocontrol in [[Australia]], [[China]], [[Thailand]], [[New Zealand]], and the [[United States]]. However, their effectiveness is limited due to their inability to survive through temperatures lower than {{convert|11|C|F}}.<ref name=":7" /> ''[[Amynothrips andersoni]]'', the alligator weed thrips, and [[Arcola malloi|''Vogtia malloi'']], the alligator weed stem borer, have also been released in the United States. These species result in immediate wilting and limit ''A. philoxeroides'' reproduction by colonizing its stems.<ref name=":2" /> A variety of chemicals have been shown to be effective in controlling the plant, the most useful of which include [[glyphosate]], [[triclopyr]], [[fluridone]], [[imazamox]], and [[imazapyr]]; however, they must constantly be applied to be successful.<ref name=":2" /><br />
<br />
===Legality of sale and shipment in the United States===<br />
In 1956 ''A. philoxeroides'' was banned for sale or shipment in the [[United States]], subject to a fine and/or imprisonment.<ref name="US-ban-law" />This law was repealed by HR133 <ref>{{Cite web|last=Cuellar|first=Henry|date=2020-12-27|title=H.R.133 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2041|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/133|access-date=2020-12-29|website=www.congress.gov}}</ref>[116th Congress (2019-2020)] on 12/27/2020.{{full citation needed|date=December 2020}}{{failed verification|date=December 2020}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Ludwigia grandiflora]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|refs=<br />
<ref name="US-ban-law">{{cite act|url=http://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/USCODE-2011-title18/USCODE-2011-title18-partI-chap3-sec46|title=Transportation of water hyacinths|legislature=[[United States Congress]]|date=1 August 1956|type=Bill|index=18 U.S. Code § 46}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://bugwoodcloud.org/ibiocontrol/proceedings/pdf/12_435-442.pdf The evolutionary history of an invasive species: alligator weed, ''Alternanthera philoxeroides''], XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds<br />
* [https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/67831/IPA-Alligator-Weed-Risk-Assessment.pdf Pest Plant Risk Assessment: Alligatorweed], Biosecurity Queensland, Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation<br />
* [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/aquatic/plants/alligatorweed Species Profile - Alligatorweed (''Alternanthera philoxeroides'')], National Invasive Species Information Center, [[United States National Agricultural Library]]. Lists general information and resources for Alligatorweed.<br />
* [http://libproject.hkbu.edu.hk/was40/detail?lang=en&channelid=1288&searchword=herb_id=D00734 Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.] Medicinal Plant Images Database (School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University) {{in lang|zh-hant}} {{in lang|en}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1472735}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Alternanthera|philoxeroides]]<br />
[[Category:Aquatic plants]]<br />
[[Category:Flora of South America]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flying_squirrel&diff=1054473586Flying squirrel2021-11-10T06:58:18Z<p>Nickwilso: Ref in wrong position</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Tribe of mammals}}<br />
{{About|the member of the animal kingdom}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| fossil_range = Early [[Oligocene]] – Recent<br />
| image = Glaucomys sabrinus.jpg<br />
| image_caption = [[Northern flying squirrel]] (''Glaucomys sabrinus'')<br />
| taxon = Pteromyini<br />
| authority = [[Johann Friedrich von Brandt|Brandt]], 1855<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Genera<br />
| subdivision = ''[[Aeretes]]''<br /><br />
''[[Aeromys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Belomys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Biswamoyopterus]]''<br /><br />
''[[Eoglaucomys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Eupetaurus]]''<br /><br />
''[[Glaucomys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Hylopetes]]''<br /><br />
''[[Iomys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Petaurillus]]''<br /><br />
''[[Petaurista]]''<br /><br />
''[[Petinomys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Priapomys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Pteromys]]''<br /><br />
''[[Pteromyscus]]''<br /><br />
''[[Trogopterus]]''<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Flying squirrels''' (scientifically known as '''Pteromyini''' or '''Petauristini''') are a [[tribe (biology)|tribe]] of 50 [[species]] of [[squirrel]]s in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Squirrel|Sciuridae]]. They are not capable of flight in the same way as [[bird]]s or [[bat]]s, but they are able to glide from one tree to another with the aid of a [[patagium]], a furry, parachute-like membrane that stretches from wrist to ankle. Their long tails provide stability in flight.<ref name=":3" /> Anatomically they are very similar to other squirrels with a number of adaptations to suit their lifestyle; their limb bones are longer and their hand bones, foot bones, and distal vertebrae are shorter. Flying squirrels are able to steer and exert control over their glide path with their limbs and tail.<br />
<br />
Molecular studies have shown that flying squirrels are [[Monophyly|monophyletic]] and originated some 18–20 million years ago. The genus Paracitellus, is the earliest lineage to the flying squirrel dating back to the late Oligocene era.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Xuefei|date=24 June 2012|title=The Evolution and Paleobiogeography of Flying Squirrels (Sciuridae, Pteromyini) in Response to Global Environmental Change.|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11692-012-9191-6#citeas|journal=SpringerLink|volume=40|issue=40|pages=117–132|doi=10.1007/s11692-012-9191-6|access-date=28 October 2021}}</ref> Most are nocturnal and [[Omnivore|omnivorous]], eating [[fruit]], [[seeds]], [[buds]], [[flower]]s, [[insect]]s, [[Gastropoda|gastropods]], [[spider]]s, [[Fungus|fungi]], [[bird]]'s eggs and [[tree sap]]. The young are born in a nest and are at first naked and helpless. They are cared for by their mother and by five weeks are able to practice gliding skills so that by ten weeks they are ready to leave the nest.<br />
<br />
Some captive-bred southern flying squirrels have become domesticated as [[Small pet|small household pets]], a type of "[[pocket pet]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://petcaretips.net/squirrel-keeping-care.html|title=Do Southern Flying Squirrels make Good Pets to Keep?|website=petcaretips.net|access-date=2018-02-23}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
[[File:Flying squirrel in a tree.jpg|left|thumb|A flying squirrel gliding]]<br />
Flying squirrels are not capable of flight like [[bird]]s or [[bat]]s; instead, they [[gliding (flight)|glide]] between trees. They are capable of obtaining lift within the course of these flights, with flights recorded to {{convert|90|m|ft}}.<ref name=squirrel>{{cite web |author1=Malamuth, E. |author2=Mulheisen, M. |title=ADW: Glaucomys sabrinus – Northern flying squirrel |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Glaucomys_sabrinus.html |date=1995–2008 |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Natural History |access-date=14 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090812040048/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Glaucomys_sabrinus.html |archive-date=12 August 2009 }}</ref><ref name=siberian>{{cite journal |last=Asari |first=Y |author2=Yanagawa, H. |author3=Oshida, T. |year=2007 |title=Gliding ability of the Siberian flying squirrel ''Pteromys volans orii'' |journal=Mammal Study |volume=32 |pages=151–154 |url=http://cstl-csm.semo.edu/scheibe/Advanced%20Ecology/Pteromys%20Gliding.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711135035/http://cstl-csm.semo.edu/scheibe/Advanced%20Ecology/Pteromys%20Gliding.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-07-11 |access-date=2009-07-14 |doi=10.3106/1348-6160(2007)32[151:GAOTSF]2.0.CO;2 |issue=4 }}</ref> The direction and speed of the animal in midair are varied by changing the positions of its limbs, largely controlled by small [[cartilaginous]] wrist bones. There is a cartilage projection from the wrist that squirrel holds upwards during a glide.<ref name=":1" /> This specialized cartilage is only present in flying squirrels and not other gliding mammals.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Kawashima|first1=Tomokazu|last2=Thorington|first2=Richard W.|last3=Bohaska|first3=Paula W.|last4=Sato|first4=Fumi|date=2017-02-01|title=Evolutionary Transformation of the Palmaris Longus Muscle in Flying Squirrels (Pteromyini: Sciuridae): An Anatomical Consideration of the Origin of the Uniquely Specialized Styliform Cartilage|journal=The Anatomical Record|language=en|volume=300|issue=2|pages=340–352|doi=10.1002/ar.23471|pmid=27611816|s2cid=3628991|issn=1932-8494}}</ref> Possible origins for the styliform cartilage have been explored, and the data suggests that it is most likely homologous to the carpal structures that can be found in other squirrels.<ref name=":2" /> This cartilage along with the manus forms a wing tip to be used during gliding. After being extended, the wing tip may adjust to various angles, controlling aerodynamic movements.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Myology of the Gliding Membranes of Some Petauristine Rodents (Genera: Glaucomys, Pteromys, Petinomys, and Petaurista)|last = Johnson-Murray|first = Jane L.|date = 1977|journal = Journal of Mammalogy|doi = 10.2307/1379336|volume = 58|issue = 3|pages = 374–384|jstor = 1379336}}</ref><ref name=aerodynamic>{{cite journal |last=Thorington Jr. |first=R.W |author2=Darrow, K. |author3=Anderson, C.G. |year=1998 |title=Wing Tip Anatomy and Aerodynamics in Flying Squirrels |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=245–250 |url=http://entomology.si.edu/StaffPages/Darrow/1997WingTipAnatomy.pdf |access-date=2009-07-14 |doi=10.2307/1382860 |jstor=1382860 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090409052036/http://entomology.si.edu/StaffPages/Darrow/1997WingTipAnatomy.pdf |archive-date=2009-04-09 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The wrist also changes the tautness of the [[patagium]], a furry parachute-like membrane that stretches from wrist to ankle.<ref name=aerodynamic/> It has a fluffy tail that stabilizes in flight. The tail acts as an adjunct [[airfoil]], working as an [[Air brake (aircraft)|air brake]] before landing on a tree trunk.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carraway |first=L.N. |author2=Verts, B.J. |year=1994 |title=Sciurus griseus |journal=Mammalian Species |volume=474 |pages=1–7 |url=http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-474-01-0001.pdf |access-date=2009-07-14 |doi=10.2307/3504097 |issue=474 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107120344/http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-474-01-0001.pdf |archive-date=2010-01-07 |jstor=3504097 }}</ref><br />
<br />
The [[colugo]]s, [[Petauridae]], and [[Anomaluridae]] are gliding mammals which are similar to flying squirrels through [[convergent evolution]]. These mammals can glide through the trees; they do not actually fly (like birds and bats). They have a membrane of skin on each side of their body.<br />
<br />
Prior to the 21st century, the evolutionary history of the flying squirrel was frequently debated.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Arbogast|first=B.S.|title=A brief history of the new world flying squirrels: Phylogeny, biogeography, and conservation genetics|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|year=2007|volume=88|issue=4|pages=840–849|doi=10.1644/06-MAMM-S-322R1.1|doi-access=free}}</ref> This debate was clarified greatly as a result of two molecular studies.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mercer|first=J.M.|author2=V.L. Roth|s2cid=40366357|title=The effects of cenozoic global change on squirrel phylogeny|journal=Science|year=2003|volume=299|issue=5612|pages=1568–1572|doi=10.1126/science.1079705|pmid=12595609|bibcode=2003Sci...299.1568M}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Steppan|first=S.J. |author2=B.L. Storz |author3=R.S. Hoffmann|title=Nuclear DNA phylogeny of the squirrels (Mammalia : Rodentia) and the evolution of arboreality from c-myc and RAG1|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|year=2004|volume=30|issue=3|pages=703–719|doi=10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00204-5|pmid=15012949}}</ref> These studies found support that flying squirrels originated 18–20 million years ago, are monophyletic, and have a sister relationship with tree squirrels. Due to their close ancestry, the morphological differences between flying squirrels and tree squirrels reveal insight into the formation of the gliding mechanism. Compared to squirrels of similar size, flying squirrels, northern and southern flying squirrels show lengthening in bones of the lumbar vertebrae and forearm, whereas bones of the feet, hands, and distal vertebrae are reduced in length. Such differences in body proportions reveal the flying squirrels’ adaptation to minimize wing loading and to increase more maneuverability while gliding. The consequence for these differences is that unlike regular squirrels, flying squirrels are not well adapted for quadrupedal locomotion and therefore must rely more heavily on their gliding abilities.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = How to make a flying squirrel: Glaucomys anatomy in phylogenetic perspective|last1 = Thorington|first1 = Richard W.|date = 2007|journal = Journal of Mammalogy|doi = 10.1644/06-mamm-s-325r2.1|first2 = Erica M.|last2 = Santana|volume = 88|issue = 4|pages = 882–896|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Several hypotheses have attempted to explain the evolution of gliding in flying squirrels.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Flaherty|first=E.A. |author2=M. Ben-David |author3=W.P. Smith|title=Quadrupedal locomotor performance in two species of arboreal squirrels: predicting energy savings of gliding|journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology B|year=2010|volume=180|issue=7|pages=1067–1078|doi=10.1007/s00360-010-0470-1|pmid=20361193 |s2cid=240833 }}</ref> One possible explanation is related to energy efficiency and foraging.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Evolution of vertebrate flight: an aerodynamic model for the transition from gliding to active flight|last = Norberg|first = Ulla M.|date = 1985|journal = American Naturalist|doi = 10.1086/284419|pages = 303–327|volume = 126|issue = 3|s2cid = 85306259}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Take-off and landing forces and the evolution of controlled gliding in northern flying squirrels Glaucomys sabrinus|last1 = Paskins|first1 = Keith E.|date = 2007|journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology|doi = 10.1242/jeb.02747|pmid = 17401124|last2 = Bowyer|first2 = Adrian|last3 = Megill|last4 = Scheibe|first3 = William M.|first4 = John S.|pages = 1413–1423|volume = 210|issue = Pt 8|doi-access = free}}</ref> Gliding is an energetically efficient way to progress from one tree to another while foraging, as opposed to climbing down trees and maneuvering on the ground floor or executing dangerous leaps in the air.<ref name=":0" /> By gliding at high speeds, flying squirrels can rummage through a greater area of forest more quickly than tree squirrels. Flying squirrels can glide long distances by increasing their aerial speed and increasing their lift.<ref name=":1" /> Other hypotheses state that the mechanism evolved to avoid nearby predators and prevent injuries. If a dangerous situation arises on a specific tree, flying squirrels can glide to another, and thereby typically escape the previous danger.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Morphological attributes of gliding rodents: a preliminary analysis|last1 = Scheibe|first1 = John S.|date = 1990|journal = Transactions of the Missouri Academy of Science|last2 = Figgs|first2 = Daylan|first3 = Jeff|last3 = Heiland|volume = 24|pages = 49–56}}</ref> Furthermore, take-off and landing procedures during leaps, implemented for safety purposes, may explain the gliding mechanism. While leaps at high speeds are important to escape danger, the high-force impact of landing on a new tree could be detrimental to a squirrel’s health.<ref name=":1" /> Yet the gliding mechanism of flying squirrels involves structures and techniques during flight that allow for great stability and control. If a leap is miscalculated, a flying squirrel may easily steer back onto the original course by using its gliding ability.<ref name=":1" /> A flying squirrel also creates a large glide angle when approaching its target tree, decreasing its velocity due to an increase in air resistance and allowing all four limbs to absorb the impact of the target.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Ecological and Biomechanical Insights into the Evolution of Gliding in Mammals|last1 = Byrnes|first1 = Greg|date = 2011|journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology|doi = 10.1093/icb/icr069|pmid = 21719434|last2 = Spence|first2 = Andrew J.|pages = 991–1001|volume = 51|issue = 6|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Fluorescence ===<br />
In 2019 it was observed, by chance, that a flying squirrel [[Fluorescence|fluoresced]] pink. Subsequent research by biologists at [[Northland College (Wisconsin)|Northland College]] in Northern [[Wisconsin]] found that this is true for all three species of North American flying squirrels. At this time it is unknown what purpose this serves. Non-flying squirrels do not fluoresce under UV light.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Anich|first1=Paula Spaeth|last2=Martin|first2=Jonathan G.|last3=Olson|first3=Erik R.|last4=Kohler|first4=Allison M.|title=Ultraviolet fluorescence discovered in New World flying squirrels (Glaucomys)|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=100|pages=21–30|language=en|doi=10.1093/jmammal/gyy177|year=2019|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Taxonomy==<br />
<br />
=== Recent species ===<br />
The three species of the genus ''[[Glaucomys]]'' (''[[Glaucomys sabrinus]]'', ''[[Glaucomys volans]]'' and ''[[Glaucomys oregonensis]]'') are native to North America and Central America, while the Siberian flying squirrel is native to parts of northern [[Europe]] (''[[Siberian flying squirrel|Pteromys volans]]'').<br />
<br />
Thorington and Hoffman (2005) recognize 15 genera of flying squirrels in two subtribes.<br />
<br />
'''Tribe Pteromyini''' – flying squirrels<br />
*Subtribe [[Glaucomyina]]<br />
**Genus ''[[Eoglaucomys]]''<br />
***[[Kashmir flying squirrel]], ''Eoglaucomys fimbriatus''<br />
**Genus ''[[New World flying squirrel|Glaucomys]]'' – New World flying squirrels (American flying squirrels), [[North America]]<br />
***[[Southern flying squirrel]], ''Glaucomys volans''<br />
***[[Northern flying squirrel]], ''Glaucomys sabrinus''<br />
***[[Humboldt's flying squirrel]], ''Glaucomys oregonensis''<br />
**Genus ''[[Hylopetes]]'', [[Southeast Asia]]<br />
***[[Particolored flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes alboniger''<br />
***[[Afghan flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes baberi''<br />
***[[Bartel's flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes bartelsi''<br />
***[[Gray-cheeked flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes lepidus''<br />
***[[Palawan flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes nigripes''<br />
***[[Indochinese flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes phayrei''<br />
***[[Jentink's flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes platyurus''<br />
***[[Sipora flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes sipora''<br />
***[[Red-cheeked flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes spadiceus''<br />
***[[Sumatran flying squirrel]], ''Hylopetes winstoni''<br />
**Genus ''[[Iomys]]'', [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]<br />
***[[Javanese flying squirrel|Javanese flying squirrel (Horsfield's flying squirrel)]], ''Iomys horsfieldi''<br />
***[[Mentawi flying squirrel]], ''Iomys sipora''<br />
**Genus ''[[Petaurillus]]'' – pygmy flying squirrels, [[Borneo]] and the [[Malay Peninsula]]<br />
***[[Lesser pygmy flying squirrel]], ''Petaurillus emiliae''<br />
***[[Hose's pygmy flying squirrel]], ''Petaurillus hosei''<br />
***[[Selangor pygmy flying squirrel]], ''Petaurillus kinlochii''<br />
**Genus ''[[Petinomys]]'', [[Southeast Asia]]<br />
***[[Basilan flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys crinitus''<br />
***[[Travancore flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys fuscocapillus''<br />
***[[Whiskered flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys genibarbis''<br />
***[[Hagen's flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys hageni''<br />
***[[Siberut flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys lugens''<br />
***[[Mindanao flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys mindanensis''<br />
***[[Arrow flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys sagitta''<br />
***[[Temminck's flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys setosus''<br />
***[[Vordermann's flying squirrel]], ''Petinomys vordermanni''<br />
**Genus ''[[Priapomys]]'', western [[Yunnan]] in [[China]] and adjoining regions of [[Myanmar]]<br />
***[[Himalayan large-eared flying squirrel]], ''P. leonardi''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Li|first=Quan|last2=Cheng|first2=Feng|last3=Jackson|first3=Stephen M.|last4=Helgen|first4=Kristofer M.|last5=Song|first5=Wen-Yu|last6=Liu|first6=Shao-Ying|last7=Sanamxay|first7=Daosavanh|last8=Li|first8=Song|last9=Li|first9=Fei|last10=Xiong|first10=Yun|last11=Sun|first11=Jun|date=2021-07-18|title=Phylogenetic and morphological significance of an overlooked flying squirrel (Pteromyini, Rodentia) from the eastern Himalayas with the description of a new genus|url=http://www.zoores.ac.cn/en/article/doi/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2021.039|journal=Zoological Research|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=389–400|doi=10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2021.039|issn=2095-8137|pmc=8317177|pmid=34047079}}</ref><br />
*Subtribe [[Pteromyina]]<br />
**Genus ''[[Aeretes]]'', northeastern [[China]]<br />
***[[Groove-toothed flying squirrel|Groove-toothed flying squirrel (North Chinese flying squirrel)]], ''Aeretes melanopterus''<br />
**Genus ''[[Aeromys]]'' – large black flying squirrels, [[Thailand]] to [[Borneo]]<br />
***[[Black flying squirrel]], ''Aeromys tephromelas''<br />
***[[Thomas's flying squirrel]], ''Aeromys thomasi''<br />
**Genus ''[[Belomys]]'', Southeast Asia<br />
***[[Hairy-footed flying squirrel]], ''Belomys pearsonii''<br />
**Genus ''[[Biswamoyopterus]]'', northeastern [[India]] to southern [[China]] and southeast Asia<br />
***[[Namdapha flying squirrel]], ''Biswamoyopterus biswasi''<br />
***[[Laotian giant flying squirrel]], ''Biswamoyopterus laoensis''<br />
***[[Mount Gaoligong flying squirrel]] ''Biswamoyopterus gaoligongensis'' <br />
**Genus ''[[Eupetaurus]]'', [[Pakistan]] to [[China]]; rare<br />
***[[Western woolly flying squirrel]], ''Eupetaurus cinereus''<br />
***[[Yunnan woolly flying squirrel]], ''Eupetaurus nivamons''<br />
***[[Tibetan woolly flying squirrel]], ''Eupetaurus tibetensis''<br />
**Genus ''[[Petaurista]]'' - giant flying squirrels, Southeast Asia<br />
***[[Red and white giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista alborufus''<br />
***[[Spotted giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista elegans''<br />
***[[Hodgson's giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista magnificus''<br />
***[[Bhutan giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista nobilis''<br />
***[[Indian giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista philippensis''<br />
***[[Chinese giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista xanthotis''<br />
***[[Japanese giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista leucogenys''<br />
***[[Red giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista petaurista''<br />
***[[Mechuka giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista mechukaensis''<br />
***[[Mishmi Hills giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista mishmiensis''<br />
***[[Mebo giant flying squirrel]], ''Petaurista siangensis''<br />
**Genus ''[[Old World flying squirrel|Pteromys]]'' – Old World flying squirrels, [[Finland]] to [[Japan]]<br />
***[[Siberian flying squirrel]], ''Pteromys volans'' <br />
***[[Japanese dwarf flying squirrel]], ''Pteromys momonga''<br />
**Genus ''[[Pteromyscus]]'', southern [[Thailand]] to [[Borneo]]<br />
***[[Smoky flying squirrel]], ''Pteromyscus pulverulentus''<br />
**Genus ''[[Trogopterus]]'', [[China]]<br />
***[[Complex-toothed flying squirrel]], ''Trogopterus xanthipes''<br />
<br />
The Mechuka, Mishmi Hills, and Mebo giant flying squirrels were discovered in the northeastern state of India of Arunachal Pradesh in the late 2000s.<ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2007). A new flying squirrel of the genus ''Petaurista'' Link from Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India. ''The Newsletter & Journal of the Rhino Foundation for nat. in NE India'' 7: 26–34, plates.</ref><ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2009). One more new flying squirrel of the genus ''Petaurista'' Link, 1795 from Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India. ''The Newsletter & Journal of the Rhino Foundation for nat. in NE India'' 8: 26–34, plates.</ref><ref>Choudhury, A.U. (2013). Description of a new species of giant flying squirrel of the genus ''Petaurista'' Link, 1795 from Siang Basin, Arunachal Pradesh in North East India. ''The Newsletter & Journal of the Rhino Foundation for nat. in NE India'' 9: 30–38, plates.</ref> Their holotypes are preserved in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, India.<br />
<br />
===Fossil species===<br />
Flying squirrels have a well-documented fossil record from the [[Oligocene]] onwards. Some fossil genera go far back as the [[Eocene]], and given that the flying squirrels are thought to have diverged later, these are likely misidentifications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Casanovas-Vilar|first=Isaac|last2=Garcia-Porta|first2=Joan|last3=Fortuny|first3=Josep|last4=Sanisidro|first4=Óscar|last5=Prieto|first5=Jérôme|last6=Querejeta|first6=Marina|last7=Llácer|first7=Sergio|last8=Robles|first8=Josep M|last9=Bernardini|first9=Federico|last10=Alba|first10=David M|date=2018-10-09|title=Oldest skeleton of a fossil flying squirrel casts new light on the phylogeny of the group|url=https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.39270|journal=eLife|volume=7|pages=e39270|doi=10.7554/eLife.39270|issn=2050-084X|pmc=6177260}}</ref><br />
* ''[[Miopetaurista]]'' <br />
**''[[Miopetaurista crusafonti]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista dehmi]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista diescalidus]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista gaillardi]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista gibberosa]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista lappi]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista neogrivensis]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista thaleri]]''<br />
**''[[Miopetaurista tobieni]]''<br />
*''[[Pliopetaurista]]''<br />
** ''[[Pliopetaurista kollmanni]]'' Daxner-Höck, 2004<ref name="Daxner-Höck 2004" /><br />
* ''[[Neopetes]]''<ref name="Daxner-Höck 2004">Daxner-Höck G. (2004). "Flying Squirrels (Pteromyinae, Mammalia) from the Upper Miocene of Austria". ''[[Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien]]'' '''106A''': 387–423. [http://www.biologiezentrum.at/pdf_frei_remote/ANNA_106A_0387-0423.pdf PDF].</ref><br />
** ''[[Neopetes hoeckarum]]'' (De Bruijn, 1998)<br />
** ''[[Neopetes macedoniensis]]'' (Bouwens and De Bruijn, 1986)<br />
** ''[[Neopetes debruijni]]'' (Reumer & Hoek Ostende, 2003)<br />
<br />
==Life cycles==<br />
[[File:Gliding flying squirrel.jpg|thumb|A southern flying squirrel (''Glaucomys volans'') gliding]]<br />
The life expectancy of flying squirrels in the wild is about six years, and flying squirrels can live up to fifteen years in zoos. The mortality rate in young flying squirrels is high because of predators and diseases. Predators of flying squirrels include [[tree snake]]s, [[raccoon]]s, [[owl]]s, [[marten]]s, [[fisher (animal)|fisher]]s, [[coyote]]s, [[bobcat]]s, and [[feral cats]].<ref name=squirrel/> In the Pacific Northwest of North America, the [[northern spotted owl]] (''Strix occidentalis'') is a common predator of flying squirrels.<br />
<br />
Flying squirrels are usually [[nocturnal]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thorington, Jr. |first=R.W |author2=Pitassy, D. |author3=Jansa, S.A. |year=2002 |title=Phylogenies of Flying Squirrels (Pteromyinae) |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |volume=9 |issue=1–2 |pages=99–135 |url=http://www.tc.umn.edu/~jansa003/PDFs/Thorington.etal.02.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611111147/http://www.tc.umn.edu/~jansa003/PDFs/Thorington.etal.02.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-06-11 |access-date=2009-07-14 |doi=10.1023/A:1021335912016 |s2cid=12443674 }}</ref> since they are not adept at escaping birds of prey that hunt during the daytime.<ref name=squirrel/> They eat according to their environment; they are [[omnivorous]], and will eat whatever food they can find. The North American southern flying squirrel eats seeds, insects, [[gastropods]] (slugs and snails), spiders, shrubs, flowers, fungi, and tree sap.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}<br />
<br />
===Reproduction===<br />
The mating season for flying squirrels is during February and March. When the infants are born, the female squirrels live with them in maternal nest sites. The mothers nurture and protect them until they leave the nest. The males do not participate in nurturing their offspring.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Studelska |first=Rebecca. |year=1997 |title=Northern Flying Squirrels |url=http://www.northern.edu/natsource/MAMMALS/Northe1.htm |publisher=Northern State University |access-date=2009-09-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219220147/http://www.northern.edu/natsource/MAMMALS/Northe1.htm |archive-date=February 19, 2008 }}</ref><br />
<br />
At birth, flying squirrels are mostly hairless, apart from their whiskers, and most of their senses are not present. Their internal organs are visible through the skin, and their sex can be signified. By week five, they are almost fully developed. At that point, they can respond to their environment and start to develop a mind of their own. Through the upcoming weeks of their lives, they practice leaping and gliding. After two and a half months, their gliding skills are perfected, they are ready to leave the nest, and are capable of independent survival.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Patterson. |first=Robert |year=2009 |title=Life Cycle |url=http://www.flyingsquirrels.com/lifecycle.html |access-date=2009-09-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130014623/http://www.flyingsquirrels.com/lifecycle.html |archive-date=2009-01-30 }}</ref><br />
<br />
===Diet===<br />
Flying squirrels can easily forage for food in the night, given their highly developed sense of smell. They harvest fruits, nuts, fungi, and birds' eggs.<ref name=squirrel/><ref>{{cite journal |last=North |first=M. |author2=Trappe, J. |author3=Franklin, J. |year=1995 |title=Standing crop and animal consumption of fungal sporocarps in Pacific Northwest forests |journal=Ecology |volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=1543–1554 |url=http://www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/affiliates/north/Publications/Standing%20crop%20and%20animal%20consumption%20of%20fungal.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610103643/http://www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/affiliates/north/Publications/Standing%20crop%20and%20animal%20consumption%20of%20fungal.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-06-10 |access-date=2009-07-14 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1543:SCAACO]2.0.CO;2 }}</ref><ref name=siberian/> Many gliders have specialized diets and there is evidence to believe that gliders may be able to take advantage of scattered protein deficient food.<ref name="Byrnes 2011 991–1001">{{cite journal|last=Byrnes|first=G.|author2=A.J. Spence|title=Ecological and biomechanical insights into the evolution of gliding in mammals|journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology|year=2011|volume=51|issue=6|pages=991–1001|doi=10.1093/icb/icr069|pmid=21719434|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, gliding is a fast form of locomotion and by reducing travel time between patches, they can increase the amount of foraging time.<ref name="Byrnes 2011 991–1001"/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{portal|Mammals}}<br />
* [[Anomalure]], aka: scaly-tailed squirrel<br />
* [[Flying and gliding animals]]<br />
* [[Gliding possum]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|35em}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* Thorington, R. W. Jr. and R. S. Hoffman. 2005. Family Sciuridae. pp.&nbsp;754–818 in ''Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference''. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.<br />
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Flying-squirrel}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Commons category|Pteromyini}}<br />
{{Wikispecies|Pteromyini}}<br />
<br />
* [https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Mammals/Flying-Squirrels Flying Squirrels, National Wildlife Foundation]<br />
<br />
* [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Pteromyinae.html Animal Diversity Web: Pteromyinae], classification<br />
<br />
{{S. Sciurinae2 nav}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q9490}}<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Flying Squirrel}}<br />
[[Category:Flying squirrels| ]]<br />
[[Category:Gliding animals]]<br />
[[Category:Extant Rupelian first appearances]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich von Brandt]]<br />
<br />
[[mr:शेकरू]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methadone&diff=1053333701Methadone2021-11-03T08:42:00Z<p>Nickwilso: Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Opioid medication used primarily to treat dependency on stronger opioids}}<br />
{{Redirect|Metadon|the fly genus|Metadon (fly)}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}<br />
{{Drugbox<br />
| Verifiedfields = changed<br />
| Watchedfields = changed<br />
| verifiedrevid = 420419989<br />
| IUPAC_name = (''RS'')-6-(dimethylamino)-4,4-diphenylheptan-3-one<br />
| image = Methadone.svg<br />
| width = 200px<br />
| caption = [[Skeletal formula]]<br />
| image2 = Methadone-from-xtal-Mercury-3D-bs-v2.png<br />
| width2 = 225px<br />
| alt2 = The more active R enantiomer of methadone (levomethadone)<br />
| caption2 = [[Ball-and-stick model]] based on the [[crystal structure]]<ref>{{ Cite journal | url = https://www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk/structures/Search?Ccdcid=METHAD01&DatabaseToSearch=Published | title = CSD Entry METHAD01: (6R)-Dimethylamino-4,4-diphenyl-3-heptanone, L-Methadone | website = [[Cambridge Structural Database]]: Access Structures | publisher = [[Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre]] | access-date = 2020-11-22 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | journal = [[Acta Chemica Scandinavica|Acta Chem. Scand.]] | volume = 28b | pages = 5-12 | title = Crystal Structures of Synthetic Analgetics. II. l-Methadone. | first1 = Erik | last1 = Bye | year = 1974 | doi = 10.3891/acta.chem.scand.28b-0005 }}</ref><br />
| chirality = [[Racemic mixture]]<br />
<br />
<!--Clinical data-->| tradename = Dolophine, Methadose, others<br />
| Drugs.com = {{drugs.com|monograph|methadone-hydrochloride}}<br />
| MedlinePlus = a682134<br />
| DailyMedID = Methadone<br />
| pregnancy_AU = C<br />
| pregnancy_US = C<br />
| legal_AU = Schedule 8<br />
| legal_CA = Schedule I<br />
| legal_DE = Anlage III<br />
| legal_US = Schedule II<br />
| legal_UK = Class A<br />
| addiction_liability = High<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bonewit-West |first1=Kathy |last2=Hunt |first2=Sue A. |last3=Applegate |first3=Edith |title=Today's Medical Assistant: Clinical and Administrative Procedures |date=2012|page=571 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=9781455701506 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YalYPI1KqTQC&pg=PA571 |language=en}}</ref><br />
| routes_of_administration = By mouth, intravenous, insufflation, sublingual, rectal<br />
<br />
<!--Pharmacokinetic data-->| bioavailability = 15-20% subcutaneous<ref name="acta08">{{cite journal|last=Anaheim|first=OM|author2=Moksnes, K |author3=Borchgrevink, PC |author4=Kaasa, S |author5= Dale, O |title=Clinical pharmacology of methadone for pain.|journal=Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica|date=August 2008|volume=52|issue=7|pages=879–89|doi=10.1111/j.1399-6576.2008.01597.x|pmid=18331375|s2cid=25626479}}</ref><br /><br />
100% intravenous<ref name="acta08" /><br /><br />
41–99% (by mouth)<ref name="acta08" /><br />
| protein_bound = 85–90%<ref name="acta08" /><br />
| metabolism = [[Liver]] ([[CYP3A4]], [[CYP2B6]] and [[CYP2D6]]-mediated)<ref name="acta08" /><ref name=PMJ04>{{cite journal|last=Brown|first=R|author2=Kraus, C|author3=Fleming, M|author4=Reddy, S|title=Methadone: applied pharmacology and use as adjunctive treatment in chronic pain.|journal=Postgraduate Medical Journal|date=November 2004|volume=80|issue=949|pages=654–9|doi=10.1136/pgmj.2004.022988|pmid=15537850|url= http://pmj.bmj.com/content/80/949/654.full.pdf|pmc=1743125|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502005223/http://pmj.bmj.com/content/80/949/654.full.pdf|archive-date=2014-05-02}}</ref><br />
| elimination_half-life = 15 to 55 hours<ref name = PMJ04/><br />
| excretion = Urine, faeces<ref name = PMJ04/><br />
| onset = Rapid<ref name=AHFS2015/><br />
| duration_of_action = Single dose: 4–8 h<br />Prolonged use:<br /> • Withdrawal prevention: 1–2 days<ref name=AHFS2015/><br /> • Pain relief: 8–12 hours<ref name=AHFS2015/><ref name="DurPain"/><br />
<br />
<!--Identifiers-->| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}<br />
| CAS_number = 76-99-3<br />
| ATC_prefix = N02<br />
| ATC_suffix = AC52<br />
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|N07|BC02}} {{ATCvet|N02|AC90}}<br />
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}}<br />
| ChEBI = 6807<br />
| PubChem = 4095<br />
| IUPHAR_ligand = 5458<br />
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}<br />
| DrugBank = DB00333<br />
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}<br />
| ChemSpiderID = 3953<br />
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}<br />
| UNII = UC6VBE7V1Z<br />
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}<br />
| KEGG = D08195<br />
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}<br />
| ChEMBL = 651<br />
<br />
<!--Chemical data-->| C = 21<br />
| H = 27<br />
| N = 1<br />
| O = 1<br />
| SMILES = CCC(C(C1=CC=CC=C1)(C2=CC=CC=C2)CC(N(C)C)C)=O<br />
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}<br />
| StdInChI = 1S/C21H27NO/c1-5-20(23)21(16-17(2)22(3)4,18-12-8-6-9-13-18)19-14-10-7-11-15-19/h6-15,17H,5,16H2,1-4H3<br />
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}<br />
| StdInChIKey = USSIQXCVUWKGNF-UHFFFAOYSA-N<br />
}}<br />
<!-- Definition and medical uses --><br />
'''Methadone''', sold under the brand names '''Dolophine''' and '''Methadose''' among others, is a synthetic [[opioid agonist]] used for [[opioid maintenance therapy]] in [[opioid dependence]] and for [[chronic pain]] management.<ref name=AHFS2015>{{cite web|title=Methadone Hydrochloride|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/methadone-hydrochloride.html|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|access-date=22 December 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223011324/http://www.drugs.com/monograph/methadone-hydrochloride.html|archive-date=23 December 2015}}</ref> Detoxification using methadone can be accomplished in less than a month, or it may be done gradually over as long as six months.<ref name=AHFS2015/> While a single dose has a rapid effect, maximum effect can take up to five days of use.<ref name=AHFS2015/> The pain-relieving effects last about six hours after a single dose.<ref name="AHFS2015"/><!-- quote = Approximately 4–8 hours after a single dose --><ref name=Gris2011>{{Cite journal|last=Grissinger|first=Matthew|date=August 2011|title=Keeping Patients Safe From Methadone Overdoses |journal=Pharmacy and Therapeutics|volume=36|issue=8|pages=462–466 |pmc=3171821|pmid=21935293}}</ref> After long-term use, in people with normal liver function, effects last 8 to 36 hours.<ref name="AHFS2015"/><ref name="DurPain">{{cite journal|last1=Toombs|first1=JD|last2=Kral|first2=LA|title=Methadone treatment for pain states.|journal=American Family Physician|date=1 April 2005|volume=71|issue=7|pages=1353–8|pmid=15832538|url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/0401/p1353.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905230511/http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/0401/p1353.html|archive-date=5 September 2017}}</ref> Methadone is usually taken by mouth and rarely by [[intramuscular|injection into a muscle]] or [[intravenous|vein]].<ref name=AHFS2015/><br />
<br />
<!-- Side effects and mechanism --><br />
Side effects are similar to those of other opioids.<ref name=AHFS2015/> These frequently include dizziness, sleepiness, vomiting, and sweating.<ref name=AHFS2015/><ref>{{cite web|title=Methadone|publisher=The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration|url=https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/medications-counseling-related-conditions/methadone|access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref> Serious risks include [[opioid abuse]] and [[respiratory depression]].<ref name=AHFS2015/> [[Heart arrhythmia|Abnormal heart rhythms]] may also occur due to a prolonged [[QT interval]].<ref name=AHFS2015/> The number of deaths in the United States involving methadone poisoning declined from 4,418 in 2011<ref>{{cite web|title=Data table for Figure 1. Age-adjusted drug-poisoning and opioid-analgesic poisoning death rates: United States, 1999–2011|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db166_table.pdf#2|website=CDC|access-date=22 December 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123200249/http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db166_table.pdf#2|archive-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> to 3,300 in 2015.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Rose A.|last1=Rudd|first2=Puja|last2=Seth|first3=Felicita|last3=David|first4=Lawrence|last4=Scholl|title=Increases in Drug and Opioid-Involved Overdose Deaths — United States, 2010–2015|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report|date=2016|issn=0149-2195|pages=1445–1452|volume=65|issue=5051|doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm655051e1|pmid=28033313|doi-access=free}}</ref> Risks are greater with higher doses.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chou|first1=R|last2=Turner|first2=JA|last3=Devine|first3=EB|last4=Hansen|first4=RN|last5=Sullivan|first5=SD|last6=Blazina|first6=I|last7=Dana|first7=T|last8=Bougatsos|first8=C|last9=Deyo|first9=RA|title=The effectiveness and risks of long-term opioid therapy for chronic pain: a systematic review for a National Institutes of Health Pathways to Prevention Workshop.|journal=Annals of Internal Medicine|date=17 February 2015|volume=162|issue=4|pages=276–86|pmid=25581257|doi=10.7326/M14-2559|doi-access=free}}</ref> Methadone is made by [[chemical synthesis]] and acts on [[opioid receptors]].<ref name=AHFS2015/><br />
<br />
<!-- History, society, and culture --><br />
Methadone was developed in Germany around 1937 to 1939 by [[Gustav Ehrhart]] and [[Max Bockmühl]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Methadone Matters: Evolving Community Methadone Treatment of Opiate Addiction|date=2003|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9780203633090|page=13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ObB64ZKWoC&pg=PA13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223052336/https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ObB64ZKWoC&pg=PA13|archive-date=2015-12-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Drug Policy|date=2011|isbn=9781506338248|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OePnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT662|chapter=Diphenypropylamine Derivatives|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223050127/https://books.google.com/books?id=OePnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT662|archive-date=2015-12-23|last1=Kleiman|first1=Mark A. R.|last2=Hawdon|first2=James E.}}</ref> It was approved for use in the United States in 1947.<ref name=AHFS2015/> {{WHO LEM|21}} In 2013, about 41,400 kilograms were manufactured globally.<ref name=UN2015>{{cite book|title=Narcotic Drugs 2014|date=2015|publisher=International Narcotics Control Board|isbn=9789210481571|page=21|url=https://www.incb.org/documents/Narcotic-Drugs/Technical-Publications/2014/Narcotic_Drugs_Report_2014.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602192211/https://www.incb.org/documents/Narcotic-Drugs/Technical-Publications/2014/Narcotic_Drugs_Report_2014.pdf|archive-date=2015-06-02}}</ref> It is regulated similarly to other [[narcotic drug]]s.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((World Health Organization)) | year= 2009 | title=Guidelines for the psychosocially assisted pharmacological treatment of opioid dependence | publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) | hdl=10665/43948 | hdl-access=free | isbn=9789241547543 | page=78 }}</ref> It is not particularly expensive in the United States.<ref name=Ric2015>{{cite book|last1=Hamilton|first1=Richart|title=Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2015 Deluxe Lab-Coat Edition|date=2015|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=9781284057560|page=13}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{TOC limit}}<br />
<br />
== Medical uses ==<br />
=== Opioid addiction ===<br />
Methadone is used for the treatment of [[opioid use disorder]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.lecturio.com/concepts/opioid-use-disorder/ | title= Opioid Use Disorder | website= The Lecturio Medical Concept Library | access-date=2021-06-25}}</ref><br />
It may be used as maintenance therapy or in shorter periods for detoxification to manage opioid withdrawal symptoms. Its use for the treatment of addiction is usually strictly regulated. In the US, outpatient treatment programs must be certified by the federal [[Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]] (SAMHSA) and registered by the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] (DEA) in order to prescribe methadone for opioid addiction.<br />
<br />
A 2009 [[Cochrane review]] found methadone was effective in retaining people in treatment and in the reduction or cessation of heroin use as measured by self-report and urine/hair analysis but did not affect criminal activity or risk of death.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002209.pub2 |title=Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |year=2009 |last1=Mattick |first1=Richard P |last2=Breen |first2=Courtney |last3=Kimber |first3=Jo |last4=Davoli |first4=Marina |editor1-last=Mattick |editor1-first=Richard P |pmid=19588333 |issue=4 |pages=CD002209|pmc=7097731 |url=http://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/5044/1/5044.pdf }}</ref><br />
<br />
Treatment of opioid-dependent persons with methadone follows one of two routes: maintenance or detoxification.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stotts|first1=Angela L.|last2=Dodrill|first2=Carrie L.|last3=Kosten|first3=Thomas R.|date=2009|title=Opioid dependence treatment: options in pharmacotherapy|journal=Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy|volume=10|issue=11|pages=1727–1740|doi=10.1517/14656560903037168|issn=1744-7666|pmc=2874458|pmid=19538000}}</ref> Methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) usually takes place in outpatient settings. It is usually prescribed as a single daily dose medication for those who wish to abstain from illicit opioid use. Treatment models for MMT differ. It is not uncommon for treatment recipients to be administered methadone in a specialist clinic, where they are observed for around 15–20 minutes post-dosing, to reduce the risk of diversion of medication.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=((World Health Organization)) | year=2009 | title=Clinical guidelines for withdrawal management and treatment of drug dependence in closed settings. Manila : WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific | hdl=10665/207032 | hdl-access=free | isbn=9789290614302 | chapter=Methadone maintenance treatment | publisher=WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific }}</ref><br />
<br />
The duration of methadone treatment programs range from a few months to several years. Given opioid dependence is characteristically a chronic relapsing/remitting disorder, MMT may be lifelong. The length of time a person remains in treatment depends on a number of factors. While starting doses may be adjusted based on the amount of opioids reportedly used, most clinical guidelines suggest doses start low (e.g. at doses not exceeding 40&nbsp;mg daily) and are incremented gradually.<ref name="JosephStancliffLangrod" /><ref name="Connock">{{cite journal |pmid=17313907 |year=2007 |last1=Connock |first1=M |last2=Juarez-Garcia |first2=A |last3=Jowett |first3=S |last4=Frew |first4=E |last5=Liu |first5=Z |last6=Taylor |first6=RJ |last7=Fry-Smith |first7=A |last8=Day |first8=E |last9=Listerine |first9=N |last10=Roberts |first10=T |last11=Burls |first11=A |last12=Taylor |first12=RS |title=Methadone and buprenorphine for the management of opioid dependence: A systematic review and economic evaluation |volume=11 |issue=9 |pages=1–171, iii–iv |journal=Health Technology Assessment |doi=10.3310/hta11090|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
Methadone [[Maintenance dose|maintenance]] has been shown to reduce the transmission of bloodborne viruses associated with opioid injection, such as hepatitis B and C, and/or HIV.<ref name="JosephStancliffLangrod" /> The principal goals of methadone maintenance are to relieve opioid cravings, suppress the abstinence syndrome, and block the euphoric effects associated with opioids.<br />
<br />
Chronic methadone dosing will eventually lead to neuroadaptation, characterised by a syndrome of tolerance and withdrawal (dependence). However, when used correctly in treatment, maintenance therapy has been found to be medically safe, non-sedating, and can provide a slow recovery from opioid addiction.<ref name="JosephStancliffLangrod" /> Methadone has been widely used for pregnant women addicted to opioids.<ref name="JosephStancliffLangrod">{{cite journal |pmid=11064485 |year=2000 |last1=Joseph |first1=H |last2=Stancliff |first2=S |last3=Langrod |first3=J |title=Methadone maintenance treatment (MMT): A review of historical and clinical issues |volume=67 |issue=5–6 |pages=347–64 |journal=The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Pain ===<br />
Methadone is used as an [[analgesic]] in chronic pain, often in [[opioid rotation|rotation with other opioids]].<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Kraychete |first1=DC |last2=Sakata |first2=RK |title=Use and rotation of opioids in chronic non-oncologic pain. |journal=Revista Brasileira de Anestesiologia |date=July 2012 |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=554–62 |doi=10.1016/S0034-7094(12)70155-1 |pmid=22793972|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Mercadante |first1=S |last2=Bruera |first2=E |title=Opioid switching in cancer pain: From the beginning to nowadays. |journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology |date=March 2016 |volume=99 |pages=241–8 |doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.12.011 |pmid=26806145}}</ref> Due to its activity at the [[NMDA receptor]], it may be more effective against [[neuropathic pain]]; for the same reason, tolerance to the analgesic effects may be less than that of other opioids.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1742-1241.2008.01990.x |title=The role of methadone in cancer pain treatment - a review |year=2009 |last1=Leppert |first1=W. |journal=International Journal of Clinical Practice |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=1095–109 |pmid=19570126|s2cid=205875314 }}</ref><ref name=Cochrane2007>{{cite journal | last1 = Nicholson | first1 = AB | editor1-first = Anna | editor1-last = Hobson | date = Oct 2007 | title = Methadone for cancer pain | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = 4 | issue = 4| page = CD003971 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003971.pub3 | pmid = 17943808 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Adverse effects ==<br />
[[File:Rational harm assessment of drugs radar plot.svg|thumb|Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in [[Delphi method|delphic analysis]] regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. Street methadone was ranked 4th in dependence, 5th in physical harm, and 5th in social harm.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nutt|first1=D|last2=King|first2=LA|last3=Saulsbury|first3=W|last4=Blakemore|first4=C|title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse.|journal=Lancet|date=24 March 2007|volume=369|issue=9566|pages=1047–53|pmid=17382831|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60464-4|s2cid=5903121}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
Adverse effects of methadone include:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-2671-1278/methadone-oral/methadone-concentrate-oral/details#:~:text=Nausea%2C%20vomiting%2C%20constipation%2C%20lightheadedness,your%20doctor%20or%20pharmacist%20promptly. | title=Methadone Oral: Side Effects | website= WebMD |access-date=2021-06-25}}</ref><br />
* Sedation<br />
* [[constipation]]<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Flushing (physiology)|Flushing]]<ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Perspiration]]<ref name=medlineplus-archive/> <br />
* [[Heat intolerance]]<br />
* Dizziness<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=RxList/><ref name=MedicineNet/> or fainting<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=RxList/><ref name=MedicineNet/><br />
* Weakness<ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Fatigue (medical)#Chronic fatigue|Chronic fatigue]], sleepiness<ref name=medlineplus-archive/> and exhaustion<br />
* Sleep problems such as drowsiness,<ref name=Drugs.com/><br />
* [[Miotic|Constricted pupils]]<br />
* [[Xerostomia|Dry mouth]]<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Nausea]]<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=medlineplus-archive/> and [[vomiting]]<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Hypotension|Low blood pressure]]<br />
* [[Headache]]<ref name=medlineplus-archive>{{cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/medmaster/a682134.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227025738/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/medmaster/a682134.html |archive-date=2008-02-27 |title=Methadone| website=MedlinePlus}}</ref><br />
* Heart problems such as chest pain<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=RxList/> or fast/pounding heartbeat<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=RxList/><ref name=MedicineNet/><br />
* [[Cardiac arrhythmia|Abnormal heart rhythms]]<ref name=MedicineNet/><ref name="pmc3021856">{{cite journal |doi=10.4061/2010/524764 |title=Torsade de Pointes due to Methadone Use in a Patient with HIV and Hepatitis C Coinfection |year=2010 |last1=John |first1=Jinu |last2=Amley |first2=Xixi |last3=Bombino |first3=Gabriel |last4=Gitelis |first4=Chaim |last5=Topi |first5=Bernard |last6=Hollander |first6=Gerald |last7=Ghosh |first7=Joydeep |journal=Cardiology Research and Practice |volume=2010 |pages=1–4 |pmid=21253542 |pmc=3021856}}</ref><br />
* Respiratory problems such as trouble breathing,<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=RxList/> slow or shallow breathing ([[hypoventilation]]),<ref name=Drugs.com>{{cite web |url=https://www.drugs.com/methadone.html |title=Methadone |publisher=Drugs.com |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729133154/https://www.drugs.com/methadone.html |archive-date=2017-07-29 }}</ref><ref name=RxList>{{cite web |url=http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/methdone.htm |title=Dolophine: Drug Description |website=RxList |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080903135222/http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/methdone.htm |archive-date=2008-09-03 }}</ref> light-headedness,<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=RxList/><ref name=MedicineNet>{{cite web |url=http://www.medicinenet.com/methadone-dispersible_tablet/article.htm |title=Methadone |publisher=MedicineNet |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040715/http://www.medicinenet.com/methadone-dispersible_tablet/article.htm |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> or fainting<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=RxList/><br />
*[[weight gain]]<ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* Memory loss<br />
* [[Itching]]<br />
* [[Difficulty urinating]]<ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Swelling (medical)|Swelling]] of the hands, arms, feet, and legs<ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Mood changes]],<ref name=medlineplus-archive/> euphoria, disorientation<br />
* [[Blurred vision]]<ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* Decreased [[libido]],<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=medlineplus-archive/> difficulty in reaching [[orgasm]],<ref name=Drugs.com/> or [[impotence]]<ref name=Drugs.com/><ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Amenorrhea|Missed menstrual periods]],<ref name=medlineplus-archive/><br />
* [[Skin rash]]<br />
* Central sleep apnea<br />
<br />
=== Withdrawal symptoms ===<br />
<br />
'''Physical symptoms'''<br />
* [[Lightheadedness]]<ref name=michael>{{cite web | url = http://www.michaelshouse.com/methadone-addiction/methadone-withdrawal-symptoms/ | title = Methadone Withdrawal Symptoms | publisher = Michael's House Drug & Alcohol Treatment Centers | access-date = 23 October 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130308110745/http://www.michaelshouse.com/methadone-addiction/methadone-withdrawal-symptoms/ | archive-date = 8 March 2013 }}</ref><br />
* [[Lacrimation|Tearing]] of the eyes<ref name=michael/><ref name=sadovsky/><br />
* [[Mydriasis]] (dilated pupils)<ref name=michael/><br />
* [[Photophobia]] (sensitivity to light)<br />
* [[Hyperventilation syndrome]] (breathing that is too fast/deep)<br />
* [[Rhinorrhea|Runny nose]]<ref name=sadovsky/><br />
* Yawning<br />
* Sneezing<ref name=sadovsky/><br />
* [[Nausea]],<ref name=michael/><ref name=sadovsky/> vomiting,<ref name=michael/><ref name=sadovsky/> and [[diarrhea]]<ref name=michael/><br />
* [[Fever]]<ref name=sadovsky/><br />
* [[Sweating]]<ref name=michael/><br />
* Chills<ref name=sadovsky/><br />
* [[Tremor]]s<ref name=michael/><ref name=sadovsky/><br />
* [[Akathisia]] (restlessness)<br />
* [[Tachycardia]] (fast heartbeat)<ref name=sadovsky/><br />
* Aches<ref name=michael/> and pains, often in the joints or legs<br />
* Elevated pain sensitivity<br />
* Blood pressure that is too high ([[hypertension]], may cause a stroke)<br />
'''Cognitive symptoms'''<br />
* [[Suicidal ideation]]<br />
* Susceptibility to cravings<ref name=michael/><br />
* [[Depression (mood)|Depression]]<ref name=michael/><br />
* Spontaneous [[orgasm]]<br />
* Prolonged [[insomnia]]<br />
* [[Delirium]]<br />
* [[Auditory hallucinations]]<br />
* [[Visual hallucinations]]<br />
* Increased perception of odors ([[olfaction]]), real or imagined<br />
* Marked increase in [[Libido|sex drive]]<br />
* [[Psychomotor agitation|Agitation]]<br />
* [[Anxiety]]<ref name=michael/><br />
* [[Panic disorder]]<br />
* Nervousness<ref name=michael/><br />
* [[Paranoia]]<br />
* [[Delusions]]<br />
* [[Apathy]]<br />
* [[Anorexia (symptom)]]<br />
<br />
Methadone withdrawal symptoms are reported as being significantly more protracted than withdrawal from opioids with shorter half-lives.<br />
<br />
When used for opioid maintenance therapy, Methadone is generally administered as an oral liquid. Methadone has been implicated in contributing to significant [[tooth decay]]. Methadone causes [[xerostomia|dry mouth]], reducing the protective role of [[saliva]] in preventing decay. Other putative mechanisms of methadone-related tooth decay include craving for carbohydrates related to opioids, poor dental care, and general decrease in personal hygiene. These factors, combined with sedation, have been linked to the causation of extensive dental damage.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brondani|first1=M|last2=Park|first2=PE|title=Methadone and oral health--a brief review.|journal=Journal of Dental Hygiene |date=16 May 2011|volume=85|issue=2|pages=92–8|pmid=21619737}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=CH|last2=Meechan|first2=JG|title=Dental management of patients taking methadone.|journal=Dental Update|date=October 2005|volume=32|issue=8|pages=477–8, 481–2, 485|doi=10.12968/denu.2005.32.8.477|pmid=16262036}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Black box warning ===<br />
Methadone has the following US FDA black box warning:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/pro/methadone.html|title=Methadone Black Box Warnings - Drugs.com|website=drugs.com|access-date=2018-11-20}}</ref><br />
<br />
* Risk of addiction and abuse<br />
* Potentially fatal respiratory depression<br />
* Lethal overdose in accidental ingestion<br />
* QT prolongation<ref name="pmid33157550">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tran PN, Sheng J, Randolph AL, Baron CA, Thiebaud N, Ren M, Wu M, Johannesen L, Volpe DA, Patel D, Blinova K, Strauss DG, Wu WW |title=Mechanisms of QT prolongation by buprenorphine cannot be explained by direct hERG channel block |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=e0241362 |date=2020 |pmid=33157550 |pmc=7647070 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0241362 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1541362T |url= |issn=|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
* Neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome in children of pregnant women<br />
* CYP450 drug interactions<br />
* Risks when used with benzodiazepines and other CNS depressants, including alcohol.<br />
* A certified opioid treatment program is required under federal law (42 CFR 8.12) when dispensing methadone for the treatment of opioid addiction or detoxification.<br />
<br />
=== Overdose ===<br />
Most people who have overdosed on methadone may show some of the following symptoms:<br />
* [[Miosis]] (constricted pupils)<ref name=medline-methadone>{{cite web | url = https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a682134.html | title = Methadone (meth' a done) | publisher = National Institutes of Health | work = MedlinePlus | date = 1 February 2009 | access-date = 23 October 2013 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131017172738/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a682134.html | archive-date = 17 October 2013 }}</ref><br />
* Vomiting<ref name=MedlinePlusOverdose>{{cite web|title=Methadone overdose|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002679.htm|website=MedlinePlus|date=3 October 2017}}</ref><br />
* [[Hypoventilation]] (breathing that is too slow/shallow)<ref name=medline-methadone/><br />
* [[Drowsiness]],<ref name=medline-methadone/> sleepiness, disorientation, sedation, unresponsiveness<br />
* Skin that is cool, clammy (damp), and pale<ref name=medline-methadone/><br />
* Limp muscles,<ref name=medline-methadone/> trouble staying awake, nausea<br />
* [[Unconsciousness]]<ref name=medline-methadone/> and [[coma]]<ref name=medline-methadone/><br />
<br />
The respiratory depression of an overdose can be treated with [[naloxone]].<ref name=sadovsky>{{cite journal | url = http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0715/p428.html | title = Tips from Other Journals – Public Health Issue: Methadone Maintenance Therapy | first = Richard | last = Sadovsky, M.D. | journal = American Family Physician | date = 15 July 2000 | volume = 62 | pages = 428–432 | issue = 2 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150904004312/http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0715/p428.html | archive-date = 4 September 2015 }}</ref> Naloxone is preferred to the newer, longer-acting antagonist [[naltrexone]]. Despite methadone's much longer duration of action compared to either heroin and other shorter-acting agonists and the need for repeat doses of the antagonist naloxone, it is still used for overdose therapy. As naltrexone has a longer half-life, it is more difficult to titrate. If too large a dose of the opioid antagonist is given to a dependent person, it will result in withdrawal symptoms (possibly severe). When using naloxone, the naloxone will be quickly eliminated and the withdrawal will be short-lived. Doses of naltrexone take longer to be eliminated from the person's system. A common problem in treating methadone overdoses is that, given the short action of naloxone (versus the extremely longer-acting methadone), a dosage of naloxone given to a methadone-overdosed person will initially work to bring the person out of overdose, but once the naloxone wears off, if no further naloxone is administered, the person can go right back into overdose (based upon time and dosage of the methadone ingested).<br />
<br />
=== Tolerance and dependence ===<br />
As with other opioid medications, tolerance and dependence usually develop with repeated doses. There is some clinical evidence that tolerance to analgesia is less with methadone compared to other opioids; this may be due to its activity at the NMDA receptor. Tolerance to the different physiological effects of methadone varies; tolerance to analgesic properties may or may not develop quickly, but tolerance to euphoria usually develops rapidly, whereas tolerance to constipation, sedation, and respiratory depression develops slowly (if ever).<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.atforum.com/pdf/DosingandSafetyWP.pdf | journal = Addiction Treatment Forum | date = September 2003 | title = Methadone Dosing & Safety in the Treatment of Opioid Addiction | first = Stewart B. | last = Leavitt}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Driving ===<br />
Methadone treatment may impair driving ability.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01148.x |title=Driving Capacity of Patients Treated with Methadone and Slow-Release Oral Morphine |year=2005 |journal=Addiction |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1027 |pmid=15955021 |last1=Giacomuzzi |first1=SM |last2=Ertl |first2=M |last3=Vigl |first3=A |last4=Riemer |first4=Y |last5=Günther |first5=V |last6=Kopp |first6=M |last7=Pilsz |first7=W |last8=Haaser |first8=W}}</ref> Drug abusers had significantly more involvement in serious crashes than non-abusers in a study by the University of Queensland. In the study of a group of 220 drug abusers, most of them poly-drug abusers, 17 were involved in crashes killing people, compared with a control group of other people randomly selected having no involvement in fatal crashes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1186/1747-597X-3-10 |title=Experience of road and other trauma by the opiate dependent patient: A survey report |year=2008 |last1=Reece |first1=Albert S |journal=Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy |volume=3 |pages=10 |pmid=18454868 |pmc=2396610}}</ref> However, there have been multiple studies verifying the ability of methadone maintenance patients to drive.<ref>{{Cite journal | url = http://www.methadonesupport.org/Driving%20Article%20Abstracts.doc | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111103044844/http://www.methadonesupport.org/Driving%20Article%20Abstracts.doc | url-status = dead | archive-date = 3 November 2011 | format = DOC | title = Methadone and Driving Article Abstracts: Brief Literature Review | publisher = Institute for Metropolitan Affairs, Roosevelt University | date = 14 February 2008 }}</ref> In the UK, persons who are prescribed oral methadone can continue to drive after they have satisfactorily completed an independent medical examination which will include a urine screen for drugs. The license will be issued for 12 months at a time and even then, only following a favourable assessment from their own doctor.<ref name="rcgp.org.uk-PDF-drug_meth%20guidance.pdf">{{Cite journal | url = http://www.rcgp.org.uk/PDF/drug_meth%20guidance.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120521080204/http://www.rcgp.org.uk/PDF/drug_meth%20guidance.pdf | archive-date = 21 May 2012 | title = Guidance for the use of methadone for the treatment of opioid dependence in primary care | publisher = Royal College of General Practitioners | edition = 1st | year = 2005 | first1 = Chris |last1=Ford |first2= Jim |last2 = Barnard |first3= Judy | last3 = Bury |first4= Tom |last4 = Carnwath | first5 = Clare | last5 =Gerada |first6 = Alan |last6 = Joyce | first7 =Jenny | last7 = Keen | first8= Charlie | last8 = Lowe | first9 = Bill |last9 = Nelles | first10= Kay | last10 = Roberts | first11= Carola | last11 = Sander-Hess | first12 = Penny | last12 = Schofield | first13 = Jenny |last13 = Scott |first14= Richard |last14 = Watson | first15 = Kim |last15=Wolff }}</ref> Individuals who are prescribed methadone for either IV or IM administration cannot drive in the UK, mainly due to the increased sedation effects that this route of use can cause.<br />
<br />
=== Mortality ===<br />
In the United States, deaths linked to methadone more than quadrupled in the five-year period between 1999 and 2004. According to the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/methadone1999-04/methadone1999-04.htm |title=Increases in Methadone-Related Deaths:1999-2004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411213556/http://cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/methadone1999-04/methadone1999-04.htm |archive-date=2010-04-11 |date=2018-09-04 }}</ref> as well as a 2006 series in the ''Charleston Gazette'' (West Virginia),<ref name="http://www.wvgazette.com/section/Series/The+Killer+Cure">[http://www.wvgazette.com/section/Series/The+Killer+Cure "The Killer Cure"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618125503/http://wvgazette.com/section/Series/The+Killer+Cure |date=2006-06-18 }} ''The Charleston Gazette'' 2006</ref> medical examiners listed methadone as contributing to 3,849 deaths in 2004. That number was up from 790 in 1999. Approximately 82 percent of those deaths were listed as accidental, and most deaths involved combinations of methadone with other drugs (especially [[benzodiazepines]]).<br />
<br />
Although deaths from methadone are on the rise, methadone-associated deaths are not being caused primarily by methadone intended for methadone treatment programs, according to a panel of experts convened by the [[Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration]], which released a report titled "Methadone-Associated Mortality, Report of a National Assessment". The consensus report concludes that "although the data remains incomplete, National Assessment meeting participants concurred that methadone tablets or Diskets® distributed through channels other than opioid treatment programs most likely are the central factors in methadone-associated mortality."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://alcoholism.about.com/cs/heroin/a/blsam040209.htm |title=Methadone-Associated Mortality, Report of a National Assessment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101081924/http://alcoholism.about.com/cs/heroin/a/blsam040209.htm |archive-date=2016-01-01 }}</ref><br />
<br />
In 2006, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued a caution about methadone, titled "Methadone Use for Pain Control May Result in Death." The FDA also revised the drug's package insert. The change deleted previous information about the usual adult dosage. The ''Charleston Gazette'' reported, "The old language about the 'usual adult dose' was potentially deadly, according to pain specialists."<ref>{{cite news | url = http://wvgazette.com/News/TheKillerCure/200611280003 | newspaper = Charleston Gazette | title = New warning issued on methadone | date = 28 November 2006 | first1 = Scott | last1 = Finn | first2 = Tara | last2 = Tuckwiller | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100213212647/http://wvgazette.com/News/TheKillerCure/200611280003 | archive-date = 13 February 2010 }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Pharmacology ==<br />
{{Methadone at opioid receptors, monoamine transporters, and the NMDA receptor}}<br />
Methadone acts by binding to the [[µ-opioid receptor]], but also has some [[affinity (pharmacology)|affinity]] for the [[NMDA receptor]], an [[ionotropic glutamate receptor]]. Methadone is [[metabolism|metabolized]] by [[CYP3A4]], [[CYP2B6]], [[CYP2D6]], and is a [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]], or in this case target, for the [[P-glycoprotein]] efflux protein, a protein which helps pump foreign substances out of cells, in the [[intestine]]s and [[brain]]. The [[bioavailability]] and [[elimination half-life]] of methadone are subject to substantial [[interindividual variability]]. Its main [[route of administration]] is [[oral administration|oral]]. Adverse effects include sedation, [[hypoventilation]], [[constipation]] and [[miosis]], in addition to tolerance, dependence and withdrawal difficulties. The withdrawal period can be much more prolonged than with other opioids, spanning anywhere from two weeks to several months.<br />
<br />
The metabolic half-life of methadone differs from its duration of action. The metabolic half-life is 8 to 59 hours (approximately 24 hours for opioid-tolerant people, and 55 hours in opioid-naive people), as opposed to a half-life of 1 to 5 hours for morphine.<ref name="Gris2011"/> The length of the half-life of methadone allows for exhibition of respiratory depressant effects for an extended duration of time in opioid-naive people.<ref name=Gris2011/><br />
<br />
=== Mechanism of action ===<br />
[[Levomethadone]] (the ''L'' enantiomer) is a [[μ-opioid receptor]] agonist with higher [[intrinsic activity]] than morphine, but lower affinity.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Davis|editor1-first=MP|editor2-last=Glare|editor2-first=P|editor3-last=Hardy|editor3-first=JR|editor4-last=Columba|editor4-first=Q|title=Opioids in Cancer Pain|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-0-19-923664-0|edition=2nd|pages=211–212}}</ref> [[Dextromethadone]] (the ''S'' enantiomer) does not affect opioid receptors but binds to the [[glutamatergic]] [[NMDA]] (''N''-methyl-{{Small|D}}-aspartate) receptor, and acts as an [[receptor antagonist|antagonist]] against [[glutamate]]. Methadone has been shown to reduce neuropathic pain in rat models, primarily through NMDA receptor antagonism. Glutamate is the primary excitatory [[neurotransmitter]] in the [[central nervous system]]. NMDA receptors have a very important role in modulating long-term excitation and memory formation. NMDA antagonists such as [[dextromethorphan]] (DXM, a cough suppressant), [[ketamine]] (a dissociative anaesthetic), [[tiletamine]] (a veterinary anaesthetic) and [[ibogaine]] (from the African tree ''[[Tabernanthe iboga]]'') are being studied for their role in decreasing the development of tolerance to opioids and as possible for eliminating addiction/tolerance/withdrawal, possibly by disrupting memory circuitry. Acting as an NMDA antagonist may be one mechanism by which methadone decreases craving for opioids and tolerance, and has been proposed as a possible mechanism for its distinguished efficacy regarding the treatment of neuropathic pain. The [[dextrorotary]] form ([[dextromethadone]]), which acts as an [[NMDA receptor antagonist]] and is devoid of opioid activity, has been shown to produce analgesia in experimental models of chronic pain. Methadone also acted as a potent, [[noncompetitive]] [[alpha-3 beta-4 nicotinic receptor|α<sub>3</sub>β<sub>4</sub>]] neuronal [[nicotinic acetylcholine receptor]] [[nicotinic antagonist|antagonist]] in rat receptors, expressed in human embryonic kidney cell lines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Yingxian |last2=Smith |first2=Richard D. |last3=Caruso |first3=Frank S. |last4=Kellar |first4=Kenneth J. |title=Blockade of Rat α3β4 Nicotinic Receptor Function by Methadone, Its Metabolites, and Structural Analogs |journal=The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics |volume=299 |issue=1 |pages=366–71 |date=October 2001 |pmid=11561100 |url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11561100}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Metabolism ===<br />
Methadone has a slow metabolism and very high [[Lipophilicity|fat solubility]], making it longer lasting than morphine-based drugs. Methadone has a typical elimination [[half-life]] of 15 to 60 hours with a mean of around 22. However, metabolism rates vary greatly between individuals, up to a factor of 100,<ref name="Kell">{{cite journal |doi=10.1300/J069v13n01_02 |title=Utilization of Plasma and Urine Methadone Concentrations to Optimize Treatment in Maintenance Clinics |year=1994 |last1=Kell |first1=Michael Jon |journal=Journal of Addictive Diseases |volume=13 |pages=5–26 |pmid=8018740 |issue=1}}</ref><ref name=Europad>{{cite journal |last1=Eap |first1=Chin B. Eap |last2=Déglon |first2=Jean-Jacques |last3=Baumann |first3=Pierre |title=Pharmacokinetics and pharmacogenetics of methadone: Clinical relevance |journal=Heroin Addiction and Related Clinical Problems |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=19–34 |year=1999 |url=http://atforum.com/pdf/europad/HeroinAdd1-1.pdf#page=25}}</ref> ranging from as few as 4 hours to as many as 130 hours,<ref name="EapI">{{cite journal |doi=10.2165/00003088-200241140-00003 |title=Interindividual Variability of the Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Methadone |year=2002 |last1=Eap |first1=Chin B. |last2=Buclin |first2=Thierry |last3=Baumann |first3=Pierre |journal=Clinical Pharmacokinetics |volume=41 |issue=14 |pages=1153–93 |pmid=12405865|s2cid=1396257 }}</ref> or even 190 hours.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Manfredonia |first=John |url=http://www.jaoa.org/cgi/content/full/105/3_suppl/18S |title=Prescribing Methadone for Pain Management in End-of-Life Care |journal=Journal of the American Osteopathic Association |volume=105 |date=March 2005 |issue=3 suppl |pages=S18-21 |pmid=18154194 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070520062222/http://www.jaoa.org/cgi/content/full/105/3_suppl/18S |archive-date=2007-05-20 }}</ref> This variability is apparently due to genetic variability in the production of the associated cytochrome enzymes [[CYP3A4]], [[CYP2B6]] and [[CYP2D6]]. Many substances can also induce, inhibit or compete with these enzymes further affecting (sometimes dangerously) methadone half-life. A longer half-life frequently allows for administration only once a day in opioid [[Drug detoxification|detoxification]] and maintenance programs. People who metabolize methadone rapidly, on the other hand, may require twice daily dosing to obtain sufficient symptom alleviation while avoiding excessive peaks and troughs in their blood concentrations and associated effects.<ref name="EapI"/> This can also allow lower total doses in some such people. The analgesic activity is shorter than the pharmacological half-life; dosing for pain control usually requires multiple doses per day normally dividing daily dosage for administration at 8 hour intervals.<ref>Medscape Methadone Dosage. [https://reference.medscape.com/drug/methadose-dolophine-methadone-343317].</ref><br />
<br />
The main metabolic pathway involves ''N''-demethylation by CYP3A4 in the liver and intestine to give [[2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine]] (EDDP).<ref name=acta08/><ref>{{cite journal |journal= J Anal Toxicol |year= 2003 |volume= 27 |issue= 6 |pages= 332–341 |title= Methadone and metabolite urine concentrations in patients maintained on methadone |last1= Preston |first1= KL |last2= Epstein |first2= DH |last3= Davoudzadeh |first3= D |last4= Huestis |first4= MA |pmid= 14516485 |doi= 10.1093/jat/27.6.332 |doi-access= free }}</ref> This inactive product, as well as the inactive 2-ethyl-5-methyl-3,3- <br />
diphenyl-1-pyrroline (EMDP), produced by a second ''N''-demethylation, are detectable in the urine of those taking methadone.<br />
<gallery caption="Methadone and its two main metabolites" perrow="3"><br />
File:Methadone.svg|Methadone<br />
File:EDDP.png|EDDP<br />
File:EDMP.png|EDMP<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
=== Route of administration ===<br />
The most common [[route of administration]] at a methadone clinic is in a [[racemic]] oral solution, though in Germany, only the ''R'' [[enantiomer]] (the [[levorotatory|L]] optical isomer) has traditionally been used, as it is responsible for most of the desired opioid effects.<ref name="EapI"/> The single-isomer form is becoming less common due to the higher production costs.<br />
<br />
Methadone is available in traditional pill, [[sublingual]] tablet, and two different formulations designed for the person to drink. Drinkable forms include ready-to-dispense liquid (sold in the [[United States]] as Methadose), and Diskets® (known on the street as "wafers" or "biscuits") tablets which are dispersible in water for oral administration, used in a similar fashion to [[Alka-Seltzer]]. The liquid form is the most common as it allows for smaller dose changes. Methadone is almost as effective when administered orally as by injection. Oral medication is usually preferable because it offers safety, simplicity and represents a step away from injection-based drug abuse in those recovering from addiction. U.S. federal regulations require the oral form in addiction treatment programs.<ref name="ReferenceA">Code of Federal Regulations, Title 42, Sec 8.</ref> Injecting methadone pills can cause collapsed veins, bruising, swelling, and possibly other harmful effects. Methadone pills often contain talc that, when injected, produces a swarm of tiny solid particles in the blood, causing numerous minor blood clots.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vistapharm.com/methadone_tablets.pdf |title=Methadone Hydrochloride Tablets, USP |publisher=VistaPharm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511224428/http://www.vistapharm.com/methadone_tablets.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-11 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=698886 |year=1978 |last1=Murphy |first1=SB |last2=Jackson |first2=WB |last3=Pare |first3=JA |title=Talc retinopathy |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=152–6 |journal=Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology}}</ref> These particles cannot be filtered out before injection, and will accumulate in the body over time, especially in the lungs and eyes, producing various complications such as [[pulmonary hypertension]], an irreversible and progressive disease.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF02937408 |title=Talc lung in a drug abuser |year=1990 |last1=Hill |first1=A. D. |last2=Toner |first2=M. E. |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=M. X. |journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science |volume=159 |issue=5 |pages=147–8 |pmid=2397985|s2cid=41611298 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000013771.30198.82 |title=Pulmonary Hypertension and Risk of Death in Cardiomyopathy: Patients with Myocarditis Are at Higher Risk |year=2002 |last1=Cappola |first1=T. P. |journal=Circulation |volume=105 |issue=14 |pages=1663–8 |pmid=11940544 |last2=Felker |first2=GM |last3=Kao |first3=WH |last4=Hare |first4=JM |last5=Baughman |first5=KL |last6=Kasper |first6=EK|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1183/09031936.05.00129604 |title=Improving survival in pulmonary arterial hypertension |year=2005 |last1=Humbert |first1=M. |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=218–20 |pmid=15684283|doi-access=free }}</ref> The formulation sold under the brand name Methadose (flavored liquid suspension for oral dosing, commonly used for [[Methadone maintenance|maintenance purposes]]) should not be injected either.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.1999.94811757.x |title=Methadone injecting in Australia: A tale of two cities |year=1999 |last1=Lintzeris |first1=Nicholas |last2=Lenné |first2=Michael |last3=Ritter |first3=Alison |journal=Addiction |volume=94 |issue=8 |pages=1175–8 |pmid=10615732}}</ref><br />
<br />
Information leaflets included in packs of UK methadone tablets state that the tablets are for oral use only and that use by any other route can cause serious harm. In addition to this warning, additives have now been included in the tablet formulation to make the use of them by the IV route more difficult.<ref>Dales pharmaceuticals patients information leaflet revision 09/10{{vs|date=December 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Chemistry ==<br />
<br />
=== Detection in biological fluids ===<br />
Methadone and its major metabolite, [[2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine]] (EDDP), are often measured in urine as part of a drug abuse testing program, in plasma or serum to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims, or in whole blood to assist in a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a case of sudden death. Methadone usage history is considered in interpreting the results as a chronic user can develop tolerance to doses that would incapacitate an opioid-naive individual. Chronic users often have high methadone and EDDP baseline values.<ref>{{cite book |first=R. |last=Baselt |title=Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man |edition=8th |publisher=Biomedical Publications |location=Foster City, CA |year=2008 |pages=941–5}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Conformation ===<br />
The protonated form of methadone takes on an extended conformation, while the free base is more compact. In particular, it was found that there is an interaction between the tertiary amine and the carbonyl carbon of the ketone function (R<sub>3</sub>N ••• >C=O) that limits the molecule's conformation freedom, though the distance (291 pm by X-ray) is far too long to represent a true chemical bond. However, it does represent the initial trajectory of attack of an amine on a carbonyl group and was an important piece of experimental evidence for the proposal of the [[Bürgi–Dunitz angle]] for carbonyl addition reactions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bürgi|first1=H. B.|last2=Dunitz|first2=J. D.|last3=Shefter|first3=Eli|date=August 1973|title=Pharmacological Implications of the Conformation of the Methadone Base|journal=Nature New Biology|language=en|volume=244|issue=136|pages=186–188|doi=10.1038/newbio244186b0|pmid=4516455|issn=0090-0028}}</ref><br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
[[File:Methadone 40mg.jpg|thumb|40&nbsp;mg of methadone]]<br />
<br />
Methadone was developed in 1937 in Germany by scientists working for [[I.G. Farbenindustrie AG]] at the [[Hoechst AG|Farbwerke Hoechst]] who were looking for a synthetic opioid that could be created with readily available precursors, to solve Germany's opium shortage problem.<ref name=JanssenHist>{{cite journal|last1=Lopez-Munoz|first1=Francisco|last2=Alamo|first2=Cecilio|title=The Consolidation of Neuroleptic Therapy: Janssen, the Discovery of Haloperidol and Its Introduction into Clinical Practice|journal=Brain Research Bulletin|date=2009|volume=79|issue=2|pages=130–141|pmid=19186209|doi=10.1016/j.brainresbull.2009.01.005|s2cid=7720401}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/jlac.19495610107 |title=Über eine neue Klasse von spasmolytisch und analgetisch wirkenden Verbindungen, I |trans-title=On a new class of spasmolytic and analgesic compounds, I |language=de |year=1949 |last1=Bockmühl |first1=Max |last2=Ehrhart |first2=Gustav |journal=Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie |volume=561 |issue=1 |pages=52–86}}</ref> On September 11, 1941 Bockmühl and Ehrhart filed an application for a patent for a synthetic substance they called Hoechst 10820 or Polamidon (a name still in regular use in Germany) and whose structure had only slight relation to morphine or the opiate alkaloids.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Bockmühl |first1= M |last2= Ehrhart |first2= G. |last3= Schaumann|first3= O |author-link= |date= 1948 |title= Über eine neue Klasse von spasmolytisch und analgetisch wirkenden Verbindungen (About a new class of compounds with a spasmolytic and analgesic effect) |url= https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1953-01-01_1_page006.html |location= |publisher= Justus Liebigs Ann. | volume=561 |page= 561, 52–85 |isbn=}}</ref>(Bockmühl and Ehrhart, 1949). It was brought to market in 1943 and was widely used by the German army during WWII.<ref name=JanssenHist/><br />
<br />
In the 1930s, [[pethidine]] (meperidine) went into production in Germany; however, production of methadone, then being developed under the designation Hoechst 10820, was not carried forward because of side effects discovered in the early research.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The early history of methadone. Myths and facts. |journal=Bull Anesth Hist|year=2007 |last1=Defalque |first1=Ray J. |last2=Wright |first2=Amon J. |volume=25|issue=3 |pages=13–6 |doi=10.1016/S1522-8649(07)50035-1|pmid=20506765}}</ref> After the war, all German patents, trade names and research records were requisitioned and expropriated by the Allies. The records on the research work of the I.G. Farbenkonzern at the Farbwerke Hoechst were confiscated by the U.S. Department of Commerce Intelligence, investigated by a Technical Industrial Committee of the U.S. Department of State and then brought to the US.<ref name=JanssenHist/> The report published by the committee noted that while methadone was potentially addictive, it produced less sedation and respiratory depression than morphine and was thus interesting as a commercial drug.<ref name=JanssenHist/><br />
<br />
In the early 1950s, methadone (most times the racemic HCl salts mixture) was also investigated for use as an antitussive.<ref name="pmid41087">{{cite journal | vauthors = Overton DA, Batta SK | title = Investigation of narcotics and antitussives using drug discrimination techniques | journal = J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. | volume = 211 | issue = 2 | pages = 401–8 | date = November 1979 | pmid = 41087 | pmc = 8331839 }}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Isomethadone]], [[noracymethadol]], [[levacetylmethadol|LAAM]], and [[normethadone]] were first developed in Germany, United Kingdom, Belgium, Austria, Canada, and the United States in the thirty or so years after the 1937 discovery of pethidine, the first synthetic opioid used in medicine. These synthetic opioids have increased length and depth of satiating any opiate cravings and generate very strong analgesic effects due to their long metabolic half-life and strong receptor affinity at the mu-opioid receptor sites. Therefore, they impart much of the satiating and anti-addictive effects of methadone by means of suppressing drug cravings.<ref>Morphine & Allied Drugs, Reynolds et al 1957 Ch 8</ref><br />
<br />
It was only in 1947 that the drug was given the generic name "methadone" by the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the American Medical Association. Since the patent rights of the I.G. Farbenkonzern and Farbwerke Hoechst were no longer protected each pharmaceutical company interested in the formula could buy the rights for the commercial production of methadone for just one dollar (MOLL 1990).<br />
<br />
Methadone was introduced into the United States in 1947 by [[Eli Lilly and Company]] as an analgesic under the trade name Dolophine.<ref name=JanssenHist/><br />
<br />
The trade name Dolophine was created by Eli Lilly after World War II and used in the United States. An [[urban myth]] later arose that [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] leader [[Adolf Hitler]] ordered the manufacture of methadone or that the brand name 'Dolophine' was named after him, probably based on the similarity of “doloph” with “Adolph”. (The pejorative term "adolphine" would appear in the early 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.exchangesupplies.org/publications/methadone_briefing/section1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031120200050/http://www.exchangesupplies.org/publications/methadone_briefing/section1.html |title=Methadone Briefing|archive-date=2003-11-20|access-date=2007-07-09}}</ref><ref>[http://www.indro-online.de/discovery.pdf Indro-Online.de] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113172231/http://www.indro-online.de/discovery.pdf |date=2016-01-13 }} ([[PDF]] format)</ref>) However, the name “Dolophine” was a contraction of "Dolo" from the Latin word ''dolor'' (pain), and ''finis'', the Latin word for "end". Therefore, Dolophine literally means "pain end".<ref>{{cite book|chapter=The History of Methadone and Methadone Prescribing. |last1=Preston |first1=A. |last2=Bennett |first2=G. |title=In: Methadone Matters. Evolving Community Methadone Treatment of Opiate Addiction. |editor-last1=Tober |editor-first1=G. |editor-last2=Strang |editor-first2=E. |date=2003|publisher=Taylor and Francis Group.}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Society and culture ==<br />
<br />
=== Brand names ===<br />
Brand names include Dolophine, Symoron, Amidone, Methadose, Physeptone, Metadon, Metadol, Metadol-D, Heptanon and Heptadon among others.<br />
<br />
=== Cost ===<br />
In the US, generic methadone tablets are inexpensive, with retail prices ranging from $0.25 to $2.50 per [[defined daily dose]].<ref>Based on:<br />
<br />
* {{cite web|url=http://www.goodrx.com/methadone?form=tablet&dosage=5mg&quantity=150&days_supply=&label_override=methadone|title=Methadone Prices and Methadone Coupons » 5 mg|publisher=GoodRx, Inc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911110432/http://www.goodrx.com/methadone?form=tablet&dosage=5mg&quantity=150&days_supply=&label_override=methadone|archive-date=11 September 2016|url-status=dead|access-date=30 August 2016}}<br />
* {{cite web|url=http://www.goodrx.com/methadone?form=tablet&dosage=40mg&quantity=19&days_supply=&label_override=methadone|title=Methadone Prices and Methadone Coupons » 40 mg|publisher=GoodRx, Inc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911115830/http://www.goodrx.com/methadone?form=tablet&dosage=40mg&quantity=19&days_supply=&label_override=methadone|archive-date=11 September 2016|url-status=dead|access-date=30 August 2016}}<br />
* {{cite web|url=http://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=N07BC02|title=WHOCC - ATC/DDD Index|publisher=WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919085353/http://www.whocc.no/atc_ddd_index/?code=N07BC02|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=live|access-date=30 August 2016}}</ref> Brand-name methadone tablets may cost much more.<br />
<br />
Methadone maintenance clinics in the US may be covered by private insurances, [[Medicaid]], or [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/insurance-payments|title=Insurance and Payments|last=lynne.walsh|date=2015-06-16|website=www.samhsa.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> Medicare covers methadone under the prescription drug benefit, Medicare Part D, when it is prescribed for pain, but not when it is used for opioid dependence treatment because it cannot be dispensed in a retail pharmacy for this purpose.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cms.gov/Outreach-and-Education/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN/MLNMattersArticles/downloads/SE1604.pdf|title=Medicare Coverage of Substance Abuse Services}}</ref> In California methadone maintenance treatment is covered under the medical benefit. Patients' eligibility for methadone maintenance treatment is most often contingent on them being enrolled in substance abuse counseling. People on methadone maintenance in the US either have to pay cash or if covered by insurance must complete a pre-determined number of hours per month in therapeutic groups or counseling.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asam.org/docs/default-source/advocacy/state-medicaid-reports/state-medicaid-reports_ca.pdf?sfvrsn=6|title=Medicaid Coverage of Medications for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder}}</ref> The United States Department of Veteran's Affairs (VA) Alcohol and Drug Dependence Rehabilitation Program offers methadone services to eligible veterans enrolled in the VA health care system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.benefits.gov/benefit/307|title=Veterans Alcohol and Drug Dependence Rehabilitation Program|date=1 November 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Methadone maintenance|Methadone maintenance treatment]] (MMT) cost analyses often compare the cost of clinic visits versus the overall societal costs of illicit opioid use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drugpolicy.org/library/research/methadone.cfm|title=Methadone Maintenance Treatment|publisher=Drug Policy Alliance Lindesmith Library|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030511203202/http://www.drugpolicy.org/library/research/methadone.cfm#note3|archive-date=2003-05-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://international.drugabuse.gov/collaboration/guide_methadone/partb_question15.html|title=Methadone Research Web Guide|publisher=NIDA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215142535/http://international.drugabuse.gov/collaboration/guide_methadone/partb_question15.html|archive-date=2010-02-15|url-status=live}}</ref> A preliminary cost analysis conducted in 2016 by the US Department of Defense determined that methadone treatment, which includes psychosocial and support services, may cost an average of $126.00 per week or $6,552.00 per year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/medications-to-treat-opioid-addiction/how-much-does-opioid-treatment-cost|title=How Much Does Opioid Treatment Cost?|last=Abuse|first=National Institute on Drug|language=en|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> The average cost for one full year of methadone maintenance treatment is approximately $4,700 per patient, whereas one full year of imprisonment costs approximately $24,000 per person.<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-drug-addiction-treatment-research-based-guide-third-edition/frequently-asked-questions/drug-addiction-treatment-worth-its-cost|title=Is drug addiction treatment worth its cost?}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Controversy ===<br />
Methadone substitution as a treatment of opioid addiction has been criticized in the social sciences for its role in the social control of addicts.<ref name=Bennett2011>{{cite journal|last1=Bennett|first1=C|title=Methadone Maintenance Treatment: Disciplining the "Addict"|journal=Health and History|date=2011|volume=13|issue=2|pages=130–57|doi=10.5401/healthhist.13.2.0130|pmid=22329263}}</ref> It is suggested that methadone does not function as much to curb addiction as to redirect it and maintain dependency on authorised channels. Several authors apply a [[Foucauldian discourse analysis|Foucauldian analysis]] to the widespread prescription of the drug and use in institutions such as prisons, hospitals, and rehabilitation centres.<ref name=Bergschmidt2004>Bergschmidt V (2004) 'Pleasure, Power, and Dangerous Substances: Applying Foucault to the study of "Heroin Dependence" in Germany' Anthropology and Medicine Vol. 11 (1) pp. 59-73</ref> Such critique centers on the notion that substance addiction is reframed with a disease model. Thus methadone, which mimics the effects of opioids and renders the addict compliant, is labeled as a "treatment" and so achieves the disciplinary objectives of managing the "undesirables".<ref name=Bennett2011/><br />
<br />
== Regulation ==<br />
<br />
=== United States and Canada ===<br />
Methadone is a [[Controlled Drugs and Substances Act|Schedule I]] controlled substance in Canada and Schedule II in the United States, with an ACSCN of 9250 and a 2014 annual aggregate manufacturing quota of 31,875 kilos for sale. [[Methadone intermediate]] is also controlled, under [[ACSCN]] 9226 also under Schedule II, with a quota of 38,875 kilos. In most countries of the world, methadone is similarly restricted. The salts of methadone in use are the hydrobromide (free base conversion ratio 0.793), hydrochloride (0.894), and HCl monohydrate (0.850).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/quotas/conv_factor/index.html |title=DEA Diversion Control Division |access-date=2016-02-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302162948/http://deadiversion.usdoj.gov/quotas/conv_factor/index.html |archive-date=2016-03-02 }}</ref> Methadone is also regulated internationally as a Schedule I controlled substance under the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/quotas/2014/fr0825.htm |title=DEA Diversion Control Division |access-date=2016-02-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053357/http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/fed_regs/quotas/2014/fr0825.htm |archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref><ref name="Nordegren2002">{{cite book | author = Thomas Nordegren | title = The A-Z Encyclopedia of Alcohol and Drug Abuse | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4yaGePenGKgC&pg=PA366 | access-date = 16 May 2012 | date = 1 March 2002 | publisher = Universal-Publishers | isbn = 978-1-58112-404-0 | page = 366 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140101085353/http://books.google.com/books?id=4yaGePenGKgC&pg=PA366 | archive-date = 1 January 2014 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==== Methadone clinics ====<br />
In the United States, prescription of methadone requires intensive monitoring and must be obtained in-person from an opioid treatment program—colloquially known as a 'methadone clinic'—when prescribed for [[opioid use disorder]] (OUD).<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Anderson |first1= I.B |last2= Kearney |first2= T.E |date= January 2000 |title= Use of methadone |journal= Western Journal of Medicine |volume= 172 |issue= 1 |pages= 43–46 |doi= 10.1136/ewjm.172.1.43 | pmid=10695444 |pmc= 1070723 }}</ref> According to federal laws, methadone cannot be prescribed by a doctor and obtained from a pharmacy in order to treat addiction. Because of its long half-life, methadone is almost invariably prescribed to be taken in a single daily dose. At nearly all methadone clinics in the US, '''patients must visit a clinic to receive and take their dose under the supervision of a nurse.''' Both patients who are new to methadone treatment and high-risk patients—such as those who are using drugs and alcohol, including cannabis—must visit the clinic '''daily''' (every morning). <ref>{{Cite web|title=Methadone|url=https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/medications-counseling-related-conditions/methadone|access-date=2021-02-15|website=www.samhsa.gov|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=42 CFR § 8.12 - Federal opioid treatment standards.|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/42/8.12|access-date=2021-02-15|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en}}</ref> However, some clinics close on national holidays and provide doses to patients to take home.<br />
<br />
==== 'Take-home' or 'Take-away' methadone ====<br />
After 90 days to 6 months (depending on the clinic), if patients have met the clinic's criteria, they are typically eligible for take-home doses of methadone. Therefore, they may be allowed to take anywhere from one to six days to visit the clinic once or twice weekly instead of every day. In accordance with DEA and SAMHSA regulations, patients who use other drugs are not eligible for take-home methadone.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-31|title=Why Are Methadone Patients Still Being Punished for Marijuana Use?|url=https://filtermag.org/why-are-methadone-patients-still-being-punished-for-marijuana-use/|access-date=2021-02-15|website=Filter|language=en-US}}</ref><br />
<br />
In recent years, patients, doctors, nurses, those working in the addiction field, and advocates of many kinds have heavily criticized the extremely tight regulations regarding take-home methadone. Advocates for reforming methadone regulations argue that methadone could be much more effective if it wasn't necessary for patients to visit clinics daily. Many addicts seeking treatment usually avoid methadone or see it as a last resort, specifically because they do not want to have to go to a clinic every day to receive their medication. <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-31|title=SAMHSA's Absurd Criteria for Identifying "Stable" Methadone Patients|url=https://filtermag.org/samhsa-methadone-criteria/|access-date=2021-02-15|website=Filter|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Medication and counseling treatment. SAMHSA website. <nowiki>https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment#medications-used-in-mat</nowiki>. Updated February 12, 2020. Accessed April 29, 2020.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Other countries ===<br />
In [[Russia]], methadone treatment is illegal. In 2008, Chief Sanitary Inspector of Russia [[Gennadiy Onishchenko]], claimed that Russian health officials are not convinced of the methadone's efficacy in treating heroin and/or opioid addicts. Instead of replacement therapy and gradual reduction of illicit drug abuse, Russian doctors encourage immediate cessation and withdrawal. Addicts are generally given [[sedative]]s and non-opioid [[analgesic]]s in order to cope with withdrawal symptoms.<ref>{{cite news |first=Michael |last=Schwirtz |title=Russia Scorns Methadone for Heroin Addiction |work=The New York Times |date=July 22, 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/22/health/22meth.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207145850/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/22/health/22meth.html |archive-date=December 7, 2016 }}</ref> [[Brazil|Brazilian]] footballer assistant Robson Oliveira was arrested in 2019 upon arriving in Russia with methadone tablets sold legally in other countries and has been in jail since then for what was considered [[drug trafficking]] under Russian law.<ref> http://espn.com.br/futebol/artigo/_/id/7511514/caso-robson-campanha-pede-justica-a-ex-funcionario-de-fernando-preso-ha-562-dias-na-russia ESPN Caso Robson (in Portuguese)</ref><br />
<br />
As of 2015 China had the largest methadone maintenance treatment program with over 250,000 people in over 650 clinics in 27 provinces.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sullivan|first1=Sheena G.|last2=Wu|first2=Zunyou|last3=Rou|first3=Keming|last4=Pang|first4=Lin|last5=Luo|first5=Wei|last6=Wang|first6=Changhe|last7=Cao|first7=Xiaobin|last8=Yin|first8=Wenyuan|last9=Liu|first9=Enwu|last10=Mi|first10=Guodong|title=Who uses methadone services in China? Monitoring the world's largest methadone programme|journal=Addiction|date=January 2015|volume=110|pages=29–39|doi=10.1111/add.12781|pmid=25533862}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* {{cite web| url = https://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/name/methadone | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine| work = Drug Information Portal| title = Methadone }}<br />
* [https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/methadone Methadone], Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110707090824/http://www.aegisuniversity.com/Aegis%20Documents/Tapering%20off%20of%20Methadone%20Maintenance%205-24-02.pdf Tapering off of methadone maintenance]<br />
* {{cite patent |country=DE |number=711069 |status=patent |title=Verfahren zur Darstellung von basischen Estern |pubdate=1941-09-25 |gdate=1941-09-25 |fdate=1938-09-11 |pridate=1938-09-11 |inventor= |invent1=Dr Max Bockmuehl |invent2=Dr Gustav Ehrhart |assign1=IG Farbenindustrie AG |url=https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?II=13&ND=3&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19410925&CC=DE&NR=711069C&KC=C}}<br />
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[[Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Billie_Jean_Horton&diff=1053309047Billie Jean Horton2021-11-03T04:33:06Z<p>Nickwilso: Removed nonsense</p>
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<div>{{Infobox person<br />
| name = Billie Jean Horton<br />
| birth_name = Billie Jean Jones<br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1933|6|6}}<br />
| occupation = Country music singer-songwriter, music promoter<br />
| known_for = Also known for her marriages to country musicians [[Hank Williams]] and [[Johnny Horton]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Billie Jean Jones Eshleman Williams Horton Berlin''' (born June 6, 1933), professionally known as '''Billie Jean Horton''', is an American country-music singer-songwriter and former music promoter who is best known for her marriages to iconic country musician and singer-songwriter [[Hank Williams Sr.]] and subsequently to singer [[Johnny Horton]].<br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
Horton was the daughter of a police chief from [[Bossier City, Louisiana]]. She divorced her first husband Harrison Eshleman<ref>George William Koon, ''Hank Williams, So Lonesome'' ([[University Press of Mississippi]], 1983), {{ISBN|978-1578062836}}, pp. 68ff. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fPMlrotQFbcC&lpg=PA167&ots=c-PeOyfFL5&dq=hank%20williams%20eshliman&pg=PA148#v=onepage&q=%20eshliman&f=false Excerpts available] at [[Google Books]]. Other sources give his name as "Eshlimar", e.g. Roger M. Williams, ''Sing a Sad Song: The Life of Hank Williams'' ([[University of Illinois Press]], 1981), {{ISBN|978-0252008610}}, pp. 200ff. [https://books.google.com/books?id=idolYink49IC&lpg=PA200&ots=0NUVEAxrPW&dq=billie%20jones%20harrison%20eshlimar&pg=PA200#v=onepage&q&f=false Excerpts available] at [[Google Books]]. See Koon, p. 148 n.74, for a brief discussion of why "Eshleman" is likely correct.</ref> when she was introduced to Hank Williams by her then-boyfriend, country singer [[Faron Young]].<ref name="Prime">John Prime, [https://articles.latimes.com/1987-09-20/entertainment/ca-9316_1_merry-widow Merry widow of country legends]", ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', September 20, 1987.</ref> They married in a private ceremony in [[Minden, Louisiana]] on October 18, 1952, then repeated their vows before sold-out audiences at two Williams concerts at the Baton Rouge High School gymnasium and the [[Municipal Auditorium (New Orleans)|Municipal Auditorium]] in New Orleans, Louisiana.<ref name="Prime"/><ref>Erroll Labor, [http://www.myneworleans.com/New-Orleans-Magazine/September-2013/Hank-Williams-and-Billie-Jean-Say-I-Do/ "Hank Williams and Billie Jean Say I Do"], ''New Orleans Magazine'', September 2013.</ref> She was 19. <br />
<br />
Williams died from heart failure on New Year's Day 1953. That September, she married country singer [[Johnny Horton]] and became important in promoting his career. They had two daughters, Yanina and Melody, and Horton adopted her daughter Jeri Lynn. Horton died on 5 November 1960, in a traffic collision with a truck, widowing Billie Jean a second time.<ref name="Prime"/> She then worked as a recording artist; her record "Ocean of Tears" hit the country top 40 in 1961.<ref>Joel Whitburn, ''The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits'' ([[Random House]], 2006), {{ISBN|978-0823082919}}, p. 475. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eKicir5sZr4C&lpg=PA475&ots=73-AkjVx1m&dq=billie%20jean%20horton%20%22ocean%20of%20tears%22&pg=PA475#v=onepage&q=billie%20jean%20horton%20&f=false Excerpts available] at [[Google Books]].</ref> She had a relationship with [[Johnny Cash]] (while he was still married to his first wife, Vivian Liberto).<ref>[[Robert Hilburn]], ''Johnny Cash: The Life'' ([[Hachette Digital]], 2013), {{ISBN|978-0316248693}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=v7We90rXP4wC&lpg=PT174&dq=billie%20jean%20horton&pg=PT103#v=snippet&q=%22billie%20jean%22&f=false Excerpts available] at [[Google Books]].</ref> Later she married insurance executive Kent Berlin, whom she subsequently divorced.<ref name="Prime"/><ref name="AP">[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=laUfAAAAIBAJ&sjid=VNYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2773%2C153519 "She's living off two country music legends"], [[Associated Press]] in ''[[Gadsden Times]]'', October 1, 1975</ref><br />
<br />
In 1971, a judge ruled that despite her divorce from Eshleman not being finalized before her wedding with Williams, she entered the marriage in good faith and thus their union was entitled to a presumption of validity.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TSweAAAAIBAJ&sjid=B78EAAAAIBAJ&pg=7232%2C3135884 "Mrs. Hank Williams: Late Star's Widow Wins Court Battle"], [[United Press International]] in ''[[The Dispatch (Lexington)|The Dispatch]]'' (Lexington, N.C.), June 11, 1971.</ref><br />
<br />
Horton became known for her energetic efforts on behalf of the reputations and estates of both of her famous husbands.<ref name="Prime"/><ref name="AP"/> As of 2016, she resides in an assisted-living facility and her three daughters live in Shreveport.<ref name="Shreveport times">{{cite web|url=http://www.shreveport.com/story/live/community/2016/03/22/billie-jean-horton-true-american-classic/82115462/|title=Billie Jean Horton, a true American classic|publisher=Shreveport Times|author=John Andrew Prime}}{{Dead link|date=July 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Film depiction==<br />
Horton is portrayed by actress [[Maddie Hasson]] in the 2015 biopic film about [[Hank Williams]]' life titled ''[[I Saw the Light (film)|I Saw the Light]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Jen Yamato|title=Maddie Hasson Joins ‘I Saw The Light'|url=https://deadline.com/2014/10/maddie-hasson-i-saw-the-light-emory-cohen-cast-by-way-of-helena-845302/|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]|accessdate=6 October 2014|date=2 October 2014}}</ref><br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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{{authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Horton, Billie Jean}}<br />
[[Category:1933 births]]<br />
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[[Category:American women country singers]]<br />
[[Category:American country singer-songwriters]]<br />
[[Category:Music promoters]]<br />
[[Category:People from Bossier City, Louisiana]]<br />
[[Category:Songwriters from Louisiana]]<br />
[[Category:Singers from Louisiana]]<br />
[[Category:Country musicians from Louisiana]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Embarrato&diff=1052797233Alfred Embarrato2021-10-31T03:38:24Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Donnie Brasco */Fixed typo</p>
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<div>'''Alfred "Al Walker" Embarrato'''{{efn|Also sometimes written as Embaratto}} (November 12, 1909 &ndash; February 21, 2001), also known as "'''''Alfred Scalisi'''''" a.k.a." '''''Aldo Elvorado'''''", was a New York mobster who became a [[caporegime]] of the [[Bonanno crime family]] and a powerful labor figure at [[The New York Post]] distribution plant.<br />
<br />
==Newspaperman==<br />
Born on the [[Lower East Side, Manhattan]] to first generation immigrants Salvatore Embarrato and Mary from [[Leonforte]], Italy Embarrato lived at [[Knickerbocker Village]], on Monroe St. He was married to a woman named Constance and father of three children. One of Embrrato's neighbors was his nephew, [[Anthony Mirra]], who became a widely feared soldier in the Bonanno family. Embarrato was employed at the ''[[New York Post]]'' from the 1960s to 1990s as a general foreman for the paper's distribution plant. When real estate owner [[Peter Kalikow]] bought the ''Post'' in 1988, his managers noted that Embarrato did no visible work and naively tried to fire him. When word of Embrrato's firing spread, the other Post foremen quickly agreed to take a salary cut so that Embarrato could keep his job. In 1990, District Attorney [[Robert Morgenthau]] began an extensive investigation of mob control at the New York newspapers, including the Post. Three years later, Embarrato was indicted on charges related to this investigation.<br />
<br />
==Family dissension==<br />
In the late 1970s, [[Philip Rastelli]] became the boss of the Bonanno family, causing a major split in the membership. [[Philip Giaccone]], [[Dominick Trinchera]] and [[Alphonse Indelicato]] opposed Rastelli and began plotting his downfall. However, Rastelli heard about the plot and instead arranged an ambush for the three conspirators. On May 5, 1981, the day of the ambush, Rastelli loyalist [[Dominick Napolitano]] asked Embarrato to come down to [[The Motion Lounge]] for a "sitdown". At the meeting, Napolitano placed two of his sidewalk soldiers next to Embarrato. The mobsters then waited until Napolitano received confirmation that Giaccone, Trichera, and Indelicato were dead. Later describing the meeting to [[Joseph D. Pistone]], posing as mobster Donnie Brasco, Napolitano said, "When [he] Alfred heard that, he turned ash white. He thought we were going to hit him too. But I just reamed at him about Tony, told him Tony was no good; and that he [Alfred] better recognize that and act right himself." Embarrato agreed.<br />
<br />
==Donnie Brasco==<br />
In mid-1981, when Pistone was revealed as an FBI agent, "Sonny Black" Napolitano, "Lefty" Ruggiero, and Mirra were all on the firing line for initially allowing the infiltration. Mirra went into hiding. [[Joseph Massino]] ordered Embarrato and Mirra's two cousins [[Joseph D'Amico]] and [[Richard Cantarella]], to find and kill him. On February 18, 1982, D'Amico, lured him to a parking garage in Lower Manhattan. Embarrato and Cantarella were waiting in a getaway car. The pair went to the parking garage, climbed into Mirra's car, and drove up to a locked security gate. D'Amico would later describe in a testimony, "He took out his key, put it in the box, but he didn’t get a chance to turn the box... I shot him at close range several times on the side of his head."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2004/06/17/tight-hit-family-close-cuz-chosen-to-kill-brasco-wiseguy/|publisher=nypost.com|title=TIGHT-HIT FAMILY – CLOSE CUZ CHOSEN TO KILL ‘BRASCO’ WISEGUY|date=June 17, 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nypost.com/2004/06/17/family-ties-made-it-easy-to-whack-cuz-mob-thug/|title=FAMILY TIES MADE IT EASY TO WHACK CUZ: MOB THUG|publisher=nypost.com|date=June 17, 2004}}</ref> In 1988, Embarrato was indicted along with other Bonanno leaders in a [[Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act]] case.<br />
<br />
==Death==<br />
On February 21, 2001, Alfred Embarrato died of natural causes.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{Notes}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*Raab, Selwyn. ''Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-312-30094-8}}<br />
*Pistone, Joseph D. and Woodley, Richard, ''[[Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia]]'' Random House 1990 {{ISBN|5-552-53129-9}}<br />
*United States Congress. ''Organized Crime''. U.S. G.P.O., 1988 [1255 pages].<br />
*Mafia: The Government's Secret File on Organized Crime<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://www.ipsn.org/court_cases/us_v_bonanno_organized_crime_family.htm United States of America vs. Embarrato]<br />
*[http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0110,robbins,22839,1.html The Village Voice.com: The Newspaper Racket - Tough Guys and Wiseguys in the Truck Drivers Union] by Tom Robbins<br />
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{{Bonanno crime family}} {{American Mafia}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Embarrato, Alfred}}<br />
[[Category:1909 births]]<br />
[[Category:2001 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:American gangsters of Italian descent]]<br />
[[Category:Bonanno crime family]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solmissus&diff=1050651520Solmissus2021-10-19T03:20:54Z<p>Nickwilso: Typo</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Genus of hydrozoans}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| image = Solmissus Jelly (48716812266).jpg<br />
| taxon = Solmissus<br />
| authority = Haeckel, 1879<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
| subdivision = See text<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Solmissus''''', or '''dinner plate jellyfish''', is a [[genus]] of [[hydrozoans]]. Its species are unique among cnidarians in that they actively hunt for [[Predation|prey]] as opposed to passively waiting for [[plankton]] to pass by. They are found in the deep waters of [[Monterey Bay]], [[California]]. They are most likely to be found in the deep sea, mid water ({{convert|700|-|1000|m|ft|abbr=on}}). They grow to be {{convert|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter. These hydrozoans feed on gelatinous [[zooplankton]], including salps and doliolids, [[ctenophore]]s, [[jellyfish]], and [[copepod]]s. However, Solmissus may be limited to feeding on soft-bodied prey by the type of nematocysts on their tentacles (Mills).<br />
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==Species list==<br />
The genus ''Solmissus'' contains the following species:<ref>[http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=117074 ''Solmissus''] World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved 6 November 2011.</ref><br />
* ''Solmissus albescens'' <small>(Gegenbaur, 1857)</small><br />
* ''Solmissus incisa'' <small>(Fewkes, 1886)</small><br />
* ''Solmissus marshalli'' <small>Agassiz & Mayer, 1902</small><br />
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===Invalid species===<br />
* ''Solmissus atlantica'' <small>Zamponi, 1983</small> [taxon inquirendum] <br />
* ''Solmissus bleekii'' <small>Haeckel, 1879</small> [taxon inquirendum] <br />
* ''Solmissus faberi'' <small>Haeckel, 1879</small> [taxon inquirendum]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
*Mills, C. E. (november 1988). In Situ Observations of the Behavior of Mesopelagic Solmissus Narcomedusae (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa)Cla. Volume 43, Number 3, Pp. 739-751. Retrieved March 03, 2021, from https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1988/00000043/00000003/art00030<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q3379454}}<br />
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[[Category:Cuninidae]]<br />
[[Category:Hydrozoan genera]]<br />
[[Category:Bioluminescent cnidarians]]<br />
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{{Hydrozoa-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siphonophorae&diff=1050651101Siphonophorae2021-10-19T03:15:18Z<p>Nickwilso: Removed irritant</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Order of colonial hydrozoans with differentiated zooids}}<br />
{{Distinguish|Siphonophorida}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| image = Photographs of living siphonophores.jpg<br />
| image_caption = (A) ''[[Rhizophysa eysenhardtii]]'' scale bar = 1 cm, (B) ''[[Bathyphysa conifera]]'' 2 cm, (C) ''[[Hippopodius hippopus]]'' 5 mm, (D) ''[[Kephyes hiulcus]]'' 2 mm (E) ''[[Desmophyes haematogaster]]'' 5 mm (F) ''[[Sphaeronectes christiansonae]]'' 2 mm, (G) ''[[Praya dubia]]'' {{cvt|4|cm}}, (H) ''[[Apolemia]]'' sp. 1 cm, (I) ''[[Lychnagalma utricularia]]'' 1 cm, (J) ''[[Nanomia]]'' sp. 1 cm, (K) ''[[Physophora hydrostatica]]'' 5 mm<br />
| image_upright = 1.3<br />
| taxon = Siphonophorae<br />
| authority = [[Johann Friedrich von Eschscholtz|Eschscholtz]], 1829<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Suborders<br />
| subdivision_ref = <ref>{{cite web |last=Schuchert |first=P. |year=2019 |title=Siphonophorae |work=World Hydrozoa Database |via=World Register of Marine Species |url=http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1371 |access-date=2019-01-27}}</ref><br />
| subdivision = <br />
*[[Calycophorae]]<br />
*[[Cystonectae]]<br />
*[[Physonectae]]<br />
| synonyms = * Siphonophora <small>Eschscholtz, 1829</small><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Siphonophorae''' (from Greek ''siphōn'' 'tube' + ''pherein'' 'to bear'<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/siphonophora |title=Siphonophora |dictionary=Lexico |language=en |access-date=2020-03-10}}</ref>) is an [[Order (biology)|order]] of [[Hydrozoa]]ns, a class of marine organisms belonging to the phylum [[Cnidaria]]. According to the [[World Register of Marine Species]], the order contains 175 species.<ref name="WoRMS" /><br />
<br />
Although a siphonophore may appear to be an individual [[organism]], each specimen is in fact a [[Colony (biology)|colonial organism]] composed of [[Medusa (biology)|medusoid]] and [[Polyp (zoology)|polypoid]] [[zooid]]s that are [[Morphology (biology)|morphologically]] and functionally specialized.<ref name=":7"/> Zooids are multicellular units that develop from a single fertilized egg and combine to create functional colonies able to reproduce, digest, float, maintain body positioning, and use jet propulsion to move.<ref name=":2" /> Most colonies are long, thin, transparent floaters living in the [[pelagic zone]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Dunn|first=Casey W.|date=December 2005|title=Complex colony-level organization of the deep-sea siphonophore Bargmannia elongata (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) is directionally asymmetric and arises by the subdivision of pro-buds|journal=Developmental Dynamics|language=en|volume=234|issue=4|pages=835–845|doi=10.1002/dvdy.20483|pmid=15986453|s2cid=8644671|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Like other [[hydrozoa]]ns, some siphonophores emit light to attract and attack prey. While many sea animals produce blue and green [[bioluminescence]], a siphonophore in the genus ''[[Erenna]]'' was only the second life form found to produce a red light (the first one being the scaleless dragonfish ''[[Chirostomias pliopterus]]'').<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Siphonophores {{!}} Smithsonian Ocean|url=http://ocean.si.edu/holding-tank/images-hide/siphonophores|access-date=2021-06-18|website=ocean.si.edu|language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Anatomy and morphology ==<br />
=== Colony characteristics ===<br />
Siphonophores are colonial hydrozoans that do not exhibit alternation of generations, but instead [[Asexual reproduction|reproduce asexually]] through a budding process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pugh|first=Philip R.|date=2014|title=Siphonophora|url=https://www.accessscience.com/content/siphonophora/625800|journal=Access Science|language=en|doi=10.1036/1097-8542.625800}}</ref> Zooids are the multicellular units that build the colonies. A single bud called the pro-bud initiates the growth of a colony by undergoing fission.<ref name=":0" /> Each zooid is produced to be genetically identical; however, mutations can alter their functions and increase diversity of the zooids within the colony.<ref name=":0" /> Siphonophores are unique in that the pro-bud initiates the production of diverse zooids with specific functions.<ref name=":0" /> The functions and organizations of the zooids in colonies widely vary among the different species; however, the majority of colonies are bilaterally arranged with dorsal and ventral sides to the stem.<ref name=":0" /> The stem is the vertical branch in the center of the colony to which the zooids attach.<ref name=":0" /> Zooids typically have special functions, and thus assume specific spatial patterns along the stem.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
=== General morphology ===<br />
Siphonophores typically exhibit one of the three standard body plans. The body plans are named Cystonecta, Physonecta, and Calycophorae.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Mapstone|first=Gillian M.|date=2014-02-06|title=Global Diversity and Review of Siphonophorae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa)|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|pages=e87737|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0087737|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3916360|pmid=24516560|bibcode=2014PLoSO...987737M|doi-access=free}}</ref> Cystonects have a long stem with the attached zooids.<ref name=":6" /> Each group of zooids has a gastrozooid.<ref name=":6" /> The gastrozooid has a tentacle used for capturing and digesting food.<ref name=":6" /> The groups also have gonophores, which are specialized for reproduction.<ref name=":6" /> They use a pneumatophore, a gas-filled float, on their anterior end and mainly drift at the surface of the water.<ref name=":6" /> Physonects have a pneumatophore and nectosome, which harbors the nectophores used for jet propulsion.<ref name=":6" /> The nectophores pump the water back in order to move forward.<ref name=":6" /> Calycophorans differ from cystonects and physonects in that they have two nectophores and no pneumatophore.<ref name=":6" /><br />
<br />
Since their origin, an increase in the number of zooid types has been observed in siphonophores.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Dunn|first1=Casey W.|last2=Pugh|first2=Philip R.|last3=Haddock|first3=Steven H. D.|date=2005-12-01|editor-last=Naylor|editor-first=Gavin|title=Molecular Phylogenetics of the Siphonophora (Cnidaria), with Implications for the Evolution of Functional Specialization|journal=Systematic Biology|language=en|volume=54|issue=6|pages=916–935|doi=10.1080/10635150500354837|pmid=16338764|issn=1076-836X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Scientists have determined two possible evolutionary hypothesis for this observation: 1. As time has gone on, the amount of zooid types has increased.<ref name=":11" /> 2. The last common ancestor had many types of zooids and the diversity seen today is due to loss of zooid types.<ref name=":11" /> Research shows no evidence supporting the first hypothesis, and has seen some evidence in support of the second.<ref name=":11" /><br />
<br />
;Zooids<br />
:Siphonophores can have zooids that are either polyps or medusae.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.siphonophores.org/SiphOrganization.php|title=Siphonophores|last=Dunn|first=Casey|journal=Current Biology |year=2009|volume=19|issue=6|pages=R233-4|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.009|pmid=19321136|access-date=March 10, 2020|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, zooids are unique and can develop to have different functions.<ref name=":3" /><br />
;Nectophores<br />
:Nectophores are medusae that assist in the propulsion and movement of some siphonophores in water.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Munro|first1=Catriona|last2=Siebert|first2=Stefan|last3=Zapata|first3=Felipe|last4=Howison|first4=Mark|last5=Damian Serrano|first5=Alejandro|last6=Church|first6=Samuel H.|last7=Goetz|first7=Freya E.|last8=Pugh|first8=Philip R.|last9=Haddock|first9=Steven H.D.|last10=Dunn|first10=Casey W.|date=2018-01-20|title=Improved phylogenetic resolution within Siphonophora (Cnidaria) with implications for trait evolution|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|doi=10.1101/251116|doi-access=free}}</ref> They are characteristic in physonectae and calycophores. The nectophores of these organisms are located in the nectosome where they can coordinate the swimming of colonies.<ref name=":2" /> The nectophores have also been observed in working in conjunction with reproductive structures in order to provide propulsion during colony detachment.<ref name=":2" /><br />
;Bracts<br />
:Bracts are zooids that are unique to the siphonophorae order. They function in protection and maintaining a neutral buoyancy.<ref name=":2" /> However, bracts are not present in all species of siphonophore.<ref name=":2" /><br />
;Gastrozooids<br />
:Gastrozooids are polyps that have evolved a function to assist in the feeding of siphonophores.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Dunn|first1=Casey W.|last2=Pugh|first2=Philip R.|last3=Haddock|first3=Steven H. D.|date=2005-12-01|editor-last=Naylor|editor-first=Gavin|title=Molecular Phylogenetics of the Siphonophora (Cnidaria), with Implications for the Evolution of Functional Specialization|journal=Systematic Biology|language=en|volume=54|issue=6|pages=916–935|doi=10.1080/10635150500354837|pmid=16338764|issn=1076-836X|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
;Palpons<br />
:Palpons are modified gastrozooids that function in digestion by regulating the circulation of gastrovascular fluids.<ref name=":2" /><br />
;Gonophores<br />
:Gonophores are zooids that are involved in the reproductive processes of the siphonophores.<ref name=":2" /><br />
;Pneumatophores<br />
:The presence of pneumatophores characterizes the subgroups Cystonectae and Physonectae.<ref name="Phylogeny">{{cite journal|last1=Collins|first1=Allen G.|date=30 April 2002|title=Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the evolution of cnidarian life cycles|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=418–432|doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x|s2cid=11108911|doi-access=free}}</ref> They are gas-filled floats that are located at the anterior end of the colonies in these species.<ref name=":2" /> They function to help the colonies maintain their orientation in water.<ref name=":2" /> In the cystonectae subgroup, the pneumatophores have an additional function of assisting with flotation of the organisms.<ref name=":2" /> The siphonophores exhibiting the feature develop the structure in early larval development via invaginations of the flattened planula structure.<ref name=":2" /> Further observations of the siphonophore species ''Nanomia bijuga'' indicate that the pneumatophore feature potentially also functions to sense pressure changes and regulate chemotaxis in some species.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Church|first1=Samuel H.|last2=Siebert|first2=Stefan|last3=Bhattacharyya|first3=Pathikrit|last4=Dunn|first4=Casey W.|date=July 2015|title=The histology of Nanomia bijuga (Hydrozoa: Siphonophora)|journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution|language=en|volume=324|issue=5|pages=435–449|doi=10.1002/jez.b.22629|pmc=5032985|pmid=26036693}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution and habitat ==<br />
Currently, the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) identifies 175 species of siphonophores.<ref name=":6" /> They can differ greatly in terms of size and shape, which largely reflects the environment that they inhabit.<ref name=":6" /> Siphonophores are most often pelagic organisms, yet level species are [[benthic]].<ref name=":6" /> Smaller, warm-water siphonophores typically live in the [[epipelagic]] zone and use their tentacles to capture [[zooplankton]] and [[copepod]]s.<ref name=":6" /> Larger siphonophores live in deeper waters, as they are generally longer and more fragile and must avoid strong currents. They mostly feed on larger prey.<ref name=":6" /> The majority of siphonophores live in the deep sea and can be found in all of the oceans.<ref name=":6" /> Siphonophore species rarely only inhabit one location.<ref name=":6" /> Some species, however, can be confined to a specific range of depths and/or an area of the ocean.<ref name=":6" /><br />
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== Behavior ==<br />
<br />
=== Movement ===<br />
Siphonophores use a method of [[Aquatic locomotion#Jet propulsion|locomotion]] similar to jet propulsion. A siphonophore is a complex aggregate colony made up of many [[nectophore]]s, which are clonal individuals that form by [[budding]] and are genetically identical.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Costello|first1=John H.|last2=Colin|first2=Sean P.|last3=Gemmell|first3=Brad J.|last4=Dabiri|first4=John O.|last5=Sutherland|first5=Kelly R.|date=November 2015|title=Multi-jet propulsion organized by clonal development in a colonial siphonophore|journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=8158|bibcode=2015NatCo...6.8158C|doi=10.1038/ncomms9158|issn=2041-1723|pmc=4569723|pmid=26327286}}</ref> Depending on where each individual nectophore is positioned within the siphonophore, their function differs.<ref name=":8" /> Colonial movement is determined by individual nectophores of all developmental stages. The smaller individuals are concentrated towards the top of the siphonophore, and their function is turning and adjusting the orientation of the colony.<ref name=":8" /> Individuals will get larger the older they are. The larger individuals are located at the base of the colony, and their main function is thrust propulsion.<ref name=":8" /> These larger individuals are important in attaining the maximum speed of the colony.<ref name=":8" /> Every individual is key to the movement of the aggregate colony, and understanding their organization may allow us to make advances in our own multi-jet propulsion vehicles.<ref name=":8" /> The colonial organization of siphonophores, particularly in ''Nanomia bijuga'' confers evolutionary advantages.<ref name=":8" /> A large amount of concentrated individuals allows for redundancy.<ref name=":8" /> This means that even if some individual nectophores become functionally compromised, their role is bypassed so the colony as a whole is not negatively affected.<ref name=":8" /> The velum, a thin band of tissue surrounding the opening of the jet, also plays a role in swimming patterns, shown specifically through research done on the previous mentioned species ''N. bijuga.''<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Sutherland|first1=Kelly R.|last2=Gemmell|first2=Brad J.|last3=Colin|first3=Sean P.|last4=Costello|first4=John H.|date=2019-03-15|title=Propulsive design principles in a multi-jet siphonophore|journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology|language=en|volume=222|issue=6|pages=jeb198242|doi=10.1242/jeb.198242|pmid=30814298|s2cid=73512609|issn=0022-0949|doi-access=free}}</ref> The velum becomes smaller and more circular during times of forward propulsion compared to a large velum that is seen during refill periods.<ref name=":9" /> Additionally, the position of the velum changes with swimming behaviors; the velum is curved downward in times of jetting, but during refill, the velum is moved back into the nectophore.<ref name=":9" /> The siphonophore ''Namonia bijuga'' also practices [[diel vertical migration]], as it remains in the deep-sea during the day but rises during the night.<ref name=":8" /><br />
<br />
=== Predation and feeding ===<br />
Siphonophores are predatory [[carnivore]]s.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/species/pelagic_siphonophore|title=Pelagic Siphonophore|last=Pacific|first=Aquarium of the|website=www.aquariumofpacific.org|language=en|access-date=2020-03-10}}</ref> Their diets consist of a variety of copepods, small crustaceans, and small fish.<ref name=":7"/> Generally, the diets of strong swimming siphonophores consist of smaller prey, and the diets of weak swimming siphonophores consist of larger prey.<ref name=":10">Cite: Purcell, Jennifer E. (1980). Influence of Siphonophore Behavior upon Their Natural Diets: Evidence for Aggressive Mimicry. Science, vol. 209, pp. 1045-1047. DOI: 10.1126/science.209.4460.1045</ref> A majority of siphonophores have [[gastrozooid]]s that have a characteristic tentacle attached to the base of the zooid. This structural feature functions in assisting the organisms in catching prey.<ref name=":2" /> Species with large [[gastrozooid]]s are capable of consuming a broad range of prey sizes.<ref name=":10" /> Similar to many other organisms in the phylum of [[Cnidaria]], many siphonophore species exhibit [[nematocyst]] stinging capsules on branches of their tentacles called tentilla.<ref name=":2" /> The nematocysts are arranged in dense batteries on the side of the tentilla.<ref name=":2" /> When the siphonophore encounters potential prey, their tentillum react to where the {{cvt|30|-|50|cm|in}} tentacles create a net by transforming their shape around the prey.<ref name=":7"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Damian-Serrano|first1=Alejandro|last2=Haddock|first2=Steven H. D.|last3=Dunn|first3=Casey W.|date=2020-04-02|title=Shaped to kill: The evolution of siphonophore tentilla for specialized prey capture in the open ocean|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/653345v2|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=653345|doi=10.1101/653345|s2cid=215404157}}</ref><ref name="biorxiv.org">{{Cite journal|last1=Damian-Serrano|first1=Alejandro|last2=Haddock|first2=Steven H.D.|last3=Dunn|first3=Casey W.|date=2019-06-12|title=Shaped to kill: The evolution of siphonophore tentilla for specialized prey capture in the open ocean|url=http://biorxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/653345|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|doi=10.1101/653345|s2cid=215404157}}</ref> The nematocysts then shoot millions<ref name=":10" /> of paralyzing, and sometimes fatal, [[toxin]] molecules at the trapped prey which is then transferred to the proper location for digestion.<ref name=":7"/> Some species of siphonophores use aggressive mimicry by using bioluminescent light so the prey cannot properly identify the predator.<ref name="biorxiv.org"/><br />
<br />
There are four types of nematocysts in siphonophore tentilla: heteronemes, haplonemes, desmonemes, and rhopalonemes.<ref name="biorxiv.org"/> Heteronemes are the largest nematocysts and are spines on a shaft close to tubules attached to the center of the siphonophore.<ref name="biorxiv.org"/> Haplonemes have open tipped tubules with spines, but no distinct shaft.<ref name="biorxiv.org"/> This is the most common nematocyst among siphonophores.<ref name="biorxiv.org"/> Desmonemes do not have spines but instead there are adhesive properties on the tubules to hold onto prey.<ref name="biorxiv.org"/> Rhopalonemes are nematocysts with wide tubules for prey.<ref name="biorxiv.org"/><br />
<br />
Due to the lack of food in the deep sea environment, a majority of siphonophore species function in a sit and wait tactic for food.<ref name="Dunn">Dunn, Casey (2005). [http://siphonophores.org/SiphOrganization.php "Siphonophores"]. Retrieved 2008-07-08.</ref> The gelatinous body plan allows for flexibility when catching prey, but the gelatinous adaptations are based on habitat.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Madinand|first1=L. P.|title=Gelatinous Zooplankton*|date=2001-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123744739001983|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences (Second Edition)|pages=9–19|editor-last=Steele|editor-first=John H.|place=Oxford|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-012374473-9.00198-3|isbn=978-0-12-374473-9|access-date=2020-10-31|last2=Harbison|first2=G. R.}}</ref> They swim around waiting for their long tentacles to encounter prey. In addition, siphonophores in a group denoted ''Erenna'' have the ability to generate [[bioluminescence]] and red fluorescence while its tentilla twitches in a way to mimic motions of small crustaceans and copepods.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal|vauthors=Haddock SH, Dunn CW, Pugh PR, Schnitzler CE|s2cid=29284690|date=July 2005|title=Bioluminescent and red-fluorescent lures in a deep-sea siphonophore|journal=Science|volume=309|issue=5732|pages=263|citeseerx=10.1.1.384.7904|doi=10.1126/science.1110441|pmid=16002609}}</ref> These actions entice the prey to move closer to the siphonophore, allowing it to trap and digest it.<ref name=":4" /><br />
<br />
=== Reproduction ===<br />
The modes of reproduction for siphonophores vary among the different species, and to this day, several modes remain unknown. Generally, a single [[zygote]] begins the formation of a colony of zooids.<ref name=":7"/> The fertilized egg matures into a protozooid, which initiates the budding process and creation of a new zooid.<ref name=":7" /> This process repeats until a colony of zooids forms around the central stalk.<ref name=":7" /> In contrast, several species reproduce using [[Polyp (zoology)|polyps]]. Polyps can hold eggs and/or sperm and can be released into the water from the posterior end of the siphonophore.<ref name=":7" /> The polyps may then be fertilized outside of the organism.<ref name=":7" /><br />
<br />
Siphonophores use [[gonophore]]s to make the reproductive [[gamete]]s.<ref name=":1" /> Gonophores are either male or female; however, the types of gonophores in a colony can vary among species.<ref name=":1" /> Species are characterized as monoecious or dioecious based on their gonophores.<ref name=":1" /> [[Monoecious]] species contain male and female gonophores in a single zooid colony, whereas [[dioecious]] species harbor male and female gonophores separately in different colonies of zooids.<ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
=== Bioluminescence ===<br />
[[File:Expl2277 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|thumb|Bioluminescent siphonophores pictured above the Hercules ROV, photographed by the Argus vehicle.]]<br />
Nearly all siphonophores have bioluminescent capabilities. Since these organisms are extremely fragile, they are rarely observed alive.<ref name=":4" /> Bioluminescence in siphonophores has been thought to have evolved as a defense mechanism.<ref name=":4" /> Siphonophores of the [[Deep sea|deep-sea]] genus ''Erenna'' (found at depths between 1,600-2,300 meters) are thought to use their [[Bioluminescence|bioluminescent]] capability for offense too, as a lure to attract fish.<ref name=":4" /> This genus is one of the few to prey on fish rather than crustaceans.<ref name=":4" /> The bioluminescent organs, called [[tentilla]], on these non-visual individuals emit red [[fluorescence]] along with a rhythmic flicking pattern, which attracts prey as it resembles smaller organisms such as [[zooplankton]] and [[copepod]]s. Thus, it has been concluded that they use luminescence as a lure to attract prey.<ref name=":4" /> Some research indicates that deep-sea organisms can not detect long wavelengths, and red light has a long wavelength of 680&nbsp;nm. If this is the case, then fish are not lured by ''Erenna'', and there must be another explanation. However, the deep-sea remains largely unexplored and red light sensitivity in fish such as ''[[Cyclothone]]'' and the deep [[myctophid]] fish should not be discarded.<ref name=":4" /><br />
<br />
Bioluminescent lures are found in many different species of siphonophores, and are used for a variety of reasons. Species such as ''[[Agalma okeni]], [[Athorybia rosacea]], [[Athorybia lucida]],'' and ''[[Lychnafalma utricularia]]'' use their lures as a mimicry device to attract prey.<ref name=":6" /> ''A. rosacea'' mimic fish larvae, ''A. lucida'' are thought to mimic larvacean houses, and ''L. utricularia'' mimic hydromedusa.<ref name=":6" /> The species ''[[Resomia ornicephala]]'' uses their green and blue fluorescing tentilla to attract krill, helping them to outcompete other organisms that are hunting for the same prey.<ref name=":6" /> Siphonophores from the genus ''Erenna'' use bioluminescent lures surrounded by red fluorescence to attract prey, and possibly mimic a fish from the ''Cyclothone'' genus.<ref name=":6" /> Their prey is lured in through a unique flicking behavior associated with the tentilla.<ref name=":4" /> When young, the tentilla of organisms in the ''Erenna'' genus contain only bioluminescent tissue, but, as the organism ages, red fluorescent material is also present in these tissues.<ref name=":4" /><br />
<br />
== Taxonomy ==<br />
[[File:Portuguese Man-O-War (Physalia physalis).jpg|thumb|[[Portuguese man o' war]] (''Physalia physalis'')]]<br />
Organisms in the order of Siphonophorae have been classified into the phylum Cnidaria and the class Hydrozoa.<ref name="WoRMS">[http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1371 "Siphonophorae"]. ''World Register of Marine Species'' (2018). Retrieved 8 January 2018.</ref> The [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] relationships of siphonophores have been of great interest due to the high variability of the organization of their polyp colonies and medusae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/hydrozoamm.html|title=Hydrozoa: More on Morphology|last=Waggoner|first=Ben|date=July 21, 1995|website=UC Museum of Paleontology|access-date=March 10, 2020}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Once believed to be a highly distinct group, [[larva]]l similarities and morphological features have led researchers to believe that siphonophores had evolved from simpler colonial hydrozoans similar to those in the orders [[Anthoathecata]] and [[Leptothecata]].<ref name="Phylogeny" /> Consequently, they are now united with these in the [[Class (biology)|subclass]] [[Hydroidolina]].<br />
<br />
Early analysis divided siphonophores into 3 main subgroups based on the presence or the absence of 2 different traits: swimming bells (nectophores) and floats (pneumatophores).<ref name="Phylogeny" /> The subgroups consisted of Cystonectae, Physonectae, and Calycorphores. Cystonectae had pneumatophores, physonectae had nectophores, and calycophores had both.<ref name="Phylogeny" /><br />
<br />
Eukaryotic nuclear small subunit ribosomal gene 18S, eukaryotic mitochondrial large subunit ribosomal gene 16S, and transcriptome analyses further support the phylogenetic division of Siphonophorae into 2 main clades: Cystonectae and Codonophora. Suborders within Codonophora include Physonectae (consisting of the clades Calycophorae and Euphysonectae), Pyrostephidae, and Apolemiidae.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><br />
<br />
*Suborder [[Calycophorae]]<br />
**[[Abylidae]] <small>Agassiz, 1862</small><br />
**[[Clausophyidae]] <small>Totton, 1965</small><br />
**[[Diphyidae]] <small>Quoy & Gaimard, 1827</small><br />
**[[Hippopodiidae]] <small>Kölliker, 1853</small><br />
**[[Prayidae]] <small>Kölliker, 1853</small><br />
**[[Sphaeronectidae]] <small>Huxley, 1859</small><br />
**[[Tottonophyidae]] <small>Pugh, Dunn & Haddock, 2018</small><br />
*Suborder [[Cystonectae]]<br />
**[[Physaliidae]] <small>Brandt, 1835</small><br />
**[[Rhizophysidae]] <small>Brandt, 1835</small><br />
*Suborder [[Physonectae]]<br />
**[[Agalmatidae]] <small>Brandt, 1834</small><br />
**[[Apolemiidae]] <small>Huxley, 1859</small><br />
**[[Cordagalmatidae]] <small>Pugh, 2016</small><br />
**[[Erennidae]] <small>Pugh, 2001</small><br />
**[[Forskaliidae]] <small>Haeckel, 1888</small><br />
**[[Physophoridae]] <small>Eschscholtz, 1829</small><br />
**[[Pyrostephidae]] <small>Moser, 1925</small><br />
**[[Resomiidae]] <small>Pugh, 2006</small><br />
**[[Rhodaliidae]] <small>Haeckel, 1888</small><br />
**[[Stephanomiidae]] <small>Huxley, 1859</small><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Differential-Gene-Expression-in-the-Siphonophore-Nanomia-bijuga-(Cnidaria)-Assessed-with-Multiple-pone.0022953.s013.ogv|thumb|right|{{center|Video taken at a depth of 612 metres of the siphonophore ''[[Nanomia bijuga]]''}}]]<br />
<br />
=== Discovery ===<br />
[[Carl Linnaeus]] discovered and described the first siphonophore, the [[Portuguese man o' war]], in 1758.<ref name=":6" /> The discovery rate of siphonophore species was slow in the 18th century, as only four additional species were found.<ref name=":6" /> During the 19th century, 56 new species were observed due to research voyages conducted by European powers.<ref name=":6" /> The majority of new species found during this time period were collected in coastal, surface waters.<ref name=":6" /> During the [[Challenger expedition|HMS ''Challenger'' expedition]], various species of siphonophores were collected. [[Ernst Haeckel]] attempted to conduct a write up of all of the species of siphonophores collected on this expedition. He introduced 46 "new species"; however, his work was heavily critiqued because some of the species that he identified were eventually found not to be siphonophores.<ref name=":6" /> Nonetheless, some of his descriptions and figures (pictured below) are considered useful by modern biologists. A rate of about 10 new species discoveries per decade was observed during the 20th century.<ref name=":6" /> Considered the most important researcher of siphonophores, A.&nbsp;K. Totton introduced 23 new species of siphonophores during the mid 20th century.<ref name=":6" /><br />
<br />
On April 6, 2020 the [[Schmidt Ocean Institute]] announced the discovery of a giant ''[[Apolemia]]'' siphonophore in submarine canyons near [[Ningaloo Coast]], measuring 15&nbsp;m (49&nbsp;ft) diameter with a ring approximately 47&nbsp;m (154&nbsp;ft) long, possibly the largest siphonophore ever recorded.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://interestingengineering.com/longest-giant-stringy-sea-creature-ever-recorded-looks-like-it-belongs-in-outer-space|title=Longest Giant Stringy Sea Creature Ever Recorded Looks like It Belongs in Outer Space|date=2020-04-09|website=interestingengineering.com|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref><ref name="EA-20200409">{{cite news |author=Schmidt Ocean Institute |author-link=Schmidt Ocean Institute |title=New species discovered during exploration of abyssal deep sea canyons off Ningaloo |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-04/soi-nsd040920.php |date=9 April 2020 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=12 April 2020 }}</ref><br />
<br />
There is no [[fossil record]] of siphonophores, though they have evolved and adapted for an extensive time period. Their phylum, [[Cnidaria]], is an ancient lineage that dates back to c. 640 million years ago.<ref name=":6" /><br />
<br />
=== Haeckel's siphonophores ===<br />
[[Ernst Haeckel]] described a number of siphonophores, and several plates from his ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'' (1904) depict members of the [[taxon]]:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/art-forms-nature-marine-species-ernst-haeckel |title=Art Forms in Nature: Marine Species From Ernst Haeckel |work=Smithsonian Ocean |last=Costantino |first=Grace |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |language=en |access-date=2020-03-10}}</ref><br />
<br />
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200" style="float:left;"><br />
File:Haeckel Siphonophorae 7.jpg|Plate 7<br />
File:Haeckel Siphonophorae 37.jpg|Plate 37<br />
File:Haeckel Siphonophorae 59.jpg|Plate 59<br />
File:Haeckel Siphonophorae 77.jpg|Plate 77<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
{{clear}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{cite book |last=Mapstone |first=Gillian M. |year=2009 |title=Siphonophora (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) of Canadian Pacific waters |publisher=NRC Research Press |location=Ottawa |isbn=978-0-660-19843-9}}<br />
* PinkTentacle.com (2008): [http://www.pinktentacle.com/2008/12/siphonophore-deep-sea-superorganism-video/ Siphonophore: Deep-sea superorganism (video)]. Retrieved 2009-MAY-23.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{cite journal<br />
| url = http://siphonophores.org<br />
| title = Siphonophores<br />
| last = Dunn<br />
| first = Casey<br />
| date = n.d.<br />
| journal = Current Biology <br />
| volume = 19<br />
| issue = 6<br />
| pages = R233-4<br />
| publisher = n/a<br />
| doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.009<br />
| pmid = 19321136<br />
| access-date = 19 September 2014<br />
| doi-access= free<br />
}}<br />
*{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1IEWuQTEwhk&t=6m2s|title=Tauchen in Norwegen - Kvasefjord|last=Scubamedia.de|date=30 August 2013|website=YouTube|publisher=scubamedia.de|access-date=19 September 2014}}<br />
*{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KT1TSbarW1U|title=Siphonophore|last=Pinktentacle3|date=22 December 2008|website=YouTube|access-date=19 September 2014}}<br />
*{{cite web<br />
| url = http://www.nautiluslive.org/video/2014/06/27/stunning-siphonophore-sighting<br />
| title = Stunning Siphonophore Sighting<br />
| date = 27 June 2014<br />
| website = Nautilus Live: Explore the ocean LIVE with Dr. Robert Ballard and the Corps of Exploration<br />
| publisher = Ocean Exploration Trust<br />
| access-date = 18 September 2014<br />
}}<br />
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U5itEz44WZ8 <nowiki>''Deep sea siphonophore''</nowiki>] (10 April 2017) YouTube. Imaged by the NOAA Okeanos Explorer on March 14, 2017 at 1,560 meters west of Winslow Reef complex. Retrieved 28 January 2018. <br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1134438}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Siphonophorae| ]]<br />
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]<br />
[[Category:Hydroidolina]]<br />
[[Category:Cnidarian orders]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erinaceus&diff=1050109406Erinaceus2021-10-15T20:47:30Z<p>Nickwilso: Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Genus of mammals}}<br />
{{Italic title}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| name = ''Erinaceus''<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Hutterer |id=13600014 |pages=213–214}}</ref><br />
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Late Miocene|Recent}}<br />
| image = Erinaceus europeaus (DarkAn9el).jpg<br />
| image_caption = ''[[European Hedgehog|E. europaeus]]''<br />
| taxon = Erinaceus<br />
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<br />
| type_species = ''[[European Hedgehog|Erinaceus europaeus]]''<br />
| type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
| subdivision = ''[[Amur hedgehog|E. amurensis]]''<br><br />
''[[Southern white-breasted hedgehog|E. concolor]]''<br><br />
''[[European hedgehog|E. europaeus]]''<br><br />
''[[Northern white-breasted hedgehog|E. roumanicus]]''<br />
}}<br />
{{commons category}}<br />
<br />
'''''Erinaceus''''' is a genus of [[hedgehog]] from the family of [[Erinaceidae]]. There are four main species of ''Erinaceus''. The range is all across Europe, throughout the Middle East, parts of Russia, and extending to northern China. The European hedgehog (''Erinaceus europaeus'') has been introduced to New Zealand.<ref name="MacDonald">Macdonald, David W. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York, NY: Facts on File, 1984 {{ISBN|0871968711}}.</ref><ref name="Bogdanov">{{cite journal|pmid=20143638|year=2009|last1=Bogdanov|first1=AS|last2=Bannikova|first2=AA|last3=Pirusskiĭ|first3=IuM|last4=Formozov|first4=NA|title=The first genetic evidence of hybridization between west European and northern white-breasted hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus and E. Roumanicus) in Moscow Region|issue=6|pages=760–5|journal=Izvestiia Akademii Nauk. Seriia Biologicheskaia}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
As is characteristic of other hedgehogs, members of ''Erinaceus'' have spines. These spines are a modification of the hair that is formed and strengthened by [[keratin]]. They contain hollow air filled gaps separated by thin inner layers of the spine to lessen the weight load.<ref name="Grzimek">Grzimek, Bernhard, Neil Schlager, Donna Olendorf, and Melissa C. McDade. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 13. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2004.</ref> Every spine is tapered at the end to form a point and also at the base where it then forms a bulb that is attached to the skin. The tapering at the base allows the spine to have a section that will bend under stress and dampen forces placed on the spines. Each of the spines has a dermal muscle that erects the spine for defense.<ref name="Grzimek"/> The size of ''Erinaceus'' is 20–30&nbsp;cm with a weight of 400–1200&nbsp;g.<ref>Lal, S. S. Practical Zoology Vertebrate. Meerut, IN: Global Media, 2010.</ref><br />
<br />
==Behavior==<br />
Like all other hedgehogs ''Erinaceus'' is [[nocturnal]] and seeks shelter in shrubs and burrows during the day.<ref name="Qumsiyeh">[[Mazin Qumsiyeh|Qumsiyeh, Mazin B.]] Mammals of the Holy Land. Lubbock: Texas Tech UP, 1996 {{ISBN|089672364X}}.</ref> The common defense mechanism is to roll into a ball with the spines facing outward. The action is done because of excess loose skin on the back of hedgehogs allows them to pull it around the rest of their body forming a ball. The first step is to pull skin fold over the head and rear of the body. Once this is done a muscle that runs along the edges of the animal called the ''panniculus carnosus'' contracts pulling everything in like a drawstring.<ref name="Grzimek"/><br />
Like most hedgehogs ''Erinaceus'' is solitary until breeding season. Another normal action is self-anointing where the organism produces thick foamy saliva and proceeds to cover its spines with the saliva. This could be in response to a chemical signal and often is done when a new object is introduced. The reason for self-anointing is unknown and believed to be either part of a defense or attraction of a mate.<ref name="MacDonald"/><br />
[[Hibernation]] is common in each of the species for ''Erinaceus''. Most have the ability to lower the body temperature close that of the environmental temperature. In particular [[European Hedgehog|''Erinaceus europaeus'']] the body temperature can drop down to 1&nbsp;°C and lower its heart rate down to 22 beats per minute.<ref name="Grzimek"/><br />
<br />
==Reproduction and lifespan==<br />
It is believed that ''Erinaceus'' is [[polygyny|polygynous]] in mating. Once fertilized [[gestation]] is between 30–40 days. Upon birth the young are born blind and dependent to their mother. The average litter size is 2–5 offspring with a maximum of 10. Offspring are born without developed spines, which form within a few weeks. Weaning occurs around 4–6 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached around 12 months. The average life span is 2–5 years while in captivity lifespan can reach as much as 10 years.<ref name="Grzimek"/><br />
<br />
==Diet==<br />
''Erinaceus'' is an [[omnivore]]. It will eat small invertebrates, small vertebrates, fruit, vegetables, and even fungi. In some cases they have been known to eat venomous snakes or even toxic beetles. Some species show resistance to snake venom up to forty times greater than that of the ordinary laboratory mouse.<ref name="MacDonald"/><ref name="Grzimek"/><br />
<br />
==Species==<br />
* [[Amur hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus amurensis'')<br />
* [[Southern white-breasted hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus concolor'')<br />
* [[European hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus europaeus'')<br />
* [[Northern white-breasted hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus roumanicus'')<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Erinaceomorpha}}<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q498993}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Erinaceus| ]]<br />
[[Category:Hedgehogs]]<br />
[[Category:Mammal genera]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scincus&diff=1048931300Scincus2021-10-08T20:30:05Z<p>Nickwilso: Correction</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Genus of lizards}}<br />
{{italic title}}<br />
{{Automatic Taxobox<br />
| name = ''Scincus''<br />
| image = Apothekerskink01.jpg<br />
| image_caption = ''[[Scincus scincus]]'', common skink or common sandfish<br />
| taxon = Scincus<br />
| authority = [[Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti|Laurenti]], 1768<br />
| subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
| subdivision = Five, see text.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Scincus''''' is a [[genus]] of [[skink]]s, [[lizards]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] Scincidae. The genus contains four or five species, all of which are typical desert inhabitants, living in sandy and dune-like areas with a hot and dry climate. Species in the genus ''Scincus'' can be found from [[Arabia]] to the [[Sahara desert]].<br />
<br />
==Taxonomy==<br />
''Scincus'' is the [[type (biology)|type]] genus of the [[subfamily]] [[Scincinae]]. As the subfamily Scincinae appears to be [[paraphyletic]] and is in need of revision, it is as yet undetermined which skink genera are closely enough related to ''Scincus'' to be retained in the Scincinae. (Austin & Arnold 2006).<br />
<br />
==Species==<br />
The genus ''Scincus'' contains five species which are recognized as being valid.<ref>"''Scincus'' ". The Reptile Database. www.reptile-database.org.</ref><br />
*''[[Scincus albifasciatus]]'' {{small|[[George Albert Boulenger|Boulenger]], 1890}}<br />
*''[[Scincus conirostris]]'' {{small|([[William Thomas Blanford|Blanford]], 1881)}} – sandfish skink<br />
*''[[Scincus hemprichii]]'' {{small|[[Arend Friedrich August Wiegmann|Wiegmann]], 1837}}<br />
*''[[Scincus mitranus]]'' {{small|[[John Anderson (zoologist)|Anderson]], 1871}} – eastern sandfish or eastern skink<br />
*''[[Scincus scincus]]'' {{small|([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)}} – common sandfish or common skink<br />
<br />
''[[Nota bene]]'': A [[Binomial nomenclature|binomial authority]] in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than ''Scincus''.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
*{{aut|Austin, J.J. & [[:fr:Edwin Nicholas Arnold|Arnold, E.N.]]}} (2006). "Using ancient and recent DNA to explore relationships of extinct and endangered ''Leiolopisma'' skinks (Reptilia: Scincidae) in the Mascarene islands". ''Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution'' '''39''' (2): 503–511. <small>{{doi|10.1016/j.ympev.2005.12.011}}</small> (HTML abstract).<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1758237}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Scincus]]<br />
[[Category:Lizard genera]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{skink-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trachelochismus&diff=1035002028Trachelochismus2021-07-23T02:30:03Z<p>Nickwilso: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|Genus of fishes}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| image = Trachelochismus pinnatus.jpg<br />
| image_caption = New Zealand lumpfish ''Trachelochismus pinnatus''<br />
| taxon = Trachelochismus<br />
| authority = [[Charles N. F. Brisout|Brisout de Barneville]], 1846<br />
| type_species = ''Cyclopterus pinnulatus''<br />
| type_species_authority = Forster, 1844<ref name = CofF>{{Cof record|genid=1917|title=''Trachelochismus''|access-date=17 June 2019}}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Trachelochismus''''' is a [[genus]] of [[clingfish]]es [[endemism|endemic]] to the shores of [[New Zealand]], with currently three recognized species:<ref>{{FishBase genus | genus = Trachelochismus| month = October | year = 2012}}</ref><br />
* ''[[Trachelochismus aestuarium]]'' <small>[[Kevin W. Conway|Conway]], [[Andrew L. Stewart|Stewart]] & [[Cragen King|King]] 2017</small><ref name = Conway>{{cite journal | author1 = Kevin W. Conway | author2 = Andrew L. Stewart| author3 = Cragen King| name-list-style = amp | year = 2017 | title = A new species of the clingfish genus Trachelochismus from bay and estuarine areas of New Zealand (Teleostei: Gobiesocidae) | url = https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/view/zootaxa.4319.3.6/0 | journal = Zootaxa | volume = 4319 | issue = 3}}</ref><br />
* ''[[Trachelochismus melobesia]]'' <small>[[William John Phillipps|Phillipps]], 1927</small> (striped clingfish)<br />
* ''[[Trachelochismus pinnulatus]]'' <small>([[Johann Reinhold Forster|J. R. Forster]], 1801)</small><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2247393}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Trachelochismus| ]]<br />
[[Category:Marine fish genera]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Charles N. F. Brisout]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{gobiesociformes-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shabba_Ranks&diff=1020042674Shabba Ranks2021-04-26T21:06:40Z<p>Nickwilso: Grammar</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Jamaican dancehall musician}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}<br />
{{Infobox musical artist<br />
| name = Shabba Ranks<br />
| image =<br />
| background = solo_singer<br />
| birth_name = Rexton Rawlston Fernando Gordon<br />
| alias = <br />
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1966|01|17}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica|St. Ann]], Jamaica<br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place =<br />
| origin = [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]], Jamaica<br />
| instrument = <br />
| genre = [[Reggae]], [[dancehall]], [[reggae fusion]], [[ragga]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/shabba-ranks-mn0000129817|title=Shabba Ranks - Music Biography, Credits and Discography|publisher=[[Allmusic]]|access-date=11 October 2014}}</ref><br />
| occupation = [[Dancehall]] musician<br />
| years_active = 1985–present<br />
| label = [[Epic Records|Epic]] <small>(1991–96)</small><br />
| associated_acts = [[KRS-One]], [[Maxi Priest]], [[ASAP Ferg]], [[Johnny Gill]]<br />
| website = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Shabba Ranks''' (born '''Rexton Rawlston Fernando Gordon'''; 17 January 1966)<ref name="pitchfork">{{cite news |last1=MacLeod |first1=Erin |title=Shabba Ranks |url=https://pitchfork.com/features/starter/9174-shabba-ranks/ |access-date=26 February 2019 |publisher=Pitchfork |date=30 July 2013}}</ref> is a [[Jamaica|Jamaican]] [[dancehall]] musician. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he was as one of the most popular Jamaican musicians in the world. Throughout his prominence in his home country as a dancehall artist, he gained popularity in [[North America]] with his studio album, ''[[Just Reality]]'', in 1990. He released two studio albums, ''[[As Raw as Ever]]'' and ''[[X-tra Naked]]'', which both won a [[Grammy Award]] as [[Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album|Best Reggae Album]] in 1992 and 1993, respectively. He is notoriously popular for "[[Mr. Loverman]]" and [[X-tra Naked|"Ting-A-Ling"]], which were globally acclaimed and deemed his signature songs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/entertainment/20190331/making-mr-loverman-shabbas-biggest-song-date|title=Making ‘Mr Loverman’, Shabba’s biggest song to date|date=31 March 2019|website=Jamaica-gleaner.com|access-date=21 March 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Early life and family==<br />
Ranks was born in Sturgetown, [[Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica|St. Ann]], [[Jamaica]], and raised in [[Trenchtown]].<ref name= "pitchfork"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Henry |first1=Davina |title=The Dancehall Emperor Is Back! |url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120717/ent/ent1.html |access-date=26 February 2019 |publisher=The Gleaner |date=17 July 2012}}</ref> <br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
He gained his fame mainly by [[Deejay (Jamaican)|toasting]] (or rapping) rather than singing, like some of his dancehall contemporaries in Jamaica. He was a protégé of deejay Josey Wales. His original stage name was Co-Pilot.<ref name= "pitchfork"/> His international career started in the late 1980s, along with a number of fellow Jamaicans including [[reggae]] singers [[Cocoa Tea]] and Crystal. Ranks also worked with [[Chuck Berry]] and American rappers [[KRS-One]] and [[Chubb Rock]].<br />
<br />
He secured a [[recording contract]] with [[Epic Records]] in 1989.<ref name= "pitchfork"/><br />
<br />
The stylistic origins of the genre [[reggaeton]] can be traced back to the 1990 song "[[Dem Bow]]", from Ranks' album ''[[Just Reality]]''. Produced by [[Robert Dixon (musician)|Bobby "Digital" Dixon]], the Dem Bow [[riddim]] became so popular in Puerto Rican freestyle sessions that early [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] reggaeton was simply known as "Dembow".<ref>{{cite news | first=Wayne | last=Marshall | title=The Rise of Reggaeton | date=19 January 2006 | url =http://thephoenix.com/Article.aspx?id=1595 | work =The Phoenix | page =4 | access-date = 5 December 2007 }}</ref> The Dem Bow riddim is an integral and inseparable part of reggaeton, so much so that it has become its defining characteristic.<ref>{{cite news | first=Jon | last=Carimanica | title=Grow Dem Bow | date=12 January 2006 | url =http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0603,caramanica,71722,22.html | work =The Village Voice | access-date = 5 December 2007 }}</ref><br />
<br />
His biggest [[hit single]] outside of [[Jamaica]] was the reggae fusion smash "[[Mr. Loverman]]". Other big tracks include "Housecall" with [[Maxi Priest]], "Slow and Sexy" with [[Johnny Gill]], "Respect", "Pirates Anthem", "Trailer Load A Girls", "Wicked inna Bed", "Caan Dun", and "Ting A Ling". He won the [[Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album]] in 1992 for ''[[As Raw as Ever]]'' and in 1993 for ''[[X-tra Naked]]''.<ref name="pitchfork"/><br />
<br />
In 1993, Ranks scored another hit in the ''[[Addams Family Values]]'' soundtrack to which he contributed a rap/reggae version of the [[Sly and the Family Stone]] hit "[[Family Affair (Sly and the Family Stone song)|Family Affair]]".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Breihan |first1=Tom |title=The Number Ones: Sly & The Family Stone’s 'Family Affair' |url= https://www.stereogum.com/2031951/the-number-ones-sly-the-family-stones-family-affair/franchises/the-number-ones/ |access-date=26 February 2019 |publisher=Stereogum |date=13 February 2019}}</ref> His third album for Epic, ''[[A Mi Shabba]]'', was released in 1995. He was dropped by the label in 1996. Epic went on to release a greatest hits album, entitled ''[[Shabba Ranks and Friends]]'' in 1999.<br />
<br />
Ranks made a partial comeback in 2007 when he appeared on a song called "Clear The Air" by [[Busta Rhymes]], which also featured [[Akon]]. Shabba released a single on Big Ship's Pepper Riddim called "None A Dem", in April 2011. In 2012, Shabba was featured on [[Tech N9ne]]'s EP ''[[E.B.A.H.]]'' on the track "Boy Toy". In 2013, Shabba was also mentioned in [[A$AP Ferg]]'s song "[[Shabba (song)|Shabba]]," and has a cameo near the end of the music video.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iXZxipry6kE&feature=c4-overview&list=UUsjrSi7xMkKPk4gcLSjFKbA |title=A$AP Ferg feat. A$AP Rocky – Shabba |publisher=YouTube |access-date=15 July 2013}}</ref> He was featured in the [[remix]] alongside [[Migos]] and [[Busta Rhymes]] on 23 November 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.audiomack.com/song/diversehiphop/shabba-remix-feat-shabba-ranks-busta-rhymes-migos |title=A$AP Ferg – Shabba (Remix) (feat. Shabba Ranks, Busta Rhymes & Migos) – Listen |publisher=AudioMack |access-date=24 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127050957/http://www.audiomack.com/song/diversehiphop/shabba-remix-feat-shabba-ranks-busta-rhymes-migos |archive-date=27 November 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In August 2013, he was reportedly working on a new album.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Shabba-plans-new-album_14881567 |title=Shabba plans new album |work=JamaicaObserver.com |date=16 August 2013 |access-date=24 November 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Controversy==<br />
In 1992, during an appearance on [[Channel 4]] music show ''[[The Word (TV series)|The Word]]'', he was asked to give his thoughts on the subject of the hit song, "Boom Bye Bye", by [[Buju Banton]]. Shabba held a copy of a Bible which he carried with him and stated that the "word of God" advocated the "crucifixion of homosexuals". He also alluded that he advocates the progression of the [[Jamaican people]] and [[freedom of speech]] but did not concluded that [[LGBT rights in Jamaica|being against homosexuality]] would be in question of exclusion, according to [[The Bible and homosexuality|bible laws]]. He was condemned for his comments by presenter [[Mark Lamarr]], who said, "That's absolute crap and you know it." In following of the comments he made, Ranks was dropped out of a [[Bobby Brown]] concert as a performer and faced altercations with his label, especially the pressure with his label at the time, [[Sony Music]]. Ranks has apologized by following that he realized his comments would advocate "the killing of gays and lesbians and any human being in retrospect" in regard.<ref name= "pitchfork"/><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIRmQNM4xUk#t=1m22s |title=The Word |year=1992 |publisher=Channel 4 |access-date=8 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x264qcw|title=Buju Banton Shabba Ranks - video Dailymotion|website=Dailymotion.com|access-date=21 March 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Awards==<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|- <br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Year<br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Award<br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Category<br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Work<br />
! style="text-align:center;"| Result<br />
|-<br />
| 1992<br />
| [[Grammy Award]]<br />
| [[34th_Annual_Grammy_Awards#Reggae|Best Reggae Album]]<br />
| ''[[As Raw as Ever]]''<br />
| {{Won}}<br />
|-<br />
| 1993<br />
| Grammy Award<br />
| [[35th_Annual_Grammy_Awards#Reggae|Best Reggae Album]]<br />
| ''[[X-tra Naked]]''<br />
| {{Won}}<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
<br />
===Albums===<br />
*1988 ''Rough & Rugged'' – split with [[Chaka Demus]]<br />
*1988 (CD:1990) ''[[Rappin' with the Ladies]]''<br />
*1989 ''[[Best Baby Father]]''<br />
*1989 ''[[Holding On (album)|Holding On]]'' – by Home T, Cocoa Tea & Shabba Ranks<br />
*1990 ''[[Just Reality]]''<br />
*1990 ''[[Golden Touch (Shabba Ranks album)|Golden Touch]]''<br />
*1991 ''[[As Raw as Ever]]'' – UK Number 51<br />
*1991 ''[[Mr. Maximum (album)|Mr. Maximum]]''<br />
*1992 ''[[Rough & Ready Volume 1]]'' – UK Number 71<br />
*1992 ''[[X-tra Naked]]'' – UK Number 38<br />
*1993 ''[[Rough & Ready Volume 2]]''<br />
*1995 ''[[A Mi Shabba]]''<br />
*1998 ''[[Get Up Stand Up (album)|Get Up Stand Up]]''<br />
*1999 ''[[Shabba Ranks and Friends]]''<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/><br />
<br />
===Singles===<br />
*1989 "Peanie Peanie" – Shabba Ranks – Jammys<br />
*1990 "Roots & Culture" – Shabba Ranks – Digital B<br />
*1991 "She's a Woman" – [[Scritti Politti]] featuring Shabba Ranks – UK Number 20<br />
*1991 "Trailer Load a Girls" – Shabba Ranks – UK Number 63<br />
*1991 "Housecall" – Shabba Ranks featuring [[Maxi Priest]] – UK Number 31 – US Number 37<br />
*1991 "Just Reality" – Shabba Ranks – Digital B<br />
*1992 "Love Punaany Bad" – Shabba Ranks – Jammys<br />
*1992 "[[Mr. Loverman]]" – Shabba Ranks featuring [[Deborahe Glasgow]] – UK Number 23 – US Number 40<br />
*1992 "Slow and Sexy" – Shabba Ranks featuring [[Johnny Gill]] – UK Number 17 – US 33<br />
*1992 "Shine & Crisis" – Shabba Ranks – Shang<br />
*1993 "I Was a King" – [[Eddie Murphy]] featuring Shabba Ranks – UK Number 64<br />
*1993 "Mr. Loverman" – re-issue – Shabba Ranks – UK Number 3<br />
*1993 "Housecall" – remix – Shabba Ranks featuring Maxi Priest – UK Number 8<br />
*1993 "What'cha Gonna Do" – Shabba Ranks featuring [[Queen Latifah]] – UK Number 21<br />
*1993 "[[Family Affair (Sly and the Family Stone song)#Notable covers and derivative recordings|Family Affair]]" – Shabba Ranks featuring [[Patra (singer)|Patra]] and [[Terri & Monica]] – UK Number 18 – US Number 84<br />
*1995 "Let's Get It On" – Shabba Ranks – UK Number 22 – US Number 81<br />
*1995 "Shine Eye Gal" – Shabba Ranks featuring Mykal Rose – UK Number 46<br />
*1996 "Heart of a Lion" – Shabba Ranks – Digital B<br />
*1997 "So Jah Say" – Shabba Ranks – Brick Wall<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book<br />
| first= David<br />
| last= Roberts<br />
| year= 2006<br />
| title= [[British Hit Singles & Albums]]<br />
| edition= 19th<br />
| publisher= Guinness World Records Limited <br />
| location= London<br />
| isbn= 1-904994-10-5<br />
| page= 450}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Videos and DVDs===<br />
*2002 ''Shabba Ranks: Dancehall Ruff – Best of Shabba Ranks'' (DVD)<br />
*2001 ''The Return of Shabba Ranks'' (DVD)<br />
*1994 ''Darker Side of Black''<br />
*1992 ''Shabba Ranks: Naked and Ready''<br />
*1992 ''Shabba Ranks: Fresh & Wild''<br />
*1992 ''Shabba Ranks vs. Ninja Man: Super Clash Round''<br />
*1990 ''Reggae Showdown, Vol. 4: Shabba at Showdown'' (DVD)<br />
*1987 ''Prince Jammy''<br />
<br />
==References in other media==<br />
The "Mr. Loverman" [[music video|video]] was parodied on the satirical [[ITV1]] puppet show ''[[Spitting Image]]'', and by [[Marlon Wayans]] of ''[[In Living Color]]'' (an American comedy television series) in a video called "Mr. Uglyman", which played upon the opinion that Shabba is unattractive.<ref name="fader">{{cite news |last1=Houghton |first1=Eddie |title=Cover Story: Shabba Ranks |url=https://www.thefader.com/2009/04/01/fader-67-shabba-ranks-cover-story |access-date=26 February 2019 |publisher=The Fader |date=1 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFDnfQWnqvE|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070507132237/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFDnfQWnqvE|url-status=dead|title=- YouTube|archivedate=7 May 2007|website=Youtube.com|access-date=21 March 2021}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[{{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p2930/biography|pure_url=yes}} Shabba Ranks biography at the AMG website]<br />
*[https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/shabbaranks Shabba Ranks at Rolling stone.com]<br />
<br />
{{Wikiquote}}<br />
{{Shabba Ranks}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ranks, Shabba}}<br />
[[Category:1966 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:People from Saint Ann Parish]]<br />
[[Category:Jamaican reggae musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Jamaican expatriates in the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Jamaican dancehall musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Reggae fusion artists]]<br />
[[Category:Ragga musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Grammy Award winners]]<br />
[[Category:Epic Records artists]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Osiris_Shoes&diff=1007673875Talk:Osiris Shoes2021-02-19T09:46:39Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Shittest article ever seen */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WikiProjectBannerShell|collapsed=No|1=<br />
{{WikiProject Brands|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject Companies|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject Fashion|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject San Diego|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject Skateboarding|class=Start|importance=Mid}}<br />
}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osiris_Shoes&diff=1007673629Osiris Shoes2021-02-19T09:43:49Z<p>Nickwilso: Tony Magnusson</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|American skateboarding clothing company}}<br />
{{Infobox Company |<br />
| company_name = Osiris Shoes<br />
| company_logo = Osiris logo.svg<br />
| logo_size = 240px<br />
| vector_logo = <br />
| company_type = <br />
| genre = <br />
| foundation = 1996<br />
| founder = <br />
| location = Oceanside, California<br />
| origins = <br />
| key_people = <br />
| area_served = <br />
| industry = Skateboarding Footwear<br />
| products = Skateboard [[shoe]]s, [[clothes]], [[hat]]s, accessories<br />
| revenue = <br />
| operating_income = <br />
| net_income = <br />
| num_employees = <br />
| parent =Meios Inc <br />
| subsid = <br />
| owners = <br />
| <br />
| homepage = {{URL|www.osirisshoes.com}}<br />
| dissolved = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[File:Osiris NYC 83 shoes.jpg|thumb|right|Osiris NYC 83 shoes]]<br />
<br />
'''Osiris''' is a skateboard clothing brand founded in California during the mid-90s by Swedish skater [[Tony Magnusson]] and others.<br />
<br />
Before October 2014 the company sponsored skateboarders, BMX riders and surfers. <br />
<br />
The Osiris skateboard video "The Storm" (1999) may have won a ''Transworld'' magazine reader's poll for best video.<br />
[[File:Osiris D3 2001.JPG|thumbnail|right|A pair of Osiris D3 2001 shoes]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Brian Reid designed the '''D3''' and '''D3 2001''' shoes with Tony Magnusson. The design was inspired by a shopping trip with Dave Mayhew (who later endorsed the shoe) during which athletic shoes and a hiking boot were purchased.<ref>[http://www.skateboardermag.com/skateboarder-news-features/magazine/15thngshoes/ 15 Things You Didn't Know About Skate Shoes], Salo, Adam, Skateboarder Magazine. Retrieved on 2006-12-5</ref> <br />
The second version of the shoe, the '''D3 2001''', became very popular. Osiris then released a lighter and less bulkier version called the '''D3 NTX'''. The '''D3 4.0''' and a '''D3 Snowboarding''' boot followed, both influenced by the original design.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat}}<br />
* {{official website|www.osirisshoes.com}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Shoe companies of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Skateboarding companies]]<br />
[[Category:Shoe brands]]<br />
[[Category:Companies based in San Diego County, California]]<br />
[[Category:Clothing companies established in 1996]]<br />
[[Category:1990s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:2000s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:2010s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:Skateboard shoe companies]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osiris_Shoes&diff=1007671511Osiris Shoes2021-02-19T09:21:06Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Teams */Redo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{peacock|date=March 2011}}<br />
{{short description|American skateboarding clothing company}}<br />
{{Infobox Company |<br />
| company_name = Osiris Shoes<br />
| company_logo = Osiris logo.svg<br />
| logo_size = 240px<br />
| vector_logo = <br />
| company_type = <br />
| genre = <br />
| foundation = 1996<br />
| founder = <br />
| location = Oceanside, California<br />
| origins = <br />
| key_people = <br />
| area_served = <br />
| industry = Skateboarding Footwear<br />
| products = Skateboard [[shoe]]s, [[clothes]], [[hat]]s, accessories<br />
| revenue = <br />
| operating_income = <br />
| net_income = <br />
| num_employees = <br />
| parent =Meios Inc <br />
| subsid = <br />
| owners = <br />
| <br />
| homepage = {{URL|www.osirisshoes.com}}<br />
| dissolved = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Osiris NYC 83 shoes.jpg|thumb|right|Osiris NYC 83 shoes]]<br />
The Osiris skateboard video "The Storm" (1999) may have won a ''Transworld'' magazine reader's poll for best video.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}<br />
[[File:Osiris D3 2001.JPG|thumbnail|right|A pair of Osiris D3 2001 shoes]]<br />
<br />
==Teams==<br />
Before October 2014 the company sponsored skateboarders, BMX riders and surfers.<br />
<br />
===Osiris D3===<br />
Brian Reid designed the D3 and D3 2001 with Tony Magnusson. It was inspired by a shopping trip with Dave Mayhew (who later endorsed the shoe) during which athletic shoes and a hiking boot were purchased.<ref>[http://www.skateboardermag.com/skateboarder-news-features/magazine/15thngshoes/ 15 Things You Didn't Know About Skate Shoes], Salo, Adam, Skateboarder Magazine. Retrieved on 2006-12-5</ref> The second version of the shoe, the "D3 2001", became very popular. Osiris then released a lighter and less bulkier version called the "D3 NTX". The "D3 4.0" and a "D3 Snowboarding" boot followed, both influenced by the original design.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat}}<br />
* {{official website|www.osirisshoes.com}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Shoe companies of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Skateboarding companies]]<br />
[[Category:Shoe brands]]<br />
[[Category:Companies based in San Diego County, California]]<br />
[[Category:Clothing companies established in 1996]]<br />
[[Category:1990s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:2000s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:2010s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:Skateboard shoe companies]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osiris_Shoes&diff=1007670076Osiris Shoes2021-02-19T09:06:40Z<p>Nickwilso: /* History */Grammar</p>
<hr />
<div>{{peacock|date=March 2011}}<br />
{{short description|American skateboarding clothing company}}<br />
{{Infobox Company |<br />
| company_name = Osiris Shoes<br />
| company_logo = Osiris logo.svg<br />
| logo_size = 240px<br />
| vector_logo = <br />
| company_type = <br />
| genre = <br />
| foundation = 1996<br />
| founder = <br />
| location = Oceanside, California<br />
| origins = <br />
| key_people = <br />
| area_served = <br />
| industry = Skateboarding Footwear<br />
| products = Skateboard [[shoe]]s, [[clothes]], [[hat]]s, accessories<br />
| revenue = <br />
| operating_income = <br />
| net_income = <br />
| num_employees = <br />
| parent =Meios Inc <br />
| subsid = <br />
| owners = <br />
| <br />
| homepage = {{URL|www.osirisshoes.com}}<br />
| dissolved = <br />
| footnotes = <br />
}}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
[[File:Osiris NYC 83 shoes.jpg|thumb|right|Osiris NYC 83 shoes]]<br />
The Osiris skateboard video "The Storm" (1999) may have won a ''Transworld'' magazine reader's poll for best video.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}<br />
[[File:Osiris D3 2001.JPG|thumbnail|right|A pair of Osiris D3 2001 shoes]]<br />
<br />
==Teams==<br />
As of October 2014, the company sponsors team members in skateboarding, BMX, surf, and echelon.<br />
<br />
===Osiris D3===<br />
Brian Reid Co. founder of the OSIRIS designed the D3 and D3 2001 with his business partner TONY MAGNUSSON.<br />
Brian and Dave Mayhew went shopping after Dave missed a meeting and wanted to endorse a shoe called the GURU. <br />
They bought a few shoes some athletic and one hiking boot. This is where the famous large looks were inspired by.<br />
Former professional skateboarder Dave Mayhew endorsed the "D3" model, a popular skate shoe.<ref>[http://www.skateboardermag.com/skateboarder-news-features/magazine/15thngshoes/ 15 Things You Didn't Know About Skate Shoes], Salo, Adam, Skateboarder Magazine. Retrieved on 2006-12-5</ref> The second version of the shoe, the "D3 2001", became very popular and Osiris then released a smaller, lighter, less bulkier version called the "D3 NTX". The "D3 4.0" and a "D3 Snowboarding" boot followed, and both were based on the design of the D3 2001 model.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{commonscat}}<br />
* {{official website|www.osirisshoes.com}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Shoe companies of the United States]]<br />
[[Category:Skateboarding companies]]<br />
[[Category:Shoe brands]]<br />
[[Category:Companies based in San Diego County, California]]<br />
[[Category:Clothing companies established in 1996]]<br />
[[Category:1990s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:2000s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:2010s fashion]]<br />
[[Category:Skateboard shoe companies]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Osiris_Shoes&diff=1007669760Talk:Osiris Shoes2021-02-19T09:03:42Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Shittest article ever seen */ new section</p>
<hr />
<div>{{WikiProjectBannerShell|collapsed=No|1=<br />
{{WikiProject Brands|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject Companies|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject Fashion|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject San Diego|class=Stub|importance=Low}}<br />
{{WikiProject Skateboarding|class=Start|importance=Mid}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Shittest article ever seen ==<br />
<br />
Sorry but this is the dumbest article I've experienced in 13 years of wikipedia, congrats [[User:Nickwilso|Nickwilso]] ([[User talk:Nickwilso|talk]]) 09:03, 19 February 2021 (UTC)</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bixaceae&diff=1001979087Bixaceae2021-01-22T06:40:31Z<p>Nickwilso: Grammar</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| image = Bixa bluete.jpg<br />
| image_caption = ''[[Bixa orellana]]'' (Achiote)<br />
| taxon = Bixaceae<br />
| authority = [[Carl Sigismund Kunth|Kunth]]<ref name="apgiii">{{Citation |last=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/122630309/abstract |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170525104318/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x/abstract |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-05-25 |accessdate=2010-12-10 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Bixaceae''' are a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[dicotyledon]]ous [[plant]]s commonly called the '''achiote family'''. Under the Cronquist system, the family was traditionally placed in the order [[Violales]]. However, newer arrangements move it, with some other families previously in the Violales, into the [[Malvales]].<br />
<br />
Although small, this family includes [[tree]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[shrub]]s. The plants are [[hermaphrodite|bisexual]], and all species have five [[sepal]]s. All plants within the Bixaceae produce a red, orange, or yellow [[latex]].<br />
<br />
== Genera ==<br />
The Bixaceae include three genera and a total of 25 species, although ''Cochlospermum'' is sometimes placed into its own family [[Cochlospermaceae]]. The best-known species is the source of [[annatto]], the [[achiote]], which belongs to the type genus of the family.<br />
*''[[Bixa]]''<br />
*''[[Cochlospermum]]'' (''[[Amoreuxia]]'' is now a synonym)<ref>[http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30008466-2 Plants of the World Online: ''Amoreuxia'' Moc. & Sessé ex DC.]</ref><br />
*''[[Diegodendron]]''<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060427102453/http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/bixaceae.htm Bixaceae] in [https://web.archive.org/web/20101213041459/http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.] https://web.archive.org/web/20070103200438/http://delta-intkey.com/<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q564650}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Bixaceae| ]]<br />
[[Category:Malvales families]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyronota_festiva&diff=999564535Pyronota festiva2021-01-10T20:53:08Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Interesting facts */Typos, grammar</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Speciesbox<br />
| image = Pyronota festiva male.jpg<br />
| image_caption = ''Pyronota festiva'' male<br />
| taxon = Pyronota festiva<br />
| authority = ([[Johan Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1775)<br />
| synonyms =<br />
{{Specieslist<br />
|Melolontha laeta|Fabricius, 1775<br />
|Melolontha festus|Gmelin, 1790 <br />
|Melolontha festiva|Fabricius, 1792<br />
|Pyronota munda|Sharp, 1876<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Pyronota festiva''''', commonly known as '''manuka beetle''' or '''manuka chafer''' (sometimes the Maori-language spelling "mānuka" is used), is a member of the genus ''[[Pyronota]]'' of the beetle family [[Scarabaeidae]] (order [[Coleoptera]]). It is a scarab beetle endemic to [[New Zealand]], and is commonly found in manuka trees (''[[Leptospermum scoparium]]''), hence the beetle's name. In some areas it is considered a pasture pest.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=K. M.|date=1987-01-01|title=Preliminary observations on the biology of a manuka chafer, Pyronota sp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Otago|journal=New Zealand Entomologist|volume=9|issue=1|pages=60–63|doi=10.1080/00779962.1987.9722495|issn=0077-9962}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
The manuka beetle is bright green with shades of blue and yellow on areas of its back. Its dark longitudinal stripe down the back of its hard wing case is often brown or yellow. It can vary in length between 3 and 25mm in length, but the most common is 9mm. They are a part of the superfamily Scarabaeoidea and are characterized for their modified prothorax and have a large coxae. Their antennae is a lamellate antennal club and has a head with anterior margins which are either semicircular or emerginate mesocoxae, strongly oblique.<br />
<br />
The manuka beetle is a part of the subfamily Melolonthinaes, which is characterized by its stout body and glossy exterior, and the presence of either labrums or mandibles. These appear as segments either elongated or as oval lobes which can be folded together tightly to form compact and asymmetrical clubs. The elbow clubs have between 8 and 10 segments. They have spindly legs covered in light coloured hairs which are strongly modified for digging with their teeth, spines and/or bristles. Their abdomens have 6 ventrites and the hind wing has a spring mechanism which can fold.<br />
<br />
As larvae, the grub forms as a C-shape.<ref name="Klimaszewski">{{cite journal | last1=Klimaszewski | first1=J. | year=1997 | title=Fauna of New Zealand: Ko te Aitanga Pepeke o Aotearoa | location=Auckland, New Zealand | publisher=Manaaki Whenua Press }}</ref><br />
<br />
== Distribution ==<br />
The manuka beetle is endemic to New Zealand. There is no compelling evidence to suggest that it is found elsewhere in the world. It is, however, closely related to other beetles in the family Scarabaeidae, like chafers, dung-beetles, and grass grubs, which are found throughout other parts of the world. An old journal article at a museum in London records the presence of manuka beetles in sheep's wool imported from New Zealand.<ref name="Fabricius">{{cite book | last1=Fabricius | first1=J. | year=1775 | title=Systema Entomologiae, sistens, insectorum classes, ordines, genera, species, adiectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibus, observationibus. | location= Leipzig, Germany: Hafnia | publisher=Impensis Chris, Gottl, Profit }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Natural global range ===<br />
The manuka beetle has a generally widespread range across New Zealand but little information has been found on the effects it has on the land outside of New Zealand. The endemic species found in New Zealand have been closely related to those of Australia, so it can be assumed that they would present there also.<ref>{{cite journal|title=On the Geographical relations of the New Zealand fauna|journal=Annals and Magazine of Natural History |volume=13 |issue=73 |pages=25–39 |doi=10.1080/00222937408562426|year = 1874|last1 = Hutton|first1 = F.W.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1430207}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== New Zealand range ===<br />
The manuka beetle is very common, and is found in large numbers throughout New Zealand.<ref name="Lindsey">{{cite book | last1=Lindsey | first1=T. | last2=Morris | first2=R. | year=2000 | title=Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife}}</ref> It lives in grass and vegetation habitats, which is the majority of the landscape of New Zealand. It is so common that it has become a ‘pasture pest’ to agricultural grasslands.<ref name="Stewart">{{cite journal | last1=Stewart | first1=K. | year=1987 | title=Preliminary observations on the biology of a Manuka chafer, Pyronota sp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Otago | journal=New Zealand Entomologist |volume=9 | pages=60–63 | doi=10.1080/00779962.1987.9722495 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Manuka beetles have been recorded in the North Island of New Zealand, in Egmont National Park, Taranaki. They were found present in pastures close to native bush with manuka trees. A 5&nbsp;km belt around the park is evidence of the impact of manuka beetle larvae feeding on the roots of plants. Flight activities of the beetles were recorded in traps placed 50m and 20m away from manuka bush. The research showed that they were present away from the traps rather than near the bush itself.<ref name="Thomson">{{cite journal | last1=Thomson | first1=N. | last2=Miln | first2=A. | last3= Kain | first3=W. | year=1979 | title=Biology of manuka beetle in Taranaki | journal=Taranaki Agricultural Research Station | volume=32 | pages=80–8 }}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Habitat preferences ===<br />
Manuka beetles have the widest ecological tolerance for different habitats out of the Melolonthidae subfamily, though they prefer woody vegetation. They tend to occur in tussock and pastures 2 to 3 years through development and been converted from native vegetation or bush regrowth.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_67/rsnz_67_02_001260.pdf |title=Manuka Beetle Management Brochure | publisher=agresearch | accessdate=2014-03-24}}</ref> However, as its common name suggests, it preferably lives in and around the soil of manuka trees (''[[Leptospermum]]''). Adult beetles have been seen swarming over the small white flowers that cover the manuka when it is flowering during the summer.<ref name="Lindsey"/><br />
<br />
==Life cycle/phenology==<br />
[[File:Pyronota festiva larva.jpg|thumb|''Pyronota festiva'' larva]]<br />
Otago has been a major region for experimentation on the ''Pyronota'' species. In Macraes Flat, Otago, Stewart (1987) found that a species of ''Pyronota'' beetle followed roughly a two-year life cycle where they would span across two winters as larvae and eventually mature into adult beetles over the following summer - November through to January. As evident through general observation and their preference in habitat, it is clear that warmer temperatures draw the beetle to a specific area. As a result, this significantly increases populations; Stewart (1987) observed that adults became more active when the sun is shining as opposed to overcast days or during the night. This is interesting considering the amount of sunless days that Otago has, compared to Taranaki.<br />
<br />
The two-year life cycle includes a three-step larval stage. Eggs were found in January where they "…spent their first winter as 1st or 2nd instar larvae and their second winter as 3rd instars." They are given a better chance of enduring their complete life cycle over two years where the conditions meet most of their need. When this isn't the case, they can develop over a shorter time period - sometimes within one year.<ref name="Stewart"/> During the immature larval stage the species is said to be a minor pest. The larvae then hatch and form as pupae, eating the roots of plants which dominate the pasture soils.<ref name="Pestweb">Pestweb, 2015</ref> As they grow they develop as a C shape. During the third stage they emerge from the tunnels or cracks in the soil during early summer as full-grown beetles to feed on the foliage of manuka plants. This third stage is where the damage caused by the pupae eating the roots of the plants becomes evident over autumn and winter.<br />
<br />
Adult beetles are present a few weeks during late spring and early summer once a year. They fly in warm conditions during the day. Females lay their eggs in pasture soils at depths of up to 10&nbsp;cm. Each female can lay up to 30 or 40 eggs at one time. When numbers reach 350/m2 in one period they begin to form significant damage to the pasture, which is noticeable in the form of yellow, dried-out patches of grass.<ref name=Stewart /><br />
<br />
The manuka beetle's life cycle is slightly different from those of its relatives, which include other members of the family Scarabaeidae: chafers, dung-beetles and grass grub beetles. Its eggs are laid in the soil, and after hatching into larvae, they have a reasonably lengthy development underground. The adult beetles die a very short time after mating, and their bodies often form drifts or mounds in and around mud or tree roots.<ref name="Lindsey"/><br />
<br />
==Diet and foraging==<br />
The larvae feed on the roots of the manuka tree, providing the eggs were laid in the soil around a manuka tree. Larvae not in this situation have also been known to feed on matagouri roots and the roots of sweet briar roses. In 70% of cases, larvae were found feeding in the first 4&nbsp;cm of soil, directly below the ‘turf mat'.<br />
<br />
Adult beetles feed on the vegetation of the manuka tree. They also feed on grass roots in agricultural areas, which is the reason they are such a pest to agriculture, as they harm the grass that dairy cows eat.<ref name="Kleespies">{{cite journal | last1=Kleespies | first1=R. | last2=Marshall | first2=S. | year=2011 | title=Genetic & electron microscope characterisation of Rickettsiella Bacteria from the Manuka Beetle, Pyronota setosa (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae | journal=Invertebrate Pathology |volume=107 | issue=3 |pages=206–211 | doi=10.1016/j.jip.2011.05.017 | pmid=21640120 }}</ref><br />
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Manuka beetles have been studied and examined a lot in the Taranaki region. However, there are low numbers of adult beetles here because of their preference of food. They are not succeeding as well as possible in the Taranaki region because of their low counts of Leptospermum species existing both in present and past times. When manuka plant species are not in abundance, manuka beetles are being forced to feed on "matagouri (''[[Discaria toumatou]]''), sweet briar (''[[Rosa rubiginosa]]''), and ''[[Leptospermum]]'' spp." <ref name="Stewart"/><br />
<br />
==Predators, parasites, and diseases==<br />
The green colouring of the adults, and the fact they are diurnal (active during the day), means they are safe from predators because they blend in with the vegetation on which they live.<ref name="Lindsey"/> Predators include mice, gulls and house sparrows.<br />
<br />
A survey done on Mokoi Island, Lake Rotorua observed house mice, ''[[Mus musculus]]'', and what insects they were eating. Pitfall traps proved that ''Pyronota festiva'' were present throughout the island and suggested that house mice were relying on manuka beetles as one of their main food sources.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.doc.govt.nz/documents/science=and-technical/casn343.pdf | title= List of Invertebrates on Mokoia Island, Lake Rotorua | publisher=Department of Conservation }}</ref><br />
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Red-billed gulls have also been observed flying over farmland at Opoutere, Coromandel Peninsula from sunset, as the light is fading, and consuming small manuka beetles. This was often seen during autumn and winter, when the beetles are less likely to fly and are more vulnerable to predators as they surface from wet pastures due to an increase in rain levels.<ref name="Bell">{{cite journal | last1=Bell | first1=D. | year=2008 | title=Mutualistic and opportunistic foraging by red-billed gull (Larus novaehollandiae) around Hooker's sea lion (Phocartis hookeri) |url=http://notornis.osnz.org.nz/system/files/Notornis_55_4_224.pdf | journal=Notornis | volume=55 |page=224–225}}</ref><br />
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House sparrows were mapped to be eating at least three manuka beetles over a period of one to five days, when their chicks are hatching.<ref name="Department of Conservation">Department of Conservation, 2001</ref> They are also a trout food.<ref name="Manson1960">{{cite book|last1=Manson|first1=D. C. M.|title=Native beetles of New Zealand|date=1960|publisher=A. H. & A. W. Reed|location=Wellington|page=38}}</ref><br />
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However, the beetles are pests, so there are a number of journal articles devoted to researching how to control them by targeting them with bacteria and fungi parasites, so called ‘bio-control’ methods.<br />
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''Rickettsiella'' bacteria are being researched as a potential bio-control agent to manage the large numbers of the beetles affecting agricultural areas all over New Zealand. This bacterium is said to produce an ‘intracellular infection’ in the beetles, and many other members of their genus.<ref name="Kleespies"/><br />
<br />
As well as this bacterium, the fungus ''[[Beauveria brongniartii]]'' is being tested to help Cape Foulwind dairy farmers attack the pest. It is achieving relatively high rates of mortality in the larvae stage of the beetles. The fungal infection affects only an isolated selection of ‘scarab’ beetles, which means that it might, but is unlikely to spread onto other harmless beetles (depending on what they are).<ref name="Townsend">{{cite journal | last1=Townsend | first1=R. | last2=Nelson | first2=T. | year=2010 | title=Beauveria brongniartii – Potential biocontrol agent for use against Manuka Beetle larvae damaging dairy pastures on Cape Foulwind| journal= New Zealand Plant Protection|volume=63 |pages=224–228 | doi=10.30843/nzpp.2010.63.6572 | doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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==Cultural uses==<br />
<br />
There are several records of the manuka beetle being used by the indigenous Maori tribes all over New Zealand. The piles of dead adult beetle bodies that form in and around shallow water, mud and vegetation, were often collected and eaten by Maori as a delicacy.<ref name="Lindsey"/> Another report states that when the Maori tribes settled in New Zealand, manuka beetles were among the insects that they occasionally ate. Other uses by Maori include the beetle's antiseptic qualities and ability to reduce fevers and stomachaches. More fleshy insects like the larvae of the cerambycid beetle, or ‘huhu grub’ (as well as the adult beetle) were more widely eaten. Manuka beetles (and Puriri moths) were also used for medicinal purposes.<ref name="Meyer-Rochow">{{cite journal | last1=Meyer-Rochow | first1=V. | last2=Changkija | first2=S. | year=1997 | title=Uses of Insects as Human Food in Papua New Guinea, Australia, and North-East India: Cross-Cultural considerations and cautious conclusions| journal=Ecology of Food and Nutrition |volume=36 | issue=2–4 |pages=159–185 | doi=10.1080/03670244.1997.9991513 }}</ref><br />
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''New Zealand Fishing'' (1998) discusses how manuka beetles are more active during hours of daylight in November/December and can be seen lying on the surface of the water as a result of heavy winds. The trout wait in the water for the beetles to land. The presence of manuka beetles in the intestines of trout in Lake Tikitapu provides evidence of their interaction.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=c4aPpgOd1zoC&pg=PA134&lpg=PA134&dq=significance+of+pyronota+festiva&q=significance%20of%20pyronata%20festiva |title=Trout Stream insects of New Zealand; how to imitate and use them | publisher=Marsh | accessdate=2014-03-24|isbn=9780811701303 |date=2004-11-16 }}</ref><br />
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Fishermen have also created a manuka beetle trout fly, otherwise known as the 'green beetle'. It looks similar to a green manuka beetle and is designed specifically to catch trout during the summer months.<ref name="New Zealand fishing">''New Zealand Fishing'', 1998</ref><br />
<br />
==Interesting facts==<br />
Apart from severe damage to farmland, ''Pyronota festiva'' has been associated with major damage in the fruit trees of peaches and nectarines.<ref name="Kemp">{{cite journal | last1=Kemp | first1=W. | year=1971 | title=Growing Peaches and Nectarines: Insect Pests| journal=New Zealand Journal of Agriculture |volume=123 |pages=77–79 }}</ref> They have vast effects - with the aid of damage done by other insects - on the leaf and the fruit itself. Research has generally only associated the species with native grasses and farmlands, it is notable that their scope of damage is so wide.<br />
<br />
Full-grown beetles feed on manuka plants, which have an oil compound which makes their exterior cases hard. They also contain chiral material in their hard exterior cases. When placed under a microscope with light, complexities are revealed in these multilayered chiral coatings, creating green, metallic-like reflections.<br />
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The manuka beetle can be successfully controlled through the idea of 'hoof and tooth'. Heavily stocking a pasture block during winter when the soil is very moist will cause the beetle larvae to be crushed by stock treading, causing numbers to be reduced dramatically.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
<br />
* The mānuka beetle discussed in [[Radio New Zealand|RNZ]] ''[[Critter of the Week]]'', [https://www.rnz.co.nz/national/programmes/afternoons/audio/2018758478/critter-of-the-week-manuka-chafer-beetle 7 Aug 2020]<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1942668}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Scarabaeidae]]<br />
[[Category:Beetles of New Zealand]]<br />
[[Category:Beetles described in 1775]]<br />
[[Category:Taxa named by Johan Christian Fabricius]]<br />
[[Category:Endemic fauna of New Zealand]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PACMAD_clade&diff=998604041PACMAD clade2021-01-06T04:44:17Z<p>Nickwilso: Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Short description|A major clade in the grass family Poaceae}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
|image = Panicum virgatum.jpg<br />
|image_caption = switchgrass (''[[Panicum virgatum]]'')<br />
|taxon = PACMAD clade<br />
|subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies<br />
|subdivision = * [[Aristidoideae]]<br />
* [[Arundinoideae]]<br />
* [[Chloridoideae]]<br />
* [[Danthonioideae]]<br />
* [[Micrairoideae]]<br />
* [[Panicoideae]]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''PACMAD clade''' (previously PACCMAD, PACCAD, or PACC<ref name="SorengPeterson2015"/>) is one of two major [[lineage (evolution)|lineages]] (or [[clade]]s) of the true grasses ([[Poaceae]]), regrouping six subfamilies and about 5700 species, more than half of all true grasses. Its [[sister group]] is the [[BOP clade]]. The PACMAD lineage is the only group within the grasses in which the [[C4 carbon fixation|C<sub>4</sub> photosynthesis pathway]] has evolved; studies have shown that this happened independently multiple times.<ref name="GWPGII"/><br />
<br />
The name of the clade comes from the first initials of the included subfamilies [[Panicoideae]], [[Arundinoideae]], [[Chloridoideae]], [[Micrairoideae]], [[Aristidoideae]], and [[Danthonioideae]]. It has no defined taxonomic rank but is used frequently because it refers to a well-defined [[monophyletic group]] with a distinct ecology.<br />
<br />
Phylogeny of the PACMAD clade, with [[Carbon Fixation|photosynthetic pathways]] for each subfamily:<ref name="GWPGII"/><br />
<br />
{{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:75%;width:600px;<br />
|label1=[[Poaceae]]<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Anomochlooideae]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Pharoideae]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Puelioideae]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[BOP clade]]<br />
|label2='''PACMAD clade'''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Aristidoideae]] '''C<sub>3</sub>''' & '''C<sub>4</sub>'''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Panicoideae]] '''C<sub>3</sub>''' & '''C<sub>4</sub>'''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Chloridoideae]] '''C<sub>3</sub>''' & '''C<sub>4</sub>'''<br />
|2=[[Danthonioideae]] '''C<sub>3</sub>'''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Arundinoideae]] '''C<sub>3</sub>'''<br />
|2=[[Micrairoideae]] '''C<sub>3</sub>''' & '''C<sub>4</sub>'''<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|30em|refs=<br />
<br />
<ref name="GWPGII">{{cite journal |author=Grass Phylogeny Working Group II| title=New grass phylogeny resolves deep evolutionary relationships and discovers C<sub>4</sub> origins | journal=New Phytologist |volume=193 |issue=2 |year=2012 |pages=304–312 |issn=0028-646X |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03972.x |pmid=22115274| hdl=2262/73271 |hdl-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="SorengPeterson2015">{{cite journal |last1=Soreng |first1=Robert J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Paul M. |last3=Romaschenko |first3=Konstantin |last4=Davidse |first4=Gerrit |last5=Zuloaga |first5=Fernando O. |last6=Judziewicz |first6=Emmet J. |last7=Filgueiras |first7=Tarciso S. |last8=Davis |first8=Jerrold I. |last9=Morrone |first9=Osvaldo |title=A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=53 |issue=2 |year=2015 |pages=117–137 |issn=1674-4918 |doi=10.1111/jse.12150|s2cid=84052108 }} {{open access}}</ref><br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Poaceae-subfamilies}}<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q17117466}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Poaceae]]<br />
[[Category:Photosynthesis]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Poaceae-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_Ellen_Avery&diff=998393084Mary Ellen Avery2021-01-05T05:04:50Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Career */Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|American pediatrician}}<br />
{{Infobox scientist<br />
| name = Mary Ellen Avery<br />
| image = EWS25.01 (cropped).jpg<br />
| image_size =<br />
| alt =<br />
| caption = Avery in June 2004<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1927|5|6}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Camden, New Jersey]]<br />
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2011|12|4|1927|5|6}}<br />
| death_place = [[Wellesley, Massachusetts]]<br />
| residence =<br />
| citizenship =<br />
| nationality = [[United States|American]]<br />
| fields = [[Pediatrics]]<br />
| workplaces = [[Harvard Medical School]]<br />[[Johns Hopkins University]]<br />[[McGill University]]<br />[[Children's Hospital Boston]]<br />
| alma_mater = [[Wheaton College (Massachusetts)|Wheaton College]]<br />Johns Hopkins University<br />
| doctoral_advisor =<br />
| academic_advisors =<br />
| doctoral_students =<br />
| notable_students =<br />
| known_for =<br />
| influences =<br />
| influenced =<br />
| awards = [[E. Mead Johnson Award]] <small>(1968)</small><br>[[National Medal of Science]] <small>(1991)</small><br>[[John Howland Award]] <small>(2005)</small><br />
| signature = <!--(filename only)--><br />
| signature_alt =<br />
| footnotes =<br />
| spouse =<br />
}}<br />
'''Mary Ellen Avery''' (May 6, 1927 – December 4, 2011), also known as '''Mel''', was an American [[Pediatrics|pediatrician]].<ref name="legacy1">{{cite web|url=http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/courierpostonline/obituary.aspx?n=mary-ellen-avery&pid=154925216 |title=Mary Ellen Avery M.D. Obituary: View Mary Avery's Obituary by Courier-Post |website=Legacy.com |publisher=Courier-Post |date=4 December 2011 |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref> In the 1950s, Avery's pioneering research efforts helped lead to the discovery of the main cause of [[Infant respiratory distress syndrome|respiratory distress syndrome]] (RDS) in premature babies: her identification of [[Pulmonary surfactant|surfactant]] led to the development of replacement therapy for premature infants and has been credited with saving over 830,000 lives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scienceheroes.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=140&Itemid=139 |title=Avery, Mary Ellen |website=Scienceheroes.com |access-date=30 December 2011}}</ref> Her childhood, mentors, drive, and education inspired Avery to be the visionary that she was. In 1991 President George H.W. Bush conferred the [[National Medal of Science]] on Avery for her work on RDS.<ref name = nytimes>{{cite web |title=Mary Ellen Avery, Premature Babies' Savior, Dies at 84 |website=New York Times |date=11 January 2012 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/12/health/research/mary-ellen-avery-premature-babies-savior-dies-at-84.html |access-date=5 April 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
Mary Ellen Avery was born May 6, 1927, in [[Camden, New Jersey]]. Her father owned a manufacturing company in [[Philadelphia]] and her mother was vice-principal of a high school in Newark, New Jersey.<ref name="nytimes"/> Avery's parents moved to [[Moorestown, New Jersey]] when her older sister was born. It was the 1930s and her father was in need of vision. He was interested in the manufacturing of cotton goods so he took out a loan of $2,000 and opened his company in New Jersey, which would later grow into New York. Although Avery's family had their financial struggles, she had a very pleasant childhood. As a child, Avery would read the stock market to her father since he could not read. Her parents stressed the importance of an education and reading became a great hobby of Avery's.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gartner|first=Lawrence|date=April 4, 1998|title=ORAL HISTORY PROJECT, Mary Ellen Avery, MD|url=https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/Pediatric-History-Center/Documents/Avery.pdf|pages=85}}</ref> An early inspiration was pediatrician [[Emily Bacon]], who was a professor of pediatrics at Woman's Medical College. Bacon was Avery's next door neighbor and she would visit her frequently. Avery greatly admired Bacon, since she took Avery to see her first premature baby. "She kindly reached out to me in many ways, and I saw her life as more exciting and meaningful than most of the women I knew," Avery has recalled.<ref name=nihbio>{{cite web |url=https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_17.html |title=Biography: Dr Mary Ellen Avery |access-date=5 April 2017 |website=Changing the face of medicine exhibition |publisher=National Institutes of Health}}</ref> Bacon's single, career driven lifestyle was inspiring to Avery and she wanted to lead a similar life.<br />
<br />
== Education ==<br />
Avery's parents devotion to their daughters education led to both Avery and her older sister to attend [[Moorestown Friends School]], a private school in Moorestown, New Jersey. At the time, Avery was not old enough to attend school, so her mother worked to have the rules changed. Avery was able to begin her education earlier than others, which put her ahead of children in her age group. She continued to be successful in school and even skipped the seventh grade. Avery and her sister were the first in their family to attend college. She went on to attend Wheaton College while her sister finished up at New Jersey College for Women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gartner|first=Lawrence|date=April 4, 1998|title=Oral history project, Mary Ellen Avery MD|url=https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/Pediatric-History-Center/Documents/Avery.pdf|pages=85}}</ref> Graduating summa cum laude from [[Wheaton College (Massachusetts)|Wheaton College]] in 1948 with a degree in [[chemistry]], Mary Ellen Avery continued to earn a medical degree from the [[Johns Hopkins University]] School of Medicine, where she was one of four women in a class of 90, in 1952.<ref name="nytimes" /> Emily Bacon had attended Johns Hopkins and this was a huge motivation for Avery to get in. During a time of discrimination, Avery knew she had to instill confidence in herself. She once stated, “I know as much as you know. I’ve been to the best school I could get into.”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gartner|first=Lawrence|date=April 4, 1998|title=Oral History Project, Mary Ellen Avery MD|url=https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/Pediatric-History-Center/Documents/Avery.pdf|pages=85}}</ref> Avery obtained several mentors during her time at Johns Hopkins, which included Dr. Helen Taussig and Dr. Harriet Guild. Being only one of four women, Avery received a lot of attention from her mentors. Soon after graduating, Dr. Avery was diagnosed with [[tuberculosis]], and it was during her recuperation that she became fascinated with how the [[lungs]] work.<ref name="nytimes" /> Rest and medication would cure her, but she went about the regimen her own way. Once she realized she was exhibiting no symptoms, she decided to go to Europe with a friend. "I packed one suitcase of medication and another suitcase of clothes, and spent three months in Europe on a regimen that I programmed for myself," Avery said. "It consisted of 12 hours in bed every night, and in the daytime mostly walking around and looking at exhibits and enjoying myself, but not anything strenuous."<br />
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== Career ==<br />
Avery returned to Johns Hopkins for her internship and residency, and then moved to [[Boston]] in 1957 for a research fellowship in [[pediatrics]] at [[Harvard Medical School]]. At Harvard, Dr. Avery made a major discovery while comparing the lungs of infants who had died of [[Infant respiratory distress syndrome|RDS]] to those of healthy animals. "It's all because they had something they would have not needed before birth because they weren't using their lungs for ventilation before birth. But after birth, without it, they could not live more than a day or two. And therefore I found what was missing." What she had found was a foamy substance that she deduced must play a critical role. Dr. Avery's observation formed the basis of a breakthrough paper published in the [[American Journal of Diseases of Children]] in 1959. By 1995 there were 1,460 infant deaths a year in the U.S. from RDS, down from almost 10,000 a year twenty-five years earlier.<br />
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In 1960, Avery became an assistant professor of pediatrics at Johns Hopkins University and pediatrician in charge of newborn nurseries. In 1969, she was appointed physician-in-chief of the Montreal Children's Hospital, the first woman to serve in that position.<ref>Montreal Gazette, June 10, 2019</ref> At the same time, she was appointed professor and the first woman<ref name="healio.com">{{Cite <br />
eb|url=https://www.healio.com/pediatrics/news/print/infectious-diseases-in-children/%7Be7492b78-91d2-4f84-aef9-c4e99a59c661%7D/a-tribute-to-an-unforgettable-mentor|title=A tribute to an unforgettable mentor|website=www.healio.com|access-date=2018-04-25}}</ref> chair of the department of pediatrics at [[McGill University]]. In Montreal, Avery designated pediatric care for the Inuit of the eastern Arctic and pediatric education for a medical school in Nairobi.<ref name="Mary Ellen Avery">{{Cite news|url=https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2018/02/dr-mary-allen-avery|title=Mary Ellen Avery|date=2018-02-07|work=Harvard Magazine|access-date=2018-04-25}}</ref> In 1974, Dr. Avery joined the faculty of Harvard Medical School as professor of pediatrics. She was the first woman to head a clinical department at Harvard Medical School.<ref name = "nytimes"/> That same year she was the first woman named physician-in-chief at [[Children's Hospital Boston]], where she remained until 1985. During this time, it was important to Avery to advance Boston's basic and applied research in pediatrics.<ref name="Mary Ellen Avery"/> She was able to influence many women to pursue a career in pediatrics and lowered the percent of neonatal deaths. After Avery stepped down, she traveled to many countries with UNICEF to promote oral rehydration therapy and polio vaccination.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pincock|first=Stephen|date=February 2012|title=Mary Ellen Avery|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)60259-1/fulltext|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=379|issue=9816|pages=610|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60259-1|s2cid=54236581|issn=0140-6736}}</ref><br />
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In 1990–91, Dr. Avery became the first pediatrician to head the President of the American Pediatric Society.<ref name="healio.com"/> She has been involved in child healthcare delivery worldwide, as an active member of UNICEF.<br />
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== Death ==<br />
Avery went into retirement in the late 1990s and she aspired to aid “mothers of the world sharing a common cause that life will be good for their children.” Mary Ellen Avery died on December 4, 2011, at the age of 84 in Wellesley, Massachusetts.<ref name="legacy1"/><ref name="nytimes"/><br />
<br />
== Notable work ==<br />
<br />
* CLEMENTS, JA; AVERY, ME. Lung surfactant and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. ''American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine''. 157, 4, S59-S66, 1998.<br />
* AVERY, ME. A 50-year overview of perinatal medicine. ''Early human development''. 29, 1–3, 43–50, 1992.<br />
* AVERY, ME; ROTCH, TM. The care of infants and children. ''Acta paediatrica hungarica''. 31, 2, 149–158, 1991.<br />
* AVERY, ME. Historical overview of antenatal steroid use. ''Pediatrics''. 95, 1, 133–135, 1995.<br />
* AVERY, ME. Changes in care of the newborn : personal reflections over forty years. ''Neonatal network''. 13, 6, 1994, 1994.<br />
* AVERY, ME. Pioneers and modern ideas : neonatology. ''Pediatrics''. 102, 1:3, 270–271, 1998.<br />
* AVERY, ME. Significant events in neonatal care. ''Neonatal network''. 13, 6, 1994, 1994.<br />
<br />
==Awards and honors==<br />
* 1968 [[E. Mead Johnson Award]] for pediatric research<br />
* 1973 Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter A|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=28 April 2011}}</ref><br />
* 1984 [[Trudeau Medal]] from the [[American Lung Association]]<br />
* 1991 [[National Medal of Science]], in recognition of contributions to understanding and treating respiratory distress syndrome. The award cited Avery as one of the founders of [[neonatal intensive care]] and "a major advocate of improving access to care of all premature and sick infants."<br />
* 1994 Member of the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]]<br />
* 2005 [[John Howland Award]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Shearer|editor-first1=Benjamin |editor-last2=Shearer |editor-first2=Barbara |title=Notable women in the life sciences : a biographical dictionary|date=1996|oclc=832549823 }}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
<br />
* [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_17.html Dr. Mary Ellen Avery] on the site of the [[National Library of Medicine]]<br />
* [http://journals.lww.com/pedresearch/Fulltext/2005/12000/Introduction_of_the_American_Pediatric_Society_s.33.aspx International Pediatrics Research Foundation] (includes photo)<br />
* [http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HMS.Count:med00128 Mary Ellen Avery] papers, 1929-2002 (inclusive), HMSc201. Harvard Medical Library, [https://www.countway.harvard.edu/index.html Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20130116172222/https://www.countway.harvard.edu/menuNavigation/chom.html Center for the History of Medicine], [http://hms.harvard.edu/ Harvard Medical School]<br />
* [http://collections.countway.harvard.edu/onview/collections/show/15 Digitized Images from the Mary Ellen Avery papers]<br />
* [http://www.scienceheroes.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=140&Itemid=139 Link to Dr. Mary Ellen Avery on the site Scienceheroes.com]<br />
* {{History of Modern Biomedicine Research Group ID}}<br />
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{{Winners of the National Medal of Science|biological}}<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Avery, Mary Ellen}}<br />
[[Category:1927 births]]<br />
[[Category:American pediatricians]]<br />
[[Category:2011 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Wheaton College (Massachusetts) alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Johns Hopkins School of Medicine alumni]]<br />
[[Category:Harvard Medical School faculty]]<br />
[[Category:National Medal of Science laureates]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science]]<br />
[[Category:Moorestown Friends School alumni]]<br />
[[Category:People from Camden, New Jersey]]<br />
[[Category:People from Moorestown, New Jersey]]<br />
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]<br />
[[Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cestoda&diff=997398609Cestoda2020-12-31T08:59:39Z<p>Nickwilso: Better grammar</p>
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<div>{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{good article}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| fossil_range={{fossilrange |270 |0 |ref=<ref name="Paula2013" />}}<br />
| image= Taenia saginata adult 5260 lores.jpg<br />
| image_caption=''[[Taenia saginata]]''<br />
| taxon=Cestoda<br />
| subdivision_ranks=Subgroups<br />
| subdivision=See text.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Cestoda''' is a [[Class (biology)|class]] of [[parasitic worm]]s in the [[flatworm]] [[phylum]] (Platyhelminthes). Most of the species—and the best-known—are those in the subclass [[Eucestoda]]; they are ribbon-like worms as adults, known as '''tapeworms'''. Their bodies consist of many similar units known as proglottids - essentially packages of eggs which are regularly shed into the environment to infect other organisms. Species of the other subclass, [[Cestodaria]], are mainly fish parasites.<br />
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All '''cestodes''' are [[parasitism|parasitic]]; many have complex [[Life history theory|life histories]], including a stage in a [[Host (biology)#Definitive and secondary hosts|definitive (main) host]] in which the adults grow and reproduce, often for years, and one or two intermediate stages in which the [[larva]]e develop in other hosts. Typically the adults live in the [[digestive tract]]s of [[vertebrate]]s, while the larvae often live in the bodies of other animals, either vertebrates or invertebrates. For example, ''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'' has at least two intermediate hosts, a [[crustacean]] and then one or more freshwater fish; its definitive host is a mammal. Some cestodes are host-specific, while others are parasites of a wide variety of [[Host (biology)|hosts]]. Some six thousand species have been described; probably all vertebrates can host at least one species.<br />
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The adult tapeworm has a scolex (head), a short neck, and a strobila (segmented body) formed of [[#Proglottids|proglottids]]. Tapeworms anchor themselves to the inside of the intestine of their host using their scolex, which typically has hooks, [[Sucker (zoology)|suckers]], or both. They have no mouth, but absorb nutrients directly from the host's gut. The neck continually produces proglottids, each one containing a reproductive tract; mature proglottids are full of eggs, and fall off to leave the host, either passively in the feces or actively moving. All tapeworms are hermaphrodites, with each individual having both male and female reproductive organs.<br />
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Humans are subject to infection by several species of tapeworms if they eat undercooked meat such as [[pork]] (''[[Taenia solium]]''), beef (''[[Taenia saginata|T. saginata]]''), and fish (''Diphyllobothrium''), or if they live in, or eat food prepared in, conditions of poor hygiene (''[[Hymenolepis (tapeworm)|Hymenolepis]]'' or ''[[Echinococcus]]'' species). The unproven concept of using tapeworms as a [[Diet pill|slimming aid]] has been touted since around 1900. <br />
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== Diversity and habitat==<br />
<br />
All 6000 species of Cestoda are [[parasite]]s, mainly intestinal; their definitive hosts are vertebrates, both terrestrial and marine, while their [[intermediate host]]s include insects, crustaceans, molluscs, and annelids as well as other vertebrates.<ref name="Ruppert">{{cite book|title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition|last1=Ruppert|first1=Edward E.|last2=Fox|first2=Richard, S.|last3=Barnes|first3=Robert D.|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2004|isbn=978-81-315-0104-7|pages=258–263}}</ref><br />
''T. saginata'', the beef tapeworm, can grow up to 20&nbsp;m (65&nbsp;ft); the largest species, the whale tapeworm ''[[Tetragonoporus|Tetragonoporus calyptocephalus]]'', can grow to over 30&nbsp;m (100&nbsp;ft).<ref name="time-1957">{{cite magazine |date=8 April 1957 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809356-1,00.html |title=The Persistent Parasites |magazine=Time Magazine |publisher=Time Inc}}</ref><ref name="hargis">{{cite journal |year=1985 |author=Hargis, William J. |title=Parasitology and pathology of marine organisms of the world ocean |journal=NOAA Tech. Rep. |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]}}</ref> Species with small hosts tend to be small. For example, [[Arvicolinae|vole and lemming]] tapeworms are only {{convert|13|-|240|mm|1|abbr=on}} in length, and those parasitizing [[shrew]]s only {{convert|0.8|-|60|mm|2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Haukisalmi | first1=V. | last2=Heino | first2=M. | last3=Kaitala | first3=V. | year=1998 | title=Body size variation in tapeworms (Cestoda): adaptation to intestinal gradients? | journal=Oikos | volume=83 | issue=1 | pages=152–160 | jstor=3546556 | url=http://www.bio.uib.no/evofish/papers/Haukisalmi_1998_Body_size_variation.pdf | doi=10.2307/3546556 | citeseerx=10.1.1.538.3826 | access-date=2015-08-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025826/http://www.bio.uib.no/evofish/papers/Haukisalmi_1998_Body_size_variation.pdf | archive-date=2016-03-04 | url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
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==Anatomy==<br />
<br />
Cestodes have no gut or mouth<ref name="Cheng2012" /> and absorb nutrients from the host's alimentary tract through their specialised neodermal cuticle, or [[Tegument (helminth)|tegument]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Dalton|first=John P|last2=Skelly|first2=Patrick|last3=Halton|first3=David W|date=February 2004|title=Role of the tegument and gut in nutrient uptake by parasitic platyhelminths|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=82|issue=2|pages=211–232|doi=10.1139/z03-213|issn=0008-4301}}</ref> through which gas exchange also takes place.<ref name="Ruppert" /> The tegument also protects the parasite from the host's digestive enzymes<ref name=Pendarvis>{{cite book |author1=Pendarvis, Murray P. |author2=Crawley, John L. |title=Exploring Biology in the Laboratory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcRKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA535 |year=2018 |publisher=Morton Publishing Company |isbn=978-1-61731-756-9 |pages=535–536}}</ref> and allows it to transfer molecules back to the host.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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The body form of adult eucestodes is simple, with a scolex, or grasping head, adapted for attachment to the [[Host (biology)|definitive host]], a short neck, and a strobila, or segmented{{efn|Tapeworms are not formed of [[segmentation (biology)|fixed body segments]] as are the [[annelid]]s, [[arthropod]]s or [[chordate]]s.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}}} trunk formed of proglottids, which makes up the worm's body. Members of the subclass [[Cestodaria]], the [[Amphilinidea]] and [[Gyrocotylidea]], are wormlike but not divided into proglottids. Amphilinids have a muscular proboscis at the front end; Gyrocotylids have a sucker or proboscis which they can pull inside or push outside at the front end, and a holdfast rosette at the posterior end.<ref name="Cheng2012">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4GQlYzode8C|title=General Parasitology|last=Cheng|first=Thomas C.|publisher=Elsevier Science|year=2012|isbn=978-0-323-14010-2|pages=378–444|chapter=Cestoidea: The Tapeworms, Cestodaria: the Unsegemented Tapeworms & Eucestoda: The True Tapeworms}}</ref><br />
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The Cestodaria have 10 larval hooks while Eucestoda have 6 larval hooks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/helminth-intoduction.html|title=Helminth Parasites|website=parasite.org.au|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Scolex ===<br />
[[File:Taenia solium tapeworm scolex with its four suckers and two rows of hooks 5262 lores.jpg|thumb|right|Scolex of ''[[Taenia solium]]'' with hooks and bothria present.]]<br />
<br />
The scolex, which attaches to the intestine of the definitive host, is often minute in comparison with the proglottids. It is typically a four-sided knob, armed with [[sucker (zoology)|suckers]] or hooks or both.<ref name=Ruppert/> In some species, the scolex is dominated by [[Bothrium|bothria]], or "sucking grooves" that function like [[suction cup]]s. [[Cyclophyllidea|Cyclophyllid]] cestodes can be identified by the presence of four suckers on their scolices.<ref name=eb>"Flatworm." ''Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.</ref> Other species have ruffled or leaflike scolices, and there may be other structures to aid attachment.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
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In the larval stage the scolex is similarly shaped and is known as the protoscolex.<ref name="Gosling">{{cite book |last1=Gosling |first1=Peter |title=Dictionary of Parasitology |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryparasi00gosl |url-access=limited |date=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Florida |isbn=9780415308557 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryparasi00gosl/page/n298 286] |edition=1st}}</ref><br />
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=== Body systems ===<br />
Circular and longitudinal muscles lie under the neodermis, beneath which further longitudinal, dorso-ventral and transverse muscles surround the central [[parenchyma]]. Protonephridial cells drain into the parenchyma. There are four longitudinal collection canals, two dorso-lateral and two ventro-lateral, running along the length of the worm, with a transverse canal linking the ventral ones at the posterior of each segment. When the proglottids begin to detach, these canals open to the exterior through the terminal segment.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
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The main nerve centre of a cestode is a cerebral [[ganglion]] in its scolex. Nerves emanate from the ganglion to supply the general body muscular and sensory endings, with two lateral nerve cords running the length of the strobila.<ref name=Ruppert/> The [[Cirrus (biology)|cirrus]] and vagina are innervated, and sensory endings around the genital pore are more plentiful than in other areas. Sensory function includes both tactoreception (touch) and chemoreception (smell or taste).<ref name=Pendarvis/><br />
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=== Proglottids {{anchor|proglottid}}===<br />
[[File:Taenia solium tapeworm proglottids 5261 lores.jpg|thumb |Two proglottids of ''[[Taenia solium]]''. This species has 7 to 13 branches of the uterus on each side (above and below in this micrograph).]]<br />
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Once anchored to the host's intestinal wall, tapeworms absorb nutrients through their surface as their food flows past them.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Common Tapeworm (''Dipylidium caninum'') |url=http://www.marvistavet.com/html/body_tapeworm.html |work=Mar Vista Animal Medical Center |access-date=26 November 2013 |date=6 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029005107/http://www.marvistavet.com/html/body_tapeworm.html |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref> Cestodes are unable to synthesise lipids, which they use for reproduction, and are therefore entirely dependent on their hosts.<ref name=mondal>{{cite journal |last=Mondal |first=Madhumita |title=Analysis of major lipid classes and their fatty acids in a cestode parasite of domestic fowl, Raillietina (Fuhrmannetta) echinobothrida |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society |year=2009 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=131–137 |doi=10.1007/s12595-009-0015-3 |author2=Mukhopadhyay, D. |author3=Ghosh, D. |author4=Dey, C.|author5=Misra, K. K.}}</ref><br />
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The tapeworm body is composed of a series of segments called ''proglottids''. These are produced from the neck by mitotic growth, which is followed by transverse constriction. The segments become larger and more mature as they are displaced backwards by newer segments.<ref name=Ruppert/> Each proglottid contains an independent reproductive tract, and like some other flatworms, cestodes excrete waste through [[flame cell]]s (''protonephridia'') located in the proglottids. The sum of the proglottids is called a strobila, which is thin and resembles a strip of tape; from this is derived the common name "tapeworm". Proglottids are continually being produced by the neck region of the scolex, as long as the scolex is attached and alive.<ref name=tortora>{{cite book |title=Microbiology: An Introduction |edition=12th |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |publisher=Benjamin-Cummings, part of Addison Wesley Longman |year=2016 |orig-year=2010 |isbn=9780321929150 |pages=347 |last2=Funke |first2=Berdell R. |last3=Case |first3=Christine L.}}</ref><br />
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Mature proglottids are essentially bags of eggs, each of which is infective to the proper intermediate host. They are released and leave the host in feces, or migrate outwards as independent motile proglottids.<ref name=tortora/> The number of proglottids forming the tapeworm ranges from three to four thousand. Their layout comes in two forms: craspedote, meaning any given proglottid is overlapped by the previous proglottid, or acraspedote, indicating the proglottids do not overlap.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cestodes |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/322043919/Cestodes |publisher=Scribd |access-date=24 May 2018}}</ref><br />
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==Reproduction==<br />
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Cestodes are exclusively [[hermaphrodite]]s, with both male and female reproductive systems in each body. The reproductive system includes one or more testes, cirri, [[vas deferens]], and [[seminal vesicle]]s as male organs, and a single lobed or unlobed [[ovary]] with the connecting [[oviduct]] and [[uterus]] as female organs. The common external opening for both male and female reproductive systems is known as the genital pore, which is situated at the surface opening of the cup-shaped atrium.<ref name="ch">Cheng, T.C. (1986). ''General Parasitology (2nd edn)''. Academic Press, Division of Hardcourt Brace & Company, USA, pp. 402–416. {{ISBN |0-12-170755-5}}</ref><ref>McDougald, L. R. (2003). "Cestodes and trematodes". In: ''Diseases of Poultry'', 11th edn (Saif, Y. M; Barnes, H. J.; Fadly, A. M.; Glisson, J. R.; McDougald, L .R.; Swayne, D.E. eds). Iowa State Press, USA, pp. 396-404. {{ISBN |0-8138-0718-2}}</ref> Though they are sexually hermaphroditic and [[Allogamy|cross-fertilization]] is the norm, self-fertilization sometimes occurs and makes possible the reproduction of a worm when it is the only individual in its host's gut.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lüscher, A. |author2=Milinski, M. |year=2003 |title=Simultaneous hermaphrodites reproducing in pairs self‐fertilize some of their eggs: an experimental test of predictions of mixed‐mating and Hermaphrodite's Dilemma theory |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00552.x |pmid=14635918 }}</ref> During copulation, the cirri of one individual connect with those of the other through the genital pore, and then [[spermatozoa]] are exchanged.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
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==Life cycle==<br />
[[File:Taenia solium Life cycle.tif|thumb|300px|Life cycle of the eucestode ''[[Taenia (genus)|Taenia]]'': Inset 5 shows the scolex, a disk with hooks on the end. Inset 6 shows the tapeworm's whole body, in which the scolex is the tiny, round tip in the top left corner, and a mature proglottid has just detached.<ref>{{CDC}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:D latum LifeCycle.png|thumb|300px|Life cycle of ''[[Diphyllobothrium|Diphyllobothrium latum]]'' relies on at least three hosts, crustaceans, fish, and humans. Other fish-eating mammals like bears can equally serve as definitive hosts.<ref name="Brusca 2016">{{cite book | last=Brusca | first=Richard | title=Invertebrates | publisher=Sinauer Associates | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-60535-375-3 | page=405}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
Cestodes are parasites of vertebrates, with each species infecting a single definitive host or group of closely related host species. All but [[Amphilinidea|amphilinids]] and [[Gyrocotylidea|gyrocotylids]] (which burrow through the gut or body wall to reach the coelom<ref name=Cheng2012/>) are intestinal, though some life-cycle stages rest in muscle or other tissues. The definitive host is always a vertebrate but in nearly all cases, one or more intermediate hosts are involved in the lifecycle, typically [[arthropod]]s or other vertebrates.<ref name=Ruppert/> Infections can be long-lasting; in humans, tapeworm infection may last as much as 30 years.<ref name="Mayo">{{cite web |title=Tapeworm infection |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tapeworm/symptoms-causes/syc-20378174 |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=23 July 2018}}</ref> No [[asexual reproduction|asexual phases]] occur in the lifecycle, as they do in other [[platyhelminthes|flatworms]], but the lifecycle pattern has been a crucial criterion for assessing evolution among Platyhelminthes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Llewellyn, J. |title=Phylogenetic inference from platyhelminth life-cycle stages |journal=International Journal for Parasitology |volume=17 |issue=1 | pages=281–289 |year=1987 |doi=10.1016/0020-7519(87)90051-8|pmid=3294640 }}</ref><br />
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Cestodes produce large numbers of eggs, but each one has a low probability of finding a host. To increase their chances, different species have adopted various strategies of egg release. In the Pseudophyllidea, many eggs are released in the brief period when their aquatic intermediate hosts are abundant (semelparity). In contrast, in the terrestrial Cyclophyllidea, proglottids are released steadily over a period of years, or as long as their host lives (iteroparity). Another strategy is to have very long-lived larvae; for example, in ''Echinococcus'', the hydatid larvae can survive for ten years or more in humans and other vertebrate hosts, giving the tapeworm an exceptionally long time window in which to find another host.<ref name="Mackiewicz1988">{{cite journal |last1=Mackiewicz |first1=John S. |title=Cestode Transmission Patterns |journal=Journal of Parasitology |date=February 1988 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=60–71 |jstor=3282479|doi=10.2307/3282479 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Many tapeworms have a two-phase lifecycle with two types of host. The adult ''Taenia saginata'' lives in the gut of a primate such as a human, its definitive host. Proglottids leave the body through the anus and fall to the ground, where they may be eaten with grass by a grazing animal such as a cow. This animal then becomes an intermediate host, the oncosphere boring through the gut wall and migrating to another part of the body such as the muscle. Here it encysts, forming a [[cysticercus]]. The parasite completes its lifecycle when the intermediate host passes on the parasite to the definitive host, usually when the definitive host eats contaminated parts of the intermediate host, for example a human eating raw or undercooked meat.<ref name=Ruppert/> Another two-phase lifecycle is exhibited by ''[[Anoplocephala perfoliata]]'', the definitive host being an equine and the intermediate host an [[Oribatida|oribatid mite]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-horses/tapeworms-in-horses| title=Tapeworms in Horses |work=Merck Veterinary Manual |access-date=21 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'' exhibits a more complex, three-phase lifecycle. If the eggs are laid in water, they develop into free-swimming oncosphere larvae. After ingestion by a suitable freshwater crustacean such as a [[copepod]], the first intermediate host, they develop into [[procercoid]] larvae. When the copepod is eaten by a suitable second intermediate host, typically a minnow or other small freshwater fish, the procercoid larvae migrate into the fish's flesh where they develop into [[plerocercoid]] larvae. These are the infective stages for the mammalian definitive host. If the small fish is eaten by a predatory fish, its muscles too can become infected.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
<br />
''[[Schistocephalus solidus]]'' is another three-phase example. The intermediate hosts are copepods and small fish, and the definitive hosts are waterbirds. This species has been used to demonstrate that cross-fertilisation produces a higher infective success rate than self-fertilisation.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Christen, M. |author2=Kurtz, J. |author3=Milinski, M. |title=Outcrossing increases infection success and competitive ability: experimental evidence from a hermaphrodite parasite |journal=Evolution |volume=56 |issue=11 |pages=2243–2251 |year=2002 |pmid=12487354 |doi=10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[2243:oiisac]2.0.co;2}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Host immunity==<br />
<br />
Hosts can become immune to infection by a cestode if the lining, the mucosa, of the gut is damaged. This exposes the host's [[immune system]] to cestode [[antigen]]s, enabling the host to mount an [[antibody]] defence. Host antibodies can kill or limit cestode infection by damaging their digestive enzymes, which reduces their ability to feed and therefore to grow and to reproduce; by binding to their bodies; and by neutralising toxins that they produce. When cestodes feed passively in the gut, they do not provoke an antibody reaction.<ref name="ChengImmunity">{{cite book|last1=Cheng|first1=Thomas C.|title=General Parasitology|date=1973|publisher=Academic Press|pages=535–536}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Evolution and phylogeny==<br />
<br />
===Fossil history===<br />
Parasite fossils are rare, but recognizable clusters of cestode eggs, some with an operculum (lid) indicating that they had not erupted, one with a developing larva, have been discovered in fossil shark [[coprolite]]s dating to the [[Permian]], some 270 million years ago.<ref name="Paula2013">[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130130184200.htm "Tapeworm Eggs Discovered in 270-Million-Year-Old Fossil Shark faeces", ''ScienceDaily, 30 January 2013]</ref><ref name="Dentzien-Dias Poinar de Figueiredo Pacheco p=e55007">{{cite journal | last=Dentzien-Dias | first=Paula C. | last2=Poinar | first2=George | last3=de Figueiredo | first3=Ana Emilia Q. | last4=Pacheco | first4=Ana Carolina L. | last5=Horn | first5=Bruno L. D. | last6=Schultz | first6=Cesar L. | editor-last=Turrens | editor-first=Julio Francisco | title=Tapeworm Eggs in a 270 Million-Year-Old Shark Coprolite | journal=PLoS ONE | volume=8 | issue=1 | year=2013 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0055007 | pmid=23383033 | pmc=3559381 | page=e55007}}</ref><br />
<br />
===External===<br />
<br />
The position of the Cestoda within the Platyhelminthes and other [[Spiralia]]n phyla based on genomic analysis is shown in the [[phylogenetic tree]]. The non-parasitic flatworms, traditionally grouped as the "[[Turbellaria]]", are [[paraphyletic]], as the parasitic [[Neodermata]] including the Cestoda arose within that grouping. The approximate times when major groups first appeared is shown in millions of years ago.<ref name="Hahn Fromm Bachmann 2014">{{cite journal | last=Hahn | first=Christoph | last2=Fromm | first2=Bastian | last3=Bachmann | first3=Lutz | title=Comparative Genomics of Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) Reveals Shared Genomic Features of Ecto- and Endoparastic Neodermata | journal=Genome Biology and Evolution | volume=6 | issue=5 | date=2014 | doi=10.1093/gbe/evu078 | pmid=24732282 | pages=1105–1117| pmc=4040987 }}</ref><ref name="torsten">{{Cite journal |last=Struck |first=Torsten H. |last2=Wey-Fabrizius |first2=Alexandra R. |last3=Golombek |first3=Anja |last4=Hering |first4=Lars |last5=Weigert |first5=Anne|last6=Bleidorn |first6=Christoph |last7=Klebow |first7=Sabrina |last8=Iakovenko |first8=Nataliia |last9=Hausdorf |first9=Bernhard|year=2014 |title=Platyzoan Paraphyly Based on Phylogenomic Data Supports a Noncoelomate Ancestry of Spiralia |url=http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/7/1833 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=1833–1849 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msu143 |pmid=24748651|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1=[[Platytrochozoa]]<br />
|sublabel1=580 mya<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=[[Rouphozoa]]<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Gastrotricha]] [[File:Polymerurus nodicaudus.jpg|80px]]<br />
|label2=[[Platyhelminthes]]<br />
|sublabel2=270 mya<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1="[[Turbellaria]]" [[File:Sorocelis reticulosa.jpg|80px]] <br />
|label2=[[Neodermata]]<br />
|sublabel2=''[[parasitic]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|sublabel1='' fish parasites ''<br />
|label1=[[Monogenea]]<br />
|1=[[File:Parasite170078-fig2 Cichlidogyrus philander (Monogenea, Ancyrocephalidae) (main image).png|80px]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1='''Cestoda'''<br />
|sublabel1='' tapeworms and allies ''<br />
|1=[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1857) b 008 1.jpg|80px]]<br />
|label2=[[Trematoda]]<br />
|sublabel2='' flukes ''<br />
|2=[[File:Botulus microporus.jpg|80px]]<br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
|label2=[[Lophotrochozoa]] <br />
|sublabel2=550 mya<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Mollusca]] [[File:Grapevinesnail 01.jpg|80px]] <br />
|2=[[Annelida]] [[File:Polychaeta (no).JPG|80px]] <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Internal===<br />
<br />
[[File:Gyrocotyle rugosa.png|thumb|upright|[[Gyrocotylidea]]: body flatwormlike, not divided into proglottids]]<br />
[[File:Gigantolina.elongata.in.vivo.png|thumb|[[Amphilinidea]]: body wormlike, not divided into proglottids]]<br />
[[File:Anthobothrium cornucopia.jpg|thumb|upright|"[[Tetraphyllidea]]": elaborate four-leaved scolex]]<br />
<br />
The evolutionary history of the Cestoda has been studied using [[ribosomal RNA]], [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] and other DNA, and morphological analysis and continues to be revised. "[[Tetraphyllidea]]" is seen to be paraphyletic; "[[Pseudophyllidea]]" has been broken up into two orders, [[Bothriocephalidea]] and [[Diphyllobothriidea]].<ref name=Kuchta2008>{{cite journal |last1=Kuchta|first1=Roman|display-authors=et al |title=Suppression of the tapeworm order Pseudophyllidea (Platyhelminthes: Eucestoda) and the proposal of two new orders, Bothriocephalidea and Diphyllobothriidea |journal=International Journal for Parasitology|year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=49–55 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.08.005 |pmid=17950292 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phylogenetic-tree-of-basal-tapeworms-Eucestoda-inferred-from-SSU-LSU-data-sequences_fig1_5895995<!--cladogram-->}}</ref><ref name=Hoberg1999>{{cite journal | last=Hoberg | first=Eric P. | title=Systematics of the Eucestoda: advances toward a new phylogenetic paradigm, and observations on the early diversification of tapeworms and vertebrates | journal=Systematic Parasitology | volume=42 | issue=1 | year=1999 | doi=10.1023/a:1006099009495 | pages=1–12| pmid=10613542 | url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1065&context=parasitologyfacpubs }}</ref><ref name=Waeschenbach2012>{{cite journal |author1=Waeschenbach, A. |author2=Webster, B. L. |author3=Littlewood, D. T. |year=2012 |title=Adding resolution to ordinal level relationships of tapeworms (Platyhelminthes: Cestoda) with large fragments of mtDNA |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=834–847 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.02.020|pmid=22406529 }}</ref> Hosts, whose [[phylogeny]] often mirrors that of the parasites ([[Fahrenholz's rule]]), are indicated in italics and parentheses, the life-cycle sequence (where known) shown by arrows as ''(intermediate host<sub>1</sub> [→ intermediate host<sub>2&thinsp;</sub>] → definitive host)''. Alternatives, generally for different species within an order, are shown in square brackets.<ref name=Kuchta2008/><ref name=Hoberg1999/><ref name=Waeschenbach2012/><br />
<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1='''Cestoda'''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Gyrocotylidea]] ''(fishes)''<br />
<!--|label2=[[Nephroposticophora|N.]]--><br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Amphilinidea]] ''(crustaceans → fishes/turtles)'' <br />
|label2=[[Eucestoda]]<br />
|sublabel2=''tapeworms''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Spathebothriidea]] ''(amphipods → fishes)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Caryophyllidea]] ''(annelids → fishes)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Haplobothriidea]] ''(freshwater fishes → [[Amia calva|bowfin]])''<br />
|2=[[Diphyllobothriidea]] ''(copepods [→ fishes] → mammals)'' <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Diphyllidea]] ''(elasmobranchs inc. rays, sharks)''<br />
|2=[[Trypanorhyncha]] ''(fishes/crustaceans/molluscs → bony fishes/selachians)''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Bothriocephalidea]] ''(crustaceans [→ teleost] → teleost fishes/amphibians)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Litobothriidea]] ''(lamniform sharks)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Lecanicephalidea]] ''(molluscs → selachians)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Rhinebothriidea]] ''(stingrays)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1="[[Tetraphyllidea]]" ''(copepods → fishes/decapods/cephalopods → selachians)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1="[[Tetraphyllidea]]"<br />
|2=[[Proteocephalidea]] ''(crustaceans → inverts/verts → fishes/amphibians/reptiles)'' <br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Nippotaeniidea]] ''(crustaceans → fishes)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Mesocestoididae]] ''(mammals/birds)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Tetrabothriidea]] ''(crustaceans?/cephalopods?/teleosts? → seabirds/cetaceans/pinnipeds)''<br />
|2=[[Cyclophyllidea]] ''(mammals → mammals, or insects → birds)'' <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}}<br />
<br />
The [[Taeniidae]], including species such as the [[pork tapeworm]] and the [[beef tapeworm]] that often infect humans, may be the most basal of the 12 orders of the Cyclophyllidea.<ref name=Mariaux1998>{{cite journal |author=Mariaux, J. |year=1998 |title=A molecular phylogeny of the Eucestoda |journal=Journal of Parasitology |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=114–124 |doi=10.2307/3284540|jstor=3284540 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Interactions with humans==<br />
[[File:Weight-Loss Ad (FDA 154) (8212182572).jpg|thumb|upright|Advertisement offering "sanitized tape worms jar packed" under the heading "Fat! the enemy that is shortening your life - banished!", c. 1900. It promises "no ill effects", but side effects include diarrhoea and abdominal pain.<ref name=MarrenMabey2010/><ref name=NHS/>]]<br />
<br />
===Infection and treatment===<br />
Like other species of mammal, humans can become infected with tapeworms. There may be few or no symptoms, and the first indication of the infection may be the presence of one or more proglottids in the stools. The proglottids appear as flat, rectangular, whitish objects about the size of a grain of rice, which may change size or move about. Bodily symptoms which are sometimes present include abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, increased appetite and weight loss.<ref name=NHS>{{cite web |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/tapeworms/ |title=Tapeworms |publisher=NHS Choices |access-date=20 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
There are several classes of [[anthelminthic]] drugs, some effective against many kinds of parasite, others more specific; these can be used both preventatively<ref>{{cite book |author=World Health Organization |year=2006 |title= Preventive chemotherapy in human helminthiasis: coordinated use of anthelminthic drugs in control interventions: a manual for health professionals and programme managers| url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241547103_eng.pdf |publisher=World Health Organization |pages=1–61 |isbn=978-9241547109|author-link=World Health Organization }}</ref> and to treat infections.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Holden-Dye|first1=Lindy|last2=Walker|first2=Robert J.|title=Anthelmintic drugs|url=http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_anthelminticdrugs/anthelminticdrugs.html|website=WormBook|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref> For example, [[praziquantel]] is an effective treatment for tapeworm infection, and is preferred over the older [[niclosamide]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Scholar, Eric M. |author2=Pratt, William B. |chapter=Treatment of Parasitic Infection |title=The Antimicrobial Drugs |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780199759712 |pages=465–466 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQ6KNRLWHLQC&pg=PA465}}</ref> While accidental tapeworm infections in developed countries are quite rare, such infections are more likely to occur in countries with poor sanitation facilities or where food hygiene standards are low.<ref name=NHS/><br />
<br />
===History and culture===<br />
<br />
In [[ancient Greece]], the comic playwright [[Aristophanes]] and philosopher [[Aristotle]] described the lumps that form during [[cysticercosis]] as "hailstones".<ref name=Cox2004>{{cite journal |author=Cox, Francis E. G. |title=History of human parasitic diseases |journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America |date=June 2004 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=173–174 |pmid=15145374 |doi=10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.001 |url=http://cmr.asm.org/content/15/4/595.full}}</ref> In [[Medieval]] times, in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', completed in 1025, the [[Persian people|Persian]] physician [[Avicenna]] recorded parasites including tapeworms.<ref name=Cox2004/> In the [[Early Modern]] period, [[Francesco Redi]] described and illustrated many parasites, and was the first to identify the cysts of ''[[Echinococcus granulosus]]'' seen in dogs and sheep as parasitic in origin; a century later, in 1760, [[Peter Simon Pallas]] correctly suggested that these were the larvae of tapeworms.<ref name=Cox2004/><br />
<br />
Tapeworms have occasionally appeared [[Parasites in fiction|in fiction]]. Peter Marren and [[Richard Mabey]] in ''Bugs Britannica'' write that [[Irvine Welsh]]'s sociopathic policeman in his 1998 novel ''[[Filth (novel)|Filth]]'' owns a talking tapeworm, which they call "the most attractive character in the novel"; it becomes the policeman's ''[[alter ego]]'' and better self.<ref name=MarrenMabey2010/> [[Mira Grant]]'s 2013 novel ''[[Parasite (Grant novel)|Parasite]]'' envisages a world where people's [[immune system]]s are maintained by [[genetic modification|genetically engineered]] tapeworms.<ref name=Valentine2013>{{cite web |last1=Valentine |first1=Genevieve |title=Medical Magic Leads To Terror In 'Parasite' |url=https://www.npr.org/2013/10/30/239167270/medical-magic-leads-to-terror-in-parasite |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |access-date=15 June 2018 |date=30 October 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
There are unproven claims that, around 1900, tapeworm eggs were marketed to the public as slimming tablets.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://thequackdoctor.com/index.php/eat-eat-eat-those-notorious-tapeworm-diet-pills/|title='Eat! Eat! Eat!' Those notorious tapeworm diet pills|date=2015-01-23|work=The Quack Doctor|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en-US}}</ref> A full-page coloured advertisement, purportedly from a women's magazine of that period, reads "Fat: the enemy .. that is banished! How? With sanitized tape worms. Jar packed. No ill effects!"<ref name=MarrenMabey2010>{{cite book |author1=Marren, Peter |author2=Mabey, Richard |title=Bugs Britannica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah62bUZLDOwC |year=2010 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |isbn=978-0-7011-8180-2 |pages=34–36}}</ref> When television presenter [[Michael Mosley (broadcaster)|Michael Mosley]] deliberately infected himself with tapeworms he gained weight due to increased appetite.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25968755|title=TV doctor infests himself with worms|last=Morgan|first=James|date=2014|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en-GB}}</ref> Dieters still sometimes risk intentional infection, evidenced by a 2013 warning on American television.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.today.com/health/iowa-woman-tries-tapeworm-diet-prompts-doctor-warning-6C10935746 |title=Iowa woman tries 'tapeworm diet', prompts doctor warning |work=[[Today (U.S. TV program)]] |date=16 August 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
{{Wikispecies}}<br />
* ''Merck Manual of Medication' Information'', Second Home Edition, Online Version, [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch196/ch196p.html Tapeworm Infection] 2005<br />
* Mayo Clinic Website on infectious diseases, [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/tapeworm/DS00659/DSECTION=1 ''Mayo Clinic - Tapeworm Infection,''] 2006<br />
* Medline Plus - [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001391.htm Taeniasis (tapeworm infection)]<br />
* University of South Carolina - School of Medicine - [http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/parasitology/cestodes.htm Cestodes (tapeworms)]<br />
<br />
{{helminthiases}}<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q159715}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cestoda| ]]<br />
[[Category:Guadalupian first appearances]]<br />
[[Category:Extant Permian first appearances]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cestoda&diff=997398113Cestoda2020-12-31T08:54:42Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Life cycle */Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{good article}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
| fossil_range={{fossilrange |270 |0 |ref=<ref name="Paula2013" />}}<br />
| image= Taenia saginata adult 5260 lores.jpg<br />
| image_caption=''[[Taenia saginata]]''<br />
| taxon=Cestoda<br />
| subdivision_ranks=Subgroups<br />
| subdivision=See text.<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Cestoda''' is a [[Class (biology)|class]] of [[parasitic worm]]s in the [[flatworm]] [[phylum]] (Platyhelminthes). Most of the species—and the best-known—are those in the subclass [[Eucestoda]]; they are ribbon-like worms as adults, known as '''tapeworms'''. Their bodies consist of many similar units, known as proglottids, which are essentially packages of eggs which are regularly shed into the environment to infect other organisms. Species of the other subclass, [[Cestodaria]], are mainly fish parasites.<br />
<br />
All '''cestodes''' are [[parasitism|parasitic]]; many have complex [[Life history theory|life histories]], including a stage in a [[Host (biology)#Definitive and secondary hosts|definitive (main) host]] in which the adults grow and reproduce, often for years, and one or two intermediate stages in which the [[larva]]e develop in other hosts. Typically the adults live in the [[digestive tract]]s of [[vertebrate]]s, while the larvae often live in the bodies of other animals, either vertebrates or invertebrates. For example, ''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'' has at least two intermediate hosts, a [[crustacean]] and then one or more freshwater fish; its definitive host is a mammal. Some cestodes are host-specific, while others are parasites of a wide variety of [[Host (biology)|hosts]]. Some six thousand species have been described; probably all vertebrates can host at least one species.<br />
<br />
The adult tapeworm has a scolex (head), a short neck, and a strobila (segmented body) formed of [[#Proglottids|proglottids]]. Tapeworms anchor themselves to the inside of the intestine of their host using their scolex, which typically has hooks, [[Sucker (zoology)|suckers]], or both. They have no mouth, but absorb nutrients directly from the host's gut. The neck continually produces proglottids, each one containing a reproductive tract; mature proglottids are full of eggs, and fall off to leave the host, either passively in the feces or actively moving. All tapeworms are hermaphrodites, with each individual having both male and female reproductive organs.<br />
<br />
Humans are subject to infection by several species of tapeworms if they eat undercooked meat such as [[pork]] (''[[Taenia solium]]''), beef (''[[Taenia saginata|T. saginata]]''), and fish (''Diphyllobothrium''), or if they live in, or eat food prepared in, conditions of poor hygiene (''[[Hymenolepis (tapeworm)|Hymenolepis]]'' or ''[[Echinococcus]]'' species). The unproven concept of using tapeworms as a [[Diet pill|slimming aid]] has been touted since around 1900. <br />
<br />
== Diversity and habitat==<br />
<br />
All 6000 species of Cestoda are [[parasite]]s, mainly intestinal; their definitive hosts are vertebrates, both terrestrial and marine, while their [[intermediate host]]s include insects, crustaceans, molluscs, and annelids as well as other vertebrates.<ref name="Ruppert">{{cite book|title=Invertebrate Zoology, 7th edition|last1=Ruppert|first1=Edward E.|last2=Fox|first2=Richard, S.|last3=Barnes|first3=Robert D.|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2004|isbn=978-81-315-0104-7|pages=258–263}}</ref><br />
''T. saginata'', the beef tapeworm, can grow up to 20&nbsp;m (65&nbsp;ft); the largest species, the whale tapeworm ''[[Tetragonoporus|Tetragonoporus calyptocephalus]]'', can grow to over 30&nbsp;m (100&nbsp;ft).<ref name="time-1957">{{cite magazine |date=8 April 1957 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809356-1,00.html |title=The Persistent Parasites |magazine=Time Magazine |publisher=Time Inc}}</ref><ref name="hargis">{{cite journal |year=1985 |author=Hargis, William J. |title=Parasitology and pathology of marine organisms of the world ocean |journal=NOAA Tech. Rep. |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]}}</ref> Species with small hosts tend to be small. For example, [[Arvicolinae|vole and lemming]] tapeworms are only {{convert|13|-|240|mm|1|abbr=on}} in length, and those parasitizing [[shrew]]s only {{convert|0.8|-|60|mm|2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Haukisalmi | first1=V. | last2=Heino | first2=M. | last3=Kaitala | first3=V. | year=1998 | title=Body size variation in tapeworms (Cestoda): adaptation to intestinal gradients? | journal=Oikos | volume=83 | issue=1 | pages=152–160 | jstor=3546556 | url=http://www.bio.uib.no/evofish/papers/Haukisalmi_1998_Body_size_variation.pdf | doi=10.2307/3546556 | citeseerx=10.1.1.538.3826 | access-date=2015-08-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025826/http://www.bio.uib.no/evofish/papers/Haukisalmi_1998_Body_size_variation.pdf | archive-date=2016-03-04 | url-status=dead }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Anatomy==<br />
<br />
Cestodes have no gut or mouth<ref name="Cheng2012" /> and absorb nutrients from the host's alimentary tract through their specialised neodermal cuticle, or [[Tegument (helminth)|tegument]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Dalton|first=John P|last2=Skelly|first2=Patrick|last3=Halton|first3=David W|date=February 2004|title=Role of the tegument and gut in nutrient uptake by parasitic platyhelminths|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=82|issue=2|pages=211–232|doi=10.1139/z03-213|issn=0008-4301}}</ref> through which gas exchange also takes place.<ref name="Ruppert" /> The tegument also protects the parasite from the host's digestive enzymes<ref name=Pendarvis>{{cite book |author1=Pendarvis, Murray P. |author2=Crawley, John L. |title=Exploring Biology in the Laboratory |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcRKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA535 |year=2018 |publisher=Morton Publishing Company |isbn=978-1-61731-756-9 |pages=535–536}}</ref> and allows it to transfer molecules back to the host.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
The body form of adult eucestodes is simple, with a scolex, or grasping head, adapted for attachment to the [[Host (biology)|definitive host]], a short neck, and a strobila, or segmented{{efn|Tapeworms are not formed of [[segmentation (biology)|fixed body segments]] as are the [[annelid]]s, [[arthropod]]s or [[chordate]]s.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}}} trunk formed of proglottids, which makes up the worm's body. Members of the subclass [[Cestodaria]], the [[Amphilinidea]] and [[Gyrocotylidea]], are wormlike but not divided into proglottids. Amphilinids have a muscular proboscis at the front end; Gyrocotylids have a sucker or proboscis which they can pull inside or push outside at the front end, and a holdfast rosette at the posterior end.<ref name="Cheng2012">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d4GQlYzode8C|title=General Parasitology|last=Cheng|first=Thomas C.|publisher=Elsevier Science|year=2012|isbn=978-0-323-14010-2|pages=378–444|chapter=Cestoidea: The Tapeworms, Cestodaria: the Unsegemented Tapeworms & Eucestoda: The True Tapeworms}}</ref><br />
<br />
The Cestodaria have 10 larval hooks while Eucestoda have 6 larval hooks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/helminth-intoduction.html|title=Helminth Parasites|website=parasite.org.au|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Scolex ===<br />
[[File:Taenia solium tapeworm scolex with its four suckers and two rows of hooks 5262 lores.jpg|thumb|right|Scolex of ''[[Taenia solium]]'' with hooks and bothria present.]]<br />
<br />
The scolex, which attaches to the intestine of the definitive host, is often minute in comparison with the proglottids. It is typically a four-sided knob, armed with [[sucker (zoology)|suckers]] or hooks or both.<ref name=Ruppert/> In some species, the scolex is dominated by [[Bothrium|bothria]], or "sucking grooves" that function like [[suction cup]]s. [[Cyclophyllidea|Cyclophyllid]] cestodes can be identified by the presence of four suckers on their scolices.<ref name=eb>"Flatworm." ''Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.</ref> Other species have ruffled or leaflike scolices, and there may be other structures to aid attachment.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
<br />
In the larval stage the scolex is similarly shaped and is known as the protoscolex.<ref name="Gosling">{{cite book |last1=Gosling |first1=Peter |title=Dictionary of Parasitology |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryparasi00gosl |url-access=limited |date=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Florida |isbn=9780415308557 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryparasi00gosl/page/n298 286] |edition=1st}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Body systems ===<br />
Circular and longitudinal muscles lie under the neodermis, beneath which further longitudinal, dorso-ventral and transverse muscles surround the central [[parenchyma]]. Protonephridial cells drain into the parenchyma. There are four longitudinal collection canals, two dorso-lateral and two ventro-lateral, running along the length of the worm, with a transverse canal linking the ventral ones at the posterior of each segment. When the proglottids begin to detach, these canals open to the exterior through the terminal segment.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
<br />
The main nerve centre of a cestode is a cerebral [[ganglion]] in its scolex. Nerves emanate from the ganglion to supply the general body muscular and sensory endings, with two lateral nerve cords running the length of the strobila.<ref name=Ruppert/> The [[Cirrus (biology)|cirrus]] and vagina are innervated, and sensory endings around the genital pore are more plentiful than in other areas. Sensory function includes both tactoreception (touch) and chemoreception (smell or taste).<ref name=Pendarvis/><br />
<br />
=== Proglottids {{anchor|proglottid}}===<br />
[[File:Taenia solium tapeworm proglottids 5261 lores.jpg|thumb |Two proglottids of ''[[Taenia solium]]''. This species has 7 to 13 branches of the uterus on each side (above and below in this micrograph).]]<br />
<br />
Once anchored to the host's intestinal wall, tapeworms absorb nutrients through their surface as their food flows past them.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Common Tapeworm (''Dipylidium caninum'') |url=http://www.marvistavet.com/html/body_tapeworm.html |work=Mar Vista Animal Medical Center |access-date=26 November 2013 |date=6 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029005107/http://www.marvistavet.com/html/body_tapeworm.html |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref> Cestodes are unable to synthesise lipids, which they use for reproduction, and are therefore entirely dependent on their hosts.<ref name=mondal>{{cite journal |last=Mondal |first=Madhumita |title=Analysis of major lipid classes and their fatty acids in a cestode parasite of domestic fowl, Raillietina (Fuhrmannetta) echinobothrida |journal=Proceedings of the Zoological Society |year=2009 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=131–137 |doi=10.1007/s12595-009-0015-3 |author2=Mukhopadhyay, D. |author3=Ghosh, D. |author4=Dey, C.|author5=Misra, K. K.}}</ref><br />
<br />
The tapeworm body is composed of a series of segments called ''proglottids''. These are produced from the neck by mitotic growth, which is followed by transverse constriction. The segments become larger and more mature as they are displaced backwards by newer segments.<ref name=Ruppert/> Each proglottid contains an independent reproductive tract, and like some other flatworms, cestodes excrete waste through [[flame cell]]s (''protonephridia'') located in the proglottids. The sum of the proglottids is called a strobila, which is thin and resembles a strip of tape; from this is derived the common name "tapeworm". Proglottids are continually being produced by the neck region of the scolex, as long as the scolex is attached and alive.<ref name=tortora>{{cite book |title=Microbiology: An Introduction |edition=12th |last=Tortora |first=Gerard J. |publisher=Benjamin-Cummings, part of Addison Wesley Longman |year=2016 |orig-year=2010 |isbn=9780321929150 |pages=347 |last2=Funke |first2=Berdell R. |last3=Case |first3=Christine L.}}</ref><br />
<br />
Mature proglottids are essentially bags of eggs, each of which is infective to the proper intermediate host. They are released and leave the host in feces, or migrate outwards as independent motile proglottids.<ref name=tortora/> The number of proglottids forming the tapeworm ranges from three to four thousand. Their layout comes in two forms: craspedote, meaning any given proglottid is overlapped by the previous proglottid, or acraspedote, indicating the proglottids do not overlap.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cestodes |url=https://www.scribd.com/document/322043919/Cestodes |publisher=Scribd |access-date=24 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Reproduction==<br />
<br />
Cestodes are exclusively [[hermaphrodite]]s, with both male and female reproductive systems in each body. The reproductive system includes one or more testes, cirri, [[vas deferens]], and [[seminal vesicle]]s as male organs, and a single lobed or unlobed [[ovary]] with the connecting [[oviduct]] and [[uterus]] as female organs. The common external opening for both male and female reproductive systems is known as the genital pore, which is situated at the surface opening of the cup-shaped atrium.<ref name="ch">Cheng, T.C. (1986). ''General Parasitology (2nd edn)''. Academic Press, Division of Hardcourt Brace & Company, USA, pp. 402–416. {{ISBN |0-12-170755-5}}</ref><ref>McDougald, L. R. (2003). "Cestodes and trematodes". In: ''Diseases of Poultry'', 11th edn (Saif, Y. M; Barnes, H. J.; Fadly, A. M.; Glisson, J. R.; McDougald, L .R.; Swayne, D.E. eds). Iowa State Press, USA, pp. 396-404. {{ISBN |0-8138-0718-2}}</ref> Though they are sexually hermaphroditic and [[Allogamy|cross-fertilization]] is the norm, self-fertilization sometimes occurs and makes possible the reproduction of a worm when it is the only individual in its host's gut.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lüscher, A. |author2=Milinski, M. |year=2003 |title=Simultaneous hermaphrodites reproducing in pairs self‐fertilize some of their eggs: an experimental test of predictions of mixed‐mating and Hermaphrodite's Dilemma theory |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00552.x |pmid=14635918 }}</ref> During copulation, the cirri of one individual connect with those of the other through the genital pore, and then [[spermatozoa]] are exchanged.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
<br />
==Life cycle==<br />
[[File:Taenia solium Life cycle.tif|thumb|300px|Life cycle of the eucestode ''[[Taenia (genus)|Taenia]]'': Inset 5 shows the scolex, a disk with hooks on the end. Inset 6 shows the tapeworm's whole body, in which the scolex is the tiny, round tip in the top left corner, and a mature proglottid has just detached.<ref>{{CDC}}</ref>]]<br />
[[File:D latum LifeCycle.png|thumb|300px|Life cycle of ''[[Diphyllobothrium|Diphyllobothrium latum]]'' relies on at least three hosts, crustaceans, fish, and humans. Other fish-eating mammals like bears can equally serve as definitive hosts.<ref name="Brusca 2016">{{cite book | last=Brusca | first=Richard | title=Invertebrates | publisher=Sinauer Associates | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-60535-375-3 | page=405}}</ref>]]<br />
<br />
Cestodes are parasites of vertebrates, with each species infecting a single definitive host or group of closely related host species. All but [[Amphilinidea|amphilinids]] and [[Gyrocotylidea|gyrocotylids]] (which burrow through the gut or body wall to reach the coelom<ref name=Cheng2012/>) are intestinal, though some life-cycle stages rest in muscle or other tissues. The definitive host is always a vertebrate but in nearly all cases, one or more intermediate hosts are involved in the lifecycle, typically [[arthropod]]s or other vertebrates.<ref name=Ruppert/> Infections can be long-lasting; in humans, tapeworm infection may last as much as 30 years.<ref name="Mayo">{{cite web |title=Tapeworm infection |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tapeworm/symptoms-causes/syc-20378174 |publisher=Mayo Clinic |access-date=23 July 2018}}</ref> No [[asexual reproduction|asexual phases]] occur in the lifecycle, as they do in other [[platyhelminthes|flatworms]], but the lifecycle pattern has been a crucial criterion for assessing evolution among Platyhelminthes.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Llewellyn, J. |title=Phylogenetic inference from platyhelminth life-cycle stages |journal=International Journal for Parasitology |volume=17 |issue=1 | pages=281–289 |year=1987 |doi=10.1016/0020-7519(87)90051-8|pmid=3294640 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Cestodes produce large numbers of eggs, but each one has a low probability of finding a host. To increase their chances, different species have adopted various strategies of egg release. In the Pseudophyllidea, many eggs are released in the brief period when their aquatic intermediate hosts are abundant (semelparity). In contrast, in the terrestrial Cyclophyllidea, proglottids are released steadily over a period of years, or as long as their host lives (iteroparity). Another strategy is to have very long-lived larvae; for example, in ''Echinococcus'', the hydatid larvae can survive for ten years or more in humans and other vertebrate hosts, giving the tapeworm an exceptionally long time window in which to find another host.<ref name="Mackiewicz1988">{{cite journal |last1=Mackiewicz |first1=John S. |title=Cestode Transmission Patterns |journal=Journal of Parasitology |date=February 1988 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=60–71 |jstor=3282479|doi=10.2307/3282479 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Many tapeworms have a two-phase lifecycle with two types of host. The adult ''Taenia saginata'' lives in the gut of a primate such as a human, its definitive host. Proglottids leave the body through the anus and fall to the ground, where they may be eaten with grass by a grazing animal such as a cow. This animal then becomes an intermediate host, the oncosphere boring through the gut wall and migrating to another part of the body such as the muscle. Here it encysts, forming a [[cysticercus]]. The parasite completes its lifecycle when the intermediate host passes on the parasite to the definitive host, usually when the definitive host eats contaminated parts of the intermediate host, for example a human eating raw or undercooked meat.<ref name=Ruppert/> Another two-phase lifecycle is exhibited by ''[[Anoplocephala perfoliata]]'', the definitive host being an equine and the intermediate host an [[Oribatida|oribatid mite]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/digestive-system/gastrointestinal-parasites-of-horses/tapeworms-in-horses| title=Tapeworms in Horses |work=Merck Veterinary Manual |access-date=21 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'' exhibits a more complex, three-phase lifecycle. If the eggs are laid in water, they develop into free-swimming oncosphere larvae. After ingestion by a suitable freshwater crustacean such as a [[copepod]], the first intermediate host, they develop into [[procercoid]] larvae. When the copepod is eaten by a suitable second intermediate host, typically a minnow or other small freshwater fish, the procercoid larvae migrate into the fish's flesh where they develop into [[plerocercoid]] larvae. These are the infective stages for the mammalian definitive host. If the small fish is eaten by a predatory fish, its muscles too can become infected.<ref name=Ruppert/><br />
<br />
''[[Schistocephalus solidus]]'' is another three-phase example. The intermediate hosts are copepods and small fish, and the definitive hosts are waterbirds. This species has been used to demonstrate that cross-fertilisation produces a higher infective success rate than self-fertilisation.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Christen, M. |author2=Kurtz, J. |author3=Milinski, M. |title=Outcrossing increases infection success and competitive ability: experimental evidence from a hermaphrodite parasite |journal=Evolution |volume=56 |issue=11 |pages=2243–2251 |year=2002 |pmid=12487354 |doi=10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[2243:oiisac]2.0.co;2}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Host immunity==<br />
<br />
Hosts can become immune to infection by a cestode if the lining, the mucosa, of the gut is damaged. This exposes the host's [[immune system]] to cestode [[antigen]]s, enabling the host to mount an [[antibody]] defence. Host antibodies can kill or limit cestode infection by damaging their digestive enzymes, which reduces their ability to feed and therefore to grow and to reproduce; by binding to their bodies; and by neutralising toxins that they produce. When cestodes feed passively in the gut, they do not provoke an antibody reaction.<ref name="ChengImmunity">{{cite book|last1=Cheng|first1=Thomas C.|title=General Parasitology|date=1973|publisher=Academic Press|pages=535–536}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Evolution and phylogeny==<br />
<br />
===Fossil history===<br />
Parasite fossils are rare, but recognizable clusters of cestode eggs, some with an operculum (lid) indicating that they had not erupted, one with a developing larva, have been discovered in fossil shark [[coprolite]]s dating to the [[Permian]], some 270 million years ago.<ref name="Paula2013">[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/01/130130184200.htm "Tapeworm Eggs Discovered in 270-Million-Year-Old Fossil Shark faeces", ''ScienceDaily, 30 January 2013]</ref><ref name="Dentzien-Dias Poinar de Figueiredo Pacheco p=e55007">{{cite journal | last=Dentzien-Dias | first=Paula C. | last2=Poinar | first2=George | last3=de Figueiredo | first3=Ana Emilia Q. | last4=Pacheco | first4=Ana Carolina L. | last5=Horn | first5=Bruno L. D. | last6=Schultz | first6=Cesar L. | editor-last=Turrens | editor-first=Julio Francisco | title=Tapeworm Eggs in a 270 Million-Year-Old Shark Coprolite | journal=PLoS ONE | volume=8 | issue=1 | year=2013 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0055007 | pmid=23383033 | pmc=3559381 | page=e55007}}</ref><br />
<br />
===External===<br />
<br />
The position of the Cestoda within the Platyhelminthes and other [[Spiralia]]n phyla based on genomic analysis is shown in the [[phylogenetic tree]]. The non-parasitic flatworms, traditionally grouped as the "[[Turbellaria]]", are [[paraphyletic]], as the parasitic [[Neodermata]] including the Cestoda arose within that grouping. The approximate times when major groups first appeared is shown in millions of years ago.<ref name="Hahn Fromm Bachmann 2014">{{cite journal | last=Hahn | first=Christoph | last2=Fromm | first2=Bastian | last3=Bachmann | first3=Lutz | title=Comparative Genomics of Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) Reveals Shared Genomic Features of Ecto- and Endoparastic Neodermata | journal=Genome Biology and Evolution | volume=6 | issue=5 | date=2014 | doi=10.1093/gbe/evu078 | pmid=24732282 | pages=1105–1117| pmc=4040987 }}</ref><ref name="torsten">{{Cite journal |last=Struck |first=Torsten H. |last2=Wey-Fabrizius |first2=Alexandra R. |last3=Golombek |first3=Anja |last4=Hering |first4=Lars |last5=Weigert |first5=Anne|last6=Bleidorn |first6=Christoph |last7=Klebow |first7=Sabrina |last8=Iakovenko |first8=Nataliia |last9=Hausdorf |first9=Bernhard|year=2014 |title=Platyzoan Paraphyly Based on Phylogenomic Data Supports a Noncoelomate Ancestry of Spiralia |url=http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/7/1833 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=1833–1849 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msu143 |pmid=24748651|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1=[[Platytrochozoa]]<br />
|sublabel1=580 mya<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|label1=[[Rouphozoa]]<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Gastrotricha]] [[File:Polymerurus nodicaudus.jpg|80px]]<br />
|label2=[[Platyhelminthes]]<br />
|sublabel2=270 mya<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1="[[Turbellaria]]" [[File:Sorocelis reticulosa.jpg|80px]] <br />
|label2=[[Neodermata]]<br />
|sublabel2=''[[parasitic]]''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|sublabel1='' fish parasites ''<br />
|label1=[[Monogenea]]<br />
|1=[[File:Parasite170078-fig2 Cichlidogyrus philander (Monogenea, Ancyrocephalidae) (main image).png|80px]]<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|label1='''Cestoda'''<br />
|sublabel1='' tapeworms and allies ''<br />
|1=[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1857) b 008 1.jpg|80px]]<br />
|label2=[[Trematoda]]<br />
|sublabel2='' flukes ''<br />
|2=[[File:Botulus microporus.jpg|80px]]<br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
|label2=[[Lophotrochozoa]] <br />
|sublabel2=550 mya<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Mollusca]] [[File:Grapevinesnail 01.jpg|80px]] <br />
|2=[[Annelida]] [[File:Polychaeta (no).JPG|80px]] <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
<br />
===Internal===<br />
<br />
[[File:Gyrocotyle rugosa.png|thumb|upright|[[Gyrocotylidea]]: body flatwormlike, not divided into proglottids]]<br />
[[File:Gigantolina.elongata.in.vivo.png|thumb|[[Amphilinidea]]: body wormlike, not divided into proglottids]]<br />
[[File:Anthobothrium cornucopia.jpg|thumb|upright|"[[Tetraphyllidea]]": elaborate four-leaved scolex]]<br />
<br />
The evolutionary history of the Cestoda has been studied using [[ribosomal RNA]], [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] and other DNA, and morphological analysis and continues to be revised. "[[Tetraphyllidea]]" is seen to be paraphyletic; "[[Pseudophyllidea]]" has been broken up into two orders, [[Bothriocephalidea]] and [[Diphyllobothriidea]].<ref name=Kuchta2008>{{cite journal |last1=Kuchta|first1=Roman|display-authors=et al |title=Suppression of the tapeworm order Pseudophyllidea (Platyhelminthes: Eucestoda) and the proposal of two new orders, Bothriocephalidea and Diphyllobothriidea |journal=International Journal for Parasitology|year=2008 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=49–55 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.08.005 |pmid=17950292 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phylogenetic-tree-of-basal-tapeworms-Eucestoda-inferred-from-SSU-LSU-data-sequences_fig1_5895995<!--cladogram-->}}</ref><ref name=Hoberg1999>{{cite journal | last=Hoberg | first=Eric P. | title=Systematics of the Eucestoda: advances toward a new phylogenetic paradigm, and observations on the early diversification of tapeworms and vertebrates | journal=Systematic Parasitology | volume=42 | issue=1 | year=1999 | doi=10.1023/a:1006099009495 | pages=1–12| pmid=10613542 | url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1065&context=parasitologyfacpubs }}</ref><ref name=Waeschenbach2012>{{cite journal |author1=Waeschenbach, A. |author2=Webster, B. L. |author3=Littlewood, D. T. |year=2012 |title=Adding resolution to ordinal level relationships of tapeworms (Platyhelminthes: Cestoda) with large fragments of mtDNA |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=834–847 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.02.020|pmid=22406529 }}</ref> Hosts, whose [[phylogeny]] often mirrors that of the parasites ([[Fahrenholz's rule]]), are indicated in italics and parentheses, the life-cycle sequence (where known) shown by arrows as ''(intermediate host<sub>1</sub> [→ intermediate host<sub>2&thinsp;</sub>] → definitive host)''. Alternatives, generally for different species within an order, are shown in square brackets.<ref name=Kuchta2008/><ref name=Hoberg1999/><ref name=Waeschenbach2012/><br />
<br />
{{clade<br />
|label1='''Cestoda'''<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Gyrocotylidea]] ''(fishes)''<br />
<!--|label2=[[Nephroposticophora|N.]]--><br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Amphilinidea]] ''(crustaceans → fishes/turtles)'' <br />
|label2=[[Eucestoda]]<br />
|sublabel2=''tapeworms''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Spathebothriidea]] ''(amphipods → fishes)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Caryophyllidea]] ''(annelids → fishes)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Haplobothriidea]] ''(freshwater fishes → [[Amia calva|bowfin]])''<br />
|2=[[Diphyllobothriidea]] ''(copepods [→ fishes] → mammals)'' <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1=[[Diphyllidea]] ''(elasmobranchs inc. rays, sharks)''<br />
|2=[[Trypanorhyncha]] ''(fishes/crustaceans/molluscs → bony fishes/selachians)''<br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Bothriocephalidea]] ''(crustaceans [→ teleost] → teleost fishes/amphibians)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Litobothriidea]] ''(lamniform sharks)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Lecanicephalidea]] ''(molluscs → selachians)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Rhinebothriidea]] ''(stingrays)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1="[[Tetraphyllidea]]" ''(copepods → fishes/decapods/cephalopods → selachians)''<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1={{clade<br />
|1="[[Tetraphyllidea]]"<br />
|2=[[Proteocephalidea]] ''(crustaceans → inverts/verts → fishes/amphibians/reptiles)'' <br />
}}<br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Nippotaeniidea]] ''(crustaceans → fishes)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Mesocestoididae]] ''(mammals/birds)'' <br />
|2={{clade<br />
|1=[[Tetrabothriidea]] ''(crustaceans?/cephalopods?/teleosts? → seabirds/cetaceans/pinnipeds)''<br />
|2=[[Cyclophyllidea]] ''(mammals → mammals, or insects → birds)'' <br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}}<br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}} <br />
}}<br />
<br />
The [[Taeniidae]], including species such as the [[pork tapeworm]] and the [[beef tapeworm]] that often infect humans, may be the most basal of the 12 orders of the Cyclophyllidea.<ref name=Mariaux1998>{{cite journal |author=Mariaux, J. |year=1998 |title=A molecular phylogeny of the Eucestoda |journal=Journal of Parasitology |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=114–124 |doi=10.2307/3284540|jstor=3284540 }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Interactions with humans==<br />
[[File:Weight-Loss Ad (FDA 154) (8212182572).jpg|thumb|upright|Advertisement offering "sanitized tape worms jar packed" under the heading "Fat! the enemy that is shortening your life - banished!", c. 1900. It promises "no ill effects", but side effects include diarrhoea and abdominal pain.<ref name=MarrenMabey2010/><ref name=NHS/>]]<br />
<br />
===Infection and treatment===<br />
Like other species of mammal, humans can become infected with tapeworms. There may be few or no symptoms, and the first indication of the infection may be the presence of one or more proglottids in the stools. The proglottids appear as flat, rectangular, whitish objects about the size of a grain of rice, which may change size or move about. Bodily symptoms which are sometimes present include abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, increased appetite and weight loss.<ref name=NHS>{{cite web |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/tapeworms/ |title=Tapeworms |publisher=NHS Choices |access-date=20 May 2018}}</ref><br />
<br />
There are several classes of [[anthelminthic]] drugs, some effective against many kinds of parasite, others more specific; these can be used both preventatively<ref>{{cite book |author=World Health Organization |year=2006 |title= Preventive chemotherapy in human helminthiasis: coordinated use of anthelminthic drugs in control interventions: a manual for health professionals and programme managers| url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2006/9241547103_eng.pdf |publisher=World Health Organization |pages=1–61 |isbn=978-9241547109|author-link=World Health Organization }}</ref> and to treat infections.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Holden-Dye|first1=Lindy|last2=Walker|first2=Robert J.|title=Anthelmintic drugs|url=http://www.wormbook.org/chapters/www_anthelminticdrugs/anthelminticdrugs.html|website=WormBook|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref> For example, [[praziquantel]] is an effective treatment for tapeworm infection, and is preferred over the older [[niclosamide]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Scholar, Eric M. |author2=Pratt, William B. |chapter=Treatment of Parasitic Infection |title=The Antimicrobial Drugs |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780199759712 |pages=465–466 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQ6KNRLWHLQC&pg=PA465}}</ref> While accidental tapeworm infections in developed countries are quite rare, such infections are more likely to occur in countries with poor sanitation facilities or where food hygiene standards are low.<ref name=NHS/><br />
<br />
===History and culture===<br />
<br />
In [[ancient Greece]], the comic playwright [[Aristophanes]] and philosopher [[Aristotle]] described the lumps that form during [[cysticercosis]] as "hailstones".<ref name=Cox2004>{{cite journal |author=Cox, Francis E. G. |title=History of human parasitic diseases |journal=Infectious Disease Clinics of North America |date=June 2004 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=173–174 |pmid=15145374 |doi=10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.001 |url=http://cmr.asm.org/content/15/4/595.full}}</ref> In [[Medieval]] times, in ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', completed in 1025, the [[Persian people|Persian]] physician [[Avicenna]] recorded parasites including tapeworms.<ref name=Cox2004/> In the [[Early Modern]] period, [[Francesco Redi]] described and illustrated many parasites, and was the first to identify the cysts of ''[[Echinococcus granulosus]]'' seen in dogs and sheep as parasitic in origin; a century later, in 1760, [[Peter Simon Pallas]] correctly suggested that these were the larvae of tapeworms.<ref name=Cox2004/><br />
<br />
Tapeworms have occasionally appeared [[Parasites in fiction|in fiction]]. Peter Marren and [[Richard Mabey]] in ''Bugs Britannica'' write that [[Irvine Welsh]]'s sociopathic policeman in his 1998 novel ''[[Filth (novel)|Filth]]'' owns a talking tapeworm, which they call "the most attractive character in the novel"; it becomes the policeman's ''[[alter ego]]'' and better self.<ref name=MarrenMabey2010/> [[Mira Grant]]'s 2013 novel ''[[Parasite (Grant novel)|Parasite]]'' envisages a world where people's [[immune system]]s are maintained by [[genetic modification|genetically engineered]] tapeworms.<ref name=Valentine2013>{{cite web |last1=Valentine |first1=Genevieve |title=Medical Magic Leads To Terror In 'Parasite' |url=https://www.npr.org/2013/10/30/239167270/medical-magic-leads-to-terror-in-parasite |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |access-date=15 June 2018 |date=30 October 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
There are unproven claims that, around 1900, tapeworm eggs were marketed to the public as slimming tablets.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://thequackdoctor.com/index.php/eat-eat-eat-those-notorious-tapeworm-diet-pills/|title='Eat! Eat! Eat!' Those notorious tapeworm diet pills|date=2015-01-23|work=The Quack Doctor|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en-US}}</ref> A full-page coloured advertisement, purportedly from a women's magazine of that period, reads "Fat: the enemy .. that is banished! How? With sanitized tape worms. Jar packed. No ill effects!"<ref name=MarrenMabey2010>{{cite book |author1=Marren, Peter |author2=Mabey, Richard |title=Bugs Britannica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah62bUZLDOwC |year=2010 |publisher=Chatto & Windus |isbn=978-0-7011-8180-2 |pages=34–36}}</ref> When television presenter [[Michael Mosley (broadcaster)|Michael Mosley]] deliberately infected himself with tapeworms he gained weight due to increased appetite.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25968755|title=TV doctor infests himself with worms|last=Morgan|first=James|date=2014|work=BBC News|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en-GB}}</ref> Dieters still sometimes risk intentional infection, evidenced by a 2013 warning on American television.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.today.com/health/iowa-woman-tries-tapeworm-diet-prompts-doctor-warning-6C10935746 |title=Iowa woman tries 'tapeworm diet', prompts doctor warning |work=[[Today (U.S. TV program)]] |date=16 August 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
{{Wikispecies}}<br />
* ''Merck Manual of Medication' Information'', Second Home Edition, Online Version, [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec17/ch196/ch196p.html Tapeworm Infection] 2005<br />
* Mayo Clinic Website on infectious diseases, [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/tapeworm/DS00659/DSECTION=1 ''Mayo Clinic - Tapeworm Infection,''] 2006<br />
* Medline Plus - [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001391.htm Taeniasis (tapeworm infection)]<br />
* University of South Carolina - School of Medicine - [http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/parasitology/cestodes.htm Cestodes (tapeworms)]<br />
<br />
{{helminthiases}}<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q159715}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cestoda| ]]<br />
[[Category:Guadalupian first appearances]]<br />
[[Category:Extant Permian first appearances]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brothers_(2009_film)&diff=996468931Brothers (2009 film)2020-12-26T20:08:07Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Critical response */Removed pedantic b.s.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox film<br />
| name = Brothers<br />
| image = Brothersposter.jpg<br />
| caption = Theatrical release poster<br />
| director = [[Jim Sheridan]]<br />
| producer = {{Plainlist|<br />
* [[Michael De Luca]]<br />
* [[Sigurjón Sighvatsson]]<br />
* [[Ryan Kavanaugh]]<br />
}}<br />
| screenplay = [[David Benioff]]<br />
| based_on = {{Based on|''[[Brothers (2004 film)|Brødre]]''|[[Susanne Bier]]<br />and [[Anders Thomas Jensen]]}}<br />
| starring = {{Plainlist|<br />
* [[Tobey Maguire]]<br />
* [[Jake Gyllenhaal]]<br />
* [[Natalie Portman]]<br />
* [[Sam Shepard]]<br />
* [[Clifton Collins Jr.]]<br />
* [[Mare Winningham]]<br />
}}<br />
| music = [[Thomas Newman]]<br />
| cinematography = [[Frederick Elmes]]<br />
| editing = [[Jay Cassidy]]<br />
| studio = {{Plainlist|<br />
* [[Michael DeLuca|Michael De Luca Productions]]<br />
* [[Relativity Media]]<br />
* [[Sigurjón Sighvatsson|Sighvatsson Films]]<br />
}}<br />
| distributor = [[Lions Gate Entertainment|Lionsgate]]<br />Relativity Media<br />
| released = {{Film date|2009|12|4}}<br />
| runtime = 105 minutes<br />
| country = United States<br />
| language = English<br/>Pashto<br />
| budget = $26 million<ref name="box office mojo">{{cite web | url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=brothers09.htm | title=Brothers (2009) Box Office | website=[[Box Office Mojo]] |access-date=2011-07-05}}</ref><br />
| gross = $43.3 million<ref name="box office mojo" /><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Brothers''''' is a 2009 American [[psychological drama]] [[war film]] directed by [[Jim Sheridan]] and written by [[David Benioff]]. A [[remake]] of the [[Brothers (2004 film)|2004 Danish film]], it follows [[Captain (United States O-3)|Captain]] Sam Cahill (portrayed by [[Tobey Maguire]]), a presumed-dead [[Prisoner of war|prisoner]] of the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]] who deals with [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|post-traumatic stress]] while reintegrating into society following his release from captivity. The film also stars [[Jake Gyllenhaal]] as Cahill's brother and [[Natalie Portman]] as his wife. Both films take inspiration from [[Homer]]'s epic poem the ''[[Odyssey]]''.<ref>{{cite web|author=All Things Considered |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=120933017 |title=Director Jim Sheridan On 'Brothers' |publisher=NPR |date=2009-11-29 |access-date=2012-12-26}}</ref><br />
<br />
The film received a mixed to positive response and grossed $43 million. Maguire received particular praise for his performance, receiving a [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nomination for [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama|Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama]].<br />
<br />
==Plot==<br />
[[United States Marine Corps]] captain Sam Cahill is about to embark on his fourth combat deployment. He is a steadfast family man married to his high school sweetheart Grace, and together they raise two young daughters, Isabelle and Maggie. Sam's brother Tommy is a convicted felon who is released from prison a few days before Sam deploys to [[Afghanistan]] in October 2007. At a family dinner with Tommy and Sam's parents Hank and Elsie, Maggie reveals to Tommy that Grace dislikes him, and Hank insults Tommy for his time in prison and lack of success compared to Sam.<br />
<br />
During Sam's tour, his [[Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk|Blackhawk]] helicopter is shot down while conducting an operation in the [[Helmand Province]], apparently killing all of the Marines aboard. Unknown to anyone, Sam and one of the Marines in his command, Joe Willis, are taken [[prisoner of war|prisoner]] in a mountain village by [[Taliban]] Fighters. Sam and Joe are both assumed to have been killed in action and are declared dead. At Sam's funeral, Tommy notices Hank drinking and stops him from driving home with Elsie and the girls in the car. Hank again berates Tommy for his past mistakes and tells him that Sam was a better son. The two argue about which one of them is more to blame for Sam's death. <br />
<br />
With Sam gone, Tommy attempts to redeem himself in the eyes of his family and convinces some of his friends to help with a kitchen remodel for Grace. As months pass, Hank and Tommy mend their relationship as Tommy matures and continues to help Grace. Grace slowly sheds her previous resentment towards her brother-in-law, aided by his growing paternal connection with Isabelle and Maggie. Grace and Tommy continue to bond over their mutual mourning, culminating in a passionate fireside kiss. They immediately regret it and do not take their attraction any further, though Tommy continues to win the favor of his nieces. Meanwhile, Sam and Joe are tortured by their captor and instructed to make videotaped dismissals of the military and their mission, though only Joe cracks. The captors eventually deem him useless and force Sam at gunpoint to beat Joe to death with a lead pipe, which they also record.<br />
<br />
Sometime later, Sam is rescued by American forces in an attack on the Taliban base that destroys the tape of him killing Joe. Once he returns home, Sam drifts through a cold, paranoid daze and shows signs of severe [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] due to the traumatic events he witnessed and committed in Afghanistan. Refusing to explain to his family what happened while he was there, Sam also lies to Joe's widow and claims he does not know how Joe died. His paranoia also leads him to believe Grace cheated on him with Tommy in his absence. During Maggie's 6th birthday party at Hank and Elsie's home, a resentful and jealous Isabelle falsely claims that Tommy and Grace are having an affair and that Grace would rather sleep with Tommy than Sam. After the family returns home, Sam becomes [[Tantrum|enraged]], destroying the newly remodeled kitchen with a crow bar and pulling a [[Beretta 92|pistol]] on Tommy, who arrives and tries to calm his brother's [[Mental disorder|violent breakdown]].<br />
<br />
The police arrive, and enter a standoff in which Sam fires the gun into the air and then holds it to his head, contemplating [[suicide]]. He reluctantly surrenders after several pleas from Tommy and Grace. After the police arrest Sam, he is admitted to a [[mental hospital]]. Grace visits him and tells him that if he does not tell her what is tormenting him, he will lose her forever. Faced with this decision, Sam finally opens up about the source of his pain, confiding in her that he killed Joe. As Sam and Grace embrace, we hear Sam wondering (via narration) if he will be able to continue living a normal life.<br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
{{Cast listing|<br />
* [[Tobey Maguire]] as Capt. Sam Cahill<br />
* [[Jake Gyllenhaal]] as Tommy Cahill<br />
* [[Natalie Portman]] as Grace Cahill<br />
* [[Sam Shepard]] as Hank Cahill<br />
* [[Mare Winningham]] as Elsie Cahill<br />
* [[Bailee Madison]] as Isabelle Cahill<br />
* Taylor Geare as Maggie Cahill<br />
* [[Patrick Flueger]] as Pvt. Joe Willis<br />
* [[Carey Mulligan]] as Cassie Willis<br />
* [[Clifton Collins, Jr.]] as Maj. Cavazos<br />
* [[Jenny Wade (actress)|Jenny Wade]] as Tina<br />
* [[Omid Abtahi]] as Yusuf<br />
* [[Navid Negahban]] as Murad<br />
* Enayat Delawary as Ahmed<br />
* [[Ethan Suplee]] as Sweeney<br />
* Arron Shiver as A. J.<br />
* Ray Prewitt as Owen<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Reception==<br />
<br />
===Box office===<br />
On its opening weekend, the film opened #3 with $9,527,848 behind ''[[The Twilight Saga: New Moon|New Moon]]'' and ''[[The Blind Side (film)|The Blind Side]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/weekend/chart/?view=&yr=2009&wknd=49&p=.htm|title=Weekend Box Office Results for December 4–6, 2009|website=[[Box Office Mojo]]|date=2009-12-14|access-date=4 April 2010}}</ref> Since its box office debut the film has grossed $43,318,349 worldwide.<ref name="box office mojo"/><br />
<br />
===Critical response===<br />
''Brothers'' received mixed to positive reviews from film critics. On the review aggregator [[Rotten Tomatoes]], the film has an approval rating of 64% based on 157 reviews, with an average score of 6.20/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "It plays more like a traditional melodrama than the Susanne Bier film that inspired it, but Jim Sheridan's ''Brothers'' benefits from rock-solid performances by its three leads."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/1213999_brothers|title=Brothers (2009)|publisher=[[Fandango (company)|Fandango]]|work=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|access-date=September 22, 2019}}</ref> On [[Metacritic]], the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 31 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".<ref><br />
{{cite web<br />
|url=http://www.metacritic.com/film/titles/brothers2009<br />
|title=Brothers (2009): Reviews<br />
|work=[[Metacritic]]<br />
|publisher=CNET Networks, Inc<br />
|access-date=December 25, 2009}}</ref><br />
<br />
Tobey Maguire received critical acclaim for his dramatic performance; [[Roger Ebert]] wrote that ''Brothers'' is "Tobey Maguire's film to dominate, and I've never seen these dark depths in him before."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091202/REVIEWS/912029998 |title=''Brothers'' |author=[[Roger Ebert]] |newspaper=[[Chicago Sun-Times]]}}</ref> Claudia Puig of ''[[USA Today]]'' observed the resemblance between Maguire and Gyllenhaal, and praised their onscreen chemistry. Regarding Portman's performance, Puig opined that it was "subdued and reactive".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Puig|first=Claudia|date=2009-12-04|title=Afghanistan war-themed 'Brothers' is a keeper - USATODAY.com|url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/movies/reviews/2009-12-04-brothers04_ST_N.htm|access-date=2020-09-26|website=USA Today}}</ref> Writing for ''[[New York (magazine)|New York]]'' magazine, [[David Edelstein]] praised the three main actors: "Sheridan’s actors work with their intellects fully engaged—and they engage us on levels we barely knew we had." He also complimented the cinematography and Sheridan's ability to pull the reader into the plot.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Edelstein|first=David|date=2009-11-25|title=David Edelstein on 'Brothers' and 'Up in the Air' -- New York Magazine Movie Review - Nymag|url=https://nymag.com/movies/reviews/62375/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=New York Magazine|language=en-us}}</ref> ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]''<nowiki/>'s [[Owen Gleiberman]] gave the film a rating of C+, writing, "''Brothers'' isn’t badly acted, but as directed by the increasingly impersonal Jim Sheridan, it’s lumbering and heavy-handed, a film that piles on overwrought dramatic twists until it begins to creak under the weight of its presumed significance."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gleiberman|first=Owen|date=2009-12-02|title=Brothers|url=https://ew.com/article/2009/12/02/brothers-5/|access-date=2020-09-26|website=EW.com|language=EN}}</ref><br />
<br />
===Accolades===<br />
Of the [[Golden Globe Award]] nomination, Tobey Maguire said "I had no expectation about getting a nomination, but I was watching nonetheless. My wife and my son got really excited. I was sort of surprised — I was like, 'Oh, wow.' And I couldn't hear the latter part of my name." [[The Edge]] of U2 described how the band planned to celebrate the nomination. "I think we might have a pint of Guinness and eat a potato in honor of (director) Jim (Sheridan) and his great piece of work."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20091215/ap_on_en_mo/us_golden_globes_quotes_4|title=Stars react to Golden Globe nominations|publisher=[[Yahoo! News]]|agency=Associated Press|access-date=2009-12-15}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable sortable"<br />
|-<br />
!align="left"|Year<br />
!align="left"|Ceremony<br />
!align="left"|Category<br />
!align="left"|Recipients<br />
!align="left"|Result<br />
|-<br />
|rowspan="11"|2009<br />
|[[15th Critics' Choice Awards]]<br />
|Best Young Actor / Actress<br />
|[[Bailee Madison]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|rowspan="4"|[[36th Saturn Awards]]<br />
|Best Action or Adventure Film<br />
|''Brothers''<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|Best Actor<br />
|[[Tobey Maguire]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|Best Actress<br />
|[[Natalie Portman]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|Best Performance by a Younger Actor<br />
|[[Bailee Madison]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|rowspan="2"|[[67th Golden Globe Awards]]<br />
|Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama<br />
|[[Tobey Maguire]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|Best Original Song<br />
|"Winter" by [[U2]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|rowspan="2"|[[2010 Teen Choice Awards]]<br />
|rowspan="2"|Choice Movie Actor – Drama<br />
|[[Tobey Maguire]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Jake Gyllenhaal]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|[[Chicago Film Critics Association Awards 2009]]<br />
|Best Supporting Actress<br />
|[[Natalie Portman]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|-<br />
|Denver Film Critics Society Awards 2009<br />
|Best Original Song<br />
|"Winter" By [[U2]]<br />
|{{nom}}<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Home media==<br />
''Brothers'' was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 23, 2010.{{Citation needed|date=September 2015}}<br />
<br />
== Opera adaptation ==<br />
''[[:de:Brothers (Oper)|Brothers – The Opera]]'' [link to German Wikipedia article] is an opera based on the original 2004 Danish version of the film by Icelandic composer [[Daníel Bjarnason]]; it was premiered at the [[Musikhuset Aarhus]] on 16 August 2017. It was commissioned by [[Den Jyske Opera]]. Kerstin Perski wrote the libretto and the director was [[Kasper Holten]]. To celebrate Aarhus as the [[European Capital of Culture]] 2017, three stage works – a musical, dance, and an opera all based on films by Susanne Bier – were commissioned and performed in Musikhuset.<ref name="Deutschlandfunk 2017">{{cite web<br />
| title = Kulturhaupstadt Aarhus – Uraufführung der Oper ''Brødre''<br />
| trans-title = Cultural capital Aarhus – World premiere of the opera ''Brødre''<br />
| website = [[Deutschlandfunk]]<br />
| date = 17 August 2017<br />
| url = http://www.deutschlandfunk.de/kulturhaupstadt-aarhus-urauffuehrung-der-oper-brodre.691.de.html?dram:article_id=393745<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180225101155/http://www.deutschlandfunk.de/kulturhaupstadt-aarhus-urauffuehrung-der-oper-brodre.691.de.html?dram:article_id=393745<br />
| archive-date = 25 February 2018<br />
| url-status = live<br />
| language = de<br />
| access-date = 25 February 2018<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IMDb title|0765010|title=Brothers}}<br />
* {{Amg movie|417371|Brothers}}<br />
* {{Rotten-tomatoes|id=1213999-brothers|title=Brothers}}<br />
* {{Metacritic film|id=brothers2009|title=Brothers}}<br />
* {{Mojo title|id=brothers09|title=Brothers}}<br />
<br />
{{Jim Sheridan}}<br />
{{David Benioff}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brothers 2009}}<br />
[[Category:2009 films]]<br />
[[Category:2009 psychological thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:American remakes of Danish films]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Jim Sheridan]]<br />
[[Category:Films produced by Michael De Luca]]<br />
[[Category:Films shot in New Mexico]]<br />
[[Category:American films]]<br />
[[Category:American psychological thriller films]]<br />
[[Category:Adultery in films]]<br />
[[Category:English-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Pashto-language films]]<br />
[[Category:Films about families]]<br />
[[Category:Films about brothers]]<br />
[[Category:Lionsgate films]]<br />
[[Category:Relativity Media films]]<br />
[[Category:Films about the United States Marine Corps]]<br />
[[Category:Films set in Afghanistan]]<br />
[[Category:War in Afghanistan (2001–present) films]]<br />
[[Category:Films scored by Thomas Newman]]<br />
[[Category:Films about bank robbery]]<br />
[[Category:Post-traumatic stress disorder in fiction]]<br />
[[Category:Films with screenplays by David Benioff]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Myricaria&diff=995493122Myricaria2020-12-21T09:31:54Z<p>Nickwilso: corrected taxonomic details in distinguish|text</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Genus of Tamaricaceae plants}}<br />
{{distinguish|text=[[Myrcia]] and [[Myrciaria]] of family [[Myrtaceae]], or [[Myrica]] ([[Myricaceae]])}}<br />
{{Automatic taxobox<br />
|image = Myricaria germanica flowers.jpg<br />
|image_caption = ''Myricaria germanica''<br />
|taxon = Myricaria<br />
|authority = [[Desv.]]<ref>Ann. Sci. Nat. (Paris) 4: 349. 1825</ref><br />
|subdivision_ranks = Species<br />
|subdivision = See text<br />
|synonyms = ''Tamaricaria'' <small>Qaiser & Ali</small><ref>Blumea 24(1): 153. 1978</ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Myricaria''''' is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s of the family [[Tamaricaceae]], native to [[Eurasia]]. <br />
<br />
==Species==<br />
Species considered valid by [[The Plant List]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/1.1/browse/A/Brassicaceae/Myricaria |title=Myricaria |author=<!--Not stated-->|website=theplantlist.org |publisher=The Plant List |access-date=2 December 2019 }}</ref> are as follows: <br />
*''[[Myricaria albiflora]]'' Grierson & D.G. Long <br />
*''[[Myricaria davurica]]'' (Willd.) Ehrenb. <br />
*''[[Myricaria elegans]]'' Royle <br />
*''[[Myricaria germanica]]'' (L.) Desv. <br />
*''[[Myricaria laxa]]'' W.W. Sm. <br />
*''[[Myricaria laxiflora]]'' (Franch.) P.Y. Zhang & Y.J. Zhang <br />
*''[[Myricaria paniculata]]'' P.Y. Zhang & Y.J. Zhang <br />
*''[[Myricaria platyphylla]]'' Maxim. <br />
*''[[Myricaria prostrata]]'' Hook. f. & Thomson <br />
*''[[Myricaria pulcherrima]]'' Batalin <br />
*''[[Myricaria rosea]]'' W.W. Sm. <br />
*''[[Myricaria wardii]]'' C. Marquand <br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q159213}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Caryophyllales genera]]<br />
[[Category:Tamaricaceae]]</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meliorchis&diff=994467943Meliorchis2020-12-15T21:34:40Z<p>Nickwilso: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{speciesbox<br />
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|15}}[[Miocene]]<br />
| display_parents = 3<br />
| genus = Meliorchis<br />
| parent_authority =<br />
| species = caribea<br />
| authority =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''Meliorchis caribea''''' is an extinct, early to middle [[Miocene]] [[orchid]] known only from a [[Pollinium|packet of pollen]] attached to the wing of a [[stingless bee]], ''Proplebeia dominicana'', trapped in [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] [[amber]]. It was the first fossil orchid ever described, and allowed for a revised estimate of the time of origin of the [[Orchidaceae]] to the [[Mesozoic]].<ref name="Origin of the orchids">{{cite journal |author1=Santiago R. Ramírez |author2=Barbara Gravendeel |author3=Rodrigo B. Singer |author4=Charles R. Marshall |author5=Naomi E. Pierce | title=Dating the origin of the Orchidaceae from a fossil orchid with its pollinator| journal=Nature | date=30 August 2007| volume=448| pages=1042–5| doi=10.1038/nature06039 | pmid=17728756 | issue=7157}}</ref> Morphology of the pollinium suggests that ''M. caribea'' is closely related to the modern [[genus]] ''[[Ligeophila]]''.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
* Pridgeon, A.M., Cribb, P.J., Chase, M.A. & Rasmussen, F. eds. (1999). Genera Orchidacearum 1. Oxford Univ. Press.<br />
* Pridgeon, A.M., Cribb, P.J., Chase, M.A. & Rasmussen, F. eds. (2001). Genera Orchidacearum 2. Oxford Univ. Press.<br />
* Pridgeon, A.M., Cribb, P.J., Chase, M.A. & Rasmussen, F. eds. (2003). Genera Orchidacearum 3. Oxford Univ. Press<br />
* Berg Pana, H. 2005. ''Handbuch der Orchideen-Namen. Dictionary of Orchid Names. Dizionario dei nomi delle orchidee''. Ulmer, Stuttgart<br />
<br />
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1819169|from2=Q3443992}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Goodyerinae]]<br />
[[Category:Miocene plants]]<br />
[[Category:Monotypic Orchidoideae genera]]<br />
[[Category:Cranichideae genera]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Orchidoideae-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lavasan&diff=992548873Lavasan2020-12-05T21:21:38Z<p>Nickwilso: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{for|the nearby village with this name|Lavasan-e Bozorg}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| official_name = Lavasan<br />
| native_name = لواسان<br />
| settlement_type = City<br />
| image_skyline = Lavasan_view.jpg<br />
| caption =<br />
| pushpin_map = Iran<br />
| mapsize = 150px<br />
| subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Iran}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Iran|Province]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tehran Province|Tehran]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[Counties of Iran|County]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Shemiranat County|Shemiranat]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Bakhsh]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Lavasanat District|Lavasanat]]<br />
| leader_title =<br />
| leader_name =<br />
| established_title =<br />
| established_date =<br />
| area_total_km2 =<br />
| area_footnotes =<br />
| population_as_of = 2016 Census<br />
| population_total = 18,146 <ref>https://www.amar.org.ir/english</ref><br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| timezone = [[Iran Standard Time|IRST]]<br />
| utc_offset = +3:30<br />
| timezone_DST = [[Iran Daylight Time|IRDT]]<br />
| utc_offset_DST = +4:30<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|35|49|23|N|51|37|27|E|region:IR|display=inline,title}}<br />
| elevation_m =<br />
| area_code =<br />
| website =<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Lavasan''' ({{lang-fa|لواسان}}, also [[Romanize]]d as ''Lavāsān'') is an affluent town in [[Shemiranat County]], [[Tehran Province]], [[Iran]]. At the 2011 census, its population was 28,558, in 7,645 families.<ref>{{IranCensus2006|23}}</ref><ref>{{GEOnet3|217990}}</ref> The [[Jajrood River]] flows through Lavasan. Situated 11 kilometers northeast of [[Tehran]], Lavasan is known for its excellent weather and the luxurious mansions. The city is home to many upper-class and wealthy families. Some Iranians call it the [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] or [[Switzerland]] of Tehran.<br />
<br />
The city of Lavasan is part of the [[Lavasanat|Lavasanat district]]. Together with the [[Rudbar-e Qasran District|Rudbar-e Qasran district]], it constitutes the subprovince of [[Shemiran]] in the [[Tehran Province]].{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
Lavasan has an area of 70 square kilometres.<ref>http://www.itc.nl/library/papers_2007/msc/gfm/alian.pdf</ref> The two most influential parts of Lavasan are Great Lavasan (Lavasan Bozorg) and Little Lavasan (Lavasan Koochak). While the Great Lavasan was more vibrant in the early 1950s due to its location as a trade hub, the Little Lavasan has become more populated in the past few decades. Until the construction of [[Road_59_(Iran)]] and other routes to the North of Iran, Great Lavasan was a thriving city on a trade path between Tehran and the North of Iran with several prominent families owning and managing the Lar [[Karvansara]]{{dn|date=October 2020}}<!--Caravanserai?--> in the (now nationalized) [[Lar National Park]], and who were active in trades of rice and production of honey among other products, hence the name "Great Lavasan". In the ealy 1900s Great Lavasan was home to several affluent families and traders with many unique and thriving [[orchards]]. Currently Great Lavasan is less populated than the Little Lavasan due to more restricted construction regulations, as well as an influx of new residents moving to Little Lavasan from other cities. Great Lavasan has access from the Jajrood road while the Little Lavasan has access from behind the Latian Dam, their different areas include Saboo Bozorg, Saboo Koochak, Tork Mahale, Seied Paiz, etc.<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
The name of Lavasan is a [[Middle Persian]] (Pahlavi) word which means "The Mount Blade of Sunrise" or "Mountaintop of Sunrise". It refers to [[Mount Damavand]] that is located in the middle [[Alborz]] Range in the east of Lavasanat District.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
In the 19th century, during the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] era, Lavasan was reportedly a large village, with some 500 houses and about 200 inhabitants.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
Under [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], in the 1960s, a [[hydroelectric]] dam was built in the southeast of the village.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
==People==<br />
The natives of Lavasan are of Caspian origin.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} The local dialect or "vernacular" spoken by its natives is a mix of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Caspian languages|Caspian]].{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
==Notable residents<ref>lavasani genealogical tree presented in Ayatollah Sadeghi in Qum.</ref>==<br />
* [[Yasser Hashemi Rafsanjani]]<br />
* [[Ali Karimi]]<br />
* [[Ali Parvin]]<br />
*[[Amin Hayaee]]<br />
* [[Naser Houshmand Vaziri]]<br />
<br />
==Climate==<br />
Lavasan has a [[cold semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''BSk'') with significant continental influences. <br />
{{Weather box<br />
|width = auto<br />
|metric first = yes<br />
|single line = yes<br />
|location = Lavasan<br />
<br />
|Jan high C = 4.5<br />
|Feb high C = 7.5<br />
|Mar high C = 12.5<br />
|Apr high C = 19.1<br />
|May high C = 26.3<br />
|Jun high C = 31.5<br />
|Jul high C = 34.4<br />
|Aug high C = 33.9<br />
|Sep high C = 29.5<br />
|Oct high C = 22.5<br />
|Nov high C = 14.1<br />
|Dec high C = 7.8<br />
<br />
|Jan mean C = -0.8<br />
|Feb mean C = 2.0<br />
|Mar mean C = 6.4<br />
|Apr mean C = 12.3<br />
|May mean C = 18.8<br />
|Jun mean C = 23.4<br />
|Jul mean C = 26.2<br />
|Aug mean C = 25.9<br />
|Sep mean C = 21.4<br />
|Oct mean C = 15.3<br />
|Nov mean C = 8.0<br />
|Dec mean C = 2.5<br />
<br />
|Jan low C = -6.1<br />
|Feb low C = -3.5<br />
|Mar low C = 0.4<br />
|Apr low C = 5.5<br />
|May low C = 11.4<br />
|Jun low C = 15.3<br />
|Jul low C = 18.1<br />
|Aug low C = 18.0<br />
|Sep low C = 13.3<br />
|Oct low C = 8.1<br />
|Nov low C = 1.9<br />
|Dec low C = -2.8<br />
<br />
|precipitation colour = green<br />
|Jan precipitation mm = 30<br />
|Feb precipitation mm = 27<br />
|Mar precipitation mm = 32<br />
|Apr precipitation mm = 28<br />
|May precipitation mm = 18<br />
|Jun precipitation mm = 4<br />
|Jul precipitation mm = 2<br />
|Aug precipitation mm = 1<br />
|Sep precipitation mm = 1<br />
|Oct precipitation mm = 8<br />
|Nov precipitation mm = 15<br />
|Dec precipitation mm = 21<br />
<br />
| source = <ref name="Climate-Data.org"> {{cite web<br />
|url = https://en.climate-data.org/asia/iran/tehran/lavasan-51614/<br />
|title = Climate: Lavasan<br />
|publisher = Climate-Data.org<br />
|access-date = January 5, 2019}} </ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
Lavasan1.jpg<br />
Lavasan2.jpg<br />
Lavasan3.jpg<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Iran}}<br />
* [[Shemiranat County|Shemiranat]]<br />
* [[Lavasanat]]<br />
* [[Jajrood River]]<br />
* [[Latyan Dam]]<br />
* [[Fasham]]<br />
* [[Shemshak]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = LAVĀSĀN | author = Encyclopaedia Iranica | last = | first = | authorlink = | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lavasan | editor-last = | editor-first = | editor-link = | encyclopedia = | pages = | location = | publisher = | year = 2017 | isbn = |ref=harv}}<br />
<br />
{{Tehran Province}}<br />
{{Shemiranat County}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Populated places in Shemiranat County]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cities in Tehran Province]]<br />
<br />
{{Shemiranat-geo-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lavasan&diff=992548672Lavasan2020-12-05T21:20:09Z<p>Nickwilso: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{for|the nearby village with this name|Lavasan-e Bozorg}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| official_name = Lavasan<br />
| native_name = لواسان<br />
| settlement_type = City<br />
| image_skyline = Lavasan_view.jpg<br />
| caption =<br />
| pushpin_map = Iran<br />
| mapsize = 150px<br />
| subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Iran}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Iran|Province]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tehran Province|Tehran]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[Counties of Iran|County]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Shemiranat County|Shemiranat]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Bakhsh]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Lavasanat District|Lavasanat]]<br />
| leader_title =<br />
| leader_name =<br />
| established_title =<br />
| established_date =<br />
| area_total_km2 =<br />
| area_footnotes =<br />
| population_as_of = 2016 Census<br />
| population_total = 18,146 <ref>https://www.amar.org.ir/english</ref><br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| timezone = [[Iran Standard Time|IRST]]<br />
| utc_offset = +3:30<br />
| timezone_DST = [[Iran Daylight Time|IRDT]]<br />
| utc_offset_DST = +4:30<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|35|49|23|N|51|37|27|E|region:IR|display=inline,title}}<br />
| elevation_m =<br />
| area_code =<br />
| website =<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Lavasan''' ({{lang-fa|لواسان}}, also [[Romanize]]d as ''Lavāsān'') is an affluent town in [[Shemiranat County]], [[Tehran Province]], [[Iran]]. At the 2011 census, its population was 28,558, in 7,645 families.<ref>{{IranCensus2006|23}}</ref><ref>{{GEOnet3|217990}}</ref> The [[Jajrood River]] flows through Lavasan. Situated 11 kilometers northeast of [[Tehran]], Lavasan is known for its excellent weather and the luxurious mansions. The city is home to many upper-class and wealthy families. Some Iranians call it the [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] or [[Switzerland]] of Tehran.{{whom|date=October 2020}}<br />
<br />
The city of Lavasan is part of the [[Lavasanat|Lavasanat district]]. Together with the [[Rudbar-e Qasran District|Rudbar-e Qasran district]], it constitutes the subprovince of [[Shemiran]] in the [[Tehran Province]].{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
Lavasan has an area of 70 square kilometres.<ref>http://www.itc.nl/library/papers_2007/msc/gfm/alian.pdf</ref> The two most influential parts of Lavasan are Great Lavasan (Lavasan Bozorg) and Little Lavasan (Lavasan Koochak). While the Great Lavasan was more vibrant in the early 1950s due to its location as a trade hub, the Little Lavasan has become more populated in the past few decades. Until the construction of [[Road_59_(Iran)]] and other routes to the North of Iran, Great Lavasan was a thriving city on a trade path between Tehran and the North of Iran with several prominent families owning and managing the Lar [[Karvansara]]{{dn|date=October 2020}}<!--Caravanserai?--> in the (now nationalized) [[Lar National Park]], and who were active in trades of rice and production of honey among other products, hence the name "Great Lavasan". In the ealy 1900s Great Lavasan was home to several affluent families and traders with many unique and thriving [[orchards]]. Currently Great Lavasan is less populated than the Little Lavasan due to more restricted construction regulations, as well as an influx of new residents moving to Little Lavasan from other cities. Great Lavasan has access from the Jajrood road while the Little Lavasan has access from behind the Latian Dam, their different areas include Saboo Bozorg, Saboo Koochak, Tork Mahale, Seied Paiz, etc.<br />
<br />
==Etymology==<br />
The name of Lavasan is a [[Middle Persian]] (Pahlavi) word which means "The Mount Blade of Sunrise" or "Mountaintop of Sunrise". It refers to [[Mount Damavand]] that is located in the middle [[Alborz]] Range in the east of Lavasanat District.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
In the 19th century, during the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] era, Lavasan was reportedly a large village, with some 500 houses and about 200 inhabitants.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
Under [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], in the 1960s, a [[hydroelectric]] dam was built in the southeast of the village.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
==People==<br />
The natives of Lavasan are of Caspian origin.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} The local dialect or "vernacular" spoken by its natives is a mix of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Caspian languages|Caspian]].{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
==Notable residents<ref>lavasani genealogical tree presented in Ayatollah Sadeghi in Qum.</ref>==<br />
* [[Yasser Hashemi Rafsanjani]]<br />
* [[Ali Karimi]]<br />
* [[Ali Parvin]]<br />
*[[Amin Hayaee]]<br />
* [[Naser Houshmand Vaziri]]<br />
<br />
==Climate==<br />
Lavasan has a [[cold semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''BSk'') with significant continental influences. <br />
{{Weather box<br />
|width = auto<br />
|metric first = yes<br />
|single line = yes<br />
|location = Lavasan<br />
<br />
|Jan high C = 4.5<br />
|Feb high C = 7.5<br />
|Mar high C = 12.5<br />
|Apr high C = 19.1<br />
|May high C = 26.3<br />
|Jun high C = 31.5<br />
|Jul high C = 34.4<br />
|Aug high C = 33.9<br />
|Sep high C = 29.5<br />
|Oct high C = 22.5<br />
|Nov high C = 14.1<br />
|Dec high C = 7.8<br />
<br />
|Jan mean C = -0.8<br />
|Feb mean C = 2.0<br />
|Mar mean C = 6.4<br />
|Apr mean C = 12.3<br />
|May mean C = 18.8<br />
|Jun mean C = 23.4<br />
|Jul mean C = 26.2<br />
|Aug mean C = 25.9<br />
|Sep mean C = 21.4<br />
|Oct mean C = 15.3<br />
|Nov mean C = 8.0<br />
|Dec mean C = 2.5<br />
<br />
|Jan low C = -6.1<br />
|Feb low C = -3.5<br />
|Mar low C = 0.4<br />
|Apr low C = 5.5<br />
|May low C = 11.4<br />
|Jun low C = 15.3<br />
|Jul low C = 18.1<br />
|Aug low C = 18.0<br />
|Sep low C = 13.3<br />
|Oct low C = 8.1<br />
|Nov low C = 1.9<br />
|Dec low C = -2.8<br />
<br />
|precipitation colour = green<br />
|Jan precipitation mm = 30<br />
|Feb precipitation mm = 27<br />
|Mar precipitation mm = 32<br />
|Apr precipitation mm = 28<br />
|May precipitation mm = 18<br />
|Jun precipitation mm = 4<br />
|Jul precipitation mm = 2<br />
|Aug precipitation mm = 1<br />
|Sep precipitation mm = 1<br />
|Oct precipitation mm = 8<br />
|Nov precipitation mm = 15<br />
|Dec precipitation mm = 21<br />
<br />
| source = <ref name="Climate-Data.org"> {{cite web<br />
|url = https://en.climate-data.org/asia/iran/tehran/lavasan-51614/<br />
|title = Climate: Lavasan<br />
|publisher = Climate-Data.org<br />
|access-date = January 5, 2019}} </ref><br />
}}<br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
Lavasan1.jpg<br />
Lavasan2.jpg<br />
Lavasan3.jpg<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Iran}}<br />
* [[Shemiranat County|Shemiranat]]<br />
* [[Lavasanat]]<br />
* [[Jajrood River]]<br />
* [[Latyan Dam]]<br />
* [[Fasham]]<br />
* [[Shemshak]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = LAVĀSĀN | author = Encyclopaedia Iranica | last = | first = | authorlink = | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lavasan | editor-last = | editor-first = | editor-link = | encyclopedia = | pages = | location = | publisher = | year = 2017 | isbn = |ref=harv}}<br />
<br />
{{Tehran Province}}<br />
{{Shemiranat County}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Populated places in Shemiranat County]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cities in Tehran Province]]<br />
<br />
{{Shemiranat-geo-stub}}</div>Nickwilsohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lavasan&diff=992547959Lavasan2020-12-05T21:15:23Z<p>Nickwilso: /* Geography */Typo</p>
<hr />
<div>{{for|the nearby village with this name|Lavasan-e Bozorg}}<br />
{{Infobox settlement<br />
| official_name = Lavasan<br />
| native_name = لواسان<br />
| settlement_type = City<br />
| image_skyline = Lavasan_view.jpg<br />
| caption =<br />
| pushpin_map = Iran<br />
| mapsize = 150px<br />
| subdivision_type = [[List of countries|Country]]<br />
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Iran}}<br />
| subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Iran|Province]]<br />
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tehran Province|Tehran]]<br />
| subdivision_type2 = [[Counties of Iran|County]]<br />
| subdivision_name2 = [[Shemiranat County|Shemiranat]]<br />
| subdivision_type3 = [[Bakhsh]]<br />
| subdivision_name3 = [[Lavasanat District|Lavasanat]]<br />
| leader_title =<br />
| leader_name =<br />
| established_title =<br />
| established_date =<br />
| area_total_km2 =<br />
| area_footnotes =<br />
| population_as_of = 2016 Census<br />
| population_total = 18,146 <ref>https://www.amar.org.ir/english</ref><br />
| population_density_km2 = auto<br />
| timezone = [[Iran Standard Time|IRST]]<br />
| utc_offset = +3:30<br />
| timezone_DST = [[Iran Daylight Time|IRDT]]<br />
| utc_offset_DST = +4:30<br />
| coordinates = {{coord|35|49|23|N|51|37|27|E|region:IR|display=inline,title}}<br />
| elevation_m =<br />
| area_code =<br />
| website =<br />
| footnotes =<br />
}}<br />
'''Lavasan''' ({{lang-fa|لواسان}}, also [[Romanize]]d as ''Lavāsān'') is an affluent town in [[Shemiranat County]], [[Tehran Province]], [[Iran]]. At the 2011 census, its population was 28,558, in 7,645 families.<ref>{{IranCensus2006|23}}</ref><ref>{{GEOnet3|217990}}</ref> The [[Jajrood River]] flows through Lavasan. Situated 11 kilometers northeast of [[Tehran]], Lavasan is known for its excellent weather and the luxurious mansions. The city is home to many upper-class and wealthy families. Some Iranians call it the [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] or [[Switzerland]] of Tehran.{{whom|date=October 2020}}<br />
<br />
The city of Lavasan is part of the [[Lavasanat|Lavasanat district]]. Together with the [[Rudbar-e Qasran District|Rudbar-e Qasran district]], it constitutes the subprovince of [[Shemiran]] in the [[Tehran Province]].{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
Lavasan has an area of 70 square kilometres.<ref>http://www.itc.nl/library/papers_2007/msc/gfm/alian.pdf</ref> The two most influential parts of Lavasan are Great Lavasan (Lavasan Bozorg) and Little Lavasan (Lavasan Koochak). While the Great Lavasan was more vibrant in the early 1950s due to its location as a trade hub, the Little Lavasan has become more populated in the past few decades. Until the construction of [[Road_59_(Iran)]] and other routes to the North of Iran, Great Lavasan was a thriving city on a trade path between Tehran and the North of Iran with several prominant families owning and managing the Lar [[Karvansara]]{{dn|date=October 2020}}<!--Caravanserai?--> in the (now nationalized) [[Lar National Park]], and who were active in trades of rice and production of honey among other products, hence the name "Great Lavasan". In the ealy 1900s Great Lavasan was home to several affluent families and traders with many unique and thriving [[orchards]]. Currently Great Lavasan is less populated than the Little Lavasan due to more restricted construction regulations, as well as an influx of new residents moving to Little Lavasan from other cities. Great Lavasan has access from the Jajrood road while the Little Lavasan has access from behind the Latian Dam, their different areas include Saboo Bozorg, Saboo Koochak, Tork Mahale, Seied Paiz, etc.<br />
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==Etymology==<br />
The name of Lavasan is a [[Middle Persian]] (Pahlavi) word which means "The Mount Blade of Sunrise" or "Mountaintop of Sunrise". It refers to [[Mount Damavand]] that is located in the middle [[Alborz]] Range in the east of Lavasanat District.<br />
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==History==<br />
In the 19th century, during the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar]] era, Lavasan was reportedly a large village, with some 500 houses and about 200 inhabitants.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
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Under [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], in the 1960s, a [[hydroelectric]] dam was built in the southeast of the village.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
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==People==<br />
The natives of Lavasan are of Caspian origin.{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} The local dialect or "vernacular" spoken by its natives is a mix of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Caspian languages|Caspian]].{{sfn|Encyclopaedia Iranica|2017}} <br />
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==Notable residents<ref>lavasani genealogical tree presented in Ayatollah Sadeghi in Qum.</ref>==<br />
* [[Yasser Hashemi Rafsanjani]]<br />
* [[Ali Karimi]]<br />
* [[Ali Parvin]]<br />
*[[Amin Hayaee]]<br />
* [[Naser Houshmand Vaziri]]<br />
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==Climate==<br />
Lavasan has a [[cold semi-arid climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''BSk'') with significant continental influences. <br />
{{Weather box<br />
|width = auto<br />
|metric first = yes<br />
|single line = yes<br />
|location = Lavasan<br />
<br />
|Jan high C = 4.5<br />
|Feb high C = 7.5<br />
|Mar high C = 12.5<br />
|Apr high C = 19.1<br />
|May high C = 26.3<br />
|Jun high C = 31.5<br />
|Jul high C = 34.4<br />
|Aug high C = 33.9<br />
|Sep high C = 29.5<br />
|Oct high C = 22.5<br />
|Nov high C = 14.1<br />
|Dec high C = 7.8<br />
<br />
|Jan mean C = -0.8<br />
|Feb mean C = 2.0<br />
|Mar mean C = 6.4<br />
|Apr mean C = 12.3<br />
|May mean C = 18.8<br />
|Jun mean C = 23.4<br />
|Jul mean C = 26.2<br />
|Aug mean C = 25.9<br />
|Sep mean C = 21.4<br />
|Oct mean C = 15.3<br />
|Nov mean C = 8.0<br />
|Dec mean C = 2.5<br />
<br />
|Jan low C = -6.1<br />
|Feb low C = -3.5<br />
|Mar low C = 0.4<br />
|Apr low C = 5.5<br />
|May low C = 11.4<br />
|Jun low C = 15.3<br />
|Jul low C = 18.1<br />
|Aug low C = 18.0<br />
|Sep low C = 13.3<br />
|Oct low C = 8.1<br />
|Nov low C = 1.9<br />
|Dec low C = -2.8<br />
<br />
|precipitation colour = green<br />
|Jan precipitation mm = 30<br />
|Feb precipitation mm = 27<br />
|Mar precipitation mm = 32<br />
|Apr precipitation mm = 28<br />
|May precipitation mm = 18<br />
|Jun precipitation mm = 4<br />
|Jul precipitation mm = 2<br />
|Aug precipitation mm = 1<br />
|Sep precipitation mm = 1<br />
|Oct precipitation mm = 8<br />
|Nov precipitation mm = 15<br />
|Dec precipitation mm = 21<br />
<br />
| source = <ref name="Climate-Data.org"> {{cite web<br />
|url = https://en.climate-data.org/asia/iran/tehran/lavasan-51614/<br />
|title = Climate: Lavasan<br />
|publisher = Climate-Data.org<br />
|access-date = January 5, 2019}} </ref><br />
}}<br />
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== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery><br />
Lavasan1.jpg<br />
Lavasan2.jpg<br />
Lavasan3.jpg<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Portal|Iran}}<br />
* [[Shemiranat County|Shemiranat]]<br />
* [[Lavasanat]]<br />
* [[Jajrood River]]<br />
* [[Latyan Dam]]<br />
* [[Fasham]]<br />
* [[Shemshak]]<br />
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==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = LAVĀSĀN | author = Encyclopaedia Iranica | last = | first = | authorlink = | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lavasan | editor-last = | editor-first = | editor-link = | encyclopedia = | pages = | location = | publisher = | year = 2017 | isbn = |ref=harv}}<br />
<br />
{{Tehran Province}}<br />
{{Shemiranat County}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Populated places in Shemiranat County]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cities in Tehran Province]]<br />
<br />
{{Shemiranat-geo-stub}}</div>Nickwilso